fflffi mssssssks msklm Q$J IvvVjIva' WM mm®, mmm H §$$&& ^^^^^SM ^IsK^msmm^^i^i Hwvtw "fgw_e t&efz Waom 'Lfdrz'&^fojmdia^--cf.=i^CjrUegefj^th^^o^^^ Gift of the Rev. Heber H. Beadle 1917 THE Encyclopedia of Missions. DESCRIPTIVE, HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, STATISTICAL. WITH A PULL ASSOETMENT OF MAPS, A COMPLETE BIBLIOG- EAPHY, AND LISTS OF BIBLE VEESIONS, MISSIONAEY SOCIETIES, ' MISSION STATIONS, AND A GENEEAL INDEX. VOL. I. EDITED BY BEV. EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS. FUNK & WAGNALLS: NEW YORK, LONDON, 1891 TORONTO. All Rights Reserved. Pbinted in the United States. Enterpd according to Act of Congress, in the year 1891, Dy FUNK & WAGNALLS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. D C [Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England.j PREFACE. The standpoint of this Encyclopaedia is, primarily, that of one who, interested in foreign mission ¦work, seeks to enlarge his vision and increase his knowledge; secondarily, that of one who, looking forward to a personal share in it, seeks to inform himself as to its various phases, that he may the more readily decide where he can probably labor to the best advantage. Hence the book centres in the organized mission work. The basis is the Society, in which each individual is more especi ally interested; its history, organization, development; its missions and stations. Then the view broadens to take in the countries, races, and religions in their relation to the work, not only of his own, but of other denominations. Special topics open up, individual workers stand out in promi nence, and as one step after another is taken, it becomes apparent that the work is not divided, but is one; and all these with varied names are but portions of the one great army of the Church. The plan thus includes two general departments: 1. The organized work— the societies, their origin and growth at home, and their work abroad; 3. The countries in which, the races for which, that work is carried on, and the religious beliefs hat are encountered. Accessory to these are: 1. A gazetteer of Mission Stations; 2. Biographical sketches of Mis sionaries; 3. Statements of Bible versions; 4. Articles on special topics closely related to the work of Foreign Missions; 5. Maps, appendices of bibliography and statistics, and indices. It became early evident that to accomplish so much, minutiae must give place to perspective. However fascinating the details might be, they must be constantly used merely as illustrations. To do more, would not only bave 90 enlarged its extent as ;o make the book unwieldy, but have blurred the distinctness of che impression that it has been sought to give. Thus in the accounts of the societies and their work personal tems are tew. The history of Missions, both at home and abroad, is largely the history of individual men and women. Those who have stood at the helm and guided these great organizations were and are no less missionaries than those who have gone to the foreign field, yet to even mention the names of all within the space allowed would have almost made the work a mere chronicle. So of the countries and stations, the races and religions. The effort has been to give so much of geography, history, etc., as would serve as a frame work for the pictures of missionary work and spiritual need. "With regard to the biographical sketches, it became evident very early that it would be neces sary to draw the line sharply to exclude the living, and that to mention all, even of the dead, would be impossible. The sketches, too, must be brief, indicating rather than describing the work each did. So of the Bible versions; brief paragraphs were all that could be attempted. When the question of special topics came up, the scope seemed unlimited. There were city missions; home missions; missions in their relations to commerce, music, the liquor traffic, the slave- trade; early Christian and mediaeval missions; the various questions under discussion in regard to methods of missionary work, the lay element, education, self-support of native churches, etc. To treat even a few of these thoroughly, though eminently desirable, would be impracticable. As careful a selection as possible has been made, and as much space given as seemed proportionate to the general scope of the work. The plan led also to the decision to embody statistics and general lists in the form of appendices, which could easily be changed in subsequent editions, as the work developed. These appendices include: (a) A bibliography. (S.) Lists of Bible versions, arranged alphabetically and geographi cally, showing the languages and dialects, the number of people reached by them, the linguistic fami lies to which they belong, the characters in which they are written, the amount of translation work done, and the society under whose auspices they have been prepared, and in the Index the page of the Encyclopaedia where they are referred to. (c) A list of missionary societies with the addresses of their secretaries, the date of organization and the page of the Encyclopasdia where they are spoken of. (d) A list of missionary stations, giving their geographical location, the societies carry- ing on work in them, the number and sections of the maps where they are to be found, and the page of the Encyclopaedia where they are described, (e) Tables of statistics: (1) by societies and missions; (2) by countries and societies; (3) a summary of the whole. The General Index includes names of persons mentioned, places referred to, and general subjects treated. The maps cover all important mission-fields with as much fulness as is practicable. The effort has been made to locate every mission station of importance, and in some cases the out-stations. The importance of political influence in Africa and of the languages of India has led to the furnishing of a map of each country specially designed to bring out those characteristics. Specific statements as to the appendices will be found in prefatory notes to them. Many questions came up for consideration. In the alphabetical arrangement of articles a difficulty arose in regard to the location of the societies. To place them under their corporate names would be confusing, and the effort has been made to designate each by the term by which it is most widely known, with cross-references wherever it seems necessary. If there is difficulty in finding any one, a reference to Appendix C will easily give the solution. Then came the question of spelling. The spelling of foreign names is in hopeless confusion. No two societies agree. Often the same society is not consistent with itself. Governments have laid down rules, which few follow; and no two Governments make the same rules. Should we spell Beirut, Beyrout, or Beyroot; Maulmain or Moulmein; Harpoot, Harput, or Charput ; Foo- chow or Fuhchau; Gurhwa! or Garhwal; Punjab or Pan jab; Hyderabad or Haidarabad; Assiout, Assyoot, or Siout; San Paulo or Sao Paulo; Otjimbenque or Otyimoingue. But instances almost innumerable could be added. The reader will find a few of the per plexities noted in Appendix D. To be absolutely logical or consistent was impossible. In India. names the spelling of Hunter's Encyclopaedia has been adopted. In Africa, the Church Mission ary Society and the A. B. C. F. M. reports have been followed in the main; elsewhere the editor has done the best he could, and if in any instance some mission station eludes the patient search of the reader, let him make a note of his failure for the benefit of future workers in this line. Numerous requests have come in for an indication of the pronunciation of the names of places. To do this, however, was so manifestly impossible that no effort has been made. Each reader is. at perfect liberty to pronounce Kachchh or Njenhangli as he chooses. Another difficulty arose from the recurrence of the same name. If one is perplexed to dis tinguish the Washingtons that occur in every State of the Union he will understand the danger of confounding the various Salems of Africa, the Bethels of the "West Indies and India, or the Bijnaurs (Bijnours?) of the Northwest Provinces and Oudh. The question of statistics was also a perplexing one. After much consideration it was decided to give the general statistics in the form of tables in an appendix, introducing into the body of the Encyclopaedia only such as were necessary in order to indicate the general nature and scope of the work in the different stations. So far as practicable, these have been brought up to date of publi cation. At the commencement of the work blanks were sent to every mission society and mission station that could be learned of. The societies in almost every case responded, and many of the stations. With these as a basis and the careful study of the reports of the societies, the various Encyclopaedias, etc., the great majority of the statements were prepared. In a few instances- the society statements came from outside parties. Thus the article on the American Baptist Missionary Union was furnished by Dr. L. P. Brockett; that on the Moravian Missions, by Rev. B. Romig of Herrnhut; and so of a few others. Whenever it was practicable these state ments were referred to persons connected with or specially informed regarding the societies, with a view to their being free from inaccuracy. Some countries, etc., were described by writers specially acquainted with them. Thus the India articles were prepared by Rev. C. W. Park of Birmingham, Conn., formerly of Bombay; Japan, by Rev. W. E. Griffis, D.D. • Brazil, by Rev. J. Beatty Howells, long a missionary in that country. The subjoined list will indicate most of the writers. The biographical sketches are chiefly the work of Rev. Samuel Hutchings, D.D., whose eighty-three years of age have not dimmed his interest or dulled the keenness of his pen. For the lists of Bible versions we are indebted to the kind courtesy of R. N. Oust, LL.D., of London (see Preface to Appendix B). The sketches of the- versions have mostly been prepared by Dr. Bernhard Pick of Allegheny, who has made the subject a special study. The Arabic version, however, has been described by its translator, Rev. Dr. C. V. A. Van Dyck of Beirut; the Turkish version by Rev. H. O. Dwight of Constantinople. In seeking for any title look first in the Encyclopaedia; also in the Index of Appendix B for Bible versions; in Appendix C for societies or faith missions; in Appendix D for Mission Stations; and in the general Index lor all. The page references in the appendices refer only to articles, not to places where mention of any topic is made in other articles; e.g., the station of Allahabad will be found by Appendix D, on page 41, of Vol. I. It will also be found by the general Index, on page 250, Vol. II., etc. So of the versions. Any person desiring to look up the whole work of a Society will turn from the account of the Society itself to that of the country where it works, the stations it occupies, and the biographical sketches of its missionaries, as he finds them mentioned in the differ ent articles. In giving accounts of stations only those have been included in the body of the work with regard to which some definite information is given beyond the mere fact of their being occu pied by a certain society. The complete list appears in Appendix D. It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge the kind courtesy of the many who have assisted in the work: of the publishers, who have furnished the means and have left the editor so free to carry out •the plan as fully as was practicable; those who have worked in the office with an interest that has shown their task to be no mere perfunctory duty; the contributors, whose patience, consid eration, and ability have done so much to make the work not merely instructive, but entertaining; the officers of the Missionary Societies, whose unfailing willingness to answer innumerable ques tions has been so often put to the test. To name each one would be to give the list of all with whom the editor has come in contact in his work; yet he cannot but make special acknowledg ments to Dr. Dalman of Leipzig for his article on the Jews; to the Rev. S. M. Jackson for the Bibliography; to Dr. Oust of London for his table of Bible versions; to the officers of the Church Missionary Society for the free use of their atlases of India and Africa. That errors and omissions, some apparently inexplicable, will be noticed, must be expected. Any report of such to the publishers will be gladly received. The work in truth has been a labor of love, and the highest return that can come from it will be the consciousness that it has furnished a link in the chain that is to bind together the great divisions of the one great army of the Church, as they come through its pages to know and under stand each other better. Edwin Mtjnsell Bliss. New York City, March, 1891. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS OF SPECIAL ARTICLES. Andktjs, Rev. A. N., Mardin, Turkey. Atterbury, Rev. W. W., D.D., New York City. Barton, Rev. J. L., Harpoot, Turkey. Brockett, L. P., M.D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Chambers, Rev. R., Erzroom, Turkey. *Cobb, MissM. L., East Orange, N. J. Droil, Rev. J., Montreal, Canada. Crowell, Miss K. R., East Orange, N. J. Ctjst, R. N., LL.D., London, England. Dalman, Prof. G., Leipzig, Germany. Dwight, Rev. H. O. , Constantinople, Turkey. Ellinwood, Rev. F. F., D.D., Sec'y Presbyterian Board of For. Missions, New York City. Gates, Rev. O. H., Berlin, Germany. Gilman, Rev. E. W., D.D., Sec'y American Bible Society, New York City. Gracey, Rev. J. T., D.D., President International Missionary Union. Gripfis, Rev. W. E., D.D., Author of " The Mikado's Empire," Boston, Mass. Grout, Rev. Lewis, (late of South Africa,) "West Brattleboro, Vt. Happer, J. S., Canton, China. Howells, Rev. J. B., Jaher, Brazil. Htjlbert, Prof. H. B., Seoul, Korea. Hulbert, Prof. H. W., (late of Beirut, Syria,) Marietta, Ohio. Hutchings, Rev. S., D.D., (late of Madras, India,) Orange, N. J. Jackson, Rev. S. M., New York. Kalopothakes, Rev. M. D., Athens, Greece. Labaree, Rev. B., D.D., Oroomiah, Persia. Laurie, Rev. T., D.D., (late of Mosul, Turkey) Providence, R. I. Lawrence, Rev. E. A., Baltimore, Md. Leonard, Rev. J. Y. , (late of Marsovan, Turkey,) New Haven, Ct. Loomis, Rev. S., Newark, N. J. Lovett, Rev. R., Sec. Religious Tract Society, London, England. Marshall, C. J., Salvation Army, New York City. Martyn, Rev. Chalmers, (late of Bangkok, Siam,) Moorestown, N. J. McFarland, Rev. H. IL, Woodhaven, L. I. McLaubin, Rev. J., Sec. Baptist Foreign Miss. Society, Woodstock, Canada. vm McLeman, Rev. T>., Akaroa, New Zealand. Morse, R. C, Sec. International Com.Y.M.C.A., New York City. Panaretopf, S., Prof. Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey. Park, Rev. C. W., (late of Bombay, India,) Birmingham, Ct. Parsons, Miss E. C, Editor Woman's Work for Woman, New York City. Pick, Rev. B., Ph.D., Allegheny, Pa. Romig, Rev. B., Sec'y Moravian Missions, Herrnhut, Germany. Russell, Rev. F., D.D., Sec'y Evangelical Alliance, New York City. Shedd, Rev. J. H, D.D., Oroomiah, Persia. Shelton, Rev. C. W., Sec'y American Miss. Association, Birmingham, Ct. Sfroull, Rev. W. J., Latakieh, Syria. Stabbuck, Rev. C. C, Andover, Mass. Steele, Rev. R., D.D., Sidney, Australia. Taylor, Rev. J. Hudson, China Inland Mission, London, England. Thomson, Rev. A., D.D., Constantinople, Turkey. Townsend, Rev. W. J., Ashton-under-Lyne, England. Van Dyck, Rev. C. V. A., D.D., Beirut, Syria. Watson, Rev. A., D.D., Alexandria, Egypt. Whitney, Rev. J. F., (late of Micronesia,) Marshfield, Vt. Wilsheke, Rev. D., Nassau, Bahamas. Wood, Rev. I. F., (late of Ceylon,) New Haven, Ct. Wood, Rev. J., Sec. Canada Congregational Miss. Soc. Ottawa, Can. Wright, Rev. W., D.D., Sec. British and For. Bible Soc, London, England. Wylds, Rev. A. McE., Brooklyn, N. Y. LIST OF MAPS. VOL. I. 1. Africa, Political Map, ......... 2. " Egypt and Eastern Soudan, . .... 3. " Central, 4. " South, ........... 5. " Western Soudan, ......... 6. " North, ........... 7. Bengal (Eastern India), ......... 8. Bombay (Western India), ......... 9. South America 10. China 11. Greece and Balkan Peninsula, ........ 12. Hawaiian Islands, 13. India (Language Map). (See also Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab), 14. Alaska and Canada 15. Japan and Korea, VOL II. 16. Madagascar, ............ 17. Madras (Eastern India) 18. Malay Peninsula, Borneo, etc 19. Micronesia and Melanesia (Western Pacific), .... 20. Mexico, 21. Polynesia (Eastern Pacific), 22. Punjab (Northern India), . 23. Persia, Afghanistan, .... 24. Siam, ....... 25. Turkey in Asia and Syria, 2S. West Indies, ...... Facing page 6 ¦¦ 10 «¦ 14 t ( 20 a 26 " 30 if 149 it 174 " 180 " 247 " 39(3 " 411 " 444 it 452 tt 482 tt 3 tt 19 tt 27 " 58 tr 91 it 208 tt 262 * it 218 t( 332 t < 412 " 469 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MISSIONS. Aana, a town in the western part of the island of Samoa. Mission station of the London Missionary Society, with 450 church-members. Aangeleken, a mission station on the northern boundary of Natal, between Oskars- berg and Amoibie, founded by the Swedish State Church in 1879. The chief work is among the Zulus. Ababa, formerly Torres, the northern most island of the northernmost group, Bank's Islands, of the Melanesian Archipelago. The inhabitants have no chiefs, and train their children to agriculture and independence at a very early age. Fights with clubs and arrows are frequent, and human life is held at little value. A mission station of the Melanesian Mission, founded in 1879. Abaco, an island of the Bahamas, West In dies. A station of the Baptist Missionary Soci ety, with 157 church-members, and of the Wesleyan Methodist Society (2 missionaries, 24 native helpers, 496 church-members, 543 school children). Abatemba, a tribe of Kaffirs, of about 100,000, occupying the territory about Tambuki. Abeel, David, b. June 12th, 1804, at Kew Brunswick, N. J. ; entered the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, 1826, and hav ing completed the course of 3 years, was or dained, and settled as pastor at Athens, N. Y., the same year. His health having failed, he resigned his charge at the end of 2| years. He accepted the position of chaplain of the American Seamen's Friend Society at Can ton, with a conditional appointment as mission. ary of the American Board at the end of a year, and sailed with by Mr. Bridgman, October 14th, 1829, for China. Reaching Canton, February 25th, 1830, they were cordially welcomed by the residents, especially by Dr. Morrison. In Decem ber, 1831, Mr. Abeel entered the service of the American Board, and sailed on the 27th for Batavia, partly for his health, but chiefly to visit the churches planted by the Dutch, 2 centuries before, in the islands of Southeastern Asia. He first went to Java, stopping for a while at Batavia with Mr. Medhurst, engaging with him in mission work and the study of the Chinese language. On June 30th he reached Siam, and in January, 1832, Singapore and Malacca. During these visits he was constant ly engaged in missionary labors, distributing books, conversing with the sailors and Chinese residents. In May, 1832, he made a second visit to Siam, remaining between 5 and 6 months. His health having entirely failed, he was invited by the Prudential Committee, in 1833, to visit the United States and labor as an agent among the Reformed Dutch churches. Arriving in London, October 31st, with health improved, he visited Paris, where he preached to Protestant residents, then journeyed through different parts of the continent, everywhere diffusing missionary information, and urging the claims of the heathen. Returning to Lon don, July 25th, 1834, he told of the degradation of the women of the East, and presented an appeal to the Christian women of Great Britain, which resulted in the formation of the So ciety for Promoting Female Education in the East. October 17th, 1838, he returned to Can ton, but the " opium war " preventing his use fulness there, he visited Malacca, Borneo, and other places. In 1841 he visited his brethren of the Reformed Dutch Church at Borneo, and Macao. The next year he visited Amoy, one of the 5 free ports in China, and in 1844 founded the Amoy Mission. The same year he was joined by Messrs. Doty and Pohlman. Early in 1845 the progress of his disease had become such as compelled him to relinquish the missionary work and return home. He reached New York, April 3d, 1845, and died at Albany, N. Y., September 4th, 1846, aged 42. He published A Journal of a Residence in China ; A Missionary Convention in Jerusalem ; The Claims of China for the Gospel. Abeili, a city of Syria, 25 miles south of Beirout, near Deir-el-Kamr, a principal place of the Druses. A mission station established by the A. B. C. F. M., but in 1870 transferred to American Presbyterian Board. The Theo logical Seminary which was founded there in 1869 was transferred to Beirout in 1874. At present occupied by 2 missionary families and a female missionary. ABENAQUI ABYSSINIA Abenaqui, a dialect of the Mic Mac lan guage of the North American Indians. It was first reduced to writing by missionaries of the American Board. Rev. P. P. Osunkhirhine, a native of the Abenaqui tribe in employ of the Board, near St. Francis, in Lower Canada, translated the Gospel of Mark from English into his vernacular, and an edition was printed at Montreal. At the station of this preacher there were in 1847, 55 Abenaquis reclaimed from their savage state and united in church fellowship. Abeokuta, the capital of the Egba tribe, Yoruba, "West Africa, stands on the western shore of the Ogan River, about 80 miles east of Lagos. It was founded in 1830 by fugitives from Yoruba, but became soon a flourishing seat of commerce with Sierra Leone, and was, in 1842, visited by Christian missionaries — Free man, of the Wesleyan, and Townsend, of tho Church Missionary Society. A follower of the latter founded the first congregation there. But in 1867 a quarrel between Abeokuta and Lagos, instigated by the English dealers in whiskey, brought down a, heavy blow upon the Christian mission. The churches in Abeokuta were sacked and nearly destroyed, all white men were expelled, and 400 Christian Egbas left for Ebute Meta. Still the congregation held on under the guidance of the able negro preacher, Johnson. At present the city has about 150,000 inhabitants, of whom about 3,000 are Chris- tians. The C. M. S. collected in 1885 over $2,000, but it has to fight very hard against polygamy, whiskey-drinking, etc. The Wes- leyans have 3 congregations in Abeokuta, comprising about 300 souls. The Southern Baptists renewed in 1876 the mission which they began in 1849. Abetifl, a city of 4,000 inhabitants, in the territory of Okwawa, West Africa, which, though belonging to the domain of the Ashantee language, is independent both of the English in the Gold Coast and of Ashantee. It has 4,000 inhabitants. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society ; 2 missionaries, 1 mission ary's wife, 6 native helpers, a native church and boys' school. Abkliasians, a warlike tribe, inhabiting the country between the Black Sea and the Caucasus. Under the Roman Emperor Jus tinian they became Christians, but subsequent ly adopted Mohammedanism, to which religion they still nominally belong, though their re ligion in fact consists of a barbarous mixture of Christian, Moslem, and heathen notions and usages. A large number of Abkhasians have lately emigrated from Russia, to Turkey. No mission work has been attempted among them. Abokobi, a city on the Gold Coast, West Africa, 15 miles north of Christiansborg. A station of the Basle Missionary Society, with 2 missionaries and their wives, 1 single lady ; a congregation numbering 963 members, a girls' school, and several branch establishments. Abome, the capital of Dahomey, is famous for its royal palace, whose principal ornaments consist of thousands of human skulls. It is not a mission station, but has been reached by the Wesleyan Missionary Society. Aburi, a city of 6,500 inhabitants, on the Gold Coast, West Africa, 30 miles north of Chris tiansborg, but in the domain of the Otshi, or Ashantee language. A station of the Basle Mis sionary Society, with 2 missionaries and their wives ; 1 single lady, and 17 native helpers. The congregation numbers 884. There is a girls' school, and since 1885 » medical estab lishment. Abyssinia (from Arabic "Habash"rr " mixed ' ' population. Inhabitants call them selves Itiopavians = Ethiopians). The region now included under the common name Abys sinia has been called most appropriately the "Switzerland" of Africa. It consists, for the most part, of » mountainous plateau averaging 9,000 feet above sea level, precipitous on the east, and falling away more gradually in other directions, everywhere being intersected by profound ravines and dominated by lofty snow capped peaks. A desert, stretching 'from the Red Sea to the base of the mountains, still further isolates this Alpine region. Abyssinia, made up of the various provinces of Tigre, Lasta, Amhara, Gojarn, Shoa, and adjoining lands, covers 244,000 square miles (a little larger than France and somewhat smaller than Texas). The average climate on this lofty plateau is delightfully temperate, the depths of the ravines being thoroughly tropical, while the higher mountain shoulders are decidedly Arctic. The soil is fertile, and supports a great variety of vegetable and animal life. Rich mines of great variety abound, and the country furnishes every necessity for a highly developed civiliza tion. The people of Abyssinia, numbering from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000, are much superior in every respect to their African neighbors. As indicated by the Arabic designation, " Ha- has]}," the population is " mixed." The dates and proportion of the admixtures are largely conjectural. The racial element that predomi nates is doubtless Turanian, and not dissimilar to the Egyptian, but with a considerable infu sion of negro blood. However, since historic times the Semites, originally immigrants from the Arabian peninsula, have had political as cendency, and have imposed upon the country, for the most part, their language, laws, and re ligion. There are 70,000 "Falashas," who were converted at an early date by Jewish mis sionaries, and still practise the Jewish rites. This influence, and with it some Hebrew blood, may have come in as early as the Babylonian captivity. The Abyssinians are a tall, athletic, bold race, with keen intellects, polite in ordi nary intercourse, yet with savage outbursts of brutality. As they are the only Christian na tion in Africa, so they are the only savage Christian race in the world. All indications point us to the conclusion that the Ethiopians were once a mighty race of conquerors, a con stant menace to ancient Egypt, and holding the gateway of commerce for all Central and Southern Africa. Since historic times inter nal discord and powerful enemies without have weakened their power and hedged them in their mountainous retreats. For centuries the devotees of Islam have swarmed about the base of this isolated plateau, occasionally successful in penetrating the desolate ravines, but eventually being driven back to reform their ranks and prepare for another raid. The Introduction of Christianiiy.—A'byssmia. has been called the first and only mission field of ABYSSINIA ABYSSINIA the Coptic Church. It was converted to the Christian faith early in the 4th century, in this wise : Meropius, a philosopher of Tyre, went on a voyage for purposes of travel and observa tion to " India" — a much-abused title, supposed to designate in this case South Arabia. He took with him his two youthful nephews, Fru mentius and Edesius. On the return voyage the ship put in at a certain port on the western shore of the Red Sea for supplies. Thereupon, the natives attacked the passengers and crew, and slew all of them except the two boys, who were spared on account of their tender age. These were carried inland as slaves, and pre sented to King Elaadad at his capital, Axum (variously written). Their royal master soon discovered their sagacity and talents, and made Edesius cup-bearer at his table, and Frumentius keeper of the royal records. On the death of the king the education of the boy -prince was entrusted to the two young strangers, who took advantage of their opportunity and brought him up in the Christian faith. After awhile the Roman merchants, who flocked in large num bers to Axum, suggested that some arrangement ought to be made for a Christian service at the heathen capital. A prayer-house was accord ingly built, and Frumentius took the lead in divine worship. Gradually the church grew. When the prince came of age he gratefufly yielded to the urgent request of his Sjrian tutors, and allowed them to go back to their native land. Instead of returning to Tyre, Frumentius, filled with a missionary spirit, went directly to Alexandria and laid the matter of the spread of Christianity in Abyssinia before Athanasius, lately made bishop at that centre. This great man and his co-laborers urged the work upon Frumentius, saying, ' ' Who could remove better than you could the gross igno rance of this people, and introduce among them the light of the divine truth ?" Thereupon, this " earlier Livingstone" was ordained as Bishop of Abyssinia, and went back to Axum to prosecute his missionary labors. Under royal patronage he commenced his preaching, and before his long and useful life was ended he had succeeded in winning the heathen to the Cross ; and that early Church enshrines his memory in the fond title of "Abu Salama," " the father of peace." To this day the Abys- sinians sing his praises in the following verses : " Hail ! with a voice of joy I cry Extolling and lauding Mm, Salama, the portal of mercy and grace, Who opened Ethiopia to the splendor of Christ's light, When before that it was darkness and night." The venerable translation of the Bible into Ethiopic dates from the 4th century, and if not perfected by Frumentius, was doubtless set un der way by his zealous foresight. The Gospel spread to Nubia and the surrounding countries. A powerful kingdom was set up, which ex changed greetings with the court at Constanti nople. The Arabian Episode. — The Christian faith had by this time spread into Southern Arabia. The once powerful Himyarite Kingdom had fallen into decay. The Jews were already numerous in that country. A usurper, Ibn Nowas by name, seized the throne. He was a bigoted and dissolute proselyte to Judaism. He perpetrated frightful cruelties upon the Christians in the neighboring province of Najr&n, who had refused to embrace his faith. One of his intended victims escaped, made his way to the court of Justinian the Great at Constantinople, and holding up a half -burned Gospel, invoked retribution upon Ibn Nowas. Thereupon, the emperor sent an embassy to the King of Ethiopia (at Axum) with the request that he would go over and punish the usurper who was seated on the throne of the Him- yarites. The king, whose name was Elasbaan, accepted the commission, and thoroughly ac complished this "first crusade," placing a Christian king upon the throne tributary to him. We have the following lament in Ethiopic over the martyrs of Najran : ' ' Ail hail the beauty of the stars of Najran, gems of light which illuminate the world. May your beauty be reconciliation and pacification. Should my sin stand before God, the Judge, show Him the blood which you have shed in bearing your testimony to Him." With this heroic episode the Ethiopians and their church disappear from the annals of history for 1,000 years. The Jesuit Episode. — In 1490 a.d., the Abys sinian Christians were rediscovered by the naval officers of John II. of Portugal, who had sailed all the way around Southern Africa. The Chris tian world, thought that at last the famous ' ' Prester John" was found away up in the Abyssinian Mountains. The King of Portugal sent Petro Cavilham, the Jesuit, to push the interests of Portugal in Africa. This interfer ence was resented. The Abyssinians came to blows with the Portuguese soldiers, who worked under orders from the Jesuits. At one time these zealous churchmen were victorious, and 8,000 enemies lay dead upon the battle-field. As the young Abyssinian Prince Facilidas, whom the Jesuits had half won over, walked through the heaps of slain, he is reported to have come to this conclusion: "A religion which causes so much bloodshed cannot be good. We had better, though victorious, re turn to the faith of the conquered and remain faithful, as they were." When he became king be expelled the Jesuits, and all further attempts on their part to get a footing in the country failed. The attempt, in 1621, when the Jesuits installed a patriarch in Abyssinia, was espe cially disastrous. Over » century later (1750- 1754) a third attempt was unsuccessful. Protestant Missions in Abyssinia. — In 1830 Bishop Gobat and Mr. Kugler were sent on a mission to Abyssinia by the Church Missionary Society. The work began with bright pros pects. Bishop Gobat travelled extensively and learned the Amharic, the common language of the people, a dialect of the ancient Ethiopic, which, though still used in church services, has become a dead language, even to many of the priests who go through the ceremonies. Bishop Gobat broke down in health, and had to leave the country. Mr. Kugler died. Later, Mr. Isenberg and Dr. Krapf took up the work. The Jesuit cloud again appeared on the horizon in the shape of Sapeto, who was sent out by the Propaganda. His intrigues aroused the old suspicions of foreign interference, and all for eigners were expelled the country in 1838. Krapf and Isenberg went to Shoa, and were received in a kindly manner by the king. There they compiled an Amharic dictionary, as well as a geography and prayer-book. Before this the Bible had been translated at Cairo, in 1808, into Amharic by an Abyssinian monk, Abu Rumi, assisted by the French Consul Asseline. In ABYSSINIA 4 ACCRA 1840 the mss. was bought and revised by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Although the Protestant missionaries had been expelled, the work went on. Two Abys sinian boys, Gabru and Maricha, who had been exiled with their father, were brought up in the Protestant faith at Bombay. Later, the young men returned to their native land. Gabru soon died, but Maricha, in 1864, became chief minister of Prince Kasai of Tigre, and for 20 years kept Abyssinia peaceful. Through him Admiral Hewitt made a treaty with King John, and later Maricha went to England on an embassy. The Protestant missionaries re mained on the borders of Abyssinia, continually kept in check by Jesuit and French intrigues. In 1859 King Theodore turned his back upon the Jesuits, and they were again expelled from the kingdom. Bishop Gobat corresponded with the king, and received permission to send a number of lay missionaries to Abyssinia, whose object should be to teach the Abyssinians the arts of civilization. Flad, Bender, Mayer, Kienzler, Saal-Miiller, Shorth and his son, and Waldmeier were the names of the men sent. The Abyssinians said, " You Europeans are a wonderful people, and God has revealed to you everything except a medicine against death, for you die just as we do." In 1860 Dr. Stern was sent out to carry on a mission among the Jews in Abyssinia by the London Society for Pro- mating Christianity among the Jews. A little later Mr. Staiger was sent for similar work by the Scotch Society. In 1862 Captain Cameron went to Abyssinia as an English Consul, and a little later carried letters from King Theodore to Queen Victoria and Louis Napoleon. Through some unaccountable mistake, Came ron returned to Abyssinia without an answer from the Queen. Theodore grew suspicious. A treacherous French secretary to Cameron trans lated portions o£ a book by Dr. Stern on his travels in Abyssinia, giving a sinister turn to the translation. The king was furious, but at the intercession of Waldmeier did not carry out iinmediatelyan-intent'to:hang Stem.and Rosen thal ; instead, however, he imprisoned most of the missionaries, as well as the English Consul, Captain Cameron. They were taken to Mag dala, the capital. The English Government sent out a special envoy, Mr. Rassam, to inves tigate and bring back Captain Cameron and other British subjects. The negotiations failed, and, as is well known, war ensued, in which the English, in 1868, marched from the sea coast up to Magdala, completely subdued the country, and brought back safely the prisoners and all the foreigners in tbe kingdom. King Theodore killed himself in chagrin. From that date until recently (1890) Abyssinia has been closed to missionary effort. Since the recent war with Italy about Massowah, and the set back from Mahdi raids from the west, a great change seems to have come over this interesting land. Menelek II., King of Shoa, on the death of King John II. became the supreme ruler, and made a treaty on May 8th, 1889 (confirmed in October), with Italy, which places the coun try practically under the Italian Protectorate. The ancient land is once more open to mission enterprises. It holds a strategic position in the African question. Europeans thrive on its lofty table-lands. It is the natural portal to Central Africa. Since the time of Frumentius the Abyssini ans have remained closely connected with the Coptic Church, and share its monophy- sitic tendencies. The " Abuna" from the first has been consecrated by the Coptic patriarch. The ceremonial is said to be of great interest. The patriarch breathes the Holy Spirit into the mouth of the candidate for the position. On one occasion, it is reported, when war made communication between the two countries im possible, the patriarch breathed into a leathern bag, which was safely transported to Abyssinia, and the symbolic ceremony was performed there by substituting the bag for the patriarch. The Abyssinian Church, ruled over by the Abuna, has departed at great lengths from the simplicity of the Gospel. There is a strange mixture of Christianity and Judaism in their customs. An ark is found in the centre of every Abyssinian church, and is accounted the holy thing. Circumcision is universally prac ticed. The worship is extremely perfunctory, the officiating priest rarely understanding the force of the words he is using. There are 192 fast days in the year. Tho new year com mences September 10th. On September 26th comes the greatest feast day, the anniversary of the supposed finding of the true cross by the Empress Helena, on which occasion innumera ble bonfires are lighted, as in Syria, Asia Minor, and Russia. The ethical standard is very low, and heinous crimes are committed without compunction of conscience. Feudalism is the basis of the political institu tions of the country. The king is a despot, held in check by custom and certain ancient laws. There are 24 great feudal lords who are responsible to the king for local taxes, as are also the provincial governors and village chiefs. The clergy are the only educated people, and hold the power in their hands. Con servative influences prevail on every side. The Italian Protectorate has a flattering outlook. The Mahdi forces are in danger of being out flanked, and trade will return to its ancient channels. In the new Africa of the 20th cen tury Abyssinia is to play a most important part. That it should be brought to a living faith in the Gospel is a most pressing duty that rests upon the Christian Church. Acca, a station of the C. M. S., in Wost Central Palestine, not far from Nazareth. The work here is very recent, and is as yet hardly organized. It is conducted bj' 2 lady mission aries, 1 ordained native pastor, and 2 native teachers. It has 1 preaching place, 2 schools, and 64 scholars. Accra, or Akra, a city on the Gold Coast, West Africa. Station of the Wesleyan Mis sionary Society and the C. M. S. ; 6 mission aries and assistants, 63 native helpers, 3 chapels, 745 church-members, 8 schools, 336 scholars' The congregation is self-supporting, but con nected with the mission at Cape Coast. Accra, or Ga, a language belonging to the negro group of African languages, is spoken in the eastern part of the Gold Coast. In 1843 the gospels of Matthew and John, as translated by the Rev. A. Hanson, a native of Accra, were printed at London, in Roman letters, by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Since 1865 the entire Bible is in circulation, the transla tion having been made by the late missionary, J. A. Zimmermann (died 1876), of the Basle Mission, and revised since by the Rev. G. ACCRA ADELAIDE Christaller. Up to March 31st, 1889, this ver sion, as a whole or in parts, has been circulated in 44,569 portions. Ada, a city of 7,000 inhabitants on the Gold Coast, West Africa, at the mouth of the Wolta. A congregation was formed there in 1864, under the Basle Missionary Society, and numbered 166 members, when, in 1883, 142 re tired on account of dissension concerning church polity. There are now at work in Ada 3 mis sionaries, 2 missionaries' wives, and 10 native helpers. Adabazar, a city of Asia Minor, about 60 miles east of the Gulf of Nicomedia, an out- station of the A. B. C. F. M. Mission work re sulted early in the establishment of a strong church, which became self-supporting and a centre of great influence among the villages of that section. Since the removal of the girls' boarding-school from Bardezag, largely due to the fact that the native church undertook a large share in the expense of maintaining it, it has grown rapidly. Adaclli, a station of the Union Church of Christ in Japan ; 58 church-members ;• contri butions, 9,772 yen. Adalia, a city on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Population chiefly Greek, Not occupied as a mission station, but visited by colporteurs of the B. and F. B. Society. Adainshoop, a city in Orange Free State, East Africa, founded by the son of a slave who had become rich. A mission station of the Berlin Mission Society ; 588 church-members, 1 missionary, 2 single ladies, 8 native helpers. Adana, a city of 30,000 inhabitants, in Southern Asia Minor (Cilicia), 25 miles north east of Tarsus. It commands the Cilician passes of the Taurus Mountains, and is one of the most enterprising cities of Turkey. The popu lation is chiefly Turkish, Armenian, and Nu- sairyeh, but there are many Greeks, and it is a gathering place for merchants and traders of every kind. The people are especially noted for their energy and force of character. It is occupied as a mission station of the Central Turkey Mission of the A. B. C. F. M ; 2 mis sionary families, 2 single ladies, a large and important girls' school. The congregation numbers about 1,000, and occupies a fine church building. The mission of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, U. S. A., to the Nu- sairyeh holds it as an out-station of Tarsus. Bible work in charge of a Superintendent of the Levant Agency, A. B. S. Addington, New Zealand. Mission sta tion of the United Methodist Free Church ; 1 missionary, 8 native helpers, 124 church-mem bers. Addyman, John, was born in Leeds, county of Yorkshire, England, on October 22d, 1808. When 16 years of age he gave him self to God, through some deep impressions which were made on his mind while attending a love-feast. Immediately he threw himself earnestly into evangelistic work, first in Leeds and then in London. He wr>s at this time con nected with the Wesleyan Methodists, and he became deeply convinced that he was destined by Providence to enter the Christian ministry. Therefore, he studied many books, which tended to furnish his mind with Biblical and theologi cal knowledge, often shortening his hours of re pose to devote the more time to this purpose. His views on the subject of church government having undergone some change, he loft the Wes leyan community and united himself with the Methodist New Connexion. He was called into the ministry of that body in 1833. Just at this time the subject of commencing a mission in Canada was seriously occupying the mind of the New Connexion and Mr. Addyman was chosen to be the pioneer of the movement in the Far West. Ho married a lady who was will ing to share the responsibilities of such an en terprise, and in 1837 he sailed from England and settled at Henrysburg, Upper Canada. He was joined in 1839 by Rev. H. O. Crofts, and together they struck out in all directions and established an extensive network of churches and congregations in the Dominion. The labors of Mr. Addyman in Canada were very trying, involving great privations and dan gers, and often attended by romantic expe riences. During what is known as the Canadian rebellion, he was in great peril, his life being threatened ; being suspected as a spy, he was arrested and kept for some time in prison. At ltngth, through his arduous toils and trials, his health failed, and in 1845 ho returned to his native land, having been the main instrument in establishing 177 churches, which contained more than 4,000 members, but which have since expanded into large and flourishing centres, and now form part of the Methodist Church of Canada. The churches established by Mr. Ad dyman were in many cases in farm-houses and barns, but as settlers multiplied and popula tions gathered, churches were erected, and the privileges of religious worship were thus afford ed to emigrants from his native land. On his return to England his health regained its vigor ; he labored diligently and successfully in many of the New Connexion, circuits in England, un-, til, in 1873, he retired from the active ministry through growing infirmities. From this time he resided at Bristol, in Yorkshire, preaching as he had opportunity, and delighting to spend a portion of each day in visitation of the sick and the poor. Ho died after a short illness, June 7th, 1887. He was a man of great gentle ness of spirit, and ardently devoted to the work of his life. Many fruits of his earnest ministry still remain both in Canada and in England. His piety was of the most simple and healthy character, and in his later years he seemed to live in the closest fellowship of the Saviour. His name will ever be preserved in the com munity in which he was a minister more than 50 years as a precious memory. Adelaide, Kaffraria, South Africa, on the left bank of the Koonap River, 40 miles from its source and 150 miles north from Algoa Bay. Climate mild, dry, and healthv — 25° to 106° F. Population, 1,500, of Dutch", British, German, Hottentot, and Kaffir descent. Re ligion, the denominations common in Britain and America— native fetich worship. Lan guage, English, Dutch, Kaffir. Social condition of natives very bad, owing to their poverty and i'ieiriueof intoxicating liquors. Mission sta tion of United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1862) ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 native preacher, 2 out-stations, 2 churches, 143 members ; con tributions, £34, Also a station of the S. P. G. ADEN AFRICA Aden, a seaport town at the southwestern corner of Arabia, was bought from the Turks in 1839 by the British East India Company; has risen rapidly under British rule. A mission station of the C. M. S. ; 1 missionary and his wife, and 1 other European worker ; 9 native workers, 10 church-members. Free Church of Scotland, Keith Falconer Mission ; 4 mission aries, who work among the Moslems and So- malis. Adiabo, a town on the Bay of Old Calabar, West Africa. A mission station of the United Presbj'terian Church of Scotland. Admiralty Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, now belonging to the Bis marck Archipelago, which see. A do Wil, capital of Tigre, Abyssinia, which see. Adrianople, European Turkey, on the Maritza (ancient Hebrew), in ancient Thrace, 130 miles northwest of Constantinople. Popu lation, 150,000 — Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, Franks, etc. The scenery of the city is beautiful, the gardens of the wealthy citizens delightful, and the appearance of the 40 mosques most picturesque. The trade, centred in a capacious bazaar, is considerable, the city being the most important in European Turkey. Mission station of British Society for Propa gating the Gospel among the Jews ; 1 Jewish missionary ; also occupied for many years as a station of the Western Turkey Mission of the A. B. C. F. M. , now an out-station of Constanti nople. Has a native church, and a successful Bible depot of the A. B. S. Afgliani§lan, a country of Central Asia, on the northern border of India, between that and Turkestan. A mountainous country, with lofty tables and deep ravines, few rivers, and a climate that presents a great variety, changing from intense cold to tropical heat. Popula tion, 5,000,000 to 9,000,000. Mohammedans of the Sunnite sect, and divided into 2 classes, Durranes and Ghilzais. They are a fierce, turbulent race, constantly at feud and difficult to govern. The early wars between the Afghans and the British resulted from the failure of Dost Mohammed to keep the pledges given to the British residents, and were made notorious by the massacres of British troops in the passes. At present the British-Indian forces have re tired from the cities of Cabul, Candahar, etc., and the Ameer Abdurrahman is on terms of peace. The occasion for anxiety rests in the well-known desire of Russia, already close on the northern boundary of Afghanistan, to use the Afghans as assistants in her designs on British India. The present power is loyal to England, and feels that it has reason to dread Russia ; but the hold of the Ameer is not the strongest, and a revolution may at any moment raise difficulties of the most serious nature. No mission work has been attempted in Af ghanistan, but the British and Foreign Bible Society have published the New Testament, Psalms, and historical books of the Old Testa ment in Pashtu, or Afghani. Africa.* — Africa has been described as " one universal den of desolation, misery, and * For the first portion of Hum article we arc indebted to the officers of the Church Missionary Society, who have allowed extensive use of their article in the C. M. S. Atlas of Africa. crime;" and certainly, of all the divisions of the globe, it has always had an unfortunate pre-eminence in degradation, wretchedness, and woe. Almost alt the missionary societies of America, England, and Europe, commiserat ing the condition of the people, and more par ticularly of the negro race, on account of the cruel wrongs which the slave trade had inflicted upon them, have sooner or later selected Africa as a special field of missionary enterprise. The Continent of Africa is equal in area to Europe and North America combined, compris ing nearly 12,000,000 square miles. Its greatest length is 5,000 miles, and its greatest breadth, 4,600. Both tropics cross it, and the equator cuts it a little below the centre. By far the largest portion of its territory is therefore inter tropical. I. Geographical Exploeation of Ai-eica. In its physical configuration Africa has been happily compared to an inverted saucer. It is rimmed on a great part of its seaboard by a narrow strip of low land ; at a distance of from 50 to 200 miles from the coast the land rises rapidly to an average height of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and in some parts to lofty moun tain ranges ; then the whole interior is a vast table-land, sinking slightly in the middle. In this hollow lie tbe great lakes whence flow the mighty rivers that drain the whole country. These rivers are the dominating features of African geography. Its problems have been the sources and the courses of the 4 great streams, the Nile, the Niger, the Congo, and the Zambesi ; and the triumphs of modern African exploration are almost all connected with these 4 names. The Mile is by far the longest of the 4, having a course extending over 37° of latitude ; but the Congo exceeds it in volume and in the size of its basin. In the second rank comes the Senegal, the Gambia, the Ogowe, and the Orange, flowing into the Atlantic ; the Juba, the Rufiji, the Rovuma, and the Limpopo, into the Indian Ocean ; and the Shari, in the Soudan, which falls into Lake Tchad, an inland reservoir with no outlet to the sea. Of the 4 great lakes of what is usually called Central Africa, the Vic toria Nyanza and the Albert Nyanza belong to the Nile system ; Tanganyika to that of the Con go, and Nyassa to that of the Zambesi, one of whose tributaries, the Shire, flows out of it. Modern African discoveries fall naturally into 2 groups. The exploration of the coast line was the work of the 15th century, and of the Portuguese ; that of the interior has been the work of the 19th century, and, in the main, of the English. Ancient knowledge of the continent was confined to North Africa and the Mile Valley. The well-known story, how ever, of the expedition made by the ships of Pharaoh Necho, about 600 b.c, has been thought to indicate that the circumnavigation of Africa was accomplished by them ; and the Carthaginians, 2 or 3 centuries later, ex plored a considerable portion of the western seaboard ; but in the Middle Ages nothing was known of the coast beyond the limits of Morocco. During the 15th century the Portu guese gradually pushed their researches south ward, reaching Madeira and the Canaries in 1418, Cape Verd in 1446, Sierra Leone in 1463, the mouth of the Congo in 1484, and the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 ; and in the closing CD m SD £-=-^ a o .— ^ iiT"ij.-''-8 _ - - ' \t A] °'c?0 100 IbO 2d0 ao ;joo Missionary Stations arc shown by a solid dot (•). COLOR REFERENCE. | English \ Italian 1 | French ^] Turkish Submarine Cables - ~ Railroads — -— — AFRICA 11 AFRICA has never met with such bitter persecution as in some other lands. The personal relations between the missionaries and the people have been very pleasant, and the government has looked upon the educational work of the former with favor, even making a grant of a valuable piece of property in Cairo for their schools. (See United Presbyterian Church Missions.) Th» Wesleyan Methodists (England) and the Colonial and Continental (England) have mis sions, the former in the army only. Nubia. — The section of country south of Egypt, extending from Wady Haifa to Berber, on the Nile, and Suakin, on the Red Sea. The greater part of the country, especially to the west, is desert, the Nile valley, in many places very narrow, furnishing the only relief. To the east, however, especially in the vicinity of the Red Sea, where there are numerous rain falls, wells, fountains, and pasturage are found in abundance. The climate, though hot— aver aging 80° Fahr. — is very dry and healthful for those who keep away from the moisture of the river beds ; and even ophthalmia is almost un known. The fruit trees of Egypt are found only in gardens, and even the date disappears in the southern sections. The Nubian horses, famous for their ileetness, cannot bear a change of climate, and have decreased much in num bers. The constant prey of opposing forces from the north and south, the population of Nubia, numbering about ] ,000,000, is very much mixed, the original Ethiopians having once given place to the Egyptians and then regained an ascend ancy. These Barbarins (the connection with " barbarian' ' is probably fanciful) are among the darkest of African tribes, but under their dark skins are transparent reddish hues, clearly dis tinguishing them from the negroes of Central Africa. The hair is wavy without being woolly, the features regular, the nose straight and firm, and many come to even the European standard of beauty. The custom of making three oblique scars on each cheek they can give no reason for, as it is not a distinguishing mark, many other races doing the same thing. They fur nish tho greater number of the slaves and at tendants for Egypt and Turkey. Originally a brave people, constant oppression has rendered them cowardly and subject to incursions from the more warlike tribes of Kordofan. The southern Nubians are much more given to trade, and hold themselves aloof from the peas antry or Fellaheen. They and the pastoral peo ple of the Nile valley call themselves Arabs, though their origin is probably Ethiopic. The most prominent of these Nubian Arabs are the Bisharins or Begas and Ababdehs, and num ber perhaps 300,000. Missionary work has been confined to occa sional visits of colporteurs of the American and the British and Foreign Bible Societies. Ger man missionaries have endeavored to occupy Khartoum, and General Gordon did much to illustrate and commend Christianity. The Soudan. — This is not a distinct country, having regular geographical boundaries, but a somewhat indefinite section stretching across the continent along the 10th parallel of latitude from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and including especially the districts of Upper Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, Wadai, Lake Tchad, and the valley of the Niger. Of late years it has come to have a somewhat limited appli cation to what is sometimes called the Egyptian Soudan, including Upper Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, the section that was annexed to Egypt by the notorious Zebehr Pasha, and where Gen eral Gordon undertook to establish a barrier to the slave trade that brought the blacks of Cen tral Africa to the Red Sea, and then distributed them through Arabia and the Levant. (For special account of this region, see article Sou dan.) The different sections will be treated in order, leaving the western section to come in connection with the states of the western coast, as being more closely connected with them. Upper Nubia, or the Egyptian Soudan, a por tion of ancient Ethiopia, extends from the Ber- ber-Suakin line to the borders of Abyssinia, in cluding the city of Khartoum and the country along the Blue Nile and the Atbara. It is a mountainous country, broken by ridges into sections, each to a degree independent of the others. Alternately held by the Abyssinians and the Egyptians, the revolution of the Mahdi has connected it with Kordofan and Darfur as the seat of a new government. The population is about 3,000,000, made up of a great number of tribes, and representing all the great races of North, East, and Central Africa — Ethiopic, Negro, Nuba -Fulah, and Arab. The most prominent among them are the Begas or Blemmyes of the ancients, and probably the Ethiopians of Herodotus, who built Meroe'. In the Middle Ages they were mostly Christians, but now are Mohammedans — at least so far as their interest in the Mahdi is concerned — one of their most powerful tribes, the Hadendoas, numbering about 1,000,- 000, having taken a most prominent part in the recent wars. They are a fine-looking, aristo cratic people, not unlike the Bantu race of the south, though with many customs of the negro races. Like other Ethiopic people, descent is reck oned from the mother, and while women before marriage are treated with great civility, after marriage they are not at all under the control of the husband. The annals of the kingdom of Meroe and Senaar, ever since the time of Queen Candace, show the prominence given to women. The prominent cities are Khartoum, at the* junction of the Blue and the White Niles, the, commercial centre for the whole region, and made memorable by the death of Gtneral Gor don ; Senaar, the capital of the old Funj king dom, and which has greatly decreased in impor tance (Meroe, the old Ethiopian capital, is a mass of ruins on the east bank of the Blue Nile) ; Kassala, between the Atbara and Masso- wah, formerly an Egyptian fortress destined, perhaps, to be an Abyssinian outpost ; and Ber ber, the starting-point for caravans from the Middle Nile to Suakin, the best port on the Red Sea, and the point from which pilgrims start for Mecca and slave-traders for Arabia. The religion of this whole region is the Mo hammedan, yet the old faiths are by no means extinct, and the fact of a general profession of Christianity during the Middle Ages would ren der Christian evangelization a labor of compara tive ease, as soon as the iron rule of the Mahdi can be broken. Kordrfan. — A country west of Upper Nubia, whose chief city, El-Obeid, is the capital of the Mahdi. With a territory half the size of France, it has an estimated population of only 300,000, or about three persons to a square AFRICA 12 AFRICA mile. The temperature is the hottest in the world, the thermometer frequently rising to 105° Fahr. in the shade during the hot season, which commences in March. June, July, and August are the rainy months, and the air is full of vapors and miasma, inducing epidemic fevers, which are very fatal to Arabs, Turks, and Europeans. The commercial importance of Kordofan arises from its being the starting- point for caravans to Western Africa and Trip oli by way of Darfur, Wadai, and the oasis of Fezzan. (A Turkish merchant of Fezzan once visited Constantinople with a large supply of English uniforms which followers of the Mahdi had taken from the troops in Khartoum, and brought by this route to the Mediterranean.) The native tribes are not numerous or power ful, the most influential element, and that which constitutes the support of the Mahdi, being the two Bedouin tribes, Kababish and Baggare. They claim to be of pure Arab descent, but have not a few of the customs of the Kabyle, and have a red skin very much like the American Indian. They are of exceptionally fine physique. Darfur. — A country about the size of France, lying between Kordofan on the east and Wadai on the west, and forming the line between the Nile Basin and Lake Tchad. It was long en tirely closed to Europeans, and not until the famous Zebehr Pasha conquered it for Egypt was much information gained about it. Since the rise of the Mahdi it is again closed. Its eastern portion contains some copper mines that were the chief object of desire on the part of the Egyptian Government. The climate and general features are much the same as those of Kordofan, there being high ranges of moun tains and extensive uplands. The population, variously estimated at from 1,500,000 to 4,000,- 000, is composed chiefly of the Fur or For tribe of the Nuba-Fulah race, who gave their name to the country. All are Mussulmans, but min gle many practices of African origin with the precepts of the Koran. The former commercial relations of Darfur were chiefly with Egypt by a caravan route direct through the desert to Assiout, but now the caravans go both east and west, reaching Egypt through Kordofan and Khartoum, and Tripoli through Wadai and the oasis of Fezzan. Wadai.— The eastern section of the Lake Tchad district, occupied by the Wadai tribe, that for some time has held the predominance in that region. (For special description, see Lake Tchad.) It is mentioned here as the farthest section west where there is a distinctly Arab ele ment, although the native negro element still retains the pre - eminence. The influential tribes rest their claims to prominence on their early acceptance of Islam. This country is the chief sphere of the Senoussi movement, although the Sheikh himself has his headquarters in Trip oli. The greater part of the Moslems being converts, are the more earnest in their support of the new faith, and they have made deter mined efforts to overcome the Mahdi and ex tend the Senoussi's influence to the Red Sea. Missionary influence through the whole of eastern Soudan has been almost entirely want ing. Foreign travel has been confined to a few men, Nachtigal (1869-74) being the only one who succeeded in really penetrating Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan, and the account given by Mohammed el Tunsy (the "Tunisian") is still the best that exists of that section. Abyssinia. — Abyssinia proper, including its southern district of Shoa, is a territory co\ er ing about 96,000 square miles, its eastern boun dary extending about 500 miles south from Mas- sowah, on the Red Sea. There is, however, a wide stretch of territory between that and the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, known as Gallaland and Somalitand, which historically and geo graphically is connected with Abyssinia, but being the home of independent tribes, must be considered separately. (See article Abyssinia.) The London Society for Propagating Chris tianity among the Jews and the Swedish Evan gelical Society have stations in Abyssinia. Afar. — The section between Abyssinia proper and the Red Sea, and including the coast from Massowah to the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, is occupied by the Afar or Danakil tribe, belonging to the central Ethiopian branch of the Hamitic group, although they claim to be Arabs by de scent, and may indeed have Arab blood. They have a fine physique, and have succeeded in preserving their independence, recognizing only their hereditary chiefs. Nominally Moslem, they have retained much of their fetich wor ship, and observe many of the rites common to the kindred tribes. England and Italy, and still later, France, have established trading sta tions along the coast, but have not undertaken to extend inland, as the country is sterile, hard ly furnishing food for the natives, who gain a large part of their subsistence from the caravans moving between Abyssinia and the Red Sea. The principal caravan stations in the Afar coun try are Beihet and Asali (Italian) and Perim (English). Gallaland. — South of Abyssinia and the Afar country, from the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb to the Equator, extends the country of the Gallas, one of the largest nations in Africa, numbering per haps 3,500,000 in the distinctive Galla States, but found on either hand in large numbers. They are said to number altogether more than 6,000,000. They are generally placed in the Ethiopic family of the Hamitic group, and are thus allied closely to the Somalis to the east of Afar, to the Begas of Upper Nubia, and, more remotely, to the Berbers of North Africa, and to the ancient Egyptians. Their dialect bears con siderable resemblance to the Semitic languages. Their home is said to have been the equatorial region about Lake Nyasa, and some of them still make pilgrimages to Mount Kenia. They are of medium height, finely proportioned, with an attractive and open countenance. In color they are a deep reddish brown, the women be ing usually very light, and in youth very hand some. The northern tribes are more intelligent than those of the south, but there is no educa tion among them except as the result of mis sionary teaching, and the only books are the Gospels, translated by the missionaries, and a few dictionaries and a grammar by Tuschek In general peaceful agriculturists, they are forced to defend themselves against the Abys sinians in the north, the Somalis on the east and the Arab slave-traders, who find amon» them their most attractive prey. The Enalish stations on the coast at Tagurra Bay, Zeila°and .bulha have done much to prevent this trade Missionary efforts among the Gallas date to the visit of Krapf to Shoa in 1842, when en gaged in the Abyssinian Mission with Bishop Gobat (See Abyssinia.) Later, work has been carried on by the Swedish Evangelical Soci AFRICA 13 AFRICA ety. (See Swedish Evangelical Society.) The Keith Falconer Mission (under the care of the Free Church of Scotland) at Sheikh Othiuan, near Aden, on the coast of Arabia, is endeavor ing to do a work among the Gallas through the rescued slaves, whom they gather in their schools and educate with the hope that they will return an4cwork among their people. The Church Missionary Society's work is the most prosper ous ; the United Free Methodists and the Ans- garius Union have each one station in Somali- land. One of the hardest, it is also one of the most attractive fields of missionary labor. Somali Land. — The country between Galla land and the Indian Ocean is occupied by the Somali tribes, akin in race to the Afars, with whom they have a great deal of intercourse, each passing into the other's territory for pasturage, according to the season. They are practically independent, and have not attracted the inter est of Europeans, being treacherous and con stantly at war with themselves. The Sources of ihe Nile and the Great Lakes. — The southern boundary of Kordofan and Dar fur marks practically the limit not only of their territory, but of their climate, race, and general physical characteristics. The section south of Bahr el Arab, although included in the general term Soudan, is so different as to be practically an entirely distinct country. The dry, intense heat of Kordofan gives place to a climate more moist and gentle, although scarcely less un healthy. Instead of plains, there are great jungles with luxuriant vegetation ; oxen take the place of horses and camels, and the Arab disappears entirely before the Negro. In fact, two continents could hardly be more markedly distinct than are these two sections of what is often called one country. In the absence of any marked geographical boundaries, we shall divide this section, ex tending from Kordofan to the upper end of Lake Tanganyika, into 3 parts : 1. The Zenba country, lying between the Bahr el Arab and the west bank of the Nile. 2. The Sobat and Yal basins, on the east bank. 3. The great lakes. Note. — There seems to be some confusion in the different atlases as to the distinction be tween the Bahr el Arab, the Bahr el Homr, and the Bahr el Ghazel. The first is here used to designate the most northern of the western tributaries of the Nile, while the last is its largest confluent. 1. The Zeriba country extends from Kordo fan, on the north, to the Lake Albert Nyanza, on the south, and from the White Nile (Bahr el Jabel), on the east, to the somewhat indefinite boundary of tlie Nyam-Nyam country on the west, and includes a section that has been most prominently before the world for several years. It wa3 here that General Gordon hoped to es tablish a government that should effectually stop the slave-trade, and that Emin Pasha for so long a time held his own against hostile at tacks from every side. (See Soudan.) The extent of country is about 140,000 square miles, and the population is estimated at 10,- 000,000, but it has doubtless suffered much from the depredations of the Arab slave-dealers, who make this their special field o£ supply. The routes to the Red Sea can still be traced by the bones of men lying bleaching in the sun. They almost all belong to the Negro race, al though tho different tribes are very distinct from each other. Among the most prominent are the Shuli and Madi, in whose territory is Wadelai, till lately Emin Pasha's place of resi dence ; the Bari, among whom Sit Samuel Baker established his settlement, Ismailia ; the Denka, the largest tribe, and famous as the best cooks in Africa ; the Bongos, bordering on the Nyam- Nyam country, and not unlike their neighbors, generally very kindly, gentle, and industrious, skilled as smiths and artisans, producing with very simple tools articles not inferior to those made in Europe. These, with tho kindred tribes around them, were the chief booty of the slave-dealers, who gave their name to the sec tion from their Zeribas, or forts, which they es tablished all over the country. The ravages made among them may be indicated by the statement of Schweinfurth that the Bongos numbered certainly 300,000, whereas at the present time there are scarcely 100,000. But not only in their reduced numbers is the result of the slave trade manifest. The tribes have become greatly mixed, and in the process the worst elements have come to the surface, some among them being described as the most repul sive tribes in Africa. Missionary efforts in this section have been confined to the work of some Catholic mission aries among the Bari and Bongo tribes, but without anyapparent result. Mohammedanism prevails toward the north, but to the south fetichism is still dominant. 2. Sobat and Yal basins include a section of about 70,000 square miles on the east bank of the Nile, with a population of perhaps 3,000,000. These are mostly negroes, though there are some Galla tribes among them. The most pow erful aie the Shilluks, the only race on the Nile recognizing a king, who rules all the tribes. Mohammedanism has had no influence upon them, but they worship an ancestor whom they consider the creator of all things, invoke the spirits of the stream, but avoid those of the dead, believing in metempsychosis. 3. The great lakes, including, 1. Albert Ny anza ; 2. Victoria Nyanza ; 3. Unyoro and Uganda ; 4 Karagwe. The whole section of the great lakes, cover ing about 170,000 square miles, is a plateau about 4,000 feet above the ocean. There are no elevated highlands, but the plains are broken by hills and ridges which offor no hindrance to exploration, and help to give the country a diversity and beauty of scenery scarcely sur passed in the world. Add to this the full sup ply of water, the rich vegetation, and a climate of the mean temperature (79° Fahr. throughout the year) of New Orleans, and the idea gained is scarcely that of a location within the torrid zone. The animals are the buffalo, antelope, rhinoceros, elephant, and boar ; ostriches are abundant ; the lion is rarely met with. The population, numbering 12,000,000 (?), is of the Bantu race. (See article on Zulu-Bantu race.) 1. Albert Nyanza (known to some of the na tives as the Mwutan-Nzige, or Grasshopper Sea ; to others as the " Great Water"), so named in 1864 by Sir Samuel Baker, its discoverer, in honor of the late Prince Consort, is about 90 miles long, with an average width of a little over 18 miles. At both northern and southern end3 the land is low, while the middle lies be tween high cliffs, giving the lake the appearance of a fissure in the earth's surface. AFRICA 14 AFRICA The Somerset Nile, which connects Victoria Nyanza with Albert Nyanza, enters the former on the east side, near the northern extremity at Murchison ' Falls, not far from where the White Nile leaves it. The west coast has not been fully explored, and it is somewhat uncer tain whether the lake is supplied entirely from the Somerset Nile, or has other affluents. It is, however, settled that Livingstone's idea of a connection between it ana Lake Tanganyika was not correct. 2. Victoria Nyanza (Ukerewe), the largest lake in Africa and the second in the world (Lake Superior taking the first place), was discovered by Captain Speke in 1858. It has an altitude of about 4,000 feet, being nearly 2,000 feet higher than the Albert Nyanza, and its 720 miles of coast scenery is of every description and style of beauty. There are level plains, high hills, bare cliffs, richly wooded slopes, and all broken up by countless indentations and hid den by numerous islands, many of them of great beauty and interest. The Somerset Nile flows out of it on the north, and its greatest affluent is the Alexandra Nile, entering it on the west. The source and length of this river, which seems to be the true beginning of the Nile, have not yet been fully explored. 3. Unyoro and Uganda. The territory bound ed by Albert Nyanza on the west, the Somerset Nile on the northeast, and Victoria Nyanza on the southeast, covers an area of about 70,000 miles, and is one that has attracted a large amount of attention from the missionary world. The general government of the whole section is in the hands of the Wahuma, a race appar ently akin to the Gallas of the northeast. They are of a different type from the Bantus, have fine features, and are without the pouting lips of the negro. They are a race of shepherds, and have preserved their purity of race, refus ing to mix with the subject tribes. They have come into contact very little with foreigners, as they live mostly in the jungles aloof from the villages, and consequently very little is known of them, except that they furnish rulers to the country between the lakes. The northern section, or Unyoro, is a plateau on about the same level as Albert Nyanza (2,000 feet), with a copious rainfall, but a less lux uriant vegetation than is found to the south. The people, too, while of the same race as the Waganda, are less numerous, less powerful, and have attracted much less interest. South of Unyoro lies an uninhabited country, u sort of border-land, through which caravans pass only under guard ; and then comes the territory of Uganda. This is the most populous, power ful, and most widely known of all the States in East Central Africa, and from its intimate con nection with the work of missions deserves a fuller notice The kingdom of Uganda (or rather of Ganda, U or Bu being merely a prefix indicating the country, as Wu or Ba indicate the people, and Ki or Lu or Ru the language) covers, with its dependencies, about 70,000 square miles, and contains the richest and most fertile part of the section of the great lakes. Its high altitude, about 4.000 feet above the level of the sea, and the abundant yet nat excessive rainfall give a coolness to the climate which renders it hos pitable to vegetable products of the temperate zone, wdiich have been introduced to some ex tent by Europeans. Sweet potatoes, beans, to matoes, maize, rice, and various other vegetables are grown, and the coffee plant is somewhat culti vated. The principal fruit is the banana, which grows luxuriantly in different varieties, and is used for flour and liquor. The huts are built more carefully than in other sections, and are of the beehive form, with a double roof, so that there is a constant circulation purifying the air of the hut. Other buildings have been intro duced by the Arab traders and by the Euro peans, who are chiefly missionaries. The people (Waganda or Baganda) are of Bantu origin, and akin to the Zulus of the south. Various estimates have been made of their num bers, about 5,000,000 being that generally ac cepted. One peculiarity is that there are far more women than men. Polygamy prevails, there being no limit to the number of wives. In war the Waganda kill the males and carry off the females. There is no law lo forbid the marriage of near relatives. The eldest son in herits all his father's wives except his own mother. The women are really servants, and, with the slaves, do all the domestic labor, leav ing the men free to keep their strength for feats of arms. The young man toils only as long as is necessary to provide the means for the pur chase of wives, when he immediately drops into a state of idleness, passing his time in gambling and drinking. The Waganda have little regard for human life, though they wel come the stranger with kindness, and treat the sla-\e with gentleness. They are well clad. Speke (1862) was the first European visitor to penetrate their country. Since that time real progress has been made in agriculture and in various species of handicraft, especially in forg ing iron. S wahili, the most useful idiom in East ern Africa— the idiom of the coast — is spoken fluently in the capital and market-towns of Uganda. Some of the chiefs speak and write Arabic. The Ganda alphabet is composed of Latin letters, x and q, however, being replaced by other characters. All the trade of any im portance is in the hands of Arabs and Zanzibar half-castes. The exports are ivory and slaves, in exchange for which they receive guns, pow der and shot, woven goods, glassware, and some other European articles. Money is rarely em ployed, the recognized currency'being the' doti, or " eight cubits" of calico. Routes of trade are opening up, and facilities for exchange increas ing. Arab dhows on the Nyanza render the oavigation of that lake less' dangerous than formerly, and the miry paths of the interior are giving place to good roads. Egyptian authoritv never reached Uganda. Officers of the Khedive entered the country only under the title of am bassadors. The king is 'absolute master of land and people, though in State affairs his power is controlled by three wakungn, or hereditary vas sals. The Katekiro, a sort of " mayor of the palace," and Governor of Udi, is nominated by the king, and with the three wakungu take's his place with the sovereign in the privy coun cil, and in the king's absence presides over the luchiko, or governing body, which is composed of all the grandees of the country, vassals and feudatories, and palace dignitaries. On' the death of the king a successor is selected from among his children by the wakungu. The two most frequented ports of Uganda, on the shores of the lake, are Usavara, on Murchison Bay, and Mtebi, on the gulf, limited south bv the Sesse Archipelago. ' /r-, /', .Xg-aundpiL' •, 10 11 10 11 H AFRICA 15 AFRICA The Waganda do not worship idols or fetich gods, properly so called. The universal crea tor, Katonda, though believed in, is thought to be beyond the reach o£ their worship. They pray to the lubari, who are either well-disposed genii, or dreaded demons, dwelling in the lakes, rivers, trees, rocks, and mountains. The kings "becojae demi gods, and continue to govern the people after death as they did when alive. Amulets of wood, stone, horn, and shreds of cloth are worn as protection against the evil genii. Islam, making great progress north and south of Uganda, seemed destined to prevail, but is checked by the fact that circumcision infringes the laws of the country, which, permitting mur der, forbids all mutilations. Protestant mis sions in Uganda were undertaken by the Church Missionary Society (England) immediately upon the publication of Stanley's letter describing his intercourse with Mtesa, and challenging Chris tendom to send missionaries to Uganda. That letter appeared in the Daily Telegraph (London) on November 15th, 1875. On June 30th, 1877, a company of missionaries reached Rnbaga, the capital of the kingdom. Roman Catholic mis sionaries arrived in 1879. In 1889 King Mwanga, who had been de posed, succeeded in re-establishing himself on the throne of this the greatest native kingdom throughout interior Africa. He. proclaimed himself a Christian, and distributed his chief posts among the Christians residing in his ter ritory. This year (1890) British influence has, by special treaty, been established in Uganda, and Lake Victoria Nyanza may erelong be con nected with Mombasa by railroad. After all its vicissitudes, the missionary work now seems well established, and its friends are hopeful of a great future. (See article Church Missionary Society.) Karaguoe, a dependency of Uganda, bounded on the west and north by the Tangure River, limited on the south by Uzinza, and having Victoria Nyanza on the east, covers about 6,000 square miles of evergreen hills and fertile val leys, interspersed with lakes like the Raver u, which Speke and Grant thought lovely enough to be called the African " Windermere." Hot springs in the northwest furnish a health re sort for the surrounding populations. The language is Zonyora, a Bantu dialect, and the people belong mostly to the Wanyambo stock. The country, except in' a few districts, is thinly populated ; Warahanje, the capital, at a height of 4,300 feet above the sea, overlooks Lake Win dermere. Ivory, coffee, and other native prod uce are given in exchange for woven goods, salt, and European wares. Masai-land. — In November, 1886, a conven tion was held at London to mark the respective " spheres of influence" of England and Ger many in East Africa. In this convention Masai- land fell to the portion of England. It is a mountainous region of undefined extent, lying between Zanzibar and Lake Victoria Nyanza, with Mount Kenia and the Tana Estuary in the north, while its southern boundary passes to the north of Mount Kilima-Njaro and Usambara, touching Victoria Nyanza at Kavirondoland. This territory covers an area of about 55,000 square miles, and has a population of perhaps 2,000,000. It is one of the most beautiful re gions of Central Africa, and has a vigorous and in some sections an industrious population. Traversing this region from southeast to north west is a great volcanic fissure, containing flooded depressions of salt and fresh water lakes, flanked on either side by elevated plateaus crowned by towering heights. Mount Kenia reaches a height of 18,400 feet above the sea ; at the southern terminus of the saline Dogilani steppe stands Mount Gelei, 14,000 feet high, and Mount Kilima-Njaro, where the continental ascent from the sea-coast at Mombasa reaches its crown, is the highest mountain in Africa. This mountain consists of a huge volcanic mass, 60 miles long by 50 wide, and rising in one of its peaks, lately ascended by a German expe dition under the direction of Dr. Meyer, to the height of 19,690 feet. The region stretching from the ocean to the fluvial basins of the Up per Tangani, Sabaki, and Tana has been com pared to a floor over which the running waters have traced variegated designs. This region is called Nyika, or Savage Land. Along the coast and toward the interior, where the Nyika plains are interrupted by highlands which intercept the moisture - bearing clouds, vegetation is abundant. Tropical vegetation and that of western Europe find their haunts in the diversified physical conditions of the country. The fierce and lawless Masai (Nuba-Fulah group) roam chiefly over the scrubby and arid plains, while the agricultural Bantu tribes occupy the more fertile regions. The Kisw-a- hili language is the general medium of inter course. The Imperial British East Africa Com pany, which represents the British authority in East Africa, has its principal port at Mombasa, which place, it is affirmed, will erelong rival Zanzibar in its commerce. Other islands also along the coast are being fortified and garri soned in order to control commerce and oppose the slave-trade. A railway is projected from Mombasa ultimately to reach Victoria Nyanza. The capital of the company is to be increased to $5,000,000. Early in September of 1889 it was announced in London that the Sultan of Zanzibar had conceded to this company the ad ministration of the island and port of Lamu, and the ports on the northern mainland — Kis- mayu, Brava, Magadisho, and Warshiekh — thus giving the company 700 miles of coast and the fine water-way of the Tana River. The Wa- sambara, who have been strongly influenced by their proximity to the coast people ; the Wavu- vu, powerful fetichmen in the Pangani basin ; the friendly Wataveta, southeast of Kilima- Njaro ; the Waschaga, skilled agriculturists, occupying the southern slopes of the Kilima- Njaro ; the Wanyika, superstitious but brave, forming a group of about a dozen tribes, and occupying the plains north of the Pangani River far into the interior ; the agricultural Pokomo, between Mombasa and the mouth of the Tana River ; the roving Wakamba, to the north and northwest of Kilima-Njaro ; the Wakwafi, mountaineers of the northwest, formerly dreaded, now largely settled and in dustrious, are (except the last) Bantu tribes who have hitherto carried on a bitter struggle for ascendancy with the Masai and Galla tribes. Missionary work was commenced in 1844, at Mombasa, by the Church Missionary Society. In 1883 a mission station was opened at Sagalla under the Ndara Hills, about 100 miles from the coast. Subsequently to Bishop Hannington's visit, in 1885, another station was established, this time at Moschi, on the southern slopes of AFRICA 13 AFRICA the Kilimanjaro. This society has stations also at Freretown, on the mainland opposite Mombasa, and at Kisulutini, 15 miles in land, where numbers of Wanyika have come under Christian instruction, and many have been baptized. The United Methodist Free Church Mission has stations at Jomvu and Ribe. Zanzibar. — In 18S8 the German East African Company acquired from the Sultan of Zanzibar a fifty years' lease of the coast, with rights to all duties and tolls, This concession, together with the results of the convention with England already referred to (see Masai-land), gives Ger many the protectorate of a region covering about 151,000 square miles, including an ap proximate population of 3,000,000. It is coter minous on the north with the British Protector ate of Masai-land, is bounded on the south by the Rovuma River and on the west by a line connecting the Victoria Nyanza and Lake Nyasa. The Germans commenced at once establishing stations, commercial and missionary, providing for the reclamation of this region — so far, how ever, with disastrous results. The tribes ot the interior have united with the Arabs and Swa- hilis to resist the German occupation. Stations established at Simaberg, in the heart of Usa- gara, 160 miles from the coast ; at Korogwe, in Usambara ; in the Khutu country, southeast of Usagara, and a station established about 100 miles up the river Wami, have nearly all been ruined. Other disasters have occurred, com merce being destroyed, the German Protestant Mission at Dar-es-Salaam and the German Roman Catholic Mission at Vugu dismantled, travel rendered perilous, and many massacres occasioned. At the present time (May, 1890) a war is waging between the German troops and the still turbulent natives. Success is attend ing the arms of the former, and it is hoped that the country will erelong be peaceably' pos sessed. The German East African Steamship Company, subsidized by the government, is to establish a line between Hambur» and Delagoa Bay. The steamers of a coast line are to call at the principal towns between Delagoa Bay and Mombasa. The densely peopled island of Zan zibar, about 20 miles trom the coast, is fertile and well cultivated, yielding seveial annual crops of corn and manioc, the staple food of the people. The seaboard (the Swahili coast) is a swampy and alluvial region, intersected by numerous streams. The climate is malarious, the rainfall abundant, and vegetation luxuriant. All the tropical plants and several European species flourish. Mountain ranges, toward which the coast region gently rises, separate this region from the plateaus which form the water-shed between the sources of the seaward rivers and of those of the Congo region. The region west of Usagara and Nguru, consisting of waterless plains, have a dry climate and are largely sterile. The first of these plains sepa rates the Usagara from the populous district of Ugogo. Beyond that district a second arid plain is crossed, and the water-shed, averaging from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, is reached. Hence flows the Shimuyu River northw.»id to the Victoria Nyanza, whence emerging it becomes the Nile. The Rufigi also rises here and flows eastward to the Indian Ocean, and streams which empty into Lake Tanganika, and thence find their way to the Congo, have their birth here. Unyanyembe (Kazeh or Taboro), in the midst of this dis trict, is an important trading centre, 550 miles from the coast. The principal inhabitants of the German Pro tectorate are : 1. The Waswahili (Arabic Sabil, coast), the. people of the coast and island of Zanzibar. They are of Bantu stock, and while inter mingled with immigrants from all the neigh boring regions, have a national unity sup plied by their profession of the Mohamme dan religion. The Arab element has enriched and extended their language, modified their usages, and developed their trading instincts. The Kiswahili has become the general medi um of intercourse with the tribes of the interior, and is spoken of as one of the 12 most impor tant languages of tbe world, with reference to- the vast area over which it is spoken. Besides the Bible and many religious treatises, it pos sesses already collections of proverbs, legends, poems, etc., and its literature is receiving con stant accessions. The Arabic alphabet is being replaced by the Roman. The Waswahili' have played an important part in rendering aid as interpreters, couriers, etc., to African explorers. 2. The Wasagara, inhabiting chiefly the Usagara highlands, which separate the coast regions from the interior plateaus, have, in some of their clans, become more or less civil ized through intercourse with explorers, while. other clans remain in unrelieved barbarism. Their language is widely extended. The pierced lower lobe of the ear, which sometimes hangs. down so as to touch the shoulder, serves to hold tobacco-pouches, instruments, etc., and is a mark of freedom. Slaves are forbidden to pierce or ornament the ears. 3. The Wazaramo are coterminous with the Waswahili on the west. Contact with the coast people has had a civilizing influence upoir some of the tribes, who wear the Arab dress and have discontinued 'many of the ferocious prac tices which still prevail among their kin in the remoter districts. They do not practise cir cumcision, though in many respects under Mo hammedan influence. Their possession of fire arms renders them formidable slave-hunters. Slave-hunting expeditions and feuds among the tribes serve to cut off some of the seaports from. all intercourse with the interior, except for the exportation of slaves ; but the establishment of German authority will result in controlling the. slave-trade, opening up routes of trade with all parts of the interior, and developing the rich mineral, agricultural, and commercial resources. of the country. Tlie missionary societies occu pying stations in the regions above described are : 1. The English Universities' Missions in Zan zibar, both island and mainland, with stations in the Usambara country and in the Rovuma district. 2. The Church Missionary Society, which has a station 180 miles inland, in the Unguru dis trict, while 40 miles farther, on the western borders of Usagara, is the important station of Mpwapwa, and in the district of Unyanyembe is the station of Uyui. 3. The Roman Catholic Missions, which have their headquarters at Bagamoyo. The Zambesi, in volume and the extent of its basin, is surpassed on the African Continent only by the Congo, the Nile, and the Niger During its course of about 1,200 miles it drains AFRICA 17 AFRICA an area of about 600,000 square miles. The eastern slope of the continent in this belt com mences near the Atlantic. The Kubango, which many explorers think sends a portion of its waters ultimately to the Zambesi, rises iu the Bihe region, about 250 miles eastward from the Atlantic coast. Three streams — the Lunge- bungo, the Leeambye, and the Leeba— rising in the Region immediately east of the Bihe and south of the tenth degree of south latitude, unite to form the Upper Zambesi, which was discovered by Livingstone, and which, after flowing south through Barotse, turns east, join ing the Chobe and passing over Victoria Falls. The Middle Zambesi continues northeast tow ard Zumbo (which is the farthest inland trad ing-post of the Portuguese) and, as the Lower Zambesi, curves southward to the Indian Ocean, which it enters through five mouths at about 18° south latitude. Its waters are derived chiefly from the northern plateaus lying be tween Lake Nyassa and Angola, aud which form the water-shed between Central and Southern Africa. Its chief tributaries are the Loangwa and the Shire, which latter drains Lake Nyassa. The couise of the river is interrupted by rapids and cataracts, offering serious obstruction to navigation. This area has a less copious rain fall, a less diversified vegetation, inferior nat ural resources, and is less populous than the Congo region. The Portuguese claim the whole region, and showed on maps a Portuguese Africa extending from the Indian Ocean to An gola. The claim was allowed by the Germans and French in 1886, but refused by England. The population is at present perhaps not more than 4,000,000 or 5,000,000, whereas the region might support 200,000,000. Devastating wars have depopulated it. The Portuguese authority centres in Mozambique (island and town) and the capital of a region of the same name extend ing along the coast from Cape Delgado, on the Rovuma, to Lorenzo-Marques, on the south side of Delagoa Bay. This strip of territory is about 1,200 miles in length, with indefinite boundaries toward the interior. Commencing in 1505, a few settlements and military posts have been established along the coast and on the Zambesi as far as Zumbo, out side of which posts the Portuguese authority is but feebly felt. Little has been done until recently to explore the country and develop its resources. The slave trade was almost the only traffic carried on, and the beaten tracks were jealouslv guarded by the dealers. The climate is subject to sudden changes, but the mean annual temperature is high, and, with moderate care, danger to health is avoided. The whole region is intersected by numerous rivers and is very fertile, but the tsetse fly is in some dis tricts very destructive.* Valuable timbers are found in the forests. The mineral resources (gold, copper, iron, and coal) are of exceptional importance. The Chinde River, 4J> miles south of Quaqua, it is now said, proyes to be a mouth * The tsetse fly (Glossina morsitane) ie found in certain sharply defined belts, usually in the neighborhood of water. Id the eastern borders of the Transvaal, far to the south of Delagoa Bay, in the Lobombo Mountains and Tongaland, and throughout the course of the Limpopo it is very de structive. It seems to follow the larger game northward, but it is not known how far to the north it is found. The "fly-belts" are well known to the natives. The fly is about the size of the common house-fly. Its bite is said to be fatal to the horse, ox, and dog, but is innocuous to man. No cure is known for it, aud death supervenes after days or, it may be, weeks of gradual deterioration. of the Zambesi, and furnishes a channel three fathoms deep and 500 yards wide, and good an chorage. An ordinary steamer can thus pass directly into the river and on to Lake Nyassa. Hitherto goods, after several days' journey up the Quaqua, had to be carried 8 miles over a swampy depression to the Zambesi, where they were transferred to the small Zambesi steamers. We will refer in order to the various districts of this region— viz., the dominion of the Ma- quas, Nyassaland, Barotse, Lake Nyanza, Mate- beleland, Gazaland, and Delagoa Bay. The Maquas are the dominant people north of the Zambesi, their domain stretching to the Naniuli Highlands and the sources of the Lu- jenda. They are governed by petty despots. The tribes are frequently at war with each other, and large sections of fertile country are almost completely depopulated. The Mawas (a Maqua tribe) still eat human flesh. Spirit wor ship is universal. Nyassaland. — Lake Nyassa is about 360 miles long, varying from 14 to 60 wide, and covers an area of 12,000 square miles. It, like the Tanganyika, is formed by a fissure in the earth's surface. Furious gales sweep over it, render ing care in navigation necessary. It is drained by the Shire River, which sweeps over the Murchison Falls, where navigation from the lake is arrested. By means of the lately discov ered channel afforded by the- Chinde River, navigation between Murchison Falls and the ocean is uninterrupted. The lake is nearly surrounded by mountains. The northern range is called the Livingstone. The most northerly Portuguese station is Shirongi, on the Shire. The densest population is found at Karonga, on the northwestern shore of the lake. This region is unhealthy in the rainy season, during which the missionaries resort to Momhera, in. the upper part of the valley. Kota Kota, on the west coast, 120 miles from the southern ex tremity, is the great centre of trade, and was a, great market for slaves. Kiswahili is the domi nant tongue. Ninety miles south of Nyassa, in the Shire upland, is Blantyre, founded in 1876 by Scotch missionaries, and named after Liv ingstone's birthplace. Its elevation above the sea level is 3,400 feet. Blantyre is connected with the network of routes between Zambesi and Tanganyika. Mandala, near Blantyre, 'is the central station of the African Lakes Society, whose purpose is to establish factories, carry on traffic, and develop enterprise on Christian principles. Lake Shirwa, east of the Shire River and near the head waters of the Lujenda, was discovered by Livingstone in 1859. It has an area of 720 square miles. The original in habitants of the Rovuma basin have been al most exterminated within recent periods by the Magwangwara, who dwell to the north of the Rovuma, along the northeast shores of the Nyassa, and by the Wanindi.of the eastern shores. From this source many thousands of slaves have been procured for the coast traffic. These conquerors adopted the garb and usages of the Zulu-Kafirs. The reports of the missionaries at the different stations of this region tell at the present time (1890) of the pitiless ravages of the Arab slave-traders, who are making desper ate efforts to secure their traffic against all the civilizing influences now making themselves felt in Africa. These districts, occupied by the African Lakes Trading Company and by mis sionaries of the Established and Free Churches AFRICA 18 AFRICA of Scotland and of the Universities Mission of England, naturally deprecate the establishment of Portuguese authority over the country, and prefer to recognize the British ascendancy. The Barotse occupy the valley of the Up per Zambesi, a vast and populous plain, 189 miles long by 30 to 35 broad, subject to period ical inundations and resultant fevers. The Barots6 Empire was founded by a Basuto con queror. The Barotse succeeded in throwing off the foreign yoke, but the kingdom was main tained. It was described as including, in 1875, 18 large nations subdivided into over 100 tribes. Each tribe speaks its own dialect, but Lesuto, the tongue of the exterminated Basuto (Mako- lolo) conquerors, is the common medium of communication. The region occupied by tribes subject to the Barotse kingdom covers an area of about 100,000 square miles, with a popula tion of perhaps 1,000,000. Europeans are barely tolerated in the country. Grain, vegetables, and cattle abound. The villages are built on artificial mounds for protection against the in undations of the Zambesi. The people worship the sun and the new moon, and observe feasts at the graves of their ancestors. The missions of the French Protestants have been very suc cessful among the Barotse, and late reports speak of a great part of the Barotse tribes ac cepting Christianity. Lake Ngami (about 3,000 feet above the sea level) is the centre of a district lying be tween Matebeleland and Damara. Many parts of this district are sufficiently watered to sup port a luxuriant forest growth, while elsewhere only thorny plants, scrub, and dreary wastes of sand are visible. From May to July, the rainy season, the country is largely changed into a system of swampy fens and lagoons. The na tive tribes are the Bayeye, said to number about 200,000 souls, arid though very supersti tious, are yet spoken of as peaceful, hoDest, and industrious ;" and the Balunda (akin to those of the Congo basin), whose forests furnish most of the beeswax exported from Loanda and Ben- guela. On the eastern shores of Lake Ngami is a sta tion of the London Missionary Society. Matebeleland lies between the Middle Zam besi and the Limpopo. The authority of its ruler (Lobengula) extends west from the bor ders of Umzila's kingdom to Lake Ngami, over a population variously estimated at from 200,000 souls to six times that number. It forms a part of the lately projected British Zambesi. ln December, 1889, the British Government granted a charter to the British South Afri can Company, whose sphere of operations extends over the whole region north of Be- chuanaland to the Zambesi, covering an area of about 400,000 square miles, 3 times the size of Great Britain. This company is authorized to abolish slavery and to regulate the traffic in intoxicating drinks. The territory covered by this charter has great deposits oi: gold. The vast tableland of the north and northeast has an elevation of about 5,000 feet, and is welt watered, with a rich soil and fine climate. The Matebele, so called from an immense shield behind which they were " hidden " in war, were originally a band of Zulu warriors, whose ranks were recruited from the lands they con quered. They are very fierce, daring, and proud. The present king (1890) is tyraunical and obstinately heathen, and there is great un rest among his people on account of the gather ing of gold-seekers upon the frontiers. This state cf affairs induced the king to send a dele gation to Queen Victoria, asking aid against in truders. But, notwithstanding Lobengula's apparently friendly attitude, fears are enter tained that the English South African Company will be compelled to engage in a protracted struggle in order to secure from the king his promised concessions. The Makalaka and Mashono were the former masters of the land. The former were nearly exterminated, the latter form the substratum of the northern popula tion, and are very industrious. Of the subject races who still, on account of their distance from the royal residence, are, to some degree, politically independent, are the Banyai, dis tinguished by their physical strength, light complexion, cleanly habits, aDd by the respect paid to women. The London Missionary So ciety established stations at lmyati and Hope Fountain in 1860. Gazaland extends from the Zambesi to the Limpopo, and from the sea to Matebeleland. It is sometimes called Umzila's kingdom, and is now (1890) ruled by his son Gungunyanu. It covers about 112,000 square miles, and has 500,000 of a population. Extensive plains slope from the coast to the inland plateaus. The coast regions suffer from lack of rain, but the inland region is well watered and fertile. The country is capable of sustaining » vast population, and has rich mineral deposits. Changes of temperature are often very sudden. The fauna is diversified. The tsetse fly and a species of termite are in some districts very de structive. The king has quite recently become a vassal of the Portuguese Government. He has been hitherto profoundly jealous of the presence of Europeans, and under the influence of Portuguese agents, refused (in July, 1889) to allow Protestant missioDaries to establish a mis sion among the people. In the southern part of this region the only town on the coast hitherto occupied by the Portuguese as a sta tion is called Inhambane. It is a centre of the Moslem Propaganda, and was, in 1883, chosen by American missionaries as a base of opera tions for their projected work in the country. The Tongas (a name applied in a collective sense to the tribes originally inhabiting the land, and who were conquered by the northern Zulus, or Landins, under Umzila) are a peace ful and industrious people. Their language has lately been reduced to writing, and a hymn- book and the whole New Testament have been translated. The publication of the latter was completed on March 1st, 18S9. The Zulu lan guage is spoken by a great majority of the peo ple, and it seems to be the policy of the king to enforce the teaching of that language through out his dominion. There are two other exten sively spoken languages— the Isisena,- spoken from the Sabi to the Buzi ; the Isinhlwenga, south of the Sabi. North of the Buzi the Sena language is spoken by a people who only occa sionally use the Zulu. The missionaries of the American Board have stations at Inhambane and at one or two other points farther inland. The Roman Catholics, under Portuguese pro tection, have stations on the coast and in the interior. Delagoa Bay, a Portuguese possession south of the Limpopo, is the capital of a region of unreclaimed primeval forest. Its area is AFRICA 19 AFRICA about 15,000 square miles, and its population 80,000. A very fine harbor, it must acquire great importance as the natural outlet of the Limpopo basin and of the States on the South African plateaus. The English claimed posses sion of it, but their claim, referred to arbitra tion, was disallowed in 1875 by President McMjthon. Lorenzo Marques, the principal town of the district, is very insalubrious during the hot season, but the island of Inyak is used by the natives as a kind of sanitarium. A rail road has been opened from Lorenzo Marques, which already extends inland » distance of 54 miles, crossing the Transvaal border. Transvaal, or South African Republic, an auton omous State, though accepting the nominal suzerainty of Great Britain. Its boundaries were precisely defined in 1884. On the north and northwest the Limpopo separates it from Matebeleland. It is separated from Orange Free State and Natal, on the south, by the Vaal and the Buffalo, and on the east, from Gazaland and Zululand, by the Lubombo range. Its western boundary is formed by the Marico and the Hart, and an irregular line between these streams, separating it from Bechuanaland. It lies about 50 miles from the ocean at Delagoa Bay, has a mean altitude of over 3,000 feet, and covers about 116,000 square miles, sustaining a population variously set down at from 360,000 to 800,000. The upland regions drained by the Vaal River (Hooge Veld), from 4,000 to 7,000 feet high, includes most of the richest mineral districts, and has a healthful climate. The eastern terrace lands (Banken Veld) include Swaziland and the Upper Maputa Valley. These lands are low-lying, some being not more than 2,000 feet high. Bosch Veld, the inner plateaus, 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, is largely steppe land, and suitable for grazing. On the whole, the climate is invigorating. Along the river valleys and in the low-lying districts fever is endemic. The rainfall is unequally distributed. Its min eral resources are abundant and the land fertile. The settlers have chiefly busied themselves with stock raising, though the tsetse fly proves very destructive in the river tracts and terrace lands. A tsetse belt 40 miles wide along the Lim popo bars the progress of settlement in that direction. British settlers, attracted by mining interests, are increasing in numbers. The Boers (peas ants), nearly 50,000 in number, are the descend ants of Dutch, French, and German immigrants to the Cape. They call themselves Africanders, and mostly still profess the religion of their an cestors. They are thrifty, methodical, and per severing, not lacking in strength and courage, but inferior in culture to the other wdiites. They have had but little regard to the rights and moral demands of the native races. The aborigines number about 350,000. In the southern districts they have entirely lost their tribal organization. Those in the west, north, and northeast still retain it. They be long mainly to the Basuto and Bechuana branches of the Bantu family, and thus are allied in speech and physique to the Zulu- Kafirs. All political rights are reserved to themselves by the whites. The old masters are only toler ated, and are not allowed the right of suffrage. Officers of government (Volksraad) must be Protestants and land-owners, and at least 15 years resident in the country. Dutch is the official language. In Transvaal the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Berlin Evan gelical Lutheran, Wesleyan Methodist, Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, Swiss Canton De Vaud, Hermansburg Society, and Dutch Reformed Church have prosperous missions. Orange Free State is the smaller of the South African Boer States. Its western boundary is Griqualand West ; its southern is Cape Colony ; its eastern, Basutoland and Natal, and its northern, the Transvaal. It has an area of about 42,000 square miles and a population of 60,000 whites and 72,500 natives. It has but little arable land, except in the eastern part, near the foot of the hills. The pasture lands form the chief source of wealth. The British restored its autonomy to the State in 1854, on condition of a pledge that slavery be not rein troduced. Dutch is the official language, but English is making rapid headway, and repre sents the culture of the country. The Society for the Propagation of the Gos pel, the Wesleyan Missionary Society, and the Berlin Mission occupy the field. Tongaland, occupying the low-lying coast lands between Delagoa Bay and Zululand, and including the large lagoon called Lake St. Lucia, has a malarious climate. The people are peaceful agriculturists. The country, in 1888, came under British protection. The population amounts to 30,000, and the area is 7,000 square miles. Swaziland lies farther inland, beyond the Lu bombo range, and between the Transvaal pla teaus and Delagoa Bay. Its area is 2,500 square miles, and its population, 80,000. The people enjoy a semi-independence under a native ruler. Their chief is one of the wealthiest per sons in South Africa, on account of the tolls paid him by the numerous companies which work the gold-mines in his territory. In 1888 there were 42 English companies for developing the mines in Swaziland, Matebeleland, Mashona- land, and Transvaal. In 1889 there were 100 such companies investing millions of capital in these enterprises. Briiish Zululand, covering 8,500 square miles, and having a population of 120,000 inhabitants, is a province of Natal. The country is undu lating. The hills are clad in green, and the precipices and ravines are well wooded. The chief wealth of the people consists in their cat tle. (See article on Bantu Race.) Natal is a crown colony of Great Britain. Its population is 488,000, and it covers an area of 21,750 square miles, with a coast line of 150 miles. The Drackenburg Mountains, from 9,000 to 10,000 feet high, separate it from Basu toland and the Orange Free State and Trans vaal. It is separated from Zululand on the northeast by the Tugela River, Pietermaritz- burg, one of the most delightful cities in Africa, is the capital. Durban, the only port, is 1,000 miles from Cape Town. The climate is delight ful and invigorating. The temperature ranges from 56° to 82 Fahr. The coast region is semi-tropical, and produces the sugar-cane, pine apple, banana, and coffee. Wool, corn, and sugar are the staple products. In the northern districts magnificent coal deposits are found. All the European cereals are cultivated. About 90,000 acres are cultivated by Europeans, who own, however, 9,000,000 acres. The reserves secured to the Zulus are 2,000,000 of acres. Hippopotami, monkeys, baboons, and croco- AFRICA 20 AFRICA diles are to be seen. Antelopes abound. There are many poisonous snakes. The population consists of 37,000 whites (English, Dutch, and Germans), 400,000 Zulus, and 31,000 Asiatic Coolies. There are high-schools in Durban and Marits- burg ; primary schools are found in the other large towns. Mission and private schools re ceive government aid. The Zulus are a branch of the Bantu race. They are usually tall and well formed, fierce and proud. The Kraal, or village, consists of a circular series of huts, with the cattle-pen in the centre. The huts are about 15 feet in diameter and 7 feet high, with a single opening which serves for door, win dow, and chiinney. The furniture consists of a few mats, pots, and blankets. The usual clothing of the wild natives is a scanty cover ing of skins worn about the loins. Beads and lions' teeth and claws are worn as ornaments. The men hunt and fight ; the women do the menial work. Their chief faith is in witchcraft, demons, and ancestral spirits. By nature a conquering and superior race, they extended their conquests far and wide throughout South Africa. In their language the word " Abantu" denotes " people." The Bantu languages are highly spoken of for their beauty and flexi bility, and their grammatical structure. They occupy about one half of Africa, extending from near the Niger Delta, and from Lake Albert Nyanza to the southeastern extremity of the continent. Its various branches bear a close resemblance to one another. The use of the Zulu dialect extends beyond the river Zambesi. It is the language of the ruling classes in Mate beleland and Gazaland. Natal may be called civilized, though there are sections where the old heathenism may still be seen. The English Wesleyan Mission, the Free Church of Scotland Mission, the Norwegian Mission, the Berlin Mission, the Hermannsburg Society, the S. P. G. Mission, the A. B. C. F. M. Mission, and the Roman Catholic Mission are each and all doing a good work in Natal. The A. B. C. F. M. Mission began in 1835, and was the first among the Zulus, who were then a savage people, with a language as yet unwritten and unknown. The translation of the Scriptures into Zulu was com pleted in 1883. (See Zulu version.) Cape Colony is bounded on the west and south by the Atlantic and Indian Ocean ; the Orange River, on the north, separates it from Namaqua- land, the Kalahari Desert, and Orange Free State. On the east it is separated from Free Kafirland by the Smit's River, the Storm -Berg, and the Great Kei. Area, including Transkei, East Griqualand, and Tembuland, 333,000 square miles; population, 1,252,347, of which the whites form one third. A mountain range, in general parallel with the coast, dividing the drainage of the streams flowing into the Orange River from that of the coastal streams, is reached from the ocean, about 100 miles dis tant, by a series of terraces. North of the range the country slopes gradually toward the Orange River. About two thirds of the colony consists of arid plains (called Karroos) present ing many depressions, containing rich soil, which only requires irrigation to make it productive. Included in the south temperate zone, the climate presents many varieties, but in its gen eral character is mild and very salubrious ; epi demics seldom prevail. The rainfall is un equally distributed. The basin of the Lower Orange and Great Karroo plain and the Kala hari Desert receives occasional torrential down pours, but springs are rare. The cattle of the Bechuana herdsman, of necessity, drink little, and are watered only once in two or three days. Wells are sunk and a system of irrigation re sorted to. The flora is the richest in the world. Vineyards produce abundantly ; cereals give a fair return. The forests are confined to the margins of the colony ; one third of the popu lation is said to engage in stock breeding. There are about 10,000,000 sheep in the coun try. Cape Colony has a virtual monopoly of ostrich farming, though that industry is not so prosperous as formerly. Manufactures are rapidly increasing. The mining industry is de veloping. Copper, coal, salt, and guano abound ; in Griqualand West are found rich diamond fields. Carriage roads and railway lines inter sect the country. A railway is projected from the Cape 2,000 miles to the Zambesi. The wild animals have been largely driven north beyond" the boundaries of the colony. The constitution is modelled after that of Great Britain. The right of suffrage is enjoyed only by British sub jects who are property owners or have a stated income. The immense majority of the aborig ines are disfranchised by these and other pro visions. State churches were disendowed in 1S75. The Dutch Reformed and Episcopalian (S. P. G.) communions are the largest amoDg the white communities. The Wesleyan Meth odists are the most prosperous among the na tives. The Malays are Moslem. There are large facilities for public instruction, but schools for aborigines are still chiefly in charge of mis sionary societies. Twenty-five English and five Dutch newspapers are published in the colony. Races. — The Malays were introduced by the Dutch as slaves, and are found chiefly in the seaports. The Griquas are half-castes, active, vigorous, enterprising and courageous, and supe rior to the aborigines in strength and stature, and number among them some of the best and some of the most desperate characters. Bush men inhabit the western section of Cape Colony. The name, derived from a characteristic of the country — low growth forests of underbrush — has acquired a contemptuous meaning. They are remnants of the San races, are diminutive in stature, and have light yellowish-brown com plexions, and are perhaps related to the Hotten tots. They have made but little progress in civilization, and have no tribal organization. Scattered in various districts, they number per haps 50,000 in South Africa. Hottentots, a term of contempt borne by a people who call themselves Kho'in-Khoin (men of men), are numerous in the western part of Cape Colony, amounting to about 100,000. They resemble the Bushmen, except in stature and degree of culture. They occupy kraals, wear leather aprons and a sheep-skin cloak. Charms, amu lets, and fetiches exist among them, and are connected for the most part with the worship of tbe dead. Tribal organization is preserved only among those beyond the boundaries of the European possessions. Bechuanaland. — 190,000 square miles, 475 000 population ; a portion annexed to Cape Colony the remainder a British Protectorate. The Bechuanas are physically one of the finest mem bers of the southern Bantu family, the feeble and sickly being gotten rid of. Circumcision is universal ; young men and women are subjected SOUTH AFRICA SCALE OF MILES 10 0 -IU 2U 30 40 ' j0 t>0 Missionary Stations are shown bijasolid dot (•). COLOR REFERENCE. English |_ J German \ Kh X Portuguese \ | Railroads Submarine Cables n AFRICA 21 AFRICA to severe physical tests ere declared " men" and "women." There are no gods, idols, or gatherings for public worship among them, but sacrifices are offered to obtain rain and ward off evil. The dead are buried with the face due north, whence came their ancestors. The tribal king is not absolute. Secondary chiefs and free men may, on great occasions, constitute themlelves a parliament. Missionary work, having secured a footing in all the principal villages, has effected great changes. The border tribes have adopted the European costumes, built houses in European style, observe Sunday, etc. The people are imitative, and have a quick intelligence. The highway to Orange from Zambesi has many well-known stations and market-places. The northern division of the British Protec torate west of Limpopo is occupied by the Ba- mangwato nation, one of the most powerful na tive States in South Africa. The capital was Shoshong. Its chief is Khame (1890), a Chris tian, and one of the most remarkable leaders in South Africa. He has lately removed to Cwa- pong, where water is abundant. The nation has largely adopted the Christian faith. Throughout their territory the sale of alcoholic drinks and the brewing of beer are forbidden. The Basilika people dwell east of Shoshong and near Limpopo. They have never been sub jugated, chiefly because of the tsetse zone which surrounds the bluff on which is perched their central stronghold. The Bakalahari tribes (Bechuana of the Desert) were slaves, but, thanks to the British Protectorate, are now recognized as free men. The Basuto, once coterminous with their Bechuana brethren, now completely hemmed in by Cape Colony, Transvaal, and Natal, have adapted themselves quite remarkably to their environment. They are nearly all Christians, and are a vigorous, alert, and prosperous peo ple, numbering 180,000. Area of their country, 10,300 square miles. About one sixth of the whole people have been educated under the missionaries. Agriculture and pasturage of flocks furnish their wealth. The Paris Evan gelical Mission has had great success among this people. Kafirland, lying between Cape Colony and Natal, called also Transkei, since 1887 has been directly administered by British authorities. It is said to be the most salubrious, fertile, and picturesque region in South Africa. Area, 16,000 square miles ; population. 500,000. Kafirs are foremost among the Bantu for beauty of physique and quality of intellect. Their customs were similar originally to those of their Bechuana relations, but now greatly modified by European contact. The Bantu of the English and Dutch posses sions in South Africa are designated by the gen eral name of Kafir, an Arabic word meaning " unbeliever," and given by the Portuguese. That name is now restricted to the tribes in habiting between Cape Colony and Natal. The tribes to the north of Natal, and extending to the Portuguese possessions, related to the Kafirs, are called Zulus or Zulu-Kafirs. The Basuto or Bechuana are of the same stock. They differ very much in habits, political com plexion, and degree of civilization, but their various dialects belong to the same family, and partake of its interesting characteristics. Missionary work has been vigorously pursued since 1736, when the Moravian Brethren com menced among the Hottentots of Cape Colony. The missionaries have reduced various dialects to writing, and have given not only the Bible, but many other books, to the native peoples. There are about 200,000 native Christians in Cape Colony now. The Society for the Propa gation of the Gospel, the London Missionary Society, the Free Church of Scotland, the United Presbyterian Church, in Kafirland ; the Rhenish Society, the Berlin Society, the Her- mannsburg Society, in Bechuanaland ; the Dutch Reformed, the Moravian, the Primitive Methodist, the Colonial and Continental, the Roman Catholic, and the Paris Evangelical Society, among the Basuto, represent the Church of Christ in Cape Colony and its de pendencies. The London Missionary Society was repre sented by Moffat in 1818 and by Livingstone in 1853 and subsequent years. Great Ninnuqua and Damura Lands, in 1884, were constituted into a German dependency under the designation of Southwest Africa. They occupy about 900 miles of tbe Atlantic coast, stretching from Orange River northward to the mouth of the Cunene, and penetrating into the interior as far as the twentieth degree east longitude. (Little Namaqualand, lying south of Orange River, was incorporated with Cape Colony in 1865.) They form a territory about as great in extent as the whole German Empire, 360,000 square miles ; population, 236,000. The' cliffs stretch with greater or less regularity parallel to the coast, and at an aver age distance inland of about 120 miles. From the coast to this ridge the land is terraced. The land west of this ridge passes through deep de pressions off into the Kalahari Desert and the Kubango basin. The rainfall is very slight, and much of the coast is a sandy waste, though on the uplands much pasturage is afforded, and in the northern districts are vast fertile plains. Rich copper ores have been found in many of the plateaus. The population is very sparse, especially in the south, where droughts and famines have well-nigh depopulated the coun try. Hottentots occupy about three fourths of the land, and constitute about one fifth of the population. To the north aie the Bantu tribes, Hereros and Ovambos, described as robust, in telligent, and industrious, but still in the pas toral stage. The Germans have not as yet made much impression upon the country. Mission aries have great influence. Their work com menced in 1842, and they have over 20 stations in the territory. The Finnish Lutheran Society, the Rhenish Society, and the English Wesleyan Mission work in this field. Walfisch Bay, lying nearly midway between the north and south boundaries of this region, is British territory, forming about 700 square miles of an enclave. It is the only outlet at present of the whole region. The Namaqua (Hottentots) of Walfisch Bay are said to be the most debased of their tribes. Angola, an appellation variously employed to designate portions of the west coast of Africa, is properly applied to the Portuguese posses sions extending from the Cunene north to the Congo, a total distance of over 720 miles, ex tending eastward to the Kubango and Kwango rivers. Area, 312,000 square miles ; popula tion, about 2,000,000. That characteristic feat ure of the African coast, the line of cliffs ap- AFRICA 22 AFRICA proached by terraces, is continued northward through Angola. The country is well watered, especially in the north. In the south the rain fall is less, and many of the streams dry up. The Cuanza Valley forms the Atlantic section of the transcontinental depression continued by the basin of the Zambesi to the Indian Ocean. Great diversity of climate is experi enced in such a length of coast line. There are also extreme local variations, due to accidental conditions. Vegetation becomes more abun dant as you pass from south to north. The ele phant and lion have become scarce. Panthers and hyenas are numerous. Zebras and ante lopes occur in the south. Insects are rare, but the rivers are well stocked with fish. Caoutchouc, orchilla moss (used in dyeing), gum copal, palm, acacia, baobab, etc., are chief sources of wealth. Manioc, maize, millet, sorgo, and European fruits and vegetables are cultivated. The country is also rich in min erals. Inhabitants : The population of Angola is affected by the northward movement of Boers, also by immigration from Brazil, and by the in termingling of Portuguese with the natives. But north of Mossamedes acclimatization for Europeans is a difficult and dangerous process. There are only about 4,000 of European descent in Angola. Preto is the name given to the negroes who have been brought into direct contact with Eu ropean civilization, and who are found chiefly in the coast tow-ns aud their vicinity, and on the lines of travel and trade. Among them are found many well-informed people, merchants, and colonial officials. The tribes south of Benguela are supposed to belong to the primitive race, Bushmen or Hottentots, and partake of their general char acteristics. The Ganguelas occupy the Upper Kubango basin. A great variety of social condition is found in studying the different tribes. They are represented as savage, but intelligent and enterprising. In some tribes trial by ordeal of the poisoned cup is practised. Their head dress is wonderful, surpassing that of most African peoples ; their dress scanty. A-Bunda. — The Bunda speech is one of the most widely diffused in Africa, propagated evi dently by means of their trade relations with the interior tribes. It has two dialects. Northern or Angolan — north of Cuanza — and Southern spoken in the regions between Ben guela and the Bihe territory. Those near the coast and trade centres are strongly affected by European contact, but those in the upland vil lages are still savage. They are intelligent, ex cellent traders, and make good artisans. On the Congo is found the Bafyote or Ba- congo group. They were the founders of the ancient kingdom of Congo. That kingdom still exists, though weak, as most the tribes have seceded. Catholic influence was once appar ently great, but evidently superficial. Fetich ism is rampant, nearly every natural object be ing a fetich. The Baiuba magicians have won derful skill. The principal centres of trade and general influence are San Salvador, capital of the old Congo kingdom, and the centre of a flourishing Baptist mission ; Ambriz ; Loando, the capital and largest city for 3,000 miles on the West African seaboard ; Dondo, at the head of navi gation of the Cuanza, which it is proposed to connect with the Cazengo region in the Lucala Valley (great coffee district) by railway ; Pamba, in the Ambaca district, chosen as the terminus of the projected railway from Loando, and Bihe, the terminus of the southern trade route, 300 miles long, starting from Benguela (Bihe is properly the name of the extremely fertile pla teaus about 5,000 feet above the sea level occu pied by rude and wholly uncivilized but shrewd people of mixed origin. It is the headquarters of a mission of the A. B. C. F. M) ; Benguela, charmingly situated on the coast ; Mossamedes, a well-sheltered port on the desolate coast, but finding great wealth in the waters (a railroad is projected to connect Mossamedes and Bihe) ; Caconda, on a plateau 5,400 feet above the sea, in a rich country, and with a salubrious cli mate ; Humpata, on the well-cultivated plains, and the principal Boer station. Apart from Roman Catholic missions under Portuguese protection are Bishop Taylor's in dependent missions in the northern section, the English Baptist Mission, and the A. B. C. F. M. Mission. Tlie Congo Basin. — The Chambezi, the head stream of the Congo River, rising in the plateau south of Lake Tanganyika, between 10° and 12° south latitude, flows southwest and enters Lake Bangweolo, whence, flowing northward through Lake Mweru and receiving the outflow of Lake Tanganyika, it continues in a northwesterly direction as the Lualaba, until, tumbling over numerous cataracts, it crosses the Equator, and, making a long detour, turns to the southwest, recrosses the Equator, passes through the cata racts of Vellala, and enters the Atlantic about the sixth degree south latitude, thus forming a vast semicircle with a periphery of 2,900 miles and a diameter of 2,000. This stream is in volume the most remarka ble in the Eastern Hemisphere. With its afflu ents it drains an area of about 1 630,000 square miles. Its head waters are found in the eastern table-lands (5,000 to 7,000 feet high) about 400 miles from the shores of the Indian Ocean, whence separate the waters of Central Africa, to reach the Mediterranean through the Nile, the Indian Ocean through the Zambesi and other eastward flowing streams, and the At lantic by means of the Congo. Besides the waters of Lake Bangweolo (a shallow lake cover ing 8,400 square miles, with marshy, reed- grown, partially submerged banks), of Lake Mweru (90 mites from southwest to northeast, and separated from Tanganyika by an isthmus 90 miles broad, reached from Lake Bangweolo over dangerous rapids representing a total fall of 1,500 feet, bounded on the south by marshy plains, and confined on the north by lofty cliffs and wooded slopes), of Lake Tanganyika (a deep fissure 380 miles long and 30 wide), and the Kamolondo (a great stream from the south west, which, in its course, like the Lualaba, drains a series of lakes), the main known afflu ents of the Congo are the Luama, the Lufu, and Kankora (between which streams occur the seven cataracts called collectively Stanley Falls), the Lubilash, Lulami, and Konango, with its numerous confluents from the southj and the Aruwimi, Loika, and Mongala from the north ; from the east Lulongo, Ikalemba, Ruki, the mighty Ubanghi, the Liqualla, and Alima. Stanley Pool, 180 square miles in ex tent, is situated between 4° and 5° south lati tude. A little below this Pool commences the. AFRICA 23 AFRICA long line (165 miles) of rapids and cascades called collectively Livingstone Falls, which completely check navigation. Between Stanley Falls and Livingstone Falls the main stream presents an open water-way of about 1,000 miles, to which may be added 4,000 miles of navigable confluent streams, while in its upper and lower courses 500 miles more of navigable waters may be estifftiated. Already 17 steamers, two of them belonging to the Baptist Mission, ply upon the Upper Congo, and 9 more on the Lower Congo. In places the immense volume of water flows through gorges measuring irom 750 to 1,500 feet wide, while elsewhere it expands to the width of fully 10 miles ; and where it enters the sea it is 7 miles wide. A railway line from Matadi to Stanley Pool is to connect the Upper Congo region with the Lower, and in connection with it a steamer of over 1,000 tons is to run between Banana and Matadi. In many places prosper ous settlements are forming, where agricultural products are already found in abundance. The chief stations in the Congo basin are Boma, the principal depot and seat of govern ment of the Congo Free State ; Vivi, at the farthest point of navigation of the Lower Congo, and 115 miles from the coast ; Isanghila, con nected by a road 52 miles long with Vivi, where is a depot for boat service between this point and Manyanga (73 mites), near which is Lutete, a missionary station ; Leopoldville, 135 miles from Manyanga, connected by a roadway (from this point there are nearly 1,000 miles of unin terrupted navigation to Stanley Falls) ; Kim- popo, on a torrent flowing to the eastern ex tremity of Stanley Pool ; Luluaburg, among the head waters of the Kassai ; Chumbiri, among the palm groves ; Bolobo and Lukolela, near the Alima confluence ; about 50 miles farther on, Busindi and Ireim, in an agricul tural district ; Bakute, tbe Equator station, and most happily selected ; Bangala, about 130 miles above Bakute, centre of a large and warlike tribe ; Upoto, 200 miles farther on, among sav age and naked tribes ; Stanley Falls, the ad vanced post of Tipoo Tib, and about 1,500 miles from either ocean. At some of these stations there are prosperous settlements, with planta tions and flocks. The sovereign of the Congo Free State is King Leopold of Belgium, whose authority extends over about one half the fluvial basin, or 780,000 square miles of territory ; but the whole region drained by the Congo and its tributaries falls within the zone of operation of the international free-trade provisions adopted in a conference at Berlin in 1884 by representatives of Belgium, Germany, England, France, Spain, Italy, United States, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. (See also article Congo Free State.) Of this region Germany claims the portion west of Tanganyika ; France possesses that part of the basin lying between the Upper Ubangi and Manyanga, while the northern boundary of the Portuguese Angola follows the river from its mouth to Yellala Falls, thence directly east to the Kwango. Portugal possesses also a dis trict north of the Congo described in connection with the Kwilu, Ogoway, and Gaboon basins. The number of inhabitants is estimated at more than 29,000,000. The climate, though trying to Europeans, does not present great extremes of temperature, seldom rising above 90° Fahr, or falling lower than 53°. There are two rainy seasons, October to December and February to May. The rainfall diminishes rapidly south of the Congo, but increases from the east toward the interior. Vegetation, in the abundantly watered plains, is exuberant. The principal ex ports are ivory, palm nuts, palm oil, caoutchouc, coffee, wax, skins, etc. The inhabitants, with few exceptions, are united by a common Bantu speech, though the various, tribes differ greatly both in appearance, habits, and dialect. The plateau south of Lake Tanganyika is inhabited chiefly by the Bemba nation. The Babemba are said to be one of the finest of the Bantu peoples. They are skilful craftsmen, wear skins and bast, and cover themselves with ele gant tattoo designs. Their rulers are capricious and pitiless. Grinning skulls stuck on poles warn the traveller that a village is near. In the islands and morasses of Bangweolo and the neighboring uplands is a group of petty re publican States which have succeeded in main taining their independence against the Bemba. people. Between Lakes Bangweolo and Mweru is Kazembe's kingdom, once a powerful State, now subject to the Babemba. The most power ful State in the Upper Congo region at present is that of Moshide or Msiri, a chief of the Nyamezi race. The country is called Garen- ganze. It lies west of the Lufira River, is pic turesque and salubrious. The king is strict, but not cruel. Corn is raised in abundance. Mu- kurru, the capital, is 100 miles west of Lake Bangweolo. To the north of Garenganze, and extending from the Lomami River to Lake Tanganyika, is the empire of Kassongo. The soil is fertile, and the mountains rich in mineral deposits. The ruler is regarded as a god, and is no less cruel than his neighbors. East of Lake Tan. ganyika is Unyamezi, " one of the pleasantest regions of Africa." The people are related to the Garenganze, but more advanced in culture on account of their proximity to the trade routes between Zanzibar and the lakes. The Reggas occupy a vast territory between the Congo and Lake Muta Nzig'e. The Upper Congo basin is occupied largely by the Manyema, or " Eaters of Flesh,' noted for physical beauty, artistic skill, and pitiless rapacity. The Balolo are widely distributed within the great curve of the river. They number perhaps 10,000,000. The Lushilonge and the Lunda predomi nate about the southern affluents and wooded plains of the Kassai ; the Kioko, to the north of these, are enterprising traders ; the warlike Bangala dwell along the southwestern bend of the river, which flows on successively through the territories of the Babangi (of Ubangi River), Bateke (above Stanley Pool), Wa- bumu, and finally the Bafyote, or Congolese. Of the missions established in the Congo region, three are Roman Catholic : (1) the French Mission, at the mouth of the river ; (2) the Bel gian Mission, on the Upper Congo ; and (3) the PeTes d'Algerie (or Algerian Priests), on Lake- Tanganyika. The eight Protestant missions are: (1) the American Baptist Missionary Union, with 7 stations on the upper and lower river, and about 30 missionaries ; (2) the English Baptist Mission, with 6 stations on both the Upper and the Lower Congo ; (3) the Swedish Missionary Society, with a station at Mukin- bungu ; (4) the London Society's Mission, ori- Lake Tanganyika ; (5) Mr. Arnot's Mission in. AFRICA 24 AFRICA the Garenganze country ; (6) the Balolo Mis sion, south of the Upper Congo ; (7) the Mis sionary Evangelical Alliance, having 1 small station near Vivi ; (8) Bishop Taylor's Mission. Kwilu, Ogoway, and Gaboon Basins. — Portugal possessesa territory covering about 1,000 square miles, with a population of 30,000 souls, south of the Massabi River, and limited east and south by conventional lines separating it from the Congo Free State. The French possessions in clude the remainder of these basins, besides those of the Congo affluents, as far as the Ubangi. They cover an area of about 240,000 square miles, and have a population variously estimated at from 2,000,000 to 5,000,000. The northern boundary, separating the French Colony from the German Protectorate of Came roon, follows the Campo River as far as 10 ' east longitude, thence on a parallel to its intersec tion with the 15° east longitude. Spain holds the island of Corsica and the two islets of Eloby, and claims a strip on the mainland. This region, between the ocean and the Congo, and extending from 5° south latitude to 3° north latitude, consists of a series of terraces rising from the coast and skirted by chains of hills which vary from 1,000 to nearly 5,000 feet in height. It is well watered. The Kwilu has a total course of 360 miles, the Ogoway, 720, and the Gaboon is an. estuary 40 miles long and 7 broad. There are two rainy seasons, September to December, and then, after an interval of fine weather, the rain sets in until May. Dur ing the hottest days in March and April the thermometer varies from 78° to 93° Fahr., and in the cool months of July and August 73' to *!60 Fahr. The climate is insalubrious, both on account of its huniidity and the poisonous ex halations from the morasses. The soil is sandy and vegetation consequently not so rich as the abundance of moisture would lead us to expect. The gorilla, chimpanzee, etc., abound. The elephant is withdrawing into the interior ; the buffalo, white-faced wild boar, hippopotamus, and crocodile, and several native species of birds, reptiles, and fishes are found. Cabinda, a beautiful and busy seaport, and picturesque Landana, with its Roman Catholic mission, fall within the Portuguese territory. Loango, the principal port of the region and the site of many European factories ; Mayumba, chief depot for gums collected in the neighboring forests ; Franceville, central station for the interior ex ploration ; Lambarene, on the Ogoway, and Libreville, the capital, are aniong the chief sta tions in the French territory. Many factories are found along the coast. The original inhabitants have been largely dis placed by immigrants from the interior. The Mpongwe, of the Gaboon, the remnant of a once powerful nation, are intelligent but frivo lous. The Benga of Corisco are related to the Bakale, south of the Ogoway. These are now traders, packmen, etc. The Bangwe dwell between the upper and the lower course of the Ogoway. The Fans, who occupy most of the region east of the Gaboon ancl north of the Ogoway, form two groups, constantly at war with each other. They are light-complexioned, mus cular, and vigorous, the most energetic and industrious of all the tribes of the region. They practise cannibalism in the inland districts. Among the Ashango forests and toward the Congo, the Abongo are shy and timid, of small stature and dwell remote from the beaten tracks. The Balumbo, or Bavila, are a mixed people (largely runaway slaves from the Ga boon and Congo factories), who have found refuge in the inhospitable regions south of the Nyanga River. Of the various dialects of the Biintu speech, the Mpongwe is the most widely diffused throughout these coast lands. It was reduced to writing by American missionaries. A mission was established in Gaboon by the A. B. C. F. M. in 1842, and transferred to the Presbyterian Board in 1871. It has stations at Benita, on the coast ; Alongo, on the island of Corisco ; Baraka, on the Equator ; Angoma, on the Gaboon River, and Kangwe, on the Ogoway River. The French Evangelical Society has lately undertaken to aid the Presbyterian Board because of the demand of the French Govern ment that the French language be used in all the schools. Roman Catholic missions have long been established at different points. Cameroons. — The mountain mass, so called, situated on the mainland over against the island of FernaDdo Po, covers an area of 360 square miles, and rises in one of its peaks to the height of 14,000 feet, surpassed on the African Conti nent only by Kenia, Kilima-Njaro, Simen (in Abyssinia), and the lately explored Ruwenzori. Its lower portions are covered by a luxuriant vegetation of palms, acacias, fig-trees, kokas, plantains, and other trees and shrubs. At a height of 7,000 feet another climatic zone is en tered, where are found ferns, grasses, and heather. Springs are rare, none beiDg found above 9,100 feet. The summit is bare, except for a, few trailing plants sheltered in the hol lows. The surrounding country is well watered by small lakes and rivers, with their confluents and deltas. The name Cameroons has been ex tended to cover the German possessions sepa rated on the north from British territory by the Meme River, and a line drawn thence in a northeasterly direction to the Chadda or Benue, above Yola, and on- the south from the French province of Gaboon by the Campo River. On the east the boundary is indefinite. But little of the region has been explored or brought un der the influence of its European masters. The area is about 11,000 square miles, and the popu lation estimated at 4S0,000. On the marine banks the mangrove, on the lowlands the pan- dandus and raffia palm, and on the higher grounds forests of great trees, with tangled masses of tall creepers, represent the flora. The fauna is represented by elephants, who are found in great numbers about 60 miles inland in the Mungo basins ; apes, which abound in the forests, and by a vast abundance of insects, crustaceans, and reptiles. In the summer rainy season (May to August) the rainfall is very heavy, and the season of the winter rains is characterized by squalls, tornadoes, and dense vapors. The chief station is Victoria, beauti fully situated at the foot of the mountain and on the shores of the Ambas Bay, which affords a sheltering harbor for the largest ships. Vic toria was founded in 1858 by Baptist mission aries, who took shelter there from Spanish per secution on Fernando Po ; Binibia is a haven at the southern extremity of the mountain ; Ba- kundu-ba-Nambele, on the Mungo River, is the headquarters of a mission to the Bakundu • Cameroons is applied collectively to a dozen populous villages on the east side of the Came roons estuary. The chief inhabitants, all of Bantu origin AFRICA 25 AFRICA and speech, are the lively, intelligent, and dar ing but very superstitious Bakwiri, between the coast and the mountains ; the industrious and equally superstitious Bakundu of the northern slopes ; the communistic Balonga and trading Abo east of the Bakundu ; the tom-tom beating and well-known D walla, of the Cameroons estuary ; farther south the savage^Bakoko and the Batanga groups, who are the most skilful boat-builders in Africa. The mission of the English Baptists, founded in 1858, was (1886) placed under the care of the German missionaries from Basle, who have made Bethel their main station, where a train ing school for native helpers was established in 1889. Eleven German missionaries (8 on the field and 3 appointed to aid them), with sev eral native assistants, are carrying on a prom ising work. The Dutch Protestant Missionary Society also has a mission. Monbuttu- Land and Nyam-Nyam. — The Welle River rises in the eastern part of the water-shed dividing the Nile system from the Congo. On the north it is thus separated from the Bahr-el- Ghazal and other tributaries of the Nile, while on the east it receives the waters from the up lands skirting the left side of Lake Albert Nyanza. It flows westward, crossing the 20° ¦east longitude, and joins the Ubangi on its way to the Congo. It passes through unexplored regions to Monbuttu-Land, an " earthly para dise," consisting of rolling uplands 2,500 to 2,800 feet high, with a temperate climate and luxuriant vegetation. Area, about 4,000 square miles ; population about 1,000,000. Emin Pasha speaks of the Monbuttu as a physically and intellectually superior people, and one of the dominant races in Central Africa. They are industrious and skilful, and make excellent utensils in wood and brass. Their country produces slaves, coal, iron, leather, etc. Hu man flesh is largely used as an article of food. They are Bantu, but are distinguished by a very light complexion. Their dress is made from the bark of the fig-tree. The women wear a mere loin-cloth, and paint their bodies with endless and ever-changing designs. Scattered among the Monbuttu are found the Akka dwarfs, supposed to be, like the Hottentots of the south and the Watwa of the Upper Con go, remnants of the aboriginal tribes which were displaced by the Bantu invasions. The Nyam-Nyam country, west and northwest of Monbuttu-Land, is traversed by the Nile- Congo water-shed, and is a pleasant and beau tiful region, 2,500 to 3,000 feet high, occupied by the powerful Zandeh nation, perhaps related to the Fans of the French Congo. Schwein- furth estimates their territory as covering nearly €0,000 square miles, with a population of about 2,000,000. There is no national organization ; the tribes are frequently at war with each other. Cannibalism prevails. The dress is the skin of a beast covering the loins, while the chiefs wear also a leopard skin on the head. The Zandeh are distinguished by the length and density of the beard and by their noble carriage and great agility, and the affection of the husband for his wife. There is no mission ary work carried on among these tribes. The Tchad Basin forms the geographical cen tre of the continent. The lake resembles Ngami, in South Africa, being a shallow, marshy lagoon of variable extent, according to Rohlfs 4,500 square miles in the dry season and 22,000 in the wet. On the east and south are moun tains and uplands ; on the north and west, hills and terraces, which drop into open plains in the southwest toward tbe Benue basin ; and though the Tchad has no outlet, its waters are fresh. Area of the basin, 280,000 square miles ; population, over 7,000.000. The soil is fertile, vegetation rich, and climate salubrious. Tem perature ranges between 75 ' in December and 91° in April. Its chief influent is the Shari> which rises in the unexplored uplands south west of Dar-Fur. The rainfall is greater in the west and south than in the east and north. In the Mandara uplands the wet season lasts seven months ; in Bornu, about four. The fauna is very rich, including the hippopotamus, elephant, lion, hyena, giraffe, antelope, ostrich, stork, goose, and au indefinite variety of reptilian and insect life. Maize, rice, etc., are raised, and the fig, citron, pomegranate, with wheat ancl barley, have been lately introduced. Domestic animals thrive well, and are found in large variety. The political divisions of the Tchad basin are Wadai, which enjoys the preponder ance of power ; Kanem, stretchiDg north into the desert, once the seat of a powerful kingdom and the " hot-bed of the Mussulman propagan da ;" Bornu, west and south of the lake, and Baghirmi, east of the Shari. The aboriginal types have been greatly modified by Arab and Nuba-Fulah elements. War, slavery, trade, and immigration have resulted in a population ot very mixed character. Mohammedanism is the ruling religion, and is, with varying fervor, urged upon the pagan tribes. Of the three routes connecting this region with the outer world— viz. (1) through Dar-Fur to the east, whence the Mohammedan civilization entered ; (2) through FezzaD to Tripoli, on the Mediterranean, and (3) by means of the Benue and the Niger to the Gulf of Guinea, the last but easiest route is coming into prominence. Guinea is the name applied by Europeans to a portion of the western coast of Africa. The Southern or Lower Guinea coast extends from Cape Negro to the Cameroons Mountains, while Northern or Upper Guinea comprises the Cala bar district, Niger Delta, Yoruba, Dahomey, Ashantee, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and part of Senegambia. These States are treated in their order. The Niger Basin. — The Niger is the second river in Africa for volume, and the third for the length of its course. It rises among the Kong Mountains about 200 miles inland from Sierra Leone, flows to the desert, curves round to the east and south, and after a course of 2,500 miles enters the Gulf of Guinea between the bights of Benin and Biafra, 1,100 miles from its source. It drains 1,000,000 square miles of territory. Its chief affluent is the Chadda or Benue, which brings from the Nile-Congo-Shari water-shed a volume equal to that of the main stream itself, and affords a navigable course of nearly 900 miles into the interior of the conti nent. The conference held in Berlin in 1885 reserved the supremacy of the Upper Niger to France, and that of the rest of the course and of the Benue to England, though the main stream is to remain an international highway. The Royal Niger Company represents the English authority, and is the political ruler of " all the territories ceded to it by the kings, chiefs, and peoples in the Niger basin." The company engages to oppose the slave trade and AFRICA 26 AFRICA rum traffic, which it is doing with vigor. The Niger Delta extends along 120 miles of coast, and consists of 22 streams into which the main stream divides at a distance inland of about 140 miles. These streams, with connecting chan nels, form a vast mangrove swamp. The Bonny and the New Calabar are connected with the Delta. The Old Calabar flows north to the 6° north latitude, and then east and south, en closing a mass of hills 3,000 feet high. The Benue flows through one of the most populous and productive regions of Africa, where the sarface is diversified by uplands and mountain chains. Cotton is widely cultivated. The flora is that of the south temperate zone. The ele phant, rhinoceros, wild buffalo, panther, civet, but few snakes, and no spiders are found. The Adamawa province, but little known, in cludes most of the Upper Benue basin. Its capital is Yola, on the south bank. Between the Benue and Bornu (of Lake Tchad region), and just north of the Faro-Benue confluence, is Demsa, a, pleasant land. North of the Benue- Niger confluence, among the highlands, where rises the Gongola, is Yakoba, capital of Bautchi ; and northeast of Yakoba, near the right bank of the Gongola, is Gombe, capital of Kalam ; west of the Gongola confluence is the Muri State ; and on the opposite side of the Benue, and farther down, is the Kororofa State. Loko, 90 miles above the junction of the Benue and Ni ger, is the largest ivory market in West Africa. Toko]a, on the west shore of the Niger, and near the confluence, is an important centre ; Gbebe, on the opposite side, is a busy trading-post. Idda, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Lower Niger, is the capital of the Ibo king dom. Following down the river, on either bank, we find Asaba ; Onitcha, half way be tween the confluence and the mouth of the Nun, and the most important depot of al) ; Alenso ; Osomari ; Ndoni ; Abo ; Wari, capital of _ the kingdom of Wari ; Akassa, in an island near the bar, and the chief trading centre of the Royal African Company. East of the Nun, and including the Old Calabar estuary, are many trading posts, whose chief article of export is palm oil, as Brass, Nembe, Tuwan, New Calabar, Okrika, Bonny (busiest of all), Duketown, Creektown, Ikorofiong. At some of these places the traders reside in hulks grouped to gether to form a floating town. The tribes of the Lower Niger have little civilization, and are extremely superstitious. In the Benue basm, besides the Fulah rulers, mostly Mohammedan, but especially toward the Upper Benue, still pagan, are found the ill-favored Bautchi (Bolos) ; the pagan Wuruku ; the dreaded man- eating Tangala ; the Fali and Bele ; the en slaved Batta (of Adamawa), and then south of the Benue, and reaching toward Old Calabar, the Akpa, Wakari, and Mitchi ; and along the left bank of the Benu6 and on the Niger, the Igarra. Around the confluence the Nube lan guage predominates ; from Onitcha to the Delta, Ibo ; and in the Delta, Idzo (Iju). In Ibo, Idzo, Nupe, Igara, and Igbira, Bishop Crowther and his helpers have published primers, the prayer-book, and portions of the Scriptures. ILiasahtivl, including a large number of petty States and kingdom*, joins the Sahara on the north, the Tchad region on the east, the Benue water parting on the south, and the Niger on the west. It is included within the sphere of operation of the Royal Niger Company, is a rich country and densely populated, and its language has been diffused throughout the greater part ' of the Soudan. Population, perhaps 4,000,000. The country is low and flat, during the rainy season almost impassable, ln the northern portion the rainfall is much less than in the southern, where vegetation is abundant through out the year. The palm, tamarind, baobab, butter tree, doria, whose seeds form an article of export, banana, rice, onions, etc., abound. The elephant and the maneless lion are found. The goats are brown and the cattle white. Mosquitoes in the marshy districts amount to a plague. Kano, in East Hausa, is perhaps the greatest city of North Central Africa. AYithin its walls, which surround a space of 10 square miles, are found, in their various quarters, im migrants of every race ; Wurno, northeast of Sokoto, and on the same river, is the present residence of the sovereign of the Mussulmans ; Sokoto, with a population (once amounting to 120,000) ot 20,000, is an important trading cen tre and capital of the empire ; Gando, about 50 miles southwest of Sokoto, is the capital of West Hausa. Nupe, between the Kaduna and Niger, is a rich and favorably situated district, and its capital, Bida, a city of perhaps 100,000 inhabitants. South of the Niger stands the great republican city of Borin. Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society and the Wes leyan Methodist Society have founded stations at Kipo Hill, Eggan, Bida, Shonga, etc., in the Nupe kingdom. Hausaland forms a great Fulah empire divided into the two kingdoms of Wurno (Sokoto) and Gando, having also many tributary provinces in the Benu6 basin. The Hausa lan guage is praised for its simplicity, elegance, and for its wealth of vocabulary. The tribes of Hausa are much farther advanced in civilization than those of the Lower Niger and the Benue. The Middle Nigert from Timbuktu to Gomba, at the Sokoto confluence, is almost uninhabited, except in the southern portions. The region to the northwest, and to some extent to the south (across the river), is peopled by Arabs. To the east as far as the Tchad region, and north as far as the Algerian frontier, are scattered countless tribes of Berbers, who, south of the river, have mixed with the negro tribes. On both sides of the river, from Timbuktu to the Sokoto conflu ence and south of the curve, dwell the Songhai, once powerful, now subject to the Fulah empire of Massina. The Songhai negroes are dull and unfriendly. The chief centres of this region are the famous Timbuktu, Gogo, and, 180 miles farther down the river, Garu and Siader, and farther on Sai. The Upper Niger is inhabited by Mandingans and Bambarra, who are broken up into a large number of petty independent States. The people are mostly industrious, skilful, and superstitious. The C. M. S. and Wesleyan Methodist in Hausaland, and the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland in Old Calabar, are the missionary societies repre sented The Slave Coas1, so called from its sad promi nence in the slave traffic, stretches from the Niger Delta to the Volta River, with indefinite boundaries inland. It includes (1) Yoruba (2) Porto Novo, (3) Dahomey, (4) Great Popo and Agwe, and (5), Little Popo and Togo. Area, perhaps 62,000 square miles, with 3,000,- 000 of people. Britain, Germany, France', and Portugal share the territory. The ancient line Well! Wilber 10 11 H I on 1-okki^ \--- ----; *,„...W *u„ ..«—- ¦ ^"Mofusa . (-. \ WESTERN SOUDAN Missionary Stations are shown by a solid dot f*)- SCALE OF MILES 10 11 AFRICA 27 AFRICA of the continent now lies about 50 miles inland, and this strip of modern coast line, defended by sand-banks and washed by a series of lagoons, gently rises toward the inland plateaus, where peaks are found 6,700 feet high. The land then falls rapidly toward the northern steppes. The seaward rivers, of which the Ogun, rising 180 miles inland, is the principal one, are not large, and in th^dry seasons lose themselves in the coast lagoons. The climate is salubrious, except for the marsh fevers which prevail, especially at the close of the rainy seasons. It has two dry and two wet seasons ; mean temperature, 79°. The cultivated lands of the interior are separated from the coast lagoons by dense forests ot gigan tic timber. In the interior the forest growths give way largely to thickc tsandherbage. Palms of several species, butter-trees, and the Kola flourish. In the interior are found elephants, buffaloes, gazelles, wild boars, monkeys, and iu the rivers hippopotami, crocodiles, etc. In the coast regions the tsetse fly and destructive ants give great annoyance. Between the Niger and the Ogun rivers lies Yoruba, occupying the larger portion of the Slave Coast territory. It consists of a large number of semi-independent States, kingdoms, etc., often at war with one another. The Yorubas are sociable, hospitable, and industrious. Their cities are large. They raise maize, yams, sweet potatoes, manioc, ban anas, cotton, etc. They are skilful artisans, and excei all other African tribes in building. They are very superstitious, but the old paganism, in cluding human sacrifices, is giving way before Mohammedanism and Christianity. Abeokuta, the native capital, a city of more than 100,000, situated on the Ogun River, and formed of some 60 communities, each with its own dialect, as well as its civil and religious organization, brought from the various villages from which the people fled for protection against slave and other enemies ; Ibadan, a similar city about 60 miles to the northeast ; Lagos, about 3 miles from the sea, on an island in the Ossa, wealthiest city on the East African seaboard, with a Euro pean quarter, where the British administrator resides ; Leckie, lying east of Lagos ; Badagry, formerly capital of a kingdom and the great slave market, 40 miles west of Lagos, are the principal towns. The Church Missionary So ciety has a flourishing mission in the country. The Wesleyan Missionary Society (English) and the American Baptist Convention (Southern) also have stations. Porto-Novo, an enclave on the coast between Yoruba and Dahomey, a French possession at tached to the government of Senegal, has a coast line of 24 miles, area of 760 square miles, and a population of about 150,000. Dahomey, a Portuguese Protectorate, lies be tween 1° 30' and 2" 30' east longitude, and ex tends about 120 miles inland. The chief coast town is Whydah, formerly a slave port, now exporting great quantites of palm oil. Abome, the capital, is 65 miles inland, and conDected with Whydah by a road which continues to the Mahi country, 30 miles farther north. The North German (Bremen) Missionary So ciety has a work in Dahomey. Great Popo and Agw'e have together a popu lation of about 120,000 inhabitants, under French protection. The people are mostly refugees, and have built up a considerable trade with foreigners. Little Popo and Togo, lying between 1° 10' and 1° 40' east longitude or thereabouts belongs to Germany. The trading places are situated on the seaboard The region beyond the lagoons is better cultivated, but almost unknown. The German Government is represented by the Hamburg and Bremen traders, settled in the sea ports, who cannot as yet vie with the village chiefs and fetich priests in influence over the people. The tribes between the Ogun and Volta rivers belong to the Ewe family, and from them the region takes the name " Eweme." The Ewe language is classified into 5 distinct dialects — Mahi, spoken north of Dahomey ; Dahomese ; Ajuda, spoken by the Jiji of the Whydah coast ; Anfwe, spoken by the Krepi, west of the Jeji, and Anlo, south of the Krepi. The most pow erful of the Ewes is the Fan or Dahomey group. The people are intelligent and quick to learn. The king is a god, all the people his slaves. Part of the army consists of female warriors, equal to the males in bravery and cold-blooded cruelty. Cannibalism, human sacrifices, incredible cruelty, and contempt of death, begotten of a firm belief in immortality, distinguish these tribes. The Gold Coast, known officially as the Cape Coast, extends from the German factories of Togo to the French possessions of Assini — a coast line of 360 miles. Area, 17,000 square miles ; population, 408,000. Cape Three Points is the most prominent headland, and is crowned with five peaks. Extending back from the coast are isolated hills or short ridges, varying in height from 350 feet to 2,000 feet. Farther north, the Akwapun range runs to the northeast, and is pierced by the Volta River. Other ridges branch in various directions, merging.in broad plateaus or thinly peopled steppes. North of the hilly region stretch vast plains, with here and there a bold bluff, which extend in a north easterly direction to the Niger, while in the northwest they merge in the unexplored high land region of the Kong Mountains. From this highland region flow copious streams, such as the Volta, the Boosum-Prah, the Ancobra, and the Tanwe. The climate, flora, and fauna present the same general features as on the Slave Coast. The hilly districts in the interior furnish pleasant health resorts for the Europeans. Coffee, to bacco, cacao, caoutchouc, cotton, etc., are culti vated. The chief article of export is palm oil. Gold-mines are worked iu Wassaw and Ashantee, Axim, an English fort, west of Cape Three Points, the best landing-place on the coast, and which will become an important port ; Aodwa, formerly capital of Wassaw, now deserted by its inhabitants, who have removed to the mining region ; Coomassi, capital of Ashantee, destroyed by the British in 1874, rebuilt in 1883 ; Accra, 90 miles east of Cape Coast, chief centre of Eu ropean life and starting-point of several routes for the interior ; Christiansborg, official capital of the British possessions, and Quettah, where a strong garrison is placed, are the chief towns. Beyond the British possessions are other im portant trading centres, such as Bontuku, in Gaman Kutampo, 70 miles north of Coomassi ; Salaga, presenting the appearance of an Aiab town ; Jendi, capital of the kingdom of Da- gomba, which stretches northward to the Man- dingan territory ; Abetefi, on the water- shed between the Volta basin and the Prah, and chosen as a centre by the Basle missionaries. AFRICA 28 AFRICA In the Upper Volta basin and interior high lands the aborigines have held their ground as separate groups. But the distinctions of lan guage, customs, and physical characteristics are rapidly disappearing. The aborigines are called Potoso, that is, " barbarians," by the Ashanti conquerors. Their language is the Gwany, Nta, and allied idioms, which, though unin telligible to the Asha-ntee peoples, yet belong to the same family of languages as the Otji or Ga. The Otji peoples include the Ashantis, Dan- kiras, Wassaws, Akims, Assins, and Fantis, and are the ruling race. They are well developed physically, and perhaps owe some of their characteristics to Berber and Arab blood. They are farmers, artisans, merchants, stock breeders, fishermen, according to their surroundings. The missionaries use for their translation of the Bible, prayer-book, hymns, etc., the Akwapem dialect. The incredible cruelty and carnage of Ashanti power, with human sacrifices and slaughter, have largely been stopped by the British aggression. The Wesleyan Missionary Society (British), the North German Missionary Society, and the Basle Missionary Society, which succeeded the Moravian Brethren, have several stations in the country, as have also the Roman Catholics ; but missionary work meets with great difficulties among a people so superstitious and fierce. Ivory Coast. — The gentle curve stretching from Cape Three Points to Cape Palmas is, on account of the protection its contour affords from Atlantic storms, called the Leeward Coast. Ivory Coast occupies that portion lying between the Tanwe River and Cape Palmas. The French possessions on this coast, with indefinite limits inland, occupy 130 miles of coast line, extend ing from the Tanwe to the Lapu. Continuing from the Lapu to San Pedro, 120 miles, we skirt a region almost unknown, and as yet unap propriated by any European power. The French possessions have a double .shore line. Between the outer beach and the interior forest lands are lagoons into which the rivers from the interior break, through creeks and inlets. The principal rivers are the Tanwe, Kindjabo, and Akba, the last said to be 240 miles in length, affording splendid access to the interior. The population of the Ivory Coast inland to the Niger water-shed is estimated at 500,000. The origin of the inland peoples is not definitely known. The trading tribes about Ebne Lagoon are called by the English nickname " Jack- Jack ;" west of the Lahu are the Avekvoms, commonly called Qua-Quas ; while farther west are the Kroomen. The coast tribes are mild and trustworthy. Mohammedanism has made no progress, nor are there any Christian mis sions among them. The French officials reside at Grand Bassam, Assini, and Dabu. Liberia. — A republio after the United States model, established by colonies of emancipated slaves from America. It has 380 miles of sea coast, extending from San Pedro to Cape Mount, and inland to the Kong uplands. Area (of colony and protected territories), 60,000 square miles ; population, 1,050,000. The sea board is low and fringed with lagoons and in lets, with a few conspicuous headlands, as Cape Mensurado (280 feet), near the entrance to Mon. rovia, the capital ; and Cape Mount (1,065 feet), marking the western boundary. Inland appear chains of hills. The rivers take their rise in the Mandingan uplands, which form the water shed between the Nile basin and the seaward streams. The mean annual temperature of Monrovia is 81° Fahr., and ranges between 77° and 86°. The climate is dangerous for immi grants. Vegetation is luxuriant and the fauna rich, especially in the Mandingan uplands. The largest river is the St. Paul (which rises nearly 200 miles from the sea), along whose banks are numerous sugar and other planta tions. The principal towns are Monrovia, the capi tal ; Robertsport, north of Cape Mount ; Cald well, on the St. Paul ; Musardu, chief town of the Mandingans ; Grand Bassa (Buchanan), near the mouth of the Junk, the commercial centre of the republic ; Harper, a salubrious town near Cape Palmas. The inhabitants are the seafaring Kroos, be tween Cape Palmas and the Sinu River ; the Bassas ; the still savage Barlins, south of the St. Paul ; the Mandingan Veis, agriculturists ; the fierce Golas, dwelling along the western affluents of the St. Paul ; the warlike Pussis and Bussis, and in the uplands of the interior, the powerful Mandingans. The American Protestant Episcopal Church, Methodist Episcopal Church (American), Amer ican Presbyterian Church, the American Bap tist Missionary Union, the Evangelical Lu theran General Synod, and a few unattached in dividuals have missions in Liberia. Sierra Leone covers the British possessions and Protectorate (including the Sierra Leone colony proper and the adjacent territory, mainland, and islands) lying between French Senegambia and Liberia. Total area, 28,000 square miles ; population, 1,000,000 ; area actually in posses sion of the British, 1,120 square miles ; popu lation, 60,546. The peninsula of Sierra Leone, which is completely surrounded by water in the rainy seasoi by the junction of Waterloo and Calmont creeks, covers an area of about 290 square miles. It is mostly occupied by a range of gently rounded hills rising in places to a height of 3,000 feet. The rainfall in the whcle territory is heavy ; copious streams, rising in the Niger water-shed, flow south and west. The climate is equable, ranging from 78° to 86°. The rainy season commences in April or May, and declines in October, November, and De cember. January, February, and March are al most rainless. The mean annual rainfall is 134 inches. The marshy exhalations during the rainy season render the climate very insalubri ous. The death rate is very high. Principal exports, which come chiefly from the interior : Benni seed, cola nuts, ginger, ground nuts, palm kernels, and oil, gum copal, rubber, hides, ivory, and gold dust. Vegetation is lux uriant. Freetown (30,000 inhabitants), on Cape Sierra Leone, is the capital. It covers four square miles, and has some good buildings, schools, churches, and government offices. The dominant race is the Timni (about 200,000), on the plains between the Rokelle and Little Sarcie rivers. Their language is widespread. Several books, relig ious and educational, have been translated. The people are very superstitious and suspi cious. A great power among them is the Purra, a secret society in which wizard influence is very strong and often deadly. Of the same stock are the Bullams, divided into two sections by the encroachments of the Timni. The northern occupy between the Mallecory River AFRICA 29 AFRICA and the Sierra Leone estuary ; the southern, Sherbro Island and neighboring district. The warlike Mendi dwell east of the southern Bullams. The Limbas are a powerful tribe dwelling northeast of the Timni. The Gallinas, on the Liberian frontier, are aggressive and skilful. Tho Saffrokos and Konos dwell near the Niger water-shed, among the sources of the coast gfPeams. In the east the Moslem Man dingans are making encroachments, and in the northeast the Hubus (Fulah tribes). East of the Timni are the pagan and uncultured Kur- ankos, and farther north the hospitable Solimas. The colonists (freed negroes) are nearly 10,000 in number, and are Protestants of the various denominations. The Los Islands and adjacent coasts north of the Mallecory River are occu pied by the Bagas and the courteous Su-Sus, whose speech, a Mandingan dialect, is the dominant one in the whole region, and pos sesses the Bible and several other translations. The Church Missionary Society undertook its mission in Sierra Leone in 1804, and has en joyed encouraging success. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society comes next, with nearly equal statistics ; Lady Huntingdon's connection, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, the United Methodist Free Churches, the United Brethren of Ohio (American), tho African Methodist Episcopal Church, and the Boman Catholics also pursue missionary work there. Senegambia comprises the regions watered by the Senegal and the Gambia, and is divided politically into English, Portuguese, and French Senegambia. The first comprises the settle ment on the loft bank of the Gambia at its mouth, Elephant's Island, 100 miles inland ; McCarthy's Island, still farther from the sea, and the Los Islands, forming together the colony of Gambia, with Bathurst, on St. Mary's Island, as the capital, and is connected with Sierra Leone (q. v.). Portuguese Senegambia (also called Guinea) lies between the Nunez and Casamanza rivers, including Bissagos Archipel ago. Area. 17 000 ; population, 150,000. But little of this fertile territory, watered by rivers rising in the Futa-Jallon highlands, has been actually occupied by the European masters. French Senegambia constitutes the province of Senegal, or the French Soudan, and has a coast line extending from the Mallecory to the Nunez (150 miles) ; and passing by the Portuguese pos sessions, it commences again at the Cassamanza and continues to Cape Blanco (150 miles). From Cape Verd inland the French possessions extend 600 miles to the Niger. The Futa-Jallon highlands and the Upper Niger basin are also under the French Protectorate. Area, about 200,000 square miles. The low flat seaboard of Senegambia rises toward the vast plateau which culminates in a diversified mountainous region which descends abruptly to the Upper Niger basin. In the south it meets the Kong Moun tains, and in the north throws out some spurs into the desert. Numerous rivers, as the Melle- cory, Dubreka, Nunez, Componi, Cassini, Rio Grande, Geba, Cacheo, Casamanza, Gambia, Salum, and Senegal rise in the highlands and flow in parallel directions to the Atlantic. The fluvial basins are fertile, and the mountains and alluvial deposits contain iron and gold. The giant baobab, acacia, palm, kola-nut tree, fig, orange, sycamore, etc. , are representative among the flora. The ostrich, bustard, stork, pannage, and a great variety of large and small animals, both wild and domesticated, are found. The climate is severe for Europeans. The rainy season commences in May or June, and increases in length as you approach the Equator. The Senegal is the northern limit of sufficient rainfall. The thermometer ranges between an average of 77° in the winter season and 90° in the summer. The heat in the in terior and in the south is, during the latter part of the rainy season, almost intolerable. The chief town in Senegambia is St. Louis, the capital of the French possessions. Dakar, near Cape Verd, is the headquarters of trading com panies and the terminus of the St. Louis Rail way (160 miles long) and of the Atlantic Cable. The inhabitants are : 1. Moors, descended from the Zanaga Berbers, and intermingled with both Arabs and Negroes, show a great variety of types. They are spirited, brave, and fanatical Mohammedans, and are found north of the Senegal, only one tribe, the Dakalifas, being found on the south. 2. The Negro races, which form the bulk of the population, include the Wolofs, very black, brave, ancl superstitious, mostly Mohammedans, inhabiting most of the territory bounded by the Senegal, Faleme, Gam bia, and the sea-coast ; the Serers, akin to the Wolofs, and on their southern borders ; the Sarakoles of the Middle Senegal, akin to the Mandingans, of a wild disposition, and an im portant element in the population ; the Kas- sonkes, eastern neighbors of the Sarakoles ; the Jallonkes, formerly occupying Futa-Jallon, now residing between the Bating and the Niger ; the Mandingans, occupying the Gambia and part of the Upper Senegal basins, mostly Mohammedan dealers and the chief preachers of Islam ; and the Toucouleurs (Tacurol, the old name of the country), mostly half-caste Negroes, Moors, and Fulahs, eastern neighbors of the Wolofs, and fanatical Mohammedans ; 3. The Fulahs are found between the Negroes of the seaboard and those of the Niger in a more numerous and compact body than elsewhere in Africa, though communities of them are found as far south as the Benue- River and as far east as Darfur. They claim kin with the white races. Many of them are very beautiful. They are intelligent, skilful, and brave, though mild, and have never taken part in the slave-trade. They are mostly Mohammedans. The principal languages of Senegambia are the Wolof, which is the language of commercial in tercourse, and has grammars, dictionaries, etc., the related Gereres, the Mandingan, the Fulah, and, north of the Senegal, the Arabic. The French Protestant Church and the Roman Catho lic have mission work in Senegal. The Wesley an Methodist Mission (English) has stations in Gambia, on the islands St. Mary and McCarthy. The Sahara is bounded on the south by the regions known as the Soudan, and watered by the Senegal, the Niger, the affluents of Lake Tchad, and the head streams of the White Nile ; on the east by the Nile Valley, and on the north by the Mauritanian uplands and the Barka pla teaus (Cyrenaica). The length is 3,000 miles ; mean breadth, about 900. Excluding the desert regions of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, the oasis in the northeast and the grassy zone in the south, the area may be estimated at 2,500,- 000 square miles. About one ninth of the area is covered with sand dunes ; the rest consists of AFRICA 30 AFRICA rocks, highlands, steppes, oases, strips of culti vated border lands, etc. There are valleys and running waters among the uplands. Wells are sunken here and there, but the water is brack ish. The atmosphere is very dry, fogs almost unknown, heavy showers rare ; flesh never putrefies. The thermometer ranges from 146° Fahr. in the daytime to 26° at night. The sirocco from the south is greatly dreaded. The desert routes are often rendered dangerous by the filling up of the wells, or their possession by an enemy. The guides form a sort of priestly caste. The chief routes across the desert are : 1. From Timbuktu, on the Upper Niger, to In- salah, thence to Ghadames and Tripoli, or to Algeria and Tunis ; 2. From Timbuktu to Morocco ; 3. From Katsena, in British Soudan, to Tripoli by Air and Ghat ; 4. From Kuka, southwest of Lake Tchad, to Murzuk and Trip oli. The trade of these routes amounts to about $400,000 annually. As the great river routes into the interior are explored, the desert routes will become less important. A railway is projected connecting the French possessions on the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Politically, the Sahara is divided between Morocco, the French possessions in the north, and Turkey. Arab tribes are found in all parts of the desert. West and south of the oasis of Kufarah, and as far as the trade route between Lake Tchad and Fezzan, dwell the Tibbus. They are jealous Mussulmans. Economic conditions render them hardy, agile, and rather undersized. They are of negro stock, but mixed with Arab blood, and are related to the Darkas of Borgu. Chief centre of population is Bardai, in the midst of palm groves. The western central Sahara and northwestern regions are occupied by Taureg Berbers. They are tall, slim, and enduring, of light complexion, and ambitious. The western Sahara receives a share of rainfall, and has a few rivers flowing into the Atlantic. The Spaniards possess the coast line from Cape Blanco, the northern limit of the French pos sessions, to Cape Bojador, 480 miles farther north. There are no Christian missions to the Saharan tribes. Morocco, or Marrocco, bounded north and west by the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and east by a conventional line separating it from Algeria, extends into the desert to a greater or less extent, according to the activity and power of the reigning Sultan. Area variously esti mated at from 200,000 to 305,000 square miles ; population, perhaps 6,000,000. It consists of three States subject to the Sultan Sherif — the kingdoms of Fez in the north and Morocco in the southwest, and the oasis of Tafilelt, besides several semi-independent tribal territories of the desert. The Atlas (Deren) range, from 4,000 to 13,000 feet, traverses the country from northeast to southwest. For the rest, the surface is occupied by rolling steppes diversi fied by mountain spurs, and merging in the low lands of the Sahara and the Atlantic shores. The rainfall is greater than that of the other Mauritanian States, as also the number and size of the rivers, uone of which, however, are capa ble of floating anything but very light craft. The flora is that of Southern Europe, most re sembling that of Spain. A plant peculiar to Morocco is the one which yields " ammoniac " — a resin used for the purpose of fumigation ; the argania, which needs no irrigation, and whose berry is eagerly eaten by animals, is also indigenous. The lion, panther, bear, wild boar, hyena, lynx, fox, rabbit, ostrich, and all domestic animals are found. The climate is mild, equable, and very salu brious. The- government is an Oriental despot ism, cruel and barbarous, and the country is infested by lawdess bands. There are-no proper means of transportation in the interior ; agri culture is of the most primitive kind, and the rich resources of the country remain unde veloped. Every seaport, however, has its traders ; in Fez there are 500 Spaniards ; with France and England there are extensive com mercial relations. The schools are very primi tive ; no newspaper is published anywhere ; slavery still exists ; the emperor has hundreds of wives, though polygamy is not extensively practised by the people. The houses are built of stone. The Berbers, original inhabitants of the coun try, form two-thirds of the population, and are divided into several groups, as the Kabyles of the north, the Shellahas of the southern slopes of the Upper Atlas range, the Haratins of the south. The Shellaha language is that most ex tensively spoken. Arabic is also largely dif fused, especially in the north. The Arabs are called Moors in the towns, where they form the majority of the population. They are sociable in disposition. Morocco ranks next to Arabia in the Mohammedan mind. The Jews, still calling themselves " exiles from Castile," num ber over 100,000. They speak Spanish, and to some extent Arabic. The negro population, pure and half-caste, are constantly recruited by the slave-trade with the Soudan. Mohamme danism is the religion of the empire, and the Sultan-Sherif is to the Western Mohammedans what the Turkish Sultan is to those of the East. There are missions of the North African Mission and of the London Society for Promoting Chris tianity among the Jews in Morocco. Algeria, a French colony, has a coast line of about 550 miles, and reaches inland from 320 to 380 miles. Area, 176,000 square miles ; popu lation, 3,400,000. Traversed by parallel ridges from east to west, the whole country is moun tainous, with extensive table-lands and elevated valleys. The rivers are numerous, but short ; lakes and marshes abound, though nianj' of them are dry during the summer ; warm medic inal springs are found. The " Tell," or hilly country, including the maritime zone, has a fertile soil, abundant rainfall, and extensive arable plains, which produce wheat, barley, and other grains ; in the south or " Sahara" country pasturage and fruits, the palm, pomegranate, fig, peach, etc., abound. The fauna is similar to that of Morocco. The mineral wealth is enormous. The climate of the " Tell " country resembles that of the south of Spain. In the "Sahara" country the heat is often excessive. Next to Cape Colony, Algeria is the largest cen tre of European population in Africa. French, Spaniards, Italians, Germans, British, natu ralized Jews, and other Europeans number 500,- 000. French settlements are found not only in the coast towns, but in the interior, and roads run in all directions to the verge of the desert ; there are about 1,200 miles of railway. The native population (2,900,000) is Mohammedan. 1. Kabyle Berbers, active and industrious, are by far the most numerous. 2. Moors are found chiefly in the coast towns and villages. 3. Bed ouin Arabs roam over the "Sahara" country. 10 Longitude Greenwich 0 LongitucL %, AFRICA 31 AFRICA 4. Negro freedmen and half-castes form an im portant industrial element. Constantine, Al giers, and Oran are the capitals of the three ad ministrative divisions of the colony. The North Africa Mission, the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the French Evangelical Missionary Society, the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, and the Roman Catholic Church hate missions in Algeria. Tunis is generally similar to Algeria in its physical and climatic conditions and ethnical elements. Area, 46,550 square miles ; popula tion, about 1,500,000, showing very much greater density than in Algeria or Morocco. The Euro peans number about 36,000. The administra tion of the country is divided between the Bey and the French Government. The former ex ercises nominal control over the affairs of the interior, while France administers the finances and provides for the defence of the country. There are Protestant missions in Tunis, carried on by the North Africa Mission and by the Lon don Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. Tripoli, bounded on the northwest by Tunis, on the east by the Nubian Desert, which sepa rates it from Egypt, and including within its southern border the oases of Kufra, Fezzan, etc., covers an area of about 485,000 square miles, and has a population of 1,010,000 souls. It is a dependency of the Turkish Empire, though the authority of the Sultan is often set at naught by the local chiefs and religious lead ers. The religious order of the Senoussis, whose capital is Jarabub, in the Fared Ghah Oasis, in the Libyan Desert, is the dominant power in the whole country. The Senoussi is a Moslem sect which has grown very rapidly. The Caliph, or " lieutenant of God," has under him a com plete hierarchy of subordinate officers. Special couriers at his disposal enable him to communi cate with all parts of the community with in credible celerity. Once a year he convokes the superior officers in a synod at Jarabub. The various governments, Egyptian, Turkish, and Tunisian, have accorded to the society fiscal immunities and concessions of territory. It has 15 stations in Morocco, 25 in Algeria, 10 in Tunis, 66 in Tripoli, and 17 in Egypt. The Sul tan of Wadai is one of the most fervent adherents of the sect. It does not confine itself to the white race ; the blacks have been drawn in by its numerous schools, founded in the Soudan, which have extended their influence from Sene gambia to Timbuctoo, Lake Tchad, Bahr-el- Ghazel, and even to the country of the Danakils, the Gailas, and the Somalis. Tripoli is divided naturally for administrative purposes into four provinces : 1. Tripoli proper, lying between Tunis and Barka ; 2. Barka or Cyrenaica ; 3. Fezzan, and, 4. Rhat, southwest of Fezzan. Besides these are the oases of Kufra, held by the Senoussi brotherhood, and inde pendent of tho Turkish authority. The coun try is made up of vast sandy plains interrupted by rocky ranges, with a fertile strip adjacent to the sea, and here and there in the desert a de pression, where the springs of water are suffi cient for a few inhabitants and their groves of date palms. Tho principal products are corn, barley, olives, saffron, figs, and dates. The climate is variable, resembling that of Southern Europe, and generally salubrious. The popu lation consists of Arabs,. Berbers, Negroes (brought from the interior as slaves, and speak ing many dialects, chiefly the Hausa), Turks, and Jewish aud European (Maltese) traders. A few uninfluential Coptic groups are found. The Maltese are British subjects, speak Italian, and prefer the Christian (Roman Catholic) re ligion. The North Africa Mission has 1 sta tion in Tripoli. Southwest African Islands. — Tristan d'Acun- ha (in 37" south latitude and 12° west longi tude) is a rocky group on the highway between the Cape and La Plata. It is 1,800 miles from the Cape. Area of all the islands, 30 square miles. It belongs to Britain, and the language of the people is English. The highest peak on the principal island is 8,500 feet high and snow- clad. Plants of the temperate zone thrive well. There are no reptiles or insects. Aquatic birds abound. Domestic animals arc the chief re sources of the people. The climate is excellent. The natives are physically a fine race, and are the issue of Europeans, Americans, and Boers, married to half-caste women fiom St. Helena and South Africa ; population, 112 St. Helena, 1,140 miles due west of Mos samedes, and i,400 miles north of Tristan d'Acunha, has an area of 47 square miles. The climate is mild, varying betweeD 53° in the win ter and 83° in the summer. European settlers have introduced the principal domestic animals and a great variety of plants. Population, 4,500. It is a British Crown colony. Chinese and Malay Coolies and Negroes are mixed with the population. The Society for the Propaga tion of the Gospel has a station. Ascension, 930 miles south and a few degrees west of Cape Palmas, is a British Crown colony. Though within 550 miles of the Equator, and at times subject to oppressive heat, the climate is salubrious. It is inhabited by a British gar rison. Population 200. In the Gulf of Guinea are four islands : 1. An- nobon, a mass of fissured rocks, covering 7 square miles. The rainfall is copious ancl the forests dense. Its 300 inhabitants are negroes, and profess the Roman Catholic religion. The island belongs to Spain. 2. St. Thomas (San-Thome), though so near the Equator and the marshy coast line of the continent, yet enjoys the cool southern current, and its uplands have a salubrious climate, especially for Europeans. It covers 370 square miles, has an abundant rainfall and exuberant vegetation. It is a Portuguese colony with a white population of about 1,200, while the natives number 17,000. Some of them, 1,300 in number, on the west coast, are de scendants of A Bunda negroes, who preserve their customs and speech. Others are descend ants of the slaves, who cultivated the cinchona, coffee, and cacao plantations of the Portuguese colonists. 3. Princess Island (Principe) belongs to Port ugal. Area, 60 square miles ; population, 2,500. They are all negroes, but call themselves Port uguese Catholics. The rainfall is copious and vegetation luxuriant, but the climate insalu brious. 4. Fernando-Po is a Spanish possession 18 miles from the mainland. It covers an area of 830 square miles, mostly mountainous. The flora is diversified and abundant. Most of the European domestic animals have been intro duced. Population, 30,000. The natives are called Bubis. They are evidently from the mainland originally, though inferior in spirit AFRICAN 32 AGARFARA and physique to their relatives of the coast. They speak several dialects of the Bantu r>mily. They worship the Great Spirit, and have many barbarous and superstitious practices. Spanish missionaries labor among the blacks, and the Primitive Methodists have 2 stations on the island. The West African Islands are : 1. The Cape Verd Islands, which form a colo nial possession of Spain. Area, 1,450 square miles ; population, 105,000. The climate, equalized by the surrounding waters, varies from 61° in winter to 91° in summer ; mean temperature, 75°. The rainfall is irregular and sometimes defective. The inhabitants, almost exclusively negroes, call themselves Catholic, though they mingle many of the ancient super stitions with the practice of Christianity. 2. The Canaries, near the Moroccan head lands, are also a Spanish possession. Area (7 islands), 2,850 square miles ; population, 301, 000. Flora and fauna are European in char acter ; mean temperature, about 70°, with a difference of 17° between the hottest and coldest months. The inhabitants use the Spanish language exclusively, and in all re spects are scarcely distinguishable from the people of Spain. 3. Madeira is 360 miles from the African Coast and 535 miles from Portugal, to which it belongs politically. Two of the islands are in habited. Area, 325 square miles ; population, 134,000. The scenery is picturesque, the cli mate delightful. Sugar and wine are the chief products. The inhabitants are mostly Portu guese, with an admixture of Arab and Negro blood among the lower classes. East African Islands. — 1. Sokotra, 150 miles east of Cape Guardafui, the extreme point of Somaliland, is a crown colony of Great Britain, and is administered from Aden. Area, 1,000 square miles ; population, 12,000. The surface is largely rocky, some of the crests being 4,700 feet high. Not generally fertile, valleys and tracts are found whose vegetation contrasts markedly with the neighboring shores of Asia and Africa. Climate is less sultry than that of Arabia, being relieved by the monsoons. The people are almost exclusively pastoral. Cattle, sheep, goats, asses, camels, have been intro duced. Reptiles are common. Mohammedan ism prevails. Nearly all the people call them selves Arabs, though they are of mixed ori gin. 2. The Seychelles, 5° south of the Equator and about 800 miles from the African seaboard, form a group of 29 islets disposed in circular form, as if resting upon a submerged atoll 90 miles in circumference. In some of the islands granite rocks rise to a height of 2,000 to 3,300 feet. Population, 15,456. A British depend ency, it is administered from Mauritius. Cli mate, equable and fairly salubrious, ranging between 84° and 78°. Tobacco, cacao, coffee, sugar, rice, etc., are raised. Exports are cocoa- nuts, vanilla, tortoise-shell, and cloves. Goats are the chief domestic animals. The current speech is the French patois of Mauritius. Many negroes, mostly rescued by British cruisers from Arab dhows, are found on the islands. Missionary work is carried on by the Scottish Presbyterian and the Colonial and Continental Societies. 3. About half way between the Seychelles and Madagascar are the Amirantes, only 6 of which are inhabited, and these by settlers from Sey chelles and Mauritius. 4. Midway between Madagascar and the Afri can mainland are the Comoro Islands, in the Mozambique Channel. They belong to France. Area, 800 square miles ; population, 50,000. The Kartal Volcano, in the Great Comoro Island, occasionally active, is 8,500 feet high, beautiful and imposing. Temperature ranges between 68° and 84° from May to October, and in the wet season between 77° and 95°. Rains are copious and the soil fertile. The inhabitants, called Ant'Aloch, are a mixture of African, Arab, and Malay elements ; the religion is Mo hammedanism ; one half the population con sists of slaves. The current speech is a variety of Ki-Swahili, though the official language is Arabic. English capitalists own plantations on some of these islands. 5. Mauritius, or Isle of France, 940 miles southeast of the Seychelles and 550 east of Madagascar. Area, 713 square miles ; popula tion, about 400,000. It is a crown colony of Great Britain. The island is surrounded by coral reefs, and is of a very mountainous char acter. Hills rise to the height of 2,700 feet. From December to April the climate is oppres sively hot, and the island is visited by destruc tive cyclones and rain-storms. May to Novem ber the weather is cool and pleasant. Principal export is sugar. Two thirds of the population is made up of Hindu Coolies. The remainder is composed of French, English, half-castes, and some representatives from the African mainland and from Madagascar, the Malayan Archipelago, China, etc. The clergy are sup ported by the State, and represent the Church of England, Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic Church. Most of the whites are Cath olics. A government school system prevails. Protestant missionary work is carried on by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. African Methodist Episcopal Church, Missionary Board of the. — Headquarters, Room 61, Bible House, Astor Place, New York, N. Y., U. S. A. The foreign mission work of the African Methodist Episcopal Church is carried on at Port au Prince, Hayti, at San Domingo, in Sierra Leone, Africa, and in the Indian Territory. In Africa the outlook is especially hopeful. The work was commenced in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in 1886. A mission has since been organized in the interior, en the Scarcies River, where 10' acres of land were given to the missionaries by the king of the country. A mission house ac commodating 400 has been erected. Receipts for the quadrennium, 1884-88, $15,295. Agau, or Falasha Kara, a language belonging to the Hamitic group of African lan guages, and spoken by the Falasha Jews in the Kara district of Abyssinia, about Metam- meh. These Jews, says Mr. Cust, occupy the anomalous position of not being Semitic either in blood or in speech. During the year 1884 the British and Foreign Bible Society published an edition of the Gospel of St. Mark in the Ethiopic character. The version was made by a converted Falasha Jew named Beru, from Professor Rheinisch's Bogos version. The latter also revised and edited the translation. Ag-arpara, a village in the district east of Calcutta, India. A station of the C. M. S., with. AGARPARA 33 AINU 218 church -members and a house for female or phans. Agra, the capital of the province of the same name, forming a division of the north western provinces of British India, stands in the open plain of Duab, has 160,200 inhabi tants, and is steadily gaining. The first mis sion was started here in 1812 by Chaplain Cor- rie, C*»M. S. ; in 1839 arrived Mr. Pfander. The public disputations between the latter and the Mohammedan scholars in 1854 made a great sensation. The Mohammedans raised the green flag, the war token, but their leaders were com pelled to flee to Mecca or Constantinople. There are now 800 Christians in the city, among whom 40 are Baptists. Besides its common schools, the mission maintains a normal school, a medi cal high-school, male and female, opened in 1881 by Dr. Valentine, and the College of St. John. It is also occupied as a station by the Baptist Miss. Soc. (Eugland) and the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A. Aguascaiientes, Mexico, capital of the smallest State in the Mexican Republic, 270 miles northwest of Mexico City. Surrounded with rich gardens abounding in olives, figs, vines, pears, etc. Climate, temperate ; aver age, 58° Fahr. Population, 30,000 Mexicans. Language, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic. Mission station of Cumberland Presbyterian Church (1888) ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 native helpers, 1 out-station, 1 church, 9 members ; contributions, $500. Agune. — Town in Nagasaki district, Japan, which borders on the east coast of the island of Kiushiu Mission station Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A. ; 1 native preacher, 40 church-members. Ahntadabad, the capital of the province of Gujarat, the presidency of Bombay, British India, has 120,000 inhabitants. A station was founded here in 1842 by the S. P. G. Since 1863 it has been occupied by the Irish Presby. terian Church Mission, which sustains a high- school and a, printing establishment. In 1877 a peculiar movement caused considerable trouble. The converts of the caste Dhed op posed the reception by the mission of converts from the lower castes, and many of them left the mission themselves. One missionary, 1 lay teacher, 3 zenana missionaries, and 1 medical (female) missionary ; 20 native helpers. Ahmadnagar, a city in the presidency of Bombay, British India, stands on the Deccan plateau and on a line of rail joining Dhond on the Bombay and Madras line, with Manmad on the Bombay and Calcutta line. It has 37,500 inhabitants, and is one of the most promising stations of the A. B. C. F. M., with a high- school, a college, a theological seminary, a girls' boarding-school, and » church with a native pastor and over 300 members. In 1831 Graves, Hervey, and Reed, missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M., settled here, founded schools, and visit ed the neighboring villages. Some able Brah mins were converted. Still, up to 1855 the whole number of converts amounted only to 78. But then a movement arose which spread to about 100 villages, and brought over 600 com municants into the church. A convert, Krishna- rao, introduced, in 1862, the Kirttan at the meetings — songs on the life of Christ, sung with instrumental accompaniment. After 1869 many households declared themselves willing to pay- tithes. In 1874 there were 24 pastors partially, since 1882 entirely, maintained by the congre gations. The S. P. G. entered the field in 1870, and the Roman Catholics a few years later, and some friction was thus caused. Since 1879, however, the two Protestant societies have ami ably divided the field between them, and the Romanists have practically withdrawn. The A. B. C. F. M. has 3 missionaries, with their wives, 2 female missionaries ; also a station of the S. P. G. , with 4 missionaries and 2 schools. The Christian Vernacular Education Society also maintains a training school here, in close affiliation with the American mission, which avails itself largely of the advantages thus af forded for the proper training of its native teachers. Pupils are also sent to it by some of the other missions in the Presidency. Aidin, a city (called " Guzel Hissar," " beautiful castle ") in the province of Aidin, in Western Turkey, 57 miles southeast of Smyrna. Population, 40,000, chiefly Turks. It is a pretty place, picturesquely situated on the Mceander River, and built out of the ruins of the ancient city of Trades, once occupying this site. The city is noted for its activity, and possesses many khans, bazaars, mosques, pal aces, and interesting ruins. Out-station of the A. B. C. F. M. worked by the missionaries at Smyrna. Aimara, a South American language spoken. in the republic of Bolivia. A translation of the New Testament from the Vulgate was made in 1827 by Dr. Pazos Kanki. Of this translation. only the Gospel of Luke, with the Spanish ver sion in parallel, was issued in 1832 by the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society, which, up to March 31st, 1889, disposed of 1,404 copies. Bible work is now more effectively carried on. by the American Bible Society through the Val paraiso Bible Society. {Specimen verse, John 3 : 16.) Hucama Diosaja "mundo munana, sapa Yokapa quitani, taque haquenaca iau-sixi iftayan baoafia-pataqui. Ainos, or Ain us (i.e. , men). Tribes inhabit ing Saghalien, Yezo, the Kurile islands and various adjacent regions, partly under Japanese and partly under Russian jurisdiction. Tra dition says that the Japanese were originally Ainos, and only became a distinct race by in termarrying with the Chinese. The Ainos are different from other Mongolian tribes, and in their more vigorous physical formation resem ble the Caucasian type. Though armed and painted like savages, they are inoffensive and hospitable, but rather shy. They are pagans, and practise polygamy, groups of 10 or 12 families living together in miserable huts, with a chief for each group. They support them selves by hunting and fishing. There is no special mission work, though there are portions of the Scriptures translated for them. Ainu, the language spoken by the Ainos. They have no literature of any kind, and though they are able to speak a low patois of Japanese, they can neither read nor write that language, nor are they able to follow or understand a ser mon preached to them in Japanese. They there fore require a version of the Scriptures in their own language, which the Rev. J. Batchelor, of AINU 34 AKOLA the Church Missionary Society, has reduced to writing. He also published a very important Ainu grammar, being the only foreigner who understands the language. A translation of the Gospel of Matthew was published in 1887 at Tokio, and was followed by the publication of the Book of Jonah in 1888. Both parts are in Roman characters. Aintab, a city of Asia Minor, about 25 miles west of the Euphrates, near the Syrian frontier, has 35,000 inhabitants, chiefly Turks and Armenians. One of the most flourishing stations of the A. B. C. F. M. , with a large female seminary, a college founded in 1874, and a medical institute founded in 1880. There are 4 large churches, 2 of them having stone buildings, with accommodation for over 1,000 each. The Protestant community is one of the most influential in Turkey. The effort in 1863, to establish an Episcopal cathedral failed, In the early part of 1890 there was a great revival, and large numbers of persons were converted. The common schools are on the graded system, are supported entirely by the people, and are of very marked efficiency. Aintab College, al though independent, is closely connected with the mission. The hospital and dispensary has been most efficient. The missionary force consists of 3 missionaries, with their wives, and 3 female missionaries. (See Armenia.) Aitutaki, one of the 9 Hervey Islands (q.v.) ; the inhabitants are Christians, with native preachers. Mission station of L. M. S. ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 native pastors. Aiyonsli, a station of the C. M. S., in the diocese of Caledonia, British Columbia, founded in 1883. Ajimadidi, a missioD station of the Nether lands Missionary Society in the Minahasa Pen insula of Celebes (q.v.). Ajniere (British India), the smallest of the five proviDces into which the presidency of Ben. gal is divided. It is situated in Rajputana, in the northwestern part of India, some 900 miles from Calcutta, in a straight line. Its limits of latitude (north) are 25° 30' and 26° 45', and of east longitude, 73° 53' and 75° 22'. Its area, in cluding the district of Marwara, which forms its southern portion, is only 2,7ll square miles, and its population in 1881, 460,722. It is en tirely surrounded by districts under native con trol, and thus forms an island of British terri tory in the midst of the Rajput States of that region. The chief executive officer of the prov ince is the commissioner of Ajmero-Merwara, but the agent of the Governor- General for Rajputana is ex-officio chief commissioner of the province, and in this way the provincial gov ernment is brought into direct relations with the general government. The province occu pies the crest of the water shed between the valley of the Ganges and the Indian Ocean ; some of its streams flow eastward, and become tributary to some of the branches of the Ganges, while the waters of others flow southwest into the Gulf of Cutch. A range of hills, the highest being nearly 3,000 feet above sea level, runs from the northeast through the district to the southwest. North nnd west of Ajmere the country is a sandy desert. The population is 87 per cent. Hindu and 13 per cent. Mohamme dan. Included among the former are the Jains (q. v.). The number of Jews, Parsis, and Eu ropeans is hardly great enough to be appreci able, amounting, all told, to only a little above 2,000 souls. Of the high Hindu castes, the Brahmans are returned at 22,388 and the Raj puts (see article Rajput) at 14,965. Other castes embrace the merchants, while the Jats (32,690) and the Gujars (31,788) are the princi pal agricultural castes. There are also several tribes of aborigines, known as Mers, or Hill Men. The population is not dense, averaging 170 to the square mile. There are but few large towns. Ajmere, the capital of the province, contained in 1881 a population of 48,735 ; Beawr, the capital of the Merwara division, 15,829 ; Nasirabad, where a detachment of the Indian army is stationed, 21,320, and Kekri, 6,119. These are the only towns with a popu lation above 5,000. As the district lies on the border of the Rajputana Desert, and is not fa vorably situated with reference to the rainfall (the yearly average of rain being hardly over 22 inches), it is liable to suffer from failure of the crops. There have been six famines within the present century. The most severe was that of 1868-69, during which it was estimated that a quarter of the population and a third of the cattle perished. Ajmere is now connected by rail with the other Indian provinces. One line leads northeasterly to Agra ; another, toward the south, joins the Bombay and Baroda Rail way ; while still a third connects with the Great Indian Peninsula Railway at the station of Khandwa, on the east. The United Presbyterian Church of Scotland has missions in this province, with stations at Beawr (1860), Nasirabad (1861), Ajmere (1862), Todghar (1863), Deoli (1871). The principal languages are Marwari and Hindustani. Ajuthia, a place in Siam, Farther India, now mostly in ruins, is a branch station of the American Presbyterian Mission station in Bang kok (q.v.). Akasa, a town in the Niger delta, West Africa, founded in 1861, at the mouth of the Nun; a branch station of the C. M. S. , under Bishop Crowther. It has not proved a favora ble field on account of European influences. Akaslii, a town on the southern coast of the island of Nipon, Japan, southwest of Kioto, east of Okayama, and 12 miles west of Kobe ; substation of A. B. C. F. M., worked from Kobe Union Church of Christ, in Japan. Akidll, a city in the southwestern part of the Teluguland, presidency of Madras, British India, on Lake Koler. A flourishing station of the Baptists of Ontario and Quebec, having, to gether with Tuni, 1,394 church-members. A kiln, a city in the island of Hondo, Japan, with 36,000 inhabitants. A station of the Dis ciples of Christ ; 1 missionary, 144 church-mem bers. Akkaway, or Acawaio, a language of South America, and spoken in Dutch Guiana. Between the years 1850-60 the Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge, at London, pub lished the Book of Genesis and a part of the Gospel of Matthew, the translation having been made by the Rev. W. H. Brett. Akola Mission, Berar, Haiderabad, India, in part self-supporting, aided by voluntary con tributions. The mission (formerly North *Berar AKOLA 35 ALBANIA Mission) was organized in 1886, with 4 mem bers, who had previously been engaged in in dependent " faith" work in India. At present the mission numbers 5 — the Rev. M. B. Fuller, Mrs. Fuller, and 3 lay members. The four cold months of the year Mr. Fuller devotes to preaching tours, reaching as many towns and villages as possible. On these tours thousands of tracts and portions of Scripture are sold. In the rainy season, when travelling is difficult, Mr. Fuller preaches in Akola and in neighbor ing villages. The Akola district comprises 2,660 square miles, with a population of 600,- 000. There are 970 towns and villages. The town of Akola contains 20,000 inhabitants. A girls' school and orphanage, for both European and native girls, has been established ; it now contains 20 girls. There are 18 boys in the Boys' Industrial School. Shoemaking, carpen try, and blacksmithiug are taught ; this school, it is hoped, will soon become self supporting. Work among women in Akola and in the near villages is carried on by Mrs. Fuller and native Bible women. A Sunday-school, growing in numbers and interest, is sustained. In this mission each worker is left free in the manage ment of his own branch of work, and holds himself responsible for the expenses of it. Pupils showing exceptional ability are trained to be preachers or teachers, but the main object of the mission is to fit its scholars, by means of a common-school education and a good trade, to earn their own living and to bear their share in the support of the native churches, which it hopes soon to see formed. Akola, capital of Western Berar, or Wirata, a division of the province of Central India. Since 1883 a faith mission has been carried on by American and English Methodists. Akropong, a city on the Gold Coast, West Africa, 15 miles north of Aburi, in the domain of the Otshi, or Ashanti language, has the largest native congregation in the whole re gion, comprising 1,753 church-members, a preachers' seminary with 24 pupils, a middle school and a boys' school, all under the Basle Missionary Society, which at the present has 5 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife, and 29 Dative helpers employed at this station. Akwapem. — This is a dialect of the Otshi or Ashanti language of the Gold Coast and Ashantiland, in West Africa. A version of portions of the Scriptures is being prepared through the British and Foreign Bible Society. Albania. — In giving some account of the Albanians of Turkey from an evangelistic point of view, we shall notice : 1. Their country ; 2. Their history; 3. Their language, and, 4. Their present position, and what it seems de sirable should be done for them. 1. Their Country. — The region now called Al bania is a province of European Turkey, stretching along the eastern shore of the Adri atic from 39° to 43° north latitude, and from 18° 24' to 21° 48' east longitude. Its extreme length is about 300 miles, from Montenegro to the Gulf of Arta and the frontiers of Greece, while its breadth varies from 50 to 100 miles, from the Adriatic to an irregular line on the east, generally following lofty mountain ranges. It is decidedly mountainous, being traversed by two or even three elevated ranges, which gen erally run parallel to the shore of the Adriatic, those in the south being the Aerokeraunian along the sea shore and Pindus on the east. It is also well watered, its lofty mountains giv ing rise to numerous streams, among which the most important are the Arta, flowing south, the Voyussa, flowing northwest, in South Albania ; and in North Albania the Ergent, the Shcumbi, and the Drin, which flow westward. There are important fisheries on some of the rivers, but none of them are navigable, while the large lakes of Jannina, Castoria, Ochrida, and Scu tari impart a peculiar interest to the country. The princial towns are Jannina in the south, with its port of Prevesa ; Berat in the centre, with its ports of Avlona and Durazzo, and Scu tari, or Scodra, in the extreme north, on the lake of the same name. Next to these, which are the seats of Turkish Valis, come Elbassan, Argyrocastro, Koritza, Prevesa, Avlona, and Durazzo. The soil is light but fertile, and in several districts is well cultivated ; but much of it lies waste, partly from defective methods of agriculture, but also from the insecurity of life and property in consequence of the bands of robbers that so frequently infest the country and commit the most frightful excesses. It is difficult to form any reliable estimate of the population, but probably 2,000,000 may not be far from the truth. The name Albania, first applied to this coun try a.d. 1079, originated from Elbassan, the seat of the tribe of Albani in the centre of the land. Anciently the region from Prevesa to the mouth of the Voyussa was called Epirus, and was con sidered more or less as a province of Greece, while all north of the Voyussa was known as Illyricum. Hence we may conclude that the Apostle Paul himself preached the Gospel in Albania, when he tells us (Rom. 15 : 19) that " from Jerusalem, and round about unto Illyri cum, I have fully preached the Gospel of Christ," and again (2 Tim. 4 : 10) that Titus had departed unto Dalmatia. He tells us in deed that he was to winter at Nicopolis (Tit. 3 : 12), the ruins of which are a little north of Prevesa. 2. The History of the Albanians. — The earliest authentic notices of the country occur in con nection with the Greek colonies of Epidamnus, or Dyrrachium, now Durazzo, the ancient port of transit from Brundusium (Brindisi) and Epi- daurus, in Dalmatia, to which we may add the later one of Jannina, which seems to have grown up almost unnoticed, not far from the ancient Oracle of Dodona, on the western shore of the lake of the same name. There is now also a large colony of Roumanians, called Koutzo- Vlachs, occupying the Pindus range from Thes- saly to Avlona, with ramifications on both sides, and holding in their hands the carrying trade of that district. As they speak Roumanian, however, they are doubtless colonies from Daeia, or Roumania, north of the Danube, and cannot claim a higher antiquity than the reigns of Trajan and Adrian (a.d 98-138), but are prob ably of much later origin. It is far otherwise with the bulk of the population, who call them selves Skipetar (the Eagle people), but accept also the name of Arnaouts, and though divided into numerous clans with dialective varieties, speak the same language, and are distinguished by many peculiar customs and ideas. The two chief dialects are the Tosk, prevailing in the south as far north as Berat, and the Gheg, spoken in the region north of that city. As ALBANIA 36 ALBANIA there are Albanian colonies in Calabria, on the opposite coast of Italy, and in the island of Sicily, while there seem to be traces over a con siderable part of Southern and Central Italy that the Albanian language, or one closely akin, to it, was once prevalent there, an interesting question has been raised as to the affinity of the Albanians with the original inhabitants of Italy. We cannot enter on this inquiry, and must content ourselves with briefly stating the best ascertained facts and probable conclusions as to the Albanians of Turkey. Previous to the invasion by the Greeks of the country now called Greece, it was sparsely occu pied by several races, chiefly nomadic, of which far the most important for numbers and civili zation were the Pelasgi. They were largely an agricultural people ; were eminently distin guished as architects, almost all the most an cient and remarkable monuments of architect ure in Greece being ascribed to them ; they were acquainted with the higher styles of pot tery, with working in various metals, with the manufacture of cloth, and with other arts which render civilized life so much more attractive than the rude habits of earlier times. But most important of all, it is the opinion of Dr. Hahn, the great authority on such questions, that this people possessed the Phoenician alpha bet, which they had enlarged and adapted to represent the copious sounds of their own lan guage, and which the Albanians appear to have preserved to our own times. Their religion seems to have been the worship of the sun and moon, the heavens, the sea, the earth, with more or less of personification ; while the Fates, or the eternal decrees of a Supreme Deity, were regarded as controlling all things. They had also many semi-religious notions and customs, which seem to have been coeval with the earliest traces we possess of the Greeks and Romans. According to this view, the Alba nians in Continental Greece, in Thessaly, Attica, and various parts of the Peloponnesus, and in the islands of Hydra, Poros, Spezzia, Salamis, Andros, etc., are not colonies from Albania, but communities of the original inhabitants, retaining to this day their distinct language and nationality. But notwithstanding this prog ress among the Pelasgi, the Greek invaders had more advanced ideas still in regard to social order and personal liberty, and much greater aptitude for literature and the sciences, and perhaps a clearer apprehension of the per sonality of the Deity, though perverted by an exuberant imagination, which everywhere per sonified abstract ideas and deified those per sonifications, and by an idolatry, the degrading effects of which even the matchless skill of Phidias and Praxiteles could not counteract, but rather riveted them on the people. Hence, while the Pelasgi communicated to the Greeks all their own attainments, they were soon ex celled by the new-comers. The Greeks gained universal pre-eminence, and only such of the Pelasgi rose to distinction as adopted the lan guage and name of the Greeks, and were con tent that their Pelasgic origin should be forgot ten. The lyre of the poet also and the pen of the historian were in the hands of the Greeks ; ancl, in fact, the very name and existence of these Pelasgi are ignored in Grecian history. Literature and civilization advanced, but through the medium of the Greek language only, while the mass of the Pelasgi, clinging to their own language, must have lagged far be hind their neighbors in intelligence, in social influence, and in the refinements of civilized life. This is no imaginary picture, for we be lieve it can be distinctly proved to have existed in ancient Greece ; and it is an exact descrip tion of the present relative position of the Greeks and Albanians, both in the kingdom of Greece and in Albania. It may perhaps be re joined that, granting all this, things are just as they should be, the more gifted race — for such the Greeks are in some respects — coming to the front. We demur to this, and assert that there is cruel injustice in the policy which consigns to ignorance and degradation any considerable portion of the population of a State. But there were counterbalancing circum stances, such as, first, the intense spirit of na tionality among the Pelasgi, which made them cling to each other, to their language, and to their customs and traditions with invincible tenacity ; next, the rapid increase of their num bers, which made them crowd over into Thes saly and Macedonia, and, third, unquestionable personal valor and military talent. These con siderations bulk so largely in the estimation of Dr. Hahn that, while he admits that the ex peditions of Agesilaus and of Xenophon sug gested to Alexander the idea of invading Persia, he ascribes his brilliant victories to the invinci ble bravery and discipline of the Albanians — or Pelasgi, for he identifies the two — who com posed the bulk of his army. The expedition of Pyrrhus against the Romans brings the people again for a little on the stage of history ; but in b.c. 167 they became subject to the Roman re public. Thenceforward their history may be briefly related. While furnishing brave troops to the government, their clans in their own land had too little cohesion to maintain anything like national unity, and it was only in presence of a common enemy that they laid aside their jeal ousies to defend their native soil. Two such occasions occurred : the Bulgarian invasion (a.d. 517-550), the extent and duration of which are indicated by a multitude of names on the map of Albania, but which was so effectually though slowly repulsed, that scarce any Bulgarians are left within the limits of the country. The next occasion was the heroic straggle of the people under Prince George Castriotes— called by the Turks Iskenderbeg (Scanderbeg), or Prince Alex ander, from his supposed resemblance to the great Greek warrior. For twenty-three years he successfully resisted the whole force of the Turks under Murad II. (a.d. 1443-66) ; and even after his death Scutari, under the direction of the Venetians, maintained so gallant a defence that Mehemet II. , the conqueror of Constantinople, had to retire from its walls in a d. 1478. But soon after that city was handed over to the Turks by treaty, and most of the country, with the ex ception of the Mirdites, professed allegiance to the Sultan. Since then, sunk in the deepest ignorance, harassed and tempted by the govern ment, and longing for military distinction, nearly one half of the nation have become Mo hammedans, though their orthodoxy is not ad mitted by their Turkish coreligionists. They have thus got admission into the army, of which they may justly be called the flower, and many individuals have risen to distinction. Pre-eminent among these was Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who succeeded in getting ALBANIA 37 ALBANIA his family recognized as the hereditary rulers of that ancient land, whose situation assigns to it a perpetual importance in the history of the world ; and much about the same time, Ali, Pasha of Jannina, by a course of unexampled cruelty, unscrupulousness, and dexterity, at tained for some years to almost absolute power, and is regarded by some as having paved the way fw the Greek war of independence. But he bore the Greeks no good-will ; and if he helped them, it was by showing the necessity for some central authority, if their scattered forces were ever to achieve anything important. Since the Greeks obtained their indepen dence, they have done much to promote educa tion in Greece, and their zeal has stimulated their brethren in the provinces of Turkey, and even the Turks and other nationalities, to copy their example. But it would be most unjust not to acknowledge also the powerful assistance that was rendered to them in the cause of edu cation by the English, and especially the Amer ican Missions to the Greeks, which were estab lished at that time. The regular weekly visits, too, of the Austrian steam-packets along the Albanian coast have greatly promoted commerce in every part of the country. Nor must we omit to mention a singular and ancient char acteristic of this people, which steam-naviga tion has also facilitated — we mean the bands of men, married and unmarried, who leave their homes for Constantinople, Smyrna, Bucarest, Salonica, Alexandria, etc., for periods varying from six months to as many years, to earn their subsistence and the support of their families as masons, gardeners, butchers, grocers, and laborers in every capacity. There is thus a floating Albanian population in all the cities of the Levant, that in Constantinople being esti mated at 20,000. Most of these emigrants are poorly educated, but are esteemed eminently brave, faithful, and trustworthy. Some, how ever, are highly educated, and are employed as teachers, doctors, dentists, clerks, interpreters, etc. The district of Zagorion, east of Jan nina, is famous for sending forth a high class of such emigrants. 3. The Albanian Language. — As the term "barbarian" was applied by the Greeks to all who spoke a different language from their own, we know that the Pelasgi in Greece itself, the Epirotes, and the Illyrians, with many of the Macedonians, spoke not Greek, but a differ ent language, which there is every reason to be lieve is tbe same as the Albanian, now spoken by their descendants. Its origin and character have been the subject of much discussion, some regarding it as belonging to the Indo-Germanic class, and others pronouncing it a Turanian language. In fact, like the Armenian, it par takes of the characteristics of both these classes ; but from its undoubted analogy in its peculiar roots to the Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, Celtic, etc., it is classed by many schoiars not as a derivative from any of these, but as a sister of equal an tiquity. A great obstacle to the critical study of Albanian is the absence of auy literature ex cept of comparatively recent origin. Hence not a little care is needed to distinguish the original terms and forms of the language from the many words adopted later from the Greek, Latin, Slavic, Turkish, and other languages. The sub ject has engaged much attention, and we may notice as pre-eminent ia this department Dr. Hahn, who compiled an Albanian dictionary and grammar, with many characteristic speci mens of the language, and Demetrio Camarda, who studied the language chiefly among the Al banian colonies of Calabria and Sicily, and has written largely on its structure and affinities. To promote these studies care is now taken to commit to writing such historical ballads as have been handed down to the present time, as well as other poems which have been preserved in various forms of writing. The publications also of the British and Foreign Bible Society and a few also by the Religious Tract Society, of London, have greatly aided these studies. Several grammars also have been published, among which we may mention that for the use of Greeks by Con. Christophorides, a native of Elbassan. There can be no doubt that the adoption of one alphabet for the whole nation is urgently called for ; and as such an alphabet, substantially the Roman, has been introduced by a representative committee, we trust it may soon come into general use. It is not indeed invulnerable to criticism ; but if once general ly adopted and introduced into the national schools, practice will suggest amendments. 4. The Present Position of ihe Albanians, and what it seems desirable should be done for them. — Under this division we happily escape from speculation and dubious historical intimations into the light of every-day facts. Here, then, is a nation occupying a considerable portion of Greece and its islands, stretching from the frontiers of Greece to those of Montenegro, and penetrating into Macedonia, which speaks a language entirely different from Greek, or the Slavic dialects of Bulgaria and Servia. Un happily, that language can hardly be said even yet to be a written language ; for though cer tain portions of the Holy Scriptures and some elementary educational works have been pub lished and largely circulated in that language, it would be premature to say that Albanian lit erature is in general use, or that the people em ploy the Albanian language as the medium of correspondence, the want of one accepted alphabet having been hitherto perhaps the chief obstacle. This fact alone speaks volumes ; for though in a nation without vernacular lit erature a certain proportion, favored by wealth or by local circumstances, may acquire a limited amount of education through a foreign language, the mass of the people must remain in barbarism. And so it is in Albania. In Southern and part of Central Albania, where the people belong to the Greek Church, and where the worship in the churches is conducted in ancient Greek, the schools give a scanty edu cation in Greek, which the children with diffi culty acquire, as their mothers are wholly illit erate, and Albanian is the sole language of their homes. The chief exception to this is that Jannina seems to have been from the first a Greek colony, and possesses a justly celebrated gymnasium, which has promoted Greek educa tion to a considerable extent in Southern Al bania, but is still very far from reaching the mass of the population. Something similar may be said, but in a far less degree, of Berat, Goritza, Elbassan, and Argyrocastro, with Mon- astir in Macedonia, which has a considerable Albanian population ; while Scutari in the north and Prisrend in the northeast, .both strongholds of the Roman Catholic Church, ALBANIA 38 ALBANIA teach reading and writing, the former in Italian and Albanian, the latter in the Servian lan guage, but without providing in either case either the Word of God or any literature what ever to satisfy the intellectual and spiritual wants of the people. As to the Mohammedan population, the government has generally pro vided schools in which Turkish reading and writing are taught, and in some instances Arabic and Persic. But the people evince an inveterate preference for their own vernacular, and there is no likelihood that Turkish will ever take its place. In short, the national lan guage has been ignored and suppressed as a mere jargon, unworthy of notice and incapable of cultivation, while every effort has been used by the Greeks to Hellenize the people through Church and school. It would be unjust to deny that 5. certain amount of benefit has been con ferred on the Albanians through these efforts; we even thankfully admit that tbe only educa tion which the people have as yet acquired in the south has been through the Greek language. But what opinion can be entertained of a Church that has made no effort for many cen-* turies to communicate to the Albanians, in their own language, the precious treasure of God's Word, or even the mere arts of reading and writing ? To the mass of the Albanians the services of the Greek Church are a mere panto mime in a foreign tongue, with no preaching, and with little indeed to minister to the intel lectual and spiritual cravings of the immortal spirit. On the other hand, the Turks, white they jibed the people as the Kitabsiz Arnaout — the bookless Albanians — fomented jealousies between the tribes, and foolishly sought to keep them divided and in ignorance, while amusing them with promises of a national lit erature, which there is no evidence that they ever meant to fulfil. What, then, has been the resu?t of this singular state of matters? The answer is a very sad one. Albania is the least civilized of all the provinces of Turkey. Ex cept at rare and short intervals, under honest and energetic Pashas, brigandage, with its cruel murders and atrocities, may almost be said to be a constant feature of the country ; so much so, that the districts of Dibra, Jakova, Ipek, have long been inaccessible to outsiders, while the Mirdites, southeast of Scutari, retain even now a barbarous semi-independence, to guard which all strangers are jealously excluded. That the people possess valor, military genius, and high administrative ability might easily be proved ; but under the conditions we have de scribed, national progress has been impossible. The same causes which led to their political disappearance in ancient Greece have kept them till now in semi-barbarism, while their neighbors all around have been advancing in civilization and national influence. The first well-directed effort, as we believe, to remedy these evils was the publication by the Corfu Auxiliary of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in 1820, of the New Testament in Tosk Albanian, in Greek letters, accom panied by a modern Greek translation. The impression consisted of 2,000 copies, and was distributed chiefly, if not entirely by gift. In 1858 a second edition, also of 2,000 copies, was published at Athens. Vigorous efforts were made to put this edition into the hands of the people by sale, and although many of the clergy and of the people regarded it as almost impious to express the sacred truths of the Gospel in the language of common life, these efforts were so successful that a new edition was sanctioned by the Society, in an improved style of orthog raphy, and published in 1879. This new and revised edition of the New Testament consisted also of 2,000 copies, but along with it were pub lished 1,000 Gospels and Acts in one volume and 1,000 of each of the 4 Gospels and of the Acts for separate circulation, all of these being accompanied by the Society's translation into modern Greek. The Psalms were also published in Tosk in 1868 ; the Gospels and Acts in Gheg in 1866 ; the Gheg Psalms in 1868, and the entire Gheg New Testament in 1869. But as the two latter editions were de stroyed by fire as soon as their circulation had begun, the Society generously sanctioned at once a new edition of the Gheg Testament and Psalms, which was published in 1872. These editions were followed by the publication in Tosk of the Books of Genesis, Exodus, Deuteronomy, Prov erbs, and Isaiah. All the Tosk editions were published in Greek letters, supplemented hy Roman letters and signs, while the Gheg edi tions were printed in the Roman alphabet, pro posed for the Albanian language by Lepsius. The Tosk New Testament only and its parts are accompanied by a translation. The com mittee were well aware that it was most desira ble to have but one alphabet for the whole na tion. But the selection of such an alphabet they left to the Albanians themselves, and, in the meantime, used the alphabets known to the people for whom the books were designed. The Society's efforts met and still meet with much opposition from the Greek clergy, and especial ly the bishops, who regard the circulation of the Word of God in Albanian as contrary to all Church order and almost impious, while others, both clergy and laity, despise it as impractica ble and ridiculous. The reflecting part of the community, however, have begun to regard the scheme as tbe only one that gives any hope of uniting all sections of the nation ; and, as we have said, an influential committee was formed which adopted one alphabet for the whole na tion, prepared various school-books, and opened an Albanian school in the city of Goritza (or Gortcha) in 1887. Meanwhile, a young Albanian preacher, who had been educated at Samakov by the American Board's Mission for labor among the Bulga rians, was led to devote himself to the evan gelization of his countrymen, and for that end entered the service of the British and Foreign Bible Society. In the prosecution of his duty he was carried off by brigands in 1881, and dur ing a, six months' cruel captivity learned from experience the miseries under which his nation groaned. He was ransomed at a high sum, and resumed his labors with energy and success. During a visit he made to Goritza, in 1887, the preaching of the Gospel in Albanian, and the singing by the pupils of the school of some hymns which he had translated, made a deep impres sion on the audience, among whom were many Mohammedans, and he was cordially invited to return. The supporters of the school also re quested the Bible Society to publish certain portions of Scripture in the new alphabet, and engaged that the books should be read by both boys and girls, Mohammedans and Christians, of all denominations. Their request was granted, and the portions — Genesis and the ALBANIA 39 ALEXANDER, WILLIAM P. Gospel by Matthew — are now (October, 1889) in circulation. Difficulties may arise from the government, from the Greek or Romish Churches, or from the people themselves, but we regard the mul tiplication of schools in which the teaching of Albanian shall have its rightful degree of atten tion, the circulation of the Bible, and, above all, the preaching of the gospel in Albanian in every corner of the land, together with the prep aration of a cheap but wholesome Albanian literature, as the best means of elevating the nation. But we would by no means be under stood as desiring to exclude the study of Greek, Turkish, and English, which we regard as essential to national progress. We merely in sist that the vernacular language be made the basis of instruction, and especially that the people should everywhere have tho gospel read and preached in their own tongue. Efforts are being made to prepare Albanians, male and female, for work among their own people, but little can be done without the aid of some in fluential body. We rejoice to learn that the American Board, that has done so much for Turkey, may at last come to the rescue, and enter on this field, in which modern barbarism and ancient civilization so strangely meet. Albanian Versions. — (See previous ar ticle.) ((Specimen verses. John 3 : 16.) Gheg. SepsS Perendia kak'i e desti botenc, sa^ Sa Birin' e vet, vetem-l'emiDe, per mos me uvdiere giee-kus t'i besoye, por te kete yete te pa- Tosk. Si i/re UepvTia icdice e Seat, TrdVez'e, mzh: phaajp • ih£©*: tut At: wax-; fc'i'E-:: Amoibic, a town on the northern boun dary of Natal, South Africa. A mission station of the Swedish Church Mission. Amoy, South China, on the southern coast of an island of the same name belonging to the province of Fuh-Kien. A seaport town, with an excellent harbor. Climate, cool in winter, wet in spring, hot in summer. Popu lation, 250,000. Social condition poorer than in most prov inces of China. Mission station L. M. S. (1844) ; 4 missionaries and wives, 2 single ladies, 71 native helpers, 60 out-stations, 36 churches, 1,478 members, 1 theological seminary, 9 stu dents, 19 other schools, 248 scholars. Contri butions, $4 430.52. (The above includes a large mission at Chiceng, partially separate from the Amoy Mission, managed by one ordained mis sionary and a physician.) Also of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in Amer ica (1812), and transferred from the A. B. C. F. M. in 1854 ; 6 ordained missionaries, 1 unordained, 7 missionaries' wives, 2 other ladies, 36 native helpers, 25 out-stations, 8 churches, 861 members, 1 theological school, 6 students, 12 other schools, 225 scholars. Con tributions, $2,367.66. Also of the English Presbyterians (1851) : 5 or dained, 2 medical, 3 female missionaries, 8 churcht-s, 39 unorganized congregations, 0 na tive pastors, 918 communicants. A moy Colloquial. — One of the languages of China, spoken in Amoy and in the neighbor hood of Formosa. A translation of the New Tes tament into the Amoy Colloquial was printed at Glasgow in 1873, the work having been per formed by Revs. J. Macgregor, W. S. Swanson, H. Cowie, J. L. Maxwell, and others. It is in the Roman character. The Psalms, translated by the Rev. J. Stronach, were published in 1873. The Old Testament, prepared by a repre sentative committee of the missionaries at Amoy, was carried through the press in England by the Rev. J. L. Maxwell and completed in 1884. In the year 1885 a Revision Committee composed of the missionaries of the Amoy and For mosa Missions was formed, which is still at work. The work and expense of the .new re vision is shared alike by the British and For eign and the American Bible Societies. Pro vision has also been made for the blind people of Formosa and Amoy, who are said to number about 2,000, in furnishing them with the Gos pel of Matthew. The work was prepared by the Rev. W. Campbell, missionary of the Pres byterian Church of England. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) riiong-te oblong tok-sin e Kia" siun su -ee-kan, ho sin i e lang fn sai tlm-lun oS tit-tioh eng. oah ; I thia" se-kan e lang kau an-ni. Ampamarinana,atown of Central Mada gascar, near Antananarivo. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 1 missionary and wife, 63 out- stations, 5,619 church members, 62 schools, 3,028 scholars. Amparibe, a town of Central Madagascar, a little northwest of Antananarivo. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 1 missionary, 55 out- stations. Amritsar, a commercial centre of the Pun jab, India, and the chief seat of the Sikh wor- AMRITSAR ANDREWS, LORRIN ship. Population, 152,000. In 1852 the C. M. S. founded a station here, with high-schools and a medical establishment, and one of the largest and richest congregations in India. In 1866 thd Mohammedan scholar, Imadeddin, was converted, and ordained in 1868. A Sikh priest has also been converted and branch stations established at Varowal and Clarkabad. The ecclesiastical council of the Punjab holds its annual meetings here. Amroha, in the Rohilkhund division of the presidency of the Northwestern Provinces, India. A station of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North, with 718 church - members, mostly Sikhs, but some Moslems. Amurang, a station of the Netherland Missionary Society in the Minahasa peninsula of Celebes, East Indies (q.v.). Anaa, the most populous of the 78 Taumotu, or Tuamotu Islands, Polynesia. Population, 1,300. The people were visited by Christian mis sionaries in 1818, and were converted, together with many from neighboring islands. Churches were built, but then nobody came to preach in them. Later on the Roman Catholics arrived, and finally the Mormons. Tney were quite successful. In 1884 all the Mormons joined the Roman Church. The Paris Evangelical Missionary Society has attempted some work, but with little success. Analekely, Central Madagascar, in the Imerina district, not far northeast of Antan anarivo. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 1 mis sionary, 1 native pastor. Anand, a town in the Gujarat district, Bombay, India. Since 1878 a station of the Irish Presbyterian Church, with a high-school, around which a numerous congregation has gathered. Anandapur, a city in the Kanara district, India, between Malabar and Goa, Madras, South India, has famous coffee plantations. A sta tion of the North German Missionary Society, with 265 members. Andai, one of the three stations of the Utrecht Missionary Society in the Dutch part of New Guinea, twenty miles southeast of Dore ; has a printing establishment. Andaman Islands, a long narrow group of small islands in the eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. Area, 3,000 square miles. They in clude the North, Middle, South and Little Anda man islands, with a number of islets, and all are densely wooded. Climate, very unhealthy. Population, inl881, 11,452 convicts and 6,000 (?) natives. The natives are a diminutive aud bar barous people, who seem to be distinct from all other known races in physical features, lan guage, and customs. They are of short stature, with very ugly features and very black skin ; they wear no clothing except a thick plaster of mud, intended to protect them from the attacks of insects ; they live in the moRt wretched huts, subsist by fishing, never till the ground, have no implements that will resist fire, will hold no intercourse with strangers. They worship one great God and three malevolent deities in sea and forest, and minor divinities. The British formed a settlement on the largest island in 1793, with the purpose of making a penal colony for convicts from Bengal, but abandoned it three years later on account of the climate. After that the group was seldom visited until 1858, when a penal settlement on one of the islandB was formed. These islands have given occasion to repeated missionary efforts among their naked cannibal and apparently decaying population. The S. P. G. sent a missionary to Port Blair in 1884, who has since been recalled. A chaplain, in 1865, founded an orphan asylum and baptized a few persons. At Port Blair, to which 7,600 convicts have been transported, a few of the savages have also settled, and the Lord's Prayer has been trans lated into their language. Anderson, William, a missionary of the L. M. S. to South Africa, 1800-48. Associated with Mr. Kircherer in the mission to the Bush men, he commenced the Griqua Mission in July, 1801 ; d. at Pascaltsdorp, September 24th, 1852, aged 83. Andohalo, a branch station of the L. M. S. station in Antananarivo, the capital of Mada gascar. A ndo voranl o, a city on the eastern coast of Madagascar, and an S. P. G. station, founded in 1874. It now has 53 communicants under the care of one European missionary. Andrews, Lorrin, b. April 29th, 1795, at East Windsor (now Vernon), Conn.; graduated at Jefferson College, Pa. ; Princeton Theological Seminary, 1825 ; sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M., Nov. 3d, 1827, for the Sandwich Islands, reaching Honolulu, March 31st, 1828 ; was stationed at Lahaina with Mr. Richards. In 1831 he was appointed to establish the Lahainaluna Seminary, which was opened in September of that year with 25 pupils. During the succeeding ten years he exerted himself to found the institution on a permanent basis. By the assistance of Messrs. Dibble, Clark, Emer son, and others, it became the University of Hawaii. During his connection with the in stitution he performed a vast amount of literary labor, besides his duties as professor. He was associated with others in the translation of the Bible. In 1842 he resigned his position as a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M. from anti-slavery scruples, believing it to be wrong for the Board to receive funds from slave States. In 1844 he officiated as seaman's chaplain at Lahaina. In 1845 he removed to Honolulu, and received the appointment of judge under the Hawaiian Government. For many years he sat upon the bench and officiated with ability and integrity. His services were highly appreciated by Judge Lee. For many years he acted as secretary of the Privy Council, keeping the records in Eng lish and Hawaiian. He resigned his office of judge in 1855, but so highly did the govern ment appreciate his labors that an annuity of $1,000 was appropriated and continued by suc cessive legislatures to the very last. During the later years of his life, though his labors were less public than before, his mind and pen were constantly occupied, and at times he employed a native amanuensis. His Hawaiian Dictionary, defining nearly 17,000 words, occupied him for many years. His research into the ancient his tory, meles or songs, and literature of the Ha waiian people, has been very extensive. A Honolulu paper says, " As a scholar he was thorough and profound. As a preacher, sound ANDREWS, LORRIN 87 ANHALT-SCHMEDT and logical. Touching pecuniary matters, he was disinterested and unselfish. During his long connection with the Hawaiian Government as a public officer no one ever called in question his honesty and integrity. A short time before his death he became nearly blind, but continued his literary labors, employing an amanuensis. He died at Honolulu, September 29th, 1868. Ancityum, the southernmost island of the southernmost group of the New Hebrides. Population, 2,000, all of whom were converted under the preaching of the Presbyterian mis sionary, Rev. Mr. Geddie, of Nova Scotia, be tween 1848, when he arrived, and 1872, when he died. They paid themselves $5,000 toward the translation and printing of the Bible, and have sent out fifty native missionaries to other countries, principally to the neighboring isl ands. (See New Hebrides Mission.) Aneityum, a language belonging to the Melanesia languages, and spoken in Aneityum, New Hebrides, by a people belonging to the Papuan stock. In 1852 the Rev. John Inglis from New Zealand joined Mr. Geddie. The work of translating the Scriptures was soon com menced, and in 1863 the entire New Testament was in the hands of the natives. In 1878 the Old Testament left the press at London, the work having been under the superintendence of Mr. Inglis. Considering the fact that in the year 1848 there was not a sentence of the Aneityum language reduced to writing, and also consider ing the fact that the natives paid for almost all the copies of Scripture which were printed, there is all and every reason for thankfulness. Alto gether there were disposed of up to March 31st, 1889, 20,630 copies of Scriptures, in part or as a whole. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Is um ucce naiheuc vai iji pece asega o Atua is abrai Inhal o un is eti ache aien, va eri eti emesmas a ilpu atimi asgeig iran asega, jam leb mitai umoh iran ineig inyi ti lep ti. Anglo-Continental Society. — Secre tary, Rev. Frederick Meyrick Blickling. Rec tory, Aylsham, Norfolk, England. The Anglo -Continental Society, formed in England in 1854, aims (1) to make the principles of the English Church known in the different countries of Europe and throughout the world ; (2) to help forward the internal reformation of national churches and other religious com munities by spreading information within them, rather than by proselytizing from them ; and (3) to save men whose religious convictions are already unsettled from drifting into infidelity, by exhibiting to them a purified Christianity which they may be able to embrace. The means adopted to accomplish these ends are (1) the publication in different languages of books and tracts illustrative of the doctrine, discipline, status, and religious spirit of the Church of Eng land, and of the character of her Reformation ; (2) the dissemination of the publications, to gether with the Bible and Prayer-Book, by the voluntary agency of travellers, of British and American chaplains, booksellers, etc., ; (3) by the employment of native agents where it is thought desirable ; and (4) by the employment of one or more travelling secretaries, or agents, charged with the duty of explaining the nature of the English Reformation, and the example that it offers to other national churches and re ligious bodies. The Society consists of patrons, committees, officers, and ordinary members, comprising Eng lish, Irish, Scottish, Colonial, and American churchmen. Angola. — ln its widest sense a Portuguese colony on the western coast of South Africa, Lower Guinea. Area, 200,000 square miles. Climate, warm, unhealthy along the coast. Soil, very fertile ; vegetation luxuriant, and the fauna and flora tropical. Mineral productions, gold, iron, lead, and sulphur. Population, 2,000,000, whites, mulattoes, and negroes, the most intelligent of whom are the people of the district of Amboca, most of whom are able to read and write. Religion, chiefly pagan ; a few Roman Catholics and a few Protestants. Capi tal, St. Paul de Loanda, on the coast of Angola proper, the seat of tho governor- general and of the bishop. The chief coast towns of the three other districts, besides Angola, into which the country is divided, are Ambriz, Sao Felipe de Benguela, and Mossamedes. Missionary soci eties at work there, British and Foreign Bible So ciety, with a depot at Pongo Adongo. Scrip tures, St. Luke and St. John, in Kimbundee. A. B. C. F. M. works more in Bengueja. Angom, a city on the west coast of Africa, in the Corisco and Gaboon district. It is on the Gaboon River, above Nengenenge. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church, North ; occupied, 1881 ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 other lady, 1 French teacher. Angora, a city of Asia Minor, in the an cient Galatia. Population, 35,000, of whom 10,000 are Roman Catholics. An important trade centre, especially for mohair (Angora goats' wool), and an out-station of the A. B. C. F. M connected with CaBsarea. Angra Pequeua, on the bay of the same name, on the southwest coast of Africa. Here, at tho only proper harbor of the Great Namaqualand, the Bremen merchant Ludritz ac quired through a bargain with the captain of Bethaniese a landed property, which he placed under the protection of the German Empire. This was the modest commencement of the German colonial policy. German protection was extended, October, 1884, over Rehoboth Hoachanas and soon over the whole extent of the coast, from Cape Frio, in the north, to the mouth of the Orange River, and extending 120 miles into the interior. The only exception is Walfish Bay, to which England has earlier claims. The liquor traffic was at first excluded, to the great joy of the missionaries, but has forced itself in more and more into the terri tory. The hostilities too between the Nama and the Herero were aggravated by the ease with which their booty of cattle could be sold to the Germans. Recently more peaceful influences have made themselves felt. Since 1883 the en tire Bible has been translated by Kriinlause into the Nama language. It remains unpublished, however, since the New Testament printed in 1866 has found few purchasers. Anlialt-Schmidt, a town in Cape Colony, South Africa. Mission station of the Berlin Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society (1860) ; 2 missionaries, 13 native workers, 2 out-stations, 316 church-members. ANIKADU ANTANANARIVO Anikadu, a city of Tanjore, Madras Presi dency, South India, southwest of Tanjore City. Mission station of the S. P. G. and the Evangeli cal Lutheran Society of Leipzig. Aniwa, a small island in the southernmost group of the New Hebrides. Population, 192, all Christians. An i iv a, a dialect spoken in the island of Aniwa, New Hebrides. At the time from which its missionary history dates its population was estimated at from 400 to 500. In 1840 two Samoan teachers were placed upon the island, but their efforts were without any visible suc cess. About the year 1866 the Rev. J. G. Pa- ton settled there, and in 1877 the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, translated by him, were printed at Melbourne. In 1880 the Acts were also printed there. In 1882 the Gospel of John, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, James, the three epistles of John, and Jude were printed. The inhabitants of the island, who at the ar rival of Mr. Paton were naked savages and can nibals, contributed £70 toward paying for the printing of the above portions, Anjako, or Anyoke, a city on the slave coast, West Africa. A station of the North Ger man Missionary Society. Ankadibevava, a city of Central Mada gascar, near Antananarivo. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 1 missionary and wife, 93 out- stations, 6,166 communicants, 84 schools, 5,784 scholars. Anlo, a dialect of the Ewfe language in the independent kingdom of Dahomey, West Africa. Certain portions of the Scriptures are in prepa ration by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and also by the Bremen Bible Society. Annaka, a town in the island of Nipon, Japan, 80 miles northwest of Tokio, between that city and Toyama. Sub-station of A. B. C. F. M., worked from Tokio. Aimam, a language which belongs to the Tai family of Indo-Chinese languages, is spoken in Annam, Indo-China. A version of the Gospel of Luke has been prepared from the re vised Ostervald French Mew Testament by M. Bonet, who resided twenty years in Annam, and is now the chief government interpreter in the Paris School of Oriental Languages. This version, which was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1889, is the first made in that language. Annam, a kingdom under the protectorate of France, occupying the most eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, east of Siam and southeast of Burma. Area, 200,000 square miles. Surface, irregular and mountainous. Rivers numerous, and although too shallow for navigation, most useful fur irrigation. The country produces an abundance of rice, sugar, spices, and tropical fruits. The Annamese are somewhat akin to the Chinese in language and in mauy of their important customs, but they also partake largely of the Malay characteristics, and evidently form a link between tbe Mongo lian and Malay races. They are generally quiet and inoffensive, indolent and fond of gayety. The women are much oppressed, but not obliged to live in seclusion. The religion is professed ly Buddhism, and the higher classes even adopt Confucianism ; but they are not a religious peo ple. Annam is governed by an emperor with absolute power, and under him are the man darins or officials, forming a nobility sharply dis tinguished from the body of the people. Man darins appointed by the emperor govern the provinces and control the standing army, which is comparatively large. The capital of the coun try is Hue, on a river of the same name. The early history of Annam is involved in obscurity ; it is only known that wars with the neighboring powers determined its boundaries, and that the empire was formerly entirely subject to China. In the seventeenth century, when Annam was most prosperous, the Jesuits (among them the celebrated Jesuit missionary Alexander von Rhodes, who came there in 1615) introduced Christianity, and in spite of much persecution propagated it with such energy that at the close of the eighteenth century French priests had converted the emperor and established a hie rarchy of great influence. Later, however, these doctrines were rejected by the emperors, and the priests and converts persecuted. One em peror, Tu-Due, was especially opposed to Chris tianity, and the murder of several missionaries, between 1854 and 1858, seemed to the French a sufficient cause for revenge, while it served as a pretext for the acquirement of a French colony in the East. In 1858 a French fleet was sent by Napoleon III., which succeeded in capturing several important towns, and although the Annamese made stout resistance, the.French suc ceeded in dictating terms of peace by which they became possessors of three provinces. These remain in their possession under the name of Indo-China, the only important French colony in the East. By this treaty three ports in Tonquin were opened, and Christianity was permitted throughout Annam. An insurrec tion occurred in 1862, which was quelled by the French. The king of Annam was compelled, in 1874, to accept the position of a vassal to France, which, after the war of 1885, China ceased to resist. On the other hand, the population appear to have transferred their hatred of foreigners to the Christians, to treat them generally with great cruelty. There are no Protestant mis sions in Annam, the only missionaries being priests of the Roman Catholic Church. In the entire kingdom of Annam, numbering 5,000,000, there are 420,000 Catholics, under the care of 125 European and 264 native priests, in 7 apos tolic vicariates. Annaszorg, a station established by the Moravians in Surinam (Dutch Guiana), South America, among the negroes. It was situated on the Warappa, which connects the river Come- wyne with the sea at a point some twenty miles east of the mouth of the river. In 1853 a church was opened, and the work of God assumed a very cheering aspect. Less than twenty years afterward a shoal formed just in front of the creek, which prevented the return at ebb-tide of the water which the flood had brought. The cultivated land was thus ruined by the salt water, and the people were compelled to abandon the estates. The mission had, therefore, to be given up, and became an outpost of Char- lottenburg, the church building being removed to Paramaribo. Annotto, a station of the Baptist Mission ary Society in Jamaica, West Indies (q.v.). Antananarivo, capital of Madagascar. Climate, temperate. Elevation, 4,500 feet. ANTANANARIVO 89 ARABIA Population, about 100,000, of Hova, Malagasy, Polynesian and Micronesian stock, each class of whom speaks its own language. Religion, fet ichism : belief in charms and ordeals. Social condition, comparatively civilized. Occupation, metal and straw-work, spinning, weaving, etc,, in all of which they are skilled. Mission station of the L. M. S. (1861) ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 single lady, 396 native workers, 65 out-stations, 60 churches, 5,308 members, 65 schools, 5,440 scholars. Also of the Friends' Missionary Society, 3 missionaries and wives, 2 single ladies, 2 •schools, both well attended, a printing-office, a medical mission, with a hospital. Antigua, the principal island of the Lee ward group, West Indies. First visited in 1756 by Moravian missionaries from St. Thomas. Peter Brown labored here from 1769 to 1791, and was well supported by the government, because it soon became evident that the annual rate of crime decreased under his influence. In 1793 there were 9,365 baptized members of the mission. The Wesleyan Methodists have now 9,420 members in 11 stations, a teachers' seminary, and a high-school ; the S. P. G., 3,155 communicants The Moravians have also 13 missionary agents and 3,482 communicants. Antioch, a city of Northern Syria, the same as the Antioch of the time of the Apostles. It has much declined in importance, but is still a city of considerable size. The population is chiefly Armenian and Syrian, the latter partly Moham medan, and partly Christian of the Greek Church. A number of attempts have been made to carry on mission work there, but with no very great success. It is a station of the Irish Presbyterian Mission, and the Foreign Chris tian Missionary Society have a preacher there. It is also counted as an out-station of the A. B. C. F. M. station at Aintab. The Re formed Presbyterian (Covenanter) Mission have also some work among the Nusairiyeh of the city. All n in , a city east of the Wolta, Gold Coast, West Africa. Population, 5,000. A station was founded here by the Basle Missionary So ciety in 1864, but in 1869 the city was destroyed by the Ashantis. In 1881, however, the station was rebuilt, and there are now 145 members. Aomori, or A womori, Japan, on the ex treme northern coast of the island of Nipon, northwest of Morioka. Mission district of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North ; 1 mission ary, 311 church-members. Apaiang, an island of the Gilbert group, Micronesia. Mission station of the Hawaiian Evangelical Missionary Society. Has no resi dent missionary, but is worked from the neigh boring island. Apemama, an island of the Gilbert group, Micronesia, near Apaiang. Occupied by the same society. Api, or Epi, or Baki. — The Api, or Baki, which belongs to the Melanesian languages, is spoken in the island of Api, New Hebrides. In 1882 the Rev. R. M. Fraser, from Tasmania, settled with his wife on Api, and in April, 1886, a translation of the Gospel of Mark by Mr. Fraser was published by the British and For eign Bible Society's auxiliary at Sydney. Up to March 31st, 1889, three copies of St. Mark's Gospel were disposed of. Apia, the principal seaport of Samoa, Poly nesia, with an excellent and much frequented harbor, but full of drinking and dissipation. Mission station of the L. M. S. (1836) ; 2 for eign missionaries, 38 ordained natives, 19 other helpers, 1,031 church-members, 76 schools, 1,236 scholars. Appelsbosch, a city in East Natal, South Africa, northwest of Christiansborg. A station of the Swedish Church Mission. Apostelslrasse (" the Avenue of the Apos tles"), a series of missionary stations estab lished by the Chrischona Pilgrim Mission. It included Cairo (1861), Alexandria (1865), Assuan (1865), and also Khartoum and Metammeh, and was intended as points of support for mission ary operations in Abyssinia. The two latter stations cost many human lives, and did not render the attempt to penetrate by this route into the interior of Africa successful. For Egypt alone the American Mission seemed sufficient, and in 1868 the Pilgrim Mission retired from this field and devoted itself to its successful school in Alexandria. German forces are still active there, and there are Kaisers werth dea conesses in a hospital of their own. Arabia, a peninsula at the southwestern extremity of Asia, lying within latitude 30° and 12° 45' N , and longitude 32° 30' and 60° E. Its land boundaries are Egypt on the north west and Palestine and Syria on the northeast. Commencing at the northeast, the waters which successively surround it are : the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Omar, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea. Its total area is estimated at over 1,000,000 square miles. Arabia was formerly divided and described by foreigners as consist ing of Arabia Petra3a, the rocky mountainous region in the north ; Arabia Deserta, the vast des ert lands, and Arabia Felix, the " Happy" land, on the shores of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. A study of the physical features of the country suggests a more rational division of the surface into equal thirds : one comprising the moun tainous lands along the coasts ; another the desert lands, which form almost a complete ling around the third, the central plateau of table land, with alternating slopes and valleys. Beginning with the coast district at the north west, the principal districts are : 1. The Sinaitic peninsula, a triangle with the Red Sea as its apex, Palestine for its base, and the gulfs of Suez and Akabah for its sides, corresponds very nearly to Arabia Petrasa. 2. Hejaz extends from latitude 28° to 21° N. along the shore, and for a distance inland varying from 60 to 150 miles. It is for the most part sandy and stony, with only a few fertile spots around Medina, and Kholeys, a few days' journey north of Mecca. Around this holy city of the Mohammedan is the Haram, or Sacred Territory, at the southern ex- extremity of the district. Mecca has a population of 45,000, and was visited in 1887-88 by 100.000 pilgrims. Atthe southeast of Hejaz, ontherising slopes of the mountains, is the small district call ed Jebel Kora, with its fertile, well-watered soil. 3. Yemen occupies the remainder of the mountain coast as far south as Aden, and consists of two portions. That part lying along the shore is called Tebamah, and is flat and rocky, while the inland part, stretching sometimes 300 miles to the east, is mountainous, with precipitous hills and fertile valleys. The oasis of the southern Jowf is also included in this district. Mocha, one of the cities of Yemen, has given its name to the ARABIA 90 ARABIA coffee which is one of the principal products. Sania, the former residence of the Imam, has a population estimated at 20,000. 4. Aden, a small peninsula on the coast, about 100 miles east of Bab-el-Mandeb, with the island of Perim, at the entrance to the Red Sea, is subject to Great Britain. It includes in its district a smaller peninsula, Little Aden, and the settle ment and town of Sheikh Othman, ten miles from Aden, with the villages of Imad Hiswa and Bir Jabir— in all 70 square miles (Perim, 5 square miles). Its population is 37,711, of whom Sheikh Othman claims 12,000. Aden is simply a coaling station, but its position makes it of great strategic importance. 5. Hadramaut and Mahrah occupy the 1,200 miles of coast be tween Aden and Cape Ras-el-Hadd. They have the same general features of the coast districts — a sandy or rocky shore, behind which moun tain ranges stretch back into the great desert — and little is known in regard to the interior, its inhabitants or products. 6. Oman and Hasa complete the line of coast districts, extending from Cape Ras-el-Hadd to the head of thePersian Gulf. The mountains in Oman are the highest on the coast, and the strip of coast land in Hasa has extensive fertile tracts. Muscat, the capital of Oman, is the only good harbor. The central third of Arabia, especially Nejd, is the stronghold of the Arab nation. On the ex treme north and northeast lies the desert, with the oases of Jowf and Teyma, varying the monot ony of the stony waste. South of the stony desert lies the Nefood, or sandy passes, between which and Nejd is the district of Shomer, with its two parallel mountain ranges running northeast to southwest. The valley of Kaseem lies between Shomer and the central plateau. The principal provinces of the nine into which Nejd is divided are : Ared, the centra] province, containing the capital, Riad ; Sedeyr, or Sudeir, in the high lands of the Toweyk mountain range, which runs north and south through the heart of Nejd ; Yemamah, south of Ared, a fertile district, cele brated in native history as the home of brave men and beautiful women ; and Woshem, a small but important district west of Ared. Of the desert surrounding Nejd, little need be said. That portion lying to the south, southeast, and southwest is called the Dahna, or "Crimson," from the color of the sand, and covers 50,000 square miles. Of it little is known ; not even the Bedouins have traversed its full extent, and European travellers shrink from its heat and sterility. Climate. — In the Sinaitic peninsula the air is dry, clear, and in the main healthy, with winter rains. The summer temperature in the valleys is excessively high, but the nights are cool. In general the sandy slopes of the coast districts are hot and unhealthy, with a cooler, more healthy air in the mountains. Tehamah has periodical rains, in spite of which the climate is hot. The highland country of Yemen is healthy, with cool, pure air. In Hadramaut and Oman the heat is dangerous to t he stranger, and Hasa is especially unhealthy, low fevers being the constant companion of the dwellers on that coast. Shomer possesses h remarkably health ful climate, ancl Nejd is hot by day but cool by- night, while winds from the east and northeast make the climate pleasant to live in. In the desert the heat is intolerable, and in the Nefood district the deadly " simoom" blows. This is a storm of a cyclonic nature, carrying in its cen tre a noxious gas which is death if inhaled in any quantity. It lasts from two to ten minutes at any one point, and the only way to escape it is to cover the mouth with a cloth and lie down on the ground, where the heavier pure air is found. Camels instinctively bury theirnosesin the sand, but horses are often killed by the gas. Arabia is celebrated for its horses, which come mainly from Nejd ; its coffee and fruit from Yemen ; its raisins from Muscat, and its pearls from the fisheries along the Persian Gulf. People. — The dwellers in Arabia are divided into " Al Bedoo," or the nomadic Bedouins, and " Al Hadr," the dwellers in towns. 1. The Bedouins are the shepherds and herds men, who wander about the deserts from one fertile valley to another. They have been called brigands, because they consider themselves the lords of the land, and in the absence of consti tuted authority, take summary methods to pun ish the traveller, whom they regard as a tres passer. In lieu of official fees for passports, they take whatever property they can lay hold of. By paying a fee to the first sheikh whose territory is invaded, an escort is secured to the traveller as far as his authority extends ; a similar payment to the successive sheikhs will insure like protection ; but the neglect of such an acknowledgment of their rights will lead to loss of property and sometimes of life. The Bedouin is not murderous by nature, but of necessity, when his demands are resisted. There are northern and southern Bedouins. The principal clans of the former are the Aneyzah, who roam the country between Syria and Shomer ; the Shomer, in the districts contigu ous with the Aneyzah ; the Howeytat and Shera- rat, in the northern desert ; the Moteyr, Benoo- Khalid, and Ajmans in the eastern deserts, and the Hodeyl and Oteybah in Nejd itself. The southern or "pure" Bedouins are fewer in number and more savage in disposition. The principal clans are Al-Morrah, around Oman ; Al-Yam, near Yemen, and Benoo-Yas, near the Persian Gulf, ln all there are about 1,500,000 of the Bedouins. They recognize no authority save that of their chief, the sheikh, for they are thoroughly democratic, and consider every man equal. The chief may be such by the law of heredity, but is oftener chosen on account of his qualifications for the position. The Bed ouin is nominally a Mohammedan, but he scorns the formalities of the Koran, and disre gards its ceremonial requirements. Though he be not far from Mecca, he does not mingle with the devout who go there, nor will he always spare the caravan of pilgrims that passes through his territory. >mong some of the tribes a lower religious belief exists ; all grada tions between sun-worship, tree-worship and no worship at all, have been found. While guarding the chastity of the virgins, the mar riage tie is very loose, and inconstancy on the part of both man and woman is common and unremarked. Lying, perjury, sensuality, and theft are their vices, while fidelity and the ob servance of a promise to the extent which the romancers chronicle are not uncommon. In person they are under the average size, with dark skin, straight, black hair, and dark, oval eyes. With all their bad traits, they are to be admired for their shrewd common sense, allied to a sarcastic, humorous side of their character. Their dress is simple, and they carry a staff with a crook to it, together with short knives ARABIA 91 ARABIC VERSIONS and old matchlocks, with which they seldom fail to hit the mark. 2. The Arabs proper, " Al Hadr," number about six-sevenths of the entire population of the peninsula of Arabia. The Koreysh are the noblest of the race, and claim direct connection with the Prophet. Their clan ties and national feeling are very strong, and they own allegiance to their «*ribal head, the Sheikh, Imam, or Sul tan. These offices are not necessarily heredi tary, though often they become so. Where the doctrines of the Wahabees prevail the Moham medan religion is followed with all its strictness of ceremonial and observances. The Wahabees are the adherents of Abd-el-Wahab, who insti tuted a revival of strict Mohammedanism in the eighteenth century, and made many converts with the aid of the swords of his followers. The Wahabees are the orthodox sect of Ebn- Hanbal. Other orthodox sects are the Malikee, in the eastern provinces, and the Shafivee, in Yemen and Hejaz ; while along the Persian Gulf " seceders" of the Karmathian sect are found. Fetichism is found in Mahrah and places on the borders of the great desert. With their belief in a Supreme Being, and varying strictness in following the code of the Koran, the Arabs are, as a rule, free from superstition, tolerant to strangers, and they do not care to proselyte. Were it not for the recollections of the oppression of so-called Christian races and the influence of established custom, Christianity would meet with little opposition. Slavery is common in Arabia. The slaves are brought from the East African Coast and are, in the main, well treated. By adopting Mohamme danism, a slave is entitled to his freedom at the end of seven years, and many of them are freed in connection with occasions of special rejoic ing. There is thus a large free black popula tion. Intermarriages are common, for no social or political line is recognized between the Negro and the Arab ; they are merged together, even as the colors shade into each other in their complexions, until a white skin is a rarity. The people are marked for their general seri ous and dignified demeanor. Special traits are found in the different provinces. The people of Hejaz are fickle ; those of Yemen are noted for gentleness and pliability, together with re- vengefulness ; the tribes in Nejd possess a. reputation for tenacity of purpose and dignity of deportment. A love of sport and games is found among the races of Oman and Hasa which is absent elsewhere. Their towns, especially in Nejd, are well built, and for the most part walled. The stranger is received with courtesy, and is welcomed and entertained with a world- renowned hospitality which asks neither whence he came nor whither he goeth. The chief fam ilies often contend for the honor of entertaining a guest. In person the Arab is tall, well formed, lithe, with dark hair and eyes. Physically and morally, they compare favorably with any of the races of mankind ; mentally, they are su perior to most races. Language. — Arabic is spoken in its purity in Nejd and Shomer, more inelegantly in the other provinces, until in the southern provinces it is merged into an African dialect. Education is deficient ; the teaching of the young is carried on mainly in the household, where the father teaches his sons to read and write and to prac tise that politeness which is notable among the Arab children. Population. — The total number of inhabitants is estimated between 8,500,000 to 9,000,000, divided thus : Central Arabia, 1,500,000 ; the east coast, 2,500,000 ; Yemen, 1,000.000 ; Ha dramaut, Mahrah, and Hejaz, 3,000,000 ; the re mainder is made up by the Sinaitic peninsula. Government. — Hejaz and Yemen are Turkish provinces. The other provinces are governed by their own rulers, under the names of Imam, Sultan, and Emeer. The limit of Turkish au thority is not well defined in the districts north of Central Arabia, though a nominal authority is claimed. Mssions. — Keith- Falconer Mission. (See Presbyterian Church of Scotland, Arabia Mis sion. ) The Arabian Mission, U. S. A., was organized in November, 1888, as the result of a movement inaugurated at the Theological Seminary of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in New Brunswick, N. J., by Professor J. G. Lansing, D.D., Rev. James Cantine, and Rev. S. M. Zwemer. The Foreign Board did not feel equal to the respon sibility of the care of the mission, and it was finally organized as an undenominational mis sion, August 1st, 1889. It aims to carry on mission work among the Arabic-speaking peo ple of Southern Arabia and the adjacent coast of Africa, with special reference to the needs of the Mohammedans and slaves. Its funds are raised on a syndicate plan, by which yearly subscrip tions of from $200 to $500 are pledged, the sub scriber either giving the whole amount person ally or organizing a syndicate to make up the amount. The year began October 1st, 1889, and at the present time, September, 1890, be tween S3, 000 and §4,000 have been pledged, and the financial outlook is most encouraging. No money is to be paid to any connected with the mission who are not actively engaged in the Arabian field. It is especially urged that such pledges shall not conflict with, but shall be over and above the ordinary subscriptions to the denominational Boards of Foreign Mis sions. The money is to be paid quarterly, and any subscriber is at liberty to change or cancel the amounts pledged year by year. The mis sion has received strong support from many quarters, and its first missionary, Rev. James Cantine, sailed in 1889, and in June, 1890, Rev. S. M Zwemer followed. At present their field of work is not definitely settled, though there are four promising openings in the north, the east, the south and the west, and the winter will see these pioneers at work either in con nection with the Keith-Falconer Mission or elsewhere. In the mean time, the two mission aries have been studying the language with great assiduity. The wants of the mission are : a pledged fund amounting to not less than 85,000 a year, for the support of its missionaries ; a rescued slave fund — it costs S25 a year to support and edu cate a slave ; a mission-house for the mission aries, and a, thoroughly qualified medical mis sionary, unmarried. The mission is now being incorporated, with a Board of six Directors, of which Dr. Lansing remains the head. Arabic Versions of the Bible.— The history of Arabic versions of the Bible, like all early Arab history, is very obscure. All that is known about them is comprised briefly in the following account : The earliest Arabic version of which we have ARABIC VERSIONS ARABIC VERSIONS any record is that made by John, Bishop of Seville, about a.d. 750, after Jerome's Latin version. He translated the whole Old Testa ment at least, and part if not all of the New Testament. The Jesuit Mariana mentions hav ing found several copies of Bishop John's Arabic version in various places in Andalusia. This version was never printed, nor are any copies known in the East, where it seems not to have reached. Rabbi Saadiah, the Gaon, or Patriarch, of the Babylonian Jews, translated into Arabic the whole or at least the greater part of the Old Testament from the Hebrew during the ninth century for the use of the Arabic-speaking Jews, who were scattered in considerable num bers through Arabia. Of this version, the Pen tateuch was printed in Constantinople in 1546 in Hebrew characters, and in Paris in 1645 and in London in 1657, in Arabic characters (Paris and London Polyglots). An African Jew, whose name is unknown, translated the Penta teuch into Arabic in the thirteenth century, which version was printed in Europe in 1622. A Samaritan named Abu S'aid also made an Arabic version of the Pentateuch somewhere between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. This version was never printed, but copies ex ist in Paris and in England, and in various parts of Europe, and in Syria. An Alexandrian Jew translated the prophetical books from the Septuagint during the latter part of the tenth century, which version was printed in Paris in 1645 and in London in 1657 (in Paris and London Polyglots). Most of the historical books which were printed in Paris and London Polyglots in 1645 and 1657, as above mentioned, seem to have been translated from the Syriac during the thirteenth century. There are several old Arabic versions of tho Psalms extant. That in use among the Papal Greeks of Syria was made from the Greek Septuagint by Abd-AUah ibn il Fadl before the twelfth century. This version was printed in Aleppo in 1707 and in London in 1725. Another version of the Psalms, author unknown, was printed in Genoa in 1516 and in Rome in 1614. A third version, made from the Syriac, was printed at the Convent of Es- Shuweir, in Lebanon, in 1610. There is no certainty as to the date of the first translation of the New Testament into Arabic. The probability is that the four Gos pels were translated as early as the seventh century, and the remaining books during the eighth and ninth centuries. At a later date several versions of the whole or parts of the New Testament were made, some from the Greek, some from the Syriac, and some from the Coptic. The four Gospels were first print ed at Rome in 1591 ; the whole New Testa ment was printed at Leyden by Erpenius in 1016, in Paris in 1645, and in London in 1657. In these last three it appears that the version of the Gospels was made from the Greek, and that of the remaining books partly from the Syriac and partly from the Greek. Erpenius is said to have had a ua, written in 1342 in the Monastery of St. John, in the The baid. In the early part of the seventeenth cen tury the Maronite Bishop of Damascus, Sarkis er Rizzi, obtained permission from Pope Urban to make a new and correct copy of the Script ures, " because the copies extant were full of errors." The bishop began the work in 1620, with the help of Arabic scholars. He procured several copies of the Scriptures in Arabic and compared them with the Hebrew and Greek, but conformed his new version in most re spects to the Latin vulgate. This corrected version was printed at Rome in 1671, in three folio volumes, with the Arabic and Latin in paral lel columns. When the British and Foreign Bible Society undertook the work of supplying the Arabic-speaking peoples with the Scriptures, the above version, approved by the Papal Church, was selected and printed in London, and circulated for many years by missionaries and Bible agents. The version of the New Testament made by Henry Martyn and Nathaniel Sabfit, in India, was completed in 1816. The Old Testament was continued by Thomason and Sabat. The New Testament, in Syriac characters (the Car- shuni), was printed at Paris in 1822, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible So ciety. This version never came into use to any extent. The Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge employed Fares Es-Shidiaq (brother of Asaad Es-Shidiaq, the martyr of Lebanon), in conjunction with Professor Lee, to make a new version of the entire Bible. This work was completed, and the first edition of the New Testament printed in 1851, and the whole Bible in 1857. Upon examination it was found that the translator had followed King James's English version, errors and all, which, added to a stilted style, prevented the general use of the version. The Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, of the Syria Mission of the A. B. C. F. M., began to prepare for a new Arabic version of the Bible as early as 1837. The first step was to make punches and matrices for an entirely new font of Arabic type, modelled upon the most acceptable forms of Arabic calligraphy, which resulted in the world wide fame of the Arabic type of the Beirut Mis sion press. In 1848 Dr. E. Smith began the work of translation, assisted by Mr. Botrus El Bistani, a pupil of the Maronite College of Ain Warqueh, a first-rate Syriac and Arabic scholar. The method pursued by Dr. Smith was to have Mr. Bistani make a translation from the Hebrew and Syriac in the Old Testament, and from the Greek and Syriac in the New Testament. This translation was then carefully reviewed and cor rected by Dr. Smith. As soon as a form was in type, some thirty proofs were struck off and dis tributed to Arabic scholars, native and foreign, for their criticisms. These proofs were then returned to Dr. Smith, who carefully reviewed all criticisms and suggestions, adopting such as seemed to him desirable. Dr. Smith died, Jan uary 11th, 1857. He had labored almost con tinuously at the work for eight years ; the last year of his life he was disabled by sickness. After his much-lamented death the mission ap pointed another of their number, C. V. A. Van Dyck, to continue and complete the work, He associated with himself a learned graduate of the College of El Azhar, Cairo, Sheikh Yusuf El Asir, and with the exception of this change he carried on the work on the same plan as Dr. Smith had done, making the translation himself, and using the Sheikh to secure freedom from all expressions in style not consistent with the genius of pure Arabic. The translation was finished on August 23d, 1864, and the first printed copy was completed April 29th, 1865, ARABIC VERSIONS 93 ARAKAN This version was speedily adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society and by the American Bible Society, and in 1865 the trans lator proceeded to New York and superintended the making of the electrotype plates of the entire Bible, under the direction of the Ameri can Bible Society. This work was after ward transferred to Beirut, where editions of various* sizes have been eleotrotyped and printed, and whence are supplied copies of the Arabic Scriptures to missionaries and Bible agents in all parts of the Arabic world, from Morocco and Liberia to India, and from Taurus to Bab el-Mandeb and Central Africa. The raison d'etre for this new version lies in the na ture of the Arabic language and the love and admiration its people have for their language. The Arabic is closely allied to the Hebrew aud Syriac. The Book of Job, so difficult to trans late into other languages, turns over from the Hebrew into good classical Arabic with com parative ease. The difficult and ambiguous passages translate word for word (often the same word), and leave the ambiguity in the translation just as it is in the original. The old versions were local, or unidiomatic, or not translated from the original, or full of bad grammar, so that they were unacceptable to educated Arabs of good taste. It was therefore desirable to have a version of the Scriptures which for style should be acceptable to Arab scholars and be faithful to the original. In u, language so highly cultivated and so rich as the Arabic, and so purely Oriental in its modes of expression, and so widely spread, we find the same standards of grammar, rhetoric, and style in Andalusia, North Africa, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. The same style, therefore, in the Bible will make it acceptable in point of style and expression to the educated of these widely extended countries. To obtain this has been the aim of the translators, and if the greatly increased circulation of the Bible is any indication, they have attained that for which they strove. (/Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Arabic Character. Hebrew Character. Via .wn Bbssbs nbbs am sinn nssa fn pv pa ba ibm sb-ob -pmbx roas naabs pikti nb yon ba Syriac Character. -Si* jaM^v «2fcs JLu.) Ip* od yxO* "^O • eta <£go-» ^» va Arabkir, a town of Asia Minor, Eastern Turkey, 102 miles east-southeast of Sivas, on the caravan road from Aleppo to Tiebizond, and 50 miles northwest of Harpoot. Population, 30,000, Armenians, Tuiks, and Turcomans. The prosperity of the town is due to the cara van trade and the cotton industry of the Arme nians. The vicinity is rich in fruit trees, espe cially the white mulberry, much esteemed by the natives. Formerly a station of the A. B. C. F. M., but now an out-station worked from Harpoot. Has a flourishing church. Arag, the language of the inhabitants of Pentecost Island (Whitsuntide), in the Mela nesia group. Parts of the New Testament have been prepared for publication by the Mela nesian Mission. Arajer, a mountain tribe of India, in the Malayalam- land (on the Ghats), among whom Herr Baker labored. A part of the remains of the ancient Syrian Church, for whom the Lon don Missionary Society interested themselves early in this century. Arakan (formerly written Aracan and Arracan), for sixty years a British province of Farther India, now a part of the province of Burma, since the war of annexation of 1885-86. It is separated from Burma proper by the West ern Yoma range of mountains, which have many volcanoes, thouyh they are mostly quiescent now, and rise from 4,000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The habitable portion is a narrow strip of alluvium, extending from the mountains to the Bay of Bengal. It extends from the westernmost of the delta branches of the Irawadi on the south to Chittagong on the north, and its western coast is laved by the Bay of Bengal. Above Ramree Island its territory widens, and from 19° 30' to 21° 30' several short ranges of mountains are interposed between the Yoma range and the Bay of Bengal, and are inhabited- mostly by the hill tribes, its area is 16,500 square miles, and its population, by the census of 1881, was 321,522. The land is not fertile, but is largely covered with jungle, which is inhabited by huge and ferocious beasts of prey, serpents, and reptiles. Most of the level land is marshy, and much of it covered with salt water at high tide. The Arakan, or jungle fever, is as deadly as that of the West Coast of Africa. The ports are gener ally good. The chief productions are rice, tobac co, indigo, cotton, salt, ivory, oil, hides, and timber. The climate, while deadly on the coast, is healthier on the hills, and though the soil is less fertile than in Burma, steady labor brings a fair income. There is opportunity for a large commerce at Akyab, Ramree, Kyouk Phyoo, Sandoway, Satwey, Ongkyoung, and Sinmah. People. — The Arakanese are of the same Mon goloid stock as the Burmese, and during the last century, and the first two decades of the present, their kings were often in the ascendency over the kings of Ava and Pegu. They are mostly Buddhists, and the pagodas are nearly as numer ous and magnificent as those of Burma. They maintained an independent government until 1822, and then their country was captured by the Burmese king Bodau-Phra by a stratagem ; his soldiers, disguised as Buddhist monks, visit ing Sandoway and Akyab, professedly to wor ship at the great Buddhist pagodas, and when once admitted, rising upon the people and con- ARAKAN 94 ARAWAK quering them. The Burmans, however, did not retain it, but in 1826, at the close of the first Burmese war, ceded it, with Assam, Chittagong, and the Tenasserim provinces, to the English, who have held it since that time. It is now united with Burma, and is under the govern ment of a chief commissioner. But the Ara kanese, though in possession of the principal towns and villages, were not the sole inhabi tants of Arakan — probably they were less than a moiety of them. To the north and northeast of Ramree Island there were, among the moun tains, the Kemmees, a large tribe from the same original stock as the Karens, and, like them, though somewhat given to the worship of nats, or demons, yet ready to receive the Gospel ; be yond these were the Ch'ins (Khyens), who are now migrating in great numbers into Burma ; and still farther to the north the Kach'ins (Kakhyens), who are supposed to be identical with the Sing-phos, or Sing-paus, of Northern Burma and Assam. These tribes, as well as the Western Karennees, who were also found in considerable numbers in the Western Yoma Mountains, possibly belong to the Karen family, and are not Buddhists. Their dress, their demon-worship, and their language, which has some resemblance in the root words to the Karen, though sufficiently diverse to require a separate translation of the books of the Karen tribes, perhaps imply a common origin. The Arakanese call their country Rakhaing, which is only a slight modification of Arakan. The Burmans call the people Mugs, though they will not admit the name, but claim to have been the originals of all the Burmese tribes, and call themselves Great Burmese. Arakan is divided into four districts — Akyab, Sandoway, Aeng, and Ramree — the last consisting of large islands. After the cession ot Arakan to the East Indian Government in 1826, no attempt was made to plant American missions there till 1835, when Rev. Grover S. Comstock* and wife es tablished themselves at Kyouk Phyoo, near the northern extremity of Ramree Island, about 19° 20' N. latitude. There had been a mission at Akyab, established by Rev. Mr. Fink, of the Serampore Mission, some years earlier. Both had met with considerable success, but the climate at Kyouk Phyoo and at Akyab proved so insalubrious that Mr. and Mrs. Comstock were compelled to remove to Ramree, and Mr. Fink to abandon his mission. In 1840 Messrs. Kincaid and Abbott, missionaries of the A. B. M, U. to Bassein (see History of the American Baptist Missionary Union, Mission at Bassein and Burrna-Bassein), were compelled, by the cruel persecution inflicted by the Burmese officials on the Karen converts in the Bassein district, to re move to Arakan, and from Sandoway, the nearest practicable point, to render aid to the suffering converts on the other side of the Western Yoma Mountains. The way was difficult, long, and dangerous ; from four to ten days were required in crossing the mountains ; tigers, leopards, elephants, and formidable serpents inhabited the mountains, and if they did not fall a prey to these, Burmese officials were waiting at the passes of the mountains to arrest, imprison, torture, or kill them. Yet such was the earnest ness and determination of the Bassein Karens to learn the way of salvation, that in the twelve * Mr. Cometock was the author of Notes on Arakan, a very able work, published in the Journal, of American Oriental Society, vol. 1, 1847. He died April &5ttt, 1844, at the age of thirty-live. years which followed many thousands ven tured through these rugged passes and came to Sandoway to receive baptism and instruction. Some of them — probably a majority — returned to the Bassein district, and established churches there, over which native pastors, ordained in most cases in Arakan, presided, and which were often obliged to meet in secret, and were sub jected to fines, imprisonment, and torture, and some of the native preachers to death by cruci fixion. Some fell victims to the wild beasts, to starvation, or to the tortures and death which the Burmese officials saw fit to inflict, and some remained in Arakan and sought to wring from the sterile soil, in that sickly climate, the means of a scanty support. Cholera and other deadly diseases hurried many of them into their graves. Nearly one-third of the population fell victims to cholera in some of the coast towns in 1844, and among them hundreds of these. Christian Karens. The Arakanese Mission at Ramree also suffered greatly from the death of its mission aries. Twelve of them died between 1837 and 1856, and others were compelled to return to Burma and America. This mission was aban doned in 1856. When at length, in 1852, the sec ond Burmese war had resulted in the annexation of Pegu, and Bassein had become a British city and district, the remaining disciples and mis sionaries returned thither, though subjected to the assaults of dacoils and brigands ; there were about 3,000 of the Sandoway Karens left. The further history of these returned refugees does not belong to this notice. A few churches and native pastors remained at Akyab, Ramree, San doway, and Ongkyoung, but for thirty-five years, no American Baptist missionaries were stationed in Arakan. In 1888, a mission was again opened at Sandoway, with out stations at Ongkyoung, Ramree, and Akyab. This time the few Karen churches which remain are being quickened into new life, and the Kemmees, the Ch'ins (Khyens), Kach'ins (Kakhyens), 'Western Karen nees, Burmese, Arakanese, Telugus, and Tamils (who come thither for employment) are also, each in their own tongue, brought to hear of the way of salvation. There are four American mis sionaries and nine or ten native preachers, and the work is going forward with great promise of success. The British Deputy Commissioner, under orders, has been draining the marshes and building good roads, and Arakan is becom ing much healthier. Its trade has greatly in creased, especially in timber and rice. Arawak. — This language belongs to the South American languages, and is spoken in Dutch Guiana. The Arawaks were supplied with the Gospels, tho Acts of the Apostles, and the Book of Genesis by the Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge, between the years 1850-56, the translation having been made by the Rev. AV. H. Brett, for many years a mission ary in British Guiana. In 1850 the American. Bible Society published, from a manuscript in their possession, the Acts of the Apostles, for the benefit of the Arawaks, and this is the only part of Scripture thus far published by this so ciety. (Specimen verse. Acts 17 : 26.) Lui k6 uduriia abba Wadili uria karaijakuba Je namaqua Wunabu ubannamamutti, naSsi- koattoanti tuhu Wunabu ubafiamuc. Lui ke- wai assikissia namiin ikissihu, pattah-ii na fcakunti, hallidi na - kassikoanibia ba okun- ARCHBISHOP'S MISSION 95 ARGENTINE Archbishop's mission to the As syrian Christians.— Headquarters, 2 Dean's Yard, Westminster, S. W., London. The interest of the Church of England in the Nestorians was especially aroused by the reports of the Royal Geographical Society's expedition to the Euphrates Valley in 1837. This resulted in the sending out of a joint expedition by the Royal {geographical Society and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, under the care of Dr. Ainsworth. His reports again resulted in the sending, by the Archbishop of Canter bury (Dr. Howley) and the Bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield), of Dr. G. P. Badger, in 1842, to open communication between the Assyrian Christians and the English Church. Dr. Badger remained a year among the Assyrians, and as sisted and protected the Patriarch during the great Kurdish insurrection under Bedr Khan Beg. The fact of the presence of an English priest as a counsellor and protector during the greatest calamity that has ever befallen their na tion in modern times may perhaps explain tho devotion the Assyrians have ever since exhibited toward England and England's Church. Being deprived of the English support by the recall of Dr. Badger, occasional appeals for aid were made between 1843 and 1868, but in the latter year a formal petition, signed by three bishops, five chiefs, thirty-two priests, and eleven dea cons was forwarded to the Archbishop of Canter bury and the Bishop of London. Moved by these entreaties, the two archbishops commissioned the Rev. E. L. Cutts to undertake a journey to Kurdistan in 1876, to ascertain the most useful way to help the Assyrian church ; and, as the re sult of Dr. Cutts' s report, Rev. Rudolph Wahl was sent, in 1881, by the Archbishop of Canter bury (Dr. Tait). In 1884 Mr. Athelstan Riley, M.A., was commissioned by the present Arch bishop of Canterbury to visit the mission and report upon it. In 1885 Mr. Wahl was with drawn for being an Austrian by birth, and thus not acceptable to the Assyrians. The same year the Rev. W. H. Browne offered his services for the mission, and in 1886 he was sent with the Rev. Canon Maclean, M.A., who, with the aid of Mr. Athelstan Riley, laid the foundation of a permanent mission. The mission has no regular organization or constitution, but is carried on under the aus pices of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The mission priests, who are all unmarried, receive no regular stipends beyond £25 annually for personal expenses, but live from a common fund. The work carried on is largely educa tional. A college has been formed for priests and deacons, besides 5 high schools and 40 vil lage schools, the total number of scholars being roughly estimated at 1,200. Besides the educa tional work, the mission clergy exercise the function of ecclesiastical and temporal judges, deciding disputes between the native Chris tians and divorce and other spiritual cases, ac cording to the Canon Law of the ancient Chal dean Church. The Church of England, having been en treated by the Assyrian bishops to raise from the dust an ancient Oriental church — once the first missionary church of the world — has lis tened to their petition, and is now endeavor ing : 1. To raise up and restore a fallen Eastern church, to take her place again among the churches of Christendom. 2. To infuse spiritual life into a church which the oppression of centuries has reduced to a state of weakness and ignorance. 3. To give the Chaldean or Assyrian Chris tians : (a) A religious education on the broad principles of the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church ; (b) a secular education calculated to fit them for their state of life ; the cummon mis takes and dangers of over- education and of Europeanizing being most carefully guarded against. 4. To train up the native clergy, by means of schools and seminaries, to be worthy to serve before God in their high vocation, and to rise to their responsibilities as leaders and teachers of the people of their villages. 5. To build schools, of which at present there are none, owing to the extreme poverty and misery of the people. 6. To aid the Patriarch and bishops by coun sel, by encouragement, and by active support. 7. To leorganize the Chaldean Church upon her ancient lines, to set in motion the ecclesias tical machinery now rusty through disuse, and to revive religious discipline among clergy and laity. 8. To print the ancient Chaldean service- books. They are now only in ms., and the number of copies is totally insufficient for the supply of the parish churches. (See also ar ticles on Persia and the Nestorians.) Arcot, a city in the Arcot district, Madras, South India, 65 miles west by south of Madras. Climate, very tropical. Population, about 60,- 000, Dravidians, Mohammedans. Language, Tamil, Hindustani. Religion, Hindu, Moslem. Social condition varies according to caste, but only about seven per cent of the people can read. Mission station of the Reformed Church in America (1857) ; 2 missionaries and wives, 37 native helpers, 12 out-stations, 2 churches, 161 members, 14 schools, 625 scholars. Contribu tions, $94 50. Arialur, or Aryalur, a little north of the delta of the Canveri River, in the presidency of Madras, British India. A station of the S. P. G. (1881) ; 1 missionary. Argentine Republic, one of the most important of the South American republics, occupies that portion of the continent south of of latitude 22° S., with the exception of the western slope of the Andes, which forms Chili. It is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Para guay and on the east by Brazil and Uruguay. Its southern boundary has long been a matter of dispute with Chili, but was finally settled by treaty in 1881, according to the terms of which Patagonia was ceded to the Republic as far south as the Straits of Magellan, along with the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego. At the same time a line running along the crest of the Andes was defined as the western boundary. At present the country is divided into 14 prov inces and 9 territories, with a combined area of 1,125,086 square miles. The provinces are : Littoral — Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe. Entre Rios, Corrientes ; Andes — Rioja, Catamarca, San Juan, Mendoza ; Central— Cordova, SanLuiz, Santiago, Tucuman ; Northern — Satta, Jujuy. With such an extent of latitude the climate is the most varied, though in general healthful. All grada tions between a, temperate, cool climate and a moist, tropical one may be found in this Re public. In Northern Patagonia the climate re- ARGENTINE 96 ARMENIA sembles that of the British Isles, while Buenos Ayres rivals in salubrity the South of France. A dry, cool temperature prevails along the mountain slopes, but along the coast at the north a thoroughly tropical climate is found. The most remarkable feature of the country is its great plains, or pampas, which occupy about three-fourths of the surface, stretching 2,000 miles in length and 500 in width. On these plains great herds of cattle are raised, and within late years wheat has been grown ; in 1888 over 4,000,000 acres were under cultiva tion, of which 2,000,000 were in wheat. The population in 1887 was estimated at 3,894,995, of whom 600,000 were foreigners — Italians, French, Spanish, Germans, English — and the remainder consisted of descendants of the Spaniards, and Guarani and Quichua Indians. Negro descendants are scarce, as few slaves were brought to this section. Spanish is the prevailing language, though in Corrientes the Guarani language is spoken, and Quichua in Santiago. The government encourages immi gration, and between the years 1882 and 1888 700,000 emigrants, mostly from the South of Europe, entered the Republic. Buenos Ayres, the capital, on the La Plata River, has 466,267 inhabitants (1888), of whom 100,000 are for eigners. La Plata, the capital of Buenos Ayres province, lies 40 miles southeast of Buenos Ayres, and has a population of 40,000. Rosario, 150 miles up the Parana River, is another im portant city. The Argentine Republic became independent and adopted its constitution, May 15th, 1853, which has been modified at different times up to 1860. The government is conducted by a President and a Congress composed of the Sen ate and House of Representatives. The Presi dent is elected for six years by representatives chosen by the provinces. The senators number 30, two from the capital and two from each of the provinces, and are elected by a special board of directors chosen by the legislatures of the prov inces. The 86 Representatives are elected by the people. The Cabinet is made up of the heads of the departments of the Interior, of For eign Affairs, of Finance, of War and 'of Justice. The government is pursuing a wise and liberal policy, striving to develop the resources of the country, educating the people, and encouraging immigration. The established religion is Roman Catholic, but toleration is exercised toward all other creeds. In 1887 there were 3,028 element ary schools (227,450 pupils). In 1885 there were 15 lyceums or secondary schools, 2 uni versities, with 290 students of law, 442 of medi cine, 148 of engineering, 30 in school of mines ; with 2 agricultural colleges and 14 normal schools for girls, and 7 for both sexes. The country is being rapidly opened up by the build ing of railways ; the first one was opened in 1857, and in 1888 4,700 miles were in operation, with 14,700 miles of telegraph lines. Com munication is had by cable with Europe and America. In 1887 a national banking law simi lar to that of the United States of America was passed. In view of the extent of the country and the progressive and liberal policy of the government, it is no doubt the most prosperous of all tho republics of South America, and con tinued peace, with the security attendant there on, will ensure a wonderful development of its resources, making its future bright with prom ise. Mission work is carried on by the South American Missionary Society (England) and the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A. Arjeplong, Central Lapland, northeast of Sorsele. A mission station of the Swedish Mis sionary Union. Arkibo, a city of Abyssinia, North Africa, on the Red Sea, near Massawa. Mission station of the Swedish Evangelical National Society. Arkona, or Arcona, a small town in Central Transvaal, East South Africa, on the Lepalule (a branch of the Limpopo River), northeast of Pretoria and northwest of Ley- densburg. Mission station of the Berlin Evan gelical Lutheran M. S. (1877) ; 1 missionary, 13 native workers, 2 out-stations, 1 other preach ing place. Arkonam, India, a town in Madras, South India. Mission station of Established Church of Scotland ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 native ordained minister, 33 other native workers. Armenia. In the strict geographical use of the term, there is no Armenia at the present day. The name is not now employed with ref erence to a definite country. The Turkish Gov ernment recognizes no Armenia, and endeavors in all possible ways to render the word ob solete. When the name is now used, it gen erally refers to an undefined region centring about Lake Van, and bearing to the north and west and southwest. Historical Armenia was always a country with a fluctuating boundary determined by the fortunes of war. In all of the changes Lake Van was never outside, al though it was usually near the southern border. The northern limit was sometimes the Kur River, now in Russia. At one time, at least, it extended east to the Caspian Sea, and usually the western boundary was the Euphrates River. Armenia Minor was upon the north and west of this river, but did not reach the Black Sea. At times it extended down into Northern Mesopo tamia, and the last Armenian kingdom, which was brief, was located in Cilicia. This last was not called Armenia. The greater part of the above-described country is also called Kur distan. In order that misunderstanding may be avoided, it should be remembered that this country contains but a fraction of the Armenian race, and only a part of one of the three great missions to the Armenians. Armenians dwell in large numbers in all parts of the country con tained between the Black, Caspian, and Medi terranean seas. This region, including Con stantinople, is the Armenian mission field. In this article " Armenia" means the largest limit of the ancient kingdom, but the portion referring to mission work necessarily includes the entire region occupied by Armenians. Physical Characteristics. — Tbe physical char acteristics are marked. The mountain systems centre in Mount Ararat, which looks down upon them all from an elevation of over 17,000 feet. The Ararat range, which is called the Anti- Taurus, extends to the west and south from Mount Ararat, constituting the principal water shed of the country. It bears south until it joins the Taurus range, and then continues on to the sea. Among these lofty mountains are elevated plateaus, reaching a height of 6,000 feet. Those in the north, between Erzroom and Ararat, form the roof of Armenia, frcm which ARMENIA 97 ARMENIA the chief rivers of this part of the world flow in different directions. The Araxes rises a little to the south of Erz room and flows eastward to the Caspian Sea. On the north the Tchoruk takes its rise and empties into the Black Sea. From the western end of this water-shed the Halys begins its course. The Euphrates finds its head- waters among^he fountain-heads of all of these streams, and starts up as if to reach the Black Sea ; but after the small stream has become u, river, it suddenly turns to the south, forces its way through range after range of the Taurus Moun tains, and hastens its flood on to the Persian Gulf. The Tigris also draws its supply from the same lofty valleys, its head-waters often ap pearing to mingle with the Euphrates's foun tains. There are few lakes in this whole country, and the most of these are alkaline. The largest is Lake Van, whose surface is between 5,000 and 6,000 feet above the sea. Hot springs are frequent. Owing to the general elevation of the coun try, the climate is bracing, but temperate. Dur ing many months of the year the ground is covered with snow. The summers are warm, but not debilitating. Water is fairly abundant, and wherever it is found the soil is very fertile, producing in abundance wheat, barley, cotton, opium, tobacco, rice, silk, and a great variety of vegetables and fruits, iron, copper, lead, sil ver, coal, and salt are found, but as yet these deposits are but little worked. Ancient his tories speak of the metals and precious stones of the country. There is little forest. Pine is found in the Russian territory, and a scrub-oak covers many of the lower mountains. A poplar and the mulberry are cultivated ; walnut is common. Races Occupying. — It is probable that no other country of the size of Armenia has so great a variety of inhabitants. The early history of these peoples is so mixed with myth and legend that the truth is difficult to find. The most trustworthy facts are obtained from the inscriptions which abound. During the As syrian and Median periods there was evidently a great organized monarchy, with a strong mili tary power, in the Lake Van basin. From the south frequent excursions were made, with large armies, against this mountain kingdom. The Van inscriptions show a line of kings who bore sway in Eastern Armenia, and who were, both in civilization and in military powers, far in advance of any of their contemporaries in neighboring kingdoms. At times they were formidable enemies to the Medes. Traces of their dominion yet appear. This country was well known to the Assyrians as early as the ninth century b.c At that time three principal races occupied the territory. These were the Nai'ri, who were spread from the mountains west of Lake Van along both sides of the Tigris to the Euphrates, and even farther ; the Urarda (people of Ararat), who dwelt to the north and east of the Nai'ri, on the Upper Euphrates, about Lake Van and possibly on the Araxes ; and the Minni, whose country lay to the southeast of the Urarda, in the Oroo miah (Urmia) basin. Besides these three races, it is evident, ac cording to Sayce, from inscriptions recently deciphered, that, even at the time of the Egyp tian King ThotmesIV,, there was a powerful race in the north called the Hittites, or Khiti. They were the rivals of the Assyrians for cen turies ; 2 Kings 7 : 6 shows something of their strength. Their great influence continued for centuries, as monumental references show. In the records of the conquests of Assur-nazir-pal mention is made of his conquests among the Hittites and of the treasures he secured. As far as we can learn, nearly all of these con quests were' made within the limits of Armenia or upon its borders. It seems that the western part of Armenia, as above outlined, was the seat of the Hittite Empire. Inscriptions now in that country confirm this. What became of this people is not known at the present day. These races appear to have maintained their independence until the time of Assur-bani-pal, about 640 B.C., when the last king of this series succumbed to the Assyrian yoke. The remain ing history is included in that of the Arme nians. It is difficult to make even an estimate of the present population of Armenia, If we put the number at about 5,000,000, it will probably be ¦a, fair estimate. It is composed of Turks, Ar menians, Russians, Persians, Kurds, Circas sians, Greeks, Nestorians, Yezidees, Syrians, and Jews. These all have had long residence in the country. Armenian National History. — The Nai'ri, Urar da, and the Minni were probably Turanian or, at least, non-Aryan races. Their congeners in Western Asia were the early Babylonians, and not the Medes, the Persians, or the Phrygians. But, at the time of Herodotus, the Aryan char acter of the Armenians had been fairly estab lished. Their close connection with the Phry gians was recognized. They had changed their national appellation. In the earlier period they were called Nai'ri and Urarda, but later Armenians, and their country Armenia. In dividual names had acquired a more decided Aryan cast. Everything seems to indicate that a strange people had entered the land, bringing with them a new language, new names and cus toms, and a new religion. The source from which they came is doubtful. Herodotus and Stephen believe they came from Phrygia, while their language and religion would indicate Me dia. One thing is certain, the old Turanians had passed away and the Armenian race had been formed, which is undoubtedly a mixture of the ruling Aryan tribes with the primitive Turanian populations. The word " Armenia," used in Isaiah 37 : 38 and 2 Kings 19 : 37, is an incorrect translation for " the land of Ararat." According to Armenian histories, which min gle the mythical and legendary with some truth, the first ruler of Armenia was Haik, the son of Togarmah, the son of Gomer, the son of Japheth, the son of Noah. This Haik is said to have ieft Babydon to escape the tyranny of Belus, the King of Assyria. Belus pursued him to the land of Ararat, and there, in a great battle, was slain by Haik. This occurred some twenty-three centuries B.C. At this time the Armenian kingdom was set up. Even to this day the Armenians call themselves Haik, and their country Haiasdan. Several centuries later, they say, Aram, the seventh from Haik, having incurred the hatred of the Queen of Assyria, was slain in a battle with that nation, and his kingdom became an Assyrian province. The King Aram had great wisdom and power, and raised his country to high renown, although he ARMENIA ARMENIA was unfortunate at the last. In his day sur rounding nations spoke of his people as Ara- mians, and hence, later, and until the present, Armenians. The Armenians have never used this appellation for themselves. They were a warlike race, and produced men who figured largely in Eastern wars. Dikran (Tigranes) was the friend and ally of Cyrus, and rendered him great assistance in his contests with the Medes, His successor was Vahakn, the Hercules of the Armenians. He was cele brated in song and story for his great victories, and was deified after death. The last of the Haik dynasty was Vahe, who ruled at the time of Alexander the Great. He was an ally of Darius III. against the Mace donians, and was defeated and slain by them. From that time until 317 b.c Armenia was ruled by Persian governors. In 317 the yoke was thrown off, and for thirty years the country was independent ; then the Syrians gained control. This state of affairs continued until 190 b.c, when, through the exertions of two Armenian nobles, the conntry was freed and divided, one of them ruling over Armenia Major, which com prised the eastern part of Armenia as far west as the Euphrates, and the other over Armenia Minor, which was the western part of Armenia, north and west of the Euphrates, but not touch ing the Black Sea. This division continued until 89 b.c, when Dikran II. (Tigranes), of the line of Ardashes (Artaxus), conquered Armenia Minor and united the two kingdoms. The de scendants of Ardashes (Artaxus) reigned in Ar menia until their expulsion by the Arsacidaa. In 67 b.c Armenia became an ally of Rome, but rebelling, their king, Ardavaz, was captured by Pompey and beheaded in Alexandria by Cleopatra, 30 b.c, and the country became tributary to Rome. The country was in tur moil for two and a half centuries thereafter. In 226 a.d., when the Arsacida? were expelled from Persia, Khosrof I. (Chosroes), called also the Great, was king of Armenia. Being allied with the expelled family, he took arms in its defence. He was defeated, and Armenia be came again subject to Persia in 261 a.d. All of the royal family were slain except Durtad, the young son of the king. He escaped to Rome, and afterward, by the help of Rome, was estab lished upon the Armenian throne, 286 a.d. It was through him that the Armenians as a na tion accepted Christianity. Their becoming Christian aroused again the hatred of Persia, in which Rome joined. Toward the end of the fourth century Theodo sius the Great ceded to Persia a part of Ar menia, attaching the rest to Rome. It was the constant effort of Persia to subvert Armenian Christianity and establish Magianism in its stead. To this end, cruel persecutions were undertaken, and frequent incursions were made. From 632 to 859 a.d. Armenia was the scene of almost incessant struggle between the Eastern Empire and the Mohammedans, and it became by turns subject to each. In 859 the dynasty of the Pagratidaa came into power. Ashod was recognized as king by both the Caliph and the Emperor of Constanti nople. He reigned thirty-one years, and his descendants maintained authority iu Armenia until 1079, when the greater part, of the country became dependent upon Constantinople. A small kingdom remained in the Taurus Mountains, north of Cilicia, which increased to a considerable, extent, and allied itself with European monarchs during the crusades. It maintained its independence until 1375, when the last Armenian king, Leo VI. , was captured by the Egyptians and banished. In 1583 the people of Armenia were so op pressed by the Ottomans that many took refuge in Persia and other countries. In 1604 Shah Abbas, of Persia, made an incursion into Ar menia and carried off many of its inhabitants. From this time Armenia lost every mark of a separate national existence. The greater part of the country was annexed to Turkey, while the eastern section remained subject to Persia and the northeast to Russia. Russia took another large section of Armenia in 1876. The number of Armenians who are now scattered throughout the world is estimated at from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000. Perhaps two-thirds of the race reside in Turkey. The rest are in Russia, Persia, India, China, Africa, Europe, North and South America, and in nearly every country of the world. They intermarry with other nations, and the tendency is to race dis integration. Up to the present time the nation has preserved its individuality to a remarkable degree. Akmenian Chubch. Organization. — At the time of Christ, one of the sovereigns of the East wasAbgar, or Abgarus. The seat of his govern ment was at Edessa, in Mesopotamia. Taci tus speaks of him as the King of the Arabs, al though the Armenians regard him their king of the dynasty of the Arsacida?. The Armenianhis- torian, Moses of Khorene, relates that this king was converted by hearing of the works of Christ and by a visit from Thaddeus, one of the seventy, who healed him of a severe disease, and baptized him and the entire city. Abgar's successor apostatized from the faith, and by persecution nearly exterminated these beginnings of Chris tianity. At the time of Durtad II. (Tiridates) Chris tianity was revived among tho Armenians through the instrumentality of Gregory the Illuminator. From that time to the present it has been the national religion. Hence it is called "the Armenian Church, " ' ' the Gregorian Church," and, among themselves, " Loosavo- chagan " (Loosavorich is the Armenian for Illuminator). Gregory, after undergoing severe persecutions, persuaded tbe Armenian king, Durtad, to accept the Christian faith, and he, with large multitudes, was baptized, 301 a.d. The entire nation now became Christian, al though a few of the chiefs afterward becoming dissatisfied — possibly from political motives — joined the Persians in persecuting the new faith. Persecution long continued only served to endear the Church to the people, and from that time to the present it has been identified with their nationality. Under Mohammedan rule each religions body is also a political organ ism. The Armenian Church is little more than that at present. It is therefore inseparably connected with the race, and is pervaded by much of the corruption of Oriental Christianity. Church Doctrine.— By accident — some say pur posely — the Armenians were not represented in the Fourth (Ecumenical Church Council which met at Chalcedon in 451 a.d., and which con demned Nestorianism and Eutychianism. The Armenians had, from the first, been recognized as a branch of the Church of Christ. When the decisions of the Council were reported to them, ARMENIA 99 ARMENIA owing possibly to the poverty of their language ut that time, it not having proper words to dis tinguish the two ideas of (fte nature of Christ and the person of Christ, the decision was misunder stood. In a synod of Armenian bishops in 491 tho decision of the Council of Chalcedon was rejected, and at one of the synods of Tivin, now in Russia, their capital at that time, they decla^id decidedly for the Monophysite doc trine. The Church made little or no progress in after ages, if growth in Christian life alone is called progress. Churches and convents in creased, as also did fast and feast days. Cere monies were multiplied, and the ecclesiasts were embroiled in perpetual disputes with Greeks and Nestorians upon doctrinal points of little significance. The ecclesiasts were, in a great measure, ignorant, and the masses almost en tirely so. The bishops and priests were en gaged among themselves in intestine wars over position and rank. The result was irreligion, formality, and finally the loss of the very spirit of Christianity. Since mission work began among the Arme nians, there has been a gradual rejection of their superstitions and reliance upon rites, and a marked awakening in the line of education. Church Government. — Originally the Church was under one spiritual head, the Catholicos, who was the general bishop. He resided at first at Sivas (Sebastia), but later contentions arose, and with them divisions, until now there are three who hold this office : one resides at Echmiadzin, their holy city, now in Russia ; one at Aghtamar, upon an island in Lake Van. in Eastern Turkey ; and one at Sis, in the an cient province of Cilicia. It is said that at the consecration of the Echmiadzin Catholicos the dead hand of Gregory the Bluminator is even now employed as a medium of succession. The Catholicos alone can ordain bishops and conse crate the sacred oil which is used in the various ceremonies of the Church. Besides the Catholicos, there are the patri archs, one of whom resides at Constantinople and one at Jerusalem. These offices were es tablished by Mohammedan authority for politi cal purposes alone. The patriarch must have a bishop's office ecclesiastically, but to this is added considerable influence with the govern ment and over all Gregorian Armenians in civil matters. He is, by virtue of his office, the recognized civil head of the Armenian Church. Formerly he had power to imprison, scourge, and even to secure the banishment of any of his subjects ; but his authority has been much limited in recent years, and the tendency is to still further reduction of political influence. There are nine different grades of Armenian clergy, all of whom are consecrated by the lay ing on of hands. These, in the order of rank, are : Catholicos, bishop, priest, deacon, sub- deacon, candle-lighter, exorcist, reader, and porter. There is also a class called vartabeds, who are preaching monks. The priests are mar ried, and must have a wife at the time of ordi nation, but can never remarry. The priest cannot become a bishop unless his wife dies. The ecclesiastics are generally supported by direct contributions upon the part of the peo ple and by fees for the performance of certain rites. Services are held in the church each morning at sunrise and each evening at sunset throughout the year. The altar is invariably toward the east. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper is observed twice a week, but the peo ple partake usually only twice a year. Mass is observed as one of the formal rites of the Church. Confession to the priest is a necessary preparation for participation. Owing to the urgent demands of the people for preaching of late years, the vartabeds, bish ops, and sometimes the priests and teachers, preach, and their sermons are often evangelical in tone and full of wholesome advice, which, unfortunately, they seldom put into practice in their own life. Since the Council of Florence, a.d. 1439, a con siderable body of Armenians have been con nected with the Church of Rome. The con gregation of the Mechitarists, which was formed by the Abbot Mechitar, belongs to them. They possess » famous monastery on the island of San Lazzaro, near Vemice, from which centre they have successfully labored since 1702 for Armenian literature and education in the inter ests of the Roman Catholic Church. Tbe Or thodox Armenians, as the old Church styles itself, are inflexibly opposed to the schismatics, as they call the Catholic branch. In ecclesiastical matters the Armenian Church reckons a.d. 551 as the year 1, and they count from that date on. This is the date found in nearly all old manuscripts of the Church. Leading Church Doctrines. — 1. The Armenians separated from the original Church upon the question of one nature and one person of Christ, accepting the doctrine which had been condemned by the General Council. 2. They believe the Spirit proceeds from the Father only. 3. They accept seven sacraments, although baptism, confirmation, and unction are inter mingled in practice. 4. They immerse infants eight days old or less three times, and offer to them the com munion. 5. They accept fully transubstantiation, and worship the consecrated elements as God. 6. They use unleavened bread, which is dipped in the wine and given to the people, who receive it into the mouth from the hand of the priest. 7. They pray for the dead, but deny Purga tory. 8. They practise oracular confession to the priest, who imposes penance and grants absolu tion, but gives no indulgences. 9. They pray to the Virgin and to saints, and have great faith in their mediation. With the Greeks they reject images and accept pictures. 10. They believe in the perpetual virginity of " the Mother of God. " 11. They regard baptism and regeneration as the same thing, and have no practical concep tion of a new birth apart from this. All are saved who partake of all of the sacraments, do proper penance, observe the fasts of the Church, and perform good works. 12. Original sin is removed by baptism, actual sin by confession and penance. Aememian Language. — The Armenian lan guage has two marked divisions, the ancient and classic, which is rich in vocabulary and in flection, and the modern, spoken, which has dropped many of the older forms and construc tions, and contains Persian and Turkish roots and idioms. The difference between these two branches of Armenian is very marked ; it is ARMENIA 100 ARMENIA something the same as that between the Latin and Italian, or the ancient and modern Greek. The ancient language was the product of an age of learning, and was then embodied in the Ar menian version of the Scriptures as well as in various historical and literary works. The modern tongue is the result of centuries of ignoranoe, without books, literature, or educa tion. The difference between these two branches is now so great that an uneducated person can understand little or nothing of tho classical language. While the most of the roots and the pronunciation remain the same, there is great divergence in forms and construction. ThB tendency of the present generation of Armenian scholars is to conform the vernacular to the classical. This is especially true in lit erature. The richness of the older tongue, both in vocabulary and forms, almost necessitates this. There are two principal spoken Armenian dialects at the present time — the Ararat dialect, which is spoken by many of the Armenians in Russia and Persia, and the Armenian, which is used in Southern Russia, Western Armenia, and Eastern Asia Minor. The Bible has been trans lated into both these dialects. The difference between these two dialects consists mostly in forms and constructions. Although there was a language, there was no Armenian alphabet until the beginning of the fifth century a.d. At that time Mesrop, one of the learned saints of the Church, invented 36 of the 38 characters ; two others were added later. These were formed upon the Greek alphabet. The relation of Armenian to the other languages is yet a question of discussion and doubt. Some authorities affirm that it is entirely original — that is, distinct from all others in its fundamental characteristics and so not to be classed with any of the great families of lan guages. Armenian legends declare it to be the language of Eden, and the only tongue not con founded at Babel. On the other hand, Eich- horn thinks that the base of the Armenian lan guage undoubtedly belongs to the Medo-Per- sian. Others indeed deny this, and some have even classed it with the Basque, the Finnish, and the Welsh languages. European scholars generally hold that the Armenian language is essentially Aryan. Perhaps one-third of the Armenians in Tur key, especially those in the southern and western part, and in the Kurdish Mountains, have lost their vernacular, and speak only Turkish and Kurdish. An effort is made in Russia to sub stitute among the Armenians Russian in the place of their own tongue. Armenian Versions of the Scriptures. — The Armenians have had the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament for fourteen and a half cen turies, and have always held them as the Word of God. Before the fifth century a.d. they are said to have used the Syriac alphabet. During that century Mesrop, the inventor of the Ar menian alphabet, with two companions, com pleted a version of the ontire Bible from the Syriac. In 431 two intimate companions of Mesrop returned from the Council of Ephesus, bringing with them a Greek copy of the Scrip tures. They at once made another translation from the Greek. This proved not to be satis factory, as they were unfamiliar with the Greek language. These two companions, with Moses, the historian, were sent to Alexandria to fa miliarize themselves with the Greek. There they made a third translation of the entire Bible. The Old Testament follows closely the Sep tuagint, except in the Book of Daniel, where it adheres to the version of Theodosian. It does not follow any known recension of the LXX. In readings which are especially peculiar to the Alexandrine it more frequently agrees than with the Aldine or the Complutensian texts ; yet no rule can be laid down for this. The New Testament, like the Old, is a most faithful rendering of the Greek original, and rep resents a text made up of Alexandrine and Occidental readings. In the sixth century this entire version was revised and adapted to the Peshito, upon the ecclesiastical union of the Armenians and Syrians. In the thirteenth cen tury Haitho, the Armenian king, adopted the Armenian version of the Vulgate, in order to prepare the way for a union of the Armenian and Roman churches. The first printed edition of the Bible appeared at Amsterdam in 1666, under the care of one Oscan, who was said to be a bishop. He is ac cused of interpolating from the Vulgate. Other editions followed this text closely. At Venice, in 1789, Zohrab published an important Ar menian New Testament, and in 1805 he and his companions completed an entire edition of the Armenian Scriptures. This is a critical edition, with foot-notes and the various readings of the then known manuscripts. The basis is a four teenth-century manuscript. The Armenian v ersion has much critical value in determining the various readings of the LXX. Many old manuscript copies of the Old and New Testament are yet to be found in monasteries and old churches. The four Gos pels are most frequently met with. Some of these date from the tenth century. (See also article Armenian Versions.) Personal Characteristics. — As far as moral traits are concerned, the Armenian compares favorably with the other races of the East. Ages of subjection have generally disposed them to quiet submission. They have now little hope of political restoration as a nation, although a constant agitation is carried on with that end in view. The Armenians are cultivators of the soil, artisans, merchants, and bankers. They are persevering and shrewd in financial dealings. The Greek is the only race in Asiatic Turkey that can compare with them in trades, profes sions, business ability, and general intelligence. The Greek is more speculative and the Armenian slower and more cautious. In the finances of the Turkish Go vernment some Armenians hold high positions, and in many ways they have rendered themselves indispensable to the pros perity and life of the country. In spite of the general increase of poverty throughout Turkey, in many places the Armenians are gaining in wealth, while in all places they may be said to hold their own better than the other races. They are gaining possession of much of the land. The people are religious and show an aptitude for general education, and are ready to sacrifice much to obtain it. Missions to the Armenians. — The population of the country inhabited by the Armenians, in the absence of an accurate census, is estimated at about 16,000,000. This includes a part of Southern Russia, Western Persia, and all of Asiatic Turkey north cf Syria. In this entire ARMENIA 101 ARMENIA region the only organized mission work is to and for the Armenians, except what is done for the Greeks in Asia Minor. Through these nominal Christians, 2,500,000 in number, it is hoped to reach the remaining 13,500,000. The evangelical work for the Armenians has been carried on almost exclusively by the American Board, supplemented by the various Bible^ocieties, the American Tract Society, and the Turkish Missions' Aid Society. From 1823 to a comparatively late period work by the Lutherans was carried on with varied degrees of success in Russia ; but this movement is now practically at an end. The Swedish Evangelical churches have one or two missionaries. The American Presb}derian Society has also an Ar menian work in connection with its Nestorian missions in Western Persia. Besides these, dur ing the past few years the Baptist Publication Society of the United States and also the Camp- bellite Baptists have begun to work among the Armenians to a limited extent ; but as their converts are almost exclusively from among the Protestants, to give the history of Protestantism in this country will be to give the history of the work of the American Board among the Arme nians. Pioneer Work and Persecutions, 1823-60. — Pre vious to 1823 the British and Foreign Bible Society put into circulation among the Arme nians an edition of the Bible and New Testament, and in that year it published at Constantinople an edition of 5,000 copies of the New Testament and 3,000 copies of the Gospels. These were widely distributed. They were all printed in the classical tongue, which it was found the masses did not understand. This led to the publication at this time of an Armeno-Turkish (Turkish printed in the Armenian alphabet. See Turkish Versions) as well as an Armenian edition in the modern tongue. Early in 1821 it was suggested by missionaries of the Board in Syria that a mission for thu Armenians be organized. A little later the same suggestion was made from Smyrna. Pre vious to this the attention of the Board had been turned to this country, and soon thereafter the conversion at Beyrout of three prominent Armenian ecclesiasts, and their entering en thusiastically into the work, together with a mental awakening of the Armenian Church, especially in and about Constantinople, led the Prudential Committee of the Board in 1829 to resolve upon the establishment of a mission among the Armenians of Turkey. Tours of ex ploration were made, and in 1831 their first missionary arrived at Constantinople. Re-en forcements soon followed. The mission was opened at Constantinople, as it was the capital of the empire and the political centre of the Turko- Armenian nation, as well as the centre of a large Armenian population. The congregations at the houses of the missionaries increased in numbers and interest, and with this awakening, opposition upon the part of the clergy began to manifest itself. In 1834 Broosa and Trebizond were occupied by missionaries. Here strong opposition at once developed. During 1835, in Constantino ple, throughout the suburbs and in the villages along the Bosphorus, wherever Armenian = were found, there was a manifest increased disposi tion to converse upon the "new religion." The missionaries, seeking only to point men to Christ, avoided controversies about forms and ceremonies. In the mean time, the work of the press at Smyrna was pushed by the missionaries and Prudential Committee. At this time there was clamor for reform in the old Armenian Church, and thus many of the bishops and vartabeds were almost compelled to preach sermons thakwere strongly evangelical. In 1836 attention was turned to female educa tion, which in the East is almost entirely neglected. In a few places girls' schools were opened and were fairly well attended. Up to 1838 about 2,500,000 pages were printed in the Armenian language on the press at Smyrna. The plague that visited Turkey that year greatly hindered the progress of the work. In Broosa and Trebizond the work had gone forward in spite of great opposition. In 1839 persecution assumed a more vio lent form. Some Armenians were banished from the capital for accepting evangelical truth, and great effort was made to frighten all Arme nians into submission to the Church. On March 3d a patriarchal bull was issued forbidding the reading of all books printed or circulated by missionaries ; and all who had such books in their possession were required to deliver them at once to their bishop or confessor. Under this bull several were sent into exile and others were imprisoned. On April 28th of the same year the patri arch issued a new bull, threatening terrible anathemas, in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, against all who should be found having intercourse with the missionaries or reading their books ; and also against all who failed to inform against offenders. Even strong effort was made to expel the missionaries from the country. The breaking out of war between the Sultan and Mohammed Ali, of Egypt, turned the attention of all Ottoman subjects to war rather than persecution, and thus the Protes tants were allowed to worship in peace. In 1839 Erzroom was occupied as a station. In 1840, in the presence of all the foreign ambas sadors at the capital, the young Sultan solemnly pledged himself to guard as far as he had power to do so the liberty, property, and honor of every subject, irrespective of his religious creed. That same year » boarding-school for boys was opened at Bebek, upon the Bosphorus, whose object was to prepare young men for the Gospel ministry. The reaction from persecu tion was encouraging, and renewed activity pre vailed. The demand for books and Bibles could scarcely be met by the mission press. From 1843 to 1846 there was more or less persecution throughout the field, yet the spirit of inquiry increased, and believers were multiplied. Hitherto the Armenians had remained mem bers of the ecclesiastico-civil community in which they were born. Their relations to the Church varied according to their light and cour age. Some absented themselves entirely from the church service, while others occasionally attended. According to Turkish law, every Christian (non-Moslem) subject must be en rolled in some one of the existing communities which has a patriarch for its head. To detach one's self from one community and not- join another rendered that person a political outlaw. The Armenians had refused burial in their cemeteries to the evangelicals. In January, 1846, a violent bull of excision and anathema was read in the patriarchal church at Constanti nople against an evangelical priest in particular, ARMENIA 102 ARMENIA and all Protestants and missionaries in general. This was followed by a violent discourse from the patriarch, instigating immediate search for all offenders. A severe but bloodless persecu tion followed. Sabbath after Sabbath anathemas followed one another in rapid succession from every pulpit in and about the capital. Printed copies of this anathema were sent to every part of Turkey. Similar scenes were enacted in Nicomedia, Adabazar, Trebizond, Erzroom, Broosa, Smyrna, and other places. This move ment culminated on June 21st, 1846. It was a day of solemn festival of the Church. On that day the patriarch issued a new bull of excom munication and anathema against all who still adhered to their evangelical principles, decree ing that it should be publicly read at each an nual return of that festival in all the Armenian churches throughout the empire. This cut off and cast out completely all Protestants from the old Church. Nothing remained to be done now but to organize into a body these faithful men and women who by persecution were thus cut off from their national Church. Therefore, on July 1st of that same year, the first evangelical Ar menian church of Constantinople and of the empire was organized, and one week from that day a native pastor was ordained over it. That same summer churches were formed at Nicomedia, Adabazar, and Trebizond. In 1847, on November 15th, through the un remitting exertions of the English ambassador at Constantinople, an imperial decree was ob tained from the Turkish Government, recogniz ing native Protestants as an independent com munity with a civil head, who was a layman instead of a patriarch. This paper declared that "no interference whatever should be per mitted in their temporal or spiritual concerns on the part of the patriarchs, monks, or priests of other sects." The same year, through the influence of mission books, the evangelical work began at Aintab. The growth was re markable ; and soon a petition signed by eighty-two heads of families was sent to Con stantinople for a missionary. A flourishing church was early organized amid persecutions, and this became a mission station. In 1850 the Sultan gave a firman granting to Protestants all the privileges given to other Christian communities, and in 1853 another, de claring Christians before the law equal in all re spects to Mohammedans. This has been prac tically imperative. In 1852 Marsovan and in the following year Arabkir became the resi dence of missionaries. By 1853 the spirit of inquiry had developed in a remarkable degree throughout this land. The call for preachers was incessant. There were evangelical com munities in almost every town of importance. The mission forces had been increased, and the mission press was removed from Smyrna to the capital. Except at the commencement of work in new places, there were no marked persecutions from that time on to the present. The evangelical church and body had gained the recognition of government, and was too firmly established to be persecuted with impunity. The work was rapidly enlarging. In 1854 Caasarea and Tocat were occupied by missionary families, and in 1855 Marash, Aleppo, Sivas, and Harpoot, and by 1860 all of the stations at present occupied, with the exception of Van, in the Eastern Tur key Mission, had become the centre of the operations of a band of missionaries. The work had taken firm root throughout Asia Minor, Armenia, and Northern Mesopotamia. We may assume 1860 as the division between the opening up of the evangelical work among the Armenians, and the later development and organization in all parts of the field. Ceniraliza'ion and Development, 1860-90. — To avoid confusion hereafter, it may be well to state here that there are three missions of the American Board to the Armenians in Turkey and Russia. These divisions are made purely for the convenience of administration. The Western Mission centres at Constantinople and covers Asia Minor, including the ancient prov ince of Pontus. The Eastern Mission extends from the east of this to the borders of Persia, taking in Southern Russia. The Central Mis sion includes all the rest of Turkey north of Syria. The southern corner of the Eastern Mission, extending from near Diarbekir to Mosul, with the station centre at Mardin, is for Arabic-speaking peoples, only a small propor tion of whom are Armenians. An account of that work will appear elsewhere. (See article A. B. C. F. M. , Assyrian Mission.) After 1860 the work of the missionary became a r-, O £> 3 or z* o > = ^ St3'-£ _o S 3jo5s a S N Conti the Edu > 4& to t- ¦uonDiuisai co 00 japun ye\o__ CO to to CO CI •sndruj CO 00 1-H X rH E- fi ¦s[ooips t[oiH t9^og; 1-1 8 K CO < f o ¦spdiuj; $ R ro o H QQ 00 ¦ ¦stooqos n^IH tapIO •* COrH G « A o •sndn<£ ao sCO CO gCOrH omao H £ •giootpg uoraraoQ C3 n a o u 1-1 +j < CO •g.i8qiiw]\[ if s •s rt oM o 1-1 CI CI88 rH a o *S3tpJlUIQ 3 eoo u •9J3d[aH «5 71 'giaipiraj, s '9J9qo«a.ici •sjojsgj © 2 O 8 * ARMENIA 103 ARMENIA largely that of superintendence, although the idea of evangelization was never made second ary. By this time a large corps of native helpers had been raised up, and the field was opening so rapidly that in many places the attention of the missionaries was greatly occupied with school cares, theological instruction, and gen eral oversight. While the number of mission aries jj^mained about the same in 1890 that it was in I860— i.e., 40, the number of stations occupied by them had decreased from 20 to 15, while the number of out-stations had increased from 81 to 287. This indicates centralization and more careful organization of work and forces, making strong native churches centres and media of operation. From 1860 to 1890 there was a marked growth in all departments of the work, and especially in the line of education. Closer relations of cj-operation between native bodies and foreign missionaries were established. The accompany ing table shows something of the progress actual ly made, in so far as such work can be expressed in figures. This shows nothing o£ the spirit of reform that is asserting itself in the old Church. This period of about thirt}' years was marked by no special upheavals in religious, educa tional, or political affairs ; but the whole period shows a strong, vigorous growth. Space will not permit us to speak further in detail of the work in general. The various in stitutions which have been established here, and upon which the future independence of the work so largely depends, demand a little notice, especially the educational establishments, culmi nating in the college and theological seminary. As soon as communities were formed among the Armenians, helpers and assistants, such as colporteurs, Bible-readers, preachers and pastors, became a necessity. For these posi tions training was imperative, and schools were opened under the direct care of the mission aries for the purpose of training helpers. These schools were called by various names, but were, in fact, embryo theological schools. The first of these was at Bebek, upon the Bos phorus, whose purpose was to prepare young men for the Gospel ministry, and its influence was great in the early days of the mission. Owing to there being little previous prepara tion upon which to build, these early schools were compelled to give instruction in the com mon branches, as well as in Bible study and theology. As high schools were opened in vari ous places, the standard of the theological schools was raised, until to-day, owing to the thorough drill given in the four colleges, the three distinct theological seminaries, which are thoroughly established, give a course of in struction iittle inferior to similar institutions in the United States. The difference is in degree rather than in kind ; some subjects require to be developed at greater length, while others re quire less attention. If we regard a vote of transfer as conferring succession, these three seminaries, in the order of their age, are now located at Marsovan, Ma- rash, and Harpoot. The one at Marsovan was established at Bebek in 1840. In 1864 it was transferred to its pres ent place. The number of its alumni is 82, of whom 77 are Armenians. The present (1890) number of students is 11, of whom 6 are Ar menians. Two-thirds of these alumni are now in the work. The Marash seminary was opened at Aintab in 1847, and removed to Marash, 1864. It now has two courses of study : one for college- bred men and one for short-course students. In the regular course Hebrew and Greek are taught, and some of the instructors use English altogether. The seminary has 195 alumni, all Armenians. At present there are 20 Armenians in the institution, 10 of whom are in the regular course and 10 in the special. The Harpoot Theological Seminary for the Eastern Turkey Mission was established at To- cat, 1855, und was removed to Harpoot, 1859. The number of Harpoot alumni is 102, all Ar menians but 2 ; 58 of these are now engaged in the work. The present number o£ students is 7 in the regular course. In all of these theological schools the princi pal instruction is given by the missionaries. Colleges. — Although the theological course had been constantly enlarged and broadened as the facilities for preparation were increased, yet it became evident that the work called for higher preparatory institutions and a more complete educational system. Each mission station had its high-school for boys and boarding-school for girls ; still the general interests of the work de manded more. In 1862 Robert College, the mother of Christian colleges in Turkey, was organized upon the Bosphorus. This, while organically separate from the mission, is none the less in sympathy with it. As it is not a mis sion institution, it does not belong to this arti cle. Its students are principally Bulgarians, Armenians, and Greeks. The mission colleges, in the order of their organization, are : Central Turkey College, at Aintab ; Euphrates College, at Harpoot ; Central Turkey Female College, at Marash ; Anatolia Col lege, at Marsovan, and the American College for Girls, at Constantinople. The course of study in these colleges does not differ materially from the ordinary American institution of the same class, except that the Bible is given a prominent place, and modern languages, especially Eng lish, receive more attention than Latin and Greek. Central Turkey College graduated its first class in 1880. The. greater part of its students are Armenians, about three-fourths of whom are Protestant. Until 1888 there was a medical department connected with the college, but for the lack of funds, it has been discontinued. The college has a preparatory school, but no female department. It has little endowment, and is generally dependent upon school receipts, friends, and the Board for support. Euphrates (formerly Armenia) College, at Har poot, graduated its first class in 1880. Its students are Armenians, with a few Syrians. There are a male and a female department, all under one administration, but entirely separate from each other. Each of these has its graded preparatory departments, including primary schools. This college has an endowment, the in come from which, together with the school re ceipts, covers the expenses of the primary schools as well as of the college. This institution is in no way financially connected with the American Board, having a separate Board of Trustees and Directors and » treasurer of its own, except that the American lady teachers in the school are sent out and supported by the Woman's Board. Central Turkey Female College, at Marash, ARMENIA 104 ARMENIA began its work upon a higher grade in 1882. Its course of study is essentially collegiate. In 1889 there were 26 girls in the college proper and 9 in the preparatory class. The school has no endowment. , Anatolia College, at Marsovan, in the Western Mission, sent out its first class in 1888. About three fourths of its students are Armenians and the rest Greek. There is a preparatory school, but no female department. A strong effort is now being made to secure an endowment, that it be not dependent upon the Board for sup port. The American College for Girls, at Scutari, Constantinople, was established by the Woman's Board of Missions in 1872 for the education of women. It includes among its students many Armenians, as well as Bulgarians, Greeks, etc. {See Constantinople.) co ?Hft •pjBog; eo ¦; v. 8 o Pn <& B ¦* f: g 5 •oja 'noiipjj ra o 3 o 'aaBinotujy CO 5 COCO EH rH ¦apiraajj o o £> 02 oGO •op?IC -t in 1Q eo >-> ^.[,'ti utnt-tut. . np u,,f/.,' n_ np f,uj ..uj u, uy "Imputl* iS^PiP f "UI jui^patb'uuil.ui'lt litrMtlinnli pL^.n^bp i Armeno-Turkish. See Turkish Lan guage and Versions. ¦ Armstrong, Richard, b. at MeEwens- ville, Pa., April 13th, 1805 ; studied at Milford Academy ; graduated at Dickinson College, Penn sylvania. 1828, and at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1830 ; ordained by the Presbytery of Baltimore, and sailed as a missionary of the American Board for the Hawaiian Islands, Novem ber 20th, 1831, reaching Honolulu, May 16th, 1832, after a six months' voyage. At a meeting of the mission in April, 1833, it was decided to com mence a mission at the Mi^rquesas Islands, and he was appointed, with Messrs. Alexander and Parker, to that field. After they had resided several months on Nuuhiva Island, they were informed that English missionaries were on the way from the L. M. S. to occupy those islands. It was therefore decided to relinquish the field and return to the Hawaiian Islands. Their residence for eight months among savages and cannibals was one of groat danger and discom fort. The Frudenlial Committee approved of their decision. Mr. Armstrong's first station after his return was at Haiku, then at Wailuku on Maui from 1835—10. Hero ho had a parish of 25,000, schools with 1,700 children to ex amine and supply with teachers, churches to build, and in various ways he identified himself with all public interests. In 18-10 he was re moved to Honolulu to take charge of Mr. Bing ham's church, where he remained eight years. The large stone church left unfinished he com pleted, planning and superintending the work. While at Honolulu he was called to a new sphere of service. The king having been induced, through the influence of Messrs. Richards, Armstrong, and Judd, to pass an act granting his subjects undisputed rights in the soil, Mr. Armstrong was engaged for many months in translating the proceedings incident to it, and even in making actual surveys of the lands sub ject to the new law. During the four years' ab sence of Mr. Richards (1842-46) on a mission to secure the acknowledgment of the independence of the islands by Great Britain, France, and the United States, Mr. Armstrong was really the head of the Department of Public Instruction, the whole work being devised and superintended by him. On the death of Mr. Richards, in 1847, the position was offered to Mr. Armstrong by the king and privy council. Though deeply interested in public education, he hesitated for several reasons as to his duty, but after much consideration, in view of the importance of the work for the intellectual, moral, and religious welfare of the people, he accepted the appoint ment, believing that in this office he could be more useful than as pastor of a single church. In 1851 he established, at » cost of $10,000, a royal school for the education of young chiefs, which was opened December 8th with thirty-five scholars. He secured the Rev. E. G. Beckwith, a graduate of Williams College, as principal. He received this year the degree of D.D. from the Washington and Lee University, Virginia. From 1849-58 he was occupied in lecturing on education, supervising the five hundred villaga schools, the seminary at Lahainaluna, the Royal School and the Hilo Boarding School, editing the paper in the native language, at tending meetings of cabinet and privy council. In 1855 at his recommendation the Department of Public Instruction was remodelled and placed under a Board of Education, when he ceased to be a minister of the crown, and became Presi dent of the Board. In 1857 he visited the United States wiih Rev. E. G. Beckwith, Presi dent of Oahu College, to secure an endowment for the college ; returning, after an absence of six months, Dr. Armstrong's useful life was suddenly brought to a close. He was thrown from his horse, and after a fortnight died at Honolulu, September 23d, 1860. The king, Liholiho, published in the native paper a sketch of his character and work, ivkich thus closes : " When we have spoken of Dr. Armstrong as Minister of Public Instruction, and subsequently President of the Board of Education, we have but partially described the important offices he filled or discharged. He was a member of the House of Nobles and of the King's Privy Council, Secretary of the Board of Trustees of Oahu College, Trustee of the Queen's Hospital, and executive officer of the Bible and Tract Society, and deeply interested in developing the agricultural resources of the kingdom. His accurate knowledge of the Ha waiian language, and the facility with which he wielded the pen of a translator, naturally im posed upon him an immense amount of toil and perplexity. He has always been connected with some newspaper published in the Hawaiian language, and was continually writing for its columns. His immediate and appropriate duties were connected with the cause of educa tion. All the schools of the kingdom, common, high, and collegiate, came under his super vision. His annual and biennial reports, pub lished under the authority of the government, afford abundant statistical matter to show that he was called to no sinecure office. In the dis charge of his official duties he was called to make frequent tours throughout the group. No government officer or missionary was brought ARMSTRONG, RICHARD 1C7 ASIA MINOR into such close intimacy with the nation. Though his week-day duties were so abundant and onerous, he never spared himself as a min ister of the Gospel. He was an eloquent preacher in the Hawaiian language, and always listened to with deep interest by the people. Nearly every Sabbath his voice was to be heard in some one of the pulpits of the kingdom." GoMrnor Pollock, of Pennsylvania, writes : " I regret that I cannot do full justice to the memory of one who, in my youth, was most highly esteemed by me. His manly virtues, his noble, generous, and Christian character, as a young man aud a student, remain indelibly im pressed on my mind. Under his care and in his company I went to Princeton to enttr col lege. He was a kind and careful protector, and often visited me at my rooms, his cheerful pres ence driving away homesickness, and making me realize the value of a friendship that wells up from a warm Christian heart." General Marshall, formerly in Hawaii, says : " His energy, foresight, and tact gave a new im pulse to the whole school system of the islands. He established the first industrial school, and that Hawaiian school was the inspiration of his son's grand work at Hampton Institute. As Chairman of the Committee on Education of the Hawaiian Legislature, I was brought into intimate relations with Dr. Armstrong, and often had occasion to admire his sagacity, pru dence, and executive ability in performing the difficult duties of his office." Professor Lyman says : " His strict enforce ment of Christian morality, without respect of persons, even to the excommunication of the reigning queen from his Church, showed a cour age and strength of character, coupled with wis dom, which well fitted him for his responsible position. His whole heart and soul were ob viously in his work. ' ' Ami, North Arcot district, Madras, South India, south of Arkadu. Climate, tropical. Population (1881), 4,812, Hindus, Moslems, and a few Christians. Language, Tamil, Telugu, and Hindustani. Mission station of the Re formed (Dutch) Church in America (1854) ; 1 missionary and wife, 21 native helpers, 13 out- stations, 203 members, 14 schools, 356 scholars. Arno, one of the Ratah Islands, which form the eastern chain of the Marshall Islands, Mi cronesia ; has 3,000 inhabitants, of whom one- half are Christians under native direction. Arnot's (F. S.) Garenganze Mission, Central Africa. An independent mission, represented in England by Mr. John Mercer, 29 Queen's Road, Southport. — Mr. Arnot's work in Africa is one of the many results of Livingstone's last visit to Scotland. Although a very small boy at the time he heard them, Arnot never forgot the words which Livingstone uttered at a distribution of prizes at a school in Hamilton (Livingstone's own town). They awakened in him a strong desire to go to Africa, which never ceased or altered, but grew in in tensity, until it became the fixed purpose of his life. One by one difficulties and obstacles were moved out of his way, and after acquiring in medical study, in the carpenter's shop, and at the blacksmith s forge, preparation for mission ary labor among savage tribes, he, with a fel low-worker, Donald Graham, sailed from Lon don for Natal, July 17th, 1881, reaching the port of Durbaa, August 20th. Mr. Graham's health having failed, he remained, by advice of his physician, at Natal, but Mr. Arnot proceeded to Maritzbnrg. His subsequent journeys across the continent, graphically described in his let ters and diaries, have resulted in the accom plishment of much pioneering missienary work, the benefit of which will be reaped by those who shall come after, and the establishment cf a mission in the southeastern part of the Congo Free State, among the sources of the Congo, in the Garenganze country. After years of hard travel through the Zambesi and Barotse districts, Mr. Arnot has found this location suitable for the residence of Europeans, and has succeeded in building stations ; but the immense distance from the coast, and the absence of a connecting chain of stations, make the difficulties, dangers, and expenses very great. Other missionaries have joined Mr. Arnot, and Messrs. Swan and Faulkner are now in the Garenganze country, while Mr. Arnot has been establishing a station at Bihe, which is a great caravan centre, and is upon one of the main routes across the conti nent, chiefly with a view of forwarding supplies to those farther inland ; but the latest news re ceived indicates that he and his wife, with his new helpers, have not yet succeeded in making their way back from Bihe to join their col leagues in Garenganze. In his seven years' preparatory work, Mr. Arnot has, like Livingstone, gained the esteem and respect of the natives to a remarkable de gree, and the results of this are now appearing in the progress of the evangelistic work now thoroughly established in Garenganze. Arorae, one of the Gilbert Islands, Micro nesia ; a mission station of the L. M. S. Arouca, a town of Central Trinidad, ease of Port of Spain and northeast of San Fernan do. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland ; one missionary and wife, 144 church members. Arthinjrton (Stanley Pool), a station of the Baptist Missionary Society (England) in the Congo Free State, West Africa, near Leopold- ville. Aru, one of the Moluccas, East Indies. Population, 15,000, among whom 400 are Chris tians in 4 congregations, with a church at Wokan under the Dutch Missionary Society. Asaba, a town on the Niger, above its delta, in West Africa. It is situated on the right shore, and forms the starting point for Ubulu, Benin, and Joruba. A station of the C. M. S , with 1 native pastor and 412 catechumens. Asansol, a town in the Calcutta district, Bengal. Mission station of the Methodist Epis copal Church, North ; one missionary. Ashanti Version. See Otshi. Ashapura, in the district of Ajmere, Raj putana. Mission station of the United Presby terian Church of Scotland. Asia Minor. — Originally confined to a small section on the border of the iEgean, the term has come to include that portion of Asiatic Turkey lying between the Black Sea on the north and the Mediterranean on the south, the Marmora and iEgean seas on the west, and the Euphrates Valley on the east. This last boun dary is very vague, as the Euphrates is very tor- ASIA MINOR 108 ASSAM tuous in its course. It is, however, sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. For fuller de scription, see article on Turkey. The mission work in Asia Minor is almost entirely that of the A. B. C. F. M. Asisippi (Sandy Lake), a C. M. S. station in Saskatchewan district, Manitoba, Canada, occu pied in 1875 ; has three hundred members among the Indians. Assam, a province of British India, ceded to the East Indian Government by the King of Burma in 1826, and annexed to Bengal till 1874, is now an independent province, responsible only to the Governor-General of India. Its area is 55,384 square miles — about the same as that of the State of Ohio. Its population, in 1881, was 4,897,046, or about 105.4 to the square mite. It is now considerably larger. It lies between the parallels of 24° 30' and 28° 15' N. latitude, and between the meridians of 89° and 96° 50' of E. longitude from Greenwich. It has been cus tomary with writers on Southeastern Asia to speak of Assam as affording convenient access from Burma to Tibet and Southwestern China by crossing at some low passes the wall of lofty mountains from 8,000 to 10,000 feet in height which separate Assam and Burma, and the fact that the Singphos, or Sing-paus, fierce hill tribes, inhabited both the northern and southern faces of tho range, was adduced to prove the possibility of opening this way to China ; but a glance at the physical geography of the two countries 13 sufficient to show that such a re sult is impracticable. Burma belongs to the Irawadi system, and the Irawadi, the Sitang, the Salwen, and the Meinam rivers, whose sources are grouped together in Southwestern China, are separated by this mountain wall from Assam, which belongs exclusively to the Brahmaputra system, and is drained by the Brahmaputra, the Jumna, the Megna, the Surma, and their affluents, and these rivers fall into that vast alluvial delta known as the Sunder- bunds, which extends from Chittagong to the mouth of the Hoogly. The debouchure of the two river systems is more than 600 miles apart. In a condition of greater civilization, and with the consent of the Burmese and Chinese na tionalities, it might be possible, though at an enormous expense and much of the way at very high grades, to extend a railway from Rangoon to the Chinese border, up the valley of the Ira wadi ; but where would be the use ? Fast steamers can ascend the Brahmaputra to Sadiya, or the Irawadi to Bhamo, and from either town China can be reached by railroads or good highways whenever that country is ready, and not sooner ; but communication from Burma to Assam and thence to China will be a very difficult and unprofitable task. On the other hand, communication between Eastern Bengal and Assam is easy. The country consists of two extensive river valleys and three ranges of mountains. At the north, Bhutan occupies the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains, and tho somewhat lower range which overlooks the wide and fer tile valley of the Brahmaputra. The valley of this great river extends from Sadiya in the east to the foot of the Garo Hills, where the river turns to the south. The right bank is level, and has broad fertile lands, densely inhabited ; the left bank is crowded by a range of hills or mountains of moderate elevation, named, mostly from the tribes that occupy them, the Garo, the Khasia (Cossya), and Jyntia hills, the A5 Naga, Angami Naga, and Singpho hills ; and in the snowy range where the head-waters of some of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra have their source, the hills and mountains are occupied by the great Mishmi tribe, the Khamtis and others. The comparatively level and broad valley ex tending from the right bank of the Brahmaputra is mostly occupied by the Assamese, the ruling race. They have also several cities and towns on the left bank ; but the hills and mountains, which are ranged along and near the left bank, and which form the strong and nearly impene trable barriers against Northern Burma, are in habited by the tribes we have named and other smaller tribes, most of them independent and generally warlike. Southwest of these hills lies the valley of the Surma, a large tributary stream flowing into the Megna, one of the delta branches of the Jumna or Brahmaputra. This valley is broad, well watered, and fertile. The Khasia and Jyntia hills overlook it. It has been claimed, till within a few years past, as a part of the Eastern Bengal plains, but the Indian Gov ernment has now transferred this whole valley to the Assam province, to which it properly be longs. The People. — The ruling class, the Assamese, hold very similar relations to the hill tribes of Assam as the Burmans do to the hill tribes of that country. They are of different race, habits, and religion. The Assamese are believed to be allied to the Shans, though perhaps remotely. They were formerly Buddhists, but about the middle of the eighteenth century, having sought the protection of Bengal, they became Brah- manists, and have adopted the entire Brahmanist system — divinities, caste, idol- worship, and all. They have abandoned their religion slowly, but there are nearly a thousand of them now who profess Christianity. Their language, though originally of the Pali stock, has, by the adop tion of Brahmanism by the Assamese, and their intimate association with Eastern Bengal, acquired a large infusion of Bengali. It is not a difficult language, and the Scriptures are now translated into it. The hill tribes, which in the aggregate outnumber the Assamese, are, be ginning with the Chinese frontier on the north east : the Mishmies ; the Khamtis, said to be of the Tai or Shan family, who are most numerous on the Chinese side of the mountains ; the Singphos (Sing-paus), who are found in large numbers also on the Burmese side of the moun tains ; the Aror (Ah-roor) ; the Angami Nagas, the Ao Nagas, the Lhota Nagas, the Kacharis, or Kosaris, north of the Brahmaputra ; the Mikirs, in the hills near Nowgong ; the Garos, of several clans ; and on the slopes of the Khasia and Jyntia (Jain-tee-a) hills, looking toward the Surma Valley, the Khasis and Jyntia tribes, and still another tribe of Nagas, are found. To these must be added the Kohls, a Hindu tribe fromChotia Nagpur, in Central India, who have been brought by the Assamese (English) Gov ernment into Assam to work in the tea gardens. It is said that there are" over 250,000 of them now in Assam. It is believed that some of the largest of these tribes are either closely affiliated to hill tribes in Burma, or perhaps identical with them ; this is very probable in regard to the Singphos of Assam and Chittagong, and the Kach'ins (Kakhyens) of Upper Burma ; also the Nagas ASSAM 109 ASSAM of Assam and the Ch'ins (Khyens) of Burma ; and is a matter of great moment to the mis sionaries, who are attempting the conversion of these tribes, and translating the Scriptures into their languages in the two countries. Of the tribes named above, the Khamtis, Sing phos, the Angami and Lhota Nagas, the Ka- charhi or Kosaris, the Mikirs, the Garos, especially of the northern slope of the Garo Hills, and the Kohls, have been receiving Chris tian instruction from the missionaries of the American Baptist Missionary Union, while the Garos of the southern slope, the Khasis, the Jyntia (Jain-tee-a), the Lohappa Nagas, and the Tipperah, as well as the Assamese and Kohls of the Surma Valley, are under the care of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Foreign Missionary Society of England. The S. P. G. include it in their diocese of Calcutta, but do not appear to have expended much labor on it. Climate and Soil. — Assam is wholly within the north temperate zone, though in the subtropical part of it. Its location and the high hills and mountains which cover so large a portion of its surface should make it healthy, but it is not so. In the valleys there are marshy lands, and the fickle, moist, and variable temperature, with its terrible cold and its fervid heat, have ren dered it particularly fatal to a large proportion of the Europeans and Americans who have spent much time there. It is frequently visited by the cholera, and both acute and chronic dis eases of the liver prevail. Of late years the construction of good roads and the drainage of the marshes for the establishment of tea gar dens has somewhat improved the health of the country. Much of the soil is fertile, and the foot-hills have proved admirably adapted to the culture of tea. The attention of English capitalists was directed to the country for the cultivation of the tea shrub as early as 1830, and after a long series of experiments and many failures, they have at last succeeded in producing the finest teas in the world, and, in 1889, marketed 600,- 000 cwt. of tea. The average price in Calcutta is eight annas (twenty-two and a half cents) per pound. They employ about 250,000 persons in their tea gardens, mostly Kohls. The other products are rice, cotton, opium, and mustard. The forests furnish much valuable timber. Gold, silver, copper, iron, and several kinds of precious stones are found in the country, Among the wild beasts are elephants, tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, wolves, hyenas, etc.; deer and antelope, buffaloes, etc., abound. There are also many pythons and poisonous serpents. The most important tea-producing districts are Cachar and Sylhet, in the Surma Vallev, and Sibsagor and Lukimpnr, in Eastern As sam. The British capital is Shillong, a small town in the Jyntia (Jain-tee-ah) Hills. The other principal towns are Sadiya (Soo-dee-yah), Di-bru-gurh, Jaipur, Sibsagor, Lukimpur, Now gong, Tezpur, Kobima, Wohka, Gauhati, the chief city of the Brahmaputra Valley ; Goal- para (Gow-al pah-rah) and Tura, in the Brah maputra Valley ; and Sylhet (chief city of the Surma Valley), Gherrapoonjee, Non-Klow, Sil- char, Mymensing, and Jumaipoor, in the Surma Val] ey . Religions. — The Assamese, as we have said, though not Hindus, are Brahmans, having adopted that system of religion since about 1760. They aro rigid adherents to caste. The Kohls, as a Hindu tribe, are also Brahmans. One or two of the hill tribes on the north of the Brahmaputra, notably the Kacharis (Ko saris) and several of the Bhotan hill tribes bordering on Assam at the north, are Moham medans. Tho greater part of the hill tribes, including all those south of the great river — the Garos, Nagas, Khasis, Mikirs, Singphos, etc. — are demon worshippers, making offerings to the nats or demons, to induce them not to injure them. They believe in a living Supreme Being, the Creator, but think He is too much occupied with the vast affairs of the universe to care for human beings, and too merciful to punish them for anything they have done or may do ; and so they do not offer Him any worship or reverence. They believe dimly in a future life, but not in a state of rewards or punishments. In general their religious belief is substantially the same with that of the hill tribes of Burma. The tribes nearest to the Chinese have adopted from them some ideas of ancestral worship. Missions in Assam. — The first mission com menced here was that of the American Baptist Missionary Union, established in 1836 at the solicitation of Captain, afterward Major Jen- kyns, the British deputy commissioner to Assam, a man of great piety and benevolence, who offered of his own means a considerable sum toward the expense of such a mission to the heathen under his charge. The first mission aries were Rev. Nathan Brown, an eminent missionary and scholar, who had begun his missionary life in Burma, and Mr., afterward Rev. O. T. Cutter, a printer. The first station was at Sadiya, near the northeast frontier of Assam, about 400 miles from the Burman capi tal, and almost 200 from Yunnan, the capital of the province of the same name in Southwest China. The tribe to whom they were desig nated were the Khamtis, a hill tribe who occu pied both sides of the lofty range which sepa rated Assam from China, though the greater part were on the Chinese side, and communi cation across the mountain wall was very diffi cult and dangerous. The geography and ethnol ogy of this region was not well understood, and the voyage up the tortuous Brahmaputra was exceedingly tedious, occupying over four months, in the native boats. The mission aries, however, entered upon their work with a stout heart, and finding that there was little to be done among the Khamtis, they turned their attention to the Assamese and Shans in and around Sadiya. Dr. Brown was a, remarkable linguist, and in a very short time he had pre pared religious primers and copies of the Gos pels in Khamti, Shan, and Assamese. The wives of the missionaries established schools for As samese and Shan children, which were well at tended. In July, 1837, they were re-enforced by two more missionaries and their wives, but one of the missionaries, Rev. Mr. Thomas, was killed by a falling tree within sight of Sadiya. Missionary operations were commenced among the Singphos, and an attempt was made to reach them from Burma by way of the Irawadi by Dr. Kincaid, but this, like all subsequent at tempts, proved unsuccessful. On January 28th, 1839, an insurrection of the Khamtis com menced with an attack on Sadiya, which neces sitated thi removal of the missionaries to Jai pur, a considerable town on one of the southern affluents of the Brahmaputra, and Mr. Bronson, Assam no ASSAM* one of the missionaries, with his family, re moved to the hills to labor among the Nagas, one of the hill tribes. This station proved un healthy, and he was forced to fall back on Jai pur, where his sister, a promising young mission ary, fell a victim to the mountain fever. Jaipur was abandoned from its unhealthiness and other causes, and Sibsagar, on the Dheeko River, a southern affluent of the Brahmaputra, was selected. This is now the chief town in Eastern Assam, and is still a station of the A. B. M. U. Jaipur was still retained as a station for some time, but eventually given up in conse quence of the raids of the hill tribes. For the subsequent establishment of stations at Now- gong, an important town of Central Assam ; Gauhati, the chief city of Western Assam ; Go- alpara, still farther west, on the Brahmaputra ; Tttra, the principal town among the Garo Hills ; Molung, a station in the Naga Hills, south of Sibsagor ; Kohima, the chief town of the An- gam Nagas, southeast of Nowgong, and Wokha, the government station for the Lhota Nagas, about midway between Kohima and Molung, we must refer to History of American Baptist Missionary Union, Assam Missions. A few notes in regard to the three missions which have grown out of the one original mission are in place here. The station at Nowgong was first es tablished in 1841 by Mr. Bronson. The first As samese convert was baptized the same year. In 1842 a school was opened there, with eighty pupils, and in 1843 the Nowgong Orphan Insti tution was established, which for many years was the means of doing much good. It was given up in 1856. The station at Gauhati was com menced by Mr. Barker in 1843. There were very few converts, and these Assamese only, till 1846. From this time till 1853 there were fre quent accessions to the churches in Sibsagar, Nowgong, and Gauhati, mostly Assamese, with a very few Kacharis and Nagas. In 1863 the first of the Garos, the fiercest of the Hill tribes, was baptized, and soon became a missionary to his tribe. The same year one of the Mikirs was baptized. From these the good work spread with great rapidity till in the churches of the Garo Association, in 1877, there were 617 mem bers. In January, 1889, there were 10 Garo churches in Tura and its out-stations, with 1,117 communicants, and 50 schools, with 1,060 pupils. The advance in tbe year 1889 has been very great. Six of these churches were self-supporting, and were active in general be nevolence. The Kohls (Hindus from Chotia Nagpur, in Central Bengal, who were employed in the tea gardens) began to attract attention in 1S74. They are mostly in the district of Sibsagor. Though Brahmans, some of them had heard of Christ from Lutheran missionaries in their home in Bengal, and in Assam they were ready to accept Him. There are now two or three large churches of these people, and they have a missionary to themselves. There have been some conversions among the Mikirs, who are best reached from Nowgong. Though there was considerable promise among the Kacha ris, north of the Brahmaputra, the accessions from that tribe have not been large. Work was commenced among the Nagas as early as 1840, but without much result till 1K71, when Rev. E. W. Clark made a tour of the hills. There are at least three distinct tribes of Nagas in these hills — the Ao Nagas, the Angami, and the Lhota Nagas. There are missionaries labor ing among each, and the work has become so extensive and important that the three stations, Molung, Kohima, and Wokha, have been con stituted a separate mission. As yet the mem bership is not large, hardly reaching one hun dred in tho three stations, but they have many schools, and the outlook is promising. The Garos are now set off as a separate mission, and outnumber both the others. The Assamese churches number 15, and their members in January, 1889, were 777. There should be laborers among the Singphos, from whom a harvest might be reached ; but Assam Baptist missions have always labored under two diffi culties — a lack of a sufficient number of mis sionaries and the insalubrity of its climate, which has cut off so many of their earnest workers in their prime, and has greatly reduced the membership of their churches. The Bap tists are not the only denomination who have essayed missionary work in Assam, though in the valley of the Brahmaputra they have had no rivals save the Roman Catholics and the Mohammedans, except the Society for the Propa gation of the Gospel, which has established some schools in Gauhati. But in the Surma Valley and the hills north and northwest of it the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society has conducted a very successful mission since 1841. (See Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Foreign Missionary Society, Mission in North eastern Bengal.) The Society have only one other mission, that to the Bretons in the north of France. Their missions in the valley of the Surma (Soor-ma) are now divided into eight stations or districts — viz., Cherrapoonja, Shil- long, the present capital of Assam, in the Jyntia Hills ; Sheila, Mawphlong, Khadsawpbra, Jo- wai, Shang-poong, and the Sylhet district, the western headquarters of the tea production. Their converts have been mostly among the Khasis, Jyntia and Southern Garo tribes, with a few of the Angami Nagas. They report, in 1888, 8 stations, 18 foreign workers — 8 of them females ; 302 native workers (209 males and 93 females), 6,519 adherents, 1,389 communicants, 1,179 candidates or probationers, 1,833 baptized children, 120 day schools, 3,833 day scholars, 119 Sabbath-schools, with 5,899 scholars. Na tive contributions, $2,400. They have lost many missionaries by sickness and death. This region is claimed by the' S. P. G. as part of the diocese of Calcutta, and we believe they have schools at Sylhet and Shillong. Assam. — The language spoken in Assam, a province subject to the Bengal presidency, belongs to the India branch of the Aryan family of languages. A translation of the Scriptures into this language was commenced at Serampore in 1811 and completed in 1815, when the first two Gospels were printed. The New Testament was finished in 1819, and the Old Testament published in 1833. The version belonging to those which have not been found of permanent value was no more reprinted by the Serampore missionaries, who used the Bengal Bible in teaching. An effort toward a new translation into Assamese was made by American Baptist missionaries. The late Nathan Brown, after ward missionary in Japan, translated the New Testament, whose third edition was printed at Sibsagar, Assam, in 1850 : another edition was published in 1873. The Psalms, translated by ASSAM 111 ATAFU W. Ward, left the press at Sibsagar in 1863 ; an other edition was issued at Calcutta, 1875. The Book of Ruth was published at Sibsagar in 1880, and was followed by other portions of the Old Testament — viz., Genesis, Exodus, Joshua, 1 and 2 Kings. From a communication in the Baptist Missionary Magazine, published by the Rev. A. K. Gurney, of Sibsagor, we learn that the lastfchapter of tbe Bible was translated into Assamese June 21st, 1889 The Bible in As samese, he states, is greatly needed now, and every effort will be made to push the printing as rapidly as possible. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) jr)5 $$$ frfJ5I <»ig iSR; $J=t WfisCT fbM^ . Gribble, who for several years devoted himself to missionary work among the remnant of aborigines, both pure and mixed, whom ho gathered together. The Government of New South Wales assist this work, and the Christian publio subscribe to it. A considerable amount of good has been done by the Association. Mr. and Mrs. Matthews, after a visit to England in 1889, when they were accompanied by two aboriginal Christian con verts, intend to carry on their benevolent oper ations as before, by means of the help of Chris tian friends. The property of the station is their own. The numbers in New South Wales are only 5,000, scattered over a territory of 310,000 bquare miles. Iu the colony of Victoria several well-sus tained effoits have been made to Christianize and elevate tho aborigines. These have, for the most part, been placed in the hands of Moravian missionaries, who, with characteristic energy and self denial, have persevered in doing good. In 1850 the Moravian Church commissioned the Rev. Messrs. Spieseke and Tager, afterward Mr. Hausen, to begin a mission at Lake Bogo. They found insuperable difficulties and re turned to Europe in 1856, without Ihe sanction of the Mission Board. In 1858 Mr. Spieseke was sent to reopen the mission, and the Rev. F. A. Hagenauer was also appointed. The lat ter has continued for thirty-two years in the holy work, and Las been highly esteemed by all who know him ; and he has been lately ap pointed by the government general inspector and secretary for the aboiigines, so that the whole remnant of the people is now under his care. The number in Victoria is now reduced to less than 1,000. Messrs. Hagenauer and Spieseke began their mission in the Wimmera district, where they were welcomed by the set tlers as well as by the blacks. The number of converts there during their labors was 150, of whom 50 baptized native Christians are still alive. Only a small remnant of the race now reside there, and they are under the care of Messrs. Bogisch and Kramer. After this good beginning the Christian churches of Victoria took up aboriginal mis sions. The Church of England Missionary Committee sent Rev. Messrs. Goodwin and Butmer to the Lower Murray River, below the junction of the far-journeying waters of the Darling with the Murray. They established a station at Yelta, near the spot where the in defatigable explorer, Captain Sturt, had a mar vellous escape from being killed by the hostile blacks encamped there. This station was given up because all the natives had died out. An attempt was made to carry the Gospel farther into the interior at Cooper's Creek, near the place where the explorers Burke and Wills per ished. Mr, Bulmer was sent to Gippsland in 1862, where he established a mission on a pen- insuta at Lake Tyers. A full apparatus of church and school was erected on a reserve to which the blacks were invited for residence. A number took up their abode there, and ninety- seven have been baptized and there are thirty communicants. The people are, however, dying out. The Church of England Committee estab lished a station in the southwest, first near Waruambool under Mr. Clark, and afterward under the same missionary at Condah, near Portland. In 1872 the Rev. Mr. Brazier suc ceeded, but he resigned a year afterward. The Rev. H. Stiihle, a Moravian missionary, was ap pointed in 1873, and he has carried on the work with success. There are still one hundred un der instruction. When the Presbyterians united in one church in 1859, there was a desire to take part in mis sion work among the aborigines of Victoria, and the Rev. F. A. Hagenauer was invited to take the superintendence. After an exploratory AUSTRALIA 115 AUSTRALIA journey and the requisite arrangements with the Mission Board of the Moravian Church in Ger many, Mr. Hagenauer commenced operations in 1862 at » reserve called Ramahyuck, in Gipps- land. In 1869 he was joined by the Rev. C. W. Kramer, who continued till 1876, when he left for Ebenezer, in the Wimmera district. During^ twenty years much good work has been done at Ramahyuck, and converts have been won to Christ. The young have been educated, and industrial enterprise promoted. Mr. Hagenauer says in his report in November, 1889 : " The total number of aborigines under our care at Ramahyuck is 93, but of that num ber 29 are half-castes who are nearly all settled away from the station." He adds: "All the blacks on the station attend regularly both the Sabbath and the daily services in church, and seem to pay attention to the simple preaching of the Gospel." At the government station of Coranderrk, near Melbourne, under Mr. Shaw, there are one hundred blacks in the care of the Presbyterian Church. Mr. Hagenauer now superintends all, and has the satisfaction of seeing the few sur viving representatives of a decaying race kindly led into the fold of the Good Shepherd. In South Australia the Aborigines' Friends Association began missionary work in 1858, and appointed the Rev. George Taplin to labor among the tribes on the shores of Lake Alex- andrina. For twenty-one years that devoted servant of Christ carried on his benevolent work with some encouragement. Mr. F. W. Taplin was next appointed, and he labored for ten years. He was suddenly removed by death in a fire at the Coffee Palace in Adelaide in 1889. He has been succeeded by Mr. D. Backwell. The government give £1,000 a year toward im proving the condition of the aborigines, and the Christian public contribute about £500. There are 48 children on the books of the school, with an average attendance of only 23. Christian worship is regularly maintained, and converts from time to time have been added to the Lord. There is a Sunday-school of 60 or 70, averaging 45. The reserve is stocked with sheep, and the natives perform the work re quired. An earnest and devoted missionary of the Presbyterian Church, the Rev. W. Reid, who desired to labor among the aborigines in South Australia, perished, in the beginning of his work, in Lake Alexandrina. The Lutheran Society at Dresden also took part in missionary work among the aborigines of South A ustralia, and in 1838, one year after the establishment of the colony, sent out the Rev. Messrs. Schur- niann and Teichelmann to commence a mission near Adelaide. They were afterward joined by Messrs. Appelt and Meyer. They labored with zeal, but as the number of blacks diminished they had to give up and minister to the German immigrants. Toward the north missionaries of the Hermansburg Society in Germany began a station, and they now operate on the tribes around Lake Kopperamona. Eighteen converts have been baptized, and the work makes some progress. In 1877 the Lutheran churches of Vic toria and South Australia agreed to send their missionaries to a northern station at the Finke. Thus various attempts have been made to reach the interior of Australia. Tbe venerable Arch deacon Hale, then of Adelaide, and afterward bishop successively of Perth in Western Aus tralia and of Brisbane in Queensland, founded an institution for the blacks at Poonindie. He was a clergyman animated with a sincere desire to advance the Gospel of Christ, and always manifested a charitable spirit toward other Christians, whose respect and confidence he won. The good work is still carried on under Mr. Shaw, who was formerly at Condah station, in Victoria. In the northern part of the colony there are still tribes of aborigines who are not reached by the Gospel, and among whom missions may be established. The wide country has been mostly settled, and a mission station would be within the neighborhood of friendly graziers. The chief difficulty is still the migratory character of the blacks. In Western Australia Roman Catholic mis sionaries began, in 1849, with ten priests, four teen monks, and seven nuns. Mr. Hagenauer says, "They divided into three parties— the southern, the central, and the northern mis sions. The southern perty endured great hard ships, and after a great deal of suffering left the country and went to the Mauritius. The northern and largest party, under Mr. Brady, embarked for Port Essington, but must have suffered shipwreck, as none of them ever reached their destination or were heard of any more. The central party, under the leadership of Fa ther Salvado, now Bishop of New Norcia, set tled among the natives northeast of Perth, and began that still flourishing establishment of the same name." The Church of England also made an effort to evangelize the blacks. The Rev. George King, M.A , afterward L.L.D., labored for some time, but left for New South Wales, where he ministered in various places for many years to English colonists. In Western Australia there are many tribes, and the vast territory is com paratively unsettled. There are not 50,000 colonists in the population. Something should be done to localize the blacks on reserves before the country is settled, and to institute schools. The same may be said of Northern Queens land. The Rev. F. A. Hagenauer made a jour ney over some parts of this extensive region in 1886, and found spheres where Moravian mis sions might be established. The Society at Herrnhut were willing to send missionaries. The way, however, has not been yet opened ; but the Federal Assembly of the Presbyterian Churches has wished to establish a mission among them. In 1873 the Primitive Methodist Church at tempted a mission on Frazer' s Island, but after enduring great hardships the missionaries had to retire. A station was tried on the Mackay with a like result. Mr. Kuhn, a Moravian mis sionary, began a station near Wallaroo, on York's Peninsula, which has met with some encouragement. The Rev. F. A. Hagenauer, after all his labors of thirty-two years, all his disappointments through the decay of the aborigines around the mission stations, still urges the occupancy of new stations. "Many souls," he says, "have been brought to the knowledge of the truth, and all who take an interest in the work may rejoice and praise God that He has also given repent ance unto life to the original inhabitants of our adopted, beautiful country." Unless efforts are made early to evangelize tribes outside of the settled districts, it will be very difficult to set up a mission station. The best way ap- AUSTRALIA 116 AUSTRALIA pears to be to induce the blacks to reside on a government reserve. Only a limited number will submit to the restrictive arrangements, but wanderers will continue to join the com pany. Missions to the Chinese in Australia. — Attracted by the gold fields and by the encouragements to industry, many thousand Chinese have emi grated to Australia. Numbers of them are en gaged in merchandise, others in gold mining, many in market gardening and other industrial work. Some of them can read and write, and all are accessible to Christian influence. The numbers in 1888 in Australia were about 40,000. Attempts have therefore been made by the different churches to establish missions among them in the chief centres where they have been located. The Church of England has taken an active part in this good work in Victoria and New South Wales. A Chinese Christian con vert, the Rev. Loo Hoo Ten, was ordained by the Bishop of Sydney (Dr. Barry), and he carries on a mission among his countrymen in Sydney, especially near Botany Bay. He speaks English fluently, and has made a good impression. He has a church, and several have been baptized. A branch mission has recently been established at Bathurst in the same colony. The Presbyterian Church of New South Wales has for twenty years employed one or more Chinese Christian catechists, and there have been a few converts baptized. At present Mr. Young Wai labors in Sydney and Mr. Yem Kee in Newcastle with much encouragement. In Victoria, where greater numbers of Chinese were congregated in the cities and gold fields, numerous efforts have been put forth by the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church, and the Wesleyan Methodist Church. The agents have been chiefly Chinese converts, but sometimes superintended by European mission aries conversant with the Chinese language. A gratifying amount of success has attended this mission, sustained by the Protestant churches respectively. There are in New South Wales 10,205 Chinese ; in Queensland, 11,253 ; in Victoria, 11,799 ; in South Australia, 4,151, of whom 3,804 are in the northern territory, and 844 in Tasmania. These make a total of 38, 397. Restrictive legislation has been adopted of late to prevent an increase of this popula tion, and emigration to China gradually reduces the number. There is still, however, as is ap parent, a large proportion remaining, sufficient to justify Christian efforts to evangelize them by means of their own language. Most of those who are in Australia speak the Canton dialect. Missions among Polynesians in Australia. — Sugar planting in Queensland led to a great de mand for cheap labor, and vessels were sent to recruit among the New Hebrides and Solomon Islands for laborers under an engagement for three years. Many evils sprang up in this de portation, and statutes were passed by the Im perial Parliament and by the Parliament of Queensland to regulate the labor traffic. As a result, a large number of Polynesians have been brought to Queensland during twenty years. Some of these were recruited near mission sta tions, and had been instructed in Christian truth. Most of them were from heathen and cannibal islands. All of them, however, had heard of the missionary, and had been led to respect his efforts for their good. Unfortu nately the languages of these islands are almost all different, and on one sugar plantation the laborers represented so many various tongues that missionary teaching in any one of them could only be very limited. But as there are about 7,000 in Queensland, it has been felt thatj something should be attempted by means of the English language, which they rapidly ac quire, to teach them the Gospel of Christ. These efforts have been attended by most en couraging results. Several missionaries are now laboring among the Kanakas on the plantations, and the planters acknowledge that it has had a remarkable effect upon the conduct of the men. They have therefore subscribed to the mission, and given facilities to their laborers to enjoy the opportunities of instruction. As large congre gations and classes can be brought together there as on the islands where missionaries re- side. The young men have been very open to instruction, and those who have become Chris tian and have been received into the Church by baptism have conducted themselves in an exemplary manner. Polynesians have also found their way to Sydney, where they have be come trusty and faithful servants. These have been gathered into classes and taught the Gos pel by means of the English language. Over thirty have been baptized in Sydney, of whom twenty were received into the Christian Church by the writer of these notes. The rising churches of Australia have found a sphere for missionary zeal, and they have extended their benevolence to the neighboring groups of islands in the South Pacific Ocean. In the New Heb rides, Christian missions have been in opera tion for fifty years. There are now 18 mission aries employed by different Presbyterian churches. There are 170 native Christian teachers. There are 1,529 communicants. Some of the islands, as Aneityum, Aniwa, Fate, and Nguna, are Christian. Others have Chris tian churches. On almost all the thirty islands missionary operations have been initiated. A mission schooner has p lied through the group and to the colonies for the last twenty-six years, and has done great service to the missionaries and the islands. In 1890 a steamship company has undertaken to serve the mission as well as gen eral commerce, and opportunities have become monthly in sending stores, letters, and papers to the missionaries. The entire Scriptures have been translated and printed in the Aneityum, the New Testament in the Fate, and the Tanna Testament is now in the press. The four Gos pels and Acts of the Apostles are printed in Eromangan. Several Gospels and portions of Scripture have been printed in six other lan guages. On three or four islands to the north west Bishop Selwyn and his missionaries con tinue to operate, while they have their chief spheres in the Banks, Santa Cruz, and Solomon islands. They are largely supported by the liberality of Church of England congregations throughout Australia and New Zealand, and have an auxiliary steam schooner in the service. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia and New Zealand has taken a large and liberal part in supporting missionary operations in Fiji, New Britain, and New Ireland, where such harvests of souls have been reaped. The London Missionary Society has aux iliaries among Congregationalists in Australia, and these have taken much interest in the evangelization of the Loyalty Islands, now under French rule, and in New Guinea, a large part of AUSTRALIA 117 BADULLA which was recently annexed by the British Government. Details of the work done in Polynesia by the great missionary societies will be found in the accounts given of these societies ; but as part of Australian missionary zeal and liberality for the evangelization of Polynesia goes through these societies, it has been considered just to mention the fact. ««It has pleased God to raise up an active and evangelical Church in the Australian Colonies, and He has put it into their hearts to assist in the evangelization of the world. As the Cnristian churches increase in Australia they may be expected, by the Divine blessing, to become powerful factors in the spreading of the Gospel of Christ in the Pacific and toward the shores of China. Aux Ca yes, a seaport town on the southwest coast of the island of Haiti, West Indies. Popula tion, 8,000, chiefly negroes and mulattoes. The climate is unwholesome. The manufacture of rum is one of the principal industries. Mission station of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America ; 1 missionary, 1 school, 40 scholars. Azerbidjan Version. See Turkish. Azimeh, or Azaimch, Egypt, a station of the United Presbyterian Church of the United States of America (1881) ; 1 native worker, 48 church-members. The zenana missionaries of this Society are actively engaged here, and their work forms one of the most important features of this mission. Aziinyark, in the district of Benares, the presidency of the Northwestern Provinces, In dia ; has a C. M. S. station with 50 members. Aztec. See Mexican Version, B. Baa, on the island of Rotte, southwest of Timor Island and southeast of Java, East Indies. Mission station of the Netherlands Missionary Society. Baalbek, a town of Syria, northeast of Beyrout. The site of the celebrated ruins of the Temple of the Sun. The seat of a girls' school under the care of the Committee for British Syrian Schools (Scotland) ; also an out- station of the Presbyterian Board, (North,)U.S.A. Babau, a town on the southern extremity of Timor Island, east of Java aud southeast of Celebes, East Indies. Mission station of the Netherlands Missionary Society. Babees, the name of a sect which has sprung up among the Mohammedans of Persia within the last fifty years. In 1845 a young mollah, or priest of Shiraz, declared himself commissioned of God to reform the corrupt faith and practice of his coreligionists in Per sia. His bold preaching was very popular, but led to his denunciation by the regular ecclesias tics. He diverged further and further from the orthodox and announced a new revelation from heaven, declared himself the Bab — that is, the " Door" of the true religion, and openly defied the mollahs of Shiraz and, later, of Tehran. His doctrines spread, and assumed proportions that threatened the safety of the kingdom. He was seized and shot to death in the city of Ta briz. His followers, catling themselves Babees, embracing some eminent mollahs and one very remarkable and eloquent woman, made risings against the government and were put down only after some severe fighting, particularly at the city of Zinjan, where nearly the whole city had embraced the new faith. Later, attempts were made by the Babees on the Shah's life. The conspirators were seized and put to death with torture. The sect was proscribed, and rigorous measures pursued to rout it out. They, how ever, are still numerous in different parts of the country, being estimated at three or four hun dred thousand souls, but they hold their faith in secret. Their head, claiming to be the divinely appointed successor of the BUb, and calling himself Bdh&r, which means the Light, is in exile, and under the surveillance of the Turk ish Government at Acre, in Syria. The volume of the BSb's teachings is called Bdydn, signify ing the Exposition. It was at one time thought that the Babees were more open to receive Christianity than the orthodox Moslems ; but time has not confirmed that hope. Backergunge, a district in Bengal Presi dency, India. Occupied by Baptist Missionary Society (England) ; 12 missionaries, 49 stations and sub-stations, 1,956 church-members. Badaga Version.— The Badaga is spoken by the Badaga tribe on the Nilgiri Hills, in the Madras Presidency, numbering about 24,000 people. In the year 1852 the Calcutta auxiliary to the British and Foreign Bible Society litho graphed a translation of the Gospel of Luke, which had been translated by Mr. Moericke, of the Basle Mission, and Mr. Cassa, Major of the Madras Civil Service. Recently this version has been taken up by the Rev. W. Leutze, of Kaiti, assisted by two Badaga Christian con verts, and the revised version was published by the Madras auxiliary to the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1887. Mr. Leutze also trans lated the Gospel of Matthew, which was pub lished in 1889. Badagry, a city of Upper Guinea, West Africa, upon a part of the Slave Coast annexed in 1863 by the British. It is east of Porto Novo and of Little Popo, and 50 miles east northeast of Wydah. Occupied in 1842 by the Wesleyan Methodists and transferred in 1845 to C. M. S., who now have at this place 1 ordained mission ary and 59 church -members. Badaotl, a city in theRohilkhund district, Northwest Provinces, India. Population, 33,000. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North, U. S. A. ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 native ordained preachers, 384 church-members. Baddegama, a C. M. S. station on the southwestern coast of Ceylon, founded in 1819. At present the station is occupied by 3 native pastors and 51 other native workers, and has 25 schools with 1,314 scholars, and 141 church- members. Badulla, Ceylon, 40 miles south of Kandy. Military post, containing a fort, barracks, and a hospital. Climate, healthy. Elevation, 2,100 BADULLA 118 BALIGE feet. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 mis sionary, 2 out-stations, 1 church, 78 members, Bagdad, n city of southern Mesopotamia, Asiatic Turkey, on the Tigris, about 250 miles north of its confluence with the Euphrates. The population, numbering 80,000 to 100,000, is composed chiefly of Arabs, though there are large numbers of Persians, Kurds, Syrian Chris tians, and about 15,000 Jews. It was the favor ite seat of the Abasside Caliphs, and under Haroun Al-Rashid became very famous. Under Turkish rule very much of its prosperity has been lost, though it is still the nioBt important city of Southeastern Turkey, both commercially and politically. Near it is the shrine of Ker- bela, to which the Persians flock in pilgrimages in honor of the Shiah saints, Hassan and Hos- sein. There is thus constant communication with Persia aud Kurdistan. It was long the seat of a British resident, and it still ranks very high as a diplomatic post of Great Britain, Rus sia, and France. Bagdad has been the starting- point for the various expeditions to explore the ruins of Babylon at Hilleh, on the Euphrates, 100 miles to the south, and of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Since the commencement of Ameri can expeditions an American Consul has been appointed. Missionary work has been at tempted at various times by the A. B. C. F. M. and the C. M. S. At present (1890) there is a resident missionary of the C. M. S. who works chiefly among the Jews and superintends the Bible distribution of the British and Foreign Bible Society in Southern Mesopotamia. Baghchcjik, a station of the A. B.C. F. M. in Western Asia Minor. (See Bardezag.) Bagore, Egypt, near Assioot, a station of the United Presbyterian Church of the United States of America (1873) ; 2 native workers, 25 church-members, 1 school, 25 scholars. Bahawa, or Barharwa, since 1868 a C. M. S. station among the Santals, North western Provinces, India ; 2 native pastors, 28 other native workers, 14 schools, 396 scholars, 346 church-members. Ballia, a city of Brazil, South America, on All Saints Bay, 800 miles northeast of Rio Janeiro. Population, 150,000, chiefly Portu guese. Religion, Roman Catholic. Condition, bad and exceedingly immoral. Mission station of the Southern Baptist Convention (1882) ; 1 missionary and wife, 7 native helpers, 6 out-sta tions, 1 church, 120 members. Contributions, $500. Presbyterian Church, (North) (1871) ; 2 mis sionaries and wives, 4 native helpers, 6 out- stations, 3 churches, 120 members, 1 school, 20 scholars. Contributions, $450. Bah mo, or Bhamo, Burma, on the Upper Irrawaddy River, 180 miles north of Mandalay, 40 miles from the Chinese province of Yunnan ; capital of Upper Burma. Mission station of the American Baptist Missionary Union (1875) ; 2 ordained missionaries, 1 missionary and wife, 1 school. In 1884 the Burmans expelled the missionaries and sacked and burned their houses. The baptized natives, however, still clung together. Bahraiell, in the northeastern part of Oudh, Northwestern Provinces, India. A sta tion of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North, founded in 1867 ; 24 native workers, 36 church- members, 6 schools, 290 scholars. Bailundu, West Africa, 200 miles east of Benguela, its port. Healthy ; hot ; tempera ture regular. Population, 30,000. Mission sta tion of the A. B. C. F. M. (1881) ; 2 mission aries and wives, 1 other lady, 1 native helper, 1 church, 17 members, 2 schools, 40 scholars. Contributions, $4.25. In July, 1884, the mis sionaries were expelled and their houses robbed by King Kwikwi, because a Portuguese had told him that they would destroy his whole people by their magic ; but in October of the same year they returned, and were received with enthusi asm by the people. Balasorc, a city of Orissa, Bengal, India, 150 miles southwest of Calcutta, chief seaport of Cuttack. Population, 11,000— Hindus, Mos lems. Language, Oruja, Santhali, Hindustani. Natives ignorant, poor. First mission station occupied by the American Free Baptist Mission ary Society, who have now 2 missionaries and wives, 5 other ladies, 18 native helpers, 2 out- stations, 2 churches, 214 church-members, 12 schools, and 578 scholars. The station was founded in 1838. Baldwin, Dwighl, M.D., b. at Durham, Conn., September 29th, 1798 ; studied two years at Williams College ; graduated at Yale in 1821 ; studied medicine ; graduated at Auburn Theo logical Seminary, 1829 ; was appointed a mis sionary of the American Board to the Sandwich Islands, and having completed his medical studies at Cambridge University, he sailed in 1830. He was stationed at Waimea, Hawaii, for three years ; then at Lahaina, remaining till 1868, when he was obliged to cease work on ac count of partial paralysis. He removed to Hono lulu, and was for a fewyears one of the teachers in the Theological School. Increasing feeble ness compelled him to relinquish also this work. Dr. Baldwin was specially interested in all move ments to diminish the use and sale of liquor and tobacco. An essay which he wrote on this re form received the prize offered at one time in the United States. " Sturdy and fearless, me- thodical and active, he had the respect and confi dence of all classes." He died of apoplexy, January 3d, 1886, at the residence of his daugh ter, Mrs. S. M. Damon, with whom he had lived for a few years. Balearic Islands, a group of islands in the Mediterranean, the principal of which are Majorca, Minorca, and the penal settlement of Cabrera, all together forming a province of Spain. All of the islands are mountainous. The climate is delightful, the soil very fertile, and pasture-land fine. The inhabitants resem ble the Catalans, and speak a corrupt Catalan dialect. Mission field of the Wesleyan Meth odist Missionary Society. Bali Islands, situated at the eastern end of Java, East Indies, have, together with Lombak, 863,000 inhabitants, among whom are 4,000 Mohammedans and 8,000 Chinese. In 1866 the Utrecht Missionary Society entered the field, and in 1873 some were baptized. But in 1881 the missionary de Vroom was murdered and his helpers left the isla'nds. The work has recently been resumed. Balige, a city of Sumatra, East Indies, stands on the shore of Lake Toba. Station of Rhenish Missionary Society, founded here in 1881 and soon after burned down ; but it recovered rapidly, and numbers now 319 mem- BALIGE 119 BALLANTINE, HENRY bers, 1 ordained missionary and wife, 1 sin gle lady, 48 native helpers, 2 out-stations. Balincse Version. — To the Malaysian family of languages belongs the Bali, which is spoken in the island of Bali, east of Java, by about three-quarters of a million, scattered over an area of 70 miles. A version into this lan guage is of but recent date. In 1876 the British and Forrtgn Bible Society employed the Rev. R. vun Eck, of the Utrecht Missionary Society, to translate the New Testament into the lan guage of the island of Bali. The translation is to be male from the Greek text in general ac cordance with the version of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, and to be printed in the Java nese und Balinese characters. The Gospel of Mark was completed in 1877 ; the remaining part is proceeding slowly. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Mapan keto pitresnan Hida sanghyan Widi tken djagate makedjang, tka Hida nedoenang kokane ne sanoenggal kahoetoes mahi, kna Cilang hanake ne ngandelang hi hoka ioehoeng naraka, nanging kna hya nepoekin kahidoepan tan pegat. Balli, a city of the Shoa district, Abyssinia, 500 miles south of Massowah, occupied by a missionary of the St. Chrischona Pilgrim Mis sion. Bandalkhandi Version. — The Ban- dalkhandi, also called Bughelcundi, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of lan guages, and is spoken in a district between the province of Bandalkhand and the sources of the Nerbudda River. For the people using this language the New Testament was published at Serampore in 1821, but never reprinted. Ball, Dyer, M.D., b. at West Bovlston, Mass.. June 3d, 1796 ; graduated at Union Col lege, 1826 ; studied theology at New Haven and Andover ; ordained, 1831 ; was agent in 1833 for Home Missionary Society in Florida. While at the South he was much engaged in labor for the colored population. In 1835-37 he studied medicine with reference to foreign mission work, and received the degree of M.D. from the medical institution in Charleston. He is said to have been " very popular and much beloved at the South, and was urged to remain and engaga in evangelical labors among tbe colored peo ple." He sailed in 1838, under the American Board, for Singapore. He was stationed there two years, " teaching, preaching, healing the sick, and superintending the printing of Chinese books." In June, 1841, he went to Macao, and then to Hong Kong. " To him it was given to be the pioneer in opening the city of Canton for residence of missionary families, and to open the way for excursions into the country around. His medical services were of great assistance in conciliating the good-will of the people. His Almanac was for many years a most acceptable publication. He was most laborious in out-of- door work," mingling with the people on the banks of the river or on the ferries, and then extending his visits to the villages and market. "In this' way he became widely known and more and more respected as his true character and the nature of his labors were understood." In 1854 he visited the United States, returning, in 1857, to Macao. His constitution was much broken, and before his death he was confined to his house four months. Mr. Nevin, of the Pres byterian Mission at Canton, says, " With him the distribution of tracts has always been a fa vorite method of preaching the Gospel, and especially since he became disabled by his bodily infirmities, both as respects the power of speech and the capacity of moving from place to place. During the last seven years the old man, bowed down by his infirmities, and lean ing upon his cane, whin not confined to his couch, would slowly make his way downstairs and totter out to his little chapel opening on the street, and there, seated in an arm-chair, would distribute tracts and address a few words to casual passers-by who might drop in to look upon his gray hairs, to see what he Mas doing or to hear wdiat he might say ; for the Chinese venerate old age. Often twice a day might he be found there, with a cheerful countenance, working according to his strength " But his strength soon utterly failed, and he died March 27th, 1866, after twenty-eight years' mission service. Ballantine, Henry, b. at Schodack Land ing, on the Hudson, near Albany, N. Y., March 5th, 1813. He graduated at the University of Ohio, Athens, 1829 ; was employed after gradu ation for a time as teacher of mathematics in place of the retiring professor ; entered Theo logical Seminary, Princeton, but left on account of ill health ; resumed his studies at Union Theological Seminary, Virginia ; finished at Andover, 1834 ; ordained at Columbus, O., April, 1835 ; sailed same year as a missionary of the American Board for India. In 1837 he was stationed permanently at Ahmadnagar. His health failing, he left, in 1850, for home, but returned in 1852. He labored with great zeal and without interrup.ion until within a few months of his final departure for America. By medical advice he went to Sholapore, Poona, and Bombay, and was advised by physicians there to go home, and by the quickest route — via Red Sea. He wrote, weeping, " The Lord does not consider me worthy to labor any longer for Him iu my beloved field." He left India with his family, September 4th, 1865. An ac cidental detention of the ship in the Red Sea aggravated his malady, and he died, November 9th, off the coast of Portugal, and his body was consigned to the ocean. His connection with the mission covered thirty years. ' ' An accu rate knowledge of the Marathi, added to an ac quaintance with Sanskrit, prepared him to be come a translator of the Bible, and he has left the impress of his idiomatic Marathi on many parts of the sacred volume in that language." " He had natural abilities of a high order. I have never seen a man who could accomplish so much literary labor in a given time. His mind worked with wonderful rapidity, and he com posed with great celerity. An accurate and erudite scholar in several departments, he had rare facility for acquiring language. He spoke Marathi very fluently, and well-educated natives said he seldom made a mistake either in gram mar or idiom. His unusual quickness at rep artee and occasional withering sarcasm fitted him to grapple with quick-witted, often abusive advocates of idolatry and wicked apologists for all kinds of iniquity. But it was only when compelled to do so that he used this power of invective. He was successful as a pas*or by reason of his quick sympathies and winning BALLANTINE, HENRY 120 BANTU manners." He was an able preacher in the Marathi language. For a long time he was pastor of the first native church, yielding that place to a native whom he himself had trained. He spent six or eight weeks every year evangel izing from village to village, was editor of the semi-monthly paper in English and Marathi. During the last five years of his life a large part of his time was devoted to the instruction of the theological classes of young men preparing for the ministry. For several years he was secretary and treasurer of the mission. Pos sessing, in the words of the mission, " a sympa thetic nature, a, high intellectual culture, and an excellent poetical taste," he translated into Marathi some of the best hymns in the English language. They are said to possess, in a re markable degree, the spirit and beauty of the original. He composed some excellent hymns himself. He has been called the Watts of Marathi hymnology. He prepared two hymn- books containing together four hundred hymns, one for use in the churches, the other for the children. He was revising and carrying through the press his Hymns for Divine Worship, when obliged to leave for home. Three of Mr. Ballantine's daughters married missionaries of the same mission, one, Mrs. Dr. S. B. Fairbank, dying at her station. One son, Rev. William 0. Ballantine, M.D., is now in the mission. Baluchi Version. — The Baluchi, also called Beloochee and Biluchi, belongs to the Iranic branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is spoken in Baluchistan, south of the In dus, on the Arabian Sea. A translation of the New Testament into this dialect was commenced by the late Dr. Leyden, of which only three Gospels were published at Serampore in 1815. As this version was not found of permanent value, it was never reprinted. Of late, however, a tran-lation into this dialect seems to have been found useful, and the revised version of the Oospel of Matthew, as prepared by the Rev. A. Lewis, was published in 1885, of which up to March 31st, 1889, 1,000 copies were disposed of. Banana Islands, 30 miles southwest of Sierra Leone, West Africa. They are high, fer tile, and inhabited ; visited from Sierra Leone on account of their healthy climate. Mission station of the United Methodist Free Churches ; no missionary at present. Bancho, a section of the city of Tokio, Japan. Occupied by the Reformed (German) Church in the Unitod States ; 1 organized church, 235 members. Banda, Bandalkhand district, Northwest ern Provinces, British India. A station of the S. P. G. since 1872 ; 1 missionary. Banda Island, one of the Moluccas, West Indies. Population, 7,000, of whom about 1,000 are Christians under the direction of the Dntch Missionary Society. In 1877 the Rajah, Kei Dula, was converted to Mohammedanism, and his people are following him. Bamlawc ( Livings! onia), a town on Lake Nyassa, Central Africa ; 16 out-stations, 5 ordained missionaries, 1 medical missionary. 5 missionary teachers, 50 native helpers, 1 churoh, 48 communicants, 21 schools, 2,422 pupils. The artisan work here is on the same plan as that at Lovedale (q.v.), South Africa. Bandevcng, or Banjoewang, Java, a town on the east coast of Java, southeast of Probolingo. Mission station of the Dutch Mis sionary Society. Bandjermasing, a town of Southeast Borneo, at the mouth of the Barito River. Mis sion station of the Rhenish Missionary Society ; 2 missionaries, 1 lady, 131 communicants. Bangalore, a city of Mysore, India, 175 miles west of Madras. It is on an elevated site, a great resort for invalids ; it has considerable trade, and is a military post. Population, 140,000, chiefly Hindus. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North ; 3 mission aries, 73 church-members. L. M. S. ; 5 ordained missionaries and wives, 1 other lady, 10 native preachers, 158 church- members, 1,679 scholars. S. P. G. ; 1 missionary, 10 native helpers, 2 out-stations, 291 church-members. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 3 missionaries (including wives), 57 native helpers, a preachers' seminary, 3 out-stations, 82 church- members. Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society, Leipzig ; 1 missionary, 162 communicants. Bangkok, the chief city and capital of Siam, on the Naenam River, 20 miles from its mouth. Climate, intensely hot in summer. Population, 500,000 — Siamese, Chinese, Bur mans, Malays, Arabs, Hindus. Mission station of the American Baptist Missionary Union ; 2 missionaries and their wives, 13 church-mem bers. Presbyterian Church, North ; 3 missionaries and wives, 1 other lady, 8 native helpers, 125 church-members. Bankipore, a city of Bengal, India, a sub urb of Patna. Mission station of the Baptist Missionary Society ; 3 ordained missionaries, 4 native preachers, 46 church-members. Bankura, a town of Bengal, India. Mis sion station of the Wesleyan Methodist Mission ary Society ; 3 missionaries, 46 church-mem bers. Bannu, a sub-station of the C. M. S. in the Punjab, India. Bansko, European Turkey, 45 miles south of Samakov ; sub-station of the A. B. C. F. M., worked from Samakov. Banting, a town in the northern part of Borneo, West Indies, in the river-valley of Ba- tang-Lapar, among the Sea-Dayaks. A station of the S. P. G. , founded in 1851, and number ing 1,046 members. The mission has succeeded in introducing the plough and abolishing the savage customs, some of which are most bar barous. Bantu or Zulu Race.— The Zulus (sin gular, Izulu, heaven ; plural, Amazulu) are one of a numerous family of tribes which together constitute what has come to be called the Bantu race. This word Bantu (full Zulu form, Abanlu; singular, Umuntu, person), in their language, signifies people. This Bantu family is very large, extending through all South and South Central Africa, the Hottentots, Bushmen, and Cape Colonists excepted ; that is, from ocean to ocean in longitude, and from the Kei and Orange rivers, on the south, to the fifth or even BANTU 121 BANTU higher degree of north latitude, and comprises a population numbering probably more than 50,000,000. Among the prominent members of this family, some of which have been known for years, while most of them have been but recently brought to light by the explorations of such men as Livingstone, Stanley, and others, might be namej^ the Zulus, the Amaxosa or Kafirs, the Bechuana, Basutu, and kindred tribes on the south ; the Ovaherero, Ovampo, Balunda, Bateke, and Mpongwe, on the west ; the Congo, Bayansi, Bangala, Babangt, Manyema, Waganda, Wanyoro, and others on the Congo, along the Equator, and among the Great Lakes ; the Rua, Bemba, Babisa, and other tribes near the Lesser Lakes and on the sources of the Congo ; and the Wakamba, Swaheli, Wanika, Mahenge, Wakon- de, Makua, and other tribes along the East Coast and on the Zambesi. The general kinship of the tribes, of which the above are but a fraction, covering as they do a large part of the Dark Continent, is both marked and interesting. It is seen, to some ex tent, in their person, their hue, their features, their religious notions, their mental type, and their mode of life ; but most of all in their lan guage. Taking this, their language, as our guide and proof, than which there can be noth ing more definite and sure, we are left with no doubt that all these somewhat diversified tribes belong to one and the same family, between which and all other known families or races there is a manifest and fixed difference. To be sure, the languages of these tribes differ from each other in many respects, especially in many •of their words, or in the forms of their words, even where the roots are essentially the same ; while the grammar is essentially the same in all. Indeed, the underlying grammatical prin ciples are so uniformly the same in all that the ¦comparative philologist has no hesitation in be lieving that all came originally from one and the same stock ; even though among the tribes far removed from each other dialectal or tribal variations may put the people beyond the limits of being mutually intelligible ; just as the Eng lish, French, and Germans are far from being mutually intelligible, though the languages they speak all belong to the same family. Of all the branches of this Bantu family of languages, the Zulu, with the Xosa, would seem to be the oldest and most fully developed. The Zulu would seem also to have been kept purest -and most perfect, least affected by abrasion, syncope, or other modification, through alien agencies, such as a moulding contact with the Negro, Semitic, the Arab, or the Portuguese on the north, or English, French, or Dutch on the south, having been developed, fixed, and kept by its own indigenous, automatic principles. Hence the belief that the distinguishing gram matical features of the entire Bantu family are more manifest and clearly defined in the Zulu than in any other of its branches. In Zulu, the incipient element of the noun, the nominal "prefix" or preformative, is more complete than in most of its cognate dialects. Thus the prefix um, as in umfana, boy, is simply m, mfana, in some branches. Mpongwe, the name of a country and tribe in the northwest part of the Bantu field, would be Umpongwe in the south east among the Zulus and Kafirs. The Zulu iplural prefix, aba, as in abafana, boys, becomes ba, as bafana, in some dialects. For person, the Zulus have umuntu; another tribe has muntu; another, mulu; another, mlu ; another, mundu. For the Zulu plural of this word, abantu, peo ple, some other tribes say bantu; some, antu ; some, atu ; some, wanlu ; some, watu ; some, wandu, and some, andu. Mlesa (late King of Uganda) would be Umleza in Zulu, and the Lake Nyanza would be, in Zulu, Inyanza. On the Lualaba, a branch of the Congo, the natives say nyama, meat ; instead of which the Zulus say inyama, meat. The people on parts of the Congo say nyoka, the Zulus, inyoka, snake ; the former say nyanga, the latter inyanga, moon ; the former minge, the latter ninge, plenty. Among the Zulus bula amatye means thresh or break stones. The Congo people called Stanley "Bula Matadi," "the Rock-Breaker." The Zulu and Kafir tribal names, Amazulu and Amaxosa, would be, in some dialects, Mazidu, Maxosa, just as other tribal names in other parts of the Bantu field, such as Makua, Maravi, Manyema, would begin with a, as Amalcua, among the Zulus. Among the distinguishing grammatical fea tures of the entire Bantu family of languages, which are specially manifest and clearly defined in the Zulu, one of the more marked and peculiar consists in what may be called a system of pro nominal assimilations and repetitions. This mode is sometimes designated as the " allitera tive," because of the frequent recurrence of some particular letter or syllable in a given sen tence. Here, especially in the Zulu, all nouns may be grouped into eight distinct classes, ac cording to their "prefix" or incipient element. Each class of nouns has its own pronominal forms, all of which bear a striking resemblance to the initial element of the noun to which they refer, or for which they stand. Thus one class of nouns comprises all those whose incipient is Hi ; and for this class the relative is eli, the de monstrative leli, this ; lelo, that ; the personal pronoun, nominative, and accusative, li; oblique form, lo ; definitive, lona, and fragmentary form, simply I. Another class of nouns comprises all those whose incipient is isi, as isibaya ; and for this the relative pronoun is esi; the demonstra tives, lesi and leso ; personal, si ; oblique, so ; definitive, sona, and fragmentary, simply s. Take now this sentence : leli ilizwe lami eli tengiwe ngemali, li lungile — i.e., this field of mine which was bought with money, it is good. Here we have leli, I (in lami), eli and li, all referring to the noun ilizwe, and taking form from its incipient, Hi. So, in the example : lata leso isiiya sako esikulu, u si hlanze ; that is, take that dish of yours which is large, and wash it ; literally, you it wash ; and we have leso, s (in sako), esi (in esikulu), and si, all from isi in isitya. This giving to the nominal incipient so much of moulding influence over the pronouns and over the prefixes to the ad jective, contributing so largely to precision and the power of inversion, is thought by some to add also to the euphony of the language. Indeed, some who at first failed to see that the principle under discussion really constituted a vital, organic part of the language, were wont to regard it as nothing more than a kind of " euphonic alliteration." One of the striking peculiarities of the Zulu language is that sharp, shrill sound occurring in almost every other sentence, and called a "click." It constitutes an elementary part of the word in which it occurs, as much so as its vowels or consonants, and is never found in the BANTU 122 BANTU formative part. Of these clicks there are three kinds, each of which takes its name from the manner in which it is made, as the dental, the palatal, and the lateral. If we search for the origin of these peculiar sounds or for the reason why they were ever employed as a means of in dicating an idea, we shall doubtless find it in that principle which is usually called tho " onomalopoetic," or an effort to suit the sound of the word to the thing signified. The following more particular statement and illustrations of the distinguishing traits of the Zulu language are taken, by permission, from Zulu-Land. : " One of the most important points in which the Zulu language differs from the English and many others, is found in the fact that, for the most part, the formative letters precede the root ; that is, most of the changes, the inflec tions, to which a word is subject, are made in the beginning of a word ; thus, umfana, boy ; abafana, boys ; inkomo, cow ; izinkomo, cows ; izwi or ilizwi, word ; amazwi, words. So in the adjective ; umfana omkulu, large boy ; abafana abakulu, large boys ; inkomo enkulu, great cow ; ilizwi elikulu, great word. So in the possessive pronouns ; abafana bami, my boys ; izinkomo zami, my cows ; ilizwi lami, my word. " From these examples it will be noticed that there is a peculiar alliterative agreement among related words — the adjectives and pronouns taking a prefix which accords with the preforma- tive or incipient part of the noun with which they agree, or to which they relate ; thus, aba fana abakulu, large boys ; abafana bami abakulu, my large boys ; ilizwi labafana, word of the boys ; izinkomo zabafana, cattle of the boys. " And then, too, the personal pronoun takes a form to correspond with the incipient portion of the noun for which it stands ; thus, (abafana) ba tanda, (boys) they love ; (izinkomo) zi tanda, (cattle) they love ; (ilizwi) li tanda, (the word) it loves. Now, in English, talking about boys and cattle, if I say they love them, you might be in doubt whether I meant to say the cattle love the boys, or the boys the cattle ; but not so in the Zulu— the form of the pronoun showing to what noun it refers ; thus, ba zi tanda, they love them, literally, they them love— that is, the boys love the cattie ; zi ba tanda, they them love — that is, the cattle love the boys. " From all this it will be seen that the Zulu allows of great scope and variety in the arrange ment of words in a sentence, and at the same time gives you great clearness and precision as to what is meant. Thus, in the phrase — ' the face of the animal which is large,' one might be in doubt as to what ' is large ;' not so, how ever, in the Zulu phrase — ubuso bcnkomo obu- kulu, where the form of the adjective obukulu, great, leaves no doubt that it is meant to de scribe ubuso, face. So, too, though the most natural and common order is to put the noun- nominative before the verb, and the noun-ob jective after the verb, yet both may either pre cede or follow ; thus, for the English — ' the boys love the cattle,' we may say either abafana izinkomo ba zi tanda ; or ba zi tanda abafana izin komo. " At first sight, nothing seems more confused and complicated than the Zulu language ; yet, when we come to look carefully into its forms, changes, and laws, we are obliged to admit that no language of which we have any knowledge can lay claim to more order and regularity, flexi bility, and precision. Thus, nouns are divided into eight classes, according to the form of their incipient element, and the manner in which they make the plural. Umfana, boy, be longs to the first class ; ilizwi, to the second; inkomo, to the third ; and so on — the plural of the first being made in aba, of the second in ama, and of the third in izin. Each class and each number has its own form of the pronoun personal or verbal ; as, u, ba ; li, a; i, zi; each, its own form for the relative ; as, o, aba; eli, a; e, ezi ; each, its own form for the possessive; as, ake, abo ; alo, awo ; ayo, azo— and so on, And then, too, each class and number has its own preformative letter to be used in forming the possessive ; as, u, which passes over into its semivowel w, for the first class, singular ; b for the plural ; I and a for the second class ; y and z for the third. Thus, for the possessive my or mine (the ground form for which, as it were, in Zulu, is ami, that is, a, of, and mi, mo — of me), we have, wami, bami; lami, ami; yami, zami, according to the class and number of the noun ; as, umfana wami, my boy ; abafana bami, my boys. For the possessive his or her, if the noun be of the first class, we have the ground form, or basis, ake, a, of, and ke, him — and then wake, bake, lake, etc., according to the noun possessed ; as umfana wake, his boy ; ilizwi lake, his word ; izinkomo zake, his cattle. For the possessive their, referring to persons or to nouns in aba, as abafana, boys ; abantu, people — the basis being abo — we have wabo, babo, tabo, abo, yabo, etc., as, ilizwi labo, their word ; izin komo zabo, their cattle. And for the possessive their, referring to nouns in izin, as izinkomo, we have, in like manner, wazo, bazo, lazo, azo, yazo, etc. , as, ilizwi lazo, their voice ; isibaya sazo, their fold ; izimpondo zazo, their horns. ' ' Now, when you eome to carry this through all the eight classes of nouns, singular and plural, you will find that there is no small number of forms for each class and kind of the pronoun. But for all this, complicated, exact, and numer ous as these forms are, the native never makes a mistake, or talks, as we say, ungrammatically. Even the children seem to find it as natural and easy to speak properly in respect to grammar as they do to eat and sleep. "The Zulu language pays a high regard to euphony. No doubt this is owing in part to the fact that it has ever, till recently, been addressed solely to the ear. Some of its ideas of euphony are peculiar to itself ; others are founded on general laws, such as prevail more or less in all languages. Hence, some of the forms and changes on which it insists for euphonic pur poses are external, accidental, and to be at tributed to the taste, fashion, or caprice of the people ; while others are internal and necessary, the reasons for which are to be found in the very structure of the language, or in the physio logical oharacter of articulate sounds. Perhaps no language can lay a better claim than the Zulu to an exemption from two great faults— on the one hand, that superabundance of vowels and liquids which produces excessive softness ; and on the other, that superabundance of conso nants which produces excessive harshness. The happy mean which it has observed in its inter mixture of mute consonants with vocalic and liquid sounds makes it both pleasing to the ear and easy to speak. " One of the greatest defects of the language, as might be supposed, is the paucity of words, BANTU 123 BANTU especially those which are most needed for the expression of moral and religious thoughts. The people having few ideas on subjects of this kind, their words are few also. Yet, even here, the case is not so difficult as might be presumed. In some instances we are able to convert a word from a secular to a saored use. And then the language is yet young, as it were, uncultivated, waiting^o be developed and fashioned for the largest and noblest ends. One root will often give you a large stem, with u good number of branches, and no small amount of fruit. Thus, from the verb bona, see, we have bonisa, cause to see, show ; bonisisa, show clearly ; bonela, see for ; bonelela, look and learn, imitate ; 60- nana, see each other ; bonelana, see for each other ; bonisana, cause each other to see, show each other ; bonakala, appear, be visible ; bonakalisa, make visible ; umboni, a seer ; umboneli, a spec tator ; umbonelo, a, spectacle ; umbonisi, an over seer ; umboniso, a show ; isibono, a sight, curi osity ; isiboniso, a vision ; isibonakalo, au appearance ; isibonakaliso, a revelation — and all this without going into the passive voice ; as, bonwa, be seen ; boniswa, cause to be seen ; bonisiswa, cause to be clearly seen, etc. I doubt if the German, Greek, or any other language can exceed the Zulu in the scope and liberty which it gives for the formation of derivative words. " The liberty which it gives for combining two or more words, so as to form a significant com pound, is another point worth mentioning. In this way we get impumalanga, east, from two words — puma, come out, and ilanga, the sun ; inchonalanga, west — from chona, sink, and ilanga, sun. So, inhlilifa, an heir, comes from combining two words which signify, ' to eat the estate of tho deceased ;' while inhlulanhlebe, a bat, signifies ' a long-eared animal ;' and ihlolenkosikazi, the jasmine, ' queen's eye.' " Many of the names which the natives give to persons, places, rivers, mountains, are also com pound terms ; and, whether simple or com pound, the most of them are significant. Thus, Amanzimtoti, the name of a stream, signifies ' sweet water ;' lnhlangukazi, the name of a tall sugar-loaf mountain, signifies ' a tall reed.' I once had a great stout boy to work for me, whose name signified ' man of the mountain ;' and another, of a cunning, crabbed disposition, who was called by a name signify ing ' strength of the wolf. ' One is called spear, another hatchet, another money, another whiskers. The names which the natives give the white people are often appropriate and amusing. Thus, one who wears spectacles is called glasses ; one who keeps a good lookout for those in his employ, eyes ; one who moves about briskly, with a staccato step, crackle-gait. " Tho native has no family, or surname ; though he is sometimes designated as the son of so-and-so. A man also not unfrequently desig nates his wife — that is, one of his wives — as the daughter of so-and-so— a practice which had its origin, doubtless, in polygamy ; since the term my wife, or Mrs. So-and-so, would often be am biguous where a man has half-a-dozen wives." The indigenous literature of the Zulus, as of all the Bantu tribes, if such it can be called where they have no alphabet with which to write out their thoughts, their folk-lore, oral songs, royal eulogies, and common law, could but be, as it is, very scant. To be sure, they have a variety of unwritten, plain, simple songs, with the singing of which, accompanied with the gumbu, a musical instrument of one string; they pass many an hour of leisure ; such are their evening songs, their domestic songs, hunt ing songs, heroic songs, and religious songs, or songs in which they give expression to a wish or prayer. Their language abounds in bold, figurative epithets and complimentary terms, of which they make great use in singing tho praises of their kings. The royal court, upon grand festal occasions, is a great place and time for the royal rhapsodist or bard to pour forth his poetic imaginings in a most profuse and fervid style, and speak of the king, to his face, as black and beautiful, tall and straight, a majestic elephant, a ravenous hyena, the mer ciless opponent of every conspiracy, the de- vourer, waster, smasher of all his foes, all love ly as a monster of resistless might, " like heaven above, raining and shining." The more the comparative philologist comes to know of this Bantu family of languages, not only the more proof does he get of the general kinship of the numerous Bantu tribes, but the more does he find of beauty, compass, flexi bility, and plastic power in their system of speech to excite his wonder and reward his study. All the best-known branches, whether on the east, south, or west, or in the interior, are found to be soft, pliant, easy flowing in ut terance, regular and systematic in forms, phil osophical in structure and principle, and won derfully rich in ability to express all the facts and nice shades of thought and feeling of which the people who speak them have any knowl edge. To be sure, to the foreigner the few clicks and gutturals are not easy of utterance, though the native finds in them nothing difficult. In deed, the native is never aware that his lan guage contains a click or guttural till his atten tion is called to it by the alien scholar. And it is specially interesting to note that it is within this great field of underlying, substantial one ness of speech that the mighty geographical dis coveries have been made in late years by such men as Livingstone, Burton, Speke, Cameron, Stanley, and others ; and that within this field it is that great Christian missions are being ex tensively planted, the labors of whose agents have not only added most materially to our knowledge of these languages, hut been also themselves greatly helped, and will be helped yet more and more, by their substantial one ness. In respect to the origin and early kinship of the Bantu race, and how, whence, or when they came into the part of Africa they now occupy, the people themselves can tell us nothing, Nor does ancient history, sacred or profane, throw any direct light on the subject. And yet we are not without some good reasons for at least a plausible opinion in relation to it. The ap parent likeness of the Hottentot, in many re spects, to the old Egyptian family would indi cate that the former was once a part of the latter. Comparing the language of the former with the old Egyptian and Coptic tongues gives us a good clew to his ancient abode. The best philologists of the present day, and those who have had the best of opportunity for studying the Hottentot, Bushman, and Koranna, and of comparing this most southern tongue with the ancient and most northern of the continent — the Egyptian, Coptic, and their cognates— find marked resemblances between the two : from BANTU 124 BANTU which they infer that these extreme southern tribes were once sundered by some dividing wedge from the extreme northern, and by this new incoming power or alien race, of a very different language, were driven on southward from age to age, till they finally reached their present abode in the southern angle of the con tinent, from which they could be driven no farther. This linguistic argument is supported by the fact that the appearance, manners, cus toms of the Hottentots differ in many respects essentially from those of the Bantu race on their northern border, and yet afford good ground for classing them with the old Egyptian and other North African nations. Some of the learned at the Cape of Good Hope have found pictures and impressions among the antiquities of Egypt so like the Hottentot as to make it cer tain, as they think, that the original of these representatives must have been persons of this race. Then again the Hottentots of South Africa, in days of old, as the early travellers in that region and their own traditions tell us, were wont to worship the moon ; the like to which, the historian tells us, was found among the northern nations of Africa in their sidereal worship. And yet we find no trace of this among their neighbors of the Bantu race. The gods of the Zulus are regarded as having their home beneath and never above. The northern nations of olden times, like the Hottentots from time immemorial, made use of the bow and arrow, while the Zulu and his neighbors of the Bantu race use the spear, short sword, and war club. And yet it is in looking at the more permanent and marked feature of the Hottentot, his language, and its likeness to that of the old Egyptian, that we find the strongest proof that the two families were one in origin ; and if so, then the fact of their being eventually so widely separated points to the probable incoming of another people, as from the east, by which they were divided, and a portion of them pushed on southward till they came to the other extreme of the continent. Eruptions from the north and east in those early days were not unknown. The Israelites and the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, were noted instances. As the families of the earth multiplied in the home of their child hood and youth, it is easy to see how there must have been a general pressure from the north and east to the south and west, especially from Western Asia into the northeast of Africa, or from the Euphrates into Egypt. Inquiring now to which particular branch of the great families of men this inclusive, immi grating race belonged, we can hardly doubt that it was Hamitic, having its origin probably in some branch of the Cushites. The descendants of this line were numerous, and some of them settled, for a time at least, in Asia. Thus Nim- rod, the mighty hunter, who was one of the sons of Cush, built several large towns in Baby lon. Others settled in Arabia, and doubtless many went at an early date to Africa and set tled along the Nile in Egypt, or farther south about Meroe". Herodotus speaks of two classes of Ethiopians, one in Asia, the other in Africa. Many of the former served as soldiers under Xerxes, though their home is not easily deter mined. The historian, however, tells us that the Asiatio Ethiopians were black, like those of Libya, but differed from them in language, and had straight hair ; whereas those of Libya had very curly hair. Now, between the Bantu tribes and the proper negro race there is, to a certain extent, just this kind of difference at the present time. To be sure, the Bantu race is not now white, and yet their hue is not so dark as that of the Nigritian Negro, nor is his hair so woolly ; and as to his language — that most decisive mark of an affinity or of a differ ence — there is known to be a wide difference be tween the Bantu on the south of the Equator and the real negro of the Soudan and neighbor ing dialects in the north. Taking, then, all these suggestive thoughts and facts together, "would it not seem," as said in Zulu-Land, " that the Bantu race had its origin in Cen tral or Western Asia, perhaps in Armenia, more likely farther south, possibly on the Eu phrates ; and that, in process of time, being straitened for room, it broke away from its original seat, or was driven out, the whole or a part, and led to shape its course to the south west ; either carried along by a general move ment, or drawn by the attractions of kindred in that direction, until they came to Mizraim in the land of the Nile ? Finding the first or lower valley of that river already too full, they pass on, though not without driving a portion of the people before them — a portion, perhaps, already removed of their own accord, or crowded out into the more open country in search of a new home and a wider field. The northern coast already occupied, they naturally turn to the south, ascend the Nile, or move gradually along the eastern coast, until, at length, they reach the country and condition in which we find them. " Of course, in passing through so many new lands, and so many ages of being, and coming in contact with other races, the original char acter and speech of this Bantu race would be considerably modified. Their progress being slow, they would naturally intermarry with neighboring tribes ; and be fashioned, physical ly, mentally, and morally, to some extent by the people, the country, the climate, the customs, and other moulding influences to which they were exposed. In this way, whether originally a branch of the real negro stock or not, it is easy to account for both the agreement and the difference which we find to exist at the present day between the two families. The Bantu race cradled in Asia — as our speculations incline us to believe — the genuine negro or Ethiopic iu Africa ; the one living for ages perhaps, with out the tropic in the east, while the other hasted to its more sunny home in the great peninsula ; the former, perchance, long associated with Japhetio or Semitio nations, and much trav elled withal ; while the latter doubtless oame into being, and passed both the plastic season of its youth and its maturer age in the same secluded, sandy region where it is now found : it is easy to see why the Kafir, the Zulu, and all their kin, though they spring from a com mon stock, should be found at this day more robust, taller, of a lighter color, with hair less woolly, with a nose more elevated, of a much greater facial angle, a higher forehead, and alto gether of a more intelligent, Caucasian look, than their Nigritian neighbors of the Ethiopic or Negro stamp. At the same time we see in these Zulu and Kafir tribes, in the whole Bantu race, so much of the true negro type, so much of dark color in the skin, of curling and woolli- ness in the hair, of breadth in the nostrils, of thickness in the lips, so much of likeness in BANTU 125 BANTU the eyes and in other respects to the other race — the tribes which now flank this northern do main — that we must come to the conclusion, that if the Bantu family had an origin either more ancient or more modern, or in any wise other than the negroes of Nigritia, it mingled with these in its formative days, on its migra tory way through the Ethipic regions, till it was largely iflubued with their spirit, and fashioned after their type. ' ' In respect to the more recent origin, history, and abode of the two larger of the southeastern tribes of the Bantu family, the Kafir or Xosa and Zulu, modern historians are not silent. They tell us that the Kafirs came gradually down from the northeast, some two or three hundred years ago, and settled in districts lying between the Kei and the Umzimkulu, out of which they crowded the weaker Hottentot and Bushman tribes. The name Kafir, from the Arabic Kefir, or Kafr, which signifies infidel, or those who do not hold the Moslem faith, was first applied by Arabs to the heathen tribes, with which as traders they came in contact, along the East Coast of Africa ; which would seem to give sanction to the above historic saying. And then, too, in the Kafir's practice of polygamy and the rite of circumcision, and especially in his proud bearing and martial spirit, in his somewhat Arabic features, and in his hue, not generally so dark as that of the pure negro, many see proof of his having been for a time with members of the Arab race. The Zulus also, according to tradition and the testimony of generations that have but lately passed away, came in, something more than a century since, from the north and took up their abode, first on the Imfolosi and Umhlatusi rivers, and then farther south as far as the Um zimkulu, and farther east till they came into the vicinity of Delagoa Bay. Not to go back beyond a somewhat definite knowledge of them, we find them a small tribe under the chieftain Usenzangakona, son of Jama, and fa ther of Chaka. Chaka, born in 1787, was a chieftain of great enterprise in his way, of great ambition, military prowess, and success, and consequent fame. Starting out at the head of a small army, he assailed and subdued tribe after tribe, and incorporated all into his own, till he had mastered and filled the realm of which we have spoken, and made himself to be feared by the Dutch and English at the Cape, the Chuana tribes on the west, and other far- distant tribes on the north and east, till finally, in 1828, he was himself assassinated through the jealousy and instigation of two brothers, one of whom, Dingan, took his place in power. During Dingan's reign, or rather at the close of it, which came through a large part of his sub jects going over under his brother, Umpande, to aid the Boers in their war against him, hav ing been chased out of the country and died of his wounds in the wilderness, his kingdom was divided, in 1840, and the southern half of it, called the Natal District, came into the hands of the Dutch, and then, in 1842, into the hands of the English, and so became a British colony ; while the northern half, that which has since gone by the name of Zululand, came under the rule of Umpande, brother of the two pre vious kings. Umpande continued nominally at the head of affairs till the day of his death, in October, 1872, though for the last ten or fifteen years of his life the government was virtually in the hands of his son, Ketchwayo. la June, 1873, ostensibly at the request of the Zulu na tion, yet virtually through the agency of the English - Natal Secretary for Native Affairs, Ketchwayo was installed king in place of his now deceased father. He held office till the English-Zulu war in 1879, when he was taken captive and carried to Cape Town, and thence to England. The British Government now pro fessing to have a kind of moral protection and authority over the Zulu realm, divided it into thirteen sections, and over each appointed a kind of petty chief or kinglet, the result of which was confusion, strife, and anarchy. Then Ketchwayo was carried back to Zululand and reinstated king, January 31st, 1883, over at least a part of his former realm, but so handicapped with restrictions as not to be able to bear effi cient rule. Some of the kinglets, especially Usibepu, not being pleased with this return of the king, soon had a quarrel and a fight with him, in which the king was severely wounded, and being hidden away for a time in " the bush," was supposed to have been killed. He was eventually found, however, and rescued by the English, but soon died, some say of heart dis ease, some, of grief and disappointment ; while others think he was poisoned by his late an tagonist. Then Undinizulu, son of Ketchwayo, together with Undabuko, one of the king's brothers, undertook to subdue Usibepu, but were pre vented and punished by the English. The country is still divided into sections and undei the direct rule of chiefs, though the Lieutenant- Governor of Natal has a general supervision of all ; and for the present all is orderly and peace ful. That part of the country which constitutes what is called the " New Republic" is under the rule of the Dutch, to whom it belongs. The entire number of the Zulus at the pres ent time is believed to be about 600,000, of whom about half are living in Natal, and the rest in Zululand and in regions farther north and west. The size of the Zulu nation, and especially the fact of its having been greatly enlarged in its earlier days by Chaka's subduing and incorporating into it some forty other tribes or clans, makes it worthy to be taken, in many things, as a good representative of the en tire race to which it belongs. The appearance, color, traits, mode of life, institutions, and customs of the Zulu are so like those of the other tribes of the Bantu family that a description of the former will give a good idea of all. The personal appear ance of the better classes of these tribes, espe cially of the Zulu and the Kafir, is generally all that could be expected of people in their cir cumstances. Somewhat slender, erect, of good stature, and well proportioned, it is easy for them on occasion to be graceful, dignified, com manding. They are made to be agile and swift rather than strong ; and yet their women often carry heavy burdens on their heads for long distances. Their color varies from a reddish copper or light bronze to a pure black. The lat ter, with just a little tinge of the red, pleases them best. A few have the regular features of the Caucasian ; some, the pure negro ; but most of them are of some grade between the two. Their black eyes often twinkle with merry hu mor, their beautif ully white teeth are well set, their general expression pleasant and confiding. Physically considered, the Zulu and all the BANTU 126 BANTU Bantu tribes belong to a well-built, fine-looking race. In respect to natural affection, mental traits, social life, the Zulus and all the Bantu family afford an interesting study. While it is not possible to knowr what the character of this peo ple might have been in other circumstances, it is easy to suppose they have been affected by the climate, soil, and surroundings in which they have had their abode ; with no mighty forests or lofty mountains pointing ever sky ward, no cold winters to harden and strengthen them, no sterile soil to provoke or demand thought and industry, no naviguble rivers or lakes in the southern regions, and no islands over against them to awaken and stimulate en terprise, yet beneath an almost vertical sun, why should they be expected to be other than warm blooded, easy-going, and social, as, indeed, they are '! Except when provoked to anger by insult or injustice, they are mild, gentle, kind, not wanting in either parental or filial affection ; are helpful and sympathetic toward the suffer ing ; and yet, under a sense of being wronged, or in the excitements of war, they can be wild and fierce in the extreme. Few' people are naturally more cheerful or light hearted, more ready to dance and sing or laugh and play. They never need be told to " take no thought for the morrow." They are hospitable, fond of visiting, fond of society, cannot bear to work alone or be alone. They are proverbial for politeness, have numerous rules of etiquette, which are generally sensible and observed. They are quick to see the difference between right and wrong, ever ready to decry injustice, ever ready to submit gracefully to the suffering of deserved punishment. Previous to their com ing to mingle with white people such a thing as stealing was almost never known ; and well it might be so, since the penalty for such a crime, especially under their great King Chaka, was speedy and capital. During the writer's resi dence of many years among them, with almost no lock and key in use, his grain, tools, cattle — everything they most desired — being ever open to their access, he was not aware that anything was ever stolen from him. He once thought they had taken a hatchet, but after months had elapsed and the annual burning of the grass had occurred, he found it in a field just where he had used and left it. And yet the common, social life of the Zulu is far from perfect. As one has said, " He is far from being as honest in word as he is in acts. It is not in his nature to be straightforward in speech, and to tell the whole truth. He is prone to have very large reservations in his own mind when he is avowed ly giving a full account of some occurrence, and manages to disguise and distort facts with ex ceeding cleverness and skill. A Zulu will ex cuse a fault with such ready plausibility that he will make an intentional act of wrong-doing seem but an undesigned accident." He expeots his hospitality to be reciprocated, bis kindness to be rewarded. Indeed, he is said to have it for a proverb that " it is better to receive than to give." It is easy for him to get very angry and try to settle his dispute with a club. And yet he can hardly be said to be vindictive in his resentments. If the storm of passion is quick to rise, it is also quick to abate and be forgot ten. The Zulu is a man of many marked and ready parts, self-respecting, sometimes haughty, of a martial spirit, quick-witted, a studious and keen observer of men and things, and, within all lines of his own observation and experience, a good judge, a good logician, a good reader of character, and a good narrator of facts and events, except, perhaps, when the facts would be to his discredit or disadvantage. One of them, having heard his missionary tell of the great power and goodness of God, how He hates sin, and how the race was beguiled to their ruin through the temptations of the adversary, once challenged his teacher with the sharp inquiry, " But why didn't God kill the devil at once and stop all that mischief in the beginning?" An other Zulu, being once asked by his missionary, "What is the best color for man?" replied, " For you Americans no doubt white is the best, but for us Africans there is nothing better than a good, clear, shiny black, with just a little of the red in it." The famous Zulu chief, Pakade, who used to come now and then into sharp collision with the English, was once visited by Bishop Colenso, who tried to interest him in his translation of the Lord' s Prayer into Zulu ; but right in the midst of the bishop's most laborious and promising effort, he was suddenly pulled up by his military pupil's breaking in upon him with the remark and in quiry, "Yes! yes! that is all very good, but how do you make gunpowder ?" Just before the great English-Zulu war of 1879, when the English were planning to invade the free and independent realm of Zulu-Land if the king, Ketchwayo, would not give them a speedy, ab solute promise to modify his laws, this " King of the Zulus, a naked heathen savage, but nevertheless a legitimate and constitutional king, the head of a haughty royal house, the ruler of a valiant and unconquered nation," re plied, " Why does the Governor of Natal speak to me about my laws ? Do I go to Natal and dictate to him about his laws ? I wish to be friends with the English, but I will not agree to give my people over to be governed by laws or rules from Natal. I do kill ; my people will not listen unless they are killed. Am I to throw the large kraal which I govern into the water ? These white men treat me like a child, and keep playing with me. Go back and tell the English I shall now act on my own account. Rather than agree to their laws, I shall leave and become a wanderer ; but I shall not go without having acted, and before I go it will be seen. Go back and tell the white men this, and let them hear it well. The Governor of Natal and I are equal ; he is governor of Natal, and I am governor here." When Isaacs visited the Zulu kingdom in 1835, and had some talk with Chaka on political affairs in Europe, tell ing him, withal, about the great extent of British rule, and how the French Empire of Napoleon had been overthrown by the English at Water loo ten years before, this half-naked barbarian complacently remarkod, " Yes, I see now ; there are only two great chiefs in all the earth : my brother, King George, he is king of all the whites, and I, Chaka, I am king of all the blacks." King Dingan, having once listened long and patiently to an account of Queen Vic toria's beauty and glory, replied, " And what does the queen think of me ?" For their warm, emotional, recipient nature the Zulus are not less remarkable than other Hamitio families. Looking at the three great branches into whioh the race of man was divided BANTU 127 BANTU ages agone, or after the flood, at the foot of Ararat, we find the Semitic distinguished for the will. And so it is that the Jews are often spoken of as a positive, wilful, stiff-necked peo ple. Then we have the Japhetic branch, dis tinguished for the intellect, given to mental efforts, thought, reason, science, philosophy, speculation, jurisprudence — all great, far-reach ing enjjfrprises. Then comes the Hamitic branch, of quito another temperament, distin guished for the heart, the emotions, passions, affections, a warm-blooded, impressible race. Now, in all these varied characteristics of the Zulu- Kafir " there is much," as the writer has said (in Zulu-Land, pp. 183-85), " to encourage the missionary and every philanthropic heart to make efforts to enlighten and save the race. Even their worst traits are only so many proofs of what eminence they might attain as Chris tians, could they be converted and led to con secrate themselves, their days and energies, to the service of the true God. Those very facul ties by the abuse of which they have become famous for superstition and iniquity, once sanc tified and used aright may yet make them as eminent for good as they have been for evil. And as the African has a character of his own, even in his ignorance, in his barbarism and sin, so, when he shall awake, arise, and stretch <>ut his hands to God, his new life will doubt- liss be found to differ somewhat from that of the other great branches of the tripartite hu man stock. Nor, if we take the leading traits of his present character to be any index of what shall be those of his new and Christian char acter, will his peculiar type be without its place, me, and glory in the great family of regener ated men— the one body of that Church which shall be gathered out of all nations, when ' Ethiopia shall stretch out her hands to God ' — the African race be converted and gathered, wiih the sons of Shem and Japhelh, into the one fold of Christ. ' For as we have many members in one body, and all members have not the same office : so we, being many, are one body in Christ, and everyone members one of another ; ' having gifts, however, which differ according to the grace that is given to us. In the Semitic branch we have already had a manifestation of the spiritual — an earnest, serious, self-relying soul —lhe wiU, as it were, of the human race ; in the Japhetic, a manifestation of the mind, the intellect — alt those higher powers which give us politics, science, and the fine arts ; for a marked manifestation of ihe heart — the susceptibilities, emotions, affections, we must look to the sons of Ham. " Indeed, the very nature of tlie African ex hibits in itself a remarkable ' union of recipiency with passion.' Being of a plastic, ductile, docile disposition ; having nothing of the hard, self-asserting nature of the Goth ; indisposed to stamp his own individuality upon others ; the African is not likely to become famous, as the sons of Japheth have, for carrying on con quest and planting empires in other parts of the globe ; nor for enlarging and enriching the do main of politics and jurisprudence, science and the fine arts. Nor yet are we to expect from the African an exhibition of so much that is simple, sublime, self reliant— so much that is capable of being continuously bent to one object ; of preserving itself separate, exclusive, and pecul iar, for ages, as we have had in the sons of Shem. But are there no other possible traits of character whieh, in the coming ages of the world, in the future unfoldings of that plan of redemption which the Maker and Ruler of men has devised for their recovery from sin, shall be deemed equally important and glorious ? " There is much of deep, happy thought in the remark of Professor Shedd, that ' the African nature possesses a latent capacity fully equal, originally, to that of the Asiatic or the European. Shem and Japhet sprang from the same loins with Ham. God made of one blood those three great races by which He repopulated the globe after the deluge. This blending of two such striking antitheses as energy and leth argy, the soul and the sense ; this inlaying of a fine and fiery organization into drowsy flesh and blood ; this supporting of a keen and irritable nerve by a tumid and strong muscular cord — what finer combination than this is there among the varied types of mankind ?" The dress, habitations, and pursuits of the Zulus are all ' in accord with what should be looked for among a people living for ages in a tropical climate and without any of the enlight ening, refining, quickening influences ofthe Gos pel. In most of these things, especially in that of their wardrobe, it is as though they had taken over the words of the poet and put a very literal meaning on them, when he says, " Mau wants but little here below, Nor wants that little long." In their untutored condition the woman's dress is half a cow-hide, tanned soft, dyed black, bound about the loins, and coming down about to the knees. And when it is old, and worn, and torn, as it wilt be in time, she goes to one bush and tears off the bark, and to another for a thorn, punches a hole here, another there, puts in the string and sews up the rent. The man's wardrobe is only about a fourth part as much as that of woman, and the little he has is generally from the furry thongs of wild beasts ; while the children are left to go for some years as destitute as on the day they were born. But all — men, women, and children, young men and maidens — are fond of ornaments, such as beads on every part of the body, ivory knobs in their ears, and brass bangles on their arms. Nor are they less fond of charms, such as roots, bits of wood or bark, bones, horns, hoofs, teeth, and claws of birds and beasts, which are worn about the neck and other parts of the body. The distinguishing mark of the married man is a head smooth shaved, all but a ring of hair around the crown ; while the married woman's head is also smooth shaved, all but a tuft of hair on the crown. The man's ring is made solid and black and glossy with gum and char coal; the woman's top-knot is made solid and red with grease and red ochre. To the Zulu the snuff-box and snuff-spoon and the igudu, sniok- ing-horn, are matters of great interest and en joyment. Under pure native rule the Zulu can never marry or build himself a house or kraal till he has served his king as a soldier for a term of years, got his discharge, and with his dis charge a piece of ground on which to build. Getting this, he selects a dry, oval spot for his umuzi, or, as the Dutch say, a kraal, which con sists of a circular enclosure for his cattle ; and around this a circular row of honses, one for himself and one for each of his wives and her children. The house is hemispherical in shape, seven or eight feet high, with a diameter of fif BANTU 128 BANTU teen or twenty feet. The frame consists of wattles about the size and length of fishing- rods, over which is laid a thick coating of long thatch grass for a covering. On one side is a door two feet high and eighteen inches wide. The floor is made of hardened clay or earth from the ant-heap ; near the centre is a shallow basin, saucer-like in shape, for the fire, for which they have no chimney ; nor do they have anything save the door for a window. A por tion of the border of this one room is set apart for a calf or goat for the night, and the rest is used as a place for stowing their wood, their bedding of mats and hides, or coarse blankets, their mill-stone, calabashes for water or milk, their earthen pots for cooking, and their spears and shields for hunting and fighting ; while the rest of the hut, or central portion, serves as a place for cooking, eating, sitting, and sleeping. The house is built chiefly by the women, the enclosures by the men. In times of war the men are engaged in war. In times of peace they are expected to prepare the fields, if need be, for the pick, and either fence them or watch them, as against cattle and wild beasts. The men tan the hides for their wives' dresses ; they and the boys herd the cattle and milk the cows ; they hunt, smoke, bask in the sun, drink beer, make offerings to their divinities, the shades of the dead, and institute and follow up their many almost interminable suits at law. In their heathen state the women keep the house, so far as it is kept at all, do all the drudgery, carry the burdens, and cultivate the fields. With their baskets and heavy, clumsy picks they do the digging, planting, harvesting — the work of the plough, harrow, cart, ox, and horse. When the corn or other grain is gathered and dry, they do the threshing, winnowing, and grinding ; or if the grain must go to the market ten or twenty miles away, they must carry it there in baskets on their heads. The matrimonial affairs of the Zulus are based upon a belief in polygamy, and their practice corresponds to their faith. In former times, as under Chaka and Dingan, when wars were com mon and many of the men were killed in battle, the practice was carried to a greater extent than it could be in times of continued peace. Native law prescribes no limit to the number of wives a man may have, provided he can find them, and have the means — five or ten head of cattle each — with which to obtain them. The strife, jealousy, and degradation of character which grow out of this practice can never be told, and yet with all its manifest evils it is no easy thing to break it up and root it out. And where secular interests play so large a part, pure, mutual affection must have the less to do in the matter. For the young man to get an early re lease from the royal army, get cattle from his father, who would rather use them to buy him self another wife, then compete successfully with the father whose daughter he seeks as against polygamists in the field before him, who, already having many wives, can bring the more cattle, would seem to be putting " many a slip between the cup and the lip ;' ' especially wdiere the young man may not be able to act on the Puri tan maiden's advice and " speak for himself alone, ' ' it might be supposed he would prefer to be, like Miles Standish, ' ' but a fighter of battles, a lover and wooer of dangers. " But the real Zulu suitor is fruitful in expedients, and not easily discouraged. Should he suspect his means, personal attractions, and best-laid plans may prove insufficient, he has great con fidence in the subduing, winning potency of certain medicinal preparations. In the needed ingredients for these, and in the many different ways of preparing and using them, he is rich. and ready. Perhaps the more common way would be to prepare a delicate powder and send it by the hand of some unsuspected person, to be given in a pinch of snuff or sprinkled upon the person whose will is to be changed or affec tions won. The engagement made and the wed ding at hand, the parents and friends of the bride, all in their best attire, make up a party and escort her to the home of the bridegroom. Arriving there, they begin to sing and dance ; nor is it long before the young men of the kraal join them. At length the master of the kraal slaughters an ox, and all give up dancing and singing for feasting and carousing. And so, after an exchange of presents and other exer cises of a joyous character, the man and woman become husband and wife after the manner of a Zulu marriage. The Zulu system of law and government is all in accord with the condition of the people. Their laws are common, oral, the growth of ex perience, the sum of precedents, well estab lished, helpful to peace and order, and gener ally well suited to the end for which they are> designed, though that end is not always the best. Many of their laws have respect to polyg amy, to the many complications and collisions that grow out of that institution. Some have respect to witchcraft. Some are political, hav ing respect to the office, duties, and prerogatives of the king and his ministers. Some have re spect to vice and crime. In Chaka's time the thief was killed and his body given to the birds and beasts of the field. The murderer is some times executed, but more often fined. Most of their fines are paid in cattle, a few head of which will generally settle any case of adultery, rape, arson, homicide, or assault. Nor is it necessary to trace out the guilty person in the case of any misdemeanor, the whole affair being adjusted on the principle of collective responsi bility. If a case can be traced and established against any kraal or community, that com munity or kraal must make reparation. The children are held accountable to their mothers, and mothers to their husbands ; all the men of a kraal or village to the head-man of the same ; all the head-men of the village to the head-man of the river on which they live, and so on up to the king, who is monarch of all. His word is law, absolute and final ; aud yet it must accord with well-established precedent or usage, else he will eventually come to grief. They have their courts of different grades, with right of appeal from the lower to the higher, till they come to the king himself. Many of their suits are complicated and long continued ; and with them, too, ' ' the glorious uncertainty of the law' ' is great and proverbial, especially in all those cases of inheritance and possession that grow out of polygamy. In theory their govern ment is hereditary and monarchical. But where the king has a great number of wives the law of succession is apt to be complicated and uncer tain. In naming the wife from whom his suc cessor is to come the king finds it expedient to consult his great men, else his choice may be thwarted ; nor is it even then sure to hold. Should the " great son" be a minor at the time BANTU 129 BANTU of the king's death, the great men of the realm conduct affairs till he is old enough to be in stalled ; or some brother of the deceased king may take the sceptre, as Dingan did, and after him, Umpande, both brothers of Chaka. " The time to inaugurate the new king having arrived, the people of his own nation, perhaps also the chiefs of the neighboring tribes, send in their offerings -a few head of cattle from each kraal, — when large numbers meet at the capital, and go through a grand dance and other ceremonies, which they deem suited to the occasion ; an ample charge being given him, meantime, Ly the veteran ministers of his father's reign, as to how he is to conduct the affairs of the kingdom. Henceforth he is king." Where it would take •¦¦ volume to name and describe the Zulu's superstitions and give ac count of his religious views and practices, only the briefest sketch can be given in a page or two. Their superstitions are well nigh num berless. If a turkey-buzzard lights near a kraal, something will happen. For one of these birds to be caught in a snare is a bad omen. The man who kdls one of them will die. If a cock crows in the early part of the night, some of the people or cattle will be sick or die. Feeding dogs on the beaks and claws of birds will make them fierce and swift for the chase. To wear the claws of birds or beasts or small horns of cattle about the neck will make a man courage ous and give him prowess. Bits of bark, roots, or bones suspended from the neck will protect a man against poison, lightning, or tbe designs of an enemy. In the virtues and uses of charms, amulets, love potions, incantations, they have great faith. But of all their superstitions, none have upon them a stronger or more hurtful hold than their belief in what is called witchcraft. They believe certain evil-minded men, whom they call aba- lakali, have it in their power to hurt, kill, or de stroy anybody or anything, as cattle, people, habitations, gardens, by the use of some kind of poisonous powder, some incantation, or even by the force of mere will or purpose to do so. Of these so-called witches the people have great fear. And so it is that the failure of a crop, any calamity, sickness of friend, or the death of any domestic animal, is often ascribed to some oper ation or influence of this kind ; whereupon a commission is summoned, and some inyanga, witch doctor, is called to " smell out" the au thor of the evil. And inasmuch as all the .pos sessions, wives, children, cattle, lands, of the man to be found guilty are to be confiscated and portioned out to tbe king, the inyanga, members of the commission, and the afflicted party, the chances are that the sentence will fall upon one of the more wealthy of the region, especially if he may happen to be one of the less popular men. The religious views and practices of the Zulus correspond, in a measure, to all the essential elements of the true faith ; only here all is on a false basis. They have their divinities, their sense of obligation and dependence, sense of guilt, belief in need of help, need of a Saviour, the need of sacrifices, even unto blood, their need of prayer, the duty of worship and service, and a belief that the present life is to be followed by another. In their ignorance of the true God and in their search for some kind of divinity, they turn to the spirits of the departed, the shades of their ancestors, especially the ghosts of the great ones of their race, their kings, as Punga, Jama, and Chaka. They call these shades by various names, as ihlozi, plural amahlozi ; itunga, or isitunzi. Ask them about the end of man, where he goes when he dies, and they say he becomes an ihlozi and goes off to live somewhere underground, there to build and abide with his ancestral friends. Sometimes they say the dying man becomes an isitunzi, spirit, and reap pears from time to time in a smoke ; and so it is that they stand in awe of a serpent, and say, when it appears about their houses, that the spirit of their friend has come back to visit them, and see how they fare. Lions and leopards are sometimes looked upon as the em bodiment of the spirit of a departed friend. To the shades of the dead, especially of Jama and Chaka, they look for help in lime of trouble, confess their sins, pray, and offer sacrifices. Suppose one of the family, as the father, is taken sick, a deputation is sent with a cow or other present to the inyanga, or medical priest, to inquire what is the matter, and what is to be done. The priest accepts the present and re tires with the deputation to some nook near by, asks them to smite the earth with their rods, and so rouse the spirits, that he may hear what they have to say.- After a long series of these performances the priest always comes out with a message from the divinities to the deputation that the sick man has neglected his religious duties ; that it is now long since he has slaugh tered an animal in honor and for the benefit of his ancestral shades ; that the best cow must now be offered, so the anger of the gods will be appeased, and the sick man get well. The messengers carry the word back, the sick man accepts it, prayers are offered, sins confessed, the best cow slaughtered, the blood and gall sprinkled upon their persons, houses, and premises, the beef put away in a hut by itself for the night, and in the morning they profess to believe that the divinities have been there, tasted the meat, and been satisfied. The neigh bors gather, the beef is roasted and consumed, and the hope is expressed that the sick man may soon recover. If so, all is well, and the doctor is extolled for bis ability and skill in finding out the cause and cure of the sickness ; if not, the doctor is denounced as a great humbug ; he has got their cow, but they have got no good. And now they go with another cow to another inyanga and go through the same process, until finally the man does either recover or die. The Zulu word inyanga, somewhat like our word professor, is a term of wide import and use. It may denote one who has a trade, as a blacksmith, a basket-maker, or one whose busi ness is to help others cross a river. Its more proper use is to designate those who are skilled in the higher orders of pursuits, as a medical doctor, a witch doctor — i.e., a wizard-finder, but especially what might be called a diviner — one qualified to find out the cause and cure of evil by communing with the shades of the departed. A Zulu's mode of preparing himself for one of these higher professions, as to be a diviner, is to go through a long-continued course of rigor ous self-denial and training, such as fastings, self-inflicted sufferings, diving and staying under water, wanderings in wild and weird places, that he may come into contact and com munion with the amahlozi, or fall into a swoon and have strange visions of the spirits, about which he has been talking and thinking so long ; BANTU 130 BAPTISTS, CANADA and then make his appearance in public, all besmeared, perhaps, with white clay, his hands full of snakes, his head covered with feathers, singing, dancing, reciting his visions, and so prepared to be recognized as having attained to the degree of a witch doctor, a medical priest, or a diviner. Such, in brief, are the origin, kinship, ap pearance, traits, and institutions of the Zulus, their superstitions, religion, and professional men ; and such, for substance, are the many tribes that go to make a population of some fifty millions or more of the Bantu race in South and South Central Africa. For special account of mission work see article Zulus, Missions among the. Banu, or Bannu, a town of Peshawar, Punjab, India, near the Afghan frontier. Mis sion out- station of the C. M. S. ; 1 native assist ant, 5 communicants, 155 scholars. Banza Iflanteke, a town of the valley of the Congo, West Africa, 160 miles southeast of Loango. Population, 10,000. Mission station of the American Baptist Missionary Union ; 2 missionaries and wives, 3 native preachers, 264 church-members. Bapalta, a city of the Kistna district, Madras, India, 40 miles east of Ongole. Healthy location. Population, 6,086, chiefly Telugus. Mission station of the American Baptist Mis sionary Union (1883) ; 1 missionary and wife, 132 out - stations, 41 native preachers, 17 churches, 1,907 members, 29 schools, 480 scholars. Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec. — T. S Shenston, Brantford, Treasurer ; Rev. John McLaurin, Woodstock, Secretary. The first movements in Baptist churches in Canada to send the Gospel to the heathen were made in connection with American societies. The constant interchange of pastors ; the pass ing over the border of young men to study for the ministry before the establishment of theo logical schools in Canada ; their return as pas tors, and the repeated visits of returned mis sionaries from Burma and India to our churches, had much to do in bringing about this state of things. The provinces by the sea were by many years the pioneers in this noble enter prise. As early as 1838 a Society for the Maintenance of Foreign Missions was estab lished at Chester, in Nova Scotia. Seven years later, in 1845, Rev. R. E. Burpu was sent ont to labor in Burma, the first representative of Cana dian Baptists on the foreign field. Still later, Rev. A, R R. Crawley and Rev. William George labored in the same field under the auspices of the American Baptist Missionary Union. Miss Minnie De Wolf 3 and Miss Maria Norris, who was the originator of the present woman's movement in aid of missions in North America, belonged also to those provinces. This connection lasted till, in 1873, an inde pendent Board of Foreign Missions under their Convention took charge of their work among the heathen. In that year u wonderful revival of foreign mission interest took place among the people. A band of seven missionaries- three men and four women — were appointed and a fund of $12,000 raised, besides the or dinary income of the B >ard. The inception of the work farther west, in Ontario and Quebec, was much later ; perhaps! partly on account of the amount of home mis sion work required of the churches, caused by the overshadowing influence of the Church of Rome in Quebec, and the fact that in propor tion to the population the Baptists in the West were few, and were also scattered over large dis tricts of country. Dr. R. A. F}'fe, Principal of Woodstock College, was the first to move in this, as in almost every other plan for the ex tension of the Redeemer's kingdom in the West. One of the ministerial students in Woodstock was desirous of giving his life to preaching the Gospel to the heathen. No way seemed open to him. Dr. Fyfe, sympathizing with his desire, wrote to the secretary of the American Baptist Missionary Union, in Boston, Mass , to ascertain on what terms he could be sent out under their Board. The result was the meeting of six pas tors, with Dr. Fyfe and Dr. Murdock, of the Missionary Union, in the parsonage in Beams- ville, Ontario, on October 18th, 1866. Here the Canadian auxiliary to the American Baptist Mis sionary Union was formed, with Rev. William Stewart, of Brantford, as secretary, and T. S. Shenston, Esq., of the same place, as treasurer. Early in the following year the young man referred to above, Mr. A. V. Trinpany, of Vienna, Ontario, finished his studies, was ap pointed a missionary by the Executive Com mittee in Boston, and designated to the Telugus, at Chicago, at the May meetings of that year. But a great day for the Baptists of Ontario and Quebec was October 17th, 1867. On that day their foreign mission bark was launched ; that day they stretched forth their hands to help the poor and needy in heathen lands, and the Lord looked down from heaven and was pleased. On that day Rev. A. V. Trinpany and his wife. Miss Jane Bates, of Woodstock, were designated their first missionaries to the heathen. In October, 1867, Mr. Trinpany aud his wife sailed from New York, reaching Madras in April, 1868. Two years later Rev. John McLaurin, also a graduate of Woodstock College, and his wife were sent out. Up to 1873 both sections of the Baptists of the Dominion labored in con nection with the Missionary Union in Boston ; the maritime provinces supporting their mis sionaries in Burma, as well as quite a number of native preachers, while the missionaries of the maritime provinces were laboring among the Telugus in India. In 1873 the Convention of the Maritime Provinces, believing that an independent mission would draw out the inter est of their people better than an auxiliary, established a Board of Foreign Missions, and sent out a party of seven missionaries to ex plore and, if thought wise, to establish a mission among the Karens of Siam. The party con sisted of Revs. R. Sanford and wife, George Churchill and wife, W. F. Armstrong, and Misses Armstrong and Eaton. In the same year the western provinces became indepen dent under the following circumstances, and finally settled in the northern Telugu country, to which the others subsequently followed them. In 1873, through Mr. McLaurin, then in tem porary charge of the station at Ongole, a mission at Cocanada, hitherto in charge of a native preacher of great eloquence and power, was offered to the Baptists of Ontario and Quebec. A meeting was held in Brantford to consider BAPTISTS, CANADA 131 BAPTISTS, CANADA whether the grave responsibility should be un dertaken. In view of the fact that they were few in number (about 16,000), and their re sources already taxed to the utmost to carry on their home work and their mission to tho French in Quebec, a reluctance to enter on any new enterprise was expressed by many ; but the others saw in the offer which had been made their Gfbd's finger-posts pointing out the path of duty, and it was resolved that they would do what they could for the 3,000,000 Telugus to whom God's providence seemed to be leading them. The American Baptist Missionary Union was asked to release the Rev. John McLaurin to take charge of the new mission. This they did in the kindest and most Christian manner. He and his family landed in Cocanada on March 12th, 1874, and immediately took charge of the mis sion. Rev. Thomas Gabriel lived but one short 3'ear, having succumbed to an attack of fever on January 1st, 1875. He died a triumphant be liever in the Lord Jesus. At the time of assuming this new responsi bility the Baptists of Ontario and Quebec num bered about 16,000, and their income was only $3,341 ; besides, they were under obligation to the Missionary Union for the salary of the Rev. A. V. Trinpany. And now the maritime brethren are about to move across the bay to the Telugu country. The deputation sent to Siam was unable to find Karens in sufficient numbers in Siam to justify the establishment of a mission for them alone. At this juncture an invitation from the West to co-operate with them in the North Telugu coun try was gladly considered, and at a convention held at Hillsburg, Nova Scotia, in May, 1875, their missionaries were recalled from Siam and trans ferred to the Telugu country. By the end of the year four new families had united with the mission family in Cocanada to form the Cana dian Baptist Telugu Mission. There are still two boards in the home land, but practically only one mission in the foreign land. Methods of Work — Evangelization. — The following account of the methods of work is furnished by the secretary of the Society : " From its inception we have striven to make ours a preaching mission. We go to them, into their villages, sing and pray and preach in their streets, sit down with them in their houses if they will allow us, talk with them on the way or by the roadside. We like to get them sitting down in groups, after their evening meal, with nothing to distract the attention, and preach to them Jesus. We are not particularly fond of feast or fair, or even bazaar preaching. Some good is doubtless done on such occasions, but when men are mad upon their gods is a poor time for preaching the Gospel to them. Our principle is to preach the Gospel to every creat ure, high or low, rich or poor, educated or igno rant. Those who believe we baptize on a credi ble profession of faith in Christ. As soon as there are sufficient of such in one place or one centre, we organize them into a self-governing Christian church, and as soon as possible in duce them to provide themselves with pastors, deacons, and teachers. We give them as much liberty as they are willing to use. We mean to plant the Church of Christ in the native soil and let it become indigenous to that soil as soon as possible. We teach each person the duty of telling the story of redemption to his neigh bors, his relatives, and friends. We do not be lieve in evangelization, but in Christianization. We believe in discipling the nations. There fore, we believe the great bulk of our work is to be done through native agency, while the work of the missionary is more apostolic than evan gelistic. The native churches are formed into associations for mutual help and encourage ment. The missionaries also meet once a year for the promotion of spiritual life and the dis cussion of subjects relating to missions both at home and abroad. Neither the associations nor the Conference have any ecclesiastical authority or control. Education. — " Our educational policy is in harmony with our work as a preaching mission. Missionary education, so called, we have not encouraged. We establish no schools, either high or low, as evangelizing agencies. Our schools are of three classes, and are intended mainly for the education of our native Chris tians and providing an efficient staff of workers to carry on our mission, evangelists for the heathen, and pastors and teachers for the churches. ' ' Village Schools. — As the Government of India does nothing directly for the education of Pariahs, these schools become a necessity for our people, most of whom have come from that class. The children of the Christians, girls as well as boys, are gathered into the schools, and are given a very elementary education in the vernacular. Older men and boys, and often women, take advantage of these schools to learn to read God's Word. This is often done at night. These teachers of the village schools generally conduct divine worship in the village in the ab sence of the pastor or evangelist. He also preaches in the adjacent villages as opportunity occurs. Sometimes the pastor's wife is teacher of the village school. Anybody who chooses is free to come and receive the benefit of the school. The heathen children often come. These schools are supported in part by the Christians in the village, in part by native church funds, and in part by mission funds. Our staff of teachers comes from the seminary and station boarding schools " Girls' Boarding Schools. — These are estab lished in the principal stations. Into them none but the children of Christians are received. Many of them are already members of the churches. Most of them are supposed to have had a smattering of some subjects in the village schools before coming, but some come from vil lages where there are no schools. They are fed, clothed, housed, and taught, and they pay a nominal fee of four annas (ten cents) per month. This fee we hope to raise before long. They are taught the ordinary branches of a good education — the Bible, plain sewing, and Hindu housekeeping. Many of them become the wives of preachers and teachers, as well as the wives of ordinary citizens in their villages, after leav ing school. We find their influence invaluable in our subsequent work. These schools are taught by Christian natives, and are generally under the care of the wife of the missionary in the station. " Theological Seminary. — This is located in Samulcotta, nearly the centre of our mission field. Its purpose is, primarily, to provide a trained ministry for our churches. While we believe in a God-called and God-endued minis try, we also believe in a trained ministry. Our BAPTISTS, CANADA 132 BAPTISTS, COLORED secondary purpose is a biblically trained staff of teachers for our schools. Besides, we hope to see go forth from this place colporteurs and others who, engaging in the ordinary pursuits of life, will become a strength and a blessing to many small churches in the villages. The course is six or seven years, according to the advancement of the pupil before entering. None but members of our churches are re ceived, and none but those recommended by the missionaries in the field as likely to be use ful in mission work. Wives of married men who are approved are also received, and if far enough advanced, study with the other classes. " The school is organized under three heads or departments : ' ' (a) Secular. — In which our aim is to give what is equivalent to a good common-school educa tion in English. The vernacular (Telugu) is the language of instruction, but English is taught as a subject. ' ' (b) Biblical Course.. — This begins at the com mencement and continues to the end of the course. It has a European teacher of its own. The idea is to give the students an idea of the Bible as a book— as a collection of books— as God's book, containing His will. The books are taken separately ; their authors, times, and circumstances and purposes of writing ; the natural history ; the exegesis of each passage ; the general meaning, etc. At this rate the whole book cannot be gone over in the time, but the larger part of the Old and the whole of the New Testaments are. And a diligent stu dent graduates with a good knowledge of God's Word. " (c) Theological. — This department is under the charge of the principal, a European. It in cludes systematic theology, evidences, moral science, interpretation, exegesis of New Testa ment portions, Church history, Church polity, pastoral theology, and homiletics, etc. Besides this, these senior students are taken out into the villages during vacation and are trained in evangelistic work under his eye. They also con duct prayer-meetings and conduct public ser vices under his supervision. This wo consider a very profitable part of the training. A mutual improvement society and other adjuncts of col lege life are also provided. " Sabbath Schools. — These we have always had in connection with our Christian congregations, but lately we have started Sabbath-schools for the heathen with encouraging success. ' ' Zenana Wokk. — The zenana being the result of the Mohammedan invasion, Southern India is not so much afflicted with it as the North. Nevertheless, many zenanas are found in all large towns or cities. Our regular work in this department began with Miss Frith, in 1883. Zenanas had been visited before in Cocanada by the missionary's wife, but systematic work began in that year. Now quite a number of Eurasian and native assistants and Bible- women are engaged in the work under the direction of a lady missionary. (See article Methods of Mis sionary Work.) " The Results. — Who shall measure what eternity alone can reveal? A knowledge of the living God, of the Lord Jesus Christ, and of the Christian system has been spread abroad in the land. A knowledge of Christian literature and a view of the beneficent side of Christian life in the family have been given. The zenana has been entered, and many a sad heart has been made to sing for joy and many a dark soul di rected to ' the Light of the world.' The rigors of caste have been very visibly weakened, and many a house cleansed from idols, even among the higher castes. Widow remarriages have been celebrated, and infant marriage has had many a staggering blow. A conviction has been largely spreading that Hinduism is doomed, be cause it is a lie, and that Christianity will pre vail, because it is the truth. Thousands have given up idols who have not had courage to join the Christian Church. In many » home the Bible is read and the Lord Jesus worshipped where His name was unknown fifteen years ago. " An English-speaking (Eurasian) church has been raised up — a veritable hive of Christian in dustry — in which scores of Christian men and women have been raised up for the Master's service ; persons whose influence has been felt in such places as Calcutta, Rangoon, Madras, Bangalore, and other places. The aim of the mission has always been, ' Every soul-a worker for Jesus.' In connection with this work is also a day and boarding-school, mothers' meet ings, a, mission circle, Sabbath-school, teetotal associations, and zenana work. The Eurasian work has been wholly supported by the private benefactions of the missionaries of both boards, and the Eurasians in the different stations. " In January, 1870, there were two Baptist mis sion stations with three missionaries and their wives in the Telugu country, and only 900 con verts. In 1890 there are in the same country 22 stations, 35 missionaries with wives, and 16 unmarried ladies ; 1,088 native workers, 94 churches with a membership of 36,000, 3,750 of whom were added during the year 1889. (See also article on American Baptist Missionary Union. ) Baptist Foreign Mission Conven tion ofthe United States of America. — Corresponding Secretary, Rev. J. E. Jones, 520 St. James Street, Richmond, Va. In May, 1878, the Virginia Baptist State Con vention, in its annual session at Portsmouth, Va., appointed Rev. Solomon Colby as its missionary to Africa. Mr. Colby accordingly sailed in the autumn of that year, reached Africa on January 1st, 1879, and commenced his work in connection with Rev. W. W. Colley, of the Southern Baptist Mission in the Yoruba country ; a few months later Mr. Colley returned to Ameri ca and was appointed by the Virginia Baptist State Convention to travel among the churches in all the Southern States, to in terest them in the work of African missions. He met with such success that when the Virginia State Convention met in May, 1880, resolutions were passed calling a convention of all tho States to meet at some point in the South, with a view to organizing for mission work in Africa. In response to the call many of the States appointed delegates, and in November, 1880, at Montgomery, Ala., the convention was organized under the name of the Baptist Foreign Mission Convention of the United States of America. Two years were spent in preparation, and in December, 1883, six mis sionaries were sent to Africa — four of them to engage in active work and the other two to study at Liberia College for a year before un dertaking service in the field. Since the work began, three stations, with three out-stations, have been established, a church organized, schools conducted, and nearly three hundred BAPTISTS, COLORED 133 BAPTIST MISS. SOC. persons converted and baptized into fellowship with the Church. The work is known as the Baptist Vey Mission, and is located in the Vey Territory, West Central Africa, on land granted to the Board by the government ; the mission property now comprises church, school- house, dwelling-house, a complete outfit for the two stations at Jundoo and Bendoo (the third, Mississippi Station, having been given up), and a library containing over 700 books. At present (1890) the convention has only three missionaries — one of them a native preacher — in Africa, but hopes to send out a medical mis sionary this year, and to greatly enlarge the work in other respects, as intelligent interest in the work and a sense of the responsibility rest ing upon them increases among the colored Bap tists of the United States. Since the establishment of the mission, about $25,000 has been contributed and expended. To diffuse intelligence and stimulate interest in the work, the Board publishes a monthly paper called African Missions. Baptist General Association ofthe Western States and Territories. — Headquarters, Galesburg, 111., U. S. A. The Baptist General Association of the West ern States and Territories was organized by the colored Baptist churches of that region in 1873. Until 1880 its operations were confined to home work, when foreign work became a part of its plans, and in 1885 a mission was es tablished on the Congo, Southwest Africa. In 1886 a plan of co-operation with the American Baptist Missionary Union was agreed upon, with regard to this mission, by which the Association appoints the missionaries, determines their salaries, and raises the funds necessary to carry on the work, but all subject to the approval of the Union, and all transactions with the mission carried on through the Union. The foreign mission work of the Association is limited to the work on the Congo, the station being at Mukimrike. There are 2 ordained missionaries and 1 medical missionary. The work is largely carried on by itinerant preach ing in the villages around the central station, and great interest is manifested in the Sunday- school, which has a membership of 50 scholars. Baptist Missionary Society.— Head quarters, Mission House, 19 Furnival Street, Holborn, E. C, London. History. — The Baptist Missionary Soci ety, founded October 2d, 1792, was the first of the many missionary organizations which had their beginning in tbe closing years of the eighteenth and the opening of the nineteenth centuries. Since 1781 William Carey, the "Northamptonshire Cobbler," had been put ting forth every effort to arouse his ministerial brethren to something of his own absorbing in terest in the question of giving the Gospel to the heathen. He was very young — only twenty years of age — when he made his first plea. Dr. Ryland' s rebuke might have effectually silenced a less earnest man. " Young man," said he, " when the Almighty i3 ready to convert the heathen, He can do it without your instrumen tality or mine." But Carey, so far from being silenced, continued to use every means in his power to bring about his cherished desire— the formation of a missionary society. Soon after his conversion, when eighteen years old, he had read the account of Cook's voyages, and had since earnestly wished to go as a missionary to the South Seas ; this interest in the heathen was intensified by the perusal of Jonathan Ed wards's Life of Brainerd, and his paper on Mis sions, written after the inauguration of the monthly " Prayer Concerts," in North America. Carey's own paper, "An inquiry into the Ob ligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen," published in 1792, was a most impassioned appeal, and with his two sermons, preached before the Baptist Association at Nottingham, May 30th, and at Kettering, October 2d, 1792, resulted in the formation of the Baptist Missionary Society. The two points deduced from the text of the latter have since become famous — "Expect great things from God ; attempt great things for God." At the conclusion of this sermon twelve of the ministers who had heard it with drew to a little white house, still to be seen from the Midland Railway, and passed the following resolutions : " Desirous of making an effort for the propa gation of the Gospel among the heathen, agree ably to what is recommended in Brother Carey's late publication, we whose names appear to the subsequent subscription, do solemnly agree to act in society for that purpose. " As in the present divided state of Christen dom it seems that each denomination, by ex erting itself separately, is most likely to accom plish the great ends of a mission, it is agreed that this society be called ' The Particular [Cal vinistic] Baptist Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen.' " As such an undertaking must needs be at tended with expense, we agree immediately to open a subscription for the above purpose, and to recommend it to others. "Every person who shall subscribe £10 at once, or 10s 6d, annually, shall be a member of the Society." The twelve ministers present subscribed £13 2s. 6cZ. These "great things" were ridiculed by their fellows, but the event has proved that " the greatest things of God have quiet and small beginnings." Carey became the first missionary of the So ciety, Andrew Fuller its first secretary, and Sutcliffe, Dr. Ryland, Jr., and Reynold Hogg formed with these two the first committee. Samuel Pierce, one of the first subscribers at Kettering, desired to be sent to the heathen, but his early death prevented. Development of Work. — A mission to Tahiti, in the South Seas, was at first thought of by the Society, but this plan was changed by the accounts received from Mr. John Thomas, a surgeon in the employ of the East India Com pany at Bengal, of the great needs of India. Accordingly, the South Seas were given up, and the committee resolved to commence its efforts in India. Andrew Fuller, in his account of the meeting held to consider the matter, says, " We saw plainly that there was a gold mine in India, but it was as deep as the centre of the earth. Who will venture to explore it?" "I will go down," said Carey, "but remember that you must hold the ropes." " We solemnly engaged to him to do so, nor while we live shall we de sert him." In March, 1793, Carey and John Thomas sailed for India in a Danish vessel. They landed in Calcutta, November 10th. Carey had told his Society that he should require from it money sufficient to pay for his passage only. BAPTIST MISS. SOC. 134 BAPTIST MISS. SOC. Once in India, he would support himself, so that all the receipts of the Society might be used to send out other missionaries. But the position of self-support was a difficult one to at tain in tropical India, and he and his family went through seven months of hardships un known to any other missionary in India before or since. Then he found employment in an indigo factory, and during the five years spent thus ' ' he perfected his knowledge of the Ben galee language, wrote a grammar of it, translated the New Testament into it, learned Sanscrit, mastered the botany of the region, corresponded with the German missionaries, Schwartz and Guericke, in the far south, set up a printing- press, and planned new missions — all at his own cost." On his rude press, which, from his great devotion to it, the natives thought was an idol, he printed the New Testament as fast as he translated it. In 1797 Mr. John Fountain was sent out to re- enforce Carey, and in 1799 Messrs. Ward, Grant, Brunsdon, and Marshman reached Calcutta. In this year the indigo fac tory was given up, and on account of the per sistent opposition of the East India Company the little band of missionaries removed to the Danish settlement of Serampore, on the west bank of the Hugli, fourteen miles above Cal cutta. Here they purchased house and grounds for church, home, and printing-office. An in come for the mission was secured from the boarding schools opened for Eurasian boys and girls, and conducted by Mr. and Mrs. Marsh- man. In December, 1800, Carey baptized the first Hindu convert, Krishnu Pal, u Brahmin, who became a noted preacher, and from his own funds built the first house of Christian worship in Bengal. A hymn written by him and trans lated by Dr. Marshman is well known : " O thou, my soul, forget no more The Friend who all thy sorrows bore ; Let every idol be forgot. But, O my soul, forget Him not." Carey was appointed by Lord Wellesley, then Governor-General, first Bengali, afterward San scrit and Marathi Professor in the College of Fort William. The families of the little mis sionary community lived at the same table at a cost of not much more than £100 a year. The work of translating the Scriptures, teach ing, preaching, printing, and establishing schools went actively on. Before Carey's death (1834) the whole Bible had been translated into forty different languages and dialects, and the sacred books of the Hindus translated into Eng lish. In addition, Dr. Marshman translated the Bible into Chinese, prepared a Chinese gram mar and dictionary, and translated Confucius into English. In 1812 the printing-press at Serampore was destroyed by fire. The loss from this calamity was great, but the gain was perhaps greater, for the interest and sympathy of Christians at home, of all denominations, was aroused to a degree never felt before. The whole amount of the loss, £10,000. was raised within fifty days and sent to Serampore, where work was speedilv re sumed. This was the first instance of generous donations to the cause of missions ; since then liberal gifts have become the rule. The work extended to other parts of India, and many stations were established. In 1810 these stations were organized into five mis sions : the Bengal Mission, including Seram pore, Calcutta, Dinajpur, etc. ; the Hindusta ni Mission (Northern India), including Patna, Agra, etc., and the Burman, Bhutan, and Orissa Missions. In 1813 there were in all 20 stations, with 63 European and native laborers. In 1813, when the charter of the East India. Company was about to be renewed, the friends of missions applied for the insertion of a clause giving protection to Christian missionaries. Chiefly by the influence of Andrew Fuller and Eobert Hall (who had succeeded Carey as pas tor of the Harvey Lane Church, Leicester), the effort was, in a measure, successful. In the following year Andrew Fuller died. One of the first officers of the Society, its zealous advocate always, and for twenty-two years its main sup port, his loss was deeply felt in England and in India. In 1829 the Serampore College was founded upon a charter obtained from the Danish Gov ernment. In 1827 the missionaries at Serampore and the Society at home became two distinct and inde pendent missionary bodies, because of the re fusal of the former, using in mission service a large amount of property which they had ac cumulated without the aid of friends at home, to render to the parent Society a strict account of their pecuniary transactions. In 1854 the Serampore Brotherhood had contributed to the mission £90.000. A friendly separation was therefore agreed upon, which continued for ten years. In 1837 the two bodies were re united. India owes to the Serampore Mission the first translation of the Bible into many of its dia lects ; the first vernacular newspaper in Ben gali, the language of 70,000,000 of people ; the first large printing-press, paper-mill, and steam. engine ; the first efforts for the education of native girls and women ; the first savings bank, and many other direct and indirect results of the work of Carey, Marshman, Ward, and their associates. The year 1812 saw established the mission to Ceylon ; its work has been mainly educational, and many of those trained in the schools are now assistant teachers. The mission has at present three principal stations at Colombo, Katnapuri, and Kandy, and eighty-eight sub stations. The attendance upon the day schools in 1889, in the Colombo district alone, was 1,550 ; upon the Sunday-schools, 1,000. In 1813 mission work among the colored pop ulation of the West Indies was entered upon. Some years previously George Liele, a colored man from Georgia, U. S. A., had formed con gregations of slaves at Kingston and other places in Jamaica ; after his death the work was carried on by Moses Baker, one of his fol lowers. The work became too great for him, and he applied to the Baptist Missionary Society for aid. By the advice of Mr. Wilberforce, the Rev. Mr. Rowe was sent out ; he organized the churches, preached, and taught with great suc cess. In 1817 Rev. James Coultart settled in Kingston, gathering soon a large church, and the Society at home was encouraged to send out many more missionaries. Large chapels were built, and day and Sunday-schools established for the children of the slaves. In 1831 there were fourteen English missionaries on the island, in charge of twenty-four churches, with 10,838 communicants. It was in this year that the slaves arose against their masters. The missionaries did all in their power to keep all BAPTIST MISS. SOC. 135 BAPTIST MISS. SOC. in their charge quiet and submissive, but were, notwithstanding, charged with having fermented the insurrection. They were arrested and their lives threatened, but when brought to trial were acquitted. Several chapels were destroyed by angry mobs, and two of the missionaries, Messrs. Knibb and Burchell, were sent to Eug land to lay their case before the Church and the public.^ Mr. Knibb was present at the annual meeting of the Society, held in June, 1832, at Spa Fields Chapel, London. His bold declara tion from the platform that slavery must cease, which met with a most hearty and enthusiastic response throughout the Baptist churches of England and Scotland, helped to bring about, two years later, the abolition of slavery in the British dominions. A grant of £5, 510 was made to the Society by the government as a compen sation for the ruined chapels, and contributions from the Christian public for the same purpose amounted to £13,000. The work in Jamaica was resumed, and the churches so increased in numbers and power that in 1842, the Jubilee year of the Society, they declared themselves independent of its funds. The college at Calabar (Kingston), established at Kingston in 1818, is still maintained by the Society. Stations were established and are still held at Trinidad, San Domingo, in the Bahamas, and in Turk's Isiands. From 1842-82 the Society had a most flourish ing and hopeful mission on the West Coast of Africa. The West Indian churches, always de sirous of sending the Gospel to Africa, began, after their emancipation, to carry out their wishes. Generous contributions were made, and the Society in England agreed to second their efforts. Two missionaries from Jamaica, the Kev. John Clarke and Dr. G. K. Price, who were sent out to select a suitable spot, chose for the new mission the island of Fernando Po, near the mouth of the Cameroons River, in the Gulf of Guinea. Several missionaries from England, with re-enforcements from Jamaica, were sent thither in 1842 ; the mission was firmly established ; churches were soon formed on the mainland ; the people were taught the arts of civilized life. Elementary books were prepared and large portions of the Bible trans lated into the Dualla language by Mr. Saker, from Jamaica, who had reduced it to writing. The work at Fernando Po had, on account of Romanist influences, to be given up ; but the settlement at Victoria, on the mainland, pros pered. In 1880 Mr. Saker died, and soon after the German colonization of the West Coast of Africa led to the relinquishment of the colony into the hands of the Basle Missionary Society, in whose care it now is. In 1877 Mr. Bobert Arthington, of Leeds, England, offered the committee of the Society £1,000 if they would at once undertake a mission to the Congo coun try, in Africa. This proposal, and succeeding generous gifts, enabled the Society to begin operations, and missionaries were immediately sent out. Settlements were soon formed on the Upper and Lower Congo. Many deaths have thinned the missionary ranks, but the places of those who fell were quickly filled, and the work goes hopefully forward. In August, 1886, the mission premises at Stanley Poot were de stroyed by fire ; the missionaries were in great distress ; but, as was the case at Serampore in 1812, the loss was quickly made good by friends of the mission at home, the whole amount, £4,000, being contributed in a few weeks. This Congo Mission is full of promise. Mr. Holman Bentley, one of the pioneers in the work, has reduced the language to a written form ; a grammar and dictionary have been pub lished ; the Bible will soon follow, and it is hoped that to the whole country of the Congo the Gospel may speedily be proclaimed. There were, in 1888, 8 stations, with a missionary force of 24. Work upon the Continent of Europe was commenced in 1834. At present the work is carried on in France (principal station, with 5 out-stations, at Morlaix, Brittany), Norway (8 principal stations, 13 sub-stations), and Italy (10 principal stations in Northern, Central, and Southern Italy). The mission to China, several times at tempted, was finally established in 1877 ; there are now in the provinces of Shansi and Shan tung 9 stations and 62 sub-stations, 21 mission aries, 1,049 church-members. The mission to Japan, established in 1879, has 1 station at Tokio and 18 sub-stations, 1 missionary, 157 church-members. The mission to Palestine (1880) comprises three stations, at Nablous, Samaria, and Bate Mreen, with 1 missionary, 75 church-members. Constitution and Organization. — The organization of the Baptist Missionary Soci ety is very simple. Its membership comprises pastors of churches making an annual contribu tion ; ministers who collect annually, and all Christian persons concurring in the objects of the Society who are donors of £10 or upward, or subscribers of ten shillings annually to its funds. The affairs of the Society are conducted by a committee of forty-eight members, two-thirds of whom are residents beyond twelve miles of St. Paul's. The committee meets monthly, or oftener, in London, on a fixed day, for the des patch of business ; seven members make a quorum. A public meeting of the Society is held annually, when the list of the committee is read, the accounts are presented, and the accounts of the previous year reported. The committee may summon public meetings in London or elsewhere whenever the interests of the Society require it. All honorary and corresponding members of the committee, and all ministers who are mem bers of the Society, and the secretary and treas urer of London auxiliaries are entitled to attend and vote at the meetings of the committee. All money received on behalf of the Society is lodged in the hands of the treasurer or of trus tees chosen by the Society. When the amount received exceeds the sum needed for the cur rent expenses of the month it is invested in the public funds until required for the use of the mission. No alteration in the constitution of the So ciety can be made without twelve months' notice having been given at a previous1 annual meeting. The great object of the Society is the diffu sion of the knowledge of Jesus Christ through out the whole world beyond the British Isles, by the preaching of the Gospel, the translation and publication of the Holy Scriptures, and the establishment of schools. The income of the Society is derived from annual subscriptions, collections at annual ser- BAPTIST MISS. SOC. 136 BASKSELE vices, donations received at the Mission House, legacies, contributions from auxiliaries, divi dends, interest, etc., special funds and life sub scriptions. Baptist Southern Convention. (See Southern Baptist Convention.) Baptist Tract and Book Society. — Headquarters, Mission House, Furnival Street, Holborn. The Baptist Tract and Book Society was in stituted in 1841, for the purpose of disseminat ing the truths of the Gospel by means of small treatises or tracts, in accordance with the views of Strict Communion Baptists, and by the pub lication of other and larger works in the de partment of religious literature generally. During the year 1888 free grants of tracts and handbills, numbering 591,439, were made to places in Great Britain, Australia, South Ameri ca, South Africa, Ceylon, Jamaica, India, France, and Italy. Income for 1888, £1,146. Baraka, a city 10 miles from the mouth of the Gaboon River, West Africa. Missionary work was commenced here by missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. in 1842. The arrival of the French, in 1843, and the making of that section a French colony, and the establishment of a Roman Catholic mission, greatly retarded the work. The place being also a port of entry for the interior, exposes it to the blighting influ ence of a debased foreign population and to an almost unlimited use of liquor. The mission ary in charge also necessarily finds his time largely occupied by the secular affairs of the mission. Since 1870 it has been under the care of the Presbyterian Board, North, of America. It is probable that a portion of the secular work will be transferred to Batanga (q.v.) ; 1 mis sionary and wife, 1 French teacher. A new church has (1890) been completed. Bararetta, a dialect spoken by the Galla tribes of Abyssinia. (See Galla.) Barasat, a station of the Baptist Missionary Society in Bengal, East India, east of Calcutta ; 1 missionarj-, 14 church-members. Barbadoes, an island of the Carribbean group, West Indies. Occupied by the Moravian Mission (1765) ; 4 stations. 4 missionaries, 47 native helpers, 1,525 communicants. Also by the Wesleyan Methodists (England) ; 1 mis sionary. Barbary States, a general term designat ing that portion of North Africa stretching from the western boundary of Egypt to the At lantic, and from the Mediterranean to the Sahara, and including Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco. The name is derived from the Berbers, the ancient inhabitants of the region, who still constitute a considerable portion of the population. (See Africa.) Mission work by North Africa Mission, London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, Paris Evangelical Society. Barcelona, a city and seaport, capital of the province of Barcelona, in southern Spain, 315 miles east-northeast of Madrid, situated in a beautiful plain between two rivers. It is the most flourishing and after Madrid the most populous city of Spain, the great manufacturing and commercial emporium, and one of the finest cities in the peninsula. The city is well built and very attractive. Mission station of the American Baptist Missionary Union and the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. Bardezag (Baghchejik), a large town in Asia Minor, a few miles from the end of the Gulf of Nicomedia. Its population, about 5,000, is entirely Armenian. The mission station of the A. B. C. F. M., formerly at Nicomedia, was transferred to this place largely on account of its greater healthfulness. There is a large Protestant community and a flourishing boys' school, where of late years the experiment of manual training has been made with great suc cess. There was also a large boarding-school for girls, which has been removed to Adabazar (q.v.). Bard wan (Burdwan), 60 miles west of Krishnagarh, the capita] of the district of Na- dija, Bengal, eastern India. Population, 33,000, and centre of a district with 1,391,730 people. A station of .the C. M. S. ; 1 missionary, 9 na tive helpers, 90 communicants. Bareilly, a city of the Northwest Provinces, India, on a branch of the Ganges, 122 miles southeast of Delhi. Population, 92,000, chiefly Hindus. Mission station of the Methodist Epis copal Church, North ; 3 missionaries, 3 ladies, 12 native helpers, 700 church-members. The seat of a theological seminary and normal school which has (1890) sent out 153 native missionaries, of whom 113 have taken the full three j'ears' course. Also 40 native Christian teachers, who act as evangelists in the place where they teach. Barisal, a city of Bengal, East India, 180 miles from Calcutta. Climate, damp, but very healthy, and the coolest in all Bengal. Popu lation, 1,874,201. Race, Bengali and Mugh. Language, Bengali, Arrakanese, and mixed Hindustani. Mission station of the Baptist Mis sionary Society ; 3 ordained missionaries, 2 missionaries' wives, 3 other ladies, 56 native helpers, 27 out-stations, 25 churches, 951 mem bers, 32 schools. Barkly, u city in Bechuana-land, South Africa, near the diamond fields. Mission station of the L. M. S. (1842) ; 1 missionary and wife, 6 out-stations, 788 church-members. Also of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Baroda, capital of Baroda, native State of Gujerat, West India, 231 miles north of Bombay. Population, 140,000. Formerly the town, whieh is u, fairly well built and pleasant place, was a very important seat of trade and of various industries, and at present, though its prosperity has declined, it carries on consider able commerce with the surrounding country. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North ; 1 missionary, 1 native pastor, 2 churches, 22 members. Barrackpur, a town of Bengal, India, east of Calcutta. Mission station of the Wes leyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 3 mission aries, 50 church-members. Barlhelemy, one of the Leeward Islands, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians. Basim, a town in the province of Berar, India. Population, 9,300. The seat of an in dependent faith mission carried on by an Amer ican lady. Basksele (Backsele), a city in South BA.SKSELE 137 BASLE Lapland, between Sorsele and Willumina. Mis sion station of the Swedish Society, Friends of the Missions to the Laps. Basle Missionary Society (The Evangelical Missionary Society at Basle). — The fine old city of Basel, Basle, or Bale, on the Upper Rhine, even more populous in medjfeval days than now, interesting for its cathedral (1019 a.d.), its reformatory (attempted) cecumenical council (1431-49), its university {1459), its confessions (the Basel Confession, 1534, and the second Basle or Helvetic Confes sion, 1536), and its memories of Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Zwingli, has during the nine teenth century attracted special attention as a centre for missionary zeal, and as the meeting- place of the seventh general conference of the Evangelical Alliance (1879). Its central posi tion in Western Europe has enabled it to bring to a focus the enthusiasm for missions found in that large number of devout minds in the old Alemannic section of the continent whose quiet lives of Christ-like endeavor form the undertone of vital church-life in Southern Germany, Swit zerland, and Western France. This interest in evangelical work is to be traced back to the pietist movement of the seventeenth and eigh teenth centuries. History. — On August 30th, 1730, the German Christian Society (Der Deutschen Christenthums Gesellschaft) was founded at Basle through the influence of Dr. Urlsperger, who had recently visited England. This society undertook, as a kind of union, to collect and impart informa tion far and near respecting the kingdom of God. It corresponded to the London Mission ary Society. In 1801 Friedrich Steinkopf, who since 1798 had been secretary of the Basle So ciety, went to London as preacher to the Ger man Savoy Church, and in 1802 became a director of the London Missionary Society. In 1804 he took part in founding the British and Foreign Bible Society. He was the connecting link between England and Basle, and largely through his influence the Basle Mission was founded. C. F. Spittler, who had come to Basle as suc cessor of Friedrich Steinkopf (lay secretary), be came so interested in foreign missions that he proposed to go to Berlin and enter a training mission school founded there, February 1st, 1800, by Johann J'aniche. Thereupon the Basle Society attempted to induce Janiche to remove his school to their city. On his declining the offer, it became more and more evident that Basle must begin a work of her own. In May, 1815, just as the city was about to be bombarded from Hiiningen, the Rev. Nicolaus von Brunn, at a. regular missionary meeting in his church, at which a young man presented himself for missionary service, suggested to Spittler that such young men should be educated at Basle and then be recommended to the English so cieties who sent out men to the field. Steinkopf arrived at Basle in September, 1815, and in duced Spittler to form a special committee for this purpose. On the 25th of the same month this body (Rev. N. Von Brunn, President ; Rev. Mr. Wenk, Secretary ; and a merchant, Mr. Marian-Kuder, Treasurer) held its first meeting as a mission "collegium" in the parsonage of St. Martin's Church. Christian Gottlieb Blum- hardt, who from 1803 to 1807 had been theo logical secretary of the German Christian So ciety at Basle, was invited to take up the work of the new venture. After a little delay, in the spring of 1816 Blumhardt came to Basle as " in spector" or manager of the Evangelical Mis sionary Society, and on August 26th of the same year opened a training school for missions with seven pupils. The history of the Society may be grouped about the five inspectors who have so efficiently served it for over three quarters of a century. The first period extends from 1816 to the death of Blumhardt, December 19th, 1838 ; the second embraces the era of Hoffmann, from 1839 to 1850 ; the third, that of Josen- hans, from 1850 to 1879 ; the fourth, that of Otto Schott, from 1879 to 1884 ; the fifth, that of Rev. Thomas Diehler, from 1884 to the pres ent. During the first period we note the careful hand of a diplomat. Blumhardt was a very cautious man, which characteristic brought him the reputation of being versed in the art of mas terful inactivity. He was slowly forming ties at home and abroad. With the instincts of a statesman he steered his craft through all sorts of difficulties, quietly making all sorts of men and circumstances serve the cause of mis sions. Under his management the Basle Mis sion School slowly began to gather headway. For the first few years its students, when ready for service, were handed over to foreign mis sionary societies, especially to the Rotterdam and the Church Missionary Societies. But as early as 1821 it began to send out missionaries under its own direction. In that year Zeremba and Dittrich were ordained as the first Basle missionaries for Southern Russia, thus giving Basle the honor of being the first independent German missionary society. From 1816 Blumhardt edited the Evangelical Missionary Magazine, and in 1828 started the Heidenbote, the special organ of the Society. He also wrote a history of missions in several volumes, and withal managed the finances of the Society so frugally that at his death the mission house (school) was supported by the income of the magazine and the Heidenbote, and an available fund was raised to the amount of 100,000 florins, with a reserve fund of 20,000 florins. The following missions were started during his era : (1) One in South Russia (1821), which on August 23d, 1835, with all other foreign evangelical work in Russia, was sus pended by an imperial ukase, and finally dis solved in 1839. Before the work was stopped, however, the Bible had been translated into Turkish-Tartar and the modern Armenian lan guages ; Armenia and the regions toward Bag dad and Tabreez had been visited, and an evan gelical congregation had been established among the Armenians at Schemachi. (2) Eight men were sent to Liberia in 1827 and 1828, but four soon died, and the remaining four settled in other regions. (3) In 1828 the mission on the Gold Coast was founded, but during the first twelve years as many missionaries died without having seen the fruit of their labors. (4) In 1834 Hebich, Greiner, and Lehner were sent to the West Coast of India. They were welcomed by Mr. F. Anderson, an English magistrate at Mangalore. Mogling, Weigle, and Gundert fol lowed them. They began their work at once among peoples of three different languages. There was, however, a want of sufficient organ ization, and disintegration was threatening. Under the second "inspector," William Hoff- BASLE 138 BASLE mann (1839-50), the work sprang forward with a new energy. He set the plan of his work more clearly before the public, and pressed home the obligation that rested on the whole Chris tian Church. Public and private assemblies were more and more convened in the churches, new auxiliary societies were founded, new men and new sections of tbe country were won over to the cause. He brought the work of the so ciety into higher estimation by providing more efficient instruction in the mission seminary. He founded a preparatory school for the young men, and the course of study was extended from four to six years. In ten years the income had almost doubled. The number of stations had increased fivefold. New life was thrown into the mission on the Gold Coast by settling twenty- four colored Christians at Akropong, from the West Indies, in 1844. This step placed the work in Africa on an assured basis, chiefly by making it morally impossible for the Society to withdraw. In India several new enterprises were started. In 1846 mission work was under taken in China, at the suggestion of Gtitzlaff, by Lechler and Hamberg. In 1846-50 attempts were made to establish the work in East Bengal and Assam, but later on these fields were relin quished to other societies. During the last few years of his work Inspector Hoffmann was far from being a well man, and in 1850 he resigned his position. The third "inspector," Joseph Josenhans (1850-79), was a born organizer. He com menced his work with a visit to India in 1851. He carefully regulated the various relations of the missionaries, stations, and districts, both among themselves and the home committee. A liturgy and a discipline for the congregations were introduced. Schools were gradually or ganized. The tilling of land, shops, and places of industry for the relief and occupation of na tives who were willing to work were set under way. At home the affairs of the Society were concentrated, and the mission made more inde pendent, if possible, of the churches and aux iliary societies. The houses for the education of the children of missionaries were erected in 1853. An invalid and widows' fund was estab lished. Mite societies were organized ; agents were assigned to various fields for the solicita tion of money. The new mission house (school and offices) was erected chiefly through the mu nificence of Mr. Marian in 1860, and the churches in the various mission fields were called upon to contribute more liberally to the support of the Society. This was an era of large expenses, and yearly deficits were heroically made up. The mission field was not extended, but efforts were concentrated in every department, and the efficiency of the work of the Society largely aug mented. The brief term of the fourth "inspector," Otto Schott (1879-84), did not allow of any particularly marked development. In some re spects he added considerably to the efficiency of the Society. In the home department he avoided tho deficits of his predecessor's era. He won over to the mission cause a number of outsiders. He went to India on a tour of in spection, and there emphasized the work among the heathen as against that among the native Christians. Female and medical missionaries were sent out for the first time by the Society. Finally, he withdrew from the inspectorship, largely because he was conscientiously opposed to what he considered to be the secular influ ence of the mercantile establishments connected with the mission. In 1882 one of the secretaries, the Rev. H. Praetorius, was made sub-director and sent out on a visitation tour to the Gold Coast, accom panied by Dr. Maehly, who was charged with a medical examination of all the stations and to report on the sanitary conditions of that dan gerous climate. The death of Mr. Praetorius on this tour was a severe loss to the Society. Under the guidance of the present (fifth) in spector, Rev. Theodore Oehler (son of ProfesBor Oehler, famous for Old Testament studies), the Basle Society has pushed vigorously ahead. January 1st, 1887, a new field was taken over by this Society from the Baptist Missionary Society (England) in Cameroon and Victoria, when that colony was annexed to Germany. Iu 1888-89 the inspector, accompanied by Mr. W. Preiswerk, a member of the committee, made a tour among the mission stations in India and China, and the work in those fields has received a new impetus. Constitution aud Organization, — Besides the special results on the mission field proper (see the statistical tables) there are four points in the make-up of this Society of excep tional interest — its constitution, the mission school at Basle, the Industrial and Commercial Commission, and the form of church govern ment on the mission fields. Constitution. — As already Suggested, the Basle Mission Society is attached to no one church, but is in the strictest sense undenominational, having affiliations with members of nearly all the Protestant churches of Central Europe. Found ed the same year as the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, it has many points of resemblance to that society. All authority rests in the hands of its committee of private Christian gentlemen, which is self-per petuating, and has from the first had a large lay element (six clergymen and seven lay men). Individuals and churches are asked to entrust their gifts to the general manage ment of this Society, regular reports are issued, and the work goes on successfully, increasing prudently and effectively. In the same way young candidates present themselves to the committee, and if approved are educated and sent forth with a clear understanding that they shall be cared for, although they receive no stated salary. They come and go, remain single or are married under the direct supervision of the central authority. Special homes are pro vided for all the children of the missionaries at Basle, as well as a home for the infirm and in valids. From the office of the " inspector" at Basle to the farthest limit of the mission field the work is held thoroughly and economically in hand. Tlie Basle Mission House is an imposing build ing, just outside and to the north of the limits of the older city, and contains the offices, book department, library, museum, chapel, refectory, dormitory, hospital, and work-shops. Here are gathered together from eighty to one hundred students distributed among six classes, which are instructed by six theological teachers and two lay teachers. The students come mainly from Southern Germany and Switzerland. From the opening of the school, in 1816, to January 1st, 1882, 1,112 young men had entered the school (505 from Wiirtemberg, 105 from BASLE 139 BASLE Baden, 36 from Elsass, and 173 from other parts of Germany ; 203 came from Switzerland). Out of the 1,112, 143 were agriculturists, 123 from mercantile life, 98 weavets, 73 teachers, 73 stu dents, 69 shoemakers, 65 workers in wood, 50 iron- workers, 46 tailors, 29 clerks, 19 factory hands, 16 bakers, 16 printers, 16 candidates for theology, 15 book-binders, 15 mechanics, 13 watchmakers, 13 saddlers, 13 gardeners, 12 sur geons, 17 had no vocation, and the remaining 31 came from various minor trades. It will be seen that the Basle Mission is doing a unique work in encouraging earnest Christian young men of the humbler classes in Europe to enter upon a missionary life. A young man, say a carpenter by trade, presents himself at the Mission House. - If he brings evidence that he is intelligent and is thoroughly biblical in his faith, and desires to give himself entirely to the work from unselfish motives, he is taken into the school on trial, provided he is at least eigh teen years of age or not over twenty-four. After an interval of several months, during which he is occupied in the humblest services about the house, if he shows himself an apt student and obedient to all the regulations of the institution, he begins regularly the course of study, and after six years is graduated and sent off to a field suited to his ability. He is pledged on entering, in view of his free maintenance, that he will submit to the direction of the commit tee. H he proves, on the whole, rather dull at his books, but shows good common sense and an earnest zeal, he is kept in the Mission House for a year or so, and is then sent out to the field to work at his trade, teaching it to the natives, and in the mean while doing not a little colpor teur work and bringing an active Christian zeal to bear on every side. The Basle Mission thus calls for all sorts of talent, and never turns an earnest man away. Every young man in the school works at some selected trade all through his course. Like the Apostle Paul, these young men carry their tools with them, and even the skill of hand may be turned to the service of Him who was called " the Son of a carpenter." The course of instruction carried systemati cally through six years gives these young men a very adequate training for the rough mission ary life before them. Besides the elementary branches, their programme of study embraces Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English, a great deal of Bible study in the original languages and in the German, Old and New Testament analysis, dog matics, symbolics, Church history, including a history of missions, homiletics, the various sci ences, and practical missionary instruction. The teaching is thorough, and the intellectual result highly commendable. The whole course of study tends to mould and develop character. Humility, unselfishness, resignation, obedience are graces fostered by the method pursued. The Industrial and Commercial Commission is a unique feature of the Basle Mission. This de partment grew up under the efficient manage ment of Inspector Josenhans (1850-79). The mission on the Gold Coast was absolutely de pendent upon direct commercial communication with Europe for all the necessities of life. The native Christians had no method of earning an independent livelihood. The establishment of a depot of supplies and the instruction of the natives in agriculture and in the various crafts was the inevitable outcome of any attempt at missionary work on so inhospitable a coast. Vessels were purchased by the Society to navi gate the various rivers of the territory occupied, and commercial houses sprang up at convenient points. In India the commercial development has been still more extensive. The weaving establishments at Mangalore and in the region about Cananore, in 1884, employed 330 persons in weaving 149,038 yards of cloth. There are large tile manufactories at Mangalore and Cali- * cut, and in the same year 70 mechanics and 64 joiners were at work under mission auspices. The whole income of the commission in 1886 was *43,712, and the net surplus was $10,800. This department has been a paying investment from the beginning. The total income of the Basle Mission Society amounts to about §275,000 yearly, over §200,000 of which comes from vol untary subscriptions. Fully one-half of this comes from Southern Germany ; Switzerland stands next. Contributions come from all parts of Europe, from Asia, Africa, America, and even Australia. The Commercial and Industrial Commission furnishes 17 per cent of the annual income ; 7 or 8 per cent comes from the various printing establishments at Basle and in the field, and the remainder from miscellaneous sources, such as rents and school funds ; 70 per cent of the outlay goes directly to the various mission fields ; the seminary at Basle costs 7 per cent of the income ; the home for the children of missionaries, 5J per cent, and the care for wid ows and orphans. 3| per cent, while the rest is used for general expenses. As we have seen, the Basle Mission is unde nominational. When a young man graduates from the seminary he is examined and ordained as a missionary through the courtesy of some interested church — Reformed, Lutheran, or Free, as the case may be. He cannot stay in Europe and preach on that ordination, but is granted it in view of his going to a distant field. As soon as the constituency of the mission began to grow in the mission fields, it became necessary to organize churches, and there was some anxiety as to what the ecclesiastical out come would be. Finally the Presbyterian prin ciple was adopted, and a simple liturgy is used. As may be inferred from the class of mission aries sent and the type of their training school, the Basle Mission Church preaches a simple, earnest Gospel. The history of the society shows that a keen business push is in harmony with an earnest Christian devotion. During the present year (1890) the Society will celebrate its seventy - fifth anniversary. January 1st, 1888, it had on its mission fields in India, China, and West Africa (Gold Coast, Cameroons, Victoria), 123 European mission aries, 80 wives of missionaries, 6 unmarried lady missionaries, 5 native-born missionaries, 39 native pastors, 14 evangelists, 139 catechists, 63 assistant catechists, 9 colporteurs, 20 Bible- women, 194 Christian teachers and helpers (male), 59 teachers (female), and 80 miscellane ous helpers. There were 45 mission stations, 130 out-stations, 20,031 adherents, 9,803 com municants, 876 catechumens, 4 theological schools, 4 normal schools, 8,512 scholars. Statement of Missions. 1. Russia. — As before mentioned, the Society for several years after its formation supplied missionaries to other societies, but did not at- BASLE 140 BASLE tempt direct missionary work of its own ; in 1821, however, a mission to Southern Russia was undertaken, and Messrs. Zaremba and Dit- trich were sent out from Basle to the country lying between the Black and Caspian seas for the purpose of finding " a suitable field for mis sionary labor in that part of the world." They obtained from the Emperor Alexander permis sion to establish a Christian colony, and also to appoint to the pastoral office among the German colonies in the south of Russia ministers who had received their education in the Basle Semi nary. In 1824 a missionary station was com menced at Shusha, a frontier town in the south of the Caucasus. The efforts of Zaremba and Dit- trich were for some time held in check in con sequence of uncertainty in regard to the action of the Russian Government, hitherto friendly to missionary labors, but now assuming a hos tile attitude. From this state of anxiety and suspense they were at length to some degree re lieved, and in 1828 received the emperor's sanc tion to travel freely in the countries between the Caspian and the Black seas, to circulate the Scriptures, to establish schools, and to labor for the conversion of the Tartars in whatever way they chose. Three other missionaries were sent from Basle to Shusha, and it was arranged that two of the five now there should devote them selves to work among the Mohammedan popu lation, the greater part of the year to be spent in travelling throughout the surrounding coun try, and the remainder in visiting the people in the bazaars at Shusha, or in preparing books and tracts in the vulgar Turkish dialect. In prosecution of this plan Sheky, Shirwan, Baku, Daghistan, as far as Berbend, Nakhchivan, and Erivan were visited ; tours were also made in the Turkish territory and into Mesopotamia and Persia. Upon these journeys the missionaries, instead of seeking to gain the respect and good-will of the people by paying liberally for their enter tainment, went among them in the spirit of those who were commanded to " provide neither gold nor silver nor brass in their purses, " and upon entering a village inquired who was will ing to entertain them, and threw themselves on his hospitality. One consequence of this was that report never accused them of endeavoring to make proselytes by money. The missionaries had originally Mohammedans chiefly in view as the object of their labors, but on becoming ac quainted with the condition of the Armenians were led to direct their labors principally to them. The large Armenian population they found without schools, and so ignorant that few could read the Armenian Scriptures, copies of which they had brought with them, and still fewer could understand them, while their char acter was so unchristian that they proved a great stumbling-block to the Mohammedans, furnish ing what appeared to them conclusive evidence of the falsehood of Christianity. Impressed with their miserable condition, and feeling that their efforts for the conversion of the Moham medans would be all in vain so long as they were paralyzed by the evil example which they had before them, the missionaries resolved, if possible, to do something for the Armenians. But they had a delicate course to pursue ; to steer clear of all government checks and restric tions in regard to one denomination of Chris tians making proselytes from another, etc., and yet carry on their labors, was no easy mat ter. Their plan was to direct their efforts among the Armenians to the simple point of bringing them to be coadjutors with them in converting the Mohammedans, and then to place this de partment in the light of merely a subordinate branch of the original and primary object of the mission. They accordingly sought to enlighten and reform the Armenian Church, without, how ever, drawing away its members ; with this end in view they endeavored to bring the fundamen tal truths of the Gospel simply and clearly before individuals as often as they had opportunity, but resolved to forego all attempts at preaching or expounding in meetings, public or private, and to avoid controversy even in conversation. Schools and the press were designed to be the principal means of effecting the reformation at which they aimed, but in the former a great difficulty was in the want of suitable teachers, and all attempts to establish a girls' school proved unsuccessful ; in the latter they were at first encouraged by receiving the approbation of the Archbishop of Tiflis, who then exercised the censorship of the press as to books in the Armenian language, and several books were printed, chiefly for schools. Mr. Dittrich also translated the New Testament into the modern Armenian language, the people not understand ing the ancient Armenian, in which the Bible is translated and public worship celebrated ; but upon its completion the printing of it was stopped by the veto of the Synod of Echmiadzin. Subsequently the operations of the press were entirely arrested by the opposition of the cen sors (the New Testament was, however, after ward printed at Moscow), while the schools called forth the opposition of the priesthood, the patriarch going so far as to excommunicate those who sent their children to them. The missionaries were also represented to the Rus sian Government as a set of persons who inter fered, contrary to law, with the concerns of the Armenian Church, and in consequence received from the government an admonition to refrain from all attempts to exert any religious influ ence among the Armenians ; hence they were obliged to confine their efforts entirely to the Mohammedans ; but new and heavy complaints were brought against them by the Armenian clergy, and in 1835 the whole undertaking was stopped by a ukase of the Russian Government ; the missionaries were prohibited from engaging in any kind of missionary labor, and if they re mained in Shusha were to employ themselves only in agriculture, manufactures, or trades. Having thus no prospect of further usefulness as missionaries, they left the country. 2. Western Africa. — In 1827 Messrs. Handt, Sessing, and Hegele were sent from Basle to the colony of Liberia, on the West Coast of Africa ; they were followed soon afterward by two others, named Wulf and Kissling. Work was attempted at Christiansborg, founded by the Moravians ; but within a few months Wulf fell a victim to the climate, Hegele was taken dangerously ill, and Sessing had to return with him to Switzerland ; Handt also had to leave the country, broken down in body and mind. Sessing, however, returned again from Basle, accompanied by three mission aries, who, within a few weeks after their arrival, sickened and died. To complete this series of disasters, Kissling and Sessing were so exhausted that they were obliged to leave the colony, and thus ended the Basle Mission to BASLE 141 BASLE Liberia. In 1828 four missionaries were sent from Basle to the coast of Guinea, in conse quence of an invitation received from the Gov ernor of the Danish settlement at Ussu, a place in the neighborhood of Fort Christiansborg ; within a few months three of them died of fever. Henke, who alone survived, divided his time between ministerial labors among the Dan ish ccfbnists, the instruction of negro candi dates for baptism, and the superintendence of a negro school. He was joined by Kissling, who, in consequence of the sickness and death of his brethren, had left Liberia, as before stated ; but after some time Henke, too, sick ened and died, and Kissling left the coast. Not withstanding these mournful events, the com mittee at Basle resolved not to relinquish the undertaking, but to transfer the mission from the coast, with its fatal climate, to the interior, which was supposed to be more healthy. Ac cordingly, in 1831, three missionaries— Messrs. Riis, Jaeger, and Heinze, the latter a physician — • were sent from Basle to renew the work on the coast of Guinea ; but scarcely had they landed when Heinze was seized with fever and died ; Jaeger soon followed him to the grave, and again a solitary laborer remained in the field. Riis himself was three times very near death, but a timely removal to the healthier climate of the Aquipim Hills was the means of saving his life. He was often obliged, however, to return to the coast at Christiansborg to perform the duties of chaplain, and it was not until 1835 that he suc ceeded in carrying out his design of establishing himself on the Aquipim Hills, in a negro village named Akropong. Here, with some assistance from the negroes, he built himself a house, be gan a school, and by degrees found himself gain ing upon the affections of the people. Two mis sionaries were sent to his assistance, but within three years they both died of fever. The Dan ish governor was unfriendly to the mission, and represented Riis to the government of Den mark as a person whose presence was dangerous to the colony. So, in 1840, Riis returned to Europe, partly for the recovery of his health and partly for consultation with the committee as to the practicability of carrying on mission ary operations in territories subject to the crown of Denmark. But during this time a favorable change occurred ; the governor who had op posed the mission died, and the Danish Gov ernment, being satisfied with the explanations given by Riis, promised to protect the mission aries in the unfettered exercise of their duties, and to allow full civil and religious liberties to the negroes connected with the mission. A new plan was adopted in the prosecution of this mission, for which already such heavy sacrifices had been made ; in pursuance of which Riis and Widman, a colored man who had been educated at Basle, sailed in 1843 to Jamaica, from whence they brought twenty-four Christian negroes to Akropong to form a little Christian community in the midst of the savages ; this plan proved the wisdom of the committee, and the missionaries, though still subject to severe trials, had from this time the happiness of seeing the seed sown in tears spring up and bring forth at length precious fruit. In 1844 a chapel was built, and a year later a second station was begun at Ussu, on the coast, and schools for boys ancl girls were opened. The mission has now nine chief stations, and the number of Christians gathered in congrega tions is nearly 8,000. The two languages spoken on this coast — the Akra, or Ga, and the Otshi, or Twi — have been reduced to writing by tho missionaries. A grammar and diction ary have been made of the latter, and the Bible has been translated into both. A number of tracts and school-books have also been published in these languages. The Basle Society has, since January, 1887, when the colony was annexed to the German Empire, taken charge of the mission at Cam eroons and Victoria, at the request of the Lon don Baptist Missionary Society, by which it had been established in 1845. 3. India. — Basle was the first of the German missionary societies to establish a mission in India, Mangalore, its first station, having been occupied in 1834. Several common schools, a high school, and a lithographic press were soon in operation here, and the work was extended to other towns in the province of Kanara. In 1837 and 1839 stations were established at Dhar- war and Hoobly. in the South- Mahratta country. In the neighboring village of Bettigherry there was a traditional prophecy that after the fall of the Indian kingdom a king in the West should send messengers to teach Christianity and do away with caste. As such the German mission aries were received, and a station was estab lished in 1840. At this station and in the vil lages around much good-will was shown to the missionaries, the people looking upon them as their best friends. In 1848 the conversion of a Linga priest, his baptism, and subsequent zeal ous co-operation with the missionaries, created a great sensation in Bettigherry and elsewhere ; 1840-42 stations were established at Malsa- moodra, Kananore, and Calicut. The work has extended, until now it is carried on at twenty- three stations in the six provinces of South and North Kanara, South Mahratta, Malabar, Nilgiri, and Coorg. The Bible has been translated into Kanarese, Malayalam, Tulu, etc. 4. China. — The mission to China, undertaken, as has been said, upon the suggestion of Gtitz- laff, was commenced in 1846 among the Hakka tribe, in the province of Kwantung (Canton), who, having come into the province after the Cantonese tribe had already occupied the fertile valleys, found for their settlements only the more sterile parts of the country. For this rea son their villages are met with scattered here and there among the settlements of the Can tonese. On account of their rapid increase the settlements of the Hakka peoples become too small for them, and hence many try their for tune in the towns of the Cantonese or in foreign countries. In Hong Kong, the Straits Settle ments, the Indian Archipelago, the United States of America, and Australia, the thrifty, hard-working Hakkas form a large proportion of the working classes. Like the Chinese in general, they are industrious, clever, and fru gal. When the Basle Society introduced its work in China it gave its missionaries instruc tions to carry the Gospel to the inland population, a plan at that time not without great dangers, but after the opening of China through the treaties quickly followed by good results, and, being faithfully carried out, gave to the Basle work the character of an "inland mission;" and the experience of the missionaries tends to show that the country people are a more hope ful soil for the Gospel seed than the inhabitants of the larger towns, and the indications are that BASLE 142 BASSA the Hakka people may be the first of all the Chinese to be evangelized. This inland mis sion is now represented by twelve central and twenty-five out-stations, spreading over all the country from the shore opposite Hong Kong up to the borders of the provinces of Kiang-si and Fuh-kien, a distance of about 300 miles, with 3,130 converts, of whom 1,900 are communi cants. The number of missionaries at these stations is nineteen, four of whom are natives, who have been carefully educated at the mis sion colleges of the Society. The rule of the Society is that two or more men shall work to gether at one centre, but at present want of men and means prevent the carrying out of this prin ciple. In addition to the missionary force seventy-one native helpers are employed to as sist in all branches of work. The Gospel is propagated in this mission by means of itiner ant preaching, and distributing, and selling tracts and parts of the Bible, rather than by regular sermons to the heathen, as is usual in the chapels of large cities, the want of regular audiences forbidding these. The educational system of the mission is well developed, com prising the different grades of (1) " heathen. schools," (2) parish schools, (3) boarding schools, and (4) the seminar}', which, after his thirteen years' training in preliminary schools, receives the student at the age of twenty years. The four years' course of study in this institu tion includes an almost complete theological education. In it board and lodging is given to all students free ; to poor students aid in cloth ing and other requisites is afforded. In the schools the Hakka dialect is taught in both the Romanized and Chinese style of writ ing. Into this dialect the New Testament, with tracts and school-books, have been published. Basque Versions. — The Basque, which belongs to the isolated languages of Europe, " is one of the most singular idioms of Europe, and presents, like the Albanian, the Welsh, etc., the remarkable phenomenon of aboriginal languages preserved in the remote or mountain ous districts of more civilized countries, where the tongue of the subsequent conquerors of those lands is generally spoken. ' ' The language which the Basques speak is called by the people Eusoara, Eskuara, or Esquera, and different dialects may be distinguished. Since, however, the educated Basques, according to the countries in which they reside, speak either French or Spanish, we also distinguish versions into the French and Spanish Basque. (a) French Basque. — The French dialect of the Basque is spoken in tho departments of the Pyrenees and in the province of Navarre. It formerly included the three cantons, Labourd (the ancient' " Lapurtum"), Soule, and Lower Navarre. The New Testament in the Basque of Lower Navarre was printed at Rochelle in 1571, the translation having been made by John de Licarragne, a Reformed minister. From a copy of this Testament found in tbe. University Library at Oxford, the British and Foreign Bible Society published an edition in 1828, at Bay- onne, under the editorship pf Henri Pyt (died, 1835), a minister of the Reformed Church at Beam, who introduced many changes in accord ance with the modern forms of language, and thus virtually produced a new version. In 1869 the British and Foreign Bible Society pub lished the New Testament in the Labourd dia lect, and since 1885 the Gospels of Mark, Luke, John, the Epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Peter's Epistles, taken from the version of Prince Lucien Bonaparte. In 1886 the same society published at Bayonne an edition of the Gospels of Matthew and John and the Epistles of Peter in the Souletin dia lect, the translation having been made by Made moiselle Anna Urruty, a Souletin Basque lady, who followed the text of de Saci, corrected by that of Ostervald. In the year 1887 Prince Lucien Bonaparte placed at the disposal of the above society his manuscript versions of Gene sis, Psalms, Ruth, Jonah, and Song of Solomon, made by M. Archer. Under the editorship of Miss Urruty these portions have been published since 1888. (b) Spanish Basque. — In this dialect, which is spoken in the provinces of Biscay, Guipuscoa, and Alava, by a hardy and industrious race, to whom, as in the case with the Welsh in Eng land, their native dialect has a special charm, though they read and understand Spanish, the Gospel of Luke was published in 1838 with the aid of the British and Foreign Bible Society. A revised edition was published in 1848 by the same society. This translation being a mixture of the Guipuscoan and Biscayan, an edition of the same gospel in the pure Guipuscoan dialect was printed at London in 1870 at the expense of the Rev. J. E. Dalton, to which was added, in 1878, the Gospel of John, also at Mr. Dalton's expense, who also presented the plates of the Version to the British Bible Society. Both Gos pels were translated under the care of Senor de Brunet, while the proofs were read by Mr. Nogaret. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British and Foreign Bible Society disposed of 20,660 French Basque and 7,591 Spanish Basque por tions of Scriptures. (/Specimen verses. John 3 : 16.) French Basque. Jaincoac ecen ham niaiu; ican du mundua, non eman baitu bere Seme bakharra, amorea gatic norcere sinhesten baitu hura baithan gal ez dadinv bainan 9an decan bethiereco bicia. Spanish Basque. Alchatueo naiz, eta juangonaiz nere aitagana, eta esango diot: Aita, pecatu eguin nuencerua- ren contra, eta zure aurrean. — (Luke xv. 18.) Spanish Basque. (Guipuscoan Dialect.) Joaten ceratela bada eman zayozcatzute era- cutsiac jende gueiai: batayatzen dituzutela Ai- taren, eta Semearen, eta Espiritu santuaren icenean. — (Matt, xxviii. 19.) Bassa, a town on the coast of Liberia, Africa. A mission station of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America ; 1 ordained missionary, 2 lay, 38 com municants, 58 Sunday-scholars, 28 day scholars. Near Bassa is the Shiloh mission, an indepen dent enterprise conducted Bince 1885 by Rev. and Mrs. W. A. Fair. It is mainly self-support ing, contributions from all sources amounting, during the past year, to $260.50, while all ad ditional expenses have been defrayed by the sales of coffee, cassava, etc., cultivated on the mission farms, which with the buildings have been bought and improved by Mr. Fair for his BASSA 143 BATTA mission work among the negroes. A boarding school, with an average attendance of fourteen, is maintained ; regular services, chiefly for children, are held on Sundays, and fourteen children have been baptized. As circumstances permit, religious services are also held in neigh boring heathen towns. In the year 1889, the property, which is worth 84,000, was deeded by Mr. F#ir to the American Church Missionary Society, to be held by them in perpetuity for the cause of missions, so that in case of the death of himself or wife, or their inability to re main at their post, the work thus begun may be continued. Bassein, the southwestern district of Bur ma, extending from the western Yoma range of mountains on the west to the main stream of the Irawadi and its principal outlet on the east, and from the Bay of Bengal on the south to the point on the north where the Yomas ap proach nearest to the great river. It includes four or five of the larger delta branches of the Irawadi. Area, 7,047 square miles — about that of Massachusetts. The soil is rich and fertile, though subject to floods. The population somewhat exceeds 400,000, of which about 125,000 are Karens (Sgaus and Pwos in about equal numbers), over 200,000 Burmans, and the remainder Talaings, Telugus, Chinese, and a few English. Chief town of the district, Bas sein, on the Bassein River, one of the delta branches of the Irawadi. Population, 28,147 — Buddhists, 19,343 ; Hindus, 3,781 ; Mohamme dans, 3,362 ; Christians, 1,122. It is a fine sea port, and has a large trade in rice, timber, fruits, and fish. The district has been the seat of very thriving and. successful missions since 1837. The American Baptist Missionary Union has three missions there : a Burman mission, in cluding also the Telugus ; a mission to the Sgau Karens, with about 10,000 communicants and 50,000 adherent population and 85 Christian villages, the largest and most advanced of all the Karen missions in Burma ; and a mission to the Pwo Karens, with about 1,375 communi cants and 22 Christian villages, with an adhe rent population of perhaps 7,000. (See article on American Baptist Missionary Union — Karen Missions ; see also Burma.) The Roman Catho lics have a flourishing mission among the Pwos in Bassein, but with few converts from the Sgaus. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel have also a mission in" Bassein, which is included in their diocese of Rangoon. Some efforts have been made by other denominations to plant missions here, but with little success. Education has been carried to a greater extent among the Karens of Bassein than in any other district in Burma. Basseterre, a town on the island of St. Kitts, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians, commenced in 1777 at the request of the proprietor of several estates on the island, who wished his slaves educated in the Christian religion. They were received gladly, and in a few years the congregation increased to 2,500. Bassutoland.— (See Africa.) Batanga, a town on the West Coast of Africa., south of Kamerun, and 128 miles north of Corisco, in the German colony of Kamerun. A place constantly increasing in prominence. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church, North, U. S. A. (1875) ; 4 out-stations, 1 mis sionary and wife, 5 male helpers, 38 church- members. Batata, a town in Punjab, North India, 20 miles from Gurdaspur, 24 miles from Amritsar. Population, 24,281, Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs, etc. Mission station of the C. M. S. ; 2 mis sionaries and wives, 1 ordained native, 63 com municants, 14 schools, 454 scholars. Batavia, the capital of Java, West Indies. Population, 100,485. Founded in 1519 by the Dutch, it is one of the most magnificent posses sions of the crown of the Netherlands. In 1722 there were about 100,000 Christians in and about the city, and in 1728 the Bible was trans lated into the vernacular tongue, the High-Ma layan. But at present the whole native popu lation of the city, with very insignificant ex ceptions, is Mohammedan. In 1842 the English missionaries were expelled, and only the Roman Catholics were tolerated. Of late, however, a change has taken place. The Java Comite, founded in Batavia in 1851, but since 1855 directed from Amsterdam, takes care of about 100 native Christians in the city, and the So ciety of the Reformed Dutch Church, founded in Amsterdam in 1860, has some schools there. The Moslem Missionary Society (?), founded in London in 1861, gathered in, between 1867 and 1871, about 1,500 converts in Batavia. Batjan, a town on the island of Ternate, one of the Moluccas, East Indies. Mission sta tion of the Utrecht Missionary Society ; 1 preacher, 324 church-members. Batta Versions.— The Batta belongs to the Malaysian family of languages, and is spoken by a large population on the isle of Sumatra. There are three dialects of the Batta language — the Toba, the Mandailung, and the Dairc— and in two of these dialects versions are now extant. 1. Batta-Toba. — This dialect is used by the Battas of northern Sumatra. A translation of the Scriptures into this dialect is of a very recent date, and the Netherlands Bible Society has the honor of having supplied the Battas, who were formerly cannibals, with the books of Genesis and Exodus, the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, and the Acts of the Apostles. These parts were printed between 1859-67, the translation having been made by Mr. H. Neubronner van der Tunk. In the year 1875 the Bhenish Mis sionary Society published at Batavia the Gospels of Luke and John, the translation having been made by the Bev. J. L. Nommensen, one of its missionaries. In the same year the British and Foreign Bible Society undertook the printing of a translation of the New Testament made from the original by Mr. Nommensen, to be edited by the Rev. Dr. Schreiber, also of tho Rhenish Mission. After some delay the New Testament was published at Elberfeld in 1878. The edition consisted of 4, 000 copies of the New Testament and 1,500 copies of Matthew and John. In 1884 the British and Foreign Bible Society published an edition of the New Testa ment in Roman characters under the care of Dr. Schreiber, who not only read the proofs, but transliterated the greater part of the book. The edition consisted of 9,000 copies. In the fol lowing year the Book of Psalms in the same character was published. Up to March 3l6t, 1889, the British Society disposed of 25,035 portions of the Scriptures. 2. Batta- Mandailung. — This dialect is spoken BATTA 144 BAZIYIA by 100,000 of the population of southern Su matra. The people using this dialect are the most civilized of the island. The laws and many books are written in this dialect. In the year 1873 the Rhenish Missionary Society pub lished at Batavia the Gospels of Luke and John, the translation having been made by Messrs. Schreiber and Betz. In 1877 Dr. Fabri, of the Rhonish Mission, requested the British Bible Society to print the New Testament in this dia lect. The translation of Dr, Schreiber, which was revised and improved by Mr. Leipoldt, also a missionary of the Rhenish Society, was printed in the Batta character at Elberfeld in 1878, under the editorship of the translator. The edition consisted of 4,000 copies. During the year 1888 the British Bible Society published the Psalms in 3,000 copies, the translation hav ing been made by the Rev. Mr. Schiitz, of Bun- gaboudar, Sumatra. The proofs were read by Dr. Schreiber. Up to March 31st, 1889, 7,010 portions of Scripture in that dialect were dis posed of. (Specimen verses. John 3 : 16.) Toba. *>*»^7 - "^O <*<.«=»« .<,© ..— *yM\3tO«=»OV»-^»«\ Mandailung. -&>¦ <>r»» oc i»f*<7V"% f^ ^^-^-^.V -*—fT}\^K .OOff^^"*- .*Ty ^»^ Battalagundu, a city of Madras, South India, northwest of Madura. Population, 100,- 000, Hindus, Moslems. Language, Tamil, Telugu. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. ; 1 missionary, his wife and daughter, 16 native helpers, 1 out-station, 5 churches, 342 mem bers, 17 schools, 484 scholars. Contributions, $200. Batticaloa, mission station of the S. P. G., in Jaffna district, Ceylon ; 1 missionary, 9 native helpers, 75 communicants, 223 scholars. Batticotta, a district in the west part of the peninsula of Jaffna, Ceylon, coincident with one of the parishes formed by the Portu guese Government. There were also churches built in these parishes, which afterward fell into decay, and when the A. B. 0. F. M. occu pied the place as a mission station what re mained of the buildings were put into their hands by the British Government for mission purposes. In 1822 the A. B. C. F. M. mission issued a prospectus for a college here, but the plan gave place to one for a sohool known afterward as the Mission Seminary, under the care of Rev. Dr. Poor. This was looked upon favorably by the Government, which aided it liberally. In 1856 the seminary was closed and an English high school was opened at the request of somo Christian and other parents. The instruction was to be biblical, scientific, and literary, in English and Tamil. In 1872 Jaffna College, the legitimate successor of Batticotta Seminary, was opened. It originated with the native Christians connected with all the Protestant missions of different denominations in the Jaffna district. It is supported by endowments raised in the U. S. A. and Ceylon, the build ings and premises formerly occupied by the. mission seminary being granted by the Pruden tial Committee for the use of the college. Rev. Dr. Hastings, for twenty-five years a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. in Jaffna, was appointed its first principal. On his resignation in 1889 Rev. S. W. Howland was chosen his successor. The college has 100 students, all boarders, who pay their own expenses, and no aid is received from the Board or Government. The high school, preparatory for the college, has 167 students, with seven teachers. The character of the college- is thoroughly missionary ; the instructors are earnest Christians, three being Americans, in cluding the president. Of the 326 educated here, 142 left a3 professed Christians, and the majority of those now in the college are Chris tians. There are many village schools attached to the station, containing a large number of boys and girls, all of whom attend service on the Sabbath. The church at the station has a na tive pastor and is self-supporting. Battleford, a mission station of the C. M. S. on the Upper Saskatchewan, Canada ; 2 missionaries. Batuna Dua, a town of Sumatra, East Indies. A mission station of the Java Comite, founded in 1861, which now numbers 396 con verts from Mohammedanism. Bauro, one of the most fertile and beauti ful isles m the western chain of Solomon's Islands, Melanesia. The inhabitants are clever, but very suspicious. They make the swiftest. canoes and the surest weapons, but in 1847 they suddenly fell on the Roman Catholic mis sion and murdered all its members. In 1864 the island was visited by Bishop Patteson, and some grown-up boys followed with him to Nor folk, to be educated as teachers. Since that time the Melanesian Mission has succeeded in getting a foothold in Bauro, though they have to fight very hard against European vessels which come to these islands in search for " la borers" to Witi and Queensland. Since 1873 there are well-frequented schools in Bauro, with native teachers. Bayneston, a town in the Congo Free State, West Africa, on the southern shore of the Congo, just above the Jellala Falls, opposite Isanyhila. An out-station of the Baptist Mis sionary Society. Baziyia, a town in British Kaffraria, East South Africa, in a fertile, well-watered, and thickly populated tract of land between the rivers Umtata and Umbashi, 250 miles north east of Silo. Mission station of the Moravians, occupied in 1862 on the invitation of the British government agent for the Tambookies and the native chief of this especial tribe, who promised a piece of land and all the assistance and en couragement he was able to give. In 1863, by dint of hard labor, a dwelling-house and a little church were erected, and since then, although BAZIYIA 145 BEHAR the station was destroyed once by whirlwind and again by the Kaffir war of 1881-82, the work here has been most successful, and under the present missionary and his wife gives evidence of great prosperity. Beaconsficld, a town in the diamond fields, West Griqualand, Cape Colony, South Africa- A mission station of the S. P. G., 1873 ;1 missionary. Beaver Version. — Beaver is a language spoken by the Indians near the Beaver Lake, North America. A translation of the Gospel of Mark, made by the Rev. A. C. Garrioch, of the Church Missionary Society, was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1885, in Roman characters, at the request of Dr. Richard Young, Bishop of Athabasca. The ver sion is the first book that has been printed in this language, and up to March 31st, 1889, 510 copies were disposed of. The same Gospel was also published in 1886 by the Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge. Beawar, a town in Rajputana, Northwest ern Provinces, India, 300 miles south of Delhi. A pleasant town, well laid out, with broad streets planted with trees ; the houses well built of masonry, with tiled roofs. Climate, unusually dry. Population, 15,829, Hindus, Moslems, Jains, Christians, Parsees, etc. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, 1860 ; 2 missionaries and wives,' 21 native helpers, 1 church, 134 members, 18 schools, 873 scholars. Contributions, £101.60. The work here is most encouraging. Bechuanaland, a county in South Africa. (See Africa.) Bedford, a town of Kaffraria, South Africa, near the coast, south of East London. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 ordained missionary. Beechamville, a flourishing station of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, on the north ern coast of Jamaica, West Indies, between Grateful Hill and Watsonville. Beekhyizen, a station of the Moravian Brethren in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, South America, founded in 1844. After the complete emancipation of the slaves in 1873 one half of the negro population crowded into the cities to get " an easy job," while the other half sank into stupor, and the Coolies and Chinese who took their place as tillers of the soil are not easily accessible to Christianity. Begoro, a town of the Gold Coast, West Africa, northwest of Akropong. Population, 4,000. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society ; 3 missionaries, 2 missionaries' wives, 26 native helpers, 866 communicants. Behar, one of the four provinces composing the lieutenant-governorship of Bengal, India (the other three being Bengal proper, Orissa, and Chhota-Nagpur). It lies in the Ganges Valley, being divided into two nearly equal parts by that great river, which runs through it from west to east ; it lies to the northwest of Bengal proper, which it borders on its southeastern frontier ; to the west it touches the Northwest Provinces ; Nepaul, a native kingdom, lies along its northern edge ; and its southern boundary is the province of Chhota-Nagpur. Area, 44,139 square miles. Population, 23,127,104 souls, For the most part the country is flat ; its highest hill is only about 1,600 feet above sea-level. Besides the Ganges itself, several large tribu taries of that river flow through the province. The government has also constructed a system of canals, used both for navigation and irriga tion. Railway communication is abundant. The opium and indigo manufactures are the most important industries, the former being a government monopoly and the latter largely conducted by European capital. There are small areas near Calcutta where the density of population is greater than in Behar ; but, taken as a whole, this is the most densely peopled province in all India. Each square mile of its territory contains on an average 524 inhabi tants ; the lowest average being found among the Santal Hills, in the southeastern part, where the population, of 287 to a square mile, consists chiefly of the aboriginal Santals. The highest average, of 869 per square mile, is found in the District of Saran, in the western part of the province. In this latter district, whioh is wholly agricultural, the density of population in one locality reaches the enormous average of 1,240. More than 19,000,000 of the people of Behar (nearly 83 per cent) are Hindus. Mohammedans number a little over 3,300,000, and aboriginal tribes (chiefly Santals and Kols) nearly 634,000. Of the Hindus, over 1,000,000 are Brahmans and over 1,100,000 Rajputs — descendants of the Kshattriya, or second caste of ancient Hindu law. Nearly or quite a fifth of the' entire popu lation belong to classes that derive their living from the soil, chiefly by way of agriculture or the care of herds. Few provinces of India possess more histori cal interest than Behar. Here for nine hundred years, from the fourth century before Christ to the fifth century after Him, flourished an an cient Hindu kingdom, known as that of Maga- dha, the rulers of which encouraged the arts and learning, built roads, and sent fleets and colo nists to islands as far east as Java. To Palibothra, the ancient capital of this kingdom, now identi fied with Patna, its chief town of modern days, Seleucus Nicator, one of the immediate succes sors of the great Alexander, sent his envoy, Megasthenes. At a period still earlier — five or six hundred years before Christ — Gautama Buddha lived as a devout ascetic in Behar, and it was at the spot now known as Buddh Gaya, in the .southwestern part of the provice, that he is said to have sat for five years under the sacred Pi pal Tree (the Tree of Wisdom) wrapped in profound contemplation, until he had attained enlightenment, or Buddhahood. A spot so sacred in the estimation of millions could not fail of identification ; and in recent years the intelligent care of the Indian Government has conducted researches there which have been re warded by tho discovery of most interesting relics of the early days of Buddhism. Ancient temples, dating back from 250 b.c , have been excavated, thrones, jewels, sacred images of Buddha, and other remains have been disin terred, and there have even been discovered some fragments, much decayed, of the holy Pipal Tree. The site of this ancient historic tree is occupied by a modern representative, descended from the ancient stock. Many pil grims visit this shrine annually. Bucldhist ruins exist in other parts of the province, and their number indicates how completely the population of the region was at one time domi nated by the Buddhist faith. The country BEIRUT 146 BELLEVILLE about Gaya is also full of places which are held in special reverence by Hindus, though the origio of this veneration doubtless goes back, n many cases, to the Buddhist period ; Brah- nianism, which finally expelled Buddhism, made itself the heir and possessor of many of its sacred sites and of the reverence attaching to them. Beirut, Beyroot, or Be\ rout, a city of Syria, situated on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, about 30 miles north of Sidon. It is the commercial and literary centre of Syria, and in its appearance and in the culture of its inhabitants more nearly resembles a Eu ropean city than any other city in the land. It is situated on a plain at the foot of the Leb anon, aud in beauty of scenery rivals Naples, the shore here describing a graceful curve of several miles' radius, in the bosom of which the city lies, built on rising ground. It is adorned with many elegant buildings, public and pri vate, rising one above another in a gentle slope, with a near background of mulberry, olive, and pine groves, and a more distant background of the terraced and vine-clad sides of Mount Leb anon, whose peaks, nearly 10,000 feet high, are snow crowned for several months of the year. The climate is tropical. The rainy season is confined principally to the three winter months, when the thermometer rarely sinks below 50° Fahrenheit. A long summer reigns with un broken heat day and night, while the thermom eter ranges from 80° to 90°, and occasionally rises to 100°. The population numbers about 100,000, and is composed of Mohammedans., Druses, Chris tians of various sects, and Jews. An English company has brought water to it from the mountain in an aqueduct six or eight miles long, and has also lighted its streets with gas. There are carriage roads in the city and its suburbs extending to the near points in the Leb anon, and one to Damascus (built by a French company), but none to other cities on the coast. Mission work, vigorously conducted over forty years by the A. B. C. F. M., and twenty years by the American Presbyterian Board, North, has borne fruit not only in direct visible results of educational institutions established, youth educated and sent forth as teachers, physicians, and preachers, books printed, a Protestant com munity gathered, congregations assembled, and converts enrolled, but indirectly by the uplift ing of the whole community to a higher plane of social, intellectual, and moral life. In self-defence and in rivalry the other relig ious sects have opened schools and colleges, printing-presses and hospitals. The Moslems have even so far run counter to their old tra ditions and practices as to open schools for girls, lest their Fatimas and Zobeides should learn in our schools too many verses of the Bible and too many Gospel hymns ; and the Greek Church has for the first time in its history opened a Sunday-school, in imitation of the Protestants, with its child's religions paper. The following are tho latest statistics of mis sion work in Beirut : Of Americans, there are 5 missionaries with their wives, and 4 additional female workers. ? Preaching is conducted in Arabic, in 5 differ ent places in the city, to about 900 hearers. There is one self-supporting native church with its native pastor, Rev. Yusuf Bedr. Connected directly with the mission is a theo- logical seminary, the present class of which con tains 7 pupils ; a female seminary with about 40 boarding scholars and 60 day scholars, and 4 day-schools with about 300 scholars. About 800 children are gathered each Sabbath in Sun day-schools. The mission printing-press sends forth its issues wherever the Arabic language is spoken in three continents. It publishes about 25,000,- 000 of pages annually, about half of these being pages of Scripture. The total number of pages printed from the beginning is 418,407,354. In " the Press" are 4 steam-presses, 6 hand-presses, with all the apparatus for type casting, electro- typing, lithographing, and binding. From its doors go forth yearly about 60.000 bound vol umes of scientific and religious books. The college is auxiliary to the mission, and in closest sympathy with it. It occupies a splendid position on high ground overlooking the sea. It occupies four spacious buildings. It embraces three departments — a preparatory, collegiate, and medical. It has a faculty of 12 American and 6 Syrian instructors, and its pu pils number this year 222. The physicians of the Medical Department serve the Prussian Hospital, where were treated this year 446 in-door patients and 9,470 out-door patients. The other evangelical agencies at work in Beirut are as follows : The Deaconesses' Listi- tute,conducted by the Sisters from Kaiserswerth, Germany, containing an orphanage with 200 pupils, and a boarding-school for higher educa tion ; the British Syrian schools, superintended by Mrs. Mentor Mott, which comprise a train ing-school for teachers, six day-schools, and a school for the blind, in all of which are taught about 1,000 scholars. The Established Church of Scotland conducts a boys' and a girls' school for Jewish children, and Miss Taylor, of Scot land, conducts a, school for Moslem and Druze girls. Belgaum, a city in Bombay, West India, in the South Maratha district, province of Bel gaum, 80 miles northeast of Goa. Population (including suburbs), 23,115, Hindus, Moslems, Jains, Christians, Parsis, etc. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 3 missionaries and wives, 4 out- stations, 8 schools, 902 scholars, 47 church- members. Belize, a city of British Honduras, Cen tral America, a place of considerable impor tance, containing several churches, a hospital, etc Population, 12,000, including many negroes. Mission station of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 2 missionaries, 941 church-members. Bellary, a city of Madras, South India, 270 miles northwest of Madras City. Hot ; very dry. Population, 30,000, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Language, Canarese, Telugu, Hin dustani. Social condition, rather poor. Mis sion station of the L. M. S., 1812 ; 2 mission aries and wives, 2 others, 22 native helpers, 11 out-stations, 6 churches, 150 members, 13 schools, 767 scholars. Contributions. $2,812. Also of the Methodist Episcopal Church, North ; 1 missionary and wife, 24 church-members. Belleville Mission, Paris, France. — Miss De Broen's Mission in Belleville, Paris. Office, 205 Rue St. Honore, Paris, France. Foundress and Honorary Superintendent, Miss BELLEVILLE 147 BELOOCHISTAN De Broen, 3 Rue Clavel, Paris. Miss De Broen, a worker in the Mildmay Mission, London, be ing in Paris in 1871, just after the outbreak of the Commune, visited PtSre la Chaise. Only the night before 500 Communists had been shot there, and the long ditch into which they fell one by one became their common grave. A crowd of women and children surrounded the spot jflfcheir grief and despair were terrible to see ; and Miss De Broen longed to do something for their relief. Just at this time two gentle men were in Paris to dispose of some money remaining from funds provided by the Society of Friends for the victims of the war. Miss De Broen's desire to bring comfort to the despair ing families of the Communists was made known to them ; the money was granted to her, and she began the work in Belleville, the capital of the Commune. Every man engaged in the Commune was shot, transported, or had to flee the country. Thousands of women were thus left destitute and unable to obtain work. Even the priests and Sisters of Mercy shunned them. No one cared for them. Miss De Broen engaged a room, and passing to and fro in the streets of Belleville, she spoke to the poor women, saying that she knew of their distress, and that if they would come to her room they would receive fivepence for three hours of needlework ; at the same time she told them that her chief object was to tell them of the Lord Jesus. The kind invitation sounded strangely in their ears , the greater number hardly understood it, and the first time only three were present. Eight came to the next meeting, and from that time the numbers steadily increased. The ignorance of these poor women was surprising, and at first they were rough and sullen. Can one wonder ? Many had seen their little ones pine in the cold and hunger of the siege ; others had lost all — husbands, sons, and brothers— in the war and in those last awful days of the Commune ; all had known the agony of lengthened starvation, buoyed by false hopes and cruel treachery. Goaded on by pangs of hunger, some had con cealed weapons in their clothing, and had at tacked the soldiers unawares ; worse than this, in their frenzy, they had done. But after only a few months in the sewing-class a great change had come over the poor creatures ; no fierce ness and no sullenness now, but an earnest, even a softened expression, appeared on many a face. This was the origin of Miss De Broen's Belleville Mission, the first of several Protestant missions established in Paris at the close of the Franco-Prussian War. The attendance at the sewing-classes became very large, and Miss De Broen, finding that many men, hearing of the Gospel from the women who attended the meet ings, were anxious to receive Gospel teaching, arranged an evening meeting for them in a room at La Villette. Christian gentlemen from Paris conducted it. The room, being near a thoroughfare, was soon filled, for passers-by came in also, until about 250 were assembled, many of whom were obliged to stand. These meetings, where men and women assembled solely for the sake of hearing tho Gospel, be came most interesting. In addition to the sew ing classes and Gospel meetings at La Villette, night-schools were soon opened for the benefit of many men who had been imprisoned at the time of the Commune, but who, no charge hav ing been found against them, were liberated after a few weeks. They could not read or write, and Miss De Broen offered to teach an}' who liked to come to the night-school. Many ac cepted the invitation, and it was a most inter esting sight to see fathers and sons sitting side by side spelling out words or patiently learning to write. At the end of the first year the funds supplied by the Society of Friends came to an end, and much anxiety was felt as to the means of carrying on the work. About this time a gentleman from America visited the mission at Belleville ; in speaking of his visit to a friend in England, he mentioned that more money was needed to carry it on. This lady wrote to Miss De Broen that she would like to render some help, Thus encouraged, Miss De Broen decided to persevere in her work, which was in creasing so rapidly that she determined to live in Belleville, in order not to have to go to and from Paris ; she took a house and invited ladies to come over from England and help her. From that time she has had a little band of voluntary workers always with her, who devote their time and strength to the work. About two years after the work in Belleville was begun, Miss De Broen engaged an evangelist to come and take the Gospel addresses and to labor among the people. He is still in the mis sion, and conducts Sunday and week-day meet ings, visits the sick and poor, etc. The Medical Mission, opened in 1874, has be come a most important branch of the work. Patients flock to it, not only from every part of Paris, but from towns and villages far distant. The French Government only allows this insti tution to exist on condition that consultations and drugs shall be free, and for the poor alone, to avoid competition with French doctors and chemists. Certainly the poor avail themselves of the help offered. A simple Gospel service is held every morning in the waiting-room be fore the patients are admitted for treatment ; many people hear the Word of God in this way, to whom otherwise it would remain a sealed book. Other branches of work are the day and Sunday-schools, prayer-meetings, training school for girls, lending library, meetings at Aubervilliers and Romainville, temperance work, sale of Scriptures, distribution of tracts, etc. The report for 1888 shows number of patients at dispensary, 30,000 ; attendance at sewing classes, 2,214 ; at Gospel meetings, 28,720 ; at Sunday-schools, 4,575 ; at week-day schools, 8,727. Expenditures, 1888, £2,728. Belltown, a town on the Cameroon River, West Africa, south of Bethel. Mission station of the English Baptist Missionary Society, founded in 1841 by Baptists from Jamaica on the island of Fernando Po, but having been ex pelled from that island in 1859 by the Spaniards, the mission moved to the continent, where it prospers. Since 1884 the district is under Ger man authority. Belooehistan (Baluchistan), a coun try of Asia, bounded on the north by Afghan istan, on the east by Scindh, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the west by Persia. Area, 130,000 square miles. Surface generally mountainous, but on the south and west there are extensive barren plains. There are no rivers worthy the name, but only a few moun tain streams which swell to considerable size in the spring and dry up during fhe summer. The soil is generally fertile, but since the fertility is caused by the land being low and BELOOCHISTAN 148 BENARES swampy, these districts, though most popu lous, are the unhealthiest of all. Population, 500,000, who consist of two great varieties — the Belooches and the Brahuis — which are sub divided into other tribes and again into fami lies. Their origin is uncertain, but they are probably of mixed Tartar and Persian descent. They are of slight but active forms, and prac tise arms and warlike exercises for amusement. Their women enjoy considerable freedom, but polygamy is allowed. In their nomadic habits they resemble Tartars, living in tents of felt or canvas and wearing awoollen cloth on theirheads and woollen or lineu outer coats. Their religion is Sunni Mohammedanism. The Brahuis speak a dialect resembling those of the Panjab ; they are shorter and stouter than the Belooches, somewhat less addicted to plunder and rapine, and are said to be hospitable and observant of promises. The government is under various chiefs, of whom the Khan of Khelat is leader in time of war and a kind of feudal chief in time of peace. Beloochistan was formerly subject to Persia and afterward to Afghanistan, but in the latter part of the eighteenth century the tribes shook off their dependence on the Afghans. At the time of the British expedition into Afghanistan the British forced the famous Bolan Pass of Beloochistan, and the BeIooch6S harassed them considerably ; and so, in 1840, an expedition to chastise them was sent against Khelat ; this was done effectually, but no permanent occupation was made. Since then, as the necessity of pro tection of the northern frontier has become more and more a vital matter, and a railway has been built from Quetta to the Panjab, a portion of the country has been placed under British protection. In consideration of this the Indian Government pays to the Khan of Khelat a subsidy of 100,000 rupees a year, and a quit rent of 25,000 rupees for the Quetta dis trict. No missionary work has been attempted in Beloochistan, except that the C. M. S. has es tablished a station at Quetta, with 1 missionary and wife ; 18 persons have been baptized, and there are 11 communicants. There is a trans lation of three of the Gospels into Baluchi, prepared under the auspices of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Benares, a city of India, situated on the northern bank of the Ganges River, 421 miles northwest from Calcutta and 74 miles east from Allahabad (at the junction of the Ganges and Jumna). Population, 193,025, of whom 147,230 are Hindus, 45,529 Mohammedans, and 266 Christians. In point of population it is the fifth city of India— Bombay, Calcutta, Mad ras, and Luoknow alone outranking it. It manufactures silks and shawds, cloth embroid ered with gold and silver, jewelry, brass work, and lacquered toys— the last two being ex ported to England in considerable quantities. That which gives to Benares its interest and importance, however, is the fact that it is to day, and has been for more than twenty-five centuries, the religious capital of India, and the most sacred of all the sacred cities and places of Hinduism. Its origin dates back to the remotest period of the Aryan occupation of India. Its early name was Varanasi, whence the modern Vanarasi, or Banaras. Another name by which it is often called by the people is Kasi. It had been for many years— probably for some centuries — renowned by Hindus for its sanctity, when, in the sixth century, Gau tama, then just starting out on his mission of converting India to his new cult of Buddh ism, fixed his residence at Sarnath, the site of the ancient Benares, only four miles from the modern city. It remained the headquar ters of Buddhism until, after a period of 800 years, the forces of Brahmanism rose against their younger rival, overwhelmed the strong holds of Buddhism, and after a long struggle expelled it root and branch from the land. Ben ares then resumed its pre-eminence of sanc tity in the minds of devout Hindus, which it has never since let slip. During the Moham medan period, under the Mohammedan Em pire (1200-1800 a.d.), many of the old Hindu buildings were appropriated to Mohammedan uses, while many were destroyed, and the de velopment of Hinduism and its architectural ex pression seem to have been kept in strict sub jection ; yet the city is said to contain to-day, besides innumerable smaller shrines, 1,454 Hindu temples, most of which are insignificant architecturally, and 272 Mohammedan mosques. The largest of these is the Mosque of Aurangzib, built by the Mogul emperor of that name from the ruins of a Hindu temple. It stands on the high bank of the Ganges, with minarets tower ing up 147 feet. The cliff which forms the river front, and on which the city now stands, is some 100 feet above the water level. Flights of steps at convenient points lead down to the water's edge. These are known as "ghats," or descending places, and up and down are con tinually passing Hindu devotees and pilgrims, with their attendant priests, going to or return ing from the sacred waters of the Ganges, which are supposed to be capable of washing away sin. The view of the city from the water is ex- ceedingly imposing, but the streets are narrow and mean, dirty and crowded. Benares is thronged by pilgrims from all parts of India. To bathe in the Ganges here is the hope of every devout Hindu ; and to die in its sacred embrace, or, failing that, to have one's bones after death transported thither and flung into the stream, is supposed to ensure the soul a speedy entrance into Paradise. Bottles and jars are filled by the pilgrims and carried by them to their homes, in order that their friends who are unable to make the journey in person may be anointed with a few drops of the holy water. Many wealthy Hindus, princes and others, swell the ranks of the pilgrims, and some even keep up residences in the sacred city. It is from this pilgrim trade that the prosperity of the city chiefly arises, as well as from the fees exacted by the Brahmans for the varied religious ceremonies. At Benares is situated Queen's College, with a roll of many hundred students ; also a normal school. These are governmental institutions. An observatory, where Hindu astronomers have pursued the study of astronomy, and which was erected in 1693, overlooks one of the ghats. There is a hospital, a town-hall, a library, and other literary institutions. The central position of Benares, in the esti mation of Hinduism, gives it peculiar impor tance to the Christian missionary. Blows struck here are aimed at the very heart and centre of the Hindu faith. " Humanly speak ing," says the Rev. M. A. Sherring — himself for 10 12 13 t $ Longitude INDIA i EASTERN PART. SCALE OF MILES Jlfissfonarp stations appear in tfiis fypc. Horhampore. REFERENCE. jf/ie J'rolecied or Dependent States are colored yellow. BENGAL PRESIDENCY. Lower Bengal Provinces . | 1 Northwest Provinces | 2-3 \ Central Provinces j 5 | Assam j O \ Districts under Native Princes Central India (Gwallior, Sindia, <&c.) | 12 \ MADRAS PRESIDENCY.--^ \ irom Greenwich SS F G a A Elephant ft. ¦ L "'"ft/ ¦<- &' I>»ll. '"¦/, &\? .Iuffiiim.it AlawllV C^O^Matelen CEYLON Sa»*e scale as large map. 10 Nogoinl»(% Coloitibo^^^-''" Ada ftilfclssV1'""" P«"<°- Fanlur _Polu( lie GsTfl! 12 13 BENARES 149 BENGAL many years a missionary at Benares — ' ' were the city to abandon its idolatrous usages and to embrace the Gospel of Christ, the effect of such a step upon the Hindu community would be as great as was produced on the Roman Empire when Rome adopted the Christian faith. The special sanctity and influence of Benares con stitute a gigantic obstacle to all religious changBs within it." Missionary work was be gun there in 1816 by the English Baptist So ciety. Rev. William Smith was the first mis sionary, and labored there for a period of forty years. The Church Missionary Society began operations about the year 1817 ; at first their work was educational, as they succeeded in get ting possession of an endowed school — now a college— known still, from the name of its original founder, as Raja Jay Narayan's Col lege, and which was made over to the C. M. S. in 1818. It has now some 700 students. The London Missionary Society sent their first agent there in 1820. As to the results in this centre of a mighty and opposing faith, we quote again from Rev. Mr. Sherring : " It is no exaggera tion to affirm that native society in that city, especially among the better classes, is now (1874) hardly the same thing that it was a few years ago. An educated class has sprung into existence, which is little inclined to continue in the mental bondage of the past. . . . The re ligion of idolatry, of sculptures, of sacred wells and rivers, of gross fetichism, of mythological representations, of many-handed, or many- headed, or many-bodied deities, is losing in their eyes its religious romance. ... Of not a few it may be said that ' old things have passed away ; ' and of the mass of the people, that ' all things are becoming new.' " Baptist Missionary Society ; 1 missionary, I evangelists, 19 church-members. Church Missionary Society ; 1 missionary and wife, 39 native lay teachers, 103 communicants, 1,987 scholars. London Missionary Society ; 2 missionaries and wives, 1 other missionary, 2 female mis sionaries, 1 native ordained preacher, 25 church-members, 1,012 scholars. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 2 missionaries, 34 native teachers, 36 communi cants, 932 scholars. Benga Version. — The Benga, which be longs to the Bantu family of African languages, is spoken south of the Congo River. Mission aries of the Presbyterian Board, North, trans lated parts of the Bible which were issued by the American Bible Society from its press in New York— viz., Matthew in 1858, Mark in 1861, Luke and Genesis in 1863, John and Acts in 1864. A new edition of the Gospels and Acts was published in 1881; and since then Romans and 1st and 2d Corinthians were issued, (Specimen Verse. John 3 :16.) Kakana ndi AnyambS a tandaki he, ka Ma-a vg Mwan' 'aju nmbaka, na, ughepi a ka kamidS Ma, a nyange, ndi a. na emSna' ya egombe yelie'pi. Bengal (often called "Lower Bengal," in order to distinguish it from Bengal Presidency, q.v.), one of the five great provinces into which the Bengal Presidency is divided, the other four being Assam, the Northwest Prov inces, Ajmere, and the Panjab. It comprises (1) the territory often spoken of as Bengal Proper, through which the Ganges and Brah maputra rivers describe the lower portion of their course, including the deltas of those great streams ; (2) the province of Orissa, which stretches along the coast of the Gulf south of the delta ; (3) the province of Behar, to the northwest of Bengal Proper, and (4) the dis trict of Chhota-Nagpur, south of Behar and west of Orissa. These are all embraced in the territory under the jurisdiction of the Lieuten ant-Governor of Bengal. This article gives merely a general account of the larger area which includes them all. The limits of latitude are 19° 18' and 28° 15' north ; longitude, 82° and 97° E. Total area, 193,198 square miles. Popu lation (1881), 69,536,861, or about one-third the entire population of British India. In accord ance with that fact, one-third of the gross revenue of the Indian Empire is derived from this province. The whole amount of the area just defined is not actually under British rule ; to the northeast and east of Bengal are the prin cipalities of Kuch Behar and Hill Tipperah, still under native chiefs, and to the south and southwest are two other groups of native States, though all of these are under a certain general surveillance of the Bengal Government. There is also a large tract of half-submerged forest and jungle territory, skirting the outer edge of the great delta, through which the Ganges and the Brahmaputra finally pour their waters into the gulf, known as the Sunderbunds. This tract has never been wholly surveyed, but the area of its unsurveyed portion is estimated at 5,976 square miles. In no other part of British India, and in few other parts of the world, is the average density of the population so great as in Bengal. In some of the districts close to Calcutta it is over 1,300 to the square mile ; in certain parts of Be har, 870 and over ; and the average of the whole of Bengal (excluding the native States) is 443 ; while including those States it is 371. One re markable peculiarity is that this vast popula tion is largely rural. Calcutta itself, with its sub urbs, had, in 1881, 790,286 inhabitants. Patna, with 170,654, is the only other city that exceeds 100,000 ; two others rise above 75,000. Only 200 towns contain more than 5,000 people each ; and their aggregate population embraces only 5.26 per cent of the entire population. Bengal has the lowest percentage of its popu lation in cities of any province in British India. On the other hand, out of 264,765 towns and villages it was found that 165,263 contained less than 200 souls each, and 67,307 had less than 500 each. The principal occupation of the peo ple there is agriculture. Of the male popula tion capable of labor about two and a half times as many are employed upon the land as upon all other branches of industry combined. Rice is the staple product. The various seeds from which vegetable oils are produced are raised and exported in large quantities. Jute, in digo, and tea are raised, principally by English capital and under the direction of English planters. In some of the districts of Behar opium is cultivated, though only under license from the government of India, which holds the monopoly of its production, and in some years derives a seventh of its gross income from this source. The population of Bengal exhibits great diversity both of race, language, religion, edu- BENGAL 150 BENGAL cation, and civilization. Out of the aggregate pop. of 69,536,861 (in 1881), over 21,500,000 are Mohammedans ; about 45,500,000 are Hindus ; 128,135 returned themselves as Christians, and 2,250,000 belong to other religions, chiefly pro fessed by the half-savage aboriginal tribes of the hill and jungle regions, a few hundreds be ing Jews, Parsis, Buddhists, etc. The Moham medans are mostly the descendants of converts made from the lower ranks of Hinduism many ' centuries ago, on the first entrance into Ben gal of the Moslem power. In more recent times, while still professing their Moslem faith, they have sadly declined from its original purity, and have corrupted its practice by many ele ments of the original Hinduism from which their fathers came. Virtually they for many years were little else than circumcised Hindus. Latterly, however, under the influence of vigor ous preaching by itinerant Mohammedan mis sionaries from the northwest, many of them have been led to return to a purer Mohammedan observance. The Mohammedan population is found principally in the northern and eastern districts of Bengal Proper, where it will often constitute from a half to two-thirds (or in limited areas even more) of the whole. Of the 45,500,000 Hindus, 36,500,000 belong to that division of the great Hindu family known as Bengalis, speaking the Bengali lan guage and inhabiting the province of Bengal Proper, together with a few adjacent districts. In Behar are found many Hindi speaking Hin dus, who have also spread themselves into Chhota-Nagpur, displacing the aboriginal set tlers in that province, or else imposing upon them their own language, and to some extent their manners. The number using that lan guage, including many not Hindus, is estimated at 25,000,000. In Orissa is found the Uriya tongue, spoken by about 5,500,000 — all Hindus. The aboriginal tribes have usually each their own language and their own form of religion. Of the Hindus, the three superior castes are the Brahmans, numbering 2,754,100 ; the Kshattriyas, 1,400,000, and the Kayasths, 1,500,- 000. Below these superior castes are ranged the great masses of the people in their respec tive gradations. The Baniyas are the traders ; the Goalas are the herdsmen ; the cultivat ing class is the largest, while the numerous streams and branches of the great rivers which intersect Lower Bengal in all directions provide for the existence of a large number of boating and fishing castes. As usual in all parts of In dia, every particular trade or calling is followed by a separate caste devoted to that alone. Of the aboriginal tribes, the most important are the Santals, the Kols, and the Gonds ; it is hard to state their numbers with accuracy. The Santals, who are the most numerous, number a little more than 1,000,000. But as intercourse increases between these tribes and their Hindu neighbors, the tendency is more and more for the aboriginal peoples to merge into the Hindu body, gradually adopting the language and the religious practices of the superior race, and throwing off their own peculiarities. Doubt less many of the Pariah castes throughout India represent purely aboriginal races which have thus been incorporated into the Hindu body and assigned to its lowest social rank. The three tribes just mentioned, along with several less important tribes, inhabit the regions of Chhota-Nagpur and other districts in the southwestern part of Bengal, as well as the districts still under the control of native chiefs in the same direction. Many other tribes are found on the northern and eastern border, in Hill Tipperah and Kuch Behar. Both these districts are yet under their original native rulership, and are the homes of peoples belong ing, in the first, to the Indo-Burmese, and, in the second, to the Indo-Chinese race. Of the aboriginal tribes, as a whole, it may be said that their condition is exceedingly low ; their social organization in many cases the simplest known to modern anthropological science, and their religious ideas of the crudest kind. Among some of the tribes human sacrifices con tinued to be an obligatory part of their relig ious observance until the Indian Government, within the present generation, compelled their abandonment. Tet it is found that these peo ple present an extremely hopeful field for tho operation of Christian missions, and among some of them — notably the Santals— missions have been prosecuted during the past twenty years with most gratifying success. In 1881-82 a little over 1,000,000 scholars were under instruction in the public schools of Bengal. This is about 11 per cent of the chil dren of a school-going age. The total expendi ture on education that year was £641,200, of which £376,200 was paid by tho people them selves and the balance by the government. There were eight government colleges, several normal schools, high schools in the larger towns, and primary schools scattered through the villages. The missionary societies co-oper ate with the government and with the people in their efforts to extend education, having many schools and colleges in connection with their work at nearly all mission stations. In the year just mentioned there were within the province 51 vernacular newspapers, 13 being sheets of some importance. Several papers, edited wholly in English, are also issued by na tives, besides those conducted by European writers. The missionary history of Bengal, as well as its political history, is of the utmost interest. While this province was not the seat of the earliest Protestant missionary activity in India — an honor which belongs to Madras — it is ever associated in the minds of Christian people with the names of Carey, Marshman, and Ward, who made Serampore the starting-point of wide ly diffused evangelistic influences, with that of the eccentric Thomas, who was the pioneer of the work afterward more effectively prosecuted by the Serampore band, and in more recent times with that of Luff, whose educational work at Calcutta, and whose immense energy and missionary zeal were the means of lifting the work of Christian instruction to the prom inence which it deserves as a factor of mission ary success. At the present time Bengal is well occupied by the agents of many Protestant mis sionary societies. The English Baptists, still preserving the traditions and continuing the work of Thomas, Carey, and their early associ ates, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the Church Missionary Society, tho Established Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, the London Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Missionary Society, the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, the American Baptists, the American Free-Will Baptists, the American Methodists, besides many women's BENGAL 151 BENGHAZI missionary societies and several independent agencie.s, are all represented among the mis sionary laborers of Bengal. Bengal Presidency (British India), the largest of the great administrative divisions of British India. It comprises, generally speak ing, all of British India north of the Vindhya Mountains, embracing the great Ganges Valley, the vaney of the Brahmaputra, and the upper portion ot! the Indus Valley, so far as these fall within the limits of British territory. It is subdivided into five subordinate provinces, each under the charge of a local government, and all under the general direction of the su preme government of India. These subdi visions are Ajmere, Assam, Bengal, Northwest Provinces and Oudh, and the Panjab. (See these titles.) The extent of the Bengal Presi dency, as a whole, embraces 489,959 square miles, with a population, in 1881, of 142,440,748. Bengali Version. — The Bengali, which is spoken by millions in the province of Bengal, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of languages. There exist many dialects of this language, chief of which are the Standard and Musulmani. 1. Bengali- Standard Version. — Into this lan guage a translation was commenced by the late Dr. W. Carey (d. 1834). In 1801 the New Testa ment was published at Serampore ; in 1806 the second, and so on till 1832, when he was per mitted to carry through the eighth edition. In 1802 Carey commenced with the Old Testa ment which was completed in 1809. Of the Old Testament he published five editions, and in 1832 his last edition of the Bible was pub lished at Serampore. It is said that when this last edition was issued, he took a copy into the pulpit and said, " Lord, now lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace, because mine eyes have seen Thy salvation." A second version of the New Testament, pre pared by Mr. Ellerton, of the Church Mission ary Society, was published by the Calcutta Bible Society in 1818. A third version of the Bengali Scriptures was made by the late Rev. Dr. W. Yates, and his New Testament was published at Calcutta in 1833. A second edition followed in 1837, a third in 1839, and a fourth in 1840, etc. A beauti ful edition of Yates's New Testament, in Roman letters, was published at London in 1839. The translation of the Old Testament was completed in 1844. A new edition of Yates's New Testa ment was published in 1847, and ever since new editions, as revised by the Rev. Dr. J. Wenger, were issued. The latter also revised Yates's Old Testament, so that the fourth edition of the Yates- Wenger Bible was pub lished in 1867, the fifth, with references, in 1874, and the sixth in 1876. In editing this edition Dr. Wenger was aided by Messrs. Rouse and Lewis, of the Baptist Mission. A New Testament with annotations, in two volumes, was published, 1878-83. In addition to these three versions, another was commenced by the Rev. R. P. Greaves, of the Church Missionary Society. His premature death (d. 1870) prevented his continuing the work, and only the Gospel of Matthew has been published by the British and Foreign Bible So ciety at Calcutta in 1873. In 1882 the Calcutta auxiliary undertook the publication of a tenta tive version of the New Testament, made by the Rev. C. Bromweitch, for twenty years a mis sionary of the Church Missionary Society in Bengal, and whose Epistle to Romans it had already issued in 1867. In the same year, 1882, the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society published an edition of 1,000 copies of the Gospel of Mark, transliterated from the common Bengali New Testament, accompanied by a key. The book is intended for those chiefly who wish to read Bengali to their servants, but who have not mastered the language. In order to secure a simple, smooth, and idiomatic translation which would be acceptable to the mass of the people, a reprei.entative com mittee, composed chiefly of Bengali Christian scholars, was formed in 1883. The Revision Committee have thus far completed the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, which were published. 2. Bengali- Musulmani. — To meet the wants of about 21,000,000 of Mussulmans of Lower ancl Eastern Bengal, who, while they read the Bengali character, speak a dialect of the Ben gali language mingled with foreign terms and words, the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society published in 1855 the Gospel of Luke, under the care of the Rev. J. Paterson, of the London Missionary Society. In 1856 the Gospel of John was issued, after the death of Mr. Paterson, un der the care of the Rev. S. J. Hill, also of the London Missionary Society. Up to 1863 the Calcutta Auxiliary had issued, in this mixed tongue, the four Gospels and Acts, Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah. For a time the work of translating other parts of the Scriptures into this dialect was suspended, when it was re sumed again in 1876 and a new translation of the Gospel of Luke, edited by the Rev. J. E. Payne, of the London Missionary Society, was issued at Calcutta. In the same year the Rev. J. R. Ellis, of the Baptist Society, edited a new translation of Matthew for the Bible Transla tion Society. A revised edition of the Gospel of Matthew was issued by the Calcutta Auxiliary in 1887. The British and Foreign Bible So ciety disposed up to March 31st, 1889, of copies of the Scriptures, in parts or in whole, as fol lows : In Bengali proper, 1,189,016 ; in Bengali, with Roman type, 4,026 ; in Bengali, with Eng lish, 2,018 ; in Bengali-Musulmani, 113,060, or of 1,308,120 portions of Scriptures. (Specimen Verses. John 3 : 16.) arsj? arc fora? ^rt ^rfR^; ®tot erra i Roman. Kenana Ishwar jagater prati eman dayli karilen, je apan&r adwiUya Putrake pradan karilen; tahate tanhar bishwaskari pratyek jan nashta na haiya .ananta paramayu paibe. Benghazi, a town of Barca, North Africa, on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Sidra. It stands on the verge of a large plain, sandy and barren for nearly a mile from the shore, but be yond that having a fertile but rocky soil to the foot of the Cyrenaic Mountains. Population, 7,000, many of whom are Jews and negro slaves. Chief occupations of the people are agriculture and cattle-raising. No mission work at present, though the North Africa Mis sion are pushing in that direction. BENGUELA 152 BERAR Benjfuela, a country on the West Coast of Africa, just south of Angola (see Africa, An gola), with a city of the same name. A station of the A. B. C. F. M. West Central Africa Mission ; 1 missionary and wife. Beni-Aila, a town of Egypt, province of Assiout. Mission out-station of the United Presbyterian Church of America (1878) ; 2 na tive helpers, 60 church-members, 60 scholars. Beilita, a city of Corisco, West Coast of Africa, 53 miles north of Corisco town. Mis sion station of the Presbyterian Church, North ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 other lady, 15 native helpers, 4 out-stations. Benjamin, Nullum, b. at Catskill, N. Y., December 14, 1811 ; removed to Williamstown, Mass., in 1814 ; graduated at Williams College, 1831 ; studied at Auburn and Andover Theo logical Seminaries ; attended medical lectures in New Haven and New York, 1834-35 ; mar ried Miss Mary G. Wheeler, of New York, in 1836, and embarked in July following as a mis sionary of the American Board for Smyrna and Greece. After spending a year and a half at Argos he removed to Athens, where he labored for six years chiefly, but not exclusively, in connection with the press. During this interval he had an interesting Bible-class attended by from fifteen to twenty young Greeks, students in the university or gymnasium of that city. Two of these were converted. In 1844, a change having been decided upon in regard to the Greek mission, he was transferred to the Ar menian field, and was stationed at Trebizond. Mrs. Benjamin's health having failed, he re turned to America in 1845, and resigned his connection with the Board. His wife's health, however, improved, and the call being very urgent, he returned in December, 1847, to Smyrna. Here he labored chiefly in connection with the Armenian press. In 1852 the mission decided to remove the press to Constantinople, and Mr. Benjamin removed thither. In ad dition to his work with the press he preached statedly in Greek to a small congregation at Pera. He was also the treasurer of the mission, which office involved a great amount of labor and responsibility. On January 12th he was attacked with what seemed to be a severe cold, but which soon developed into a serious illness resulting in his death, January 27th, 1855. He was greatly beloved by his missionary friends. The whoie native Protestant community mourned at the news of his death, and the for eign residents manifested the deepest sym pathy. The chapel was crowded at the funeral services, which were partly in English and partly in Armenian. The Protestant Armenian brethren insisted on the privilege of carrying with their own hands the coffin to the burial- place, a mile distant. The chaplain of the English Embassy, by particular request, read the funeral service. Bennett, Cephas, b. at Homer, N. Y., March 20th, 1804. When four years of age he had a fall, which made him permanently lame. At the age of thirteen he was appren ticed to a printer, and at twenty was engaged to superintend the publication of the Baptist Register. In connection with that publication he established a job-printing office in Utica, to which was added a book-store, which was very successful. In 1827 he wrote to Dr. Davis, of Philadelphia, that he thought the Burmese Bible might be printed in America, and offered his services should the plan be considered practicable. Dr. Bolles, Secretary of the Mis sionary Society in Boston, visited Utica to con fer with Mr. Bennett. The plan was not con sidered feasible, but Dr. Bolles advised him to offer himself to the Society to go out as its mis sionary printer. He was appointed in 1828, sailed May 22d, 1829, reaching Calcutta Octo ber 6th, and Moulmein, January 14th, 1830, with his printing-presses. He commenced at once the printing of tracts, for which the de mand in the early history of the mission was very great. In 1832 he began to print the Burmese Scriptures, and as superintendent of the mission press in Burmah for more than half a century he was permitted to print the Bible in three languages — the Burmese, translated by Dr. Judson ; the Sgau Karen, translated by Dr. Mason, and the Pwo Karen, by Rev. D. L. Brayton, and also the New Testament in the Shan language. From the press under his care were sent forth more than 200,000,000 of Scrip tures, tracts, and religious and educational books in all the dialects of Burmah. He was not only a printer, but a preacher of the Gos- pel, having been ordained to the ministry by his brethren of the mission, and in the inter vals of his work as a printer he labored as an evangelist. The year 1834 he spent in Ran goon, then under Burman rule, preaching and distributing tracts. When in Tavoy, whither he went in 1837 to print the Karen Bible, and where he remained till his return in 1857, he spent much of the cold season in the jungles, among the heathen and the native Christians. In these towns he visited all the Tavoy and Mergui districts. His deep interest in the educational work of missions led him, in the early part of his residence in Moulmein, to take charge of the government school for two and a half years. To him chiefly is due the founding of the Burmah Bible and Tract Society, and through his influence its operations were en larged by the recent vernacular school-book de partments. He was also much engaged in the English church in Rangoon. Mr. Bennett was taken seriously ill in July, 1885, but rallied, so that hopes were entertained of his recovery. Early in November he had a relapse, and on the 16th he passed away in the eighty-second year of his age, after fifty-six years of mission ser vice. Benoob, a town of Central Egypt, in the southern part of the province of Assioot. Mis sion out-station of the United Presbyterian Church of America (1875) ; 5 native workers, 22 church-members, 2 schools, 45 scholars. Berar, a province of Central India, consist ing chiefly of a fertile valley lying east and west between the Satpura range on the north and the Ajanta range on the south. Its length from east to west is 150 miles, and its breadth, about 110. Its limits of N. latitude are 19° 26' and 21° 46', and of E. longitude 76° and 79° 13'. It touches the central provinces on the north and east, Bombay Presidency on the west, and the Nizam's dominions on the south. Area, 17,700 square miles. Population, 2,672,- 673. It is drained by the branches of the Tapti River. It enjoys a regular rainfall of sufficient copiousness to ensure fertility, and is one of the most important of all the cotton-growing BERAR 153 BERBER districts of India, besides producing grains and oil seeds. Both iron nnd coal are found in the ¦eastern part of Berar, but as yet comparatively little has been done toward working the mines where they occur. Its inhabitants are chiefly Hindus (over 90 per cent), belonging principally to the Marathi-speaking branch, and to the in dustrious castes of agriculturists. The remain ing ^0, per cent of the population is divided up among Mohammedans, Jains, Parsis, and Chris tians, the Mohammedans alone numbering over 187,000 of these. There are several aboriginal tribes found in Berar, mostly belonging to the Bhil ancl Gond families. About 12 per cent of the population of Berar is found in towns of 5,000 inhabitants or more each. Of such towns there are 34 ; 2 of these (Ellichpur, 26,728, and Amraoti, 23,550) contain over 20,000 people each ; 8 others vary from 10,000 to 20,000 each. Over 2,500,000 of the population are unable either to read or write. In 1881 a little over 30,000 (356 being females) were under instruc tion. The political relations of Berar are very peculiar. Nominally it is a part of that great Mohammedan state in Central India subject to the Nizam of Haidarabad, and popularly spoken of as the " Nizam's Dominions," or " The Mo- galai." But during the wars and chaos of the latter part of the last century the Nizam agreed to assist the English with troops put into the field at his own expense. His government was in disorder, however, his finances deranged, and he had not wherewith to meet the demands thus caused. Once aud again the English Gov ernment came to his. relief with loans. Thus a debt grew up which he was unable to cancel. Finally, in 1853, a treaty was made by which the English Government agreed to continue in his service a certain body of soldiers, and the district of Berar was " assigned ' ' to the English Government both as security for the old debt and to provide the means for defraying the future cost of the troops thus levied. And so, while still nominally a part of the Nizam's domin ion?, Berar is really governed by the English. and all its affairs are administered by them. Its revenue is devoted, however, according to treaty stipulations, to the support of the body of troops already spoken of, and usually called the " Haidarabad Contingent." To all intents and purposes, therefore, Berar is at present as much a part of the Anglo-Indian Empire as Bengal itself. Under English administration peace has prevailed, and prosperity and plenty abound. No district in India outside the Ganges Valley possesses greater natural ad vantages or enjoys a higher degree of material fortune. Berar has not thus far been the scene of mis sionary operations to the extent which the density of its population and the opportunities which it affords for persistent and successful work would seem to demand. One or two " faith missions" have been established in the province, at Ellichpur and Bassim. Berber Race. — As to the origin ancl im port of the name of this most ancient North African race there is some diversity of opinion. It is said to have- been first used by the Arab writers of the second century to designate the Libyans of Herodotus. Some suppose it to have been derived from Verves, as found in the ancient Roman geography of Mauritania. By others, with more reason, it is supposed to be but a modification of Barbari, a term which came from the Aryan or Sanscrit, through the Greek or Latin, to denote one who was, to the Aryan or Greek, a foreigner, or one speaking a language to them unknown. This accords with the fact that the word Berber is not known to the Berbers as a national appellation. They call themselves Amazirg, the Free. They are sometimes spoken of as descended from the Libyans, or at least as closely related to them. Arab writers represent them as having come from Canaan previous to the clays of Joshua. From their language, customs, and physical type they are adjudged by some as affiliated with the Semitics ; though others, as Dr. Cust, prefer to group them as being originally Hamit ic. Where they have come in contact with other races or tongues, as the Semitic, Negro, or other families, they have been more or less affected bj- them ; where they have lived by themselves in comparative seclusion, as in the oases of the desert, they have remained, in both race and speech, comparatively pure. Ac cording to the able writer just named, Dr. Cust, " The Berber or Amazirg is still at the present day in various shades and degrees of intermix ture, ethnological, linguistic, and religious, with Arab and Negro, the staple and principal stock of the whole population of North Africa from the Mediterranean to the extreme southern limit of the Sahara." The race may be divided into eight or ten tribes or groups, chiefly according to the shades of difference in the language or dialects they use ; though the parent of all, the old Libyan, as known to the Romans among the Numidians and their cognates, is now obsolete. The old Guanch-Berber, or Libyan as spoken by the original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, evidently a colony from the Amazirg, is also ex tinct. The present home of the Berber race has its centre chiefly in the Barbary States, espe cially around the Atlas Mountains. Indeed, what are called the Barbaiy States might better be called the Berber}', deriving their name, as they do, from the name of the people who occu py them. The aborigines of Morocco have been divided into the Arab-Berbers and the Shilus, or Shel- loohs. The former inhabit the northern parts of the great Atlas range, live in a cheap kind of hui covered with mats, though in the plains • they build of wood and clay, and have villages. They live chiefly upon their cattle and sheep, and make use of mules and donkeys. Their complexion is light, the hair of many is fair, their beard scant. They are well-built, strong, active, bold, and often at war with their neigh bors. These and the Shilus number about 4,000,000, or half the population of the Morocco Empire. Their dress is scant, consisting chiefly of a jacket and trousers, and sometimes a blanket. The other Morocco tribe, the Shilus, speaking the Shilha dialect, occupy the southern part of Morocco, together with the regions west of the Atlas range. These are of a smaller make and darker complexion, more civilized and powerful than the northern Berbers. They work at trades and cultivate the iand, are patriarchal, hospitable, live in houses made of stone and mortar, and have villages and towns surrounded by walls and towers. They claim to have descended from the aborigines of the country, and call themselves Amazirg. The Kabyles of Algeria, who speak the Kabail dia lect, come nearest to the Numidian, and con- BERBER 154 BERLIN MISS. SOC. sist of the hardy mountaineers on the slopes of Jurjura. They comprise a confederation of tribes and speak a variety of dialects, are given to agricultural pursuits, and dwell in villages. Those who dwell among the mountains have large flocks of sheep and goats, and because of their seclusion from Arab admixture have the purest dialect. They have, under the French, a fine order of republican government. They are a fine race, hospitable and kind. The Mzab Kabyles occupy the extreme south of Algeria, but, having great commercial enter prise, are found everywhere. They are Moham medan dissenters, glad to get the Bible in Arabic. The Shamba Kabyles, a predatory tribe, dwell on the confines of the Sahara. The Tuwarik, another group of Berbers, are nomadic in their habits, ancl extend from Algeria to Bornu and Timbuctu. Twenty years before the Christian era a governor of the Roman province of Africa led an army against this then as now uucon- quered tribe. The inhabitants of Ghadamis of Tripoli, at home and by themselves, speak the Ghadamsi, a dialect of the Berbers ; but with the Arabs, the Arabic ; with the Tuwarik, the Tamaskeh, and with their negro slaves, the Hausa. There is a mixed tribe, Arabic-Berber, called the Senegal, living on the north banks of the Senegal River. They are partly nomadic, partly settled, and make a living by collecting gum for the merchants at marts along the river. Going to the other extreme of the Berber realm, we find another Berber tribe dwelling at Siwah, the oasis of Jupiter Ammon, on the con fines of Egypt. That their own home dialect should be found to have a clear affinity with the Berber helps to show how broad is the territory the Berbers have occupied ; also how remark able that their language should have withstood so well the hard pressure of other tongues for more than three thousand years. As to the religion of the Berbers, their pagan faith is nearly extinct. Some of them seem to have accepted the Jewish or the Christian re ligion iD the centuries gono by, at least for a time. But at present they generally profess the Mohammedan faith, though many of them know but little of it. Ancl yet they are not lacking in bigotry ancl fanaticism, as the bitter opposition and persecution to which converts to the Christian faith are subject afford sad proof. But for all this the Christian worker, having good success among them, is encouraged to go on. The way is open for the entrance of the Gospel, and the call is loud for more and more missionaries. Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Pearse, independent missionary pioneers, have been doing good work for some ten years in Algeria, especially among the Kabyles. The North African mission, numbering some forty mis sionaries, including ladies, is working for all the Berber races and Arabs from Morocco to Tripoli ; and besides these there are at least forty more workers, either independent or connected with other societies, and these eighty are praying for eighty more. Rev. E. F. Baldwin, of Moga- dor, Morocco, and others, together with con verted natives, make preaching tours far to the south, and speak of having much success, to gether with much opposition, both at home and abroad, in Morocco and in the desert. Berber Version. — The Berber belongs to the Hamitic group of African languages, and is spoken by the inhabitants of Algeria and Tu nisia, West Africa. The British and Foreign Bible Society published at London, in 1833, the first twelve chapters of the Gospel of Luke from a ms. bought by Mr. Hodgson, American con sul at Algiers, for the above society, and which contained the four Gospels and Genesis. Only 250 copies were thus far disposed of. (Specimen Verse. Luke 11 : 13.) C * ("*iif <"*"&.* *<,$ *,$**$ ^+ „ 6*»i*» & <,_^ _jVlft&M fj_Ai\^\ ^ioiA/l J\xJ\ J«J1 aji\ 6 & ^ & " * G tf i^,* &• » >- CO ' ¦» » - . w ' , Berbice, a city in British Guiana, South America, on the Berbice River. A station of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, founded in 1853 ancl working among white and colored people, coolies and Chinese, etc. But though many are baptized every year, the con gregation does not increase very much, as the population is in a state of perpetual fluctuation, going and coming. Bcrea, a town in Southwest Cape Colony, South Africa, southwest of Gnadendal, between Stellenbosch ancl Caledon. It is a pleasant town, well supplied with water. A station of the Moravians, occupied in 1865, when the over crowding of Gnadendal made it necessary for some of ihe people to go off and form a colony ; ancl as some of the converts were among this number, a new congregation was formed at Berea. At present there are at this station 1 missionary and his wife. Berea, South Africa, a town in the Orange Free State, between Thaba Bosigo and Mabou- lela, and southwest of Cana. Mission station of the Paris Evangelical Society (1843) ; 2 mis sionaries, 285 communicants. Bergendal, a station of the Moravians in Surinam, South America, between 60 and 100 miles up the river Surinam. It is situated at the foot of one of two hills which form tbe "gate" to the bush and hill countrj-, through which the river Surinam flows. In the year 1830 the village on this estate was made a. preaching station at Paramaribo, and became a resting-place for missionaries seeking to pene trate the bush country. Berliampur (Bcrliampore, Brah ma-pur), a town in Orissa, Madras, India, 525 miles northeast of Madras, 18 miles south west of Gatjam. Being the principal town in the district, it has all the public buildings of importance. Climate, unhealthy. Population, 23,599, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Mission station of the General Baptist Missionary So ciety (18251 ; 2 missionaries and wives, 3 native preachers, 77 church-members. Bcrhanipur, a town in Bengal, India. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 2 missionaries and wives, 2 female missionaries, 1 native or dained preacher, 25 church-members, 467 schol ars. Also of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A.; 1 missionary and wife, 19 church-members, 810 Sabbath scholars. Berlin missionary Society. — Head quarters, Berlin, Germany. BERLIN MISS. SOC. 155 BERLIN MISS. SOC. The full name of this society is " Gesellschaft zur Befo'rderung der evangelischen Missionen unter den Heiden" (Society for the Promotion of Evangelical Missions among the Heathen). While the organization dates properly from the year 1824, the history of the founding runs back to near the beginning of the century. The originator of the mission movement in Berlin wajkPastor Janicke (1748-1827). His character, as well as that of the times in whieh he lived and worked, rendered the undertaking unpopu lar — very different from the great movements that spring spontaneously into full activity. Janicke was born in Berlin of Bohemian par entage, and was by trade a weaver. His uni versity training was at Leipzig, preparation for which was secured privately and with numer ous interruptions. From 1779 he was in charge of the Bohemian parish Berlin-Rixdorf. The period in which his pastorate fell was one of sad irreligion within the church, as well as of merited scorn for religious matters on the part of those beyond it. Against the prevalent senti ment Janicke took a decided stand ; he was of a violent, rash temperament, which occasioned especially pronounced opposition. On the other hand, the rare Christian humility with which he recognized and confessed his weak ness was regarded as an additional weakness, and brought with it mocking and scorn. His honest though often rude earnestness, however, won for him a few supporters who aided him in various charitable enterprises. He founded in 1805 a Bible society, which has developed into the Prussian Central Bible Society, and in 1811 established a tract society, which has also be come renowned. But the effort directly con cerning the subject was the founding of a mis sion school. Twenty years later he ascribes the establishment of the school to the zeal and support of the Forester Herr von Schirnding, The chief purpose of these two men was to come with men and money to the support of missionary organizations already existent. They found it necessary, however, to educate the men, ancl this led to the founding of the school for the training of missionaries, the institution that has formed the centre of the interest and activity of the society from that time to this. Seven young men were admitted to the school at the first, their expenses to be paid by Von Schirnding ; but very soon he was compelled, from financial losses, to discontinue his aid, and so within the j'ear 1800 Janicke as sumed the whole charge of the school, having at the time just 47 Thaler on hand. Other sup porters came to his help ; the English societies, under . which some of the missionaries were working, subscribed ; from various cities cf Germany small contributions were received, so the work could be further prosecuted. The modest, almost secret character of the work continued till about 1820, when royal sup port was received, and the work became more public. In 1823 the Mission Seminary devel oped into the "Berlin Missionary Society," whose "only purpose" was "to extend the knowledge of Christ among the heathen and other unenlightened peoples." In the same year another enterprise was be gun, very similar in purpose, but independent of that of Janicke. Neander, induced by the great success attending missionary undertakings in other lands, and encouraged also by confer ences with friends, issued an appeal for con tributions for the promotion of missionary work among the heathen. The appeal met with good response ; 1100 Thaler were collected, which were given over to four societies : the Mora vian Mission, which received the largest por tion ; the Basle Society, the Janicke Institute, and that of Halle. The bestowal of part of this collection upon J'dnicke's seminary is evi dence that the new movement, while indepen dent of the old, was not hostile to it, as tho relations of the next few years would seem to indicate. In February, 1824, ten men, representing dif ferent professions, among them Neander and Tholuck, met to consider the organization of a society. In April statutes were sent to the king for approval, which followed in May, with the suggestion that the mission woik would prob ably be better forwarded if the society should unite with the institute conducted by Janicke. This had already been attempted, but had failed ; the management of the seminar}' was at that time in the hands of Janicke's son-in-law, Riickert, whose objections to the proposed union could not be overcome. The two organi zations, therefore, existed side by side for sev eral years. Janicke died in 1827, and a com mittee, of which Riickert was the head, was appointed to take charge of the seminary. Later, at the king's direction, the six went over to the new society, leaving Riickert alone and unable to support his school, which was conse quently given up, after it had done the grand work of training eighty missionaries who had gone into various parts of the mission field. The transfer of the Managing Committee was accompanied with the transfer of the 500 Thaler that constituted the royal contribution. Tno present missionary society can therefore claim to be the legitimate heir of Janicke's work. The new organization began, as did the old, with the aim to raise funds for other societies, and this purpose is fixed in the name selected for it. The societies to be assisted were those already mentioned as receiving the contribution of 1823. But this work at second hand was soon found insufficient ; more important still was the training of men. First a few were sent to the seminary at Basle and there trained, but at the expense of the Berlin Society. After ward, patterning again after Janicke's, the so ciety started a seminary for the training of their own men. This was in 1829 ; the first home- trained men were sent out at the beginning of the year 1834. A second essential feature of the work was the establishment of auxiliary societies through out Germany. The first was at Stettin in 1823. The description of the society as it now ex ists falls naturally into various divisions : 1. The Society at Home. The managing body of the central society is a self-perpetuating committee, numbering at present eighteen. This has entire charge of the affairs of tho society. It is organized with president, vice-presidents, treasurer. The direc tor and inspectors of missions are always mem bers of the committee. As is above implied, the chief home activity of the central organization centres in the school for training missionaries. For admission to this seminary the important conditions are in brief these : First is emphasized the necessity of a fixed Christian character ; maturity of Christian experience is also requisite ; also a BERLIN MISS. SOC. 156 BERLIN MISS. SOC. good knowledge of the Bible ; not only the wish to be a missionary, but the certainty of divine call to mission service. The applicant must by prayerful examination and consultation with advisers consider his qualifications for the work required of a missionary. He must live a blameless Christian life. School educa tion is not required higher than that of a good common school. He must be capable of the mental requirements made in the mission field, especially of learning foreign languages. As a rule, he must be between twenty and twenty- five years of age. Applicants are required to spend a year in Berlin in special preparation for the seminary, in order that their qualifica tions may be better judged. Moreover, the first year of residence in the seminary is proba tionary. The whole course is without expense to the pupil. While employment with support is not guaranteed, it is expected that the mis sionaries will be maintained through their life time. These conditions assume that whatever theological education is required will be secured in the seminary itself. This has been, with short exceptions, the practice from the first. It is, of course, a midway plan between the send ing out of university trained men and of lay preachers ; and its continuance has been, not a question of tradition, but the result of close ob servation and experiment. At various times the matter has been fully discussed. For ex ample, the first director of the school withdrew because of difference of opinion as to the amount of theological training desirable ; again, in 1836, two members of the committee retired because they preferred less training than was attempted in the seminary. On the other hand, in 1850 a new plan was tried, according to which the seminary was to be but the place for special preparation for distinctively mission work, while a general theological training for the ministry was required as a condition of en trance to the institution ; at the same time those who were destitute of that training were ad mitted, not as candidates for positions as mis sionaries proper, but as attaches of the mission stations in other equally necessary relations. This innovation was of short duration, for the candidates are chiefly from the working classes, and it was found impossible to insist that they should secure a university training, with all its expenses and inducements to apply it to obtain ing positions at home. So in 1857 the present order was introduced, being practically a return to theprevious arrangement. The course of study extended formerly over four, now over five j'ears. The old Janicke school course is described by the founder him self in 1820 as comprising the applied sciences, English (doubtless occasioned by the service under the English societies and in English ter ritory), Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, dogmatics and homiletics, music and drawing. The pres ent arrangement as to the study of languages is. in the first year, Latin; in the second, Greek and English ; in the third, Hebrew ; in the fifth, Dutch, The ancient languages are taught not only because of their own importance, but also for the sake of the linguistic skill their study affords. Exegetical instruction covers practically the whole Bible, and is often con ducted conversationally, the aim being to call out the work of the students. In addition to the strictly exegetical courses, stress is laid upon the study of the Bible in a devotional way. During the course the Old Testament is read through once, the New four times, in the gen eral evening devotional exercises ; these con secutive readings are conducted by the officers of the seminary, and are made an important feature of the daily life. To general historical instruction is added church history, and espe cially the history of missions. Theology proper, liturgies, and homiletics have their share of at tention. An hour daily, as well as two after noons weekly, is devoted to practical manual labor. There are monthly examinations through the course, and a final examination before a board consisting of the director, a member of the consistory, and a clerical member of the committee. This final test is held before the last half year, which time is devoted to some in struction in medicine and pedagogics. The entire charge of ihe seminary is in the hands of a director, who was up to 1865 styled inspec tor ; he is aided by two assistants, who are now called inspectors ; these must be ordained min isters. The directors have been : 1829, Heller ; 1833, Zeller ; 1834, Schtittge ; 1844, Blech ; 1850,Muhlmann; 1857, Wallmann ; 1865, Wange- mann, who holds the office at present. The number of students, according to the report of 1889, is 27. October is the time of admittance, and of sending to the mission field. The headquarters of the society are at the Mission House, which is also the seminary building. The first building was occupied in 1838, and with additions at various times served until 1873, when a new commodious building was erected in a, beautiful location in the east ern part of the city (Georgenkirchstrasse 70), where it stands in the midst of a small garden and opposite an extensive park. The old build ing in another part of the city remains devoted to charitable uses. The expense of maintain ing the house, embracing salaries of teacher, cost of board and cf administration, amounts to about one-sixth of the whole expenditures. The greater part of the funds necessary for the support of the society is furnished by the auxiliary unions. A draft for statutes of such society declares the purpose to be exten sion of information about the mission work, and collection of funds for the central organi zation. Each union has a committee of at least three, vacancies being filled by election from among the members of the union. Every regu lar contributor is a member. The number of these unions is now 308 ; up to 1842, 60 had been founded ; during the next twenty years, 175 ; and since then but comparatively few, the ground being already well occupied. They are scattered through the different provinces of the kingdom : in Brandenburg, 75 ; in Pomerania, C4 ; in (province) Prussia, 12 ; Posen, 25 ; Si lesia, 56 ; Saxony, 65 ; in Berlin itself, 6. Of late years five have been established in South Africa. The annual meetings of these unions are inspiring popular gatherings, with proces sions and decorations, addresses and the like. Lately a system of provincial leagues has been proposed, which shall hold a middle place between the central and the branch organiza tions. The confessional position of the society de serves notice. The statutes include in the state ment of the principles which lay at its founda tion, this clause : " The fraternal co-operation of evangelical Christians of all confessions, who have preached the Word according to the Scrip- BERLIN MISS. SOC. 157 BERLIN MISS. SOC. ture, without human additions and without strife over unessential differences of opinion, has won for Christendom much fruitful territory among the heathen peoples." This principle has been in spirit the ruling one in the work from the first, but not without incidents that have been sometimes embarrassing to the work. There was the more variation because the cir cumstances were novel, and new paths had to be marked out. The union position in the statutes in 1824 could not be carried out to the letter ; in 1833 the first missionaries that were sent out were directed to model churches after the Lutheran plan ; and very properly, for the great majority of the supporters were of the confession. In the years following it was re peatedly declared that the symbolic books of the Lutheran Church were the basis of instruc tion in the seminary next to the Scriptures. The ministerial rescript of 1842, which regu lated the examination and ordination of the students by the Consistory, directed that the Augsburg Confession should be the basis. The instructions given to the missionaries in 1859, and again the revised rules of 1882, require of them that their belief and teaching shall be that of the "canonical books of the Old and New Testaments, according to the Augsburg (unchanged) Confession and the Luther Cate chism." These directions are not regarded as being in conflict with the principles of the statutes, but were occasioned by the necessity of the case. Instruction, church organization, preaching, must, if they are to go beyond the first principles, be in accordance with some one of the great religious systems. In practice the disputed points can be kept in the background, and the spirit of the liberal principle that was laid down can be the ruling one. In 1S50 and 1851, while, on the one hand, the mission was taking on a more confessional char acter, there was a movement on the part of a minority of the committee for a broader plat form. The majority, however, were against such abandonment of Lutheran organizations ; the crisis was reached when one of the in spectors attempted to introduce ultra-Lutheran ideas into the seminary. This was intolerable to some of the students and committee ; the withdrawal of the inspector upon his lapse to the Separated Lutheran party restored peace to the society. The income of the society at home is entirely from voluntary contribution, no auxiliary bind ing itself financially ; as little compulsion is there with regard to the individual members of the auxiliaries. The aim is kept in view to make the stations self-supporting, and that not only through the beneficence of the converts, but by profitable enterprises -within the limits of the stations. The maximum expenditures of the society be tween 1823 and 1830 was 2,291 Thaler ; between 1831 and 1840, 19,879 Thaler ; between 1841 and 1850. 37,858 Thaler ; between 1851 and 1800, 51,779 Thaler ; between 1861 and 1869, 76,374 Thaler ; between 1871 and 1880, 97,600 Thaler. In the last decade they have risen above 100,000 Thaler. The usual method of establishing a station is to acquire by purchase (or often by cession) a property which may not simply serve for a lot on which to erect the buildings of tbe mission proper, but will be large enough to furnish dwellings for the native converts who are to constitute the parish. The community thus gradually grows m numbers by settlement upon mission land ; church and dwelling-house are erected ; a school is established, and, perhaps, a store, a mill, or whatever enterprises are fitting, one aim in it all being to engage the natives in some civilizing employment. If the size of the station warrants it, a cateehist comes to the aid of the missionary ; native helpers are employed ; out-stations are opened up, and other preach ing places in addition. These in turn are made independent of the original one as their growth or prospects warrant. In localities where there are German immigrants as well as natives, the work among the latter often begins as a branch of the activity of the former in their own church. 2. Foreign Work. a. Afbica. — The principal activity of the so ciety is in South Africa. Attempts have been made in other fields, but without special suc cess, and they have been abandoned with the exception of China, in which work was begun in 1882. The mission there is still on a small scale, only one tenth as much money going thither as is expended for South Africa. The field in South Africa is organized in six synods : Orange Free State, Cape Colony, Brit ish Kaffraria, Natal, North Transvaal, ancl South Transvaal. At the chief station of each synod is a superintendent who has oversight of tho work in his district. This system has been in troduced since 1875, gradually supplanting tho former division into conferences. Reports are published of the number of settlers on mission land, the number of baptized persons, adult and infant, in the community, the number of communicants, and the number of school chil dren. The number of persons baptized during the year shows the growth, and the whole num ber of baptized persons, the present strength of the station. In the following description of stations, which can be little more than a catalogue, the aim is to select for mention features that are for some special reason of peculiar interest. Hostility, indifference, backsliding are matters of too universal experience in mission work to be rehearsed here. The report for 1889 gives the number of sta tions in South Africa as 47 ; out-stations, 87 ; preaching stations in addition, 152 ; mission aries ordained, 56 ; unordained, 5 ; other assist ants, 6 ; native helpers paid, 95 ; unpaid, 334. Of these stations half are in the Transvaal. The first missionaries were sent in 1834, with directions to open work among the Bechuana ; this was found impossible, and three of the five went to what is now Orange Free State, and founded the station Bethany. Aside from the difficulties attending every mission in its begin ning, arose troubles from change of govern ment, ancl also from disagreement among the missionaries. In 1859, after twenty-five years of work, there had been baptized 156 adults and 112 children. In that year, among a population of 800, there were 85 communicants. After » second quarter century, in a total of 1,500 on mission ground and within leach, there were 769 baptized persons, 342 communicants, 210 school-children ; whoie number baptized in the fifty years, 1,013. The present figures are, in the reach of the mission, 1,600 ; 998 baptized ; 483 communicants ; 13 adults and 45 children baptized during the .year ; there are 187 school children. The mission is more than self-sup- BERLIN MISS. SOC. 158 BERLIN MISS. SOC. porting at present. A second station is Pniel, founded in 1845 by missionaries from Bethany. In 1852 the churchgoers numbered 300, but emigration to other locations soon ensued. In 1857 was the summit of the prosperity of the station. There were then 200 baptized persons and 83 communicants. In 1863 there were but 30 communicants. Persistent efforts were build ing up the work again a little, when the discovery of diamonds drew into the locality a mass of the worst elements. A long strife with the British Government followed as to the legal ownership of the land occupied by the station, and this strife, though decided favorably to the society, had a depressing influence on the work. There are now 25S communicants and twice as many baptized persons ; the number of school-children is 175. Adamshoop was founded under the pro tection of a friendly native family in 1867, and has continued under their patronage ever since. It has 515 baptized members and 393 communi cants. Other stations in this synod are Kim berley (1875), in the midst of the diamond dis trict ; Beaconsfield (1885), in a locality in Kim berley designated for the abode of the natives ; Bloemfontein (1875), a mission station in con nection with a German Lutheran Church. In 1837 work was begun in Kaffraria by the opening of a station at Bethel. It met with but little visible success for several years. A few out-stations were opened, a school started, a. little church built, when in 1846 war inter rupted the work. Not until about 1857 was it possible to renew it permanently, but even from that time, though under the sovereignty of a civilized nation, the work was slow and dis couraging, owing to the evils that civilization (?) brings in its train. The number of baptized at present is 333 ; of communicants, 130 ; whole number baptized in the life of the mission, 541. Wartburg was a branch from Bethel in 1854, on the site of the previous mission of Emmaus, which had been destroyed in the wars of the preceding decade. In 1863 a church was built ; a school was soon opened. War interrupted the work in 1878. Now out-stations are opened up, and it rivals Bethel in number of converts. The number of baptized members is 325. There are 142 communicants. Petersberg is a second branch from Bethel, near King AVilliam's Town, and was founded in 1857. In 1862 it received a grant of 2,000 acres from the English Govern ment. But in spite of this aid reverses set in. The natives could not resist temptations from the city near by. On the death of the mission ary, in 1873, his place was not supplied. Heathen crowded out the Christian natives on the station. The work is now in connection with Emdizeni. This station was founded in ¦ 1864, and is a branch from the preceding. The mission was slow in showing results, in 18H0 numbering only a few communicants. There are now 30 with 75 baptized persons, a total of 110 since 1864. Petersberg shows figures a trifle larger. Etembeni was occupied in 1868. In 1875 a school was started, but in 1885 was given up. For some years the station has been in charge of tho missionary in Petersberg, but now (1889) has its own supply, and the work is beginning anew. The missions in Kaffraria thus remain the least encouraging of any in the six synods. In the Cape Colony Synod are seven stations. Zoar was the first to be founded, 1838. The first missionary belonged indeed to the Berlin So ciety, but the expenses of the station were met by the South African Society. The chief busi ness at first was to rescue the natives from in temperance ; the more special religious work progressed quietly and earnestly, until 1842, when the missionary left the service of the Ber lin Society. The substitute was even more suc cessful, but the South African Society was re luctant to continue their support. The parish itself pledged 500 Thaler yearly to the work, and in this way the missionary could remain. In 1853 a new church was dedicated, erected with great enthusiasm by the people. In order to avoid complications it was located upon land owned by the Berlin Society. In connection with the placing of a crucifix upon the altar op position arose on the part of the (reformed) South African mission, and they took posses sion of the post in 1856, the Lutheran mission making Amalienstein (the location of their church) an independent station. In 1867, though not all the people accepted the change, Zoar was again taken possession of by the Ber lin Society, and for years maintained indepen dently. At present the double station is called Amalienstein, and reports 1,012 baptized mem bers, 2,443 in all since the founding, and 555 communicants. Famine has led to emigration of late, so that the numbers are just now de creasing. Ladysmith, a few hours distant, was opened in 1857, and became in 1868 an inde pendent station. It has now 220 communicants and 440 baptized. Around it several preaching places have been established. The establish ment of Anhalt-Schmidt in 1860 was rendered possible by an opportune legacy, and by the generous response to the society's need occa sioned by the withdrawal of the annual allow ance of 500 Thaler from the Consistory treasury. (This withdrawal was but temporary.) The present strength is 300 communicants and 600 baptized. Riversdale was adopted from the London Society in 1868 ; it is now self-support ing ; has 1,318 baptized, making 2, 276 since 1868, and 574 communicants. Herbertsdale and Mos- selbay were at first out-stations of Riversdale ; since 1872 and 1879 respectively they have been independent. Laingsburg, 1883, is a little vil lage that sprang up on the line of the railway northeast from Cape Town. All three are but small stations. The six stations in Natal are all small. Em maus was opened in 1847 on the borders of the region assigned by the English to the native inhabitants. The religious state of the com munity has been at times cheering, oftener un satisfactory. Material prosperity has also varied, owing to war, adverse legislation, lep rosy, and uncertainty about the title to the land occupied. At present there are about 200 com municants, 360 baptized, a total of 597 since 1847. Though Emmaus is the residence of the superintendent of the synod, Christianenburg near the coast is the largest station. It was opened in 1848 as a branch activity of the pas tor of a German church in a German colony. It has 300 communicants and 600 baptized per sons, 1,110 since its foundation. Stendal was founded in 1860, and has 63 communicants and 106 baptized persons. Emangweni (1863) and Hoffenthal (1868), near Emmaus among the mountains, have about 60 communicants each. Konigsberg, farther north, was established in 1868, and has 137 communicants. The above enterprises all belong to the earlier BERLIN MISS. SOC. 159 BERLIN MISS. SOC. period of the society. In all four synods work was begun before 1850, and new stations have been only the offshoots and natural growth of the old. The society had, up to 1848, work in the East Indies, but at that date it was aban doned. A new territory seeming desirable, it was finally decided to enter the Transvaal. This field is now the chief one of the society. The territory is divided into a north and a south synod. In 1860 the station Gerlachshoop was opened, but was destroyed, and the community scattered by intertribal wars. Khatlolu was the next to be established in 1861, but in common with other stations had to be abandoned in 1864 because of native hostility. In 1878 it was opened again, and a dwelling-house and church built upon land ceded to the mission by the government ; but the title was defective, and the buildings were again in 1888 aban doned. The next station opened, and now by far the most important one in the region, is Botschabelo (1865) ; the place grew rapidly by means of refugees from the abandoned stations mentioned above. The inhabitants of the mis sion were required to devote a part of their work and fruits to the support of the mission, and they did this gladly. Church after church became too small ; the schoolhonse had to be enlarged repeatedly ; a store and a mill were established. In 1873 there were 1,300 inhabi tants. Owing to the independent notions of some of the chiefs, and to the severe laws of the Boers in regard to them, in 1873 a large number of natives emigrated. The mission, however. remained active ; after the wars of the Boers with England and the ensuing peace they were unmolested by the Dutch. A printing estab lishment was opened, various out-stations were established, and a seminary for training help ers. At present there are 1,338 communicants, 2,453 baptized, being a total of 3,457 since the founding of the station. Leidenburg was estab lished in 1866 and became in the next year an independent station, chiefly for the care of refugees from the hostile king who had caused the abandonment of the stations mentioned above. For a long time there was great hos tility to encounter, but the station progressed satisfactorily, and now has 616 communicants and 1,020, baptized. In Pretoria a station was erected in the same year — 1866 — which has shared the fortune of tliat city in regard to its prosperity. At present it has 789 communicants and 1,839 baptized persons. Wallmannsthal is a colony from Pretoria started in 1869. It has undergone the experience of numerous sta tions, suffering losses from the emigration of the uneasy, often ill-treated natives, and re covering its slf slowly by the settlement of other heathen. Now it has 272 communicants, with ¦615 baptized members. In the same year (1869) Neuhalle was founded, though the name dates from 1874, when the station was moved a few miles from the old location. Also other changes were made, so that in the reports it is given as existent from 1880. It now has nearly 300 com municants, with twice that number of baptized persons. Potsehefstrooni is since 1872 a sta tion of the Berlin Society, before that belong ing to the Wesleyans. It is now a prosperous, self-supporting station, with 200 communicants. Heidelberg, a city chiefly of white inhabitants, has a station among the blacks, undertaken in 1875. In common with many of the stations it has been interrupted by wars, and has had to contend with the drink curse. It has now 100 communicants. Woyenthin, formerly an out- station of the preceding, is since 1884 indepen dent, and has now 240 communicants. Other stations are Arcona (1877), now an out-station of Lobethal (1877), the former having 200, the latter 300 communicants ; Mossegu (1880), with 200 communicants, and Johannesburg, still more recently founded. In the North Transvaal Synod the stations are Ga Matlale (1865), with now 70 communi cants and 180 baptized members of the mission ; Malokong, from 1867 an out-station of the now abandoned Thutloane, since 1881 an indepen dent post, with at present 78 communicants and 125 baptized persons ; Waterberg, now called Modimolle, dating also from 1867, one of the most prosperous of the missions, having now 275 communicants and 625 baptize! members ; Blauberg is occupied since 1868 ; Makchabeng (1870), Moletse (1877), Medingen (1881), Ha Tsevase (1872), Tsakoma (1874), Georgenholtz (1877), having about 60 communicants and 110 baptized members each. The principal station in the synod is Mp'home, founded in 1878. The interest centres in the training school which has been established here. It is also the centre of a promising activity in out-stations. The totals for the South African missions are as follows : Number of baptized members of the communities, 21,112. Number of com municants, 10,384. During the year 1889 there were 1,935 persons baptized. Number of school children is 3,981. 6. China. — Work in China has been carried on since 1882, when the society assumed the mission stations already established. The first German to undertake work for the Chinese was Giitzlaff, a graduate from Janicke's seminary. His first efforts date from 1827, but he worked single-handed until 1843, when he went to Hong-Kong and founded there the " Christian Union for the Spread of the Gospel in China." For this he secured aid in Ger many, especially through a Cassel Chinese fund. Giitzlaff' s aim was to train Chinese for the work among their countrymen, for he saw that they could carry it on better than the hated foreign ers. These native evangelists brought their converts to Hong Kong for baptism, and when one had gathered fifty, he was ordained as their preacher. His work grew apace, and in 1846 he made such appeals that the Basle and the Barmen societies gave him their aid. The Cassel Society also increased its support but was soon amalgamated with the Berlin Society. In 1850 Giitzlaff visited Germany and stirred the land to great activity. Unions were every where formed, which eventually consolidated the two— one in Stettin, the other in Berlin. Various enterprises were enthusiastically planned, but for one reason and another failed of full success. Moreover, the Basle missionary who had charge of Gutzlaff's work during his absence published the most damaging reports of the incapacity, deceit, ancl immoralities of the two hundred Chinese evangelists who had been sent out. This, of course, brought men down to more sober views, and the work pro gressed upon a safer basis, though it was slower. About 1855 two men were sent out by the Ber lin (Chinese) mission. The Basle and Barmen societies worked independently upon the ac cepted plan of educating carefully the native evangelists before sending them out, and direct- BERLIN MISS. SOC. 160 BETHEL ing work in out-stationa from a central one. The war of 1856 interrupted the work for a time, but only to prepare for it brighter prospects. The unions of Berlin and Stettin worked to gether, and were aided by the Berlin (South African) Society, which trained some of the men who were to be sent to the field. The situ ation at the beginning of 1870 was quite un favorable, for funds aud men were scarce, and the Franco-Prussian war wrought havoc in the societies. The Berlin Union gave up its inde pendence and became auxiliary to the Barmen Society, which continued the work from 1872. But the union of the two elements, though promising well at the time, proved embarrass ing ; personal friction between the missionaries led soon to the resignation of three of them, and the Barmen Society resolved, in 1881, to give up the work assumed in 1872. The former ly independent Berlin (China) Mission Society did not venture it again, ancl offered it to the Berlin (South African) Society. Just at that time came news of the decision in Pniel that the station land really belonged to the society, and damages for occupation by the diamond diggers had been awarded ; ample funds were therefore at hand for beginning the work. It was also seen that the South African field was rapidly becoming occupied by the numerous societies active there. The decision was reached to accept the responsibility, and in 1882 the society took up the work in China, purchasing the fine Mission House in Canton from the Barmen Society. At the transfer the boundaries between the field and that of the Basle Mission were re arranged, and other changes were made. The work is exclusively in the province Can ton, in which there are four central stations. At Canton there is a seminary for training na tive evangelists, and two children's schools. Missionary Hubrig, the leader of the entire work, has been located here for twenty-two years. The number of communicants is 33. During the year 13 were baptized, making the total number at present 66. A second station is Fu-mui, where there are 72 baptized mem bers and 45 communicants. In 40 locations of this district live 156 Christians, 100 of whom are communicants. Phak-sa with its out-stations has 70 Christians with 45 communicants. Nani- hyung is the fourth principal station, of about the same size as the preceding. In addition to these principal stations there are 6 stations, 4 out-stations, 15 preaching places, and 125 other localities where mission work is done. There were 76 baptisms during the last year, so that at its close there were upon this society's mis sion territory 642 Christians, among whom were 372 communicants. The society publishes a monthly magazine, Berliner Missionsherichle, a child's paper, Hosian- na, and a general mission paper, Missionsfreund, the Beiblatl to which concerns its own work. Berlin. Jerusalem Society. — (See Jeru salem Union in Berlin.) Bcrsaba (English, Beersheba), a city of Surinam, South America, on the river Para, is in the centre of a district which has always been the darkest corner in Surinam, the strong hold of idolatry ancl sorcery. Idol temples and places of sacrifice are very numerous. The former are not imposing edifices, such as are found in India, but small structures only a de gree above common pigsties, and located in out- of-the-way corners behind the houses of the village. They are not used for worship, but only as repositories for the idols and their be longings, which are needful for heathen dances and the performances of the sorcerers. A station of the Moravians is like an oasis in the desert. The neat, cheerful appearance of the station, and the Gospel light which radiates from this centre into the heathen darkness around, is hav ing a blessed influence. A large congregation of baptized members has been gathered ; preach ing stations are established ; idolatrous dances grow less frequent, and the superstitious dread of the sorcerer decreases as the light and knowl edge of the Gospel spreads among the people. Berseba, a station of the Rhenish Mission in Great Namaqualand, West South Africa. Here the missionary Kronlein translated the New Testament into Nama. Two missionaries and wives, 3 native preachers, 324 communi cants. Bctafo, a town in the Imerina Province of Madagascar. Mission station of the Norwegian Missionary Society. Beterverwachtung, a town near Gra ham's Hall, in Demarara, British Guiana, South America. Mission station of the Moravians, where they have a small congregation which formerly belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but on being left without a minister applied for admission to the Moravian Church, and was admitted with very satisfactory results. The teacher at Graham's Hall assists the mis sionary at this station. Bethabara, one of the most important of the Moravian mission stations in Jamaica, West Indies, and the centre of an extensive field of effort. It is situated on the uneven surface of the lofty range of table-land known as the Man chester Mountains. A training institution for female teachers was established at this station, and for a number of years has sent out many useful teachers. Quite recently, however, this has been removed to Bethlehem. Bcthanieil. — 1. A town in Great Namaqua land, South Africa. Mission station of the Rhenish Missionary Society ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 native helper, 241 church-members. 2. A town in the Orange Free State, South Africa. Mission station of the Berlin Mission ary Society (1834) ; 2 missionaries and wives, 1 native helper, 457 communicants. 3. A town in Eastern Transvaal, South Africa. Mission station of the Herrmansburg Society (1857). Bethany. — 1. A town on the Mosquito Coast, Central America. Mission station of the Moravians, formerly Tasba Paum, an outpost of Magdala. 2. A town in Jamaica, West Indies, a mission station of the Moravians (1836). Bethel.— 1. A station of the Moravian Brethren in Western Alaska, situated on the river Knskokwim. The work is aniong the In- nuits, whom the missionaries found extremely hard to reach ; but the latest intelligence from this station mentions awakenings and conver sions and a general desire on the part of the surrounding heathen for religious instruction, and there is much to encourage the workers. BETHEL 161 BHUTAN who are 1 missionary and wife, 1 unmarried man, and 1 single lady. 2. A town in the island of St. Kitt's, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians. The proprietors of an estate situated at the foot of Mount Misery, on the northern side of the island, were desirous that a mission should be established for the benefit of the slaves residing ononis and the neighboring estates, who were in a very neglected spiritual condition. The wish was made known to the Moravian Mission Board, and consent to extend the work was readily granted. The proprietors were willing to make over a couple of acres of ground for a station. The place selected was a piece of un cultivated ground near the northern extremity of the estate, and separated from the cane-land by a deep gully on one side and bounded by a road on the other. It is about a mile from the town of Dieppe Bay, and being on elevated ground, commands an extensive view. To the south towers Mount Misery, an extinct volcano. In 1832 a church was built and the place named Bethel. 3. A town of Kaffraria, South Africa. Mis sion station of the Berlin Evangelical Mission ary Society (1837) ; 2 ordained missionaries and wives, 1 lay, 2 native helpers, 122 communi cants. 4. A town in Transvaal. Mission station of the Herrmansburg Society ; 50 church-mem bers. 5. City of Bengal, India. See Bethel Santhal Mission. Bethel Santhal mission. — Undenomi national ; supported by voluntary contributions. Secretary in England, Miss M. C. Gurney, Granville Lodge, Granville Road, Eastbourne. The Bethel Santhal Mission was founded by Pastor A. Haegert in 1875, in the country of the Santhals, Khairaboni, near Jamtara, Bengal, India. The Santhals worship the sun and the prince of evil spirits with horrid rites ; human sacrifices were formerly offered, but have been stopped by law. After working among them for several years Pastor Haegert built a mission and school-houses, which were dedicated in July, 1875, under the name of the Bethel Santhal Mission. The expenses of these, and of the hospital and training school which were soon added, Mr. Haegert himself defrayed, until his resources were exhausted. After that the need ed funds were supplied by others. At present there is a " home" and an " Indian" depart ment, which mutually assist one another, but are independent in working. Other missionaries have since joined Mr. Haegert, and he has in addition many native helpers. Bethel is the head station of the mission. "Bethlehem," an out-station, was formed in 1885, and is in charge of two European mission aries ; six other out-stations have native pastors. There are 2 training schools and 17 village schools, a hospital, and 8 dispensaries. Since the foundation of the mission 25,000 patients, coming from 151 different villages, have been treated. There are baptized Christians in more than forty villages. Bethescla. — 1. A town in Bassutoland (Lessouto), S:mth Africa. Mission station of the Paris Evangelical Society ; 1 missionary, 9 native helpers, 334 communicants. 2. A town in Griqualand, South Africa. Mis sion station of the Moravians, occupied at the request of the chief of the Lupino, 3. A town in the island of St. Kitt's, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians. The station occupies a fine and healthy location at no great distance from the sea, and on the summit of a knoll ornamented by coeoanut- trees. The knoll is partially surrounded by one of those deep ravines which constitute a strik ing feature of the scenery of St. Kitt's. Bethjala, or Bethhala, Syria, a town in Southwest Syria, southwest of Jerusalem and northwest of Bethlehem, Mission station of the Berlin Jerusalem Society ; 3 native workers, 1 school, 60 scholars. Bethlehem, a small town in Palestine, near Jerusalem. The birthplace of Christ. The only mission work attempted here is by the Jerusalem Union of Berlin, which has a school with 150 pupils. Betigeri, a town in Bombay, Western India. Population (including Godag, one mile distant), 17,000. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society ; 3 missionaries, 2 mission aries' wives, 10 native helpers, 239 church- members, and a teachers' seminary. BctuI, a city of the Central Provinces, India. Population, 5,000, chiefly Gonds. Mis sion station of the Swedish Evangelical National Society. Bezuki, a town in Eastern Java. Mission station of the Java Comite (1879). Bczw'aria, a town in Madras, India. Mis sion station of the C. M. S. ; 186 communi cants. Bhagalpur, a town in Bengal, India, on the Ganges River, 326 miles (by river) from Cal cutta. Population, 68,238, Hindus, Moslems, etc. A station of the C. M. S. ; 77 church- members. Bhagaya, a town of Bengal, India. Mis sion station of the C. M. S. ; 92 church-mem bers. Bhandara, Central Provinces of India, 38 miles east of Nagpur. A neat and healthy place ; has a good trade. Population, 11,150. Mission station of the Free Church of Scotland ; 3 missionaries ancl wives. Bhatniri, or Virat Version.— The Bhat- niri, also Buttaneer, which is spoken in the province of Bhatnir, west of Delhi, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of lan guages. A New Testament into this dialect was published at Serampore in 1824, but never reprinted. Bhiinpore, a town of Gujarat, Bengal. Mission station of the Free Baptist Mission (U. S. A.) ; 75 church-members, 1,442 scholars. Bhudrnck, or Bliadrak, a town of Orissa, Bengal, India. Sub-station of the Free Will Baptist Missionary Society worked from Chandbali ; 14 church-members, 54 scholars. Bhutan. — An independent native State on the southern slope of the eastern part of the Himalayan range. It is bounded by Thibet on the north, on the south by the British prov inces of Assam and Bengal, on the west by Sik- kim, another native State, and on the east by BHUTAN 102 BIBLE DISTRIBUTION the territory of several uncivilized and little known mountain tribes. It is included within the limits of north latitude 26° 45' and 28°, and of east longitude 89° ancl 92°. The extreme western point of Bhutan is due north of Cal cutta, and distant from that city a little over 300 miles. Neither the area nor the population are exactly known ; but previous to the annex ation to British territory of certain of its dis tricts, it was supposed to contain 20,000 square miles and 20,000 people ; both these estimates are now believed to be too small. The people are allied to those of Tibet (at least their lan guage indicates that) ; in religion they are nominally Buddhists, but really devil worship pers. Morally they are sunken into the lowest abysses of degradation. Their government is one of oppression ; property is insecure. No Government official receives n salar}', but ex torts what he can from the people, and holds office as long as he is able to bribe his superiors. Nevertheless, the people are industrious, though given to intemperance and immorality. Polyandry is practised, and has had the effect of preventing the growth of the population. The country presents the utmost grandeur of mountain scenery, but thus far is almost wholly destitute of any civilizing or improving influ ences. Its relations with the British Govern ment are not close ; hitherto these relations have consisted largely in kidnapping expedi tions on the part of the Bhutias into adjacent British districts, and retaliatory measures on the part of the British. For the past quarter of a century, however, owing to severe punish ments received in 1865 at the hands of a mili tary expedition, the Bhutias have been on their good behavior. Bible Christian Foreign Mission ary Society.— Headquarters, Bible Christian Book Rooms, 26 Paternoster Row, London. This society was organized in 1821 for the purpose of sending missionaries into unchris- tianized portions of the United Kingdom and into heathen lands. In 1831 they sent two missionaries to North America, one of whom occupied Canada, West, and the other, Prince Edward's Island. Their work was eminently successful, and in 1883, when the union of all the Methodist churches in Canada was effected, the membership of this mission was about 7,000. In 1850 Messrs. James Way and James Rowe were sent to South Australia, and later several other missionaries settled in Victoria, Queens land, and New Zealand. The work here, being carried on under favorable circumstances, soon grew independent and self-supporting, and now tho principal work done in this mission is the planting of new churches in needy districts. In 1hh5 the society sent two missionaries to Yunnan, China, under tbe auspices of the China Inland Mission, whose repeated appeals for help had roused muoh interest. Tho prog ress of the work has been excellent, and now the society supports four missionaries at the two stations of Yunnan and Chang-fuug-Foo, in the province of Yunnan. A native church has been organized with seven members, and a day school, recently started, is doing nicely. Much good has also been accomplished by means of the distribution of many Gospel books and tracts, and in medical treatment of opium pa tients, and by the use of simple, sensible rem edies to cure all kinds of ailments. At home the society has forty-seven mission aries working among the lowest classes of peo ple in London and other parts of England. Bible Distribution. — This department of missicnary work may be considered under four heads : I. Its object. II. Its methods. III. Its agencies. IV. Its results. I. Object. — This is to bring the knowledge of the Bible to every soul by means of placing copies of the Bible within the possession cr, at least, within the reach of every person. Dur ing the course of mission enterprises there has been and there still is not a little misunder standing on this point. The immediate object has, in some cases, obscured the ulterior, and the actual possession of the Bible as a book has crowded out of sight the use of it as a means of spiritual knowledge and growth. The great Bible societies of Great Britain, America, and Europe have accepted the principle that the end they are to keep in view is not merely the pos session of the Bible, but its proper use, an.l that any distribution which ignores that dis tinction is liable to do more harm than good. An instance illustrative of this general princi ple is the fact that at different times certain persons have given away large numbers of Scrip tures to the crowds of pilgrims that gather at such places as Jerusalem. The object was un doubtedly laudable, but unwise, inasmuch a3 the invariable result has been that the books thus cheapened and thrown broadcast exercised little or no influence for good, and even inspired a feeling of contempt, as the sacred pages were seen tossed aside and soiled or torn and other wise disfigured. II. Slethods. — In general Bible distribution is carried on by sale or grants. In effect, how ever, the difference between these is very mate rially lessened by such heavy reductions in prices that the sales are in many cases little more than grants. As with regard to the object, so with regard to the methods there has been not a little dis cussion ancl difference of opinion. Wherever the mere possession of a copy of the Scriptures has been considered n prime essential, there, as a natural consequence, great stress has been laid upon/ree distribution. On the other hand, those who have held that the mere fact of pos session was of comparatively little value, except as it might lead to careful use, have also held that it is wiser to expect persons to give some thing for the book ; and at this time the number of copies of tbe Scriptures actually given away by the large Bible and missionary societies is but a very small proportion of the total number distributed. In order, however, to meet tho demand upon the Christian Church that the Bible shall be placed within the reach of any man, however poor, the societies have adopted the general principle of gauging prices by the ability of the people to pay rather than by the actual cost of the book. In such lands as Great Britain, the United States, and the greater part cf Conti nental Europe, the Bible societies, as a ruie, ask cost price for their publications, reckoning in the cost the expense of printing and bind ing, but making no account of the outlay in editorial work. To this, however, there are ex ceptions. At times, in order to meet a special want, an edition, usually of the New Testament, is placed at a figure less even than that cost, as BIBLE DISTRIBUTION 163 BIBLE DISTRIBUTION in the case of certain editions especially de signed for use in the schools or for distribution among the poorer classes of laborers. In distinctively missionary lands the day's wage of a laboring man is often taken as the gauge, and an edition of the whole Bible, in plain but substantial binding, is placed at such a figure as will be within the reach of the or- dinnrv peasant or artisan. Other editions of the New Testament, different portions, as the Gospels, Psalms, Proverbs, Pentateuch, etc., and larger editions of the whole Bible are made proportionate in price. Wherever gilt or fine binding is used the actual cost is asked, as it is not considered right to call upon the Christian public for the supply of luxuries. With regard to grants, the general principle is to judge each case by itself. If the distribu tor, whether missionary pastor, agent, or colpor teur, is satisfied, first, that the person is not able t} give the price of the book, and, second, that the copy will be well and advantageously used, ordinarily the grant is made. The plan of securing the attention ancl interest of a per son not especially interested in the Bible by the donation of a copy has not, as a rule, been considered wise. It has, however, become increasingly evident that no iron rule can be laid down. Very much must be left to the individual judgment of the persons engaged in the work, under the guid ance of the general principles laid down by the societies. It is sufficient to say that these principles have met with increasingly general approval, and have produced most satisfactory results. III. Agencies.— These are: 1. Bible soci eties. 2. Missionary societies. 3. Other or ganizations and individual workers. 1, Bible Societies. — These are organizations for the distribution of the Word of God in various languages, without note or comment. Ordinarily they carry on also the work of trans lating, editing, and publishing Bibles, as essen tial prerequisites to their special work of dis tribution. Commencing with the supply of their own lands and peoples, they have grad ually extended their operations, until they now include every country in the world where there is any possibility of reaching the people with the Word of God. a. T he distinctive characteristics ol the Bible so cieties, so far as they are distributing agencies, are : 1. Their confining their work to the circula tion of the Bible, either in whole or in part. They do not undertake to preach or exhort. Their one work is to place the Bible in the hands of those who will read ancl study for themselves. As is inevitable, this lino is not and cannot always be sharply drawn. Colpor teurs are compelled by the very nature of their work to explain the book that they carry, but they are not expected to take the place of the preacher or teacher, and are not encouraged in entering into discussions as to the doctrines of Scripture or the rites of the Church. So strong has been the feeling in this respect that many have opposed the printing of chapter headings, of references, maps, and the tables of weights and measures. Wider ancl more mature consid erations have resulted in the acceptance of these, and the " without note or comment" of the constitutions of the leading societies has been understood to mean that all attempts at interpretation or exhortation as such were excluded from the province of the society's work. 2. Their Catholicity. The Bible societies of America and Europe have been and are spe cially noted as being the great means of uniting the various branches of the Church in their efforts for the evangelization of the world. They, as a rule, know no distinction of denomi nation, whether based upon form of worship, church government, or creed. All men who heartily accept the Bible as the foundation of Christian truth, and are anxious to further its knowledge by men of all nations and languages, are cordially invited to join in their support and management. This has been aided by the adoption by the societies of the broadest principles in regard to the versions that they circulate. The British and Foreign, and American Bible Societies, and the National Bible Society of Scotland, adopt for their English editions the " Authorized" or "King James" Version, but in their transla tions into foreign languages invariably go back, where practicable, to the Greek and Hebrew original. As a rule they reject the Apocrypha, except that in some cases, i s in Greece and Russia, the versions based on the Septuagint are allowed in deference to the popular feeling. The British and Foreign Bible Society has also at times permitted the sale, by its agents, of the Douay Version. (See articles on the differ ent Bible Societies and Translation.) h. General Organization and Management. — These are treated specifically in the statements of the different societies, but certain general facts relate to all. 1. They are independent of all ecclesiastical and denominational relations, self-regulative and self-perpetuating, and base their sole claim to the endorsement and support of Christian people upon the work that they actually accom plish. Their general membership is based, as a rule, upon contributions, any donor of a cer tain sum being considered a voting member and entitied to a voice in the selection of the managing committees and in the decision of any questions that may come up at the general meetings held annually. The immediate busi ness of the societies is conducted by a commit tee of gentlemen who are elected annually, and meet once a month or oftener, as may be required. They serve without compensation, ancl care i=> taken that they may fairly represent different denominations ancl evangelical inter ests. That the general conduct of the societies has been so free from that " close corporation" character almost inevitable when the constitu ency or general membership is very large and unwieldy testifies to the broad-mindedness of the boards, which, as a rule, welcome the hearty interest and investigation of all the members. No one can attend their legular- business meet ings without an increasing sense of the great value and importance of their work, and if members who might be there by right would present themselves more often, the interest in the societies and their influence for good would be vastly increased. r. Conduct of Foreign Work. 1. The first efforts of the Bible societies in foreign lands were through the different mis- sionai'3' organizations, and were specially di rected to the publication of versions of the Bible, as they were prepared by the mission- BD3LE DISTRIBUTION 161 BIBLE DISTRD3UTION aries of different societies. At first these were published by the missionary societies, but as the demands upon their treasuries increased and the Bible societies grew in ability, this depart ment of their work was gradually transferred to them. This was not always easy of accomplish ment, and some missions have been somewhat jealous of the alleged ownership by the Bible societies of versions prepared by their own members, As at present conducted the process of publishing a version is generally as follows : The opportunity or need of one being apparent, an arrangement is made between some one of the Bible societies and the missionary society occupying a certain field, by whieh one or more missionaries especially fitted for the work are instructed to devote either the whole or a part of their time to the preparation of the trans lation, their support and the incidental expense being, iu many cases, assumed by the Bible so ciety. When the translation is completed prep arations are made for publishing, either on the field, if good printing-presses and binderies are available, or in America, England, or Continen tal Europe, according to circumstances. It was formerly the custom to do much of the publishing in London or New York, but since the establishment of the numerous foreign agencies it is very largely done at the great cen tres of those agencies, as Vienna, Constanti nople, Shanghai, Tokio, etc. The translation thus made is the property of the Bible society that incurred the expense, and although there is no regular copyright taken out, tho rights of each society are care fully regardecl. In some cases, as those of the Japanese, Chinese, and Turkish versions, two or more societies have combined to share the expense, and have equal rights of publication. Whenever ono society has need o£ the publica tions of another the required copies are pur chased, cost price rather than selling price being paid, on the principle that one society should not reap financial benefit from the benev olence of another. In certain cases permission is asked and usually granted for the use of plates for the reduplication of a version. In general the rule has been for each society to assist every other to the best of its ability, so far as convenience or eautious regard for mu tual interest was involved, the aim being not to secure honor or glory to themselves, but to further by every possible means the great aim of the societies. 2. The second department of the foreign work of the Bible societies is that of distribu tion. Here, too, for many years they worked rather as assistants to tho missionary societies, giving grants of books and of money to defray expenses of colportage, etc. Gradually in this respect also their work began to individualize, especially as the different denominations en tered the field, and in not a few cases covered much the same ground. Then, too, the neces sity of providing Scriptures for many people whom the missionaries did not and could not attempt to reach necessitated a class of agents quite distinct. Thus grew up the system of agencies, much the same in kind as those of any large mercantile house. The agent is located at some central point, such as Berlin, Vienna, Constantinople, Shanghai, Buenos Ayres, Carac- cas, etc. He keeps informed as to all the needs of the territory assigned to him, arranges for publications, colportage, etc., keeps in close relation with all lines of Christian work, whether missionary or local, watches carefully for any opening, and holds himself in readiness to improve every opportunity to increase the circulation and the knowledge of the Scriptures. As in the case of missionary societies, so with the Bible societies there has been some dis advantage arising from the presence of two or more in the same territory. This has entailed often unnecessary expense, and has inevitably involved a greater or less amount of friction, if not between tho societies or their agents, at least between the employes. Each society and agency adopts its own rules, has its own sys tem, and while mutual consultation ordinarily alleviates much it cannot change entirely, and so long as there are differences in this respect there will be misunderstandings ancl difficul ties. There is a constantly increasing opinion among those best acquainted with the interests of the societies that some arrangement will be made by which each society shall be left undis turbed in the management of the Bible work in those sections of the world where it can work to the best advantage. Many such arrange ments have been made, and it is to be hoped that before many years they will be completed. A word should be said in regard to the choice of fields by the societies. This has, as a rule, been decided by the fact of previous occupation by some missionary society, or by some circum stances social or civil that have particularly drawn their attention. American missionary societies have usually looked to the American Bible Society, English to the British and For eign, Scotch to the National Bible Society of Scotland, while the Dutch have naturally re ceived the assistance of the Netherlands Bible Society of Holland. When these missionary societies have occupied territory that for other reasons, political or historical, was the natural field of another Bible society (e.g., an American mission in India), they have usually looked to their own society chiefly for assistance in the form of grants of books or of money to aid in their own work, so far as it was distinct from the local Bible agency. The subordinate agencies employed are : 1. Bible depots. It is the general custom in the agencies of the Bible societies to establish Biblo depots in all large places. These do not serve merely or even principally as salesrooms, but are places of storage, and, above all, are cen tres of influence. The sales from them seldom equal those by a colporteur, but the very fact of their being especially set apart for the Bible carries with it an influence which is no small factor in the sales made by the colporteurs. They are generally tastefully arranged, carefully and neatly kept, aud not seldom furnish a gathering-place for Christian men, to meet and consider plans for the spread of the kingdom of Christ. In not a few cases it has been a seri ous question whether the cost of maintaining them was wisely incurred, yet in instances where there has been an effort to dispense with them they have been re-established as an essen tial element in Bible work, 2. Colporteurs. Colportage is the mainstay of the work of Bible distribution, and by far the greater part of the Scriptures sold on mis sion ground pass through the hands of these men, who quietly and unobtrusively have done and are doing a work unsurpassed in impor tance by that of any class of laborers in the BIBLE DISTRIBUTION 165 BIBLE DISTRIBUTION field of evangelization. More than either mis sionary preacher or teacher they come in con tact with men, often those bitterly opposed to the truth. They seek them out in their homes, their shops, their fields, and gain access to places that no one else could enter. Taking as their aim the placing of the Bible in every home, even in the hands of every person who will jead and study it, they have to be wiser than serpents. Their stories of adventure re veal incidents as thrilling as any in the history of the Church. They are generally plain men, selected not for their education but their ability to get along with men, conciliating rather than antagonistic in their character, and their knowledge of the Bible as a guide to life rather than as a system of doctrine, though sometimes their arguments with Jews, Moslems, and in fidels would do credit to the professors in some theological seminaries. In former years colportage was largely con ducted without any definite plan. Wherever an opportunity opened men were sent, gener ally along lines already laid down or suggested by missionary operations. At present, how ever, there is much more of system, and there are few lands where every town or city, even every village or hamlet is not within the field assigned to some colporteur. This, of course, necessitates careful organization, and no one can read carefully the annual reports of the Bible societies without realizing more fully than ever before how systematic is the way they are bending every energy to the great work before them. 3. Bible readers. As is inevitable, the work of Bible and missionary societies often blend, so that it is not always possible to draw the line sharply between them. For many years the Bible societies did not consider it within their province to do more than actually dis tribute the Scriptures. Holding specially aloof from all preaching, they considered that Bible readers, who must inevitably be also teachers, at least in a great degree, were more properly mission ¦ employes. Two circumstances have combined to bring about a change in this re spect : 1. The fact that in many cases, when people were unable to read themselves, or if able, unwilling to take the pains, it was found that the Bible reader, by arousing an interest in the Bible, aroused also the desire to own it, and thus became, if not directly, still indirectly a very important factor in its distribution. Espe cially was this found to be the case in countries like Egypt, where ophthalmia prevails, and many were unwilling to make the effort to read until their interest was aroused by the Bible reader. 2. The fact that, with the great pres sure upon the missionary societies for funds to carry on their work, they found it simply im possible to provide these laborers. It has thus come about that one of the great Bible societies has changed its rule and ac cepted these readers as legitimate assistants in their work. 2. Missionakt Societies. — In the history of Bible work, especially the earlier portion of it, the missionary societies hold often an even more prominent place than the Bible societies. These latter have seldom considered themselves as pioneers. Feeling that their great field lay with those who could receive and understand the written Word, the mission societies have taken the lead in exploring, and have been the ones to open up lands for the more completely organized action of the Bible societies. But not only in this initial part of the work has their influence been felt. The band of colpor teurs, however energetic and faithful, cannot be omnipresent, and the native pastor, preacher, evangelist, teacher in every land is practically a distributing agent. Sometimes they form al most the only force, the Bible superintendent finding that he can work through them with less expense and more effectually, because they are everywhere. So, too, there are many fields where the students in missionary colleges dur ing their vacations are distributing agents, going from village to village with the Bible, and finding not a few readers and purchasers. For a more full statement, see article on Methods of Missionary Work. 3. Othek Oeganizations and Individual Woekees. 1. Tract societies have very often accom plished not a little in the form of Bible dis tribution. Recognizing that their distinctive work is based upon the Bible, and is of little value without it, they have often done much toward its circulation, in ways that are hardly within the scope of the Bible societies. 2. Local organizations, such as Young Men's Christian Associations, have often made Bible distribution a special element of their work. Sometimes purchasing from the Bible societies and selling again, sometimes making free gifts to those unable to purchase, they are a con stantly increasing power in the work. 3. Individual workers have done not a little to place the Gospel in the hands of those who would not be reached through the regular chan nels. Travellers, merchants, men ancl wom en of every nationality and every denomination, have rejoiced in the opportunities that come to them on every hand for giving to those whom they meet copies of the book they prize. Many a courier or dragoman in the East will show with gratitude the Testament that has been quietly put in his hands on the shores of the Mediterranean or the rough roads of Palestine. These cannot be recorded, but their number is far greater than many are aware" of. IV. Results. — To give any clear idea of these would require a volume. The following table, taken from the Report of the American Bible Society for 1890, will give an approximate idea of the magnitude of the work ; COMPENDIUM OF BIBLE SOCIETIES In Diffeeent Pakts of the Wobld, with the Date of Theie Oeganization and Numeek of Copies Issued. The fact will be readily appreciated by all who are familiar with statistical tables that a compendium like .this can be only an approximation to the truth. The figures are compiled from various sources, but mainly from recent reports of the British and Foreign and the Wiirtemberg Bible societies. There is a liability to error on one side for want of late returns, and on the BIBLE DISTRIBUTION 166 BIBLE DISTRIBUTION other because when one society purchases of another the same issues may be counted in the report of each. It should also be noticed that the aggregate includes not Bibles only, but also Testaments and integral portions of the Bible. Copies issued. American Bible Society, 1816 to 1890 52,736,075 American and Foreign Bible Society, 1837 to 1882 2,293,665 American Bible Union, 1X50 to 1866 603,184 Bible Association of Friends in America, 1x30 to 1874 154,431 British and Foreign Bible Society, 1X114 (3,792,2(13 copies in 1889-90) to 1890 123,929,046 The circulation of this society, through its agencies at different points, is reported to have been as follows, to lxx'j : Depot in Paris, 1820 7,963,629 " Brussels, 1X35 800,571 Amsterdam. 1K43 1,363 296 ' ' Berlin, Frankfort, and Cologne, 1x5:1 13,820,801 Vienna 3,491,949 Lisbon, 1864 165,48(3 Stockholm. 1X32 2,943,899 " Copenhagen, 1855 840,751 St. Petersburg, 1X2X 5,033,170 Odessa ancl Tiflis, ISO* 1,930,510 Rome, Leghorn, etc., lxt;, ) 1,575,694 Madrid, 1868 1,231,393 Agencies in Norway, 1X32 781,926 The circulation of the British and Foreign Bible Society, as given above, includes 4,575,565 of the copies circulated by societies in British India, whose total issues to 1889 were as follows : Calcutta Bible Society, 1811 2,321,390 Serampore Mission 200,000 North India Bible Society at Allahabad, 1845 706,366 Madras Bible Society, 1820 3,869,460 Bombay Bible Society, 1813 650,316 Colombo Bible Society, 1812 ' 145,630 Jaffna Bible Society, 1835 181,029 Punjab Bible Society at Lahore 339,729 Bangalore Bible Society 120,613 Total 8,534,533 3,958,968 National Bible Society of Scotland, 1X61 (689,815 copies in 18x9) to 1889 11,363,941 Hibernian Bible Society (54,591 copies in 1889) to 1889 4,968,450 Trinitarian Bible Society, in 1XX4-X5 281,426 Basle Bible Society, 1804 (18,303 copies in 18X9). _. 813,587 Prussian Bible Society, at Berlin, 1814, with 170'auxiliaries to 1886 5,269 281 Swedish Bible Society, 1809, with auxiliaries 1,055,507 Finnish Bible Society at Abo, 1812, with many branches 239,273 Russian Bible Society, St. Petersburg, 1812, previous to its suspension by an imperial ukase in 1826, had 289 auxiliaries, and had printed the Scriptures in various lan guages 861, 105 Wiirtemberg Bible Society, 1X12, with 47 auxiliaries to 18X7 1,737,526 Zurich Bible Society, 1812... 82,972 Berg Bible Society, ut Elberfeld, 1813 847.349 Coire Bible Society, 1813 12. 267 St. Gall Bible Society, 1813 77,660 Schaffhausen Bible Society, 1813 , 30,077 Danish Bible Society, 1814, with auxiliaries (10,135 copies in lxxli) to 1X89 404,788 Geneva Bible Society, 1814 147,232 Hamburg-Altona Bible Society, 181-1 (10,159 copies in 1XX'.)) to 1XX6, about 217.000 Hanover Bible Society, 1814, with auxiliaries to 1X85, about 200,000 Lausanne Bible Society, 1814 226,667 Lubeck Bible Society, 1814 to 1885, about 40,000 Saxon Bible Society, 1814, at Dresden, with auxiliaries 745,066 Aargovian Bible Society, 1X15 48,229 Bremen Bible Society, 1815, with an auxiliary to 18X5, about 90,000 Brunswick Biblo Society, 1815 6,312 Icelandic Bible Society, 1815 10,445 Netherlands Bible Society, 1X15, with auxiliaries to 1XX5 1,678,683 Schleswick-Holstein Bible Society, 1X15, with auxiliaries to 1X85 195,450 Strassburg Bible Society, 1816 to 1885 117,830 Frankfort Bible Society, 1816 75,00(1 Lauenburg-Ratzeburg Bible Society, 1816 to 1885 32,567 Lippe-Detmold Bible Society, 1816 to 1885 37,199 Neufckatel Bible Society, 1816 37,043 Norwegian Bible Society, 1816(12,118 copies in 1886) to 1886 480,075 BIBLE DISTRIBUTION 167 BD3LE STAND Rostock Bible Society, 1816 19,408 Waldensian Bible Society at La Tour, 1816 4^238 Berne Bible Society 257650 Eutin Bible Society, for the Principality of Lubeek, 1817. .......................... 15,'oOO Hesse-Darmstadt Bible Society, 1817, with auxiliaries 31,484 Waldeck and Pyrmont Bible Society, 1817 2,800 Eisenach Bible Society, 1818 ." to 1885, about 15^000 Gdttingen Bible Society, 1818 to 1885, about 41,000 Mulhausen Bible Society, 1818 to 1885 61,071 Han#R Bible Society, 1818 3,316 Hesse-Cassel Bible Society, 181S 30^000 Protestant Bible Society at Paris, 1818 (6,844 copies in 1889) '.to 1889 888,'l90 Leipzig Bible Society, 1818 to 1885, about 35,000 Glarus Bible Society, 1819 5,000 Ionian Bible Society at Corfu, 1819 7377 Marburg Bible Society, 1819 to 1885 22,450 Colmar Bible Society, 1820 to 1885 97,741 Duchy of Baden Bible Society, 1820, with 24 auxiliaries to 1885 90,'820 Anhalt-Bernburg Bible Society, 1821 4,786 Weimar Bible Society, 1821 7,236 Bavarian Protestant Bible Institution at Nuremburg, 1823, with auxiliaries to 1885 39L412 Stavanger Bible Society, 1828 7,017 French and Foreign Bible Society at Paris, 1833, with auxiliaries 750, 000 Antwerp Bible Society, 1834 439 Belgian and Foreign Bible Society, at Brussels, 1834 7 623 Ghent Bible Society, 1834 8,980 Anhalt-Dessau Bible Society, 1836 to 1885 31,003 Belgian Bible Associations, 1839 14,909 Altenberg Bible Society, 1854 to 1885 24,100 Bible Society of France, 1864 to 1886 558,149 Russian Evangelical Bible Society at St. Petersburg, 1831, with auxiliaries to 1886 1,025,467 Imperial Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg, 1868 to 1887 1,223,044 Halle Bible Society, printing only for other Bible societies, to 1885 6,350,000 The total of the above issues, it will be found, is over two hundred and twenty millions of Bibles, Testaments, ancl portions, distributed through ihe agency of Bible societies alone since the year 1804. Bible Stands. — At all the great exposi tions the different Bible societies have made special efforts to give the Bible a prominent place, and to show its true relation to the vari ous other departments. These have been, as a rule, successful beyond expectation, but only one has become a permanent institution — that at the Crystal Palace in London. See account below. Bible Stand, Crystal Palace. — Secre tary, William Hawke, Bible Stand, Crystal Pal ace, London, S. E. The " Bible Stand" was inaugurated at the International Exhibition held in London in 1862. Every effort was made, but without success, to secure space for the stand within the Exhibition building. A desirable position, opposite the principal entrance to the exhibi tion, was at length rented, and the stand, a very handsome one, erected. The seven compart ments into which it was divided represented respectively Spain, Italy, France, England, Germany, Sweden, and the Jews. Each of these compartments was furnished with Bibles, gospels, leaflets, cards, etc., printed in the lan guage of the country represented, and having an attendant able to converse in that language with all comers. Mr. Hawke, the originator of the enterprise, and ever since its secretary and general manager, knew no language but his own ; but standing outside the stand, by point ing to it and by the constant use of the word "gratis," which in all the above languages means free, secured plenty of visitors. During the five months for which the exhibi tion was kept open there were given away 137,- 618 portions of the Scriptures, 2,364,000 cards, and 715,000 leaflets. The entire expenditure amounted to £3,000, which, with the exception of £100, was defrayed by the committee, consist ing of three gentlemen of London. As soon as the Paris Exhibition of 1867 was announced, Mr. Hawke and the committee ap plied to the commissioners for space for a Bible stand. The application was granted in the most cordial manner, two spaces being given, one inside the exhibition building, the other in the grounds close to the emperor's pavilion. In view of the large sum of money which would be required to carry out the project, much faith was needed at the outset. Mr. Hawke at first almost succumbed to the great difficulties in the way, but his faith revived, and he and the committee went cheerfully forward. The stand was opened, and numbers flocked to it ; 30,000 visitors a day were a common occurrence. Many priests opposed the movement, but many also — sometimes sixty in a day — came to ask for copies of the Gospel for themselves and for their parishioners. Priests and nuns came often, like Nicodemus, at night, and received the Word of God. The assembly ground of the army was just back of the Bible stand, and copies of the Gospel were given to 80,000 soldiers, who visited the exhibition ; 12,000 copies were given to the workmen from various countries engaged on the building. On opening day 1,000 copies were given, by permission of the general in com mand, to the National Guard, who kept the line when the emperor and empress with their cor tege entered the exhibition. Senators and men of the highest distinction in the French Govern ment came to the stand to receive books. Daily BIBLE STAND 168 BINGHAM, HIRAM at 1 o'clock and at 6.30 a prayer meeting was held inside the stand, for a blessing on the books given. The exhibition was open for seven months, and during that time 2,338,968 por tions of Scripture in 17 languages were given away. The entire cost of the movement was £12,000 ; when the exhibition closed the ac counts were almost exactly balanced, the whole of the liabilities being met by the liberal dona tions of more than 6,000 Christian people. The Bible stand was at the exhibition at Havre (1868), Naples (1871), and Paris (1878). From 1868-75 there were distributed from a " Gospel tent' ' at Madrid 400,000 Gospels and portions. The original stand is permanently placed in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham ; its principal object is to give the Bible to foreigners in their own tongue without charge ; English people are asked to pay a small sum. The foreign element at the Crystal Palace hav ing decreased, the committee have, by means of the foreign directories, sent Gospels and portions to a very large number of residents of Belgium, Spain, Australia, and Ireland. One thousand copies a week are now sent by book-post to these countries. A "Bible carriage" has been established to visit every town and village in France ; over 500,000 Gospels have already been distributed from it. Large grants are given to missionaries, and a quiet, steady work is always going on at the Crystal Palace ; the distribution in all this work is limited only by the income. Mr. Hawke never goes in debt. The Scriptures are now sent out in forty dif ferent languages. Total number of Bibles, Testaments, por tions, Scripture cards, and leaflets distributed from 1862 to 1887, 20,393,849. The British and Foreign Bible Society, the Trinitarian Bible Society, the Oxford University Press, the Neufehatel Society, and the Geneva Society have aided the committee in their work by grants of books and by liberal discounts on Bibles, etc. Bicknell, Henry, missionary of the L. M. S. to Tahiti, 1796-1820. In 1819 he bap- tized King Pomare, and also assisted him in the framing of a code of laws by means of which good government on the island was formally established. Died at Tahiti, August 7th, 1820. Bida, the capital of the Mohammedan negro State Nupe in the Niger Valley, about 500 miles from the mouth of the river. Population, 80,000. In 1876 a C. M. S. station was founded at Kipo, also in Nupe und opposite the great ivory market, Egau, by Bishop Crowther, but that station, the seventh above the Niger delta, was later on moved to Bida, where. Christianity now is preached by native ministers both in the Nupe and the Hausa languages, and two of tUe Gospels have been translated into the Nupe language. Bihe, a town of West Central Africa, 250 miles east of the city of Benguela. Climate, mild, 45:-90° F. Elevation, 5,000 feet. Race, Bantu. Language, Amburedu. Religion, spir it-worship. Natives peaceable, kindly, but polygamy is practised and women degraded. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1884 and 1886) ; 2 missionaries and wives, 1 other lady, 2 preaching places, 1 school, 12 scholars. Bijnaur, a city of the Northwest Provinces, India, northeast of Delhi. A mission circuit in the Rohilkund district of the North India Mis sion of the M. E. Ch. (North), with 1 mission ary and wife, 3 native ordained preachers, 155 church-memberB, 324 probationers, 491 day scholars, 1,050 Sabbath scholars. The work is carried on from five large centres, each under charge of a native preacher. In Bijnaur itself, the proportion of professing Christians arose in one year from one in 1000 to one in 600.' Bikaniri Version. — The Bikaniri, which is spoken in the province of Bikanir, north of Marwar, India, belongs to the Sanscrit family of Indo-European languages. A translation of the New Testament into this language was made by the late Dr. Carey and published in 1820 at Serampore. This translation has never been reprinted. Bilaspur, a town of Central Provinces, India, 250 miles east of Nagpur. Population, 6,150. Mission station of Foreign Christian Missionary Society (1885) ; 3 ordained mission aries (1 married), 3 female missionaries, 1 church, 16 church-members, 2 schools, 30 scholars. Bilbao, u, city of Spain, 50 miles west of San Sebastian. Population, 40,000. Said to be the richest city of Spain ; but the rich men are so intensely clerical in their feeling that not a landlord can be found to rent a room for use as a chapel or school-room. Within nine years fifteen conventual establishments, costing not less than $1,800,000, have been built within the limits of the city. Mission station of the Evangelical Continental Society of London, but under the superintendence of the A. B. C. F. M. station at San Sebastian. The native preacher holds meetings in his own house. Bilin, or Bogo* Version. — Bilin belongs to the Hamitic group of African languages, and is spoken by the Bilin tribe in the north of Abyssinia, numbering about 20,000 souls, one- third of whom are Roman Catholics, and the rest Mohammedans and Abyssinian Christians. An edition of the Gospel of Mark for the Bogos was published in 1882 by the British and For eign Bible Society. The famous Egyptologist, Professor Rheinisch, of Vienna, assisted by Ste- fanos, a youth educated at Gondar, in Abys sinia, prepared the translation in the Abys sinian character. Thus far 300 copies were dis posed of. Bingham, Hiram, b. at Bennington, Vt., October 30th, 1789 ; graduated at Middlebury College, 1816, at Andover Theological Seminary, 1819. A visit to the foreign mission school at Cornwall awakened in him a desire to carry the Gospel to the Sandwich Islands, the country of Obookiah. He was ordained, September 29th, 1819 ; sailed October 23d of the same year, as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M., for the Sand wich Islands ; was stationed at Honolulu on Oahu. His undaunted courage, inflexible will, combined with his good nature and cheerfulness, fitted him to meet the opposition in that strong hold of wickedness. "He was," says Dr. An derson, " sincere and honest, without pretence, without selfish ends, an enemy to every form and species of wickedness, and fearless in re buking it ; of irreproachable character ; loved by the good, dreaded and hated by the wicked." Beyond the circle of his own family his relations BINGHAM, HIRAM 169 BLOEMEONTEIN were chiefly with the natives, by whom he was greatly beloved. He returned to the United States in 1841 on account of the ill health of Mrs. Bingham. She died in 1848. Six years after his return he published History ofthe jlfis- sion down to 1845, in an octavo volume of 600 pages, a work of great historic value. In 1863 friends in different parts of the country united in securing an annuity for him. He was ex pecting to visit the islands and take a part with the Hawaiian churches in the semi-centen ary of the mission in 1870, but he died in 1869 after a brief illness. Bird, Isaac, b. at Salisbury, Conn., June 19th, 1793 ; graduated at Yale College and An dover Theological Seminary ; sailed as a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for the East with William Goodell, December 9th, 1822. He was a much-esteemed missionary. At Malta, Beirut, and Smyrna —for a short time at Jerusalem — until 1836, when the ill-health of Mrs. Bird con- .strained him to return to the United States. He was afterward professor in the theological seminary at Gilmanton, N. H. Removing to Hartford, Conn., he established a school, which he taught for many years. He died in Hartford in 1873. Birmingham Young men's Foreign missionary Society.— (See Young Men's Foreign Missionary Society.) Bishop, Artemus, b. at Pompey, N. Y., December 30th, 1795 ; graduated at Union Col lege, 1819, and Princeton Theological Seminary, 1822 ; sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. in the first re-enforcement for the Sandwich Islands, 1822. He was stationed at Kailua, and was associated with Mr. Thurston in the trans lation of the Bible. After residing twelve years at Kailua, he removed to Ewa on Oahu, where he labored twenty years with great success. Here he translated Pilgrim's Progress and many other books. "His accurate knowledge of the Hawaiian language always gave him authority in all matters involving questions of criticism ¦and translation. " His fondness for study and literary pursuits was preserved to the end of his career. " He was one of those friendly, genial, and companionable men whose presence does not chill, but warms society." He never left the islands except once, and that as a dele gate to the Marquesas mission in 1858. Though he never rode upon or saw a railroad, or wit nessed the operation of a telegraph, " fewmen," says one, " were better acquainted with the progress of scientific discovery." He died at Honolulu, December 18th, 1872. Bithynia, in ancient times a section of Asia Minor, bordering on the Sea of Marmora and the Gulf of Nicomedia. There is no pres ent province of that name, but the term is still applied in general to the same region. It in cludes especially the cities of Broosa, Nico media, and Adabazar, with no very well-defined limits either to the north or east. Bitlis, a city of Eastern Turkey, 100 miles west southwest of Van, 150 miles southwest of Erzroom. Climate, healthy, dry, l°-96° Fahr. Population, 25,000, Kurds, Armenians, and Turks. Social condition, low. Its situation *mong the mountains of Kurdistan is peculiarly beautiful, and surrounded as it is by high peaks, it served for a long time as the virtual capital of the Kurds. Most of the history of the northern tribes centres around it, and the famous Kurdish history, the Shereef Ka'ameh (translated into French and published at St. Petersburg, Russia), was written by a Kurd of Bitlis. Mission work was begun there by mis sionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. among the Ar menians quite early, and it was occupied as a station in 1858. The rough, turbulent charac ter of the people has often occasioned trouble and even danger, but the work is, on the whole, prosperous ; 2 missionaries and wives, 2 other ladies, 19 native helpers, 15 out-stations, 2 churches, 247 members, 24 schools, 780 scholars. Blackfoot Crossing, «, station of the C. M. S. (1883) on the Upper Saskatchewan River, Canada. The work is among the Black- foot Indians, of whom many, though not yet baptized, gather to the evangelical service, while others have become Roman Catholic ; 1 mis sionary. Blackfoot Version. — The Blackfoot be longs to the languages of America, and is spoken by about 7,000 Indians, of whom some few can read, who are located on the east of the Rocky Mountains in Canada. In the winter of 1884- 85 the Rev. J. W. Tims, of the Church Mission ary Society, translated the Gospel of Matthew into this language, which he revised twice with the aid of an Indian. This version was printed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in the year 1889. Blantyre, a town on the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa, Central Africa, situated at an ele vation of 3,000 feet, and very healthy. Mission station of the Church of Scotland ; formed in 1875 by a colony of Scotch settlers, who have had some difficult experiences, first because they were somewhat hasty in exercising Scotch justice among the natives, next because they undertook to shelter fugitive slaves in the midst of established slavery, and finally from Portu guese chicaneries. But they prospered, ancl have now two branch stations — at Zomba, 1879, and Domasi, 1884. The Gospels according to Matthew and Luke have been translated in the native tongue and printed at Blantyre. At present there are 1 ordained missionary, 2 medi cal missionaries, 3 artisans, 12 church-members, 305 school -children. Blauberg, a town of Transvaal, Eastern South Africa, a little south of the Limpopo River, and north of Makhabeng. Mission sta tion of the Berlin Evangelical Lutheran Society (1868) ; 1 missionary, 11 native helpers, 9 out- stations, 109 church-members, 6 school-children. Blewfields, the principal town on the Mosquito Coast, Central America. Here the Moravian Brethren founded a station in 1849 and began to work among the 700 negroes in the place, but soon they were drawn toward the nativo Indians. They learned their language, and parts of the Bible were translated into their language. Bloemfontein, a town of the Orange Free State, South Africa. Capital of the State ; though a small town it carries on a large com merce, chiefly with Cape Colony and Transvaal. Population, 1,200, chiefly Boers. Mission sta tion of the Berlin Evangelical Lutheran Society ; 1 missionary, 4 native helpers, 2 out-stations, 106 church-members, 12 school children. S. P. G., 2 missionaries. BLOEMHOE 170 BOARDMAN, GEORGE D. Bloeinhof, a town in Swaziland, Eastern Africa, and a station of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 55 church-members, 1 chapel, 3 other preaching places. BIytheswood, a town of Kaffraria, South Africa, between St. Albans and Cunningham. Mission station of the Free Church of Scotland ; 4 missionaries, male, 1 lady, 1 college, 110 stu dents. Bliss, Isaac Grout, b. at Springfield, Mass., U. S. A., July 5th, 1x22 ; graduated at Amherst College, 1X44, ancl studied at Andover ancl New Haven theological seminaries ; re ceived the degree of D.D. from Amherst in 1871. He married Eunice B. Day, of West Springfield, and in 1847 was ordained a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M. . Stationed at Erzroom, Eastern Turkey, he was a pioneer in opening up the valley of the Euphrates to mis sionary influence. Uninterrupted labor and continued travelling, at that time far more dan gerous and fatiguing than now, broke down a naturally fine constitution, and in 1852 he was obliged to visit America. Year after year he waited for the physician's permission to return to his chosen work, and once was on the point of starting, but he was compelled to give it up, and resigned his connection with the Board, convinced that the Lord had something else for him to do. Meantime he had labored most successfully as pastor for two years at South- bridge and then at Boylston, Mass. At last the opportunity came. Scarcely a year after his res ignation an invitation came to him from the American Bible Society to go to Constantinople as agent for the Levant. The work being less confining and more varied seemed suited to him, and in the winter of 1857-58 he entered upon it with enthusiasm. He found the agency without any organiza tion at all. There were almost no rules as to the distribution of Bibles, and the greater part of the funds received from their sale was ap plied to general missionary work. With great tact and patience, and indomitable will, he set to work to bring order out of confusion. His field was very large, covering the whole Turk ish Empire (including Egypt, Syria, and Meso potamia), Persia, and Greece. A charming let ter writer, his letters became well known in every station, and his personal sympathy and quick perception enabled him to come into the most cordial relations with his fellow-workers of different denominations ancl nationalities. Located at Constantinople, the port by which most missionaries to those lands entered on their fields, and where for many years the an nual meetings of the whole missionary force were held, his house was always open, and there were few of those who passed through that did not enjoy its hospitality. He travelled some, though not as much as he felt essential, directing almost the entire work from the little office that he shared with the treasurer of the mission. Their cramped and unhealthy quar ters were a constant trial, and at last the reso lution was formed to build a Bible House for Constantinople corresponding to that in New York. Called home in 1866 to attend the Jubilee of the Bible Society, he pressed the need of such a building. The Society was unwilling to take it up, but allowed him his time to raise the needed money. A number of prominent men consented to act as trustees, and in 1867 he returned with the requisite funds. The se curing of a site and the erection of the building met with the most determined opposition, but in 1872 the edifice was complete, and univer sally recognized as the handsomest business building in the city. It has since been enlarged as the work has grown. (See Constantinople.) While in the midst of superintending the erection of the Bible House, Dr. Bliss took the time, in 1870, to make a hurried visit to America, and secured the transference to Beirout of the great work of electrotyping and printing the Arabic Bible. This had hitherto been done at the Bible House in New York, and the change seemed to many hazardous, yet his clear vision saw the great future of that noble work, and by dint of most earnest appeals he secured the endorsement by the society of a step since recognized to be one of the most important in its history. Then came the question of the Turkish ver sions. There were at that time three, in the Arabic, the Armenian, and the Greek charac ters (see Turkish Language and Version), all made by different men, and with difference of meaning as well as of idiom. This had long been felt to be most unfortunate, yet there seemed to be no help for it. Dr. Bliss believed that the difficulty could be overcome. He took careful counsel, and even at the risk of offend ing brethren whose opinion and esteem he valued most highly, he pressed very hard for a union of the forces that were at work revising each form. At last he carried the day, and the Turkish version of to-day is scarcely less a monument to the men who made it than to him, whose clear vision and earnest purpose made it possible for them to make it. Meanwhile he pressed colportage unceasingly. From 2,500 copies during the first year, the cir culation ran up to 56,628 in the twenty-fifth year of the agency. (See American Bible So ciety, Levant Agency.) Dr. Bliss was not, however, merely agent of the Bible Society. Practically he was as much of a, missionary as ever. Deeply interested in every department of the one work, gathering wide stores of experience from his relations with different forms of labor in the widely sepa rated sections of his great field, he bent every energy to each thing as it came before him, as earnest in this little Armenian Sunday-school in Scutari as when addressing crowded halls in America, as careful in his counsel with a col porteur as when planning the work for an em pire. The old strength, however, never came back, and though he had the assistance at first of his son. Rev. Edwin M. Bliss, and later of Rev. Marc Bowen and another son, Mr. William G. Bliss, the years told heavily upon him. The winter of 1888-89 was a trying one, and he sought relief in the warmer climate of Egypt. It was, however, of no avail, and on February 16th, i889, he passed away in Assiout, Upper Egypt. He was buried by the side of a lifelong friend and fellow-laborer, Rev. John Hogg, D.D., at the very outpost of his agency, from whence it had been his desire to push on thef Bible work into the heart of Darkest Africa. Boardman, George Dana, b. at Liver- more, Me., U.S.A., February 8th, 1801 ; pursued his preparatory studies at the academies of North Yarmouth and Farmington. When fifteen years BOARDMAN, GEORGE D. 171 BOARDMAN, GEORGE D. of age, wishing to obtain a collegiate education, and to secure the necessary funds, he taught a school, in which he showed remarkable skill in controlling turbulent boys and aptness to teach. In 1822 he graduated at Watervitle College with marked honor, and was immediately appointed tutor. On hearing soon after of the death of Colman, of the Aracan mission, he expressed his purpose to go and take his place. In April, 1823, he offered his services to the Baptist Board of Missions, and was accepted. In June of that year he entered Andover Theological Seminary, where he remained two years. He was ordained February 16th, 1825 ; travelled in the spring as agent of the missionary board in the West and South to solicit funds and pre sent the claims of foreign missions ; was married July 4th to Miss Sarah Hall, and sailed on the 16th for Calcutta. Here he found Mr. and Mrs. Wade and others, whom the war had driven from Burmah, and learned that Mr. Judson and Dr. Price were in a prison at Ava. Advised to remain in Calcutta till the door should be open to resume mission work in Burmah. he took up his abode at Chitpore, four miles from Calcutta, and studied the Burman language with a na tive. March 20th, 1827, he embarked with his family, reaching Amherst April 17th. He was soon settled at Moulmein, the new seat of the British Government, which became the seat also of the mission in Burmah. Sir Archibald Campbell offered Mr. Boardman a fine large spot of ground for a mission establishment. On this he built a bamboo house costing about $100. A few weeks after his arrival he was cheered, early on Sabbath morning, by a visit from eight respectable Burmans, who inquired, "Teacher, is this your day of worship? We have come to hear you preach, we wish to know what this new religion is." The members of the mission and the Board in America, thinking that the field of operations should be widened by the establishment of new stations, Tavoy, recently ceded to the English in the treaty of peace, about 150 miles from Moulmein, was selected as the site for the new station, and Mr. Boardman, by the unanimous choice of his associates, was appointed to commence it. He left Moulmein, March 29th, 1828, accompanied by Ko-Thah-Byu, the first Karen convert, then a candidate for baptism, a young Siamese lately baptized, and four of the boys from his board ing-school at Moulmein, and reached the city of Tavoy, April 9th. He was kindly received by Captain Burney, the Civil Commissioner for the Tavoy District. He soon commenced pub lic worship in Burman, and inquirers began to present themselves. On May 16th he baptized Ko-Thah-Byu, the Karen Christian who had ac companied him. This remarkable man had been a robber and murderer. His natural tem per was diabolical. After the Burmese war, while in the service of Mr. Hough, in Rangoon, he gave evidence of true conversion, and became remarkably efficient and successful as a preacher to his countrymen. One who knew him well says : ' ' He was always planning some new preaching excursion, and never was so happy as when he found individuals to whom he might preach from morning till evening. ' ' He is called the Karen Apostle. As the result of his inde fatigable labors, many of the Karens of the villages scattered over the mountains of Tavoy flocked in from the distant jungles to see the white teacher, who had come from beyond the sea and to listen to the truths he taught. Mr. Boardman resolved to visit the Karens in the jungle, and on February 28th, 1828, he set out on his first tour accompanied by Ko-Thah-Byu and another Karen, a professed believer in Christ. He was absent ten clays. So much encouraged was he by the readiness of the people to re ceive him and give attention to his instructions, that he determined to pursue a course of itine rary preaching among their villages. In these tours he was generally accompanied by Ko-Thah- Byu or some other convert and some boys from the schools. He usually visited three or four villages a week, preaching in zayats or from house to house, and talking with those he met by the way. Some of his journeys were long and dangerous, and often on foot. He also made tours in the mission boat on the river. These labors were continued for three years in great physical debility, to which he was reduced by pulmonary disease. Though unwilling to slacken his labors on account of his own health, he was obliged by Mrs. Boardman's very criti cal illness to leave his station and to remove to Moulmein for seven months. Before leaving Tavoy, in April, he promised the Karens that, if possible, he would visit them again on his re turn. Soon after his return many came to see him, requesting the promised visit, and saying that many families desired baptism who could not come to Tavoy. Mr. Francis Mason, who had been instructed by the Missionary Board to repair to Tavoy and assist Mr. Boardman, reached the station January 23d, 1831, only in time to accompany him in his last tour among the Karens and witness his death. Mr. Board- man met Mr. Mason at the wharf and told him the Karens were building him a zayat near the foot of the mountain, which he had crossed two years before, and were coming for him. They set out January 31st, 1831, Mr. Boardman in a cot- bed, reaching the place of destination on the third day, where they found a bamboo chapel erected on a beautiful stream and a hun dred, persons assembled, more than half of them applicants for baptism. Having lost strength, Mrs. Boardman advised him to return, but he replied, " The cause of God is of more impor tance than my health, and if I return now our whole object will be defeated. I want to see the work of the Lord go on. ' ' When, however, it was evident he could not live long, and it was thought best to return without delay, he consented, on condition that the candidates we're baptized that evening, to return the day following. So just before sunset he was car ried out in his bed to the water-side, and in his presence Mr. Mason baptized thirty-four per sons. On being taken back to the chapel he desired to be present at the evening meal, and afterward made a most touching address to his disciples present, about fifty in number. Early in the morning the little band started on their journey homeward, the sufferings of which were increased by a severe storm of wind and rain. While being conveyed to the boat from the comfortless roof of the heathen Tavoyer which had sheltered them for the night, he ex pired, February 11th, 1831. He was buried on the mission premises, the funeral being attended by all the European gentlemen and officers of the station, with many natives. Though but thirty years of age and but three years in the service, he had accomplished a great work. Within the last two months of his life 57 had BOARDMAN, GEORGE D. 172 BOHEMIA been baptized, all Karens, and at the time of his death the mission church at Tavoy had 70 members. Bocas del Toro, a city on the Isthmus of Panama, belonging to the United States of Colombia, on one of the entrances to the mag nificent harbor of Chiriqui. Population, 3,000. Mission station of the United Methodist Free Church of England ; 3 local preachers, 184 church-members. Boemisch, Frederick, a missionary of the Moravians to Greenland (1734). A man of great courage and zeal, his arrival at a time of great discouragement was most opportune. After five years of privation and labor one Greenlander named Kaiarnak received the Gos pel, and took up his residence among the mis sionaries. He induced some twenty others to come also. The next year he was baptized with his family, but hardly had the missionaries time to rejoice over this when a band of mur derers threatened Kaiarnak and his followers, and they fled to the south, away from religious influences. The year after Mr. Boemisch mar ried Miss Anna Stach, and not a little interest was added to the occasion of the wedding by the very unexpected return of Kaiarnak, who declared his intention to remain among them, and proved to the satisfaction of the mission aries his steadfastness to the truths they had taught him. It was during Mr. Boemisch's resi dence here that the Brethren adopted the change in their instruction of the Greenlanders, which awakened the hitherto sleeping consciences of these benighted people. They ' ' ceased to preach the attributes of God, the fall of man, and the demands of divine law," and preached instead " Christ crucified," and were themselves aston ished at the power of the Holy Ghost, as it transformed their little flock of indifferent un believers to earnest and true followers of Jesus. Bogota, capital of the republic of Colom bia, on the river Magdalena, 600 miles from the sea. It is a pleasant city, situated on a picturesque and fertile plateau 9,000 feet above the sea. Climate, temperate. Population, 100,000. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North), 1856 ; 2 missionaries and wives, 1 other lady, 1 school, 60 scholars. Con gregation large and encouraging. Bogutu Version. — Bogutu belongs to the Melanesian languages, and is spoken in the Solomon Islands. A translation of the Gospel of Mark into this language was published in 1887 at London by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Bohemia, a country of Central Europe, formerly an independent kingdom, now a con stitutional part of tho Austro-Hungarian Em pire, the emperor assuming with his other titles that of King of Bohemia. It has a population of nearly 6,000,000, of whom about two-thirds are Bohemians, the remainder being chiefly Germans. It sends 52 representatives to the Reichsrath, and has a separate Diet of 242 mem bers. The capital and chief city is Prague, ¦ and it is there that the agitations for a distinct recognition of the Czechs, as of the Hungarians, have been carried on. Mission work is carried on by the A. B. C. F. M. at Prague among the Roman Catholics, and by the Sootch Free Church and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews in different places where there are Jews in large numbers. Bohemians. — The Bohemians or, as they call themselves, Tchekhs (or Czechs), form one of the principal tribes of the Slavic race. They occupy the country of Bohemia in Austria, and number about four millions. They are all Catholics with the exception of 150,000, who belong to the Protestant Reformed and Luther an Confession. The first germs of Christianity were planted among them by the Slavic apos tles SS. Cyril and Methodius in the ninth cen tury, and the Bohemian Prince Borivoi was baptized by Methodius in 873-74. But Ortho dox or Greek Christianity was unable to main tain itself long in Bohemia, and was soon sup planted by Catholicism. Along with the intro duction of Catholic Christianity Bohemia came under the influence of German civilization and feudalism, and gradually the German element grew stronger and stronger. Beginning with the year 1253 this German influence spread rapidly, so that the Bohemians were in danger of being entirely Germanized. The reign of Charles I., known also as Charles IV., Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, is considered one of the brightest periods of Bohemian history. He founded the University of Prague in 1348, and thus helped to make the capital of Bohemia the centre of a great intellectual and educa tional movement. The most important period, however, is undoubtedly the time of John Huss and the ref ormatory movement which he began. Born in 1368 in an obscure village of Bohemia, and educated at the University of Prague, Huss raised his voice against the corruption and de pravity of the Romish Church, and demanded a purer form of religion. Almost the whole of Bohemia joined his movement, and the enthu siasm which his sermons and writings evoked was very great. Beguiled into the Council of Constance, where he was called to be heard, Huss was burned at the stake in 1415 ; but his death was the signal for the beginning of the terrible Hussite wars, which lasted for eighteen years, and the effects of which were felt through the succeeding generations until 1620, when Bohemia lost her political independence and fell under the dominion of the Hapsburg dy nasty of Austria. The Hussite movement in Bohemia cannot be satisfactorily explained by merely regarding it as a religious movement. To understand its full bearing, one ought to bear in mind that it was also a national move ment directed against the encroachments of Ger manism that threatened Bohemia. The relig ious element of Hussiteism did not give all the fruit that might have been expected from it. After the death of Huss the party split into two, the Taborites and the Utraquists or Calixtins. The former, which may be considered as the extreme party, carried the principle of the free interpretation of the Soriptures to its wildest point. The Utraquists, forming the so-called moderate party, were not disinclined to come to terms with the Catholic Church. To the Hussite movement was due the formation of the Society of the Bohemian Brothers known subsequently by the name of Moravian Brothers, distinguished for its piety, its good works, and the best writers it contributed to Bohemian literature. But though Huss and his followers failed in their attempts to reform the Church, there can be no doubt that his writings and the ideas he promulgated exercised an influence BOHEMIA 173 BOKHARA over the minds of thinking people in Europe, and prepared the way for Luther's Reforma tion. With the political downfall of Bohemia the country was subjected to great trials and suffer ings. All who did not wish to submit to the Catholic Church were maltreated and driven out of the country, and both the government ancWihe clergy tried to obliterate every trace of their national past by persecuting the national idiom and destroying all books written in it. For about two hundred years things went on in this manner, and the Bohemians were hardly known to Europe as u, separate nationality. But toward the latter part of the eighteenth century a revival of national life and literature took place, which has been going on ever since, and has saved Bohemia and its people from utter oblivion. The Bohemians belong to the Western branch of the Slavs, and their language is one of the principal dialects of the Western branch of the Slavic languages. Its alphabet is the Latin, and it bears a closer resemblance to the Polish than to any other Slavic language, though it has felt the influence of the German both in its lexicology and its construction. The Kralitzka Bible (published in 1579-93) is one of the most remarkable monuments of the Bohemian, and is noted for the purity of its language and the beauty of its style. Bohemian Version. — The Bohemian belongs to the Slavonic branch of the Aryan family of languages. It seems that at the close of the fourteenth century the Bible, as a whole or in parts, was already extant in the Bohemian language, and » great many manuscripts of such versions are found in the libraries of Europe. After the invention of the art of print ing copies were multiplied. Already in the year 1475 the New Testament was published at Pilsen, and the first Bible was issued at Prague in 148S. In 1489 a second edition and in 1506 a third followed. Besides these Bibles, New Testaments, too, were published in 1498, 1513, and 1516. On the title-page of the latter we read " cum gratia et privilegio reverendissimi gen- eralis in ordine." This is the editio princeps of the New Testament published by the United or Moravian Brethren. The fourth edition of the Bohemian Bible was published at Prague in 1529, the fifth in 1537, the sixth in 1540 at Nuremberg, the sev enth at Prague in 1549, the eighth in 1556-57, the ninth in 1561, the tenth (dedicated to the Emperor Maximilian) in 1570, the eleventh in 1577, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph. All these Bibles and New Testaments were prepared by private men in accordance with the materials they had then at hand. As a matter of course, all these versions were more or less defective. The most complete translation of the entire Bible was executed between 1579-93 at Kralitz, in Moravia. This Bible is known as the Kralitz Bible, also called Sestidilna, because it consisted of six volumes. The translators, all members of the Congregation of the United Brethren, were Albert Mikulas, Lukas Helic, Johann En eas, Isaias Coepolla, Georg Streyc alias Vetter, Johann Efraim, Paul Jesensky, and Johann Kapito. This splendid Bible, in which the chapters and verses are numbered for the first time, was executed at the expense of Baron Johann Zerotinus. The linguistic part in this translation, as well as the notes accompanying the same, were so well executed that Professor Schafarick, one of the best Slavic scholars, re marked that " they contain a great deal of that which, two hundred years later, the learned coryphaei of exegesis exhibited to the world as their own profound discoveries." A second edition of this Bible was published in 1596, and the third and last, which the Moravians pub lished, in 1613. In the same year an edition was also published at Prague. In 1722 an edi tion was published at Halle, ancl again in 1745 and 1766. At Berlin this Bible was published in 1807, 1813, and 1824. In 1808 an edition of the Bible carefully printed from the text of 1593 was published by Professor Georg Palkovic, of Hungary. When about one hundred copies had been circulated of this edition, the British and Foreign Bible Society, in 1812 bought the re mainder for distribution. Since that time this society issued many editions in Roman and Gothic type. In the year 1884 a revision of the Brethren's Bible was undertaken. The text of the Kralitz edition of 1613 was to be revised by a conference of pastors, under the superin tendence of the Rev. Dr. H. von Tardy, Eccle siastical Councillor of Vienna. All Germanisms and archaisms were to be replaced by Bohe mian words now in general use ; certain mis translations also were to be rectified. This edition was edited, in 1888, by Dr. von Tardy and the Rev. Pastor Karafiat, of Velki Shota, in Latin t3Tpe. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British ancl Foreign Bible Society disposed of 605,890 portions of the Scriptures, either as a whole or in portions. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) 9lebo torf. Siif) mllomat fmet, je Si;rm fmcf)o neDno- rojenffjo bat. abt) (aioi), fboj trefi id wfjo, ncjabrjnul, ale met sitoot toecni). Bohtan, a district of Eastern Turkey, just north of the Tigris before it turns to the south. It is inhabited chiefly by Kurds, Armenians, and Nestorians. It includes the towns or cities of Sert, Redwan, and Til. It is a wild region, both in its physical aspects and the character of the people. Mission work is carried on chiefly by the A. B. C. F. M., though sometimes preachers from the Nestorian mission of the Presbyterian Church (North) come among the Syriac-speaking Nestorians. Bokhara, a Russian vassal State in Cen tral Asia, lying between north latitude 41° and 37° and between east longitude 62° and 72°, bounded on the north by the Russian province of Turkestan, on the east by the Pamir, on the south by Afghanistan, and on the west by the Kara Kum Desert. The modern State was founded by the Usbegs in the fifteenth century, after the power of the Golden Horde had been destroyed by Tamer lane. The dynasty of the Manguts, to which the present ruler belongs, dates back to the be ginning of the last century. Mir Mu2affar-ed- din in 1866 proclaimed a holy war against the Russians, who thereupon invaded his dominions and forced him to sign a treaty ceding the ter ritory now forming the Russian district of Syr Daria, to consent to a war indemnity, and to permit Russian trade. In 1873 a further treaty was signed, in virtue of which no foreigner was to be admitted without a Russian passport, and BOKHARA 174 BOMBAY the State became practically a Russian depen dency. Area, 92,000 square miles. Population, 2,500,- 000 (?). Chief town, Bokhara ; population, 70,000. Religion, Mohammedan. The Russian Trans-Caspian Bailway now runs through Bokhara from Chargui on the Oxus to a station within a few miles of the capital, and thence to Samarkhand. No mission work. Bolcngi, a town on the Congo, Africa. Mission station of the American Baptist Mis sionary Union ; recently opened ; 3 missionaries. Bolivia, Bepublic of, one of the South American republics, lies just north of Chili and the Argentine Republic. Its constitution was adopted August 25th, 1836, and has undergone successive modifications, the last being in 1880. The government is modelled after that of the United States of America, with a President who holds office for four years and a Congress, both elected by universal suffrage. By the treaty of peace with Chili, in 1880, all the coast territory was lost, and there are now eight provinces with a total area of 772,548 square miles. Including 1,000,000 Indians the population numbers 2,300, - 000, of whom 500,000 are Mestizoes, mixed race, and 500,000 whites. Sucre, the present capi tal, has 15,405 inhabitants, and La Paz, the former capital, 60,000. Education is at a low ebb. The nominal religion is Roman Catholic, but the mass of the Indians are pagans. Silver is the principal product, though indigo, cin chona, and cocoa are exported There are no railways in Bolivia. Nj mission work is at tempted. Bolobo, a city in Congo, West Africa, 500 miles northeast from its mouth. Climate, tropi cal. Population, 20,000. Race, Bantu. Lan guage, Kibangi. Moral condition, low, owing to belief in witchcraft and the great sacrifice of human life. Government, Congo Free State. Sovereign, Leopold II., King of Belgium. Po-- litical condition steadily improving. Mission station of the Baptist Missionary Society (1888) ; 3 ordained missionaries, 1 unordained, 2 mis sionaries' wives, 1 other lady, 1 preaching place, 125 average attendance, 1 school, 35 scholars. This station is the headquarters of the mission steamer " Peace." Bombay, the capital of the presidency ot the same name, and the chief seaport in India. It is situated on the Indian Ocean, at the south ern end of the island of Salsette, which stretches along the shore of the continent from north to south for a distance of over twenty miles. At its southern extremity there was formerly a group of quite small, islands, separated from each other and from the larger island by narrow channels. Upon these Bombay has been grad ually built up ; and now, by filling in the chan nels between the separate islands, these have all been consolidated with one another and with the larger island of Salsette itself. The harbor, which is the safest and most spacious in all India, and one of the finest in the world, lies between the city and the mainland. In 1661 the Portuguese, whose sway was then undis puted all along the western coast of India, ceded ' the island of Bombay to England as a part of the dowry of the Portuguese princess, Catherine, who became her queen. The popu lation was then supposed to be 10,000, Soon after Charles II. gave it over to the East India Company for an annual rental of £10. In 1673 its population was reported as 60,000 — " a mix ture of most of the neighboring countries, mostly rogues and vagabonds." The mixture of races then presented by its population has continued to be a feature of its life ever since. In 1708 the possessions of the East India Com pany had developed into three Indian " presi dencies" — Bengal, Bombay, and Madras — each ruled by a governor and council, all indepen dent of each other. In 1773 Bombay became subject to the Governor-General of India, whose capital was at Calcutta, where it has continued to be ever since, though the local presidency government was still retained. The growth of the city has been rapid ancl continuous. Its magnificent harbor has attracted the commerce of the world, and merchants and tradeis from all parts of the East have flocked to its bazaars. A series of wise and far-seeing statesmen have guided its destinies, under whose direction the city has been adorned with fine buildings, con nected first by wagon roads and since 1850 by rail with all parts of the Indian Empire, fur nished with docks, and raised to a position of undisputed pre-eminence as the chief port of entry and commercial centre for all India. Steamers sailing daily bring the city into close connection with Liverpool, London, and the Mediterranean ports. The weekly mails be tween India and Europe arrive at and depart from Bombay. Steamers sail hence to all parts of the East, and sailing ships seek its harbor from all over the world. It presents more of the appearance of a European city to the travel ler than almost any otlier city of the East. Here the proverbial conservatism and leisurely slowness of Orientals seem to have given place to the quicker and more energetic motions of Western nations. In population Bombay ranks first of all Ind ian cities, and among those belonging to the British Empire is exceeded only by London itself. The census of 1881 gave a population of 773,196 souls— Buddhists and Jains, 17,387 ; Hindus (of all castes and races), 502,851 ; Mo hammedans, 158,713 ; Parsis, 48,597 ; Jews, 3,321 ; Christians (native, Portuguese, and European), 42,327. The European population by itself, which is mostly British, numbered nearly 10,500. This classification by religion is comparatively simple, but that by race and language is vastly more complex. It is said that Bombay probably contains among its popu lation representatives from a larger number of nationalities than any other city. It is easy to believe that this is so. Nearly every Asiatic race has contributed its quota to the census ; the diversity of race and language among the inhabitants of India alone is very great, and among the dwellers in Bombay are individuals from all parts of India, speaking all of the prin cipal tongues which are used anywhere within the limits of India. Africans of many tribes, representatives from nearly every European country, from America, from China, ancl from widely separated islands of the sea, go to swell the diversity of the Bombay population. The number of languages actually used in Bombay is very great — doubtless a hundred, more or less. For the most part, however, the Moham medans speak the Hindustani ; Hindus are divided chiefly between the Marathi and the Gnjarathi ; the Parsis use a dialect of the latter REFEUKXi -T--. . The Protected or Dependent States are eo BENGAL PRESIDENCY. Northwest Provinces | Central Provinces i •*_ Ajmere* A Mairwara Dtetrict I £ Bi rai Province I O I District* unde- A'atiue-Pri Rajputana 1 -*-* Central India ( Hero, no /ia una acii«-o-r& BtieM> Bullom Version. — The Bullom, which belongs to the negro group of African lan guages, is spoken about Sierra Leone, on the Western Coast of Africa. A translation of the Gospel of Matthew into this dialect was made by the Rev. G. R. Nylander, of the Church Missionary Society, and published by the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society at London in 1815. BULLOM 218 BURMA (Specimen verse. Matt. 6 : 16.) Ntunfey kandirr no tre-Ke aniah Sboll, leh ngha ngha'keh mpant no nkeleng, nu kulluh papah no, wonno cheh ko ke foy. Bnnda, or Mbunda, or Ki-Mbundu. —This name is given to the language of an un civilized tribe in the province of Angola, West Africa, for whom a portion of the New Testa ment has been recently prepared under the auspices of the British ancl Foreign Bible Society. Bungabondar, a town bn the eastern plateau of Sumatra, East Indies. A mission station of the Rhenish Missionary Society. In 1884, 120 Mohammedans were baptized on one day. One missionary and wife, 415 communi cants. Burhanpur, Nimar, Central Province, British India, has an independent mission since 1882 on the Tapti. Burhec, or Barliee, a town in the Jabal- pur District, Central Provinces, India. Mission station of the Gossner Missionary Society. Buriat, a dialect of the Mongolian (q.v.). Burkujanna, on the west coast of York Peninsula, South Australia. A prosperous Hermannsburg station, founded in 1865. Burma. — Within the past seventy- five years the political map of Southeastern Asia, and especially of that part of it lying between Tibet and Yunnan on the north and the Bay of Bengal on the south, eastern Bengal on the west and the Mekong River on the east, has been materially changed three times. In 1820, the emperor of Burma, who styled himself " Lord of the White Elephant" and a variety of other titles, claimed dominion over all the tribes of Burma Proper as well as over Chit tagong, Arakan, and the Tenasserim provinces, including a large part of the Malayan, Penin sula. His sway over many of the independent hill tribes was hardly moro than nominal, but over the Burmans, the Karens of Lower Burma, and the tribes of Arakan and Chittagong, it was cruel and despotic in the extreme. In his ar rogance he demanded that the East India Gov ernment should give up Eastern Bengal to him, and that all Europeans should leave the coun try. This led to the war of 1824-26, in which the British army advanced to Yandabo, on the Irawadi, within 40 miles of his capital, and he was glad to make peace by the payment of $5,000,000 indemnity and the cession of Chit tagong, Arakan, ancl the Tenasserim provinces, including the fine port of Moulmein. This re duced the Burman Empire to Burma Proper, ancl left it with one great seaport and the val leys of the Irawadi, Sitang, and Salwen in its possession. This was still a large territory, and, if well governed, might have been a powerful kingdom ; but the Burman kings were boastful, bloody, and brutal tyrants, and repudiating former treaties, they committed such outrages that, in 1852, a second war was inevitable, and, indeed, was proclaimed by them. In this war, which lasted about six months, the large, wealthy province of Pegu passed into British possession. It included the fine seaport of Rangoon, the large towns of Bassein, Pegu, Henzada, Toungoo, and Prome (see sections on Burman and Karen missions in history of the American Baptist Missionary Union) as well as many smaller towns, and was much the most fertile portion of the coun try. Again the map changed, and while Arakan. and Chittagong had been organized as British provinces, Pegu, the Tenasserim provinces, and all of Lower Burma as far north as the 20th degree of north latitude became British Burma. The Burman kings had now left less than half of their original territory, and their revenues were greatly diminished ; but they were as ar rogant and bloodthirsty as before, and on the accession of Thibaw in 1878, there were new complications. Thibaw was a monster in human form, and, disliking the English, he de voted what intellect he possessed to provoking them to a third war by every means in his power. In this, after seven years, he finally- succeeded. On November 7th, 1885, Thibaw issued a proclamation announcing his intention of immediately marching forth with his armies to efface these heretic barbarians (the English), and to conquer and annex their country. On the 30th of the same month he was a prisoner in the hands of the English army ; was sent to England, and a few weeks later the Empire of Burma was annexed to British India, and the Burmese rule had ceased. There were for about two years some portions of the country infested by dacoits or brigands, but in 1890 the whole of the original Burma, including Burma. Proper, the Tenasserim provinces, Arakan, Chittagong, and Shanland ou the east had been consolidated into one presidency under English rule. At present, and for missionary purposes, Burma may be considered as composed of Upper and Lower Burma, Upper Burma com prising the late kingdom or empire of Burma, and Lower Burma all that portion of the coun try below the 20th degree of north latitude, as well as the Tenasserim provinces and the pres ent mission stations in Arakan and Shan-land in the East. The mission work in Arakan will be treated under that title, though it is now a part of the presidency of Burma. Topography" and Geography. — Burma is drained by three great rivers and their nu merous affluents : the Irawadi, with a great and increasing commerce, about 1,400 miles in length from its sources in one or more of the great lakes in the lofty Himalayas, and navi gable for 1,000 miles or more by large steamers ; the Sitang, of inferior length, and having, at certain seasons of tide and southwest winds, a bore at its mouth, which renders the en trance very difficult ; it bears on its bosom a constantly increasing commerce, steamers ply ing between Rangoon, Moulmein, Thayet-myo, and Toungoo ; the Salwen, » long and navig able river, rising in the mountains of Yunnan, China, and pursuing a course almost parallel to that of the Irawadi. These rivers are sepa rated in their upper courses by ranges of moun tains varying from 4,000 to 6,000 feet in height, but as they approach the Bay of Bengal or the Gulf of Martaban these mountains subside into broad and fertile plains, and the rivers enter the bay or the gulf by many mouths (the Irawadi has ten), forming rich and extensive deltas, with a very rich soil, but often covered with a dense jungle which makes the climate sickly. The valleys of these rivers are of con siderable breadth, and being well watered by their smaller affluents, are productive. The principal productions of Burma are rice, grown. BURMA 219 BURMA everywhere and largely exported ; wheat and millet in the higher lands ; fruits of many kinds and of great excellence ; timber of the best qualities, that of the teak being the best ship timber known ; petroleum oil and precious stones in great variety, the ruby and emerald being specially valuable. The beasts of prey are of great size and fe rocity. The elephants of Burma attain a greater size than those of any other country in the world. The lion, tiger, leopard, of several species, and rhinoceros are all very destruc tive. The buffalo and tho Brahminee bull are trained, as are many of the elephants, as beasts of burden. Horses are few and. are rarely used for draught purposes, the ox, or buffalo taking their place. The rodent tribes exist in large numbers and are great pests, often destroying the rice crop in large districts. They are eaten by the poorer classes in times of famine. Pythons, boas, and other serpents, and espe cially venomous snakes, like the cobra de capel- lo, are abundant. Lizards of all kinds are found everywhere, and, destroying many insects and vermin, are accounted friends of man. The birds are numerous and many of them beautiful. The insect tribes are annoying and many of them dangerous. In a country five-sixths of which is in the torrid zone and so abundantly watered the vegetation is, of course, profuse, and much of it of wonderful beauty. The flowers are unsur passed in elegance and fragrance. The forest trees are of great value. Many of the fruit trees yield delicious fruits and others possess excellent medicinal qualities, while the palms, bamboos, and climbing shrubs have their mani fold uses. The finny tribes and shell fish are of excellent quality, and furnish large supplies of food to the inhabitants along the coasts and rivers. Some of their preparations of these would hardly be palatable to us. Among these is the nga-pee, a compound of prawns, fish, fry, and fish refuse pounded up after decomposition has commenced, with chillies, garlic, and other condiments, which every Burmese considers in dispensable to a good dinner, and which is largely prepared for tho markets. Its odor is indescribably offensive to those whose tastes have not been cultivated to its use. Burma has an area of 279,077 square miles (about equal to that of the New England, Mid dle States, and Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois). Ita population is variously estimated at from 8,000,000 to 15,000,000. Except in Lower (late British) Burma there has never been a census taken, and even now an enumeration of the hill tribes, approximating to accuracy, would be impossible. The population of British Burma, in 1881, was 3,736,771, and has been largely increased since by immigration from India and China. PerhapB 10,000,000 is not an overestimate of the present population of Burma Proper. There are said to be forty-two different races in Burma, but they are mainly divisible into four distinct peoples. These are : 1. The Burmans, under which general name are included the Burmans proper, the ruling race, and the Arakanese. 2. The Ta laings, Taligns or Peguans, once the lords of the country, but now greatly diminished in num bers. 3. The Shans, a generally nomadic race, but of different affinities, as Chinese, Siamese, and Burman Shans. Their national name is Tai. They occupy the eastern region of Burma, and extend into Northern Siam and South western China. The writers who are best ac quainted with them say that there are 5,000.000 or 6,000,000 of them. They are independent, though they nominally acknowledge the king of Burma as their suzerain. These three races are all Buddhists, and though differing in lan guage and physical characteristics, are all de voted to the worship of Gautama. The fourth race are the Karens, of whom there are more than thirty tribes, differing in many respects from each other in language, form, and habits, but all worshippers of nats or spirits, and prob ably remotely of Aryan origin. The Karens of Lower Burma (the lowland tribes) are agricul turists, fishermen, and laborers ; some of them have been peons or slaves of the Burmans ; they are of a gentle and somewhat timid dis position, though personally brave ; they readily received the Gospel, and those of them who were under Burmese rule bore courageously bitter and cruel persecution from the Burmans for its sake. The Sgau and Pwo tribes, which occupied Pegu and the Tenasserim provinces, have been largely converted to Christianity, and have formed many Christian villages. The Highland tribes of Central Burma, the Bghais, Pakus, Gecko, Toungthiis, and Red Karens became converts at a later date, and also organized villages. Of all these there are living about 28,200 communicants, and an ad herent population of 200,000. Their languages differ so mueh, though from the same root, that the missionaries have the Scriptures and all other books translated for each. Beyond these are the hill or mountain tribes, the Karennees, the Eastern and Western tribes (the Eastern the wildest and physically the finest men). The Toungthiis, the Set-hthas, and the Kemmees do not seem to belong with the Karen tribe3, but may be allied to the Arakan ese. Physically they resemble the Talaings ; their languages are written, and have many Pali words. They are generally Buddhists (see Buddhism), but with some traces of nat or demon worship. The Baptist missionaries and the native Karen preachers have bestowed some labor on the Toungthiis and Kemmees, and with moderate success. Other tribes having few affinities with the Ka rens, yet, like them, worshipping nats or demons from motives of fear, are found in Northern Burma and along the Arakan border, and since the whole of Burma has come under British con trol are moving down the Irawadi, in the vicinity of Mandalay, and below and toward Sandoway in'Arakan. The largest and best known of these tribes are the Ch'ins and the Kach'ins. The latter are said to be the fiercest and most war like tribe in Burma. No Burman soldier dares to set foot in one of their villages, which are always situated at the summit of high hills. They are supposed to be identical with the Sing phos or Singpaus of Assam. Yet these rough and fierce men are yielding in considerable num bers to the power of the Gospel, and the Baptist missionaries and their efficient assistants have gathered several churches of each tribe. While the Burmese kings were in power, these mountain tribes and the Shans also, though nominally acknowledging their suze rainty, only paid tribute when it suited their purpose to do so. As against the Chinese they professed to be subject to the kings of Burma ; but whenever any large tribute or any levy of BURMA 220 BURMA troops was demanded they refused it and re tired to their mountain fastnesses, where the Burman soldiers dared not follow them. With several of these tribes war was their normal con dition, and in default of any others to fight, the hill tribes and the Shans fought with each other. It was to such a country, with so many ad vantages of climate, soil, and productiveness, ruled over by the most despotic of kings, in tolerant and cruel Buddhists, and with more than forty tribes of every degree of savagery within its boundaries, most of them hostile to Buddhism and given to demon worship, that Protestant Christianity came in the first two decades of the present century. Missions in Buema. 1. Protestant Missions. — The first attempt to plant a Protestant mission in Burma was made at Rangoon, in 1807, by Messrs. Chater and Mardon, English Baptists. Felix Carey, the eldest son of Dr. William Carey of Serampore, joined them soon after, but Mr. Mardon left in a few months, and Mr. Chater at the end of four years. The London Missionary Society sent two missionaries, Messrs. Pritchett and Brain, to Rangoon in 1808, but the former died soon after his arrival, and the latter removed in a year to Vizigapataui. Mr. Chater during his four years' stay translated Matthew's Gospel into Burmese, which was printed at Serampore. Mr. Carey remained till 1814, and then, having received an appointment and title from the Burmese emperor, he went to Ava, then the Burman capital, to reside. There had been no attempt at missionary work except this trans lation of Matthew, and no Burman had heard that there was an eternal God. Mr. Carey's mis sion house was about two miles out of tbe city. Rangoon was at that time a miserable, dirty town with 8,000 or 10,000 inhabitants, the houses being built with bamboo and teak planks, with thatched roofs ; it was almost without drainage, and intersected by muddy creeks, through which the tide flowed at high water.* Its only importance lay in the fact that it was the capital of a rich and extensive province, governed by a viceroy, a woongyee or official of the highest rank, who was a great favorite of the emperor, Bhodau Phra, the most bloodthirsty and brutal tyrant and the most bigoted Buddhist who had yet sat on the Bur man throne. The vioeroy at Rangoon was al most as brutal, but his chief wife was an ami able woman, well disposed toward foreigners, and possessing great influence over her hus band. On July 13th, 1813, Rev. Adoniram Judson and wife arrived at Rangoon to open a Protes tant Baptist mission there. For the circum- stances whioh led them to engage in missionary work at this time and in this place see Ameri can Baptist Missionary Union, and for the per sonal experiences, sufferings, and persecutions endured by this apostolic missionary and his devoted wives, see, in biographical sketches of the Judsons, Judson, Rev. Adoniram, Judson, Ann Hasseltine, and Judson, Sarah Boardman. In 1816 Mr. Judson was able to converse and * Rangoon is now a beautiful citv. After two bombard ments (m 1825 nnd in 1852) it has been thoroughly rebuilt ln stone, is well drained, is the commercial capital of the country, and has a population of about 150,000, read in Burmese, and had prepared a small grammar and dictionary of the language, had written and printed a tract or two on the Chris tian religion, and had revised Chafer's trans lation of the Gospel of Matthew into Burmese. But it was not until 1819 that he was able to preach and teach religion in his zayat and re ceive inquirers there. June 27th, 1819, he bap tized the first Burman convert to Christianity, Moung Nau. . In this year Bhodau Phra, the Burmese emperor, died, and was succeeded by his grandson, Phagyi-dau, a ruler equally arro gant, brutal, and bloodthirsty with his grand father, but with much less ability. His arro gance and tyranny brought on the first Burman war ot 1825-26, and led to the dismemberment of his empire. The conquerors did not, as they should have done, require the cession of Rangoon, and this remained in the possession of Phagyi-dau, but he ceded the Tenasserim provinces, Arakan, and Chittagong. In 1852, the second war with Great Britain took place, and Rangoon, Pegu, and all Southern Burma became British territory. In 1853 Rangoon became again a, station of the American Bap tist Missionary Union, and a very extensive missionary work is now carried on from this centre. (See American Baptist Missionary Union. ) The Roman Catholic Mission to Burma com> menced in Rangoon in 1845, but its largest ac cessions have been from the Pwos of Bassein. (See Roman Catholic Missions in the East.) Rangoon was also the first station (established 1859) of the Burma mission conducted by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. The Bishop of Rangoon now presides over a widely extended diocese, including the cities of Mandalay, Toungoo, etc. Upper Burma was entered by this society in 1868. (See Society for Propagation of the Gospel.) The Lu therans have also a church at Rangoon, but prosecute no other missionary work in Burma. Moulmein, which in 1827 had 20,000 inhabit ants, is now a beautiful city with a population of about 100,000. It has a fine harbor and a large commerce. For its missionary history see American Baptist Missionary Union, and the biographical sketches of Judson, Board- man, Wade, and Binney. Tavoy has about 13,000 inhabitants. It is noteworthy as the place where the first Karen mission was started. The Karen church has now nearly 1,000 members, and there is also a Burman church with a small membership. Bassein, on the Bassein, or west delta branch of the Irawadi, has a capacious and safe harbor, and a large and increasing trade in rice. It is the capital and commercial centre of the district of Bassein, which is the most fertile in Burma, and has a population of over 400,000. It is a region of especial interest to tbe friends of mis sions, from the fact that in this district has been witnessed the greatest and most rapid progress of the Karens toward Christian civili zation. In what was known as British Burma before 1886 are grouped a considerable number of im portant villages and towns. Among the most important are Shwegyin, on the Sitang, a promi nent Karen station ; Thongze, on the Prome and Rangoon Railroad, an important Burman station, third after Rangoon and Prome ; Thar- rawaddy, chief town of its district, farther north on the Prome Railroad, with flourishing Karen BURMA 221 BURMA work, which has absoibed the Karen churches of Zigon and Sitkim. Prome, on the Irawadi, the terminus of the railroad, is a growing town of 30,000 inhabitants, with large trade and manufactures. It was first occupied as a mission station in 1864, and belongs to the Burman Mission. Maubin, a new but thriving town about midway be tween Rangoon and Bassein, is a Pwo-Karen station, and has 15 churches and 12 native preachers. Thatone, the ancient capital of the Toungthoo kingdom, about 30 miles northwest from Moulmein, was first occupied as a station for Shans and Toungthoos in 1880. Pegu, the former capital of the kingdom of Pegu, is an important city about 40 miles northeast of Rangoon on the railroad to Mandalay. The inhabitants are mostly Talaings or Peguans. The American Baptist Missionary Union has at present two churches there. Henzada is an important and growing city, ancl the capital of the fertile and populous dis trict of that name. It has a population of 20,000 and a large rice trade. Mission work in Henzada was not commenced until 1853, after it came under British control, and the progress among the Karens has been wonder ful. The Burman church here is small and not yet self-supporting. Toungoo is an important commercial city. It was at one lime the capital of Burma. It has its large trade in timber, petroleum oil, salt, rice,and lacquer work, reckoned the best in Burma, and has a favorable location, which attracts in large numbers the northern tribes, and gives it access not only to the capital, but to Southwest China by caravans. It is situated on the Sitang River, and is connected with Rangoon and Mandalay by railroad. Since 1853, Toungoo has been an important station of the A. B. M. U., the S. P. G., and the Roman Catholic Mission. The first named has 2 associations, 145 churches, and 5,470 members in the district; — the others not so many. (See Toungoo, in article American Bap tist Missionary Union.) Thay-et-myo is an important town on the west bank of the Irawadi, almost due west of Toungoo. It was occupied as a mission station of the A. B. M. C since 1887, on account of its accessibility to the Ch'ins. Above Thay-et-myo, on the Irawadi, are several important towns. Among these are Minhla, Patanay, Mimbee, Magwey, and Yay-nan-gyning. The last named is the southern limit of the petroleum oil re gion. The oil wells were formerly a govern ment monopoly and were badly managed, but since the annexation they have passed into British hands and will probably be developed in accordance with western ideas. Sillay and Ny-oung-oo are noted for the manufacture of the Burman lacquered ware which is of high repu tation. Pagan is one of tho ancient capitals of Burma, and in former times was the Mecca of Buddhism. An area of sixteen square miles— eight miles along the river and of an average width of two miles inland — is completely cov ered with pagodas and sacred buildings —the Burmans say there are 10,000 of them— in every style of architecture, of every size, and in every stage of decay, some of them newly restored, regilded, and brightened with their bejewelled hlies or umbrellas, some crumbling masses of sun-dried brick. The town is practically de serted except for a few hundred pagoda slaves, an outcast class condemned to lifelong and hereditary service about the sacred buildings. Above Pagan the chief towns are Koonyua and Mying Yan, the latter a station of the American Baptist Missionary Union. Between it and Mandalay, a distance of about 100 miles, are three more former capitals of Burma, Amarupura and Ava, now in ruins, and Sagaing, a populous town and one of the suburbs of Mandalay. It is a station of the American Bap tist Missionary Union. Near Ava, at Oung- pen-la, which is an out-station, a mission chapel, called the Ann H. Judson memorial, is in process of erection. This was the site of the prison where Dr. and Mrs. Judson suffered so much. Mandalay, the capital of Upper Burma since 1857, ancl since the annexation the capital of all Burma, is situated on the east bank of the Irawadi, the walled city being two miles back from the river. It has many pagodas, and its palaces and other public buildings are sur rounded with large gardens ; since the annexa tion it has grown rapidly, and has now a popu lation of nearly 200,000, about equally divided between the intramural and extramural inhabi tants. No Oriental city has so many national ities among its population as Mandalay : repre sentatives of the forty-two tribes of Burma, of the clans of India, Siam, Malacca, and Tonquin, thousands of Chinese, Manchurians, Japanese, and indeed from every country of Asia and Northern Africa ; islanders from Melanesia and Polynesia, Europeans, Eurasians, and Ameri cans, are all to be found in its streets, -which are fortunately wide and set with fine trees ; but the roadways are horrible, and the vehicles as bad as possible. The cosmopolitan character of the population makes the city a most desirable field for mis sionary effort. Under the rule of the infamously cruel and brutal Thibaw it was not safe to start a mission there, though under his predecessor, the Meng-don-Meng, the S. P. G. had schools and some congregations there, and that mon arch, though he had been a Buddhist monk before ascending the throne, did not forbid their establishment ; but nothing in the missionary line was permitted by King Thibaw. The uncle of Thibaw, known as the War Prince, a zealous Buddhist, who had procured a revision of the Tripitaka, " the three baskets of the Law" (the Buddhist Scriptures), by the most learned schol ars of the realm, caused this revised text to be inscribed on five marble slabs as an act of merit, and placed them around the great and the smaller shrines of " the Incomparable Pagoda" within the walls. These are carefully preserved since the annexation as containing the best version of the Buddhist sacred books. When the British acquired possession of the capital the way was open at once for the occupancy of this important field for a mission station, and in 1886 the American Baptist Missionary Union established a mission there, at first for the Burmans, but soon to be supplemented by one for the Karens, of whom there are many, by an English church after the pattern of that in Rangoon, and special efforts for the Shans, the Ch'ins, Kach'ins, Karennees, and other hill tribes. The British Commissioner has given a fine tract of land to the missionaries in the city, and a " Judson Centennial Memorial Chap el" (the money for which has been raised in the United States) is to be erected there forthwith. BURMA 222 BURNS, W. O. The railway from Mandalay to Toungoo and Rangoon, now completed, traverses the Sitang valley about midway between the Irawadi and the Salwen, and passes near several important towns on the adjucent hills. One of the largest of these above Toungoo is Yemethen, which is to be a railroad centre and the residence of the assistant commissioner and other officials. The American Baptist Missionary Union established a mission here in 1889 for Burmans, and prob ably eventually for Karens, Karennees, and Shans. Other important places on or near this railway are Meiktila, Pyinmana, Kyoukse, " the granary of Upper Burma," and Pyaubwe, a rapidly growing town. In some of them mis sionary work has just begun. Above Mandalay there are few towns of im portance until the second defile is reached. The Mingohn Pagoda, 400 feet square, but rent by an earthquake before it was completed, is 10 or 12 miles above Mandalay ; near it is the monster bell, tbe largest in Burma, and second only to that in Moscow, 18 feet in height, 17 in breadth, and 18 inches thick. It weighs over 90 tons, but is too heavy for its supports, and cannot be rung. Above this the principal towns are Malay, Shinpagah, Kathah, Shway-goo, Heniha, and Sabanago, none of them impor tant. Bhamo, the head of steam navigation on the Irawadi, is 180 miles above Mandalay and only 40 miles from the Chinese frontier in Yunnan. It is an important city for the Chinese trade, and as a missionary station gives access to Southwest China. The American Baptist Missionary Union have had a station here since 1877, and their missionaries, six in number, have been laboring among the Kach'ins and the Shans. A considerable church of the former has been gathered. The China Inland Mission have also a station here. (See China Inland Mission.) Burmese Version. — The Burmese, which is spoken throughout the Burmese Empire and Arakan, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of non-Aryan languages. The first part of the Scriptures which was published into this lan guage was translated by Felix Carey (son of Dr. W Carey) and Mr. Chater, and was issued — viz., the Gospel of Matthew — in 1815 at Ran goon, at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. An edition of the New Testament was published at Serampore in 1826. The work commenced by Carey and Chater was continued by Adoniram Judson, who in 1815 had arrived at Burma under the auspices of the American Baptist Triennial Convention. The first edi tion of his New Testament translation, consist ing of 3,000 copies, was issued in December, 1832, and a second and much improved edition was published by the American Baptist mis sionaries stationed at Moulmein in 1837. In 1834 Dr. Judson completed his translation of the Old Testament, and a second edition of his Bible was published in 5,000 copies in 1840. This was followed in 1880, 1885, 1880 and 1887 by other editions of 5,000 copies each and by frequent editions of the New Testament. In 1863 and several subsequent years, the British and Foreign Bible Society issued the books of Genesis and Exodus, and in 1887 Dr. Strachan, Bishop of Rangoon, was authorized by the same sooiety to bring out, through the Burma Bible and Tract Society, portions of an edition of Jud son's New Testament. Thus far the same so ciety has disposed of 21,000 copies of the Scriptures, either as a whole or in parts. (See also Karen, Shan and Talaing versions.) (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) oqcprcooScSctSa: cco5n^{QjSooooDjOTec)lc7!c^3opScjoS8:gcT:o§ocqooS« ¦KO^coDOC|l9330trf5icigc":o^clBogc?:cJlo^^-5:oos6coS8S |oool:o3S:oco^aw:(fo35o^g|e<»?(|joo^o8t6'e35o6~eco3fB oj3;c&c%i|Sao$j>!G035fld5» Burns, William C, b. in the parish of Dun, Scotland, April 1st, 1815. Having studied awhile at Aberdeen, he began, in 1831, the study of law. A few months after, he was con verted, decided to enter the ministry, and in 1832 leturned to Aberdeen. He graduated in 1834 with honorable distinction, and in a few months went to the University of Glasgow to pursue his studies for the ministry. He be came an active and leading member of the Students' Missionary Society, and coming in contact with missionaries and missionary books, he was led to devote himself to the foreign work. In 1839 he was licensed to preach, and there being no vacancy in the mission field of the Church, he entered upon evangelistic work at home, taking charge of Mr. McCheyne's church at Dundee, during his absence in Pales tine. His ministry there was wonderfully blessed, and also at Kilsyth, his native parish. On Mr. McCheyne's return he was led to accept invitations to similar labors in Aberdeen, Edin burgh, and other parts of Scotland, where his ministry was attended with great results. In 1843 he went to Ireland and Canada. In both places he met violent opposition and persecu tion. In Canada his labors were extensive and successful. He applied himself to the study of French, and was soon able to preach to the French Canadians. He had no stated income, but depended on the free-will offerings of the people, and if more was given than his wants required he gave the excess to the poor or some Christian object. He returned to Scotland, September 15th, 1846, accepted an invitation from the committee of the English Presbyterian Synod to go to China as the first missionary of that Church ; was ordained in 1847, and sailed June 8th of that year. On the voyage he began the study of Chinese with the only book found in London, Williams's English and Chinese vo cabulary, aud a volume of Matthew's Gospel. His first station for fourteen months was Hong Kong. But desiring to be in the towns and villages iu the interior, he set out in 1849 on the first of his missionary tours, taking little or nothing with him but tracts and books, and trusting to the hospitality of the people for food and shelter. The rainy season and the hostility of the people led him to return to Hong Kong, where he remained the next eight months, perfecting himself in Chinese, laboring among the sick and suffering at the hospital of the L. M. S. In November he resumed his evangelistio labors on the mainland, returning robbed and stripped of everything but the clothes he wore. In February, 1850, leaving Hong Kong, he accompanied Dr. Young to Can ton. Finding it difficult to obtain a house, and the prospects for labor disoouraging, he left Canton in June, 1851, for Amoy. Here he located himself among the native population in an upper chamber above the school, and began the study of the Amoy dialect. He crossed BURNS, W. O. 223 BUTLER, E. over to the mainland, and in seven days preached the Gospel iu thirty villages. In Amoy and its neighborhood his labors resulted not only in earnest inquiry, but in not a few conversions, and in several places the formation of native congregations. He finished while here, in 1853, the last revision of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (part first) in Chinese, and also edited an^edition of hymns for Chinese worship, which from the first was a great favorite, and has since appeared in improved and enlarged editions. In 1854 he made a brief visit to Scotland. On his return the following year he proceeded to the north with the view of attempting to reach the headquarters of the Tai-Ping rebels. The next six months Shanghai was the centre from which he made extensive and frequent tours among the towns and villages around, living for the most part in his boat, and following the course of the numerous canals and rivers. Leaving a field occupied by other missionaries, he went to another and distant part of the country, accomplishing in Swatow a great and lasting work among the rural population, and forming Christian congregations. In 1858 he returned to Amoy, where great progress had been made, and the number of converts and in quirers rapidly increased. The next year he spent in Foochow, dividing his labors between preaching in English and studying and preach ing in Chinese. The Sabbaths he spent at the " Pagoda Anchorage," twelve miles below the city, preaching to the sailors on shipboard, and the week days he preached at Foochow two oven- ings a week to the tinfoil beaters. Without opening a new mission he aided the three mis sions already established. With the aid of na tive preachers he prepared some of the hymns used at Amoy and Swatow in the spoken dialoct of Foochow. These he first printed in sheet form, and used them in street and chapel preaching, and then published them in book form. In 1860 he returned to Amoy and Swa tow. In that year the Christians wero violently persecuted, and on their applying to him for advice he represented their wrongs to the Brii ish Consul with great energy and complete suc cess, and afterward proceeded to Peking on a special message to the supreme authorities for the purpose of securing guarantees against the repetition of similar outrages. He remained three years in Peking. He prepared there a volume of fifty hymns in the Mandarin dialect, chiefly translations of home hymns, or hymns used in the south of China. Next he put in the dialect of Peking the Pilgrim's Progress com plete in two volumes. Some copies were illus trated with wood-cuts. A translation of the Psalms from Hebrew was published in 1867. But he never intermitted preaching. In 1867 he left Peking and went to Nieu-chwang to see what could be done to establish a mission in Manchuria. He was found ill at an inn in a small room, destitute of every comfort. Recov ering he began his labors, "preaching with apostolic fervor and power." But in July he took a cold accompanied by fever. The last letter he wrote was to his mother, saying, "May the God of all consolation comfort you when the tidings of my decease shall reach you, and through the redeeming blood of Jesus may we meet with joy before the throne above." He died on April 4th. His body was laid in the foreign burying ground. Mr. Burns' s methods were peculiar. He pre ferred to work as an evangelist, not as a pastor or teacher, leaving converts to be cared for by other missionaries. He lived on his journeys much of the time on the merest necessaries, taking with him nothing which could tempt thieves, and accepting such hospitalities as the people were disposed to offer. Enduring with utmost meekness wrongs done to himself, he yet repeatedly exerted himself to obtain redress for his suffering converts. Whatever would hinder him he put aside, declining thus the offer of the post of chaplain to a Scotch regi ment, believing it would cause a prejudice against his message as a missionary. And he assumed the dress of the Chinese because he would thus avoid the annoying curiosity of the natives toward foreigners, and the more readily accomplish his work among the people. Burnshill, East Kaffraria, South Africa, northwest of King William's Town. Mission station of the Free Church of Scotland ; 1 mis sionary, 10 out-stations, 620 communicants. Bushnell, Albert, b. at Rome, N. Y., February 19th, 1818 ; graduated at Lane Semi nary in 1843 ; ordained by the Presbytery of Cincinnati, O., November 5th, 1843, and em barked for Africa, January 1st, 1844, as a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M. He was stationed at the Gaboon, West Africa. In 1846 he returned home on account of ill health. The French flag was then waving over all the Mpongwe towns, schools were broken up, the congregations dispersed and missionary operations almost entirely suspended. He sailed again for Africa in 1848. Five times he visited the United States in ill health, the last in 1877. He received the degree of D.D. from Hamilton College in 1878. In 1879, though an invalid, he volunteered to return because " no younger and stronger man could be found to re-enforce the mission. " He died at Sierra Leone, December 2d, 1879. Dr. Bushnell has been called " the patriarch of West African missions." A classmate says : ' ' There may have been greater men than he, but rarely do we meet one so lovely and so loved. He loved Christ with extraordinary love. He loved the souls of men as few love them. He loved the heathen with a love that often showed itself in tears, in prayers, and in appeals. He gave his life for Africa. He has done a marvellous work in the land he loved so strongly." Butaritari,one of the Gilbert Islands, Mi cronesia, was converted in 1881, and has 483 church-members. The inhabitants are a clever and active people, live in houses of two stories, build excellent boats, have traced maps of the sounds and straits and seas in the vicinity, un derstand the rudiments of astronomy, etc. No trace of human sacrifice or cannibalism among them. But whalers and traders have not im proved their morals, and their number is de creasing. Butler, Flizur, b. at Norfolk, Conn., June 11th, 1794 ; went as a medical missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. in 1820 to the Cherokee Indians, reaching Brainerd, January 10th, 1821, Through his labors and those of his associates, the Indians during the subsequent nine years made great improvement. They had become largely a nation of farmers and artisans, had organized, with the advice of the United States Government, a regular and creditable govern- BUTLER, E. 224 BYINGTON, T. L ment, were to a considerable extent supplied with schools and religious institutions, and many were members of Christian churches. Georgia had long coveted the lands of the Indians, and determined to remove them from the State. In spite of repeated treaties which recognized them as a nation, and which were declared to be " binding on the State of Georgia, her government and citizens forever, " the legis lature passed laws abrogating the Cherokee Government, annulling its laws, extending over the people the government of Georgia, and dis qualifying them from testifying in any court of justice. Considering the missionaries as stand ing in the way of the removal of the Cherokees, the legislature determined first to remove them. Dr. Butler was arrested, July 7th, 1831, and treated with great indignity. One end of a chain was fastened by a padlock round his neck, and the other to the neck of a horse, by the side of which he was compelled to walk, liable at every step of the forest road to fall and be strangled by the chain. At night he was chained by the ankle to his bedstead. The next day he was driven 35 miles with the chain still around his neck. At Camp Gilmer he was kept eleven days in jail. Released on a writ of habeas cor pus under borids to appear for trial, he was tried September 15th and sentenced to the penitentiary for four years with hard labor. After imprisonment for sixteen and one-half months he was released and returned to his station. In February, 1834, partly by force, partly by fraud, he was driven from Haweis, and removed to Brainerd. In September, 1835, he left Brainerd, and began a new station at Red Clay, 25 miles eastward. He was ordained at Kingston, Tenn., April 4th, 1838, and con tinued his labors with the Cherokees, among whom he died in 1857. For a full account of the proceedings of the Georgia authorities toward the missionaries and the Cherokees, see article on Rev. Samuel Worcester ; also Mission to the Indians. Buyers, William, b. 1804, at Dundee, Scotland ; studied at the Missionary College, Hoxton ; sailed June 13th, 1831, as a missionary of the L. M. S. for India ; was stationed at Benares from 1832 till 1840, when failure of health required his return to England. He re- embarked for India, June, 1843, reaching Ben ares in September. At the close of 1845 he again, on account of ill health, left for Eng land. The directors deeming it not advisable to send him again, he, leaving Mrs. Buyers at home, returned to Benares at his own expense. In March, 1850, he was reappointed by the so ciety. In 1859, his health failing, he went to Almorah, ancl took charge of that station from November, 1859, to October, 1801, when he re turned to Benares. In 1863 his connection with the society ceased. He died at Unchadek, near Allahabad, October 4th, 1865. Mr. Buyers was an able missionary, highly esteemed as a scholar and worker. His published Letters on India and Recollections of Northern India are very valuable. Buzacott, Aaron, b. March 4th, 1800, at South Molton, Devon, England ; studied at Hoxton Academy ; sailed as a missionary of the L. M. S., March 13th, 1827, for the South Seas ; stationed first at Tahiti, afterward at Raratonga. On May 30th, 1836, he and Mrs. Buzacott accompanied a band of missionaries to Samoa, to aid them in their settlement, return ing to Raratonga, May, 1837. Mr. Buzacott was an accomplished linguist, and much of his time was spent, in conjunction with Messrs. Williams and Pitman, in translating the Scrip tures into the language of Raratonga. He con tributed also largely to the preparation of a na tive literature. In 1846 he sailed for England, and while there he, at the request of the Bible Society, revised and superintended the printing. of the entire Raratongan Scriptures. In 1851 he returned with Mrs. Buzacott to Raratonga. In 1857 failure of health compelled him to re tire from active service. Leaving Raratonga in. November of that year, he went to Sydney, stopping on the way at Samoa. In July, 1860, he was appointed the agent of the Society in the Australian Colonies. He died at Sydney, Sep tember 20th, 1864. Mrs. Buzacott died in Lon don, 1877. Byington, Cyrus, b. at Stockbridge, Mass., March 11th, 1793 ; was converted in a revival in 1813 ; studied law and was admitted to the bar in Berkshire County in 1814 ; re linquished the profession of law in 1816; en tered Andover Theological Seminary, gradu ating in 1819. After acting as agent of the American Bible Society for several months, he went in 1820 as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. to the Choctaw Indians, and was sta tioned at Eliot. He was ordained at Oxford, O. , October 24th, 1827. He remained at Eliot till 1859, when the Choctaws by the treaty of 1830* were compelled to remove to the Indian Terri tory. He accompanied them thither, remaining at Stockbridge, the new station, till 1866, when, his health failing, he removed to1 Ohio. Mr. Byington prepared several religious books for the Indians, a Choctaw dictionary and gram mar, and translated portions of the Bible into their language. He died at Belpre, O. , Decem ber 31st, 1868. Byington, Theodore Li., b. at John- sonsburg, N. J., March 15th, 1831 ; graduated at Princeton Coilege, 1849 ; spent four years in the study and practice of law ; graduated at Union Theological Seminary, 1857 ; married Margaret E. Hallock of Plainfield, Mass. ; or dained at Bloomfield, N. J., June 4th, 1858, and sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for Turkey ; commenced a station at Eski-zaghra, European Turkey, in 1S59 ; returned to the United States in 1867 on account of ill health, and was released from his connection with the Board ; pastor in Newton, N. J., seven years ; reappointed, 1874 ; resided in Constantinople till 1885 ; returned to the United States in im paired health ; died in Philadelphia, June 18th, 1888. One who was associated with him in Turkey says : " Independent in thought, firm in his convictions, ardent in his emotions, ho was a leader in missionary councils. As a de bater, among the foremost in power, he was always genial and careful never to wound the feelings of one from whom he differed, ready to retraot if he spoke hastily, a seeker of truth and wisdom, and not of victory ; conservative and cautious in temperament, he could see both sides of an argument and weigh them candidly." He was a preacher of impressive earnestness, and excelled as an extemporaneous speaker, though careful in his preparations. His largest volume in Bulgarian was on the Evidences of Christianity, which has been published also in BYINGTON, T. L. 225 CAIRO the Armenian, and has had a wide circulation. As editor for twelve years of the weekly and monthly Zornitza, established by Dr. Long, Dr. Byington contributed greatly to the advance ment of Christian truth among the Bulgarians. The paper has many subscribers in Bulgaria, Roumelia, Macedonia, and wherever Bulgarians are found, and more readers than any other jjgriodical in the language. It is probable that this paper has contributed as much as any other instrumentality toward the development of those characteristics that have been so prominent among the Bulgarians in their long struggle for national independence. ' ' Future generations, ' ' says Dr. Wood, " will give the name of Dr. Byington a high place among the benefactors of mankind." He received the degree of D.D. from Princeton College, 1878, 0. Cabruang, one of the Talaut Islands, situ ated on the line from the northeastern penin sula of Celebes to the Philippines, East Indies, Christianity was first introduced here by the Portuguese, but utterly neglected by tbe Dutch, who, in 1677, took possession of the islands ; it finally gave way to Mohammedanism. When in 1859 four evangelical missionaries of the Ennelo Society of Holland began to work in Cabruang, they did so with danger to their lives. Two of these left immediately, but the other two remained, and the island has now 70 Christians. Caffre.— (See Kafir. ) Cairo, a city of Egypt, situated in 30° 6' north latitude and 31° 26' east longitude, about nine miles south of the apex of the delta, where the Nile divides into the eastern or Damietta branch and the western or Rosetta branch. The city extends from the edge of the desert at the base of the Mokattam Hills on the east to the river on the west, and southward until it joins Old Cairo — Misr Atika — on the site of the ancient city Festat. This was the site of New Babylon, said to have been founded by the Babylonians after the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, about b.c 525. The new city, Cairo, was founded by Johar, the general of the Fati- mite Khalif Mu'izz. It was called Misr el Kahira because it is said that at the precise time when the foundation of the walls was being laid, the planet Mars, which by the Arabs is called Kahir — i.e., the victorious — crossed the meridian of the new city,' and Mu'izz accordingly named it from this event. The city grew rapidly because of its position and the facility with which building material was found in the Nile mud, the stone of the Mokat tam Hills, and in the extensive ruins of an cient Memphis on the west of the river. It has become the largest city on the Continent of Africa, and the second in the Turkish Empire, having a population of from 400,000 to 500,000. El Kahira — Cairo — was made the capital of Egypt in 973 a.d., and has continued to enjoy this pre-eminence during the many vicissitudes of 917 years. From January 26th, 1517, when Osman Sul tan Selim I. entered the city in triumph until July 22d, 1798, when, after the battle of the Pyramids, Napoleon I. entered the city, nothing of sufficient importance seems to have occurred to merit a place in history. And it was not until after Mehemet Ali was established as Viceroy of Egypt that the city began anew $o enjoy prosperity. Ismail Pasha while Khedive made great and important improvements in and around the capital, among which were widening narrow streets, making new ones, re quiring uniformity of architecture in certain streets, extending the city so as to form the new part called for him Ismailiyeh, improving the Esbekiyeh public garden, planting trees in and about the city, and uniting Cairo with the western bank of the river by a magnificent iron bridge. After Ismail Pasha was compelled to leave Egypt in 1879, his son, Tewfik, continued to make Cairo his residence and the seat of his government. During the rebellion in 1882 Cairo escaped the calamities of massacre, bom bardment, rapine, and incendiarism which be fell Alexandria, and when the rebellion was crushed by the British arms the English gen eral established his headquarters there, and the English garrison occupied the citadel and the Kasr en Nil Barracks. Since that time the city has improved, and many handsome buildings have been erected. Among the objects of interest are the Boulak Museum, now removed to the Geza Palace, the bazaars and mosques. One of the oldest of these is Jama-el-Azhar, which was changed from its original use to a university by Khalif Aiz Billah on the suggestion of his vizier, Abu'l Farag Ya'kub, in the year 378 of the Hegira, and has become the most important Mohammedan in stitution of learning in the world. There is nothing imposing in "the appearance of the buildings, which have an old and dilapi dated aspect. They occupy a large piece of ground, and consist of an open court with Riwaks— colonnades — on the north and south sides, which are set apart for students from West Africa, East Africa, Syria, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, the Soudan, and other parts of the Mohammedan world. On the east of the court is the Liwan el Jama, or sanctuary, which covers an area of about 3,600 square yards, has a low ceiling supported by 380 columns of granite and marble, but not uniformly ar ranged, as if they were not in their original places. Here the prayers are repeated and in struction given to groups of students who sit on mats before their teachers. It has an en rolment of from 11,000 to 12,000 students, who are taught by 321 Sheikhs or professors. The president is called Sheikh el Azhar, and receives a salary of about $500. The students sjiend from two to six years in the university, while some continue longer. No fees are paid by them, as all expenses are met from the endow ments of the mosque, which are of great value. " The branches taught are syntax of the Arabic language, Mohammedan theology, called Um el kilim, or religious science, and Um et iavheek, science of the unity of God, which includes His existence and some of His attributes and perfections. This is followed by ilm el fikh — law. The sources of this ore the Koran, the Sunna or traditions, and inferences drawn by CAIRO 226 CAIRO their prophet himself from the words of the Koran. Their science of law is divided into two sections : 1. The doctrine of the Chief Religious Commandments of El Islam — viz., (a) Et Tauheed, or the recognition of God's unity, ancl Mohammed's as His prophet, (b) The Solat and Tahara, or the duty of repeating the canon ical prayers in connection with the ablutions. (c) The Sadaka and Zakat, or giving of alms ancl payment of a religious tax. (d) The Siyam, or fasting during the month of Ramadan, (e) The Hajj, or duty of performing a pilgrimage to Mecca. 2. The doctrine of Secular Law, civil and criminal, either as expressly laid down by the Koran or as deducible from it. " The legal literature is again divided into two classes, one embracing systematic expositions of the law of the Koran, and the other consist ing of the decisions (fetwa) and opinions of celebrated jurists in special and difficult cases. "Besides these leading branches of instruc tion, logio (Um el Mantik), rhetoric (ilm el ma'am wai Bayan), the art of poetry (ilm el arud), the proper mode of reciting the Koran (ilm el kirna), and the correct pronunciation of the letters (ilm el tejweed) are also taught." The whole system of education is committing to memory, without exercises which train the mind to discern the truth and detect error, and lead to the forming of independent opinion. Mathematics and astronomy, which were stud ied by the ancient Egyptians, are not in the curriculum of this modern university of Islam- ism. And yet they are proud of their attain ments, and look down with feelings akin to dis dain upon the scientific and religious attain ments of Western Christians. Missionary Work in Cairo. — Miss Whately, daughter of Archbishop Whately, opened schools for the instruction of the chil dren of Copts and Mohammedans. She con tinued this work from 1862 until the year 1889, when she was called to her reward. During that time many of the youth of Cairo received a common-school education ancl some knowl edge of the Word of God. A few years ago the Church Missionary So ciety of England sent a missionary to Cairo, who was afterward assisted by another and a medical missionary. It is claimed that their work is expressly among the Mohammedans. In 1854 the Associate Reformed Presbyterian, now the United Presbyterian Church of North America, began mission work in Egypt. The work was begun in Cairo and Alexandria and afterward in different parts of the delta and Upper Egypt as far south as Assouan. By the almost general consent of the Christian world they have been made responsible for the evangelization of that country. In Cairo three missionaries with their wives and four unmarried ladies are located. The work is carried on from three different quarters of the city. In the Beret es Sakkaeen on the east they have a house, in the lower story of which there is a day school for girls during the week and in the upper story public worship on the Lord's day. In the west or Boulak quarter they have a honse in which there is a day school for girls, and a Sunday-school and publio worship on the Lord's clay. In the centre of the city, in the Esbekiyeh quarter, they have a large building favorably located and well adapted for the various departments of the work. The history of this building is as follows : When Said Pasha was Viceroy of Egypt, among his munificent giants to certain benevolent soci eties was one to the American Mission of the United Presbyterian Church. It was a large house, which had been used as a hospital, situ ated near the west end of the Muski. Repairs and alterations were made in it to adapt it for schools, church, and dwellings for the mission aries. For several years it was used for these purposes, until Ismail Pasha informed the mis sionaries that the house was in the way of im provements he purposed making in that locality, and requested the mission to vacate the build ing. After long negotiations he agreed to give in exchange two lots on which to build, and the sum of £7,000. Asitwasnot practicable to begin to build at that time, the money was in vested and houses were rented for the work of the mission. Plans were prepared for a building adapted to the work and in accordance with the style of architecture required by the Egyp tian Government. These were examined by the Board of Foreign Missions and by them approved. With the money received from the Egyptian Government, interest on the part of the money invested, contributions from friends of the mission, together with a loan from a fund in trust, the building was erected. As each part of the premises was completed it was occupied, and thus the rents of houses were saved. The building affords accommodation for three families of the missionaries, 4 ladies, 50 pupils in the boarding schools, about 20 students of theology, recitation rooms for 250 boys and 150 girls, a book shop and magazine for books, besides a large audience room for publio worship. To rent houses for all these purposes would require from $4,000 to §5,000 annually at least. The work in Cairo is carried on in the follow ing departments : 1. Schools. — The boys' day and boarding school in the Esbekiyeh quarter, in 1889 had an average attendance of 240 ancl a total enrol ment of 408, of whom 222 were Copts, 106 Mos lems, and 59 Jews and others. This school is under the direct supervision of the missionaries at the station. Besides being taught the or dinary branches of a common and high school, they receive daily instruction from the Word of God, so that they are brought thus under the evangelizing influences of Christianity. The girls' day and boarding school in the same quarter had an average attendance of 159 ; total enrolment, 271, of whom 105 were Copts, 48 Moslems, 77 Jews and others. Twenty-eight girls were in the boarding depart ment. In the girls' school in Beret es Sakkaeen there was an average attendance of 147 ; total enrolment, 347, of whom 152 were Copts, 184 Moslems, and 11 others. In the girls' school in Boulak there was an average attendance of 107 ; total enrolment, 251, of whom 107 were Copts, 132 Moslems, and 12 others. These three schools are under the direction of the unmarried ladies, who are assisted by native teachers. They also have charge of the zenana work, and visit the women in their houses. In this they are aided by natives who have been in some measure trained for this work. 2. Book Distribution. — In the district of Cairo there are three book shops — one in the mission CAIRO 227 CALCUTTA building in Cairo, one in Tanta, and another in Zagazig, in each of which there is a native convert, whose duty it is to sell books and con verse on the subject of religion with visitors. Besides these six colporteurs canvass the city and surrounding district. The sales in the Cairo district in 1889 were as follows : Scriptures, 2,844 volumes for $489.54 ; religious books, 1,902 volumes for |590.75 ; educational, 6,530 volumes for $1,564.- 48. Total, 11,276 volumes for $2,344.77. 3. Preaching and Evangelistic Work. — In each of the three quarters there is a Sabbath- school for boys and girls. Public worship is held in each of them once or twice every Lord's day, besides night meetings during the week. The missionaries visit the people in their houses in the city, and have the oversight of the out- stations in the district north to Zagazig and about 150 miles south of Cairo. The number of communicants in the city in December, 1889, was 156, the average attendance on the Lord's day, 458, and the money contributed for con gregational purposes for the year was $431. Calcutta, the capital of British India. It stands on the east bank of the Hugli River, one of the channels through which the Ganges reaches the Bay of Bengal, in the province of Bengal, about 80 miles from the mouth of the river, in north latitude 22° 34' and in east longitude 88° 24'. The population of the city proper was returned, in 1881, as 433,219 ; but if the suburbs are included, which except for the details of municipal administration are really a part of Calcutta, the population amount ed in that year to 766,298. Bombay alone, of all the cities of India, exceeds Calcutta in size. The earliest mention of the name occurs in a revenue document of one of the Mogul emper ors, in 1596, where Kalikata (Kali-Ghat, shrine of the goddess Kali) indicated a small Bengali village on the site of the modern metropolis. In 1686 the English merchants connected with the East India Company, owing to difficulties with the Mogul authorities, found it necessary to leave their settlement at Hugli, 26 miles up river from Calcutta, and seek another site. Under Job Charnock, then the president of the little settlement or factory, they hit upon this site, anglicizing the name into Calcutta. The population soon spread, and the growth has continued almost unchecked to the present day ; the hamlet on the eastern bank of the Hugli has thus, under the fostering care of English power, developed into one of the great political and commercial centres of the world, with a volume of trade amounting annually to some £80,000,000, and with a population of very nearly a million souls. That portion of the city occupied by the English lies along the river front, and is adorned with palatial residences, imposing public buildings, churches of different denominations, wealthy and well- stocked business houses. Back from the river, north and east of the English quarters, stretches away the native part of the city, a mass of low, mean, and squalid huts, intersected by narrow and filthy streets, so that the saying has be come current that Calcutta is a city of palaces in front and a city of pigstyes in the rear. Nearly two-thirds of the population consist of Hindus and nearly one-third of Moham medans. About four per cent are recorded as Christians, and there is a sprinkling of Buddh ists, Jains, Parsis, Jews, etc. The number re turned in the census as belonging to the re formed class, known as the Brahmo-Somaj, was only 488 ; yet these are a very well-educated and intelligent body of men, who exercise an influence out of all proportion to their number. The native Christians in 1881 numbered 1,358 Roman Catholics and 2,743 of various Protes tant denominations. Total, 4,101. The Euro pean population of Calcutta in the year men tioned was not far from 25,000. Calcutta has been in the control of the Eng lish from the moment that Job Charnock and his associates settled there in 1686 until the present time, with the exception of a few months in the year 1756. In June of that year the city was attacked by the Mussulman ruler or Nawab of Bengal — Surajud Daula— one of the worst specimens ever known of that class of brutal despots which is popularly sup posed to thrive in the Orient. Most of the Eng lish contrived to escape by water, but the gar rison of the fort were compelled to surrender. It was at that time that the tragedy of the famous " Black Hole" of Calcutta was enacted. The wretched prisoners were thrust— 146 in number — into a cell hardly 20 feet square, ven tilated only by two small windows. In the morning only 23 persons were found alive. Calcutta was recaptured in January, 1757, by Admiral Watson and Lord (then Colonel) Clive, who arrived with a fleet and army from Mad ras ; the ruined city was speedily rebuilt, and suitable vengeance was taken on the heartless Nawab. In the same year, at the battle of Plassey, the Nawab's army was defeated by a little force under Clive, and the question of English supremacy in Bengal and throughout India was virtually settled. Up to the year 1707 the English possessions in Bengal were governed from Madras, but in that year the home authorities of the East India Company erected Calcutta into a separate presidency, independent of Madras and re sponsible only to the directors in London. In 1773 Parliament enacted that the Council and Governor at Calcutta, besides controlling the affairs of the English territory in Bengal, should also exercise a general supervision over the sister presidencies of Bombay and Madras, ancl that the chief official of Bengal should be styled governor-general ; and thus Calcutta became the political capital of British India. The history of missionary operations in Cal cutta goes back to the middle of the last cen tury — to the year 1758 just after the rebuild ing of Calcutta and the firmer establishment in Bengal of English power. In that year Rev. Mr. Kiernander, a Danish missionary, whose successful labors south of Madras, at Cuddalore and vicinity, had been interrupted by the hos tilities between the English and French, who were then contending for the mastery in India, arrived in Calcutta, seeking a field for that mis sionary activity providentially cut short at the south. The Calcutta Government encouraged him. He started a school and gathered 200 pupils within a year. He preached to the natives, to the Portuguese, to the English soldiers. His baptisms at the end of the first year of work numbered 15 ; at the end of ten years there were 189 converts. Afterward he built a mission church chiefly at his own ex pense. Rev. M. A. Sherring's history of Prot estant missions in India sums up his work by CALCUTTA 228 CALCUTTA saying that " the seeds of Protestant missions in Northern India were first sown by him, and by him were the first-fruits gathered in. He baptized hundreds of converts ; he established important mission schools ; he proclaimed the Gospel to the people, both European and na tive ; he built a spacious church, and by these and other labors proved his earnestness and efficiency." About the beginning of the present century the leading men in the employ of the East India Company, both at home and in India, became possessed with the idea that the promulgation of the Gospel in India would be detrimental to the commercial prosperity of the company. India was to be ruled simply for the pecuniary profit of the company. Missionary operations might excite prejudice against the English rule and render the work and the expense of govern ment more costly ancl more difficult. Under the influence of these fears the Government of India opposed to the utmost the landing of any missionaries within its borders. This oppo sition continued until Parliament renewed the charter of the East India Company in the year 1813, when a clause was inserted in the bill declaring that " it was the duty of this country to promote the introduction of useful knowl edge and of religious and moral improvement in India, and that facilities be afforded by law to persons desirous of going to and remaining in India, to accomplish these benevolent de signs." The same bill provided for an Indian bishopric, with an archdeacon for each of the three presidencies. It came into effect April 10th, 1814. It was during these years of opposition that the famous Dr. William Carey undertook the establishment of a mission in India. It was with great difficulty that he was able to secure passage to Calcutta. Finally he reached there in 1793 on a Danish vessel. After encounter ing much hardship he was, through the exer tions of Mr. Udny, a pious official of govern ment, placed in charge of a factory at Malda, where he remained five years and where he was able to learn the Bengali language, trans late the New Testament, preach and teaoh among the natives, besides attending to his duties in connection with the factory of which he was in charge. Between 1797 and 1800 various desultory efforts were made by the Christian Knowledge Society (supported by members of the Church of England) to carry on the mission begun by Kiernander, who had re cently died. Much help was given by Rev. D. Brown, Dr. Buchanan, and others, who were serving English residents as chaplains. In 1799 four more English missionaries arrived— this time in an American vessel. They effected a landing in face of governmental opposition, but were obliged to retreat to Serampore, 15 miles up the river, which was then the oapital of a small bit of territory held by the Danish Government. The Danish governor was in sympathy with their work, and declined to give the missionaries up to the English Govern ment. Here Carey joined them, and thus was laid the foundation of the Serampore Baptist Mission (see Serampore). Here they carried on their work with the utmost vigor, trying once and again to reach the great capital from their safe intrenchments in the Danish settlement, but finding themselves unable to obtain any permanent lodgment there. It was shortly after this time that the earliest American mis sionaries reached Calcutta and encountered the same difficulties as their English brethren. Adoniram Judson and Samuel Newell were among the number. At this time also came Henry Martyn ; but as he was a chaplain in the East India Company's service his coming was not opposed, and as his work was chiefly done in districts remote from Calcutta, more than this mere mention of his name would here be out of place. A better day dawned with the granting of the new charter in 1813. The tone of the govern ment changed. The missionary societies of England, most of them young and eager with the expectation and ardor of youth, were wait- inc for the opening of the door to enter in. The Church Missionary Society came in 1815. The London Missionary Society had sent a mis sionary out in 1798, but he sought the interior. Their Calcutta Mission was begun in 1816. In 1837 their college was begun, now a large and successful institution. The earliest direct efforts in behalf of female education were at tempted in 1821. A society for promoting female education was formed in 1824 and did efficient service. The Society for the Propa gation of the Gospel began operations in 1820, taking charge in that year of Bishop' s College, an institution for higher Christian education projected by Dr. Middleton, first bishop of Calcutta. The Established Church of Scotland in 1830 sent out Dr. Duff, one of the most re markable missionaries of any period in the his tory of the church. His coming marks an era in the history of missionary work not only in Calcutta, but throughout India. He threw himself with the utmost enthusiasm into the work of the higher education through the medi um of the English language. He started a school with five young Hindu pupils, which soon grew into a large college with hundreds. His energy and devotion gave an impetus to the missionary spirit in the home churches, was felt on all mission fields in India, and especially gave point and direction to educa tional efforts as a legitimate form of missionary work. In 1844, following the disruption in the Scotch Church, Dr. Duff and his associates threw in their lot with the Free Church and carried their work over into the hands of the new body. The old kirk, however, started a new mission in Calcutta, with a college of its own. In 1865 the C. M. S. founded a college known as the Cathedral College. Thus nearly every one of the great societies laboring in Calcutta came in time to have its institution or college for the higher education of native youth, in the English language and under the influence of Christianity. These educational efforts have absorbed and do still absorb the larger part of the missionary energy of the capital, yet not to the exclusion of other branches of effort. The London Missionary Society early established a press, which since has passed into the hands of the Baptist Mission, and has done excellent service. The latter mission has also been fortunate in securing and wise in retaining the services of several learned and scholarly men who have devoted almost all their time to the translation of the Scriptures, and the revision and printing of successive editions. Prominent among these may be men tioned Dr. Yates and Dr. Wenger. The duty of vernacular preaching both in the city itself CALCUTTA 229 CALHOUN, S. H. and through the surrounding districts has been faithfully attended to, and among those who have been especially successful in this branch of work may be mentioned Lacroix, one of the ablest and most devoted of the London Society's laborers. The American Methodist Church be gan work in Calcutta in 1872, under the lead of Rev. William Taylor, now missionary bishop of his church in Africa. The work of this mission "as been largely among Europeans unreached by the labors of other churches, though in creasingly as time has gone on among natives also. Work by women for women is vigorously pursued by several organizations existing for that purpose. Two methods especially are fol lowed here as elsewhere. These are, the one that of schools into which girls and young women are gathered ; the other that of house-to- house visitation, by which method native ladies are reached in the seclusion of their zenanas, who often would not be willing or possibly not allowed to venture out in order to attend a school. In addition to the ladies connected with the missions already alluded to, a number of others are maintained by several societies existing for this specific style of work. The Society for Promoting Female Education in the East was the first on the ground, beginning work in Calcutta as long ago as 1835. The Indian Normal School and Female Instruction Society, the American Women's Union Zenana Mission, and the Baptist Ladies' Society have appeared on the field since that year. The pub lication of tracts and books in the vernacular languages is cared for by a tract society auxiliary to the Religious Tract Society of London ; while an auxiliary of the British and Foreign Bible Society provides an ample supply of Bibles in the various languages used in the city ancl sur rounding regions. Calcutta is thus seen to be a centre of no small amount of religious and intellectual ac tivity. Its atmosphere seems much more favor able to the development of religious fervor than that of its great sister city, Bombay. Under the influence of the several agencies above enu merated, it is natural that a strong and intel ligent body of Bengali Christians, belonging to a race prone by nature to religious thought and religious zeal, should have grown up in Cal cutta. The influence of the native Christian community of the metropolis has been, as was fitting, metropolitan in its character. Mem bers of this community have been found in all ranks of life — among the lawyers, merchants, writers, editors, scholars, and preachers of the country. They have established and conducted with ability a newspaper printed in English, devoted especially to the needs of the native church of Bengal and of India, and in many ways have exerted an influence on the develop ment of Christianity which has been widely felt. The remarkable movement of educated native thought known as the " Brabmo-Somaj," set in operation by the famous Ram Mohan Rai, and continued in later years by the still more famous Keshay Chandra Sen, has ever centred in Calcutta. But an account of this society must be sought elsewhere. (See Hinduism.) Besides the educational institutions supported by the missions in Calcutta, there are no less than 4 government colleges, also an art school, medical schools, etc. In all there were, during 1883, 291 schools of all grades, with a total at tendance of 25,124. Of these 149 were boys' schools, with 20,008 boys in attendance ; and 142 were for girls and zenana ladies, with 5,116 pupils. Seventy-four per cent of the pupils were Hindus, 17 per cent Christians, and 8 per cent Mussulmans. The total reported expense in that year for education was £144,444, of which sum government contributed £61,097. The city is well supplied with hospitals for both Europeans and natives, one of these being the Eden Hospital for Women and Children, which was opened in 1882. Caldas, a city in the southeastern part of Brazil, South America, on the coast north of Sao Paulo. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North), (1873) ; 1 missionary, 2 native helpers, 33 church-members. Caldwell, a town in Monrovia, Liberia, Africa, on the St. Paul's River, near its mouth. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) ; 2 missionaries, 3 native pas tors, 216 church-members. Caledon, a town in Cape Colony, South Africa. Noted for its mineral baths. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Calhoun, Simeon Howard, b. August 15th, 1804, at Boston, Mass. ; graduated at Will iams College, 1829 ; taught in Springfield, Mass., and Williams College, 1830-36 ; studied theology with Dr. Griffin and Dr. Mark Hopkins; or dained in 1836 ; left the United States the fol lowing November for the Levant as an agent of the American Bible Society ; received appoint ment of the A. B. C. F. M. as a missionary in 1843 ; joined the Syrian mission in 1844 for the purpose of taking charge of the mission sem inary at Abeih, on Mount Lebanon. To this he devoted his entire life. By him were trained most of the preachers and teachers now em ployed in the Syrian mission of the Presbyterian Board, besides several engaged by other societies in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He was also pastor of the church on Mount Lebanon. He was thoroughly versed in the Arabic and Turk ish languages, and assisted Dr. Goodell in his first translation of the Bible into Turkish. He prepared and published text-books in philoso phy, astronomy, and theology. He visited the United States in 1847, returning to Syria in 1849 ; again in 1866, returning the same year. He received the degree of D.D. in 1864 from Williams College. He made his final visit to the United States in impaired health in 1875. He addressed the General Assembly on the sub ject of missions with great power. Though he expressed the hope that he should rest on Mount Lebanon, he died in Buffalo, December 14th, 1875. His wife and three children were with him. During his last moments he said in Arabic, " I am coming, I am coming, " and then in English, "lam weary, very weary; come quickly, come quickly." Dr. Calhoun's influence in Syria was very great among all classes. Not only the American missionaries, but English and German residents, and natives of whatever religion, revered him, and frequently resorted to him for counsel. While in college he was a sceptic and an op- poser, but the prayers of a godly mother, who had consecrated him to Christ and to the mis sionary work at his birth, followed him, and in 1831 he was converted. " While engaged as tutor in college," says one, " he was noted for CALHOUN, S. H. 230 CANADA CONG. MISS. SOC. the peculiar simplicity and ardor of his piety, and for the great influence which in this respect he exerted on the students." " His delight in the Scriptures," says another, "was excep tional, and his remarks on the truths therein revealed were uncommonly suggestive and stim ulating." Calicut, a city of south Malabar, Madras, India, a seaport town on the Indian Ocean. Climate, temperate. Population, 40,000, Hin dus, Moslems, Parsis, Portuguese, French. Language, Malayalam, Tamil, Hindustani, French, English, etc. Religion, Hinduism, Islamism, Romanism. Mission station of an isolated mission of Church of England, estab lished 1882 by some Church of England Tamil Christians from Tinnevelly ; 1 missionary, 1 out-station, 76 church-members, 1 school, 30 scholars. Also a free mission established in 1842 and now numbering 842 members. Basle Missionary Society, 8 ordained mis sionaries, 1 female missionary, 2 native preach ers, 35 teachers, 555 church-members. Calmucs, or Kalmucks, a branch of the Mongolian race inhabiting a portion of Asiatic Russia and China. See Mongols. Camargo, a city in the State of Tamaulipas, Mexico, on the San Juan River, near its junction with the Rio Grande, 180 miles northeast of Mon terey, at the head of steam navigation. Popu lation, 5,000. Mission station of the Meth odist Episcopal Church (South), U. S. A. ; 1 missionary (native). Cambodia, a kingdom of Farther India, under the protectorate of France, and forming a part of French Indo-China. It lies southeast of Siam, and includes principally the valley and delta of the Cambodia River, one of the most fertile regions of southeastern Asia. Area, 32,- 390 square miles. Population, 1,500,000 to 1,800,000, chiefly Siamese and Laos, with about 30,000 Malays and 100,000 Chinese and Annam- ites. The chief towns are Pnom-Peuh, the cap ital, and Kampot, the only seaport. The early history is obscure. Toward the close of the seventeenth century it was con quered by the Annamites, and the southern portion set apart for the Chinese, who had fled from their own homes for political reasons, and were a source of disturbance to the govern ment. This became Cochin-China. In 1787 the king of Cochin-China was dethroned and appealed to France for aid, through French missionaries by whom he had been converted to Christianity. With the aid of France he not only regained his throne, but conquered Cambodia and Annam, combining all in the empire of Annam. He reigned with skill, favored Christianity, and allowed the French missionaries many privileges. Under his suc cessor, however, quarrels arose with France, who captured Cochin-China. Cambodia then came under the power of Siam, which was so galling to the king that he was willing to accept almost anything that would free him from Siamese rule. This gave foreign influence an opportunity, and in 1863 the French Protec torate was recognized. There is no Protestant missionary work in Cambodia. Cameron, James, b. January 6th, 1800, at Little Dunkeld, Perthshire, Scotland. Ap pointed by the London Missionary Society to Madagascar. Before leaving England he spent some time in Manchester in the preparation of machinery for the manufacture of cotton in Madagascar, which he aided in setting up in Amparibe. He also set up a printing press. His services were considered of such value to the government that the mission was continued, 1829-35, although at last, on account of the edict against Christianity, he left the capital, June 18th, 1835, and established himself in business in Cape Town. In 1853, accompanying Mr. Ellis to the coast, he was appointed commis sioner by the Chamber of Commerce at Mau ritius to arrange with the Malagasy Government for the renewal of trade. Mr. Cameron aided in the erection of a memorial church at Ambatonakanga, and also built the children's church at Faravohitra. His life in the mission was one of exceeding usefulness in surveying, making maps and explorations, building for the mission and for the government, besides being active in Christian work among the people. Died at Antananarivo, October 3d, 1875. Campbell, David Elliott, b. near Mercersburg, Pa., June 7th, 1825 ; graduated at Marshall College, Mercersburg, 1846 ; the valedictorian of his class, Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1849 ; ordained June, 1850 ; sailed August 8th same year as a missionary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions for India. He suffered much from the commencement of his missionary life from bronchitis, which prevented him from engaging in public preaching, and he devoted himself to teaching. At the breaking out of the mutiny, he with his wife and two children, Mr. and Mrs. Freeman, Mr. and Mrs. Johnson, Mr. and Mrs. McMullin, sought safety by trying to reach Allahabad, a British station 250 miles below on the Ganges, but were all made prisoners and put to death at Cawnpore by order of the rebel chief, Nana Sahib, June 13th, 1857. Campinas, a city of Brazil, in the sugar growing district, 50 miles north of Silo Paulo. Population, 6,400. Mission station of the Pres byterian Church (South) ; 4 missionaries (3 married), 2 female missionaries, 2 schools, 127 scholars. Campos, or San Salvador, a town near the southeast coast of Brazil, 150 miles north east of Rio de Janeiro. Mission station Pres byterian Church (North) ; 1 missionary, 1 native pastor, 24 church-members. Cana, a station of the Hermansburg Mis sionary Society in Transvaal, South Africa, with 493 church-members. Canada Congregational Mission ary Society. — Secretary, Rev. John Wood, Ottawa, Canada. Up to the year 1836 the few feeble churches of the Congregational order in Canada struggled on without any assistance from abroad with the exception of what little help they obtained in conjunction with their (American) Presbyterian and Baptist brethren through the Canada Education and Home Missionary Society, organized in Montreal in 1827. Unforeseen difficulties, however, soon developed them selves in the attempt to work along these un denominational lines, and compelled Congrega tionalists to look for assistance from other quar ters ; yet the churches in Danville, Eaton, Granby, and other places in the eastern town- CANADA CONG. MISS. SOC. 231 CANADA CONG. MISS. SOC. ships owe their existence largely to the efforts of that society. In 1836, however, the British churches, stimulated by the joint representa tions of the Rev. Drs. Reed and Matheson (who had visited the United States and Canada two years previously), and of the Rev. (afterward Dr.)Henry Wilkes, then of Edinburgh, organized the Colonial Missionary Society, in connection with the Congregational Union of England and Ti»les ; and Mr. Wilkes came to Canada and settled in Montreal, to act as their agent and correspondent, a position which he filled for over fifty years to the great advantage of all concerned. As they gained strength and inde pendence, the churches organized for self- help, and formed two home missionary societies of a distinctively denominational character, one for the planting and assisting of Congre gational churches in Upper Canada, in 1840, and another for similar purposes in Lower Canada. It was soon found, however, that great inconvenience often arose from three so cieties, with practically the same objects in view operating in the same field, and in 1853 the Congregational Unions of Upper ancl Lower Canada were merged into the present Union of Ontario and Quebec, and the Canada Congrega tional Missionary Society was formed by the fusion of the two societies previously existing, the Colonial Missionary Society of London cordially approving, and agreeing to co-operate with its committee. At first all grants to mis sions were made by tho Canadian Committee, subject to approval by the Committee in Lon don ; but this plan was found to involve such delays and uncertainty on the part of the churches and their pastors that it was finally abandoned, and a fixed sum per annum voted. by the English Committee, according as the work commended itself to them, and their funds allowed. Later still this plan was also aban doned, and the present arrangement substituted, which is to add a certain percentage to all moneys raised by the Canadian churches for home missionary work. The average expenditure of the society for home missions for the past twenty years has been $6,738, and with so small an amount available for home missionary work, and so many invit ing fields around them, it is scarcely surprising that but little was done for some years for foreign missions. ' ' Beginning at Jerusalem" was the part of the great commission best understood, and thought to be most urgently- pressing upon the churches. A number of the stronger and of those located nearest to the American border and having most intercourse with the churches of the New England States contributed annually to the London Missionary Society or to the American Board, whose secre taries or agents occasionally appeared at the meetings of the Congregational Union, or preached by invitation in Montreal. Interest was also much excited in the foreign work by a visit, in 1870, of Rev. Dr. Mullens, Foreign Secretary of the London Missionary Society ; and again in 1874 when the first foreign mis sionaries, Rev. Charles Brooks and wife, went out, under the auspices of the American Board, to Constantinople. But it was not until 1881 that the claims of the heathen world upon the Canadian churches were sufficiently felt to lead to the organization of a Canadian Foreign Mis sionary Society. This society, while largely in debted to the American Board for advice in re gard to the choice of its field, and working mainly through its channels, is yet entirely in dependent of the older society, holding its an nual meeting at the same time and place as the Congregational Union of Ontario and Quebec, and being wholly subject to the control of its own board of directors. For the first three years it contributed through the A. B. C. F. M. toward the support of the Canadian foreign missionaries already in the field — viz., Rev. C. H. Brooks and wife, in Constantinople, the Rev. George Allchin, in Japan, and Miss Macallum, in Smyrna. But in 1884 Mr. W. T. Currie, a graduate of the Congregational College of Canada, having applied to it for appointment to foreign service, he was accepted, and assigned, under advice of the American Board, to a new mission station in Bailundu, in West Central Africa, which was henceforth to be recognized as the Canadian Mission. Mr. Currie having been duly ordained and set apart to his work, and married to Miss Clara Wilkes, of Brantford, Ont., sailed with his bride for Africa in June, 1886, but had scarcely reached the station to which he had beenappointed before she sickened and died. A memorial of her has since been erected in the form of a mission school-house, known as the " Clara Wilkes Currie School," for which the necessary funds were collected by the Canadian Woman's Board. Mr. Currie has recently commenced a new station at Chis- amba with excellent prospects, and Mr. Wil- berforce Lee, another alumnus of the same col lege as Mr. Currie, has been ordained and sent out to assist him (1889). The receipts of the society for the year 1889-90, including a bal ance from the previous year, were $2,671.46. Expenditure, $1,992.06. The Canada Congkegational Woman's Boakd- of Missions was organized June 10th, 1886, in the house of the pastor of the church in Ottawa, Ont., where four ladies deeply interested in mis sions banded themselves together in the earnest and prayerful resolve to do what they could to further the object they had so much at heart. A constitution was adopted, the sec ond article of which declares its object to bo " the cultivation of a missionary spirit, and the raising of funds for carrying on missionary work in the home and foreign fields." Its beginnings were small, but in response to cir culars sent out by the president, Mrs. Macal lum, requesting the churches to form auxilia ries, several existing societies sent in their ad hesion, and a number of auxiliaries and mission bands were organized. The lamented death of Mrs. Currie greatly quickened the general in terest in the mission to which she had given hsr life, ancl nearly one thousand dollars were promptly contributed for the erection of the school to her memory before referred to. Almost every church has now its auxiliary or mission band, many of them having both, and the income for the year just closed has been $2,240. It has for several years supported Miss Lyman (late of Montreal) in Bombay, India, and has now undertaken the support of Miss Clarke (late of Guelph, Ont.), now on her way to Africa. It has also voted a moiety of its un designated funds — $300 — to home missions, and a similar sum to foreign missions. (See article Woman's Work.) The following missionaries have also gone from the Canadian churches to the foreign field in addition to those already named : Miss CANADA CONG. MISS. SOC. 232 CANTON McKillican, of Vankleek Hill, Ont , a trained nurse, laboring in the hospital, Pekin, China ; Miss Hattie Turner and Mr. George Duff, of Hamiltion, Ont., in connection with the China Inland Mission ; Rev. Hilton Pedley, B.A., and wife, from Cobourg, Ont. ; Miss Mary Bad- ford, of Montreal, to the Kobi Girls' School, Japan ; Dr. Webster (recently deceased) and Mrs. Webster, from western Ontario, to Bai- lunclu, West Central Africa ; and the Rev. F. W. Macallum, B.A., and wife, and Dr. Mary Macallum, of Maxville, Ont., brother and sister of Miss Macallum of Smyrna, in Turkey, are under commission for foreign service, the former being appointed to Erzroum, in Eastern Turkey. Canada de Gomez, a town of the Argen. tine Republic, South America, near one of the west branches of the Rio de la Plata, northwest of Buenos Ayres, southeast of Cordoba. Mission station of the South American Missionary So ciety, attended by either the Rosario or Cor doba chaplain. Canarese, or Karnata Version.— The Canarese, which is spoken by about 9,500,000 people throughout the provinces of Mysore and Canara, and as far north as the Kistna River, belongs to the Dravidian family of the non-Aryan languages. The first Canarese New Testament was published at Bellary, Madras, in 1821, and the Old Testament, as translated by the Revs. Hands and Reeve, at Madras in 1832. A thor oughly revised edition of the Bible, the work of German and English missionaries (G. H. Weigel and Moegling, of the German mission ; D. Sanderson, of the Wesleyan ; C. Campbell and B. Rice, of the London Mission), was pub lished at Bangalore in 1860 by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which up to March 31st, 1889, disposed of 385,500 portions of the Scrip tures in parts or as a whole, besides of 2,500 portions of the Scriptures in Canarese with English. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) o&n^odrj «;Jk5p ?>vvzL>'33'8oj& 733$ fy£&s ogpsx ¦cboB.tJ ,. $<3§ &3?s?sfc^ &i&>3 55«>7f, Segfc&fo^ ©^ °S)& £jea Can dawn, one of the Tonga Islands, Polynesia. Mission station of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, under the care of several native pastors. Cuninanorc (K.annanur), a military station in Malabar, Madras, India, 53 miles north- northwest of Calicut. Remarkable for the number of its niosques, 2 of which are of special fame. Population, 26,386, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society ; 4 missionaries, 3 missionaries wives, 30 native helpers, 415 com municants. Canoj, or Canyacubja Version.— The Canoj belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is spoken in the Duab of the Ganges and Jumna. A version of the New Testament in the Canoj or, as it is now written, Kanauyi or Kanyakubji, was published at Serampore in 1822, but never reprinted. Canton, the capital of Kwang Tung Prov ince, China, on the north bank of the Pearl or Canton river, 90 miles from the sea. The Chinese name for the city is Kwang chau-fu ; the foreign name is supposed to be a corruption of Kwang Tung as pronounced by the early Por tuguese visitors. It is also called Yeung Sheng, the "City of Rams," by the Chinese, in refer ence to a legend connected with its founding. The city proper is quadrilateral in shape, the side next to the river being a little less than two miles in length. It is surrounded by a wall of an average height of twenty-five feet, and from fifteen to twenty feet thick, in a good state of preservation, built of brick with stone founda tion. It is a universal custom in Chinese cities that the cardinal points of the compass deter mine the location of the four principal gates. In Canton these are found to be utterly insuf ficient for the needs of traffic, and there are eight other gates, some of them as large and important in fact, though not in name. The city is divided into two parts, the old and the new. In the old city are the Tartar garrison, their parade-grounds, the residences and grounds of the Governor-General and Governor ; the examination hall, with its rows of low cells for the competing students, and many fine temples and pagodas. Around the city proper are the suburbs, where the business of the city is carried on, especially on the west side, which is noted for its manufactures, its business, and its wonderful stores. Along the river front junks and boats of every description and size find wharfage and landing places, and the vast carrying trade of the west and north rivers is conducted. The streets are narrow and closed by gates, which are shut at an early hour in the evening. Over the gateway is in scribed the name of the street, such as " Street of Benevolence and Virtue," "Street of Four Memorial Arches," "Salt Shrimp Market." The stores are usually low buildings of a story in front and two behind, the whole front of the store being thrown open to the street. The only high buildings, with the exception of pub lic buildings, are the fine eating houses and the pawn shops, which serve also as safe- deposit vaults. The streets are well paved with slabs of granite, beneath which is a sewer. As all the night soil is removed from the city to be used on the fields, this deficient drainage does not cause epidemics. In compar ison with other cities of the East, Canton is clean. The houses are built of brick of a slate color, and the ground floor is of tiles laid right upon the ground. The water supply of the city is poor. It is derived either from the river or the canals which pass through the city, or from wells, whose flow is affected by the tide, which filters through the sandy soil. Pure spring water can be obtained from the hills to the north of the city. The natives never drink water unboiled, and this custom has doubtless pre served the health of the people. The principal buildings in the city proper are : the Flowery Pagoda, of thirteen stories ; the Five Story Pa goda, on the north wall ; the Mohammedan mosque, erected in a.d. 800 ; and the temple of the tutelary god of the city, called also the Temple of Horrors, for here the ten hells of Buddhism are represented with hideous realism. In the western suburbs is the Temple of Five Hundred Gods, containing the images of the disciples of Buddha, eight feet high, CANTON 233 CANTON COLL. made of wood and heavily gilded. In connec tion with the temple is a monastery. Not far from the walls of the city is the tomb of a so- called uncle of Mahomet, with a Mohammedan burying ground and place of worship. Opposite the city is the island of Honam, for a long time the residence of foreigners, when permission to live on tho north shore was denied them. • The population is estimated at 1,500,000, its distinctive feature being the large aquatic ele ment. It is said that thero are 300,000 people who live in boats, rarely spending a night on shore. The river bank and the various canals are lined with boats of every variety and size, from the little skiff to the large ornamental hotel boat. These boats furnish to a. great extent the means of communication. There are no horses used for that purpose, nor are tho streets wide enough to permit the use of the cart of North China. The sedan chair is the only means of conveyance on land, and the facilities offered by the boats are largely utilized by the missionaries, whose residences, with few excep tions, are on the river front. Opposite the western suburbs, and separated from them by a canal, is a foreign settlement on ground made over a small island by surrounding it with a retaining wall, and filling in the space inclosed. Shamien, as it is called, is an island of oval shape, 2,850 feet in length and 950 at its great est breadth, laid out in fine streets with over hanging trees, bordered by beautiful lawns, and covered with the fine residences of the European merchants, the foreigners in the employ of the Chinese Customs Service, and the consuls of the various nations. Facing the Macao Passage, the southeast breezes blow full upon it, and the broad walk on the top of the retaining wall, called the Bund, is a pleasant and healthful promenade. The graceful spire of an Episcopal church towers among the flagstaffs of the differ ent nations, and for its size Shamien is one of the most beautiful European settlements in the East. The people of Canton are the most highly civilized of any in China, and the luxury of the ¦city is proverbial. The shrewdness and ability of the Cantonese as merchants has procured for them the nickname of the Yankees of China, and Canton men, or men from the Canton province, compose nearly the entire number of the immigrants to the various parts of the world where the Chinese are found. Food is abun dant and cheap ; the products of the sea, of fresh water, and of the alluvial plains which surround it are found here in the greatest profusion. The climate is more temperate than that of any other city in a like latitude. The heat in sum mer averages about 95°, and the minimum in winter is usually 42°. Ice rarely forms, and snow is almost never seen. April, May, and June are the rainy season ; 60 inches is the an nual rainfall, of which 30 inches fell in the month of June, in 1885. July, August, and Sep tember are the months for the southwest mon soons, which, with frequent thunder-showers, mitigate the heat. During the fall and winter the northern monsoon blows, and clear days are continuous. Canton, according to native annals, has ex isted four thousand years, and traces of its ex istence have been found 1200 B.c. Its first in tercourse with foreigners was in the sixteenth century with the Portuguese, and since then the history of Canton has been the history of China, as most of the principal events in modern Chinese history occurred at, or were connected with, this city. Mission, work is carried on by the Southern Baptist Convention (U. S. A.), 2 missionaries and wives, 4 other ladies, 21 native helpers, 4 churches, 550 church-members ; Presbyterian Board (North), U. S. A., 5 missionaries (4 mar- lied), 3 medical missionaries and wives, 6 other ladies, 1 lay assistant, 3 native pastors, 15 assistants, 40 teachers, 8 churches, 579 church- members ; London Missionary Society, 1 mis sionary, 5 native preachers, 126 church-mem- beis ; Church Missionary Society (the work is in the province rather than the city), 60 church-members ; Wesleyan Methodist Society, 150 church-members ; Berlin Missionary So ciety, 2 missionaries, 28 communicants. It is the seat also of tbe Chinese College, presided over by Dr. Happer of the Presbyterian Mission. Canton Colloquial, or Punti Ver sion. — The first part of the Scriptures which was translated into the Canton dialect was the Gospel of Luke, by Mr. Louis, of the Rhenish Missionary Society, and printed at Hong Kong iu 1867. Other parts of the New Testament, prepared by Messrs. A. Krolczyk and J. Naken, of the German Mission, ancl G. Piercy and C. F. Preston, of the American Mission, were pub lished in 1873. In the same year the Book of Genesis, translated by Mr. Piercy, was also pub lished, while the translation of the Book of Psalms, by the Rev. A. B. Hutchinson, of the Church Missionary Society, was issued in 1876. All these parts were in Roman characters. A new edition of the Psalms, edited by Dr. Graves, was published in 1883. There exists also a New Testament in Chinese characters, and of this the four Gospels were republished in a revised form under the care of the Canton Local Committee in 1880, while the Acts were added in 1887. In 1885 the British and Foreign Bible Society also published the Gospel of Luke for the blind in Roman character. The version was prepared by the Rev. E. Hartmann, of the Foundling Hos pital, Hong-Kong. Parts of the Bible were also published by the American Bible Society at Shanghai — viz., the four Gospels and Acts, as translated by Revs. G. Piercy and C. F. Pres ton, 1872-73 ; the Epistles in 1886 ; Gen esis, translated by Mr. Noyes, in 1887 ; Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy in 1888 ; a diglott edition of the Gospel of Luke in English and Canton colloquial in 1886. (Specimen verses. John 3 : 16.) tX £ x M m ± m # z %> SL IE ¦*: ift % M 3 I IS I CANTON COLL. 234 CAREY, W. Roman. No* tsouhfdni hu" to" ho1 lo1 taur ko"-'su", tui khu1 war : a^ pa, noL takt tsui- thin,.kuhr a" pat ni1. — (Luke xv. 18.) Cape Coast, a town and fort of the Gold Coast, West Africa. Population, 10,000. The town is regularly built in a well wooded but poorly watered district, and has a damp, un healthy climate. Mission station of the Wesleyan Methodists ; 4 missionaries, 2 schools, 8 teach ers, 132 scholars, 1,067 church-members. Cape Mount, a station of the American Protestant Episcopal Church in Liberia, West Africa (1877) ; 1 missionary and wife, 23 com municants, 152 scholars. Cape Palmas, a city of Liberia, Africa. Mission station of the Protestant Episcopal Church, U. S. A. Has an orphan asylum ancl hospital. Thero are 4 places where public wor ship is held, with an average attendance of 185. The number of communicants is 198. It is also the headquarters for the district. Capron, 'William Banfield, b. Ux- bridge, Mass , April 10th, 1824 ; graduated at Yale College, 1846 ; was Principal of Hopkins Grammar School for six years in Hartford, residing in the family of Dr. Hawes. In 1852 he saw the tract by Dr. Scudder, " The Harvest Perishing for Want of Laborers," which deeply impressed him, ancl he then made a full con secration of himself to the missionary work, With this purpose he enterecl. Andover Theolog ical Seminary, graduating in 1855, and was ap pointed by the A. B C. F. M. to the Madura Mis sion, India, and sailed November, 1856. He had charge of the Madura Girls' Boarding School four years, and of the station at Tirupuvanum two years. After sixteen years of life in India he visited America, but in January, 1874, he was again in his India home. In May he had an at tack of rheumatism. The last Sabbath in Sep tember was spent in one of the villages, where he received three young men to the church. He foundtbe journey very wtarisome, but continued performing his usual duties till, in October, palpitation of the heart came on, which never left him, and Friday, October 6th, after a pleas ant conversation with Dr. Chester, he had three successive fainting turns, and then passed away quietly upon his pillow as if asleep. An asso ciate of Mr. Capron thus writes : " What ho was to the mission it is not easy to make others un derstand. In our meetings for business his thorough-going habits, his love of exactness, his searching investigation of every subject, his minute forecasting of all details, his sound judg ment, his fair-mindedness, his kindness in deal ing with his brethren, made those of thirty years' standing in the field value his counsels not less than did his younger brethren." Caramania, or Kxiramania, formerly a province of Western Turkey, including the city of Konieh (Iconium). The term is now applied generally to tho whole section, including the cities of Konieh, Angora, Yuzgat, and Casta- monni, where a prominent element of the popu lation is of Greek descent, but using chiefly the Turkish language. The name was originally derived from a Turkish Bey, who founded the city of Karaman. See Turkey, Caramanlija, the Turkish language as spoken by the Greeks of the interior of Asia Minor. Many of these, under the force of Turk ish rule, lost the use of their own language, adopting that of their conquerors. Retaining, however, the Greek in their church services, and somewhat in their schools, they became in the habit of writing the Turkish with the Greek character. The effect was to produce a spoken language which was in some sense a patois, and which received the name Caramanlija from the section of country where it was largely used. A version of the Bible has been prepared and printed by the British and Foreign Bible So ciety, and is often spoken of as the Grseco- Turkish version — i.e., Turkish written in Greek letters. With the extension of education, the Greeks are coming to use more and more their own language, and the disappearance of tho Cara manlija is only a question of time. See Turk ish Versions. Carey, William, b. Paulerspury, North amptonshire, England, August 17th, 1761. In his youth he worked with his father, who was a weaver, but at the age of sixteen was appren ticed to a shoemaker at Hackleton, working at the trade for twelve years. At the age of eighteen he was led through the influence of a pious fellow-apprentice to true faith in Chi ist, became an earnest Christian, and a preacher of the Gospel. In 1786 he became pastor of the Baptist church at Moulton, having previously preached at Paulerspury, his early home, and at Barton. His income being too small for the support of his family, he kept school by day, made or cobbled shoes by night, and preached on Sunday. At Moulton he was deeply im pressed with the idea of a mission to the heathen, and frequently conversed with min isters on its practicability and importance, and of his willingness to engage in it. Andrew Fuller relates that once on entering his shop he found hanging up against the wall a large map composed of several pieces of paper pasted to gether by himself, on which he had drawn with a pen every known country, with memoranda of what he had read as to their population, religion, etc. At a very early age he had an intense de sire for knowledge, eagerly ' ' devouring books, especially of science, history, voyages," etc., and, notwithstanding his poverty, learned Lat in, Greek, Hebrew, Dutch, French, and ac quired a good amount of general useful knowl edge. But his heart was chiefly set on a mis sion to the heathen. From his ministerial brethren ho received no sympathy. While at Moulton he wrote and published ' ' An Inquiry into the Obligation of Christians to Use Means for the Conversion of the Heathen." In 1789 ho became pastor of the church at Leicester. At a meeting of the Ministers' Association at Notting ham, May 31st, 1792, he preached from " En large the place of thy tent" (Isa. 64 : 2, 3), lay ing down these two propositions, ' ' Expect great things from God and attempt great things for God." The discourse produced a great impression, ancl the result was, through the special co-operation of Fuller, Pearce, and the younger Ryland, the formation, at Ketter ing, October 2d, 1793, of the Baptist Missionary Society. Carey's first wish was to work in Tahiti or Western Africa, but he offered to go wherever the society might appoint him. India was CAREY, W. 235 CAROLINE ISLANDS selected for its first mission, and he wa3 ap pointed with Mr. John Thomas, a surgeon, who had resided in Bengal, and been engaged in mis sion work. They embarked on an English ves sel, but on account of the objections made against missionaries by the East India Company, the commander of tho ship was forbidden to take them, and they returned to land. After patting a few weeks they sailed in a Danish vessel bound from Copenhagen to Serampore, and reached Calcutta November lllh, 1793. Having sailed in a foreign vessel, cleared at a foreign port, he landed unobserved. Believing it to be the duty of a missionary, after receiv ing some help at first, to support himself, Mr. Carey soon after reaching India relinquished his salary, and he and his family were reduced to serious straits. Leaving Calcutta, he walked fifteen milos in the sun, passing through salt rivers and a large lake, to the Sunderbunds, a ' ' tract scantily populated, and notorious for pestilence and wild beasts," intending to farm the land ancl instruct the people. Here he was found by Mr. Udney, of the Company's service, ' a pious man and a friend of missions, who offered him the superintendence of his indigo factory. Ashe would not only have a competent support for his family and time for study, but also a regular congregation of natives connected with the factory, he accepted the offer. The factory was at Madnabatty, in the district of Malda, and this became the mission station. During the five years ho spent here he trans lated the New Testament into Bengali, held daily religious services with the thousand work men in the factory, itinerated regularly through the district, twenty miles square, and contain ing 200 villages. His first convert was Ignatius Fernandez, of Portuguese descent. He built a church in 1797, preached and labored as a mis sionary to his death in 1829, leaving all his prop erty to the mission. In 1709 the factory was closed in consequence of an inundation. While perplexed as to what he should do, Mr. Carey heard that four missionaries had arrived at Serampore, and that the Danish governor had proposed that they establish a mission there, promising his protection. They urged him to leave Malda. He assented, and removed to Serampore. In 1801 the Bengali transla tion of the New Testament was printed by Mr. Ward, and a copy presented to the Marquis of Wellesley, the Governor-General, who ex pressed his great gratification at this result of missionary work. About this time Fort William College was established at Calcutta, and Mr, Carey was appointed by the Marquis Professor of Sanskrit, Bengali, and Marathi. This position he held for thirty years, and taught these languages. He wrote articles on the natural history and botany of India for the Asiatic Society, to which he was elected in 1805. The publication of the entire Bible in Bengali in five volumes was completed in 1809. That which gave Carey his fame was the trans lation of the Bible in whole or in part into twenty-four Indian languages or dialects. The Serampore press, under his direction, rendered the Bible accessible to more than three hundred millions of human beings. He prepared also numerous philological works, consisting of gram mars and dictionaries in tho Sanskrit, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi and Telugu dialects. His Sanskrit dictionary was destroyed by fire in the printing establishment. He contributed also several papers on grammar and East Indian matters to the Journal of ihe Geographical Society in London. Carey had foryears sought through Lord Wellesley the abolition of the suttee. In 1829 it was abolished, and the proclamation de claring it punishable as homicide was sent to Dr. Carey to be translated into Bengali. The order reached him as ho was preparing for public worship on Sunday. Throwing off his black coat, he exclaimed, " If I delay an hour to translate ancl publish this, many a widow's life may be sacrificed." Resigning his pulpit to another, he completed with his pundit the translation by sunset. Dr. Carey's work was now finished. After forty years of toil he passed away at the age of seventy-three, June 9th, 1834. He was buried the next morning in the mission burying- ground. He who was ridiculed and satirized by the witty Sydney Smith in the Edinburgh Review cf 1808 as the " consecrated cobbler" and " maniac" accomplished a work for which ho is held and will be forever held in high honor as the true friend and benefactor of India. Careysburgn, a city of Monrovia, Liberia, West Coast of Africa, north of Robertsville, southeast of Millsburg. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North) ; 1 missionary, 15 church-members ; also a circuit of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) ; 2 missionaries, 16 native helpers, 192 church-members. Carisbrooke, a station of the Moravians in Jamaica, West Indies ; formerly an out- station of Fulneck, with a school attached ; was admitted as a full congregation in 1885. It is situated in the parish of St. Elizabeth in a. somewhat hilly and rather pleasant part of the country. CarineD. — 1. A station of the Moravian Brethren in Western Alaska, near Fort Alexan der. In 1886 the first missionaries entered this station, and as soon as possible opened a school, and thus reached the adult Esquimaux through the impressions made upon their children. At present there are in this station 1 missionary and wife, 1 unmarried man, and 1 single lady. 2. A town in Jamaica, West Indies, situated on a small mount toward the extremity of an extensive valley, whose rich pasture grounds ascend and are lost among the high and thickly wooded hills which bound it. One of the largest and most flourishing missions of the Moravians in Jamaica, opened in 1827, with a strong church, under the care of a married mis sionary. Caroline Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific, northeast of New Guinea and west of the Marshall and Gilbert groups. A few of them differ from the great majority of the islands in that they are of basaltic formation, while the rest are coral reefs. Kusaie and Ponape have mountains two to three thousand feet high, ancl Ruk, Pelew, and Yrap are also high islands. The climate is perpetual summer/the thermometer ranging from 72° to 90°. On the coral islands the chief products are the cocoanut palm, often growing to a height of 80 feet, the bread fruit tree, the pandanus tree or screw pine, bearing a large bunch of juicy fruit, and an edible root called taro. On the high islands, especially Kusaie and Ponape, there is a much larger range of products, including more than a CAROLINE ISLANDS 236 CATALAN dozen kinds of banana3. Various tropical fruits are introduced, and also some domestic animals, as pigs and chickens. The inhabitants are of the brown Polynesian rice, having straight hair. As no census has ever been taken, estimates ot the population vary greatly. Ponape has a population of 5,000, the Mortlocks and Ruk about 14,000, Mokil and Pingelap about 1,250, Yap about 8,000 to 10,000. Many of the islands have chiefs, whose authority is hereditary. On Ponape there are several tribes, each having an independent king or chieftain. But in 1885 Spain laid claim to the whole group, as Germany had done to the Marshall Islands, and in the summer of 1886 took possession of Ponape. The houses consist of closed attics with thatched roofs raised a few feet from the ground. The people were not so well dressed as those of neighboring islands. They were elaborately tattooed, and knew no marriage rite, though the pairing of men and women was respected. They seemed to care for their children, but had less regard for old people. Are greatly addicted to war, and their feuds have resulted in a great decrease of the population. Spirits of ancestors and other spirits were worshipped, but no idols. The people were very superstitious, but had no conception of a Su preme God, and no idea of sacrifice. Certain places regarded as the abode of spirits were not crossed. Some islands had priests who in times of sickness and on special occasions practised their incantations, pretending to converse with the dead. Mission work carried on since 1852 by the A. B. C. F. M , with stations at Kusaie and Ponape, with the result that in many of the islands no heathenism remains. See A. B. C. F. M., Micronesian Missions. Carozal, a city of Honduras, Central America, not far from Belize. Mission station of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society ; 1 missionary, 3 chapels, 3 other preaching places, 18 nativo helpers, 62 church-members, 2 schools, 137 scholars. Carsliuni Version. — This is not a trans lation but a transcription of the Arabic in Syriac characters, and is intended chiefly for Syrian Christians in Mesopotamia, Aleppo, and other parts of Syria. There are extant two edi tions of the New Testament in the Carshun, one with the Syriac in parallel columns, pub lished by the College of the Propaganda, pub lished at Rome in 1703 ; the other in the Carshun alone, published by tbe British and Foreign Bible Society at Paris in 1827, under the editorship of QuatremeTe and De Sacy. Up to March 31st, 1889, the latter society disposed of 4,000 copies of the Scriptures. See Arabic. Cuslimir, a native State in India, lying among the great mountains of the Himalaya range norih of the Punjab. Tibet touches it on the east, and after passing the great Karako- rum range on the north, one enters soon the territories of Kashgar, wholly outside the limits of India. The country is for the most part an elevated valley, over 5,000 feet above the sea, surrounded by lofty mountains. Total area, nearly 81,000 square miles, with a population of over a million and a half. The ruler is known as the Maharaja of Kash-Cashmir, and, like the other native rulers of India, he is in political subordination to the British Government. The chief attraction of Cashmir consists in its beau tiful scenery and its agreeable climate, which render it a favorite summer resort for wealthy Europeans in India. Formerly Europeans were allowed to reside there only during half the year, but for the past seventeen or eighteen years the prohibition of residence during the winter months has been withdrawn. The pop ulation consists of nearly a million Mohamme dans, about half a million Hindus, 20,000 Buddh ists, and nearly 90,000 unclassified. Missions have been conducted there with the utmost difficulty until within very recent times on ac count of the hostility of the native government (the Maharaja is a devout and intense Hindu), and also because the regulation debarring Euro peans from permanent residence in the valley compelled the missionaries to break off their labors with the close of the season, and leave the country entirely for a large part of each year. In 1854 and again in 1862 explorations and tours were made through Cashmir by mis sionaries of the C. M. S. stationed in the Pun jab, who made an unsuccessful attempt to es tablish a permanent mission in 1864. In 1865 Dr. Elmslie, a Scotch medical missionary in the service of that society, entered Cashmir, and, in spite of all obstacles, had made a promising be ginning, when his labors were terminated by his death, in 1872. The society, however, has been able to carry the mission on since, and it has been of great benefit to the people, especially during the famine of 1880 ancl the distress fol lowing the great earthquake in 1884. Ca»hmiri, or Kashmiri Version. — The Cashmiri, which belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of languages, is spoken in Cashmir. A translation of the New Testament into that language was published at Serampore in 1820. At the same place were also issued the Pentateuch and the historical books of the Old Testament. But these parts of the Bible were never reprinted. Recently, in 1884, the British and Foreign Bible Society issued a new translation of the New Testament, made by the Rev, T. R. Wade, of the Church Missionary So ciety, stationed at Amritsar. To March 31st, 1889, the British Bible Society disposed of 18, 600 portions of the Scriptures. Catalan Version. — The Catalan is a dia lect of the Spanish, spoken in the province of Catalonia, and belongs to the Grceco-Latin branch of the Aryan family of languages. An edition of the New Testament, consisting of 1,000 copies, was printed in London in 1832, under tbe care of the late Mr. Greenfield, edi torial superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The translation was made by Mr. J. M. Pratt, a native of Catalonia, under the superintendence of the Rev. A. Cheap, of Knaresborough. A second edition of 2,000 copies was published in London in 1835, and a third edition of 3,000 copies was brought out in Barcelona in 1837, under the care of Lieutenant Graydon, the Bible Society's agent. A fourth edition of 2,000 copies, under the care of Mr. Reeves Palmer and Seiior Sala, was published in 1886. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Puis- Deu ha aniat de tal modo al mon^que ha donat son unigenit Fill, a fl de quetol horn que creu en ell no peresca, ans be tinga la vida eterna. CATCHI 237 CAUCASUS Catclii, or Katchi Version. — The Catchi, which is a dialect of the Sindhi, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is spoken in the province of Katch, Western India. A translation of the Gospel of Matthew was published at Serampore between 1815-24. A new translation of the same Gospel was prepared by the Rev. James Gray, a chaplain at Bombay, and published tlrere by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1835. As this edition was issued in the Bal- boret character, with which the people are un acquainted, it was found of little use, and the above Bible Society determined to print an edi tion of the New Testament in Gujarati, parts of which have been published at Bombay since 1843. Catherine Sophia, a town in Surinam, South America. About the year 1849 the mis sionaries of the Moravian Church obtained per mission to visit the plantations on the lower Saramacca. A work of itineracy was at once commenced, and the labors of the Brethren were greatly blessed. The managers of the Catherine Sophia plantation, which at that time belonged to the government, were kindly disposed toward the missionary, and assisted him in every way. In 1855 the government offered to hand over to the Moravian Church authorities a chapel and a dwelling house for a missionary, which had been built of pitch-pine in Holland, and brought out to Surinam for the use of emigrants, most of whom had either departed this life or left the place. The offer was thankfully accepted, and to the great delight of the poor slaves the chapel was consecrated July 22d, 1855. The congregation here consists of negroes, Chinese, and East India Coolies. Caucasus, a province of southeastern Rus sia, bounded on the north by the provinces of southern Russia and Astrakhan, on the east by the Caspian, on the south by Persia and Tur key, on the west by the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof. It is divided into two sections by the Caucasus range of mountains, thai on the north being called Northern or Cis-Caucasia, and that south Trans-Caucasia. Area, North Caucasia, 86,658 ; Trans-Caucasia, 95,799 ; total, 182,457 square miles. Population (1887), Northern Caucasus, 2,673,- 601 ; Trans Caucasia, 4,784,550. Total, 7,458,- 151. These include a large variety of races : Russians, 1,915,614 ; Tartars (including Turks, Turcomans, Kalmucks, etc.), 1,284,561 ; Arme nians, 803,696 ; Georgians, 310,499 ; Mingre- lians, 200,092 ; Imeritians, 373,141 ; Persians and kindred tribes, 270,319 : Mountaineers (Circassians), 895,702 ; Jews, 50,992 ; Greeks, 42,562 ; Germans, 23,613. Northern Caucasus is inhabited chiefly by the Russian Circassians and Tartars, the remaining races being found in Trans-Caucasia. The Armenians are scattered through the whole of Trans-Caucasia, gathering chiefly about the cities of Erivan, Tiflis, Shusha, Schemachi, and Baku. The Georgians, Mingrelians, and Imeri tians occupy the section between Tiflis and the Black Sea, while the Persians are found along the Persian and Caspian borders. The Kurds, numbering about 10,000, are chiefly in the vicinity of Kars. Within the past few years there has been a large emigration to Turkey of Circassians and Lazes (Imeritians), The Circassians, Tartars, Mingrelians, and Imeritians are called Moham medans, but very many of the last two classes are really more pagan than Mahommedan. The Georgians belong to the Russian Greek Church. The Armenians claim the lead in the Armenian Church, as the seat of the Primate (Catholicos) of the Gregorian, or orthodox church is at Etchmiadzin, near Erivan. The Russians of Trans-Caucasia are very largely dissenters of various sects. Among them perhaps the most interesting are the Molokans, who are found in large numbers in Tiflis and in the villages along the great routes of travel. They are Protestant in their wor ship, affiliating especially with the German Lutherans, though of late years a number have become Baptists. (See Molokans.) The differ ent races do not mingle freely, and their mutual jealousies are kept in check only by the strong hand of the Russian Government. The most turbulent element is the Mohammedan, and it is with no unfriendly eye that Russia has watched the transference to Turkey of a people that bid fair to increase disturbances that can hardly fail to give her additional pretexts for interference in the Eastern Question. The official language is Russian, but Turkish, Armenian, Georgian, and German are extensively used. The Turkish is a dialect called the Azer- bijan, or Tartar Turkish, and the Armenian, called the Ararat Armenian, is quite different from the language used in Turkey. The government of the Caucasus is in tho hands of a governor-general, usually a member of the imperial family, resident at Tiflis, who is assisted by a vice governor and a council. All the various district officials report through the various grades to these, and the result is an amount of official red tape and interference that is oppressive in the extreme. There is a large military force, well organized and well distributed, but not sufficient to secure safety and order off from tbe main lines of travel. The general condition of the country is far from conducive to its, prosperity. The taxes are very heavy, and the universal espionage and conse quent suspicion and mutual distrust render large enterprises almost hopeless. The moun tains abound in mineral wealth, the plains are very fertile, the people are shrewd and ener getic. Yet there is no public spirit, and even undertakings that promise large returns are allowed to fall through. The petroleum wells of Baku, on the Caspian, excited the wildest hopes of wealth and prosperity, but they were miserably managed, und unable even in Persia to displace the American petroleum, notwith standing the great distance from which the lat ter was brought. The greatest hindrance, however, to even the material prosperity of the Caucasus is the same as that which operates all through Russia — viz., the oppressive power of the Gov ernment directed toward the absolute Russiani- zation of all its subjects. This includes not merely the obliteration of political distinctions between races, but the displacement of race languages by the Russian, and the absorption of alt religions into the State Church. While there is nominal freedom of worship accorded to dissenting bodies, changes are not permitted except to the State church. Thus no Moslem can become an Armenian or a Protestant, no Armenian can leave the Gregorians except as he becomes a member of the Greek Church. CAUCASUS 238 CELEBES AU education is carefully supervised, and meet ings of every kind are most jealously watched. The result is a very general lack of genuine force of character, and a widespread feeling that there is no special hope for the future ; that whatever gives present success or gratification is all that it is worth while to strive for. Mission work has been attempted at various times in Trans-Caucasia by the Basle Missionary Society (q.v.), the German Baptists, and the mis sionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. and Presbyterian Board (North), whose headquarters were in Per sia and Turkey. Since the opening of good roads from Batumi and Poti to Tiflis and the Persian frontier at Julfa, and the Caspian at Baku, the missionaries to Persia have almost invariably taken that route. They have thus come in contact with a Nestorian colony at Tiflis, and the Armenians at Tiflis, Erivan, Schemachi, Shusha, and Baku. The British and Foreign and American Bible Societies also have done a good deal of Bible work from Tiflis as a centre, though the former has withdrawn of late years in favor of the latter, which has now a large depot in Tiflis and is quite success ful in its sales, especially of Armenian, Georgian, and Azerbijan Turkish Scriptures Rev. Abraham Amirkhaniantz, an Armenian, a native of tbe Caucasus, educated at the Basle Seminary, and employed as a teacher in Con stantinople and a missionary in Tabriz, Persia, has been for some years resident in Tiflis, and in charge of the British and Foreign Bible Society agency. He has conducteda school and preached to a few Armenians who gathered at his house. He also engaged in the preparation of the Ararat Armenian and Azerbijan Turkish versions. Sud denly, without any warning, he was arrested by the Russian Government, in 1886, for propagat ing his religious ideas, and exiled with his fam ily to Ekaterineburg, on the border of Siberia. Since that time the government have been even more repressive than before, at times repeating their refusal even to allow missionaries to pass through the country on their way to Persia. The most interesting work has been that con nected with the establishments of the evangeli cal community at Schemachi (q.v.), and its branches at Shusha, Nucha, and Baku. By force of personal character and the exercise of great care and shrewdness their congregations have held their own, and promise to furnish the ele ments of successful work whenever the iron grasp of the Russian Government shall be re moved, and some freedom of thought and wor ship be allowed. Cavalla. — 1. A town of Liberia, West Africa, on the sea-coast, near the mouth of the Cavalla River. Occupied for many years as a promi nent station by the mission of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the U. S. A. A number of buildings were erected and the work was in a prosperous condition when, in 1886, a revolt of the native Cavalla tribe against the Liberian Government forced the mission to flee and re establish their work near Cape Palmas. The re volt was occasioned by the old-time hostility of the native tribes to the free black men, who they believe established the Liberian Government in their own interests. The phrase of the treaties, " under the supremacy of the Liberian Govern ment," was peculiarly distasteful to them, and tho idea was carefully fostered by the chiefs that this was simply an agreement that could be broken or set asiue at will. Hence when dis turbances arose even some of the Christian na tives shared in the hostility of the chiefs to an influence which they considered foreign and destined to overthrow their own power, and even to annihilate them in the same way as the whites were displacing the American Indians. Appeals were even made by the chiefs to the British Government at Sierra Leone for protec tion against the Liberian Government. Most of the Christians remained true to their fealty to the republic, but so bitter was the spirit of the natives that the missionaries were forced to flee by night and establish themselves at Cape Palmas. 2. A city of European Turkey on the iEgean sea, seaport of the important city of Seres. Cawnpur, a city in Hindustan, situated in the Northwestern Provinces, in north latitude 26° 28', east longitude 80° 24'. It lies on the right bank of the Ganges, 130 miles above the junc tion of that stream with the Jumna, at Allaha bad. Distance northwest from Calcutta, 628 miles. In size it is the fourth city in the North western Provinces, with a population of 151,444, of whom over 113,000 are Hindus, nearly 35,000 Mohammedans, and over 3,000 Christians. The city is of quite modern origin ; somewhat more than a hundred years ago a body of English troops was stationed at or near its site, which was then on the frontier of the English terri tory. Around the camp, as its nucleus, a city sprang into being. It is no w of great importance both as a trading centre and a manufacturing place ; leather and cotton goods— especially the former — are produced here in large quantities. The chief historic interest centres about the me morial gardens, which occupy the site of the in trenchments within which a body of about 1,000 English (only 400 of whom were capable of bear ing arms) took refuge from the native troops under Nana Sahib during tbe mutiny of 1857. The exact spot of the intrenchments is occupied by the memorial church ; and the place of the well into which some 200 bodies were thrown, mostly women nnd children — the victims of Nana Sahib's massacre— is marked by a marble angel and a suitable inscription. The S. P. G. maintains a mission here, established in 1841, making a specialty of zenana work ; two of the missionaries suffered death at the time of the mutiny. Station of the Methodist Epis copal Church (North), 2 missionaries and wives, 2 female missionaries, 18 native preachers, 274 church members, 1,944 Sabbath scholars, 481 day scholars. Ceara (Fortaleza), a town in North Brazil, South America, situated on a bay of the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Ceara River. It is the capital of the province. Among the pub lio institutions are a Latin school and a hospital. The climate is dry and hot, but tempered by the sea breezes. Population, 20,000 : Portu guese, Negroes, Indians — a mixture of all. Language, Portuguese. Religion, Roman Cath olic. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (South), 1882 ; 1 missionary and wife, 21 native helpers, 2 churches, 72 members, 1 school, 26 scholars. Celebes, an island of the Malay Archipelago, under the control of the Dutch, situated east of Borneo, and, like it, crossed by the equator. Area, 71.150 square miles. The interior is ele vated and generally mountainous : tho coast is CELEBES 239 CEYLON low and exceedingly rugged in its outline. The island is well watered by small streams, and contains several lakes. Population, 836,304. They are one of the four true Malay tribes, Mohammedans in religion, and speak the Bughi and Macassar languages, for which they have two different written characters. The Bughis are wild and savage in appearance, but of a quiet and peaceable disposition ; the aborigines oi»North Celebes are classed with the savage Malays, although the civilizing influence of the Dutch has greatly promoted their advancement. Tney make obedient servants, are gentle and in dustrious, and readily assume the manners and habits of civilized life. The island was prob ably discovered in 1525 by the Portuguese. The first intercourse with the Dutch was in 1607 ; they expelled the Portuguese in 1660, and held the island until driven out by the British in 1811. Their possessions were restored to them by treaty in 1815. The inhabitants were origi nally pagans, but iu 1512 their king, having re solved to embrace another religion, invited to his court two Moslem Mollahs and two Jesuit priests. The Millahs arrived first, and soon Mohamme danism was the established religion. The Dutch landed in 1656 and since 1677 both the tribes have been subject to them, though the Bughis, by far the most cultivated islanders of the archi pelago, have frequently endeavored to throw off the yoke of their masters. Missi>n Work is carried on by the Netherlands Missionary Society (q.v.), with stations at M.mado, Talawan, Ajermaudidi, Tanawangko, Amuraug, Kumelembuai, Ratahan, Langowan, Sonder, Tondano. In the north of the island, in the eighteenth century, a largs number of natives who had not embraced Islamism were baptized by a native of Holland. Tus work was, however, not followed up until early in the present century, when the Netherlands Missionary Society took it up, and hi3 prosecute 1 it until the present. Central Agency for Foreign Mis sions. — (Special Funds.) Headquarters, 54 Gresham Street, Lindon, C. E. An agency established in January, 1883, un der the patronage of the bishops of the Church of England, for the receipt and transmission of special funds for foreign missions. It is not a missionary society, does not inter fere with and is not responsible for the admin istration of missions, but is intended to provide the following advantages to individuals wishing to contribute funds to the missions of the Church of England : (a) Money is transmitted without trouble to contributors ; (6) contribu tors to several missionary purposes can, by a single payment, ensure tbe proper distribution of their money ; and (c) a permanent centre is pro7idel, to which all interested in special missions may be referred. The total amount received by the agency since its establishment is £12, 137 9s 3d, a considerable part of which, but for the agency, would have been lost to the foreign field. Central China Wesleyan Lay Mis sion.— Secretary, Rev. W. F. Moulton, D.D., Cambridge, England. For a number of years the Central China Mis sion of the Wesleyan Methodist Society was favored with the hearty co-operation of a lay missionary, Mr. C. W. Mitchil, wh) since 1875 has engaged in the work entirely at his own cost. He has taken charge of mission stations, has entered into evangelistic and itinerant work, has visited scores and hundreds of towns and villages where there was not a soul to tell the way of salvation, and has proclaimed it to thousands of the people. The freedom of his work and the usefulness of kindred workers in connection with the China Inland Mission led to the establishment of a separate committee, working in harmony with and under the general direction of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, in the Wuchang district. The force numbers (1890) 8 missionaries (two married). They have 4 na tive assistants, and fill over 100 preaching places. Cesarea, a city of Central Asia Minor, in the ancient province of Cappadocia. It occu pies a pleasant position on a high plateau at tho base of Mount Argseus, has a mild, dry climate, which is healthy and pleasant. The city is im portant not merely from its own population — about 60,000 — but as the centre of a large num ber of thriving villages. The strongest element in numbers is the Turkish ; then come the Armenians and the Greeks. These latter are especially enterprising as business men, and have found their way into foremost places in Constantinople, Smyrna, Adana, etc. The language is entirely Turkish, even the Arme nians and Greeks using it. (See Caramania.) As a mission station of the Western Turkey Mission of the A. B. C. F. M., it is the centre of operations that cover an area of 45,000 square miles, and include the cities of Konieh (Ico- nium), Angora, Nigde, and Yuzgat. Mission work was commenced in this field in 1823 by the visit of Rev. Mr. Barker, agent of the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society, whose distribu. tion of Scriptures sowed seel that has since borne much fruit. The persecutions of the Prot estant Armenians in Constantinople resulted in the exile, in 1839, of one of the preachers, Hohannes Sihagyan, and in 1845 of still others, all of whom preached earnestly, and in 1849, at the earnest request of the people, a preacher was sent from Aintab. In 1852 Sahagyan revisited the city and made such representations to the mission that in 1854 it was formally occupied by the A. B. C. F. M. by Revs. J. N. Ball and W. A. Farnswortb. The work grew very rapidly, until, in 1889, there were 33 out-stations, nearly 6,000 communicants, 5 ordained pastors ancl 15 unordained preachers, 6 organi2ed churches, an average attendance on Sabbath worship of over 4,000, and an annual contribution from tbe people for preaching, education, and church building of $4,500. It was in this field that the work started among the Greeks of Asia Minor, who use the Turkish language. Medical work has been an important element in the field, and schools are well attended The present force consists of 3 missionaries and their wives and 2 female missionaries. Ceylon. — The island of Ceylon lies between 5° 53' and 9° 51' north latitude, and 79° 41' ancl 81° 55' east longitude. Its size is smaller than Ireland, being 270 miles long nnd 140 wide, and containing 25,742 square miles. The southern central part is occupied by a group of mountains rising to the height of over 8,000 feet. Adam's Peak, the most prominent of these, 7,352 feet high, has on its top a mark said by Hindus to CEYLON 240 CEYLON be a footprint of Siva ; by Buddhists, of Buddha ; by Mohammedans, of Adam. The bases and summits of the mountains are covered by the most beautiful and luxuriant vegetation, while the middle slopes have been occupied by English planters, first for coffee, and now, that having almost entirely failed because of the rav ages of a ooffee bug, for tea. Tho whole moun tain group is possessed of wonderful beauty, both in its scenery and vegetation. The greater portion of the island consists of great plains, for the most part heavily wooded. They occupy the northern half of the island and reach south on each side of the mountains, com pletely encircling them with a plain of from 30 to 70 miles in width. At the extreme north lies a group of small coral-built islands commonly called the peninsula of Jaffna, which have an importance as one cf the centres of population and of mission work. Ceylon has few rivers of importance, but along its densely populated western coast are lagoon canals improved during the Dutch occupation of the island, ancl reaching from Kalpitiya south through Negombo and Colombo to Kalutara. The only good harbor of the island is at Trin- comalie, where is one of the finest in the world. An expensive breakwater has made the roadstead of Colombo safe, and as Colombo is the point of call for most eastern lines of steamers, it is always full of vessels of every commercial nation in Europe. The C'imale is very hot on the coast, but cooler iu the mountain region. Owing to the sur rounding sea, the temperature is extremely uni form, and the climate is not considered un- healthful for Europeans. The seasons are a wet and a dry, whose time is governed by the two monsoons. The northeast monsoon blows from October to May, the southwest from May to October. The rainfall in the north and south is small, but in the mountain region, es pecially on the southwest slopes, it is large. The Population of Ceylon is about 2,760,000, divided as follows : Sinhalese, 1,846,000 ; Tamils, 687,240 ; Moormen (Mohammedans, mostly descendants of old Arab traders), 184, ¦ 600 ; Veddahs, 2,200 ; European descendants, 17.900 ; Europeans, 4,800. The great centres of population are : the western coast, from Negombo southward to Point de Galle ; certain portions of the mountain region ; and the northern extremity, Jaffna. Ceylon is an English crown colony, ruled by ti governor, aided by executive and legislative councils. Most of the higher officials are Eng lish, but the natives who are fitted for it are admitted to office. The civil service is most ex cellent and efficient. The government aims to uplift and educate the people, giving them all the blessings of civilization in its power, from good roads to endowed colleges, and recogniz ing missionB as the greatest helpers in this work. Some of the principal products of Ceylon are rice, timber, the products of the palm, tea, cinchona, cacao, cinnamon, fruits, spices, plum bago, pearls, and precious stones. History. —The Sinhaleso are said to have em igrated from Oude in 543 b.c. A kingdom was founded, records of which, as minute and as dry as the Saxon chronicles, were carefully kept. In 838 a.d. the Tamils, who had frequently in vaded Ceylon, established a kingdom in Jaffna. In 1505 the Portuguese first visited Ceylon, and in 1518 acquired possessions in it. In 1058 their territory passed into the hands of the Dutch. The English gained possession of the island in 1796, and in 1815 the Kandian king dom, the last vestige of native rule in Ceylon, fell into their hands. The two principal races of the island, Sinha lese and Tamil, differ widely from each other, not only in language and religion, but in vigor, intelligence, and personal characteristics. The Tamil is very industrious and enterprising, so far as that word can be applied to any tropical race. Besides inhabiting exclusively the north ern part of the island, the Tamils fonn the bulk of the laboring population in the cities, while the same race from South India supply the tea estates of Central Ceylon with almost their entire force of labor. The Tamils of the overcrowded peninsula of Jaffna push into other paits in search of employment. Often they have a fair knowledge of English, and sometimes rise to honorable positions. The Hinduism of the Tamils in Ceylon differs but little from Hinduism in South India. Like all the Dravidian races who have adopted the creed of Brahmanism, the Tamils retained much of their old worship of demons and nature. Devil trees and devil temples are common, and popular folklore consists largely of stories of the freaks of these demons. There is less of caste in North Ceylon than on the continent of India, though even here it is the most difficult thing for Christianity. to overcome. The Brahmins have here less influence than in India. This may perhaps be because the caste is less numer ous and less astute and clever than on the con tinent. There the Brahmins everywhere crowd the English schools and push up to good posi tions in government employment and in busi ness. In Ceylon few Brahmins learn English, and the positions demanding education and giv ing influence are filled by other castes. It is pos sible that this may be accounted for thus : by the laws of Hinduism, a Brahmin who shall cross the sea loses caste. It is, therefore, very likely that only Brahmins of inferior position or lapsed reputation would come to Ceylon. Whatever the cause, the Brahmin caste has never attained the power in Ceylon which it pos sesses in India. The Sinhalese, occupying the southern and western parts of the island, are far less vigorous and energetio than the Tamils. Probably few races on the globe possessed of any degree of civilization have greater listlessness and in difference, greater torpidity of intellect and conscience, than the Sinhalese, It would be difficult to trace all the elements tbat have combined to produce this character. But two may be named — climate and religion. " For them nature has done so much that man in sluggish satisfaction aspires nnd labors for no more. Every want is provided for by the gen tleness of the climate and the fertility of tbe soil. Civilization has created no artificial wants. Overpopulation has not interfered with the gratification of those which nature has implanted. Among the great mass of the people of Ceylon there have never been awak ened those emotions of enterprise, emulation, and ambition which supply a stimulus to the intellect." The religion of the Sinhalese is Buddhism of the " Lesser Vehicle," ancl more akin to that of Siam and Burmah than to that of Tibet and Eastern Asia. It has borrowed from its neigh- CEYLON 241 CE YLOll! I bor, Hinduism, so that temples to Hindu gods exist in some places by the side of temples to Buddhu. Tho Sinhalese have also, like their Tamil neighbors, retained much of the lower forms of superstition which Buddhism nom inally displaced, so that demon worship i3 still practised among them. The position of Buddhist priests in Ceylon is not high, and their education is of the most •tdinary kind. They must, by agreement with the government, sustain certain schools in return for particular privileges, but the instruc tion imparted is of the most meagre sort ancl very unsatisfactory. The priests often rely for influence among the people on the practice of medicine and astrology. Mission Woek. — Catholic. — Ceylon has been mission ground for nearly 400 years, and has been made the victim of some of the most re markable experiments in Christianization that the world can anywhere show. Its missionary history may be divided into three epochs, cor responding to the governments which held it : the Portuguese, the Dutch ancl the English. Sion after the arrival of the Portuguese, Franciscan monks followed, and Colombo was made the seat of a bishopric. In 1844 St. Francis Xavier preached among the Tamil fisher men of Mannar, in the kingdom of Jaffna, and baptized between 500 and 600 of them. The Rajah of Jaffna slew all these, but soon after he was deposed, and in 1548 the Portuguese acquired Jaffna and set vigorously to work to Christianize the peninsula. The methods pursued in North and South Ceylon differed greatly. Jaffna, iso lated by the sea on one side and trackless jungles on the other, was completely under the control of the Portuguese, and here they could carry mat ters with a high hand. Colomt y, on tho con trary, was constantly threatened by the native princes. The former province was mapped out in parishes, and each parish was provided with a church and a priest ; and before the close of the Portuguese rule almost all the population, even the Brahmins themselves, had submitted to baptism. By far the greater number dropped Catholicism the moment its government support was withdrawn, yet thero is still a Catholic com munity in Jaffna descended more or less directly from these labors. In the south the priests proceeded with greater caution. Few if any churches were built outside of the large towns, but in time large numbers of Sinhalese.espeeially of the more prominent families, were, baptized. Perhaps the chief means used by the Portu guese in Christianizing the Ceylonese is hinted at by the old historian, who says that many be came Christians " for the sake of Portuguese gold. " It is certain that baptism was made the gate to preferment, and was regarded by the people as a political rather than a religious cer emony, while scenic performance largely took the place of spiritual instruction. To this day Catholic processions, which have a, suspicious resemblance to those of Hinduism, are perpetu ated in Jaffna. With the conquest of the Dutch the palmy days of Catholicism ended. The priests were banished, Catholic rites forbidden on pain of death, and the people were commanded to be come Protestants. No unbaptized person was allowed to hold office or to own land, while Catholics were placed under greater disabilities than Buddhists or Hindus. Soon converts were numbered by the hundred thousand. Here again the Hindus of the north accepted the gov ernment religion with more readiness than the Buddhists of the south. But before long it was found that the converts were only Christians in name, and still held the beliefs nnd practised the rites of their old religions. Indeed, little was or could be done for their instruction. This state of things called forth the condemnation of the Classis of Amsterdam. Before the close of the Dutch period, the number of Christians had much diminished, and the ministers themselves plainly saw the uselessness of the course of compulsion taken by their government. No sooner had they left Ceylon than everywhere, except in a few large towns, their whole system entirely collapsed, temples were rebuilt, and the people gladly laid aside the last remnants of " government Christianity." Protestant.- — The English period has been one of mission work in the true spirit of the Gospel — patient, laborious, and stable. The English Baptist Missionary Society was the first Protestant body now laboring in Ceylon to enter the field. Mr. and Mrs. Chater arrived in 1812, and for 22 years labored in Colombo, most of the time alone. Mr. Chater died on his way to England in 1829, and was succeeded by Mr. Daniel. He labored, for 14 years, the last two years in complete loneliness ; but so suc cessful was his work that when he died his name was held in high honor by a large portion of the Sinhalese. In 1854 the mission had reached 140 villages, besides the cities of Colombo and Kandy, while the scholars under instruction numbered 1,100 and the communicants 483. The mission force was small, as it always has been, theie beiDg at that time 3 men wiih 34 native assistants. At present the principal sta tions are Colombo, Kandy, ancl Ratnapura. There are 5 missionaries, 22 native preachers, 961 communicants, and about 2,500 children in schools. The Wesleyan Missionary Society was the next to enter the island. The beginning of their mis sions in Ceylon and India is one of the tragedies of mission history. Dr. Coke, a minister of ad- \anced age, was so filled with a desire to found a mission in the East that not only did he urge it upon the Conference amid great opposition, but to a large extent defrayed the expenses of six missionaries, and himself embarked with them for the field. On the way out he suddenly died, leaving the little band without a leader. In 1814 five men landed at Galle, and soon settled at Jaffna and Batticaloa for the Tamil work, and at Matura and Galle for the Sinhalese work. The governor had received them with the utmost kindness, entertaining them at the government house, giving them personal attentions, and offering subsidies for all schools they might open. This, among a people who take their cue from tbe government as much as the Cey lonese do, gave them at once a position of van tage. The people listened with marked atten tion, and it is no wonder that the missionaries soon began to hope that the conquest of heathen ism would be speedy and complete. There were some notable conversions. A Buddhist priest of great learning and wide reputation became convinced of the truth of Christianity, and gave up everything to become a Christian. But it was soon found that very few, even if they had convictions, were willing to carry them to their logical result. But in spite of all obstacles, the mission has had a history of steady growth. CEYLON 242 CEYLON Their missionaries have numbered many faith ful, earnest workers, some of whom hold hon ored places as students of the Ceylon languages and literature. They have been pre-eminently active in organizing and supervising an energetic and efficient native agency ; nor have they been behind others in the use of education and the press. In 1826 a seminary was begun, while from the first vernacular education had been carried on. At the present time Wesley College, at Colombo, and Richmond College, at Galle, take a deservedly high rank among the educa tional institutions of the island. Numerous high schools for boys and boarding schools for girls do a more humble but not less useful work in various parts of the island. In 1842 a mis sion was begun among the village Veddahs. This savage people have been little touched by civilizing influences, and work among them, though of the most primitive sort, has been fairly successful. In 1854 the mission had 26 missionaries and assistants, 13 catechists, 56 teachers, 1,749 com municants, and about 3,750 scholars. At present the South Ceylon Mission is divided into three districts and the North Ceylon into two. A mis sion has lately been started in the central part of the island, among a people of great ignorance and superstition. In Colombo the "BookRoom," including printing and publishing departments, is a feature of great importance, The only lady medical missionary in Ceylon is in this mission, stationed at Batticaloa. The general progress of the work is constant, and its organization well in hand. The beginning of the A. B. C. F. M. mission in Ceylon was the visit there of Mr. Newell on his exclusion from Bombay in 1813. As a con sequence of his appeals, four missionaries sailed from Boston for Ceylon in the autumn of 1815. In the following March they arrived in Ceylon, and before the end of the year were settled in Jaffna. In this corner of the island, in a tract of country not more than 30 miles long by 15 wide, and containing 160,000 inhabitants, has baen carried on the entire work of the Ameri can Board in Ceylon. This concentration of labor, which few missions have been able to en joy, has had special advantages for thorough work. The stations first occupied were Tilli- pally and Batticotta, where the use of the old Dutch churches and glebes was given by the government. In 1819 four men with their wives were added to the mission. It was a most op portune re-enforcement,f or the health of the first missionaries had begun to fail In 1820 Gov ernor Brownrigg, who deserves to be mentioned for his kindness to all mission work, was suc ceeded by Governor Barnes. In 1820, when a printing-press end printer nrrivel for the mis sion, the new givernor banished tbe printer from the islanl and forbade the mission to use its press. For twelve years this interdict, whose ostensible reason was that the mission aries were Americans, lay upon the work, and no re-enforeomeuts could be added. The press, meantime, was lent to the Church Mission and used by them until 1831, -when it was set up in Manepy. This mission, even more than the other mis sions of Ceylon, has given much attention to education. In 1826 a seminary was started at Batticotta, which developed into the best known English school on the island. Its course included the sciences of Western civilization. For many years the students were supported without fees, and the institution was always a heavy expense to the mission. In 1855, after having taught about 1,200 students, nearly 600 of whom became Christians, it was discontinued in favor of a vernacular school which should be less costly and designed only for the training of mission helpers. At present the old semi nary buildings at Batticotta are occupied by Jaffna College, begun in 1872 with an English curriculum. It is financially independent of the Board, being supported by fees and two separate funds, one in America and one in Ceylon, while its Board of Directors comprises missionaries of different bodies, civilians, and native Christians The normal school, to which is added an industrial department, occupies new buildings at Tillipally. There was at first a, strong prejudice against female education, arising partly from the fact that only the im moral women connected with the temple service were taught to read. In 1826, however, a board- in" school for girls was begun at Oodooville, which has had a history of continuous useful ness from that day to this. The mission was blessed with a series i-f notable revivals, most of which began in the schools in the years 1821, 1824, 1830, and 1834. The large printing establishment at Manepy was kept up for twenty years, but in 1855 was sold to natives, by whom it is, in a smaller way, still carried on. In general the work has been thrown more upon the natives. The Board, under the pressure of other and larger fields, has been constrained to urge self-support on the mission, and the churches have responded to the appeal as well as could be expected. An important work for many years was that of Dr. Green, who did much to introduce Western medicine among the people. In 1854 there were 8 stations, 24 missionaries and assistant missionaries, including wives, 30 native preachers and catechists, 395 communi cants, and 4,242 scholars. The Church Missionary Society entered Cey lon in 1818, and, like the Wesleyan, immedi ately began work among both the Sinhalese and the Tamils. It stationed workers at Nellore, near Jaffna Town, at Calpentyn, Galle, and Kandy. The last place was at that time the capital of a native kingdom, and the govern ment could not offer protection to the mission aries. Two years later it was subdued, the peo ple welcoming the British as delivereis from the tyranny of their own king. The work among the Kandyan Sinhalese was at first more clow and discouraging than in any other part of the island. It was the centre of Ceylon Buddhism, and the people, living in a primitive and secluded way, were under the complete control of village chieftains and Buddhist priests. It is possible that even " Government Christianity" had done an important work in the maritime provinces in loosening the turt'- bound soil of stubborn heathenism. Schools were slowly started, while it was ten years be fore a girls' school could be begun. Even to the present day Christianity is nowhere in the island so backward as here. The central station for the southern work was Cotta, near Colombo. Here was established a school and a printing-press, and the place soon became an educational centre. Central Ceylon is the seat of two interesting departments of church mission work, the Kandy CEYLON 243 OHAMBA itineracy and the Tamil Cooly mission. They cover nearly the same ground, but labor inde pendently. The itineracy works among the Sinhalese villages, educating and evangelizing as may seem fit. The Cooly Mission has charge of the coolies from South India who labor on the tea estates. This mission has for over thirty years been mainly supported by unde nominational subscriptions from planters of the isMRid. The population among whom it works is of necessity a floating one, constantly coming and going from India, yet the mission has about 1,700 native Christians on its lists. Another special department worthy of mention is the native evangelical society of Jaffna. It works in the jungles to the south of Jaffna, support ing catechists and readers among a scanty and needy population. Though under the guidance of missionaries, it is, like a similar society in the American Mission, controlled by the natives, and is one of the best harbingers of future mis sion work by the people for their own brethren. The educational work of the mission is repre sented by Trinity College at Kandy, and nu merous schools for boys and girls in both Sin halese and Tamil missions. In 1838 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel took up work in Ceylon. It labors in connection with the Bishop of the Church of England and his chaplains, whose work is of great value, especially among the mixed races of the towns. A college in Colombo, St. Thom as, is under the control of this wing of the Church, and the communicants in their churches, including all races, number about 800. In 1886 the Salvation Army, under the leader ship of Mr. Tucker, formerly a civil service officer in India, sent workers to Ceylon. They adopt the native food and the dress of Hindu religious mendicants, hoping by thus assimi lating with the people to reach them with greater effectiveness. It is doubtful, however, if this hope has been realized. The most use ful service of the Army has been in the work among prisoners. Their methods of labor are still experimental, but they have " barracks" in most of the large towns and a considerable number of officers, European and native. One of the chief features of mission work in Ceylon has always been the educational. The circumstances of the country have seemed to demand it. The government being English, a knowledge of the English language is desired by ambitious young men, while the government fosters and tbe people gladly receive primary vernacular education. Then, too, it has been fouud that by far the larger proportion of con verts have come through the schools. Espe cially is this true of the boarding schools, which have been the" great feeders of the ranks of efficient Christian workers. Mission work has had' peculiar difficulties to encounter in Ceylon. In addition to the abomi nations of Hinduism in the north, the fatality of Buddhism in the south, and the torpidity of the tropics in both parts, there were the false impressions of nearly three centuries of " Gov ernment Christianity" to be rooted out before the seeds of a spiritual conception of Christi anity could take root. This, however, has been done. While there is still much to be desired in the churches, there are many illustrations of pure, firm Christian life. Though seldom obliged to leave their homes and villages, as often in India, the converts have endured tests not less strong, in the daily association and in fluence of those about them. That so many of the Christians have, under these adverse cir cumstances, held their profession unspotted, is a matter almost of wonder. A good proportion of the churches are self- supporting. In the mission of the American Board alone the native contributions for 1888 amounted to over $2,200. In Christian families there is a beautiful custom of taking a handful of rice from that to be prepared for each meal and setting it aside to be given to tho Lord ; and it is no uncommon thing for a man to pledge a month's salary for some special object in the church. In comparison with either Hinduism or Buddhism, Christianity still appears very weak. But its growth cannot be counted by numbers alone. It is confessed, even by those opposed to Christianity, that the strength of the native religions is being sapped, and that the ultimate triumph of Christianity is only a matter of time. The editor of the leading English paper of the islands says : " The progress of Chris tianity and education among the people is greater than in any other Eastern State, aud there can be no question as to the important bearing of their advance upon the vast conti nent of India, upon Burmah, Siam, and Cam bodia, and even upon China. In Ceylon ten per cent of the children of a school-going age are being educated. From our island Sinhalese and Tamils are going out as teachers, magis trates, and lawyers to Madras, and some are finding their way to Singapore end on to China. Most of these young men have been educated in mission schools under the influence of Chris tianity. I have astonished friends by telling them of villages in Ceylon where Tamils and Sinhalese have their own pastors of their own race and locally supported, their Sunday-schools and day-schools. I believe that the progress of Christianity here will be not in an arith metical but a geometrical progression before long, so that we may see Christianity permeate the whole island." Chaibasa, the chief town of Singhbum district, Bengal, India. It is situated on the Rora River. Population, 6,006, Hindus and Moslems chiefly. A large fair attended by 20,000 visitors is held here annually at Christ mas time. Mission station of the Gossner Mis sionary Society, with 28 villages, 9 churches, 1 preacher, 632 members. Chaldaic (see also Syro-Chaldaic and Chaldean), a term used in connection with the Chaldean Church of Mesopotamia, to indicate the form of the Chaldee language used by the Chaldeans of Mesopotamia. It is practically the same as that used by the Nestorians of Persia, though specifically it refers to the ver sion used by the Roman Catholic Church. Chamba, a town in the Punjab, Northern India, at the foot of the Himalayas, 120 miles northeast of Lahore. Population, 5,218, Hin dus, Moslems, Sikhs, etc. Mission station of the Established Church of Scotland ;. 3 mission aries, 8 native helpers, 2 schools, 104 scholars, 26 communicantc. Chamba Version.— The Chamba, a dia lect of the Punjabi, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is spoken CHAMBA 244 CHAU-CHAU in Chamba, an independent Hill State of Pun jab, between Dalhousie and Cashmere, with a population of 120,000 souls. Under the care of the Rev. Dr. Hutcheson, a medical mis sionary of the Church of Scotland at Chamba, the British and Foreign Bible Society published the gospels of Matthew and John in 1883. The character used is called Thakari, a modification of the Devanagari. The translation was made by Sohan Lai, pastor of a native church, him self a native of Chamba, who translated from the Hindi text, comparing the translation with the Punjabi and Euglish. Dr. Hutcheson, the only European in the country who read the Chamba in this character, assisted the trans lator, whose work he revised and edited. Up to March 31st, 1889, about 2,512 portions of the Scriptures were disposed of. Chamberlain, John, sailed for India as a missionary of the English Baptist Missionary Sociaty in May, 1802, reaching Serampore Jan uary 27th, 1803. He had great aptitude for acquiring languages, aud his progress in Ben gali was so rapid that in a year he could speak it with an accuracy equal to that of any of the older missionaries. In January, 1804, he vis ited Saugur Island, where thousands were gath ering at the annual festival or kuja. He was accompanied by Felix Carey, Krishnu, and an other convert. He says : " Words fail to give a true description of the scene Here an im mensely populous city has been raised in a very few days, full of streets, lanes, bazaars, etc., and crowds upon crowds of men, women, and children, high and low, rich and poor, are seen bathing in the water and worshipping Gunga. The mud an I water of this place are esteemed very holy, and are taken hundreds of miles on the shoulders of men. The lowest computation of the people here is one lao, or 100,000, but perhaps two lacs is nearer the truth." To these people he and his associates preached the Gospel and gave books and tracts. In the spring of this year he was stationed at Cutwa, 75 miles north of Calcutta. In reviewing his labors he says : " It is now five years since Providence fixed my lot here. Millions of the heathen have heard the glorious report, either from preaching or from the distribution of up ward of a hundred thousand tracts and many hundreds of the Scriptures." In addition to this work he had a school of 40 pupils, for whose benefit he translated Dr. Watts' cate chism and a few hymns. He also made several visits to Berhampore, a military station 45 miles from Calcutta, preaching the Gospel to the soldiers, among whom ho gathered a church of 24 members. On account of his facility in ac quiring languages, his knowledge of the original Scriptures, especially of Hebrew, and his zeal and experience in missionary work, he was sent in 1809 to Agra to establish a new mission. In 1811 he was afflicted in the death of two daughters, one of whom could read ancl speak three languages, and a few months later he was bei-oaved of his only remaining child. His health having failed, he sailed for Eugland in 1827, but died on the passage. Chtinarul, a town in Chili, South America. Its inhabitants are chiefly miners and traders. Mission station of the South American Mission ary Society ; 1 missionary unordained. ' Chandbali, a city in Orissa, Bengal, North ern India, 200 miles southwest of Calcutta, 40 miles east of Jeypore, and 9 miles from the sea. It has risen to importance only within the last few years, and is now the centre of a rapidly growing trade. Healthy, though hot, as it is tempered by sea breezes. Population, 3,266, Hindus, Moslems, aboriginal tribes. Lan guage, Hindustani, Bengali, Oryia, Telugu. Condition of natives fairly good, although back ward in education and slow to accept Western civilization. Mission station of the Free Will Baptists (1886) ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 others, 9 native helpers, 1 out-station. 1 church, 28 church-members, 12 schools, 307 scholars. Chamlausi, a market-town in the distiict of Rohilkhund, Northwestern Provinces, India. Population, 24,000. Mission out-station of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) since 1881 ; 43 church-members. Chan-Chau, or Swatow Colloquial Version. — The Chau-Chau is a dialect of the Chinese, which is spoken in the neighborhood of Swatow, in the province of Canton. Because Swatow is the port of Canton and the chief cen tre of missionary work, this dialect is also called Swatow, and into it the Rev. William Duffus, of the Presbyterian Missionary Society of England, translated the Gospel of Luke, which he carried through the press in 1877 at Edinburgh, in Roman characters, while on a visit to his native country. Two missionaries of the American Board, Rev. William Ashmore and Miss A. M. Fielde, translated the Book of Genesis, which was published in 1879. Gen. 1 : 1.) (Specimen verse. Roman. Ua ai" khi-sin lai-khu ua-pe~k6, kang i ta", Pe a, ua tit-tsue-tieh thin kua to Iii m5n-ts6iD.— (Luke xv. 1 8.) CHARLOTTENBURG 245 CHIANG HOA Char lott cnburg, a station of the Mora vians in Surinam, South America, the first plantation opened to the Moravians for the preaching of the Gospel, fifty years after the missionaries began their labors in Surinam. It lies on a curve of the river Commewyne and enjoys a pleasant situation. Opposite lies an estate upon which cacao and bananas are grown. Thp banks of the stream are lined with fresh green woods, among which here and there pretty negro hamlets may be seen. Boats of all sizes are constantly on the water, and espe cially many on Sunday mornings, when they bring the people to church ; on week days they are often laden with children going to or com ing from school. Chau-kia-keo, a town in the province of Honan, Northeast China, between Kaifung and Nanking. Mission station of the China Inland Mission (1884) ; 8 missionaries (includ ing missionaries' wives), 1 native helper, 1 out- station, 26 church -members, 2 churches. Chavagacherry, a town in the central part of the peninsula of Jaffna, extreme North ern Ceylon, east of Jaffna City. Mission sta tion of the A. B. C. F. M. ; 1 preacher, 152 church members. Chefoo, chief seaport town in the province of Shantung, Northeast China. Mission station of the China Inland Mission (1879) ; 18 mis sionaries (including missionaries' wives), 1 na tive helper, 1 church, 36 church-members, 2 schools, 17 pupils. Presbyterian Church (North), 1862 ; 3 ordained missionaries and their wives, one single lady, 71 native helpers, 5 theological students, 10 schools, 10 churches, 625 chuich members (105 added during 1888). S. P. G. (1874) ; 1 missionary. 4 lit n^ k il. a town in the province of Shensi, North China, near Hauchung. Mission station of the China Inland Mission (1887) ; 1 mission ary and wife. Chentu-fu, the capital of the province of Sichuen, China. Population, 300,000. Mis sion station of the China Inland Mission (1881) ; 3 missionaries and wives, 2 other ladies, 7 na tive helpers, 1 station, 2 churches, 45 members, 2 schools, 30 scholars. Cheribou, or Sheribou, Java, town and district on the north coast, 125 miles east south east of Batavia. It is the residence of a Dutch governor. A church was founded there in 1841. It is a, place of considerable trade. Popula tion of town, 11,000 ; of residency, 929,700. Mission station of the Dutch Missionary Society. Cherokee Version. — The Cherokee Ind ians of the United States, to whom this lan guage is vernacular, had the Gospel of Matthew printed in their idiom in 1832, followed by the Acts in 1833. Both were printed at New Echota. A third edition of Matthew appeared in 1840 at the Arkansas mission press, Park Hill, and was published at the expense of the American Board. j n 1844 the Gospels, Acts, and epistles to Tim othy were printed at the same place in the Cherokee character, and in 1860 the entire New Testament was completed and printed un der the superintendence of Revs. S. A. Worces ter and C. C. Torrey. Besides the New Testa ment, the American Bible Society also pub lished some portions of the Old Testament. {Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Qsy$z fc*;y 0°^iwo-^ wi-crny r5A./»G\aN»* icfir^oBJA ti-Ee, Eim">tf,<»yi» Cherra, a district and town in the Khasi Hills, Assam, India. Mission station of the Welsh Presbyterians, with 2 missionaries, 3 churches, 11 preaching stations, 408 church- members, 878 adherents (using the term to de note those who have given up heathen practices, keep the Sabbath, and attend means of grace), 727 Sunday scholars and teachers, and 563 day scholars. Here is also the normal college tor the region. Cheung Mai, a city of Siam on the Maah- Ping River, 500 miles north of Bangkok. Mis sion station of the Presbyterian Church (North) among the Laos ; 4 missionaries and wives, 3 female missionaries, 11 native preachers, 710 church-members. Chhota-Nagpiir, one of the four prov inces included within the rule of the Lieuten ant-Governor of Bengal. The other three are Bengal Proper, Behar, and Oribsa. Chhota- Nagpur lies west of Bengal Proper ; Behar ad joins it on the north and Orissa on the south east. Its western boundary is the native State of Rewa, and on the southwest it touches the Central Provinces. Its area is 43,020 square miles, and its population 4,903,991. Of these a little over 3,850,000 are reckoned as Hindus and about a quarter of a million as Moham medans. Aboriginal tribes furnish nearly 800,- 000 of the population, but many of those in cluded religiously under the term "Hindus" are connected by race with these tribes, the members of which are continually adopting more and more of Hindu practice, and merging by degrees into the body of Hinduism. The tribes belong principally to the Santal and Kol families. The successful work of Christian missions in the province is attested by the ex istence of over 40,000 Christians (in 1881 ; the number now is much greater) ; the Society for the Propagation of tho Gospel and Gossner's Missionary Society are the principal missionary bodies operating within the province. Chhota-Nagpur, as defined above, includes in its western portion a group of nine petty States or chieftainships not yet incorporated into the Anglo-Indian Government, though supervised by it. The population consists of tribes be longing some to the Gond and some to the Kol family of aborigines. The population was re turned, in 1881, as 678,000 ; all, with the ex ception of a few thousand, being reported as Hindus, though this indicates simply their pres ent religious and not their ethical connection, as explained above. Classified by race, Hindus number a little more than a third and ab origines about a half of the whole population. Chiang Chiu, a city of Southeast China, on the Thian River, 25 miles west of Amoy. Mission station of the L. M. S. (1862) ; 2 mis sionaries, 1 female missionary, 9 native preach ers, 218 church-members. Reformed (Dutch) Church, U. S. A.; 140 church members. Chiang Uoa, a city of Formosa, on the west coast, south of Tamsui. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church of England ; 1 CHIANG HOA 246 CHINA station among the Chinese, 4 among the Sek- hoan. Chicfrow, a town in the southwestern part of the province of Chihli (East China), west of Tehchow, south of Pao-ting tu. Mission station of the L. M. S. ; 2 missionaries and their wives, 142 church members. Chiconchillo, a town in the Tamaulipas district, East Mexico, near Tampico, Mission station of the Associated Reformed Synod (South) ; 1 missionary, 3 out-statious, 137 com municants. Chihuahua, a city in North Mexico, at the base of the Sierra Maclre Mountains, 225 miles south of El Paso, Tex , 1,000 miles northwest of Mexico City. Climate, dry, mild, healthy. Population, 25,000, Spaniards and Indians. Language, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catho lic. Social condition, civilized, but lying, dis honesty, drunkenness, nnd unchastily common. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1882) ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 other lady, 3 native helpers, 2 out-stations, 2 churches, 92 mem bers, 2 schools, 71 schoiars. Children's Medical Missionary So ciety. — (Auxiliary to tho Medical Missionary Association.) Headquarters, Medical Mission House, 104 Petherton Road, London, W. The Society was founded in 1875 ; its ob ject is twofold : (1) to extend among children a knowledge ancl love of medical missions ; (2) to help forward medical mission work at home and abroad. Books, leaflets, etc., are cir culated among children, and branch societies are formed wherever practicable. Money and otlier gifts placed in its hands are distributed to medical missions having need of such aid. The society had, in 1888, 25 branches, and sup ported cots in hospitals in China, India, Syria, Egypt, Italy, and England. Income fur 1NHK, £150. Children's Special Service Mission. — Headquarters, Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row, London, E. C, England. (Undenomina tional.) The aim of the Children's Special Service Mission, founded in 1867, is to use every means to lead children and young people to be Chris tians, and then by its various publications, its Scripture Union, and its regular serrices to lead them on in Ihe Christian life and to point out to them paths of Christian usefulness. In 1888 services for children were held in 115 different places. Tho Children's Scripture Union now numbers 3,800 branches in Great Britain, and has issued 80,000 Scripture cards in 27 different languages. Its monthly letters have an issue of 140,000 per month, and are printed in Eng lish, French, Dutch, and Danish. The total issue of translation of its children's Picture Leaflets in 40 different languages, for the foreign field, is more than 8,000,000. Chili, Republic of, lies on the western coast of the southern portion of South America, between the crest of the Andes and the ocean, from the Camarnnes River to Cape Horn. By the treaty of 1883 it obtained Antofagasta prov ince, the sea-coast of Bolivia, and the province of Tarapaca from Peru, along with the tentative possession of Tacna, another Peruvian prov ince, which at the end of ten years is to decide by popular vote which republic it will belong to. Its boundary line on the south was deter mined by the treaty with the Argentine Republio in 1881, according to which the Strait of Mage'- lan was made neutral territory and the western part of Tierra del Fuego was given to Chili ; but Patagonia was ceded to the Argentine Repub lic. In 1887 there were 22 provinces (divided into 68 departments) and 2 teiritories. Tho population is estimated at 2,383,434, not in cluding the Indians, of whom there are 50,000. The foreign population is 87,077, most o'f them from other parts of South America. The inde pendence of the republic was declared, Septem ber 18th, 1810. The Constitution was adopted 1833, but has undergone revision at various times. The government consists of a President, elected for a term of five years ; a Senate of 43 senators ; a Chamber of Deputies, 126 in num ber. There is in addition a Council of State of 11 members, 5 of whom are named by the Presi dent and the remainder by Congress. The prov inces are governed by intendentes appointed by the President, as are also the governors of the departments. The religion is Roman Catholic, though other religions are tolerated. Public education is gratuitous, and there are three grades of schools : primary, secondary, and principal. There is a university and national institute at Santiago, with departments of law, medicine, and the fine arts. In 1888 the stu dents numbered 1,074. In 1887 there were 87 superior and secondary schools (pupils, 4,452) and 950 primary (pupils, 81,362). According to the official estimate of 1885 Santiago, the capi tal, had 200,000 inhabitants, Valparaiso, the principal seaport, 105,000. The principal wealth of the country consists in its agricultural and mineral products ; one and a half million acres are in cultivation. Five lines of steamships do business on the coast, the principal being the Pacific Steam Navigation Company of England, with bi-monthly steamers to England and weekly ones to Panama. Railroads are bc-ing built ; in 1888 there were 3,000 miles of tele graph lines and 1,630 post-offices. The climate is naturally good, most of the country lying in the temperate zone, with sea breezes and high mountains to modify the temperature, but the general lack of sanitary precautions produces a great mortality among the children. Mission work is cnrried on by the Pres byterian Church (North), U. S. A., with stations at Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepcion, and Copi- apo ; 7 missionaries and wives, 22 native help ers, 5 churches, 265 members. Besides its church work the society has growing educational and evangelistic departments, the latter of which includes a large distribution of tracts. South American Missionary Society, with sta tions at Channral, Lota, Coronal, and Araueania ; 2 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife. Their work is among the Spanish and English-speak ing population and the Indinns about Arau eania. China.— By the name China is designated the possessions of the Chinese Empire in its widest sense, though it is used more correctly and narrowly to name the eighteen provinces which constitute China Proper. The word itself is supposed to be derived from Tsin, the name of one of the minor kingdoms into which China was divided in the seventh century b.c. from which came Chin and China. The coun try has been called by the Latins, Seres ; by the CHINA 247 CHINA Persians, Cathay ; by the other countries of Asia, Jin, Sin, Sinae, or Tzinista?. The Chinese themselves call their country Tien Ha. " be neath the sky," i.e., the world ; Sz Hai (all within), the four seas ; and Chung Kwoh, Mid dle Kingdom. In their isolation and ignorance they deemed that their land was all that was worth speaking of, not knowing that many other lands existed. Vhinese Empire. — The form of the em pire is like a rectangle. It lies in the middle and on the southeastern slope of the continent of Asia, extending from 18° 30' to 53° 25' north latitude, ancl from 74° to 130° east longitude, inclosing an estimated area of 5,000,000 square mile3. Its greatest breadth is 2,150 miles. The circuit of the empire is 14.000 miles— over half the circumference of the globe. On tbe east and southeast it is bounded by various arms of the Pacific Ocean —gulfs of Liautung and Pechele, Yellow and China Seas, and tho Gulf of Tonquin. On the southwest it is bounded by Cochin China and Burmah, and by the Himalaya Mountains. On the west it is bounded by the Kara-korum Mountains, and the Kingdoms or States of Cashmere, Badak- shan, Kokand, the Kirghis steppe, and Russia. On the northwest and north it is bounded by Russia, from which it is separated from west to east by the Altai and Kenteh Mountains, and the Amur and Usuri rivers. This immense country comprises one- third of Asia, one-tenth of the inhabitable globe, and is divided politi cally into China Proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Hi, Kokonor, and Tibet. China Proper. —The Eighteen Provinces, as the Chinese call it, and usually one of the prov inces of Manchuria, Shing King, in addition, is that part of the empire which is distinctively known as China, and is inhabited entirely by Chinese. It lies on the eastern slope of the high table-land of Central Asia, extending to latitude 41° north and longitude 85° east. The area of China is variously estimated from 1,348,870 to 2,000,000 square miles, since its western boundary is unsettled. Its greatest length is 1,474 miles and its breadth 1,355 miles. "It contains almost as much territory as is comprised in the States of the American Union lying east of the Mississippi River, with the addition of Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa." Physical Features. — In the northeast is a great plain, and the remainder of China is divided into three basins, separated by mountain ranges which run from east to west, and drained by three great rivers and their tributaries. In general all that part of the country lying west of the meridian of 113° is mountainous ; from that line down to the coast, south of the Yangtsz- kiang, is found hilly country alternating with the river valleys. The Great Plain extends from the Great Wall north of Peking to the junction of the Yangtsz- kiang with the Poyang Lake, latitude 30° north — 700 miles in length. It has an average breadth of 200 miles north of latitude 35° north, and covers an area of 70,000 square miles ; while in the parallel of the Yellow River it in creases in breadth to 300 miles, until it reaches the Yangtsz-kiang, where it stretches 400 miles inland, covering 140,000 square miles in this southern portion, making a total of 210,000 square miles. This basin supports a popula tion of 177,000,000, and is more densely popu lated than any other part of the world of equal size. Rivers. — Of tho many rivers which flow from west to east across China the principal ones are the Hwang Ho (Yellow River), tbe Yangtsz- kiang (Yangtsz River), and the Chu-kiang (Pearl River). The Yellow River rises in tho plain of Odontala in latitude 35j° north, longi tude 96° east, flows in a general direction to tbo northeast until it reaches- longitude 110° north of tbe Great Wall, where it flows almost directly south between the provinces of Shansi and Shensi for about 500 miles, when it meets its greatest tributary, the Wei, and then flows in a general westerly direction to the sea. Its course through the Great Plain has been a vary ing one on account of its rapid current and the loose character of the soil which forms its banks, and it very often overflows its boun daries, causing death and desolation to the sur rounding people, and forming a new channel and a new month for itself. The last flood took place in the early part of 1888. At that time, after flowing along the northern border of Honan, it crossed Shantung in a northeast erly direction and emptied into the Gulf of Pechele ; after the flood its waters inundated over 10,000 square miles of lowland, part of the water found its way to the Yangtsz-kiang through the grand canal, and the remainder formed a new mouth on the coast near the 35th degree, not more than 80 miles from an ancient month. The whole area of tho basin is esti mated at 475,000 square miles. The Yellow River is of very little use for navigation, owing to the great difference in its depth during sum mer and winter, and. on account of its habit of overflowing it has been justly called "China's sorrow." In a direct line its distance from source to mouth is 1,290 miles, but its numer ous windings make its length double that dis tance. The Yangtsz-kiang (kiang meaning liver), rises in the Tangla Mountains, in the western portion of Tibet, flows in a southeasterly direction un til it reaches the southwestern part of Sz'chuen, where it receives the Yalung, and then flows in a general easterly direction to the sea, where it discharges its waters by two mouths, in latitude 32° north, 1,850 miles from its source in a direct line, but 3,000 miles in all its windings. This river is deep and affords passage for ocean steamers for 200 miles from its mouth, and with the aid of modern engineering it would be possible for steam vessels to ascend 2,000 miles. Its basin is estimated at 548,000 square miles, and in the amount of water it discharges, the system of tributaries belonging to it, and the means of communication which it affords, it ranks with the great rivers of the world. The Chu-kiang is formed at Canton by the union of its three branches, the North, the East, and the West rivers, of which the latter is by far the largest. They drain the south western part of China, an area of 130,000 square miles, and being intersected by numerous tribu taries, form a perfect network of slreams, which afford the means of communication between the three southwestern provinces. In addition to these three principal rivers, the coast of China is very thickly indented with the mouths of rivers of various volume and length, from the Gulf of Tonquin on the south to the Gulf of Pechele on the north, since the arrange ment of the mountains causes the rivers to flow CHINA 248 CHINA in a general easterly direction, draining the mountain slopes to the east. Lakes. — There are few large lakes in China. Tung Ting Lake, in Hunan, 266 miles in circum ference, is the largest one. Iu Kiangsi is found the picturesque Poyang Lake, 90 miles long, and having important fisheries. There are smaller lakes in Chihli and Shantung and Yunnan, which support aquatic populations. Provinces. — In the division of the provinces made a hundred years ago, eighteen provinces were defined. The cities in the different prov inces have a suffix added to the name which de notes the rank of the city and the grade of the district of which it is the chief town. These suffixes are fu, chow, and hien, and in general may be rendered "department" or prefec ture, " primary district," ancl " secondary dis trict" respectively. The provinces may be grouped as follows : Northern Provinces — Chihli, Shantung, Shansi, Honan. Eastern — Kiangsu, Nganhwui, Kiangsi, Chehkiang, Fuhkien. Central — Hupeh, Hunan. Southern — Kwanglung, Kwangsi, Yunnan, Kwei- chau. Western — Shensi, Kansuh, Sz'chuen. A brief description of the location, size, and importance of each of these provinces will be of assistance in locating the different mission fields. Chihli, "Direct Rule," so called on account of its containing the seat of government, is bounded on the north by Inner Mongolia ; on the east, by the Gulf of Pechele ; on the south, by Shantung and Honan, and on the west by Shansi. Its area is 58,949 square miles, and its population is estimated nt 27,000,000. It con tains eleven prefectures. Peking is the capi tal, not only of the province, but also of the empire, and is the largest city in China, with a population estimated from 1,000,000 to 3,000,- 000. It is situated in tho same latitude as Philadelphia, and became the seat of govern ment in 1411. Tientsin is the treaty port, situ ated at the mouth of the Pei Ho River on tho Gulf of Pechele. Tungchau, on the Pei Ho, 12 miles from the east gate of the city, is the port of Peking. The general aspect of the province is flat and unpleasing ; part of it lying in the Great Plain is rich and well cultivated, though the farmers are often distressed by fre quent droughts. The principal products are millet, wheat, sorghum, maize, oats, and many kinds of fruits, such as pears, apples, and grapes. Coal, both anthracite and bituminous, is found, and marble, granite, lime, and iron can be obtained. Shantung, "East of the Hills," has a long coast line. It is bounded on the north by Chihli and the gulf ; on the east by the Yellow Sea ; on the south by Kiangsu, and on the west by Chihli. It contains ten prefectures. Its arua is 65,104 square miles, with a popula tion of 30,000,000. It is especially noted as being the birthplace of Confucius and Mencius. The capital is Tsinan-fu, a city of about 100,000 inhabitants. The soil is generally fertile, and every kind of grain and vegetable is raised, while gold, copper, galena, antimony, silver, sulphur, agates, and saltpetre are found in its hills. Chefoo on the northeast coast is the treaty port. Shansi, " West of the Hills," has the Great Wall ancl Mongolia for its northern boundary, Chihli on the east, Shense on the west, ancl Honan on the south. It contains 55,268 square miles, about the size of the State of Hlinois, with a population of 14,000,000, and has eight prefectures. It is the original home of the Chinese people. An elevated plateau of 30,000 square miles from 5,000 to 6,000 feet in height is one vast coal field. " At the present rate of consumption the world could be supplied for thousands of years by Shansi alone. " Taiyuen- fu is the capital. The land is not very produc tive, food is high in price, and the people are, as a rule, poor. Honan, " South of the River," is one of the most fertile portions of the Plain. It was originally called Chung Hwa Ti, " middle flow ery land," the Florida of China. It has the Yellow River on the north, separating it from Shansi and Chihli ; Nganhwui on the east, Hupeh on the south, and Shensi on the west. Nine prefectures are found within its 65,404 square miles. Kaifung-fu, not far from the southern bank of the Yellow River, is the capi tal. The population is dense, ancl they produce much more than is necessary for their own con sumption of cereals, cotton, hemp, iron, silk, and coal. The building of railroads will in crease the capabilities of this province to an enormous degree. Kiangsu, named from the first syllable of its capital.Kiangning-fu.andthe Suof Suchau(Soo- chow), its richest city, is about the size of Penn sylvania, containing45,000 square miles. Shan tung bounds it on the north, the sea on the east, Chehkiang on the south, and Nganhwui on the west. Through it flow the two great rivers of China, and it is extraordinarily fertile. Grain, cotton, tea, silk, and rice are produced in great abundance, and it is the home of neatly 38,000,000 of people. The capital, known to foreigners as Nanking, on the south shore of the Yangtsz, 194 miles from Shanghai, was also the capital of China from a.d. 317-582, and again from 13CSS-1403. It was nearly destroyed by the rebels in 1S56, and has not yet fully re covered from their desolating ravages. It has been celebrated in other countries for its Porce lain Tower, which was finished by the Emperor Yungloh in 1430, after nineteen years spent in its construction. The rebels destroyed it in 1856 out of superstitious fear of its geomantic influence. The city is renowned throughout China for its manufactures cf cotton cloth, silk, crepe, satin, paper, and fine ink, and for its literary character. Soochow, on the Ta-hu, Great Lake, 30 miles northwest of Shanghai, is another rich and populous city. It is noted for its handsome (?) people, and the Chinese proverb says, " Happy is the man who is born in Soochow, lives in Canton, and dies in Liau- chan," for he will be born handsome, have all the good things of this life, and in the latter place are found the best coffins. This city is celebrated for the beauty of its position and the picturesqueness of the surrounding country, as well as for its manufactures of silk, linen, cotton, and works in ivory, wood, glass, lac quered ware, and hoin. Chin-kiang, at the junc tion of the Grand Canal with the Y'angtsz, is noted for its shipping trade, and is the key of the country as regards trade between the north and the south. Shanghai, tbe leading treaty port in China, lies on the north shore of the Wusung River, 14 miles from its mouth, in lati tude 31° 10' north and longitude 121° 30' east. It is the outlet for the produce of the region drained by the Yangtsz, and of the cities on the CHINA 249 CHINA Grand Canal. Here we find Eastern civilization side by side with Oriental squalor. In the foreign settlement fine houses, electric lights, wide streets, and gay equipages form a striking ¦contrast to the low brick houses, oil lights, narrow streets, and rude wheelbarrows which are to be seen in the native city. Nganhwui lies between Honan on the north, Kiangsi on the south, Kiangsu and Chehkiang onthe east, and Hupeh and Honan on the west. A population of 34,108,059 inhabit its 48,401 square miles, It has seven prefectures, and Nganking on the Yangtsz is its capital. The land is very fertile, and in the southern portion tea is grown. Kiangsi, " West ofthe River," has Hupeh and Nganhwui for its northern boundary, Cheh kiang and Fuhkien on the east, Kwangtung on the south, and Hunan on the west. It includes the fertile basin of the Kan-kiang, supports a population of 19,000,000 on its 72,176 square miles, and has fourteen prefectures, with its capital Nanchang-fu on the southern shore of Lake Poyang. In addition to the usual prod ucts of the fertile valleys, its mountains pro duce camphor, varnish, oak, banian, fir, and pine. Kiu-kiang, on the Yangtsz at the outlet ¦of the lake, is the treaty port. Chehkiang is the smallest of all the provinces, but important because of its situation on the coast. Kiangsu lies on its north, Fuhkien on the south, with Kiangsi and Nganhwui on the west. It equals Ohio with its 39,000 square miles, and has a population of 21,000,000. " It possesses within its limits every requisite for the food and clothing of its inhabitants, while the excellence of its manufactures insures it in exchange a supply of the luxuries of other re gions." It has valuable forest and fruit trees on its hills. The capital, Hangchau-fu, lies in the northern part, and, equally with Suchau, is celebrated for its beauty of location in the Chinese proverb, "Above is paradise; below are Su and Hang." Ningpo-fu, a treaty port at the junction of three streams, on the coast, near latitude 30° north, is one of the principal ports in China. To the east of it lies the Chusan Archipelago, containing over a hundred islands. Buddhist priests with their monasteries and temples occupy many of the most beautiful of these islands. Fuhkien, another maritime province, is, as its name implies, " happily established," with Chehkiang on the north, Kwangtung on the southwest, and Kiangsi on the west and the northwest, with the channel of Formosa on the ¦east, 90 miles wide, separating it from the Island of Formosa (q.v.). In its 53,480 square miles it includes the rugged, fertile region of the hilly Nan Shan ; the river Min, 300 miles long, draining the greater part of the province, and twelve prefectures, with a population of 14,774,410. Little rice is grown, but tea from the Bohea hills is produced in abundance. Fuh- chau fu (Foochow), the capital, is on the Min, 34 miles from its mouth. Amoy, upon the Amoy Island, at the mouth of the Lung River, in lati tude 24° 40' north, is a treaty port and has one of the best harbors on the coast. Hupeh, "North of the Lakes," is slightly larger than New England, containing about 70,000 square miles. On the north it is bounded by Honan, on the east by Nganhwui, on the «outh by Hunan, and on the west by Sz'chuen and Shensi, Watered by both the Yangtsz and the Han rivers, this province is remarkably fertile and its population numbers 27,370,098, divided politically into eleven prefectures. Wuchang-fu, the capital, is in the southeastern part of the province on the Yangtsz, and near it, on the northern bank of the Yangtsz, at the mouth of the Han River, 582 geographical miles from Shanghai, are the two other large cities of Hanyang and Hankow. The latter is a treaty port, and was opened to foreign trade in 1861. Ichang, 363 miles above Hankow on the Yangtsz, is another important city and treaty port. Hunan, " South ofthe Lakes," is bounded on the north by Hupeh, on the east by Kiangsi, south by Kwangtung and Kwangsi, and west by Kweichau and Sz'chuen. With an area of 84,000 square miles it equals in extent the State of Kansas. The soil is not very fertile, and it is of importance mainly on account of its deposits of anthracite and bituminous coal, which are as rich as those in Pennsylvania. The country is hilly, and the people are segre gated into small communities with little com munication with each other. The estimated population is 18,652,507. There are nine pre fectures, of which Changsha-fu is the capital. It is situated on the Siang River, and above it, at the confluence of the Lien Ki, is Siangtan, one of the greatest tea marts in China, with a population of 1,000,000, lying along the river bank for 3 miles, with thousands of boats lining its shores. In the southwest are found abo riginal hill tribes who are little better than bandits. Shensi, "Western Defiles," has the Great Wall for its northern boundary, dividing it from Inner Mongolia ; on the east it is bounded by Shansi and Honan, on the south by Hupeh and Sz'chuen, on the west by Kansuh. Area, 67,000 square miles ; population, 10,000,000. It has seven prefectures. The capital is Singan-fu, the most important city of the northwest, next in size and importance to Peking itself. Here was found the famous Nestorian tablet of a.d. 781, giving the record of Nestorian mission work in China. Through this province are the roads connecting China with Central Asia, many of them crossing ravines and winding up moun tains 6,000 and 7,000 feet high, showing great engineering skill in the work of its builders of the third century. Rice and silk are not found here— the climate is too cold ; but wheat, millet, oats, maize, and cotton are raised. Gold is found along the streams. Many horses, sheep, goats, and cattle are raised. Kansuh, " Voluntary Reverence," is the larg est of all the provinces. It extends from the Dsassaktu Khanate and Gobi on the north and northeast to Shensi on the east, Sz'chuen on the south, Kokonor and the desert on the south west, and Cobdo and Hi on the northwest. (Williams). The greater part of its immense area of 400,000 square miles is a desert of sand and snow. The portion from the end of the Great Wall eastward is a fertile, well watered country. The strip of territory which projects into the Tibetan plateau is of strategic impor tance as commanding the passage into Central Asia. In the fertile eastern region wheat, oats, barley, and millet are raised. Flocks and herds are reared by wandering Tartars. The moun tains contain gold, silver, copper, and jade. The population numbers over 15,000,000. Lan- chau is the capital, on the Yellow River, at the point where it turns to the northeast. CHINA 250 CHINA Sz'chuen, " Four Streams," named from the four rivers which run from north to south into the Yangtsz, is one of the largest provinces, with an area of 200,000 square miles and a population of 35,000,000. The four river basins comprise about half of the area ; the remainder belongs to the high table-land of Central Asia, and is unproductive and sparsely settled. The fertile region produces rice, wheat, potatoes, buckwheat, and tobacco. Raw and woven silk, salt, opium, tea, coal, copper, iron, and insect wax are other products. In the mountains are found various aboriginal tribes. Chingtu-fu is the capital of the fifteen prefectures. It is situ ated on the river Min in a fertile plain, and was known to Marco Polo. Chungking, on the Yangtsz, 725 miles from Hankow, is another important city. Kwangtung, " Broad East," is the province which has been known longest to foreigners as the Canton province. It is bounded on the north by Kiangsi and Hunan, on the east by Fuhkien aud the ocean, on the south by the ocean, and on the west by Kwangsi. With a coast line of a thousand miles, with its fine rivers affording ample means of communication with the provinces beyond, it is one of the principal provinces. Its area is 79,456 square miles, almost as large as the United Kingdom, and its population is 20,000,000. The three rivers which unite near Canton drain a country of 150,000 square miles, and water most fertile basins. Rice, sorghum, and tea are grown in great quantities. There are nine prefectures in this province, and its capital, Kwangchau-fu, (Canton), is the metropolis of the south, noted for its business, its manufactures, its luxuries of food and dreB3, and the commercial shrewdness of its people, who are the Yankees of China. It is on the north bank of the Pearl River, 90 miles from Hong Kong at its mouth, and was the first city in China which was known to the outside world, and for a period of one hundred years, up to 1843, it monopolized foreign trade. Its population is variously estimated from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000. Macao, in the Hiangshan district, on the coast, is a Portuguese settlement. Their rule dates from 1849, and by the treaty of 1888 its perpetual occupation and government by Portugal was confirmed by the Chinese Govern ment. It was formerly infamous on account of the cooly trade which was carried oil there ; now it is a summer resort for the south of China, and is also a Chinese Monaco. The island of Hong Kong (latitude 22° 16^' north, longitude 114° 84' easl), ceded to the British in 1842, is now one of the most important of Brit ish possessions in the East. Its harbor is one of the finest, and British capital ancl energy have transformed a bare rock with a few fishing stations into a beautiful metropolis, where the commerce of the world is represented. Victoria Pejk rises 1,825 feet above the sea. A British garrison occupies the town, whose population is estimated at 150,000, of which five-sixths are Chinese, Eurasians, Portuguese, Indians, and Malays. The island of Shangchuen, southwest of Macao 30 miles, is the last resting-place of Francis Xavier, the apostle to the Chinese. The ocean districts, of Sinning and Sinhwui, together with Hiangshan and Hoshan, are of note as being the region from whence all Chinese immigrants come. This province com prises within its jurisdiction tho island of Hainan (q.v.). Kwangsi, " Broad West, " extends from Kwang tung to Yunnan and Annam, with the Gulf of Tonquin on the south and Kweichau and Hunan. on the north. Its area is nearly as great as that of its sister province — 78,250 square miles — but it is less densely populated, having in round numbers only 8,000,000 of people. It is well supplied with rivers. The West River gives it communication with the east and tho west. Kweilin-fu, the capital, lies on the Cassia River in the northeast part of the prov ince. In general the people are poor, the coun try mountainous, and its principal products are cassia wood and oil, ink-stones, and cabinet wood. Gold and silver and other metals are found here. The largest trading city is Wuchau- fu on the West River near Kwangtung. In the southwest of this province are found some cf the Laos tribes. Kweichau, " Noble Province, " is, on the whole, " the poorest of the eighteen provinces in the character of its inhabitants, amount of its products, and development of its resources." TheMiaotsz', aborigines, inhabit the eastern dis tricts. It is a mountainous country and has much mineral wealth. The quicksilver mines are the richest in the world. It is bounded on the north by Sz'chuen, cast by Hunan, south by Kwangsi, west by Yunnan. Its area is 64,554 square miles ; population, 5,000,000. Tho capital is Kweiyang-fu, the smallest of all the capitals, situated among the mountains. Yunnan, " Cloudy South," is the extreme southwest province, bounded on the north by Sz'chuen, on the east by Kweichau, south by Annam, Laos, and Siam, west by Burmah. It is the second largest province (area, 107,969 square miles), with a population of 5,561,320. The central part of the province is an extensive plateau 5,000 to 6,000 feet in height. It is of importance as being the trade route to British Burmah. The capital is Yunnanfu, on Luke Tien. There are twenty prefectures in the province. The products are raw and manufac tured silk, tea, copper, quicksilver, drugs, fruits, and carpets. The south and west are inhabited by hill tribes of various degrees of likeness and unlikeness to the Chinese. The mineral weallh of the province is great, and consists of coal, copper, silver, gold, salt, lead, iron, tin, and zinc. Shingking, in Manchuria, is considered part of China Proper, and since it possesses a treaty port may well be described in addition to the eighteen provinces. It is bounded on the noith by Mongolia, on the east by Kirin, on the soulh by the Gulf of Liautung and Korea, and on the west by Chihli. Its area is 43,000 square miles, and it has two departments and fifteen dis tricts. The population is estimated at 12,000,- 000. The capital is known as Shinyang, Shin- king, Fungtien, or Mukden, and lies on the bank. of the Shin, 500 miles northeast of Peking, in latitude 41° 50J' north longitude, 123° 30' east latitude. The treaty of 1858 opened the port of Niuchwang, on the river Liau, to foreigners, and quite a large trade in pulse, beancake, and oil is carried on from it. Tho other products of this province are wheat, barley, oats, cotton, maize, and tobacco. Climate. — The eighteen provinces occupy the same relative position on the continent of Asia as the United States occupy on the continent of America, and the variations of temperature are similar. The average temperature of China is lower than that of any other country in the same latitude. " Tbe isothermal line of 70° F. as the average for the year, which passes. CHINA 251 CHINA south of Canton, runs by Cairo and New Orleans, 8° north of it ; the line of 60° F. average passes from Shanghai to Marseilles, Raleigh, St. Louis, and north of San Francisco ; and the line of 50° F. average goes near Peking, thence on to Vienna, Dublin, Philadelphia, and Puget's Sound in latitude 52°." The humidity, espe cially in the south, is relatively greater than countries in like latitudes, and consequently the heat is harder to bear. Commencing at the north in Shingking we find a healthy and mod erate climate, the ground freezing to the depth of three feet in winter. In Peking, which is characteristic of the climate of the Great Plain, the thermometer ranges from 105° F. to zero ; the mean annual temperature is 52.3° F., and the mean winter range is 12° below freezing. July and August are the rainy months. Dust and sand storms are common in the spring. Droughts are frequent and seem to be growing more common. The autumns are mild and genial. Though the climate of the Plain, as a rule, is healthy, along the Grand Canal bowel complaints and ague are common. Around Nanking the moisture is excessive and gives rise to strange diseases. The seaside climate is affected as far north as latitude 31° by the mon soons or trade winds. The northeast monsoon blows dnring October, November, ancl Decem ber, and is dry, bracing, and healthy. The southwest monsoon brings showers in the sum mer and cools the nights. In Shanghai there are rapid changes in the autumn and spring, and there are great extremes of temperature from 100° to 24°. The average temperature in summer is from 80° to 93° by day and from 60° to 75° by night ; in winter, from 45° to 60° by day and from 36° to 45° by night. Ningpo is considered the most unhealthy station on the coast ; during the year we find extremes of 24° and 107°, and a change of 20° in twenty-four hours is not uncommon. The hot and the cold season lasts for three months each. The climate of Amoy is very delightful, with a yearly range of from 10° to 96°. At Fuhchau the extremes are 38° and 95°, with an average of 56° in De cember and 82° in August. At Canton in July and August the average is from 80° to 88°, and in January and February 50° and 60°. Tho rainy season is usually in May and June, and the excessive humidity during the summer months makes the heat very debilitating. In 1890 the five months from February were gen erally rainy. The dampness is so great that furniture swells, the glue on books and uphol stery melts, and a mould forms thickly on everything. The annual rainfall is about sixty inches, and in June, 1885, alone, the fall was thirty inches. Snow is rarely seen, and there is very little ice formed. Within the last ten years malaria has developed, though there are few epidemics, and, considering its tropica] posi tion, it is remarkably healthy. Macao has a very salubrious climate. The maximum is 90°, with an average summer heat of 84° ; the aver age winter weather is 68°. Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan are considered the most unhealthy of the provinces, though in tho table-lands of the two latter a temperate climate is found. The central provinces are cool, and are not so liable to sudden changes. Hupeh is temperate and healthy. Shensi is equable and mild. Sz'chuen and Kweichau are colder than Fuhkien and Chihkiang, owing to the moun tains. Kansuh is damp, but not very hot. Thunder-storms occur in the southern provinces. The excessive heat causes the prevalence of Tyfoons during July and August and Septem ber. These are storms of cyclonic nature, com mencing with the wind in the north, veering to the east and south, blowing with tremendous force, accompanied by heavy rainfall. They usually spend their force at sea, but when they come inland, as in September, 1874, great loss of life is caused. During that storm the steamer " Alaska," of 3,500 tons, was lifted from her an chorage in Hong Kong harbor and driven in shore to five feet of water. Tornadoes are un known in China with the exception of one in stance in Canton, which mowed a swath half a mile wide through the most populous part of the city, destroying thousands of houses, but miraculously sparing all mission property, though passing within a few hundred feet of several chapels, houses, and schools. Recent investigations seem to show that the climate of China is growing gradually colder. This is proved by the disappearance of the varnish- tree and silk culture fiom the northern prov inces, where hundreds of years ago they were found. The^ cultivation of rice has also gone southward, owing to this gradual refrigeration of the northern provinces. History. — Chinese history may be divided into the following periods : the Mythological, the Legendary, the Ancient, the Mediaeval, and the Modern. 1. This period comprises all the time antecedent to the accession of Fuh-hi, b.c. 2852, and native writers assign to it myriads of years. Pwanku is described as having formed the world during this time. With chisel and mallet he cut out the earth ; the sun, moon, and stars are his works ; his head becamo mountains ; his breath, wind and clouds ; his voice, thunder ; from various parts of his body came fields, rivers, and trees, and finally from the insects oh his body came mnn. After this Chinese- creator came a trinity of powers who ruled for thousands of years, and to them are ascribed many of the inventions of the ancient time. 2. The Legendary period ends with the accession of Yu in 2205. Eight monarchs in all reigned during this time, and the tales that are related of their prowess resemble the legends of other ancient nations. It was during this period, about the year 2200 b.c, that the Chinese settled around the bend of the Yellow River, and from this time on the records are more or less reliable ; but until further anti quarian research has brought further facts to light all that is related of Fuh-hi and the most illustrious of his immediate- successors, Yao and Shun, must be taken as legend and not history. 3. Under the division of Ancient history may be included the dynasties commencing with tho Hia and ending with the Eastern Han, 221 a.d., six in all. Of these six dynasties the most im portant and the longest recorded in history was that of Chau, which commenced with Wu Wang in 1122 b.o. and lasted till 255 B.C., with thirty- four sovereigns occupying the throne during that period. China was then a, loose aggrega tion of feudal States, and the power of the em peror was often merely nominal. The origina tor of the Tsin dynasty gave tbe name to China by which it was known to the ancients, and was the Napoleon of China. He divided his empire into thirty-six provinces, with governors over each. He also built the Great Wall, which stupendous work was accomplished after ten years of labor in 204 b.c. It remains to-day a monument of his greatness, and, considering CHINA 252 CHINA the time in which it was built, a marvel of en gineering skill, Twelve hundred and fifty-five miles in a straight line, 1,500 miles in all its windings, it stretches across the northern boun dary of China Proper from the sea to the desert. At the present day it is in bad repair, but at many places its height of thirty feet, breadth of twenty feet, with bricks weighing forty to sixty pounds, challenge the wonder of the beholder. If the Wall made this emperor famous, his vanity made him infamous, for he wished to be considered the first emperor of the Chinese, and ordered the destruction of all books and records which antedated his reign, and slaugh tered 500 of the literati. Many of the writings of Confucius and Mencius were thns destroyed, and many records were lost which might throw more light on the past. During the reign of tbe Emperor Ping-ti, "Peace," was born in Nazareth that King who came to bring peace to the world. The founder of the Han dynasty instituted the system of competitive examina tions, and under his successors literature, com merce, arts, and good government flourished. 4. Under Media? vat history may be placed the seventeen dynasties which ruled China after the overthrow of the Han family till the acces sion of the first monarch of the Ming dynasty in 1368 a.d. During the first dynasty of this period the country was divided into three prin cipalities, and the wars that ensued between the various princes gave rise to the Chinese historical novel, The Three Kingdoms, which portrays the conditions of society at that time. During the Eastern Tsin dynasty, 323-419 a.d., Nanking was the capital ; Buddhism was the chief religion, and the doctrines of Confucius were coming info universal favor. During the Tang dynasty, 618 to 903, China was the most civilized country on the face of the globe. It was the golden age of China, and to this day the natives in the south call themselves Tang- yin, men of Tang, for during that time they were civilized and amalgamated with the Chinese race. Arab travellers visited China during this period, and to them we owe much of the infor mation possessed in regard to their civilization. During the reign of the Emperor Tai-tsung (627-40) the Nestorian missionaries presented themselves at court and were received with re spect. The Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368, was a Mongol dynasty, inaugurated by the great Kublai Khan, whose exploits are related by Marco Polo. The expulsion of the Mongols and the restoration of native rule brings us to a period which is comparatively modern. 5. The last native dynasty was called Ming or " bright," and lasted from 1368 to 1644, with sixteen monarchs in all. The Portuguese came to China during the reign of Kiahtsing, 1522-67, and the Jesuits gained an entrance in the coun try about 1580. The Manchus finally attacked the imperial forces, and aided by native rebels in various parts of the empire, finally overthrew the dynasty, and Shunchi took the throne in 1644, since which time the Ta Tsing, " great pure," dynasty has been in power, the Chinese submitting peacefully to its rule. The Manchu conquerors imposed their mode of wearing the hair in a queue upon the Chinese, and what was originally a mark of bondage is now so universally adopted as to be a national distinc tion and a cause of pride. The present em peror is the ninth of the dynasty, one of the most important dynasties which has held the throne of China, as it has been brought more in contact with other nations than any which preceded it. Kanghi, who reigned sixty-one years from 1662, a contemporary of Louis XIV., was one of the ablest rulers of China. He or dered a survey of the empire by the Romish missionaries, and superintended the publica tion of a great thesaurus, in addition to devot ing himself with unwearying care to the solidi fying of the country, the unifying of his people, and the encouragement of all that makes a na tion happy and prosperous. His grandson, Kienlung, was a worthy descendant of the great emperor. He reigned sixty years, which were characterized by the peace and prosperity of the country. Embassies from the Dutch, Rus sians, and English were received by him. The Emperor Taou Kwang, 1821-51, was a wise, able ruler. He waged bitter strife against the traffic in opium, and brought on the war with England and the consequent opening of his country to foreign intercourse. The Tai Ping rebellion broke out at his death and lasted the greater part of the life of his successor, Hien Fung. The minority reign of Tung-chi ended just as he was taking charge of the government, and he was succeeded by the present emperor, Kwangsui, who attained his majority in 1889. The following chronological table is taken from Williams's Middle Kingdom, and gives the ac cepted dates in Chinese history : CHINESE CHRONOLOGY. Dynasty. Ilia Sluing Chau Tsin Han East Han.. . After Han . . Tain Rast Tsin.. . Sung •VA Liang Chin Sui Tang After Liang After Tang.. After Tsin.. After Han . . After Chau. Sung South Sung. Yn on Ming Teing Number of Sovereigns and Average Length of Keign. Seventeen ; average, 211 years Twenty-eight ; average, 23 years Thirty -four ; average, 25^ years Two ; one 37' years, the other 3 years Fourteen ; average, ltij^years , Twelve ; average, lli^ years Two ; one 2 years, the other 41 years Four, averaging 1 11 ^ years Eleven " «U "" Eight " 7i.7 " Five " 1% " Four ; one 48 years ; Ihree together, 7 years Five ; average, (i}^ years Three ; one Hi, one 12, one 2years Twenty; average, \\~% years Two ; one 8 years, one 7' years Four ; average, 3]4 years Two ; one 7 years, one 3 years Two ; one 3 years Three ; average, 3 yearB Nine " 18j£ " Nine " 17 " Nine " 9% " Sixteen u 17 " Eight up to 1875 ; average, 30 years . . . .... Began. Duration. jj. i-. 5205 439 1766 644 1122 867 255 40 206 231 a.d. 25 196 221 43 265 57 323 106 420 68 479 23 502 54 557 82 689 30 620 287 907 18 923 13 986 10 947 4 951 9 960 167 1127 153 1280 88 1368 276 1644 CHINA 253 CHINA EMPERORS OF THE MING AND TSING DYNAS TIES. Title. Began Length to Reign. of Reign. Ming Dynasty. 1368 30 5 22 1 1021 8 23 18 16 45 6 47 17 16 18 61 1360 2530 1112 1398 3jiPungloh 1403... 1425 1426 1430 1457 1465 1488 lO.Chingtih 1506 1522 1567 13. Wanleih 1620 1621 1628 Tsrao Dynasty. 1644 1662 1723 1730 1796. 1821 1851 1862 9. Kwangsu 1875 Opening of tlie Country to Foreign ers. — Until the early part of the present cen tury China was practically closed to foreigners, for though the Portuguese had made trading voyages there, and though the East India Com pany had sent out its ships to Canton, foreign ers had no treaty rights until after the wars with Great Britain and France. The first war with Great Britain was what is called the opium war, which was precipitated by the seizure on the part of the Chinese Government of 20,000 chests of opium, which they claimed were being Bmuggled into the empire. The war commenced with the bombardment of Tinghai on July 5th, 1841, and continued till the ratification of the Nanking Treaty on September 15th, 1842. Can ton, Amoy, Tinghai, Shanghai, Ningpo, Chin- kiang were captured by British arms, and Nan king was invested and would have been destroy - el unless the Chinese had consented to pay the $3,000,000 demanded for its ransom. By this time the commissioners from the emperor were willing to sue for peace, and agreed to the fol lowing terms of the famous Treaty of Nanking : Lasting peace between the two nations ; the opening of the five ports, Canton, Amoy, Fuh- chau, Ningpo, and Shanghai, to British trade and residence ; the ceding of the island of Hong Kong to England ; indemnity of S'21,000,- 000, to be paid before tho last clay of December, 1845, of which $6,000,000 was for the opium de stroyed, $3,000,000 for the debts due British mercbants, and $12,000,000 for the expenses of the war, added to various stipulations in regard to tariff rates and the conduct of trade. Here was a Christian nation forcing the use of opium on a heathen monarch who had deliberately de stroyed $6,000,000 worth of the drug in order to save his people ! On October 8th of the fol lowing year a supplementary treaty was signed which gave all foreigners the same rights at treaty ports as the British had been given. The United States sent Caleb Cushing as plenipoten tiary to conclude a treaty of peace with China, and this treaty was signed at Wanghia, a suburb of Macao, on July 3d, 1844. In October a similar treaty of peace, providing for foreign intercourse, was signed at Macao between tho Imperial Commissioner and the Commissioners of the French Government, and the first stage in the opening up of China was passed. At this time the Tai-Ping rebellion broke out. Its leader, Hung Siu Tsuen, professed to be com missioned by God to accomplish the overthrow of the existing dynasty. He had been brought in contact with Christians, knew the principles of the Christian religion, assumed to be a Christian, and claimed to be led by visions and warnings from heaven. However sincere he may have been in his convictions, he failed to comprehend the spiritual nature of Christian ity. He began an insurrection in 1850 and finally captured Nanking, held in subjection five provinces, and threatened Peking. At this juncture Frederick Ward, an American, organiz ed the " ever-victorious army," which under his leadership and the subsequent command of Colonel Gordon captured over fifty cities from the insurgents, ended the rebellion in 1865, when the rebel pretender -was taken prisoner and killed. The Manchu dynasty was once more supreme after fourteen yeais of war which shook the government to its foundations, de vastated some of the fairest lands and cities of the empire, and caused the death of millions of its subjects. The second war with Great Britain was brought on by the Chinese authorities at Canton boarding the loreha " Arrow" and seizing some of the sailors. This was an insult to the Brit ish flag, and was atoned for by the war of 1856. France aided England, and Canton was bom barded and occupied by the allied troops. Americans were involved in a slight skirmish with the Chinese, during which the Barrier forts on the Canton River were attacked and captured by Captain A. H. Foot in November. The war was ended by the treaties at Tientsin, in 1858, between China and the envoys of Rus sia, France. England, and America. " The tol eration of Christianity, the residence of foreign ministers at Peking, and the freedom to travel through the land were avenues heretofore closed against the welfare and progress of China which the treaties opened, and through which she has already made more real advances than ever be fore in her history." The Chinese did not ob serve the requirements of the treaty, and it was not until Peking had been occupied by the allied forces and the Summer Palace of the emperor destroyed that the treaties of Tientsin were finally" ratified, October 24th, 1860. Since that date there has been peace with foreign nations, which was further cemented by the appoint ment of a commission of which the Hon. Anson Burlingame was the head, which visited the different foreign powers with a view to estab lishing diplomatic intercourse. A treaty with America was negotiated July 28th, 1868, and ratified the following year, which recognized the right of Chinese to immigrate to the United StateB. Tbis has been modified by a commis sion sent to Peking in 1880, which in 1882 re stricted Chinese immigration to the United States for twenty years, and in 1888 an exclu sion bill was passed by Congress which pro hibits the immigration of Chinese laborers en tirely. This later action has had a bad effect on the relations which hitherto have existed be tween the two nations. CHINA 254 CHINA After the visit of the Builingame Embassy to Europe, the occurrence of the Tientsin Mas sacre in June, 1871, during which outbreak twenty French and Russians were horribly mur dered, and the French consulate, cathedral, and orphanage were destroyed, threatened to interfere with the friendly relations which were existing. The Chinese Government, however, took strong measures to curb the populace, and punished as many of the offenders as could be identified, and the payment of ample in demnity restored peace and quiet, and led to a discussion and decision of difficult questions involved in Cbristian missions. The murder of Mr. Margnry, an agent of the British Govern ment, in 1875, during an overland trip from Bur mah to Yrunnan, was the cause of further demands for indemnity on the part of the British, which demands were finally settled by the Chefoo Con vention, September 3 3th, 187.6, according to the terms of which 200,000 taels were paid by the Chinese as indemnity, and four new ports were opened to foreign trade. Since that time the government of China has devoted itself to de veloping the resources of the country, and has tried, as far as possible, to overcome tbe con servatism which stands iu the way of progress. The history of the intercourse of this heathen nation with so-called Christian ones is not at all times creditable to the latter ; but though the means used have not been above reproach, the result has been that China is thoroughly awakened from her self-satisfied sloth, her bar riers have been broken down, and there is now afforded free access for the entrance of civiliza tion in its modern forms, and for that Christi anity which is the sole hope of her future. Government. — The head of the govern ment of China is the emperor, Hwang Ti, as the Chinese call him, which is a term similar to Tsar or Kaiser. On ascending the throne the emperor takes a name or style by which his reign is known ; the present emperor is called Kwang Sui, " iliustrious succession." He was born August 14th, 1871, and began to reign in 1875. During his minority the empress-dow ager held the reigns of State, which she resigned in February, 1889, when the young emperor attained his majority, was married, and took full control of affairs. The theory of the gov ernment of China is the patriarchal ; the em peror is the Son of Heaven and the Father of his people. Beneath him the superior in age or rank has sway over the inferior ad infinitum. While the will of the Son of Heaven is supreme, and his power is said to be absolute, it is not unlimited, as one would think. Ho is bound by no constitution, no Magna Charta dictated by powerful barons limits his sway, but the accumulated force of centuries of tradition and laws holds him to right and justice with an irre sistible grasp. He must foilow the behests of his father. Heaven, or else the people will exer cise the divine right of rebellion which they cling to, and which Confucius, aud especially Mencius, defined with ut.nost boldness. When floods or famine, fire and pestilence come, the people look upon it as a judgment on the em peror, and he immediately offers sacrifices to Heaven to appease its wrath. He is the high- priest of his people, and theoretically has their welfare at heart. Practically the peoplo submit passively to his despotism, and rarely bother themselves about the government in general, though they may complain of the exactions of the local officers. Liberty is unknown, and there is no word for it in their language. In the administration of the affairs of State the emperor is assisted by a Cabinot, a Council of State, and " The Six Boards." The Cabinet. — Six chancellors lake the place of a prime-minister. Their duty is " to receive rescripts and edicts, present memorials, lay before his Majesty the affairs of tbe empire, procure his instructions thereon," and return them to the lower officials to carry into effect. The Emperor gives his personal attention to de tails, from the highest matters of importance to petty extortions, and with the ' ' vermilion pen cil" writes his will on the papers submitted to him. With one stroke of the brush he sends this man to banishment and the other to high office. These various members of the Cabinet have their scribes and translators and subordi nate officials to the number of 600, half of whom, as the reigning dynasty is foreign, are Manchus. The Council of Stale. — The number of the Council has of late been four : two Chinese and two Manchus. They correspond to the minis try of other nations. They confer with the em peror on all important matters of administra tion or appointment, and give their advice and execute his desires. They connect him with all tho subordinate departments, so he is in touch with the whole vast machinery, with its wheels within wheels. In the King Pao, known to foreigners as the Peking Gazette, the decrees, rescripts, and other actions of the Grand Coun cil are published and sent to all tbe provinces. A glance nt the titles of some ot the articles contained in one edition will give a fair idea of the details into which this Council enters : "Appointments," "Suppression of Piracy on the Coast of Fuhkien," " Escape of a Prisoner in Chehkiang," "Illegal Infliction of Punish ment," "Degradation of a Commander-in- Chief." At the end of each separate item is the will of the emperor, as, " Approved by Re script," "Referred to the Board Concerned," " Noted," " Denied," etc. The Six Boards. — 1. The Board of Civil Service. It as well ns the other boards are executive bodies, with two presidents, three directors, and many subordinate heads of bureaus or de partments. The duties of this Board are lo govern and direct all tbe warious offices of the civil service, their rank and gradation, degrada tion and promotion, rewards and punishments, terms and places of service, and furloughs. One of its duties is the regulation and distribu tion of posthumous orders, for the Chinese Government ennobles the ancestors of worthy servants instead of ennobling sons for the good deeds of their fathers. 2. The Board of Rev enue looks after the collection of all taxes and tribute, the salary list, the census, receipts and disbursements of grain, and rights of transpor tation by land and water. One of its duties, which is distinctively Asiatic, is the procural of Mnnchu maidens for the harem of the em peror, and the regulation of their allowances. 3. The Board of Rites has to do with all the ceremonial forms and State etiquette with which China is burdened, even the cut of a coat and the time to wear it being prescribed by edict. Sacrificial rites come under its control, as well as the treatment of foreign officials and em bassies. Fourteen volumes of the statutes are occupied by the details of these rites. 4. The CHINA 255 CHINA Board of War needs no explanation, as its duties are manifest. It has control of the navy as well as the army. 5. The Board of Punish ments is, except the emperor, the highest Court of Appeal in both civil and criminal matters. 6. The Board of Works has charge of all publio works, the building and maintenance of city walls, temples, altars, the care of arsenals, forts, and^camp equipage ; repairs and builds roads, dikes, bridges ; preserves and erects sepulchres and memorial tablets ; coins money, and makes gunpowder. In addition to these Six Boards there is another one which has control of the foreign dependencies of China. There is also a peculiar board called the Censorate. The censors reprimand the emperors themselves, and many instances are given in Chinese his tory of the faithful performance of their duties by censors, even at the risk of incurring the displeasure and punishment of their liege. One striking instance is related in connection with the accession of the present emperor. He was not in the direct line of succession, as the former emperor died while young without issue, and the present incumbent was a distant cousin. One of the censors deemed the relationship too distant, and wrote out a strong remonstrance against the selection of Kwang Sui. Knowing that the remonstrance would be unavailing, yet desiring to emphasize his rebuke, he committed suicide, to show that he could die, but he could not betray bis sacred office or connive at any such violation of royal tradition. Under these boards are the great number of office-holders. These are governor generals, some of them ruling over two provinces, gov ernors of provinces, commissioners of finance, justice, grain, and salt (salt is a government mo nopoly), intendants of circuits, called taou tai, who rule over several prefectures, prefects, sev- -eral grades of sub-prefects, and district magis trates. These officials are selected in accord ance with the civil-service system, which is based upon literary merit, and is one of tho in stitutions of China which challenges the admi ration of other nations. Theoretically, any one who does not belong to the proscribed classes may compete in tho literary examina tions for the various degrees, no matter how poor or ignoble he may be ; practically, these honors are open only to those who have wealth, as many years of preliminary study are neces sary. The first examination is held in tbe dis tricts, for the degree of siu tsai, " Bachelor of Arts " On receiving the coveted honor the student does not necessarily receive office ; he is merely a favored individual, who is exempt from corporeal punishment, is better than (he ¦common people, and is eligible to compete for the second degree. The degree of siu tsai is often purchased, though the purchasers are looked down upon. The examinations for the second degree of ku jin, " Master of Arts," are held in the various provincial capitals, trien- nially, on the same days, the 9th, 12th, and 15th days of the eighth month. This examina tion separates students from officers, though every student who receives the diploma does not necessarily become an officer. Seveial thousands attend these examinations. They are pent up in little cells hardly fit for cattle, and are required to write essays on themes taken from the classics, relating to history, mat- "ters of government, law, and finance. A recent innovation is the introduction of questions in Western mathematics. About one in a hundred is successtut. As the students are allowed to bring no books or helps of any kind with them, the tax on mind and msmory is very severe, for often much of the context must be remembered in order to discuss the theme intelligibly. Essays are rejected for faults in form as well as matter ; a misplaced comma, a blot, a wrong character is sufficient cause for failure. The successful ones receive much honor and distinc tion. AVhen for any cause an emperor wishes to favor the people, he orders an extra examina tion for tho degree of ku jin to be held. The examination for the third degree of tsin sz, " Doctor of Laws," is held triennially at Pe king. Only ku jin can compete, and they are allowed part of their travelling expenses. About 200 or 300 receive their degrees at each examination, and are then appointed to some sort of office. Those who receive the fourth and highest degree of ban lin are made mem bers of the Imperial Academy on a salary. The examination for this degree is held triennially in the Emperor's palace. A similar system of examinations with similar degrees is held for the military branch of the government. Physical instead of mental pow ers is tested, and the Chinese consider the civil diploma much higher relatively than the mili tary one. By means of this sifting process not only are the people stimulated to literary pur suits, is genius rewarded, and civilization ad vanced, but the government has at its command a body of well-educated men, from all over the empire, the finest that can be obtained, well versed in tradition and the principles of Chinese law. By a system of rotation of office, by never sending an officer to rule in his native province, by the system of espionage and mutual respon sibility, abuses are checked and good govern ment enforced. The great defect in their sys tem is that the officers are not paid enough to live as their station requires, and corruption in bribe taking and giving is widespread, while extortion is universal. Another great source of corruption is the selling of degrees and the favor shown to those who purchase them. In spite of this corruption and the abuses of power which can be seen, the officers of the govern ment will compare favorably with those of other nations for talent, integrity, industry, and patriotism. People. — Origin. The people of China have lived for so many centuries in their river basins, separated from the rest of the world, that their origin is shrouded in the mists of tradition and legends. About 2200 b.c. tribes from Central Asia came across the desert and settled around the bend of the Yellow River in what is now Kansuh. Where these settlers came from is still a matter of conjecture. A recent writer claims that they were emigrants from Babylonia. The presumptive proofs of this are in brief : Babylonia was a great agricultural country, and irrigation was everywhere to be seen ; so in China ; " The Middle Kingdom" was the name applied to Babylonia by its inhabitants, and that is the native appellation of China ; tbe pre historic period of China is divided by native writers into ten periods, and the same is attrib uted to Babylonia ; the Babylonians were great astrologers, so are the Chinese, and the method of compuling time is similar in the two nations. More direct proof is adduced by the researches of Mr. C. T. Ball, as published in the Proceed CHINA 256 CHINA ings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. He shows striking resemblances between words in the ancient Accadiau and the modern Mandarin dialect of China. By placing an initial g in the place of the y in many Chinese words he finds many terms related to the Accadian. He has been able to lay down a series of phonetic laws by which he has converted into Accadian almost the entire Chinese dictionary If this is the true origin of the Chinese people, it will explain what has hitherto been a mystery ; their language shows that at some time in the past they were a nomadic race, having their prin cipal possessions in flocks and herds ; this is also hinted at in their architecture ; but as far back as records go, they are found to have been an agricultural race. The dwellers on the plains of Babylonia were descended from it parent stock who led a pastoral life in the mountainous country on the east. If, then, the Chinese are the descendants of the inhabit ants of the plain, the references to a nomadic life in their language contain the remembrance of their earlier ancestors in the mountains. Physical Appearance. — In stature the majority of the Chinese are somewhat below the average height, especially the women ; in the north of China the Manchu race is large and fine in appearance. They have straight black hair and eyes, yellow complexions, and obliquely set eyes. The men are noticeable for an absence of beards, a thin mustache or a peaked goatee being the most hair that is seen on their faces, and that only in middle or old age. They have great endurance and are a strong, sturdy race, with more physical force than is usual in tropi cal races. They possess the power of applica tion to work of unvarying monotony for long hours at a time, without wearying or displaying that nervousness which is seen in European races ; absence of nerves is one of their princi pal characteristics. They have a, wonderful vitality, which seems to be unaffected by such lack of sanitary conditions as would be sure death to an American. Their skulls are thick, and they do not seem to be affected much by the burning heat of the sun. In spite of their custom of marrying early and their excesses in vice, they are very productive. The women mature rapidly, and are mothers at tbe early age of thirteen and fourteen. There are no special diseases to which they are predisposed, though they are subject to consumption, skin diseases, and diseases of the eyes, caused by the hot sun shine. Leprosy of various types is common among them. They endure suffering so well, and recover so quickly from the shock and wounds of surgical operations, as to give credit to the theory that their nervous organization is not so highly developed or so sensitive as that of European races. Menial Trails. — The Chinese are essentially an agricultural race. They are manual laborers, who possess industry, patienoe, and dogged de termination in a great degree. While they are not aggressive, when roused they are no mean foes, and when well officered, with men of daring and courage to lead the way, they will follow to the death with great stoicism. They excel in manufactures which require a fine tac tile sense, and work like automata. They have no regard for truth for its own sake, and are noted for mendacity, deceit, and indirectness in all things. They are wonderfully polite, but this same politeness leads to a disregard of truth from the desire to avoid unpalatable facts,. and is too often but an artificial veneer which conceals selfishness and conceit. They have great mental power, especially in memory, but- are lacking in the imaginative and artistic tem peraments. Logic and reasoning they are well skilled in, and they have a sense of humor which is of a quiet kind. They are a slow, methodical, conservative, staid, phlegmatio. people, and do not show much emotion ; this is due as much to education as to nature, for they are taught to repress their feelings. They are more sullen than quick tempered, more un derhanded than treacherous. They have great respect for learning, and reverence their supe riors to the extreme, but are arrogant and con ceited when learned themselves. When their- anger is aroused they are more likely to vent it in words and imprecations than in blows, and street fights offend the ears oftener than they break the bones. In general, they are the finest of the Asiatjic races, and their habits of domes ticity, reverence of parents, submission to con stituted authority, quiet industry, frugality, and temperance make them worthy of respect. In their manufactures they show a lack of in ventive skill, but they possess a wonderful amount of imitativeness. Attention to detail and laborious minuteness is characteristic of their works of art. They show very little inter est in the condition of any who are without their immediate circle of relations, but within that circle all that concerns the individual is. discussed and commented upon by the many ad nauseam. They have little idea of privacy, and lack refinement in matters pertaining to man's physical nature and its needs and appetites. The laboring men are often (usually in the south) bare to the waist, but the women are modest in dress and behavior, keeping the en tire body clothed, except among the poor peas antry, who labor in the field with the men. Language. — The Chinese language belongs to that class in which are the Korean, Tibetan, and Burmese languages. Its origin cannot well be traced, unless the hypothesis already men tioned is correct, and it is derived from the early Accadian. Whatever its origin, it is the oldest spoken language in existence, and, along with the Egyptian and the cuneiform, the old est written language. It is monosyllabic, with out inflexion or agglutination ; its nouns have no declensions, its verbs are not to be con jugated. A mythical personage, who is said to have flourished about the year 2700 B.C., is the reputed author of tbeir characters. The earli est form of writing was similar to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and in the main the structure of their characters is that of an ideogram. These characters are divided into six classes : 1. Imi tative Symbols. In these some resemblance can be seen to the objects designated by them. Most of this class are nouns. Thus the char acters for sun, moon, eye, ohild, and hill are efforts at pictorial representation. At first the hieroglyphics were traced on bamboo with iron- styles, and the change to the use of the brush has caused a rounding of angles and a shading of lines which in many cases takes away the original resemblance. Six hundred and "eight are placed in this class by Chinese philologists, though many are not included which ought to- be there. 2. Symbols Indicating Tliought. In. these characters ideas are represented by the position of the parts. Half of a moon stands CHINA 257 CHINA for evening ; the sun with a line under it indi cates morning— the sun above the horizon. Part of a character above a base-line means " above ;" the same part placed under the base line means "below." 3. Combined Ideas, or ideographics, are characters made up of sym bols so combined as to show their meaning or their influence upon each other. Thus the sun and moon together make " brightness ;; ' two tree^ represent " a forest ;" a dog and mouth means " bark," for the greatest act of the Chinese dog is to bark ; woman and broom make up the principal requirements of a Chinese " wife." Many curious ideas of the Chinese and not a little insight into their customs can be obtained by a careful study of the 740 char acters assigned to this class. 4. Inverted Signifi cations. Here are 372 characters which by some inversion, alteration, or omittal of their parts acquire different meanings. A band turning to the right means "right;" turning to the left means "left." 5. Borrowed Uses. These re semble the second class, only the meaning taken from the combinations is more metaphorical and fanciful — e.g., the word for a written character is composed of a child under a shelter, since characters are the child'ren of hieroglyphics. 6. In this last class are comprised most of the characters in the language called Phonetics, or sound symbols. An imitative symbol is com bined with a phonetic ; one gives the idea, the other the sound. If a new character were to be formed — for instance, one pertaining to some wooden substance — an imitative symbol of a wooden object would be combined with a phonetic of the sound which was to be given to the new character ; or, to take an examr. le given by Williams, to designate locust, the sym bol for insect was combined with the sound nan, and to those who knew the locust it would mean to them the locust ; to others, who had never seen the insect, it would mean an insect called nan. These six classes are a modern classification ; it is impossible to explain a great many of the characters by any principles, for many of them are amenable to no rules. In general the char acters are formed by the use of 214 radicals — some of these are simply strokes, but most of them are ideograms — combined with primi tives, as they are called, wbich in reality are no older than the radicals, but denote simply the part of the character which is not a radical, or a combination of radicals. The number of characters given in Kanghi's Dictionary is 44,449, but the total of really different char acters is much less, probably about 25,000, and for a good working knowledge of Chinese 10,000 will suffice., In the dictionaries the characters are found by looking up the radical ; if there is more than one radical in the character the most prominent one is looked for first ; then the number of strokes in the character exclusive of the radical is the guide to the place under its given radical where it may be found. The radical is not of uniform size, neither does it occupy always the same position.' In order to preserve the symmetry and uniform size of the characters, in one the radical is large and of proper form, in another it may be lengthened or broadened, narrowed or widened, according to the exigencies of its position. In some cases the radicals have two forms, one an abbrevi ated form or a form which is used only in com pounds, and that is an additional source of trouble to the foreign student. One advantage the characters have which is appreciated by the student of the spoken language— they are the same throughout the eighteen provinces, and one who can write Chinese can be understood by that means anywhere. In writing the lan guage six forms of characters are met with in common use, though the fancy and art of the Chinese have devised many other forms, just as new type and fancy lettering are indulged in by printers and penmen in other countries. 1. The. Seal Character. This corresponds to black letter in English, and is nearest in age to pic ture writing. It is used on seals, title-pages, and ornamental inscriptions, but no books are ever printed in it. 2. Official Character. This is but slightly different from the following, re sembling it as German resembles the old Eng lish ; it is used for prefaces to books, presenta tion addresses, and engrossing generally. 3. Pattern style is the ordinary form of the char acter, and is the one in general use. The Chinese attach much importaice to skill, neatness, and accurate proportion in the forming of the writ ten character, and however good the substance of a manuscript, it is despised if it is not writ ten well in pattern style. 4. Running hand is the ordinary manuscript hand. As the square ness and angularity of the printed character is rounded off, and the strokes are run together, special study is required to read this hand. 5. The Grass Hand. In this the abbreviations are more numerous, the style is more flowing, and great difficulty is found in deciphering it, as each writer has his own method of abbrevi ating. 6. The Sung style was introduced in tho tenth century soon after printing from blocks, and has more angularity of outline and square ness of stroke, as being more suitable for the engraving tool. Of all these styles the pattern style and the running style are the ones in most common use, and the foreign student may well be satisfied to master one— the pattern style. Colloquial. — As has already been stated, the Chinese language has no declensions, no con jugations, neither has it marks for the number and gender of nouns. This poverty of language is compensated for by the tones. Something is needed to prevent confusion, for in the use of over 30,000 different words there are only 500 different syllabic sounds, and homophonous monosyllables abound even when the tones are introduced. The correct use of the tones, and the ability to distinguish them when heard and to utter them correctly, is the hardest task in the acquirement of the language. In Canton there are found eight different tones, and the same sound uttered in each of the eight tones would have eight different meanings, and these meanings would be as far separate as " home" from "devil," or "Lord" from "pig." In Peking four tones only are met with ; in Nan king, five ; and in Swatow, seven. The four tones are named the eoeti, the ascending, the departing, and the entering tone, and in Canton there are two series, an upper and a lower. The use of the tones does not depend on the sense, as in English, but each word retains its particular tone whether it be used in entreaty, rebuke, command, or imprecation. To be cor rectly understood the tones must be heard, but a brief description will be of service. The even tone is like the ordinary tone of voice, as the word " scene," when one says " A beautiful CHINA 258 CHINA scene ;" the ascending tone resembles somewhat tlie inflection of the voice in asking a ques tion, as, "Has it been seen?" the departing tone is a gradual decadence, as is often observed in tbe tone of a reader as he utters the conclud ing phrase of a long sentence, or the drawling tone in which an unwillingly extracted answer is uttered, as, " No ! it has not been se-en." The entering tone is not so marked in the north, but in the south it is very important. It gives an effect to the word uttered, as if the speaker were suddenly stopped in the act of speaking, and can be illustrated by the forceful utterance of an important word of a sentence, as in the pln-aso, " Did you ever see such conceit f" Not only does the language become unintelligible when a. wrong tone is used, but in Fuhchan, Amoy, and Canton the misunderstanding may be very serious. Another difficulty in learning the language is the frequent recurrence of an ng sound, a kind of nasal hard to acquire, which gives a peculiar singing sound to the language, as in the words Shantung, Y/angtsz-kiang. Most of the English consonants are found in one or other of the various dialects, besides several consonant sounds which are unknown in English, such as bw, chw, gw, jw, ho. There are also several imperfect vowel sounds which are remarkably hard for foreigners to acquire, as "m, sz," " rh, ch." Grammar. — As there are no case endings, po sition shows the ease of the words. In general the subject stands first, then the verb ; modi fiers precede the word modified. Chinese gram marians divide words into dead words, nouns ; kwoh tsz, verbs, and hui tsz, particles, conjunc tions, exclamations, etc. Often the change of tone changes a noun to a verb. There are no articles ; a man is spoken of as one man, and that takes the place of the. To form the plural of nouns a particle i3 added, as wo, " I ;" wo mun, "we;" or the noun is duplicated, yin, man ; yin yin, all men. Gender is formed by pre- or suffixing particles or words, as in Eng lish cock-robin or peacock, or by the use of different words, as bull and cow. Adjectives precede nouns. Case is determined by posi tion ; the possessive of nouns is formed by the use of a particle. In speaking of many classes of objects, classifiers are used, and correctness in the use of these words is essential. Pah is the classifier for such objects as have handles, and it would be incorrect to say yal lo, one knife, in Cantonese, when the correct form is yat pah to. A cognate error would be to say a bevy of sheep, in English. The comparison of adjectives requires the use of additional parti cles, though often it is expressed by antithesis or parallel— £-.17., " To preach is easy, to prac tise, hard, "would be the Chinese way to say "It is easier to preach than to practise." Moods and tenses are denoted by position and by the use of particles. The relations of time are especially difficult to express in Chinese ; tbe poverty of the language is especially marked in this respect. The imperative, optative, and potential moods are formed by the addition of the appropriate words. Pronouns are few and their use is avoided. There are only three per sonal pronouns, 100, vei, ta, I, yon, they, but others are formed by collocation and by the use of participial phrases. In writing no distinc tion is made between a common and a proper noun, though often one line drawn alongside the character denotes the name of a person, and two lines of a place. Capitalization, except as the beginning of a sentence or as a mark of ex treme reverence, is unknown ; in the except tional cases the character is placed above the level of the ordinary line. The only marks of ljunctuation are the comma, the period, and the paragraph mark. Dialects. —There are in China numerous dia lects, some cf which are so different from the others and are spoken by so many people that they may well be termed languages. The prin cipal dialects are : 1. The Mandarin or court language. Peking ese is the standard of this tongue, which is spoken with more or less local variation in the northeastern provinces. It is the Latin of China, as most learned men, and especially office-holders, are versed in it, and in all the provinces some are found who can converse in it. Mandarin is characterized by the absence of the harsh consonantal endings which are com mon elsewhere, by the softness of its tones, which are not so many ns in the south, and by the prevalence of liquids and labials. 2. The Cantonese. This is the standard for the province of Canton, though there are several other dialects spoken in the Canton province. The Cantonese differs from tbe Pekingese in its idioms, in the multiplicity of its tones, in the number of consonantal endings, and in the ab sence of words whieh are found in the Peking ese, so that it is unintelligible to an inhabitant of the north. 3. The Amoy dialect differs still more from the Pekingese, and is also unintelligible to a Cantonese. An additional difficulty is found in learning this dialect, for often the same char acter has a different sound when spoken collo quially than when read. 4. The Fuhchau dialect has much the same difficulties as the Amoy tongue, and is also different from the others. In addition to the principal dialects, there are variations of each, there are local patois in endless variety, and the only consolation to be found among this confusion cf tongues is in the fact that enough people speak any one dialect to make it worth the labor necessary to acquire it. The Book Language. —There is a sharp dis tinction drawn in Chinese between the language as spoken and the same thoughts as written. In English the plainer, the clearer the style, the stronger, the better it is supposed to be ; but the Chinese writer who would express himself in the every-day language of tho people would be considered ignorant of the first principles of composition. We find, therefore, a book style, Wen Li, which is terse, concise, at times ob scure, and so lofty in its expression that when read aloud to the uneducated man it is not un derstood. It is the language of the scholar, and as such is understood by him whether he be a native of Peking or Canton. There is also a modification of the Wen Li called the Easy Wen Li, which, as its name implies, is not so concise and is more intelligible than the strictly classical Wen Li. The fact that this written language is intelligible throughout the empire binds the people together and is an efficient aid to the dissemination of Christianity, as books can be distributed, read, and understood where the distributer maybe perfectly helpless, owing to the difference in the spoken language. In addition to the Wen Li, books have been translated into the different colloquial styles, CHINA 259 CHINA such as the Cantonese, the Amoy dialect, the Mandarin colloquial ; and while they are sneered at by the literati as being fit only for women, they are read and understood by those who possess only a limited knowledge of characters and no great literary ability. In many in stances attempts have been made by the mis sionaries to Romanize the various dialects, and thes^attempts have been so successful as to re ceive the endorsement of the Missionary Con ference which met at Shanghai in May, 1890. This Conference also provided for a uniform version of the Scriptures in the Wtn Li, the Easy Wen Li, and the Mandarin ; thus the various peoples of China will be reached by this providential means of one written language. The Numerals. — The Chinese have the nine digits, and the words for tens, hundreds, thou sands, and myriads. Nineteen is written ten and nine ; twenty-nine, twenty and nine. The characters for these numerals are cumbersome, and though often written in an abbreviated form, it has been found expedient to introduce the Arabic numerals in the schools which have been opened by foreigners. Method of Study. — The degree of difficulty in mastering the Chinese language depends, as in all other languages, upon individual ability. Some can catch and reproduce the delicate gradations of tone with greater quickness and accurateness than others ; to some the nasal tones and the harsh consonants form a great ob stacle in the way of success, while to others the idioms and forms of construction are hard to follow ; thus no general rule of procedure in the matter of study can be laid down. One fact is sure : hard though the language is, the many fine linguists who are found in the vari ous mission stations, among the consular staff, and in the Chinese Customs Service, prove that the language_ can be mastered by those not native-born, though in the matter of tones » native will generally be able to detect flaws in the speech even of the oldest missionary. Some missionaries have preached their first sermon at the end of a year, but on an avc-rage two years of hard study are required before actual mission work can be commenced. To learn the spoken language the best way is to go right among the people ; what seems jargon may not be understood, but the tones are impressed on the ear, it becomes accustomed to them, soon the ability to distinguish them comes, and then the power to reproduce them, while a vocabu lary will be acquired at the same time. Unless his destination is definitely settled, it is practi cally useless for the missionary volunteer to commence the study of the language before reaching his field ; but if the destination is known, some of the books in that particular dialect, which have the English and Chinese side by side, will be found of use, not for the pronunciation, but for the general idea of the structure of the language and the idioms. In studying the written language the best way, ac cording to Williams, is to take up the study of the character separately, in order to recognize its form and to distinguish between those which differ in minute details. Learn the radicals and primitives, get the symbolic meaning which will serve to fix the character in mind ; then selections from good Chinese authors, phrases, or easy books with translations may be taken up and learned. A table of selected words illus trating the varieties in tones may well be re peated time after time, imitating the tones of the teacher until it is not necessary to stop and think before giving the " even," the " depart ing," or the " entering' ' tone. A judicious mix ture of the study of the character with the teacher, and the study of the colloquial by mingling with the people, will be found to be more serviceable and more restful than hard digging at the dry roots and primitives. When the language is partially learned many beauties of expression, of force, of conciseness will brighten the path of study, and those who know it best, while recognizing its deficiencies, can truthfully say with Dr. Morrison that " Chinese fine writing darts upon the mind with a vivid flash, a force, and a beauty of which alphabetical language is incapable." Writing Chinese is best learned by using the Chinese method of copying the characters, by writing on thin paper over a copy. Chinese is written in perpendicular columns from right to left. Copyists can be obtained at such low wages that many missionaries do not attempt to master the written language, though its acquisi tion is of great use. Beligiou. — There is no one system of re ligion which is believed in by the Chinese to such an extent as to dignify it exclusively as ihe religion of the people. They are liberal in matters of belief so far as to share their worship among the three different systems of Confucian ism (q.v.), Taouism (q.v.), and Buddhism (q.v.). The proportion belonging to each is hard to estimate, for the prudent Chinese does in re ligious matters as a shrewd Yankee does in business ventures — takes a share in each — and if the three systems be regarded as the counter part of the life insurance companies of the pres ent day, the motive of the Chinaman in taking out a policy in each and paying the premium will be readily recognized. If Christianity were willing to come in and divide the business and share the premiums, the number of its ad herents would be greatly increased. While the inhabitants of China are generally put down as Buddhists, if any one religion can claim them, they should be called Confucianists. A man may be a Confucianist without believing in either of the other two systems, but rarely is one found, however deVoted he maybe to other religions, who is not also a follower of Confu cius. The State religion of China, where the Emperor is also the high-priest and worships Heaven above under the name of Hwang Tien Shang Ti, is older than Confucius, but his teachings uphold it and have crystallized its forms and beliefs. Many of the older mission aries, as Dr. Legge, hold that Shang Ti thus sacrificed to by the Emperor is the true God, and that monotheism was the original belief. To this day sacrifices of sheep and bullocks are made to heaven, earth, the land and the grain, the stars, clouds, rain, wind, and thunder. However pure the State worship of China was in its origin, the religious belief of the people is now one mass of superstition and fear — fear of things living and things dead, fear of spirits, fear of the influences of wind and water, the position of houses, unlucky days, the influence of stars and the presence of eclipses, until it is well-nigh impossible for any one person to master the total number or comprehend the ex tent of their superstitions. Two redeeming traits are found in this mass of spiritual cor ruption ; never, as far as the records show, have CHINA 260 CHINA human sacrifices been offered, and vice or sen suality in any form has never been deified or worshipped — a striking contrast to the worship of ancient Greece and Rome. Two forms of belief which exert great influence on the Chinese are ancestral worship and the dread of the in fluence of wind and water — Fung Shwui. Ancestral Worship is a part of the Confucian system, but is older by centuries than the time of Confucius, and its claims are more binding on a Chinaman than those of any other form of worship. He may sneer at Buddhism, ridicule the outrageous claims of the Taouist exorcists, and may even be brought to see that the teach ings of Confucius himself are but moral apho risms incapable of changing the life and better ing the future of his disciples, but he will not give up the worship of the ancestral tablet, and the paying of that honor and reverence to de ceased parents which is the outcome of filial piety, the root of all Chinese institutions, the bulwark of her government, the strong chain which has bound the people together as a na tion. The worship of ancestors is the real re ligion of China, and as long as the incense is smoking on the ancestral altar, so long will Christianity find a formidable foe, founded as this worship is on the best and most natural instincts of the human heart. In the time coeval with Samuel this worship was common. When a man dies one of his three souls is sup posed to go into the grave with the body, one goes to Hades, and one goes into the tablet which is prepared for its occupancy by his old est son. The use of the tablet originated in the Chau dynasty, 350 b.c. This tablet is kept in a shrine — in poorer families in the house, in richer ones in ancestral temples — and offerings are paid to it and worship is daily given. On the new and full of every moon special offerings and worship are paid, and in the spring pilgrim ages are made to the tomb, which is swept and put in repair. There is no need of priestly in terference in this worship ;. the head of the family is the high-priest, and as the older ones die the younger ones take their places in this as in all other family matters. Ancestral wor ship binds family ties together, it perpetuates mutual interest, and is the least objectionable and therefore the most dangerous form of idola trous worship. While it is founded on high principles — the reverence and love of parents — it is, in fact, a duty rendered from motives of self-protection and self-interest, for if the tab let is not erected, iE the worship be not paid, it is believed that the wandering spirit will wreak its wrath on the offending descendant. The fear of this wrath is more real, more vivid than the fear of any of the other gods. Ancestral worship has been of benefit to China in this re spect : it has preserved the reverence of parent al authority, which reaching upward has caused national respect for the head of the nation as the father of his people, and it has preserved the position of woman more on an equality with man, and has defined the position of the mother of the family as the wife. Only one " illustrious consort" can be named on the tab let to father and mother, so there is but one wife, tsih, in the family. Concubines there may be, but they are not admitted into the wor ship of the ancestral hall, and this one fact has done much to preserve the legal, social, and domestic position of woman, which is higher in China than in any other Asiatic or heathen race. The attitude of Christianity to this form of worship can easily be determined when its true character is understood. Dr. E. Faber succinctly stated its position when the question was discussed in the Missionary Conference of 1890. In brief, " Ancestral worship presup poses disembodied souls to be subject to the same wants as living bodies ; it demands real sacrifices to them ; it makes the happiness of the living depend upon appeasing the desires of the dead ; it is not merely commemorative, but it is a pretended intercourse with the world of spirits ; it has developed an extreme view of paternal authority, placing it above the author ity of God, and crushes individual liberty ; an cestral worship chains millions of people to the past and prevents sound progress." Fang Shwui. — Geomancy is the nearest Eng lish equivalent for the Chinese term which means " wind and water." It has influenced the science, religion, and customs of the Chinese to a large extent, and is responsible for a ma jority of their superstitions. The way in which their welfare is influenced is not always under stood by themselves, and the laws which govern the so-called science are hard to define or de tect. It was first systematized in the twelfth century, and its influence has spread until it involves all the natural events and actions of life. It is founded upon the dual principle which pervades all nature, the male and female, the positive ancl the negative, the good and the bad. These must be kept in a state of equi librium or else grave evil will result. The amount, position, and influence of each is de termined by the geomancers, and houses must be built in accordance with /imc/ shwui, cities must be located, and especially must the graves be laid out in favorable positions, else the wrath of the dead will follow the living even as they return from the tomb. Pagodas have been built to correct the proportion of high and low ground ; streets are laid out crooked in def erence to superstitions connected with it, and high buildings are few, unless of a public na ture, in obedience to its requirements. As it now exists it is a gigantic system of extortion carried on by Buddhist and Taouist priests alike, who call to their help all of their small knowledge of science, and keep up the myriad delusions it gives rise to, that they may be em ployed to perform useless acts for useful fees. Every phenomenon of nature, simple as it is to those who are familiar with the sciences, has its effect on the ignorant Chinese, and the dis turbance of the existing equipoise between the hills and valleys, and especially the encroach ment upon the hill-side graves, form the chief obstacles to the building of railroad and tele graph lines in China — obstacles which cannot be thoroughly overcome until the light of sci ence shall chase away tho fogs of fang shioui. Mohammedanism. — Early in the seventh and eighth centuries missionaries of Islamism came to Canton and Fuhchau along with the Arabian traders, who then made many voyages to China. Since that time disciples of the false prophet have been found in China, and in some districts late observers claim that they will eventually take the place of Buddhists and Taouists. They have preserved the belief in the one true God, and are known among the Chinese as the sect that will not eat pork. Their chief strength is in the northern provinces. In Peking they are estimated at 200,000. In Canton there is a CHINA 261 CHINA plain tower said to have been erected by them during the Tang dynasty, and there is a mosque and the tomb of a maternal uncle of Mohammed not far from the wall of the city on the north east. The stronghold of the religion is in Hangchau-fu, and in some places its disciples form a third of the population, their entire number being estimated at 10,000,000 in the region north of the Yangtsz alone. Judaism. — Jews have been found in China, but information in regard to them is scanty. They claim to have come to China during the Han dynasty. In the last three centuries they have lived solely in Kaifung, the capital of Honan. The Chinese name for them is Tiao- kin-kiao, " the sect that takes out the sinew." At present they do not number more than a few hundred persons, and are too poor to possess a synagogue. Classes of Society. — There is no caste in China, but there is a well-defined distinction between the classes — a distinction which is based on literary attainments and official posi tion or on age. The laws which apply to the regulation of intercourse between the superior and the interior are strict, and their application is well understood. The old division of the people .defined only four classes — the tcholar, the farmer, the artisan, and the trader — and they ranked in the order named. The rever ence which is paid to the scholar still exceeds that which is paid to the illiterate rich man. Filial duty is at the root of this division, for the scholar reflects credit on his parentage ; the farmer is able to stay on his paternal acres and look after his family ; the artisan is more often required to leave his home ; and the necessities of a trading life impel the merchant to go to the city. The more modern classification of the people is more comprehensive. A sharp distinction is drawn between " natives and aliens ;" in tho latter class are included the aborigines and lawless mountaineers known as Miaou-tsz or E Yin, the boat people on the coasts, as well as foreigners residing in the em pire. " Conquerors and conquered " is a divi sion with reference to intermarriages between the native Chinese and their Manchu rulers ; such marriages are proscribed. " Freemen and slaves" show the existence of a system of slavery which is like that of biblical times. Slaves can be purchased by natives, and the children of such slaves are retained in servitude, though the slavery is not as severe a condition as that of ancient Greece and Rome. The ' ' honorable and the mean" are defined for the sake of lit erary position ; those who belong to the " mean" cannot compete in the examinations until for three generations they have pursued some honorable calling. Criminals, execution ers, police-runners, actors, jugglers, and all other vagrants, as well as aliens and slaves, be long to the mean class. Besides these the Tankia or boat people at Canton are considered a low class ; though legally allowed to live on shore, they are forbidden to compete in the examinations. In Ningpo there is a class simi larly proscribed called to min. The Tankia are supposed to be the descendants of oneof the eight original tribes of Kwangtung, but they do not preserve their pedigree, and nothing definite is known in regard to their origin. There are eight privileged classes, privileged in regard to pun ishment, of which those who are related to roy alty are the only important ones. Officials are distinguished from the common people by the dress which they are entitled to wear. The most noticeable feature of their dress is the button on the top of the hat. These buttons are of nine kinds, corresponding to the nine ranks, and, in order from highest to lowest, are ruby or transparent red, coral or opaque red, sapphire or light blue, opaque blue, crystal, opaque white, plain gotd or gilt, worked gold, and worked silver. As the administration of the law is absolutely in the hands of the magis trates, we find no lawyers in the Western ac ceptation of the term. The professions which sprung from the invention of steam, the use of electricity, and improved machinery have, until the last few years, been entirely wanting. The various religious sects have their priests, but these do not have the contact with the common people and the influence on their daily life that the clergy do in Christian countries, neither are they respected. There are now a few members of the editorial profession. Doctors there are, but the science of medicine is yet in its infancy. The superstitions of China do not permit dis section, and their knowledge of anatomy is vague and ridiculous. The body is thought to be a mass of flesh supported on the framework of the bones, without that intimate connection of the joints and tendons. The circulation of the blood is unknown, so far as its continuous course is concerned. The seat of the breath is supposed to be in the stomach, and that also is the seat of learning. Health and sickness de pend on the preservation of the just proportions between the five elements — fire, earth, wood, metal, and water — or else they are due to the in fluence of evil spirits. There are no laws in re gard to necessary qualifications for practising medicine, and most Chinese doctors are those who have much shrewd knowledge of human nature and some empirical knowledge of drugs. They use the vilest concoctions as medicine ; some of the ingredients are scorpions, snakes, centipedes, lizards, chamois horn, bear's gall, and vegetable wax. Surgery is unknown ; their superstitions prevent them from mutilating the human body, as such mutilation is supposed to endure throughout the future world. Acupunc ture has been practised among them for cen turies, and massage and blood letting by cup ping or by leeches are well known to them. Within recent years the government has recog nized the advantages to be gained from West ern medicinal knowledge, and has encouraged the study of it so far as to employ Chinese graduates from a school of medicine in Hong- Kong, which sent out its first three doctors in August, 1888. Taking all the different classes into consideration, there are about as many different occupations in China as there are in England, though the occupation of agriculture is in excess ; that is considered an honorable occupation, though a lowly one. Probably half the soil of China is owned by those who till it. To sum up, Chinese society acknowledges no aristocracy save that of brains, it is as homo genous as possible, and is essentially demo cratic. (The founder of the Ming dynasty was the son of obscure parents.) Arrogance and conceit characterize the learned class, who think no knowledge of value except that in their classics, and no man wise except he who is well acquainted with their sages and books. Status of Woman. — The classical teachings in regard to woman are : " 1. Woman is different CHINA 262 CHINA from man as earth is from heaven. 2. Dualism in nature, consisting of the yang and the yin principle (the good and tho bad, or the negative ancl the positive), is found here ; woman is the yin; man is tbe yang. 3. Women are human beings, but they are of lower state than man, and can never attain to full equality with him, 4. Death and evils have their origin in the yin principle, but prosperity and life follow- the subjection of the yin to the yang; therefore woman must be kept under the power o£ man, and must not be allowed any mind of her own. 5. The education of woman must aim at perfect submission, not at development or cultivation of the mind. 6. Woman has no happiness of her own ; she must live and work for man. 7. As the mother of a son in the direct line of the family, she may escape from her degradation and become in a measure equal to her husband, but that only in affairs of the household and in the ancestral hall. 8. Her bondage does not end in this world, it is the same in the future world ; she belongs to the same husband, and is dependent for her happiness upon the sacri fices offered by her descendants." Such is the theory, but the condition of woman in China is not as miserable as it would be if the letter of the law were carried out. Woman is kept in subjection, she is practically immured among the higher classes, with no education to engage her mind, no employment but household duties, fancy work, or gossip and gaming, and her one object in life is to be the mother of a son. As a wife she has more or less influence over her husband, but when she becomes a mother her influence over her children is great, and disobe dience to her commands is one of the great sins. A son is not exempt from his mother's authority until her death, and then her spirit demands his reverence. Daughters are despised by the Chinese, since they pass entirely out of the fam ily at marriage ; the wedding fees must be met, and their labor and service is all rendered to the mother-in-law ; whereas the son supports his parents, brings home a wife who is practi cally an upper servant to his mother, and, greatest fact of all, he can offer the sacrifices to the ancestral tablets insuring their future hap piness. So little are gitls esteemed that in some parts of China infanticide is not uncom mon on account of poverty. The fact that the empire was governed during the minority of the present emperor by a woman is proof enough of the high position which woman can hold in China. The seclusion in which they are kept is not as absolute as in India, while it is a safeguard of their morals. That the women are not lacking in mental power, but only re quire opportunity to develop it, is shown by the rapid progress made in study by the pupils in the mission schools. As a rule the girls are not sent to school, though noteworthy excep tions of literary women are recorded by Chinese writers. Among the poorer classes women work in the fields ancl do various kinds of manual labor along with the men ; they are then on more of an equality with the men, ancl are not secluded from them. Customs. — Calendar. The Chinese reckon their years iu two ways : one is by tho sexagenary cycle, where the years are named by the combi nation, twelve times repeated, of ten characters, called " stems," with twelve other characters call ed " branches." The use of this cycle originated in the mythological period. Usually the yearis num bered from the accession of the reigning monarch, the year 1890 being the sixteenth of the Emperor Kwang Sui. The months are numbered from one to twelve, and are reckoned from the changes of the moon, and are called moons. The year is the lunar year, but its commencement is regu lated by the sun. The New Year is the first new moon after the sun enters Aquarius ; thus it varies from January 21st to February 19th. Some of the months have thirty days and are called " large ;" others, which have twenty-nine days, are called " small." The lunar year con taining only 354 days, the correction is made by the insertion of intercalary months. Seven intercalary months are introduced in every nineteen years. The year is further divided into four seasons, and they observe the spring and winter solstices. In a heathen country there are no Sabbaths, but this lack of rest is partially compensated for by the various holi days, such as the birthdays of the idols and the national feast days. Tho great day with tho Chinese is New Year's. For a month before all the people are excited and busied. There is a general cleaning of houses and stores. The paper gods and scrolls are taken down and new ones put up in their places ; debts must be paid or arrangements made with creditors. On New Year morning the cities take on a holiday ap pearance with the gayly dressed people going about paying calls or thronging the temples to worship, and a cessation of all business gives an appearance of Sabbath rest. Fire-crackers are discharged in salvos to drive away evil spirits, and big dragons made of paper-covered bamboo frames are carried around with the same purpose. The close of the day is marked by family reunions and general feasting, which, in the case of the rich, is kept up till the 15th of the month or sometimes throughout the whole month. The New Year gives an added year to the age of every one, for a child born in December will be reckoned as two years old after the New Year, since he has lived in two years. The next important feast is that of Tsing-ming, the spring worship of the tombs. Tbis comes 106 days after the winter solstice, falling usually in April. Pilgrimages are made into the country to the family tombs, where food and wine, paper clothes, money, and even servants are given to the shades of the deceased ancestors. The tombs are also repaired, and put in good order. During the month the hills around the populous cities, which are usually covered with tombs, present a constant smoky appearance from the burning incense, while white, fluttering streamers of paper affixed to the tombs show that the dead have not been for gotten. The fifth day of the fiflh month is Dragon Boat Day, coming usually in the month of June. This day is celebrated in memory of a faithful statesman who lived in tbe fifth cen tury. He was wrongly accused and banished from court. He returned to Changsha, the capital of Hunan, and there, rowing out to the middle of the river, he committed suicide by drowning. The sorrowing people sought for his body in boats, and since that day the cus tom has spread throughout the empire, and gayly decked boats with handsomely dressed boatmen row up and down the rivers and creeks, beating drums and gongs. Racing is common among the boats of rival villages, and the dragon boats, as they are called, are often of great length and painted and carved in a CHINA 263 CHINA most expensive manner, while the crowd throngs the shores and cheers the competing roweis. Presents of wine and roast pig are given to the crews by the merchants. This festival lasts for several days, and is looked forward to by young and old with great pleasure. From the 1st to the 15th of the Chinese seventh month occurs the festival of Shiu-yee, the burning clothes feast, or "All Souls' Days," as it might be called* since it is a time when offerings of clothes, food, and drink are paid to the spirits of the departed dead who have no one to wor ship them and attend to their wants. On the rivers large boats are hung with lanterns, ancl bands of priests are rowed up and down in them, saying prayers and incantations for the welfare of tbe unknown spirits. On the seventh day of the seventh month is the festival in honor of the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades, who are the patron saints of the women and the encouragers of needle-work and domes tic arts. Some of the observances are not un like those connected with Hallow E'en. The festival of the Moon, on the 15th of the eighth month, is one of the most important festivals. Lanterns of every conceivable material, sbape, and size are suspended on poles from the roofs of houses and along the streets, presents of moon-cakes are exchanged between families, worship is paid to the moon and at all shrines, and much money is spent in fire-crackers, wax candles, and the services of priests. The ninth day of the ninth month is the conclusion of the kite-flying feast. Young and old spend the preceding days in flying the ingenious kites made of bamboo and paper. While it is merely sport for the young, there is a superstition con nected with it, for when the string of the kite is cut on the ninth day, and it is allowed to soar away, all tbe ill luck of the house is supposed to go with it. During the fall of the year the atrical performances and processions are held in honor of the God of Fire, and at the winter solstice feasting and the interchange of pres ents is common. On the birthdays of tne prin cipal idols, processions are formed in the prin cipal cities, in which are carried tableaux repre senting incidents in legendary history, often on a scale of great lavishness and grandeur, and the streets are blocked for miles by the people, who have tbe true Oriental liking for display and gorgeousness. Betrothal and Marriage. — There is a strict sepa ration of the sexes and a seclusion of the women which has prevented woman from oc cupying her right place in public. In the homes of the higher classes there is the sepa ration between the apartments of the men and women, and even brothers and sisters do not mingle after the boys are sent to school. Among the lower classes there is a mingling of the sexes in the household, which is more like that of Western nations. Betrothals are made by the parents through the medium of a go be tween or marriage broker, and children of ten der years are often the principals in such cere monies. Betrothal is regarded as almost the same as marriage, so much so that if the young man dies his parents may be required to re ceive his betrothed into their home as though she were his widow. The sacredness with whieh this institution is regarded renders it necessary to sanction the marriage of a native Christian man to a, heathen girl, because the breaking of the betrothal would bring discredit on the religion which apparently did not recog nize the sanctity of marriage. The marriage of those who are betrothed takes place at the earli est possible age. The ceremonies last for three clays, at the conclusion of which the bride is escorted by a procession to the home of tho groom ; there they drink wine together out of cups tied together with red cord, and worship the ancestois together ; this constitutes the special binding part of the ceremony, if any one part can be so specified. Divorces are rare, though they are allowed by law for seven reasons, some of which are too much talkative ness on the part of the woman, failure to give birth to a son, and disobedience to the mother- in-law. A woman cannot be put away whose parents are not living to receive her back again. Immorality among women in the families is rare ; seductions, elopements, and conduct which so frequently gives rise to divorce in European countries are infrequent, owing to the safeguards which are thrown around the home life. The social evil flourishes openly, however, and gross immorality on the part of the men is common and is viewed with gen eral indifference, though it is condemned by the theorists. Concubines are taken into the household, and their children belong legally to the wife ; the relation which the concubine holds to the wife is similar to that between Sarah and Hagar. If a man is away from home very much he takes his concubine with him, and leaves the wife to look after the affairs of the household. The position of the wife in her husband's household is a most trying one, and she is happy or unhappy according to tho tem per or moods of her mother-in-law and hus band. After she is a mother of a son, "from being a menial she becomes almost a goddess." Parental authority is great, Chinese legislation putting little check upon it, but trusting to the restraints of natuial affection and the influences of education. In many instances these re straints are ineffectual, and cruelties innumer able are the portion of the children. Boys have names given to them at various epochs of their life. When the head is shaved and the queue started, a month after birth, the boy re ceives his "milk" name. On entering school he is given his school name. At marriage the man takes a new name by which he is known throughout life. This is written after his sur name. Besides this, he often has a, private name for personal friends ; a business name, by which he is known among his business ac quaintances ; and if he takes a literary degree, he takes a new name with it. These names have usually a lucky signification to ward off evil and to induce benefit. Girls have simply their milk name, and the name they take on marriage, On the ancestral tablet the name which appears may be a posthumous title, dif ferent from any of the others. The surnames of the Chinese are limited in number, and the disgrace of being a foreigner and having no sur name is frequently cast upon the missionary. Intercourse. — Ceremonial observances in ac cordance with the strict laws of etiquette are re served for formal or special occasions. The ordi nary intercourse of the Chinese with each other is similar to that of other nations, with the ex ception of the difference due to the separation of the sexes. Introductions can bo made by the parties themselves, one asking the other his " honorable surname," after which ensues CHINA 264 CHINA a formal exchange of question and answer un til the surname, age, and condition, married or single, of each is brought out. Courtesy de mands that refreshment be offered when calls are made, even though it be but a cup of poor tea. Self-deprecation is characteristic of Chinese polite phrases, and exaggerated importance must be attached to all that concerns others. Diet. —When the seat of learning is supposed to reside in the stomach, and an enlarged abdo men is the sign of a giant intellect, it may easily be understood that the Chinese are epicures. The poor live on rice or millet, with merely a relish of fish or pork ; but the diet is mcfre gen erous in direct proportion to the wealth of the person. Pork, poultry, and fish of all kinds abound. Fruit, much of it of rich flavor and great delicacy, is found in abundance ; no one with the money to procure it need famish for lack of palatable food. Dogs, cats, and rats while occasionally, in some parts of China, figuring as table dishes, are by no means in ordinary use or regarded with universal favor. Wine drinking occurs mainly at feasts, and drinking wine apart from eating is not a native custom. Their wine is a liquor distilled from rice, like weak brandy. It is an intoxicating drink, but it is used sparingly, and drunken men are rarely seen. Tobacco is used almost universally, and by the women as well as the men. Opium smoking is the great vice of the people. It does not inflame the passions and cause the crimes against others which whiskey is accountable for, but it destroys its victim surely and effectually, both mind and body. It is estimated that the proportion of people who use the drug is : of the laboring class, four-tenths ; the merchant class, six-tenths ; the official class, three-tenths. The poppy is now grown in China, and the habit is steadily on the increase. Dress. — The men wear a tunic and trousers, and for special dress a long gown of bright colors and tight leggings over the trousers. Their costume is rich and varied in color, and silks, satins, furs, and fine woollen goods are the materials used. It has been adopted by mis sionaries when it is of advantage to escape con- spicuousness, and it is comparatively cheap and comfortable. The dress of the women differs little from that of the men. An embroidered skirt is worn over the trousers ; the tunic is longer and the gown is absent. Bound feet, caused by the early compression of the feet with long strips of cloth, is a native institution ; it is not countenanced by the reigning dynasty — the empress is a large-footed Manchu — but as a mark of social position it is hard to correct the custom, though it is discouraged by the missionaries, and Christian sentiment is being educated against it. Modes of Travel. — In the south of China, for short distances, the sedan chair and small boat are used. For longer distances a large boat, the interior of which can be divided into cabins, forms a floating hotel, and journeys of several hundred miles can be made in such boats with comfort. In the north of China travel is ac complished by the use of the wheelbarrow and two wheeled cart, in addition to the other methods of the south. Attitude of the Government toward Christianity. — The Chinese Government simply tolerates the missionary ; at the same time protection is given him, and when such Vroteotion is denied, it is due to the private action of some subordinate official in which he is not supported by the government. Damage to missionary property has been paid lor when the matter has been brought to the attention of the high officials. It can easily happen that local feeling against the missionaries may be stirred up by violent men until the local author ities are unable to protect the foreigner, but such conduct is repudiated by the government, and the official is liable to punishment. The treaty rights of missionaries were secured first by the Imperial Commissioner Kiying in 1844. He obtained permission for the Roman Catho lics to propagate the Gospel at the five treaty ports, and a year later defined it as including all Christian sects. When the treaties of 1858 were signed the rights of missionaries were still further defined. In the American treaty it was stipulated that " those who quietly profess and teach these doctrines shall not be harassed or persecuted on account of their faith. Any person, whether citizen of the United States or Chinese convert, who, according to these tenets, peaceably teaches and practises the principles of Christianity, shall in no case be interfered with or molested." The Russian, the British, and the French treaties contain similar stipu lations. Since that time the missionaries have travelled into the interior, and at present, on the authority of the late Missionary Conference, it is stated that " the whole of China is now open to missionary work." The help given by the missionaries in the late famines and floods in China ; the skill which has relieved sickness when brought to the medical missionary ; the intellectual attainments of the missionary, as shown in the various colleges which they have opened — all these have united to convince those highest in authority in China that the Christian missionary is a man worthy of respect and not a dangerous foe to their nation, and as such he is accorded the degree of protection and favor to which he is entitled. Early Christian Missions in China. — Tradition ascribes to St. Thomas the honor of first preaching tbe Gospel to the Chinese. Whether he was the first one or not, there is no doubt that Christian truths were taught in China at an early period of the Christian era. The first authentic account of early missionary effort is given in the tablet which was discov ered in Si-ngan-fu in 1625. The Nestorian mis sionaries arrived in China as early as 505 a.d., and the date of the tablet is 781. From this time on till the travels of Marco Polo there is no doubt that the Nestorians had many con verts ; but from the time of the Yuen dynasty the records give no satisfactory account of their condition or fate. The efforts of the Roman Catholic Church may be divided into epochs. The first epoch was in the thirteenth century, when Corvino was sent to China in 1292, and was successful in establishing a mission, and from that time on till the expulsion of the Man chus, in 1368, many converts were made, and there were probably many Christian communi ties. The second period is one of 150 years, from the time when Matteo Ricci established himself in Shanking till the edict of expulsion by the Emperor Yung Ching in 1736. Francis Xavier was one of the faithful men who strove to preach to the Chinese, but was detained by the governor of Malacca and died without reaching his field, though he was buried on Chinese soil. Michael Ruggiero, of the Jesuits, CHINA 265 CHINA finally arrived at Macao in 1580, where he was joined by Matteo Ricci, and the era of success ful missions commenced. Twenty-one years later Ricci reached Peking and made a favorable impression on the court. From this time on Roman Catholicism was more or less successful in China ; when the Manchus came in power the knowledge of astronomy which the Fathers possessed brought them the favor of the court, and*their labors were aided by noble and in fluential friends. Churches were built, new missions were established, and they numbered their converts by the thousands. At length the priests mingled with different parties in affairs of State, and the various political intrigues with which they were concerned led to an edict against them in 1665, and Schaal, their princi pal man, was disgraced and degraded from the high offices he held, and died soon after of grief. The accession of Kanghi brought them again in favor, and by their knowledge of as tronomy and surveying they were again given important positions, and favor and toleration was shown to their missionary efforts. During the latter part of the seventeenth century strife arose among the Jesuits and Dominicans in re gard to the attitude of the Church toward the worship of Confucius, deceased ancestors, and the worship of heaven. Innocent X. issued a decree in 1645 in which this worship was de clared to be idolatrous and not to be tolerated. As the Jesuits had held that it was merely po litical in its nature, they strove to have this de cree vitiated, and in 1656 Alexander VII. ap proved their course, and decided that the rites were civil in their nature, and could be toler ated by the missionaries. The Emperor Kanghi was appealed to for a decision of the question, and in 1700 he answered to the effect that the worship of lien, heaven, was the worship of the true God, and that the other rites were merely civil. This answer was sent to the pope. Clement XI. finally reached a decision, and de creed that lien did not mean the true God, and that the rites were idolatrous, after which the Emperor Kanghi refused to countenance such missionaries as did not follow the Jesuitical opinions and favor the retention of the sacri fices to ancestors and to Confucius. The first fifteen years of the eighteenth century were years in which Romish missions attained their greatest prosperity. There were 1,100 churches in Kiangnan and Kiangsi alone, and 100,000 converts were claimed. Soon after this time Kanghi began to see into the true nature of the propaganda, and his faith in the missionaries was lessened by their internal strife. In 1618 he banished all missionaries except those who would follow the teachings of Ricci. Yung Ching followed his father with a decree forbid ding the propagation of the Tien Chukiao, as Roman Catholicism has been called ever since, and during the remainder of his life and that of Kien Lung the Catholics were persecuted and lost much of the prestige which they en joyed. Though never entirely extinguished, their missions varied in success from that time till the treaties of 1858 brought toleration to them as well as to all other sects. Protestant Missions.— (See also articles on the missionary societies, biographical sketches, etc.) The London Missionary Society- very soon after its organization, in 1795, had its attention turned to China through the discov ery in the British Museum of an ancient Chinese manuscript, but the East India Company, which had at Canton an important commercial centre, was antagonistic to all missionary effort, and the Chinese themselves strongly objected to the coming of religious teachers, and it was only through the kindly interest of an American mercantile house, Olyphant & Company, of New York, that the L. M. S. was at length, in 1806, enabled to send its first missionary to China. Robert Morrison sailed first to New York, thence to China, in an American sailing vessel, reaching Canton on September 7th, 1807, and was for a time allowed to reside in the nar row space allotted to the factories of the East India Company outside the walls of Canton, but was soon obliged, with other English resi dents, to retire to Macao, which belonged to the Portuguese Government, and afforded a home to many of the early missionaries, and was one of the points of attack upon China un til China itself should be opened to the Gospel. Other places from which the missionaries found access to the strange people whom they wished to reach were Malacca, Batavia, Singapore, Borneo, and Bangkok, where there were great numbers of Chinese emigrants, and the London Missionary Society, the American Baptist Mis sionary Union, the A. B. O. F. M., and other societies established missions among them in anticipation of tbe time when the door of en trance to the empire should be opened. The first associate of Morrison, William Milne, arrived in Canton, July, 1813, and in the follow ing year sailed for the Indian Archipelago, tak ing with him a large number of New Testaments and tracts from Morrison's press. He proceeded to Java and thence to Malacca, returning after ward to Canton, but finding it difficult to prose cute missionary labor there returned to Malacca, where he remained until his death in 1822. William H. Medhurst, the third missionary to China, sent out by the L. M. S., was in 1822 sent to re-enforce the mission to the Chinese in Java, at Batavia. In 1829 the American Board of Commission ers for Foreign Missions sent to Canton its first missionary to China, the Rev. E. C. Bridg man. Mr. Bridgman was accompanied by the Rev. David Abeel, who had been sent out by the American Seaman's Friend Society, but who soon transferred his services to the A. B. C. F. M. They were received by Olyphant & Com pany, and a printing-press was sent out for their use by the church in New York of which Mr. Olyphant was a member. In 1833 S. Wells Williams, then in his twentieth year, was sent out to take charge of it, and it remained at Canton until 1835, when it was removed to Macao, where Mr. Williams might have the benefit of the types of the East India Company's presses. In 1834 Dr. Peter Parker (see Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society) joined the mission, and his medical skill added a new factor of the highest value in removing prejudice and in winning the hearts of the people. The Medical Missionary Society, formed at Canton by the joint efforts of the missionaries and the large- hearted merchants residing in the city, was the result of Dr. Parker's success in starting medi cal work. In 1839 Dr. Hobson, of the L. M. S., at tempted medical work in Canton, but was obliged to remove to Macao, where a medical mission was established. CHINA 266 CHINA The American Baptist Missionary Union es tablished its first missionary work for the Chinese at Bangkok in 1833, looking forward to the time when it should be able to enter China, and in 1838 the American Presbyterians began their first mission to them at bingapore. At all the various points, occupied in unremit ting devotion to the study of the language, to the work of translation, and to the mission presses, the missionaries had accomplished a great work of preparation when, in 1842, at the close of the first opium war between Eng land and China, five of the chief ports of China were opened to foreign residents, and the island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British. At once taking advantage of the opening, the L. M. S. appointed a conference at Hong Kong of all its missionaries then resident at Macao, Malacca, Batavia, etc , and as a result the Anglo- Chinese College, founded by Dr. Morrison, was removed from Malacca, ancl the Society's print ing establishment and medical work from Macao to Hong Kong. At the same time Mr. Abeel, of the A. B. C. F. M., and Rev. J. N. Boone, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, entered Amoy, and work for the Chinese on the mainland was fairly inaugu rated. From this time on societies and laborers rap idly increased. The opening of nine additional ports by the Treaty of Tientsin increased the opportunities, and the travels of Dr. Gutzlaff aroused new interest, until nearly forty soci eties are represented in that great empire. The following table, prepared by Dr. L. H. Gulick, late agent of the American Bible Society, gives their names and date of commencement of work. More specific accounts will follow. Date Name of Society. of Mission 1 1807 ¦' A. B. C. F. M 183018841835 3 4 r> 1838 (i 1842 7 1843 H 1844 1845 9 lfi 1847 11 1847 19 1847 18471847 13 14 15 1847 1848 1850 16 17 IS 18521859 19 Woman's Union Mission 211 Methodist New Connection 18601864 21 Society Promotion Female Education. . . United Presbyterian, Scotch 22 1865 23 1865 24 National Bible Society of Scotland 1868 1868 25 United Methodist Free Church 21 i 1868I860 1871 1874 27 28 29 30 American Bible Society 1876 81 Established Church of Scotland 1878 1882 32 33 1884 31 1885 35 Foreign Christian Missionary Society 1886 86 1886 37 1886 3H 1887 39 Church of England Zenana Miss. Soc 1888 There are in addition a number of indepen dent workers. London Missionakt Society. — Canton, 1807. Robert Morrison not being allowed to engage in any direct missionary work at Canton, gave himself up to the study of the language, and his success was so rapid tbat in 1808 he was ap pointed translator to the East India Company's factories ; thus his permanent residence and social position were secured, and through his intercourse with the able men who composed the company's staff, important advantages were gained for the future establishment of missions in China. Later, when obliged to retire to Macao, the translation of the Bible and the preparation of a dictionary occupied nearly all his time. The entire New Testament was pub lished in 1814, the Old Testament, prepared in connection with Mr. Milne, in 1818, and the dictionary was completed in six quarto volumes in 1823. Morrison early began a religious ser vice upon the Sabbath for the servants and the immediate acquaintances whom alone he was able to reach ; his first convert was baptized in 1814, and he subsequently baptized and or dained Liang Ah Fa, who takes a deservedly high position at the head of the native Chris tian ministry. Morrison, after all the toil and faith and patience of his twenty-seven years of service, saw only three or four converts, but grandly fulfilled the highest hopes of the society which sent him out in translating the Bible into the language of one-fourth of the human race, and in preparing a dictionary which has been of untold value to all missionaries since. Amoy. — After the occupation of Hong-Kong in 1842, the first extension of the mission of the L. M. S. was to Amoy, which was a port in immediate connection with the large Chinese immigration to Batavia and Singapore, so that when Messrs. Stronach and Y'oung, who had been working at Singapore, opened a station at Amoy in 1844, they had the language at com mand, and were ready to begin direct work among the people. The mission has proved a fruitful one, and several strong and self-sup porting churches have existed for many years. Chiang Chiu, a city in the Fuhkien province, was formerly an out-station of Amoy, but has recently been made a separate station with three missionaries, one of them a physician, in charge. Shanghai was occupied in 1843 and medical work and chapel preaching commenced. A printing-press sent out in 1847 was in 1864 transferred to the British and Foreign Bible Society. From Shanghai the work has extended far into the country. Hospitals, chapels, and other forms of work are successfully main tained. Special work for women is under the charge of ladies sent out by the society. Hankow, which lies 600 miles up the Yangtsz River, at the mouth of the Han, became a sta tion of the society in 1861. Wu Chang, on the south side of the river, was occupied in 1867, and the work has largely extended in the coun try and up the course of the Han River. The hospital established in 1868 was transferred to Tientsin in 1879. Chung King, the first large town on the river after entering the province of Sz'chuen, waB occupied ns a station in 1888. Tientsin became famous in 1858 as the place where the treaty at the close of the second war was formed, but was not actually opened to commerce until the autumn of 1860. In the CHINA 267 CHINA spring of 1861 a mission was established, and medical work was carried on with the aid of a foreign student until 1878, when Dr. Mackenzie joined the mission. In 1879 Dr. Mackenzie was called to attend a member of the family of the Viceroy of Chihli. The viceroy's patronage was thus at once secured and the medical work assumed a distinguished position, and was finally concentrated in a noble building on the hospital premises, henceforth known as the Viceroy's Hospital, and opened with official recognition in 1881. A medical school was also established under the patronage of the viceroy and carried to a high degree of success. Since Dr. Mackenzie's death, in 1888, the medical work of the mission has been separated from the Viceroy's Hospital. Vigorous work along the usual lines is carried on, and the country work has been largely developed. Peking. — Dr. Lockhart, after long experience of medical work at Shanghai, visited the capital in order to test the practicability of establish ing a mission there, and, under the auspices of the British minister, he commenced hospital work in some unoccupied apartments belonging to tho British Legation, and thus began the mission of the L. M. S. In 1864 a permanent home for the mission and hospital were secured ou the Great East Street of the city, and the ex pansion of the work has since led to the pur chase of premises and erection of buildings on the West Street. There are now in connection with the mission about 500 church-members, and the annual attendance upon the hospital is about 20,000. Mongolia. — The mission to the Mongols, under taken from the West in the beginning of the contury, was soon suppressed by the Russian Synod, not, however, until the whole Bible had been translated in the Mongolian language. The way closed from the West was opened from the East by the Treaty of Tientsin, and the mission was recommenced in 1870. The centre of work is at Chao Yang. American Boaed op Commissionees foe For- eign Missions. — Canton, occupied by the Ameri can Board in 1830, continued to be its head quarters in China until 1856, when the mission press and all the mission establishments were destroyed by fire. Amoy. — In 1842 the Rev. David Abeel, then living at Macao, learning that Amoy was acces sible as a mission station, proceeded thither in company with Rev. J. N. Boone, of the Ameri can Protestant Episcopal Church ; he was made chaplain of the British troops, and had abun dant opportunity to preach to the natives. The mission was continued under the Board until 1856, when it was transferred to the Reformed Church of America. Foochow. — Rev. Messrs. Johnson and Peet, who had been laboring in Bangkok, were transferred to the China Mission and appointed to Foochow, which city they reached in 1847. Other mis sionaries were sent to re-enforce them, and in 1870, upon the arrival of Dr. Osgood, medical work was begun. Boarding schools, a hospital for men, and one for women and children have been established, Shao Wu, an interior station of the Foochow Mission, was established in 1875, after two years' effort to obtain a residence. The station is in the midst of the tea-picking region. Shanghai. — The Board began its work in Shanghai in the American settlement in 1847 ; in 1854 a mission was organized at the south gate of the city, but owing to the death of three of the missionaries laboring there and the ill health of the fourth, the work was given up in 1864, and has not been resumed. Tientsin was chosen as a centre of missionary work by the Board in 1860. In 1867 the pres ent premises in the foreign city were secured and built upon, but the premises previously oc cupied in the native city were wholly destroyed in the mob and massacre of June of that year. From the fund paid to indemnify the loss a chapel was built in 1874. ln this mission great attention has been given to boys' and girls' schools, and to itinerating tours in the province of Shantung, in which three centres of work have been developed. Peking. — Work at the capital was commenced in 1864. Tho work of open delivery of the Gospel early begun by this and other societies in Peking has been continued ever since, both by natives and foreigners, probably with less opposition than would have been experienced in any of the capital cities of Europe. A suc cessful school for Chinese and Manchu girls is conducted. In 1868 a mission press with full equipment was erected, and 30,000,000 pages have since been issued from it. Interesting country work has been developed from two centres, one of which has been set apart as an independent church. There are at present in connection with the Peking Mission 7 missionaries and 20 native workers. Kalgan. — The city of Kalgan, occupied by the Board in 1865, was one of the earliest stations in the interior of China. From it a work de veloped at the city of Yuchow, 90 miles to the south, which was in 1873 transferred to the city of Pao Ting Fu (q.v.). Tung Chow was chosen as a centre of work in 1867. The training school of the mission was located here, also a boys' school, which has gradually developed until the full curriculum of a college course is provided for. Medical work was begun in 1882. The station has 10 missionaries. Pao Ting Fu was opened as a station in 1 873 by the transfer of missionaries from Yuchow. Medical work has been carried on from the be ginning, and special efforts for women have been largely extended. The work has devel oped in the country, and is in promising con dition. Eight missionaries constitute the staff. Pang Chuang. — This station, established in 1880, was the immediate result of the widely opened door of entrance to the common people of Northwestern Shantung, through the kind ness shown them during the famine year of 1878. The first church, half the expense of which was borne by the native Christians, was completed in 1886. The work has extended widely into the surrounding country, and native Christians are to be found in more than 100 little villages. Lin Ching.—A. station was opened here in 1886. Houses have been erected, hospital work begun, and the way opened for enlarging work in the future. Shansi Mission. — The Board was led, subse quently to the famine of 1878, to establish the Shansi Mission, in which a special interest was aroused in Oberlin College, O., U. S. A. ; a band of young men was organized and sent out to the field. Thus far two stations have been oc cupied, Tai Ku and Fen Cho Fu. Medical CHINA 268 CHINA work is carried on and a press equipment has been sent out by friends in America. Hong Kong. — The station at Hong Kong was opened by the Board in 1883, with the hope of continuing efforts begun among the Chinese in California, who were returning in great numbers to China. The field of work extends on the mainland west of the island from 100 to 200 miles. There are now 2 organized churches, with 28 members, 5 schools, and 30 pupils. Ameeican Baptist Missionary Union. — This society, as has been said, commenced its work for China at Bangkok, Siam, in 1833, among the numerous Chinese who came there from Swatow. With the opening of the ports in 1842 Mr. Dean went to Hong Kong. Swatow was visited, and in 1860 a Btation established at Double Island, at the entrance of the bay lead ing to Swatow, and in 1863 one at Kak Chieh on the mainland. In 1866 all the work was transferred to the station which is the central station of the Southern China Mission. Ningpo was also occupied in 1843, which haa been followed by Shao-hing, Kin-Hua, Huchow, and Suchow. In 1882 work was commenced among the Hak ka people, which has proved very interesting. Protestant Episcopal Church, U. S. A. — In 1835 Rev. Messrs. Hanson and Lockwood land ed at Canton, but proceeded to Java to labor among the Chinese of Batavia. Amoy was oc cupied in 1840, but the work was moved in 1845 to Shanghai. In 1860 work was carried into the interior ancl a station established at Wu chang. These are the two centres from which work extends. There were (1889) 460 com municants. Presbyterian Choech (North), U. S. A. Amoy, 1843. Central China Mission. — Ningpo. The work of the Presbyterian Mission begun at Amoy in 1843 was extended to Ningpo in 1844. The printing-press was removed thither from Macao and remained there until 1860, when it was transferred to Shanghai. The Presbyterial Academy, girls' and boys' schools, and other branches of work are in a flourishing condition. Shanghai. — This great city was occupied by the mission in 1850 ; the first convert was bap tized in 1860. The printing-press removed from Ningpo in this year has now a complete foundry, large equipment of type in seven or eight languages, binding, book depository, chapel, and rooms for workmen, and has already become historic for its wide-reaching helpful ness. The total number of pages issued in 1880 was 6,178.806. Hang Chow, occupied in 1861, has proved a most difficult field of labor. One church has been organized and there i3 one out station. In Su Chow, occupied as a station for about twenty years, the opium habit has been met in all its power, there being an opium den on each side of the chapel, the fumes from which are often very disagreeable, Nanking was opened as a mission station in 1876 ; has been permanently occupied since 1882, and missionary work is actively prose cuted, but no church has yet been organized. The Central China Mission, comprising the five stations mentioned, has a force of 27 mis sionaries with 20 native assistants, 15 churches with 943 members, and 831 pupils in the schools. The Canton Mission.— Canton. The Canton Mission had its real beginning in Macao in 1844. In 1847 Messrs. Happer and French re moved with their school ot 30 boys to Canton. A day school, the first successful one in China, was opened in 1850 ; the first church was or ganized in 1862, since which time two others have been formed with a present total member ship of 308. The medical work is of great im portance. Dr. Kerr, who has been in charge since 1855, has published twenty medical works in the Chinese language The other stations of the Canton Mission are at Macao, once the point of departure for so many missionaries, now reoccupied by the Board ; Yeung Kong, about 250 miles southwest of Canton, affording an admirable point from which to reach the outlying country, and the island of Hainan, where mission work was started by Mr. Jere- miassen, an independent missionary of For mosa, who afterward joined the Presbyterian mission, and a station was opened in 1885. Two hospitals and dispensaries are established at Kiung Chow and Nodoa. Fifteen natives have been baptized. The Christian College commenced at Canton in 1888, though unde nominational, is under the supervision of the Presbyterian Board. Shantung Mission. — The early visit of Gutz- laff to Shantung had attracted, among the friends of missions in England and America, an interest not unlike that aroused by the discov eries of Livingstone and Stanley in Africa ; and upon the conclusion of the second war with China, which resulted in the opening of the northern ports, an advance movement was at once made. The missionaries of the Presbyte rian Board were attracted to Cheefoo, which had been the naval rendezvous, and Tung Chow, one of the nine newly opened ports, was chosen for occupation in 1861, and has always been the educational headquarters of this mission ; the boys' school has developed into a college stand ing at the head of missionary colleges in China in its range of study ancl complete equipment. A girls' school, hospital, and dispensary are also located at Tung Chow. From Cheefoo, the second station, a large country work devel oped after the famine period of 1876-78, in which 70,000 people were helped in the region of Chimo and in the mountains south of Ching Chow. Stations ware opened in 1879 at Chi- nan-fu, 300 miles inland from Cheefoo, and at Wei Hin in 1884, in which medical and educa tional work are well established. The recent famine caused by the overflow of the mountain streams has again opened the way for a very ex tensive relief work, and enlargement of the range of missionary effort. The Shantung Mission has at present 18 mis sionaries, 2 of them physicians, 80 native assist ants, 2,260 communicants, and 600 pupils in 40 day and boarding schools. Peking- Mission. — Peking was occupied by the Board in 1863, since which time great prog ress has been made. Flourishing schools for boys and girls and important medical work are carried on. The women's department of the hospital is in charge of a lady physician, to whose assistance a trained nurse has been sent this year. Refoemed (Dutch) Chubch of America Mission Amoy, 1842 and 1856. Amoy. — In 1856 the mission at Amoy, which CHINA 269 CHINA had been conducted by the A. B. C. F. M., was transferred to the Reformed Church Mission, under whose care it has been continuously pros perous. The mission has now 6 stations and 9 out-stations, with 8 organized churches, which are conspicuous for their self-support, their an nual contributions amounting to $2,000 or $3,000. A hospital was opened in 1889 at Sio Kl», 60 miles southwest of Amoy ; the women's department was in charge for a long time of a Chinese lady educated in America and a grad uate of medicine. The number of patients treated at the hospital during the past year was 6,800. Church Missionaey Society commenced its work in China at Shanghai (1845), and enlarged it to include Ningpo (1848), Foochow (1850), Hong Kong and Peking (1862), Hangchow(1865), Canton (1881). In 1880 Peking was transferred to the S. P. G. The work is now organized in two missions : 1. South China, with headquarters at Hong Kong, including the Kwangtung ancl Fuhkien provinces. 2. Mid China, including the Kiang su and Chihkiang provinces. The Fuhkien Mission was commenced in 1850 by Rev. W. Welton, who was the first to gain a footing in the city itself, others having been compelled to reside at Nantai, a suburb, on a large island in the Min, and was kept up under great discouragements. At Hangchow there is a medical mission and a hospital and opium refuge, and at Ningpo a successful college. Baptist Missionary Society (England). — The mission of the English Baptists is confined to the provinces of Shantung and Shansi. The stations established in the former are at Cheefoo (1860), Ching Cho Fu (1870), Chi Nan Fu (1887), and Chow Ping (1889). In addition to evangelistic efforts medical and eclucational work is carried on. About 1,300 communicants are gathered in 60 stations or churches. In Shansi the principal station is at Tai Yuan Fu. Two minor stations are at Hsiao Tien Tzu and Shih Tieh. Two churches with 25 communi cants have been organized in the Shansi Mission. Methodist Episcopal Chuech (North), U. S. A. — Foochow Mission. The work of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A., was begun in China at Foochow in 1847 by Messrs. Collins and White. Aided by the American Bible So ciety, the mission established in 1861 a printing- press which has done noble work, sending out each year 1,000,000 pages of Scriptures. The field is divided into six districts— Foochow, Hokchiang, Hinghwa, Ingchung, Kucheng, and Teng Ping. The members and probationers number 3,564. Central China. — Mission commenced in 1868 comprises the stations of Kiukiang (St. Paul and Henkai), Nanking, Wuhu, Tai-ping-fu, Chinkiang, and the circuits oi! Shuichang and Nanchang. Total number of members, 609. North China Mission. —The North China Mis sion was begun in 1869 at Peking, where there are now two stations ; the medical work has de veloped within recent years, and the education al department has been centralized in the Peking University. There are in this station 4 districts, with 272 communicants. Tientsin was occupied as a station in 1872, and in 1879 a remarkable medical work under the patronage of Lady Li, wife of the Viceroy of Chihli, was commenced. The Isabella Fisher Hospital, established in 1881, has been very successful under the management of lady phy sicians. Stations have been opened in connec tion with Tientsin at Tsang Chow and Nanku in Chihli, and On Chia, in Shantung. The third station of the North China Mission is at Tsun Hua, 60 miles east of Peking, on the great road to Manchuria. Medical work is carried on by the society and by the W. F. M. S., which has work in other departments well started. Extensive evangelistic work is a feature of the mission, which has at present 7 missionaries and a membership in 6 districts of 217. Seventh Day Baptist Mission. — This mission was begun at Shanghai in 1847 by Revs. Solo mon Carpenter and Nathan Wardner and their wives. Mr. Wardner returned to the United States in 1857. There are at present 2 mission aries and their wives, 1 medical missionary, Miss E. F. Swinneyand Miss Bostwick. There are 2 unordained native preachers, 30 communi cants, and a boarding school for both girls and boys with 33 pupils. Southern Baptist Convention, U. S. A. — When the A. B. M. U. commenced work at Hong Kong in 1842 Rev. J. L. Shuck repre sented the churches of the Southern States, and when they organized a separate work in 1845 Mr. Shuck established a mission station at Canton, being joined by Rev. Mr. Roberts. It was at this time that Hung Siu Chuen, after ward the famous leader of the long-haired rebels, heard of Christianity through Mr. Roberts, and remained with him two months for instruction. Shanghai was occupied in 1848, Tung Chow in 1861, and Chinkiang in 1883 ; 786 church-mem bers. Basle Missionary Society. — The mission to China was established in 1846 among the Hak kas of the province of Canton. The Revs. R. Lechler and Thomas Hamberg arrived at Hong Kong in 1847, and proceeded at once to the main land . A mission station was formed at the native town of Li Long in 1852. A second station was organized in Hong Kong in 1857. Other inte rior stations have been formed in 1862 and 1865 at Chang Tsun, and Nyen Hang Li. Mr. Lech ler, after more than forty years of service, has again been able to return to his old field of labor. The methods of work call for attention. Itinerating has been the chief source of evan gelization. A system of schools, graded after the careful German method, has shown the methods to be very successful. Few missions or methods have had a larger return in the amount of good results ; 1,881 church-mem bers. Presbyterian Church of England. — Tbis so ciety commenced work in China in 1847, when Rev. William C. Burns commenced work in Hong-Kong, Canton, and the neighborhood. In 1851, however, he removed to Amoy, which then became the centre of that mission's efforts. Swatow has since been occupied, and there are stations at Ngkangphu, in the Hakka country, at Singapore, and Formosa. The work in For mosa was commenced in 1865 and has been of great interest ; 3,572 communicants. Rhenish Missionary Society. — Canton. The mission of this society to China was sent out in 1846. It established itself at first at Canton, and was originally among the general popula tion nf the Canton province known as Punti, in distinction from the Hakkas, among whom the Berlin Missionary Society had its work. The CHINA 270 CHINA Berlin Society ceased to work, and their mis sionaries joined the Rhenish Society. Canton was occupied in 1847. Under the impulse of the enthusiasm of GutzlafE the Society sent out two men, Genahr and Koster, who landed in Hong Kong, March 19th, 1847. Koster soon died. Genahr moved to the mainland and be gan work among the villages on the shore, mak ing the village of Tai Ping the centre of his work. Genahr gathered a school about him and worked on till 1864. He left behind him at his death two valuable works in Chinese, which have been very widely useful. The mis sion was joined after the death of Genahr by Rev. E. Faber. The station of Fa Men was be gun in 1864. Mr. Faber after many years of service has removed to Shanghai to enter upon literary work. The mission adopted from the first the native dress, and its work has been con tinuously in the native villages. Methodist Episcopal Church (South), U. S. A. — This Society occupied Shanghai in 1848, which is still its principal station, though important work is being done at Suchow and Nantziang. The mission was organized into a Conference in 1886. Members and probation ers, 379. Berlin Foundling Hospital, established at Canton in 1850 by a ladies' society in Ber lin. "Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (England). — This Society commenced its opera tions at Canton in 1852, when it took up the work that Rev. Geo. Piercy had carried on for two years. Iu the Canton district important stations are Fatshan, where there is a dispen sary and hospital, San Ui, and Hong Kong. Work in Wu Chang was begun in 1861, and includes Hankow, with an important medical department, Han Yang, Teh Ngan, and Kwang Chi. There is a total of over 1,000 commun icants. The Central China Wesleyan Lay Mission, in connection with the above Society, commenced its work in 1885, and makes a special effort to reach sections where there is no regular preach ing. Methodist New Connexion (England). — Tientsin was occupied by this Society in 1860, and Lao Ling in the Shantung Province in 1866; Chu Chia Tsai in 1867, and Kai Ping in 1884. 1,400 communicants. United Presbyterian Church of Scot land. — The work of this Society, which was begun by medical work at Ningpo (1865), was afterward concentrated at Cheefoo, and in 1873 transferred to Manchuria. — Moukden. The central station of the mission is now at Mouk den, the capital of the Province of Manchuria. Population, Chinese and Manchu, 300,000. Hospital and dispensary work are carried on with large success. A station has been opened at Hai Cheng, 80 miles south of Moukden, and there are 4 out-stations. The membership of the three organized churches is 500, with 57 pupils in the schools. China Inland Mission. — For the first ten years after the formation of the China Inland Mission at Ningpo in 1866, all its stations were in the four provinces of Chihkiang, Kiangsu, Nganhwui, and Kiangsi. With a view to gaining access from tbe west, a station was opened at Bhamo, in Upper Burma. Ten years later seven additional provinces had been en tered, and now only one of the 18 into which China is divided is unoccupied by some so ciety. The number of missionaries of China Inland Mission in February, 1890, was over 380, the number of stations and out-stations about 150, and of organized churches upwards of 80. See China Inland Mission. United Methodist Free Churches (Eng land). — This Society occupied the city of Ning po in 1868, and has increased its work to Wen- chow. In 3 churches it has 568 communi cants. Presbyterian Church (South), U. S. A., occupied Hangchow in 1868, and has extended its work to Soochow, Chinkiang, and Tsing- kiang-pu. Along the Grand Canal it is carry. ing on the work commenced by the English Baptists, but dropped by them on account of its distances and the pressure in other places; 82 communicants. Presbyterian Church of Ireland. — The work commenced in 1867 at Yingtse, on the Liao River, at the head of the Gulf of Chihli, by the English Presbyterian Church, was, upon the death of the missionary in charge in 1869, assigned to the Irish Presbyterian Church. Yingtse, known abroad as Newchuang, is the port of Moukden. Medical work in the hospital and dispensary has been effective. A girls' school in charge of a lady is an impor tant part of the work carried on. The mission aries have done a great deal of touring, and have established a station at Ki Rin, the capi tal of the province of that name. There are four out-stations. Presbyterian Church in Canada. — The Presbyterian Church in Canada having a suc cessful mission in Formosa, planned an enlarge ment in North China, which the volunteer movement among the graduates of Knox Col lege and Queen's University enabled them to carry out. The Rev. J. Goforth, the first mis sionary for the new work, arrived in Cheefoo in the spring of 1888, and in the autumn of that year, having adopted Northern Honan as the field, removed to Pang Chuang, in Western Shantung, as a point of departure, and was there joined by Dr. McClure and Mr. McGil- vary in 1889. The points chosen for future work are Weihui-fu, Changte-fu, and Huai- ching. Society for the Propagation of the Gos pel. — This Society having received a contribu tion of £500 for a mission in China, selected North China as its field and Cheefoo as the first station. The work has slowly developed. A training-school for young men and a school for boys have been established, and church buildings erected. Peking.— The work of the C. M. S. in Pe king was transferred in 1881 to the S. P. G, A training-school for missionary workers, boys' school, work for women, etc., are carried on. Taishan-fu was opened as a station in 1879. Established Church of Scotland has one station, Ichang, commenced in 1878. Berlin Missionary Society commenced work at Canton in 1882, and has since occu pied eight other cities. Among them are Pat- lak-pu, Nam-hyung, Mahen, etc. Bible Christian Foreign Missionary So ciety (England). — This Society occupied Yunnan -fu in 1885, and Chaotung-fu later. It has carried on its work largely in connection with the China Inland Mission. CHINA 271 CHINA INLAND MISSION Foreign Christian Missionary Society (Disciples of Christ, U. S. A.), occupied the city of Nanking in 1886, where they have a success ful medical work. Friends' Foreign Missionary Society have also commenced a work at Nanking. Bible Work in China is carried on by the British and Foreign Bible Society (1843), Jj^adquarters at Shanghai, Tientsin, and Canton; the National Bible Society of Scotland (1868), agencies at Chungking, Hangkow, and Peking; the American Bible Society (1875), headquarters at Shanghai. The Book and Tract Society of China (1886) has also done valuable work, operating chiefly through a local organization in Shanghai for the diffusion of Christian Literature in China. Comparative Summary of Mission Work in 1877 and 1890. 1877. 1890. Number of missionaries. . . 473 1,295 Ordained natives 73 209 Unordained natives 596 1,260 Hospitals 18 61 Dispensaries 24 43 Patients 135,381 348,439 Organized churches 318 520 Wholly self-supporting 18 94 Communicants 13,515 37,287 Contributions by natives for 1876 and 1889 $9,571 $36,884.54 Hindrances to Missionary Work. — 1. Dislike of Foreigners. The feeling is general that whatever is strange and different from the native is uncanny. For this reason the most common name for the foreigner is fan kwei, which is usually rendered " foreign devil," but it does not mean devil so much as it does some thing that is weird, strange, uncanny, and there fore to be feared. The missionary is an object of suspicion on account of his appearance, his actions, and his speech. If he wanders along the hillsides for recreation, he is supposed to be searching into the mineral wealth of the hills with eyes that can see through the rocks. If he picks a flower, it is to be used for medicine or as a charm. Everything that he does is sus ceptible of some wrong interpretation. — 2. The Conceit of the Literati. It is a significant fact that at the utmost but three or four siu-isai (B.A.) and but one or two ku-jin (M.A.) have been known to profess Christianity. The lit erati form the most difficult class to reach, and are the most bitter opponents of Christianity; for they are so puffed up with their knowledge, aud so firmly convinced that whatever is Con fucian and according to tradition is right, that they will not listen to or heed the religious teachings of the foreigner. The Mohamme dans are also hard to reach. — 3. The Supersti tions of the People. When every little event of life is bound up in some way or other with their multiple superstitions, the teachings of the gospel are choked by these thorns of error. — 4. Ancestral Worship. By opposing the wor ship of parents, Christians are regarded as un- filial, and the doctrine which refuses the rites of worship to father and mother is viewed with dislike and scorn. — 5. The Opium Habit. The increase of this habit is regarded as one great obstacle in the way of tbe Gospel, for the mind of the opium -smoker is dulled, his moral nature is warped and utterly destroyed at length, and nothing can be done to lead him to higher aims than the gratification of the appetite which he has encouraged till he is its slave in mind and body. . . In addition to these obstacles arising from the character of the people, there are physical hindrances, such as the hardness of the language, the difficulty and delay of travel, and in some places the trying nature of the cli mate. The favorable side of the subject is seen when we consider that China is practically open to foreign travel; the language when mastered opens up a medium of communication to millions; the people are of a high order of intelligence; the climate, when precautions are taken, is generally salubrious; wholesome food and comfortable clothes can be procured with ease; and the common people are usually glad to hear of a religion of love. China Inland Mission.* Headquarters, 2 Pyrland Road, Mildmay, London, N., Eng land. — I have been asked to give an account of the circumstances which led to the inception of the China Inland Mission, of its develop ment, and of some of the special ideas and methods which are at the basis of the work. The work of God is so truly one, — " One sow- eth and another reapeth," — and so many influ ences combine in causing a given departure, that it is difficult to know where to commence. The work of Dr. GutzlafE in China interested many Christian people in Europe in the needs of inland China. His visit to England led to the formation, in 1850, of a Society intended to "further the promulgation of the Gospel in China by means of native evangelists." The failure of some of Dr. Gutzlaff's plans led to a modification of the original aims of this Society. Changing its title to that of the " Chinese Evangelization Society," it determined to send out European missionaries, to work if possible inland, availing themselves of the help of na tive agents as far as should be practicable. I sailed for China as its first English agent on September 19th, 1853, and worked for several years under its auspices. Conscientious diffi culties afterwards led to a friendly separation — so thoroughly friendly, that the Society con tinued to publish my journals as they had done before. Those years of independent work in China only confirmed the conviction — gathered from God's Word, and fostered by providential circumstances, before my sailing for China — that it was safe to trust in the promises of God for the supply in answer to prayer of all the needs, pecuniary and otherwise, of the work to which He calls His servants. Illustrations of God's goodness in answer to prayer have been published by me in " China's Millions" from time to time, and specially in the series of papers entitled 'A Retrospect,' and contained in the volumes for 1886, 1887, and 1888. The limits of space prevent further reference to them here. During these years of labor in China I was privileged to come in contact and to labor in very close fellowship with the Rev. W. C. Burns in the years 1855 and 1856. We travelled and lived together, working principally in the in land districts of the provinces Kiang-su, Cheh kiang, and Kwang-tung; in the latter prov ince working in Swatow and its neighborhood. * The China Inland Mission is so closelj* identi fied with Mr. Taylor's own life, that we have thought best to waive the usual form and leave this article just as it was received from Mr. Taylor. — Editor. CHINA INLAND MISSION 272 CHINA INLAND MISSION The strong scriptural views of this holy man on the subject of evangelization, and the need of a special order of evangelists, took great hold on me; and the hopelessness of ever overtaking the then living millions of China except by the large use of evangelists, deeply impressed my soul. Though an ordained Presbyterian min ister, Mr. Burns ever refused to perform any pastoral function. Having been largely used in Scotland, England, and Canada before he went to China, he lived and died there as an evangelist, gladly doing pioneering work, and commencing operations, but leaving to others the pastoral work which appropriately fol lowed. Failing health led to my return to England in the end of the year 1860, and my first thought was for the work which I had left behind in the province of Cheh-kiang, and for the other unevangelized parts of that province. Indeed, in the January of that year, when I had no thought of returning myself, I had written to a friend in Eugland: " Do you know of any earnest, devoted young men desirous of serving God in China, who, not wishing for more than their expenses, would be willing to come out and labor here ? Oh, for four or five such helpers; they would probably preach in Chinese in six months. In answer to prayer the means will be found.11 During the voyage home it was my earnest prayer that five such workers might be found and sent out to China. This prayer was answered: iu 1862, Mr. Meadows, now the senior missionary of the China Inland Mission, went out with his young wife, followed in 1865 by four others. In the meantime constant thought and prayer, and ever-deepening distress from the contem plation of the awful fact that a million a month in China were dying without God, brought home the conviction that something must be done, and done without delay, in obedience to our Lord's command, to reach the residents of inland China. None of the existing missionary societies were prepared to definitely attempt the evangelization of the interior, and the urgent necessity for a special effort was thus forced upon me. Great love for the noble societies that were working in China and elsewhere led to much anxious thought and prayer for methods of working which would not interfere with the supplies of men and money likely to reach them. To divert supplies from one channel to another would have added nothing to the missionary strength of the churches. The new work must, if possible, aid all aud injure none, It was therefore determined to make no collections, to use uo personal solicitation, but to trust in God to send in answer to prayer spontaneous dona tions for the supply of the need of the work. It was also foreseen that to meet the vast needs of inland China all tho volunteers obtainable from every branch of the Christian Church would be required, and would prove all too few; nor was there felt to be any insuperable difficulty in working in the mission tic-Id with members of various Christian denominations. The now work was therefore made interdenominational. The needs of China were made known by the publication in 1865 of a little book called "China's Spiritual Need and Claims,"* in * This book is still to be obtained: published by the Willard Tract Depository, Toronto, Ont., and Messrs. Morgan & Scott, London. which it was shown that there were at .that time only 97 Protestant missionaries actually in the field; that these were all located in 10 or 11 ports, situated in 7 of the 18 provinces of China, and all, with the exception of Han-kow (a port over 600 miles up the river Yang-tsz) on the sea border of China. There were consequently 11 provinces without any missionary, while the greater part of the other 7 provinces having only missionaries in their free ports, was equally out of reach of the Gospel. By public meetings also the same needs were made known, and volun teers were invited to go out to China, without any guarantees beyond those contained in the Scriptures, to carry the Gospel to these needy ones. The China Inland Mission was now definitely formed, and Mr. Meadows and the other workers above referred to were incorpo rated in it. On the 26th of May, 1866, I sailed for China in the "Lammermuir," with the first large party of volunteers, and the work has subsequently been continued on the same lines. From this point in our history it is desirable to trace separately the, progress of the home department and of the work in the mission field. I. The Home Department.— It was not practicable to remit small sums of money to China; a channel of communication for our donors was therefore essential. Further, being in China myself with the volunteers, I could no longer select from those1 who wished to join our work suitable candidates, so means for selecting further workers were most desirable. Again, we wished to inform the kind donors from time to time of our joys and sorrows, and to have the help of their prayers in our difficulties. This required a friend at home to print and cir culate an occasional paper. These needs were all met by the kind offer of a Christian mer chant, W. T. Berger, Esq. , to receive for us funds sent through the post, to remit them to China, and to take charge, generally speaking, of the home work of the mission. He became there fore the first Honorary Home Director of the mission, and acted as such for about six years. When no longer able, from failure of health, to carry on the home work, a small Council was formed in London, and two of its members acted as the honorary secretaries of the mission, and carried on its work for two or three years. As the mission increased, it became necessary to have a resident secretary, and Mr. Broomhall came to our help; aud further additions to the staff _ have been made as circumstances have required. One of the first members of the Council, Mr. Theodore Howard, has for several years been Houorary Home Director; and he and the Council meet weekly for the determi nation of all matters connected with the home work of the mission. Recently an auxiliary of the Council has been formed in Glasgow, of which William Oatts, Esq., is the Honorary Secretary, to assist in tbe selection of candidates from Scotland; and an auxiliary Council of ladies has been formed in Loudon, of which Miss Soltau is the Houorary Secretary, to assist in the selection and training of lady candidates. A Council for North America has also been formed, some members residing in theUnited States and others in Canada. The Secretary and Treasurer, Mr. H. W. Frost, formerly of Attica, N. Y. , has CHINA INLAND MISSION 273 CHINA INLAND MISSION removed to Toronto, Ont., and the office of t&e mission is iu that city, at 14 Richmond Street West. American contributions are re ceived by Mr. Frost, and American candidates apply to him, and when accepted by the Council are sent out to China. II. The China Department. — When the band of missionaries mentioned above as sail ing in the " Lammermuir" arrived in China in tmrautumn of 1866, they had immediate experi ence of the difficulty of securing residence in land; it was only after many ineffectual attempts that suitable premises were at last obtained in the city of Hang-chau. The brethren who had preceded them had opened two other inland stations, giving us as the year closed, including Ning-po, where the work first originated, four stations with resident missionaries. In the fol lowing year four other inland stations were opened, but not without riots in three of them. In 1868 two new stations and an out-station were peaceably occupied. Another city, Yang- chau, was also peaceably occupied for some months ; but a disturbance originating at the Roman Catholic Foundling Hospital caused us to be driven away, to return by invitation after two or three months' absence. The frequency with which rioting occurred on our settling in a city led to the policy of frequently visiting a place in which we wished to settle, so as to become well known and make some friends, ere attempting to rent houses. By adopting this plan riots became as infrequent as they had previously been common. For the first ten years the stations opened were all in four provinces, Cheh-kiang, Kiang su, Gan-hwuy, and Kiang-si. The income for these years averaged about $25,000. The number of missionaries, including their wives, had reached 44, and they were assisted by 70 native helpers and 6 Bible-women. There were still nine provinces in which we desired to be gin work, and a station was opened in Bbam6, in Upper Burmah, with a view to entering China if possible from the west. Ten years later, in 1885, we had stations and resident missionaries in seven of these nine provinces ; and in that one year 40 new mis sionaries went out, while the income for the year was over $100,000. The following ex tract, taken from the preface to the annual vol ume of " China'sMillions" for the year 1886, has sufficient interest to be reproduced : " The story of twenty years cannot be retold in a preface, but a few lines may give facts sufficient to show that the labors of these years have not been in vain in the Lord. To His good hand must be ascribed the success. The work has been His, and all the praise must be given to Him. "In 1865 there were but 97 Protestant missionaries in China. In 1886, in connection with the China Inland Mission alone, there are 152 missionaries (not including wives). "The following table deserves careful study. It only refers to those provinces in China proper which in 1866 had no Protestant missionary. If the history of missionary effort in China up to the present time were written, it would have no chapter of deeper interest than that which told of the pioneer work of the China Inland Mission in those eleven provinces. " The itineration of those provinces by members of the mission, the opening of mission stations in all but one (though in two, Ho-nan and Hu-nan, they have had to be relinquished again and againl, the peaceful resi dence in so many of them, would, if not a single con vert had been gained, be cause enough for deep thanks giving. Province. Population. Area. CO .22 _a si* .2 «m- _ ~o = = *? tagg c Om o C° ¦S.2 >> CO . - M 03 C £.— cS.S !3 * 9 millions 15 1516 3 " 79 4 " 20 " 55 + 48,161 sq.mls. 72,176 " 65,104 " 73,320 " 86,608 " 67,400 " 56,208 " 64,554 " 166,800 " 107.969 " 77,856 " NoneNoneNoneNoneNone NoneNoneNone None NoneNone 18681869187518751876 187618761877 1877 18771877 1869 18731876 i878 1879187718771877 1881 None 13 522 13 12 23 6 12 8 None KlANG-SI KiN-SUH * The estimate of population is that given in "China's Spiritual Need and Claims.1' t Area of England 50,823 square miles. " A glance at the other seven provinces will not he without interest. Here again the progress made calls for grateful acknowledgment. Province. Popula tion. Area. Total number of Mis sionaries in 1865. C. I. M. Mission aries in 1886. millions sq. miles K WANG-TUNG. . 17* (10.230 FUH-KIEN . . 10 45,753 Cheh-kiang. . 12 39,150 Kiang-su . 20 44.500 !- 97 66 Shan- tung. . . . 1(1 65,104 [ 20 67,276 Hu-peh 20* 70,450 J " For statistics of native helpers and church mem bers, etc., we must refer to the report given in this volume. u When, however, the work of tbe China Inland Mis sion, and of all the missions, is looked at in relation to the vast and overwhelming need, it is soon seen how utterly inadequate it is. The table on the following page amply shows this. Since the above extract was written the work has continued to grow and develop, aud the internal organization has of course needed to develop with it. Without attempting to fol low it from stage to stage, we may mention our present arrangements. New workers, on arrival in the field as probationers, proceed usu ally to one of tbe training homes established by tbe mission. There for about six months they CHINA INLAND MISSION 371 CHINA INLAND MISSION PROPORTION OF MISSIONARIES TO THE POPULATION CHINA PROPER. IN THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES OP Province. Population. No. of Mis sionaries.* Proportion to Population. Or one Missionary to a Population exceeding that of — 17 millions 1012 20 19 20 " 20* " 15 9 " 9 •' a " 20 545 " 1615 " 92604892547132 ¦4 15 25 9 3 14 66 0 3 itinerating 3 1 to 170,000 1 to 167,000 1 to 250,000 1 to 217,000 1 to 352,000 1 to 300,000 1 to 600,000 1 to 3,750,000 1 to 600.000 1 to 360.000 1 to 8oo;ooo 1 to 1.000,000 lto 1,400,000 1 to 800,000 1 to 700,000 Oto 5,000,000 0 to 16,000,000 1 to 5,000,000 Hull (162.325). Newcastle (145,359), or Dundee (140,239). Edinburgh (228,357). Belfast (207,671), or Bristol (206,874). Manchester (341,414). Sheffield (284,508). Liverpool (552,508). Scotland (3,500,000). Glasgow (511,415). Shan-si Shkn-si Manchester (341,414). Glasgow and Sheffield (795,923). Liverpool and Birmingham (953,282). Glasgow, Liverpool, aud Dublin (1,336,987). Glasgow and Sheffield (795,923). Manchester and Leeds (649,533). Ireland (no missionary). Four times Scotland. London. * The number of missionaries is according to an account corrected to December, 1884. receive from European and native teachers careful instruction in the language, and are taught besides much that will be helpful to them as to the geography, government, and etiquette of the country, the phases of religious thought, and the best method of communicat ing the gospel to the people. They then com monly proceed to some of the inland stations of the mission, and continue their studies, as sisting as able in the work, under tbe supervi sion of senior missionaries. A definite course of study is pursued, divided into six sections; and periodical examinations from time to time test the progress of the student. If his prog ress has been satisfactory, aud there is promise of permanent and useful work, the probationer is accepted as a junior missionary at the end of two years, and assists one of the senior mis sionaries in his district. If at the end of five years he has done well, and has passed all his prescribed examinations, he becomes one of the senior missionaries, taking full responsi bility for the work of a station, tbe district sur rounding it, and such of the younger workers* as are placed under his supervision. Over a number of these districts a superintendent is appointed; he has probably been in the country for from 10 to 28 years. The senior mission aries can be called together when necessary to act as a council and confer with the superin tendent about the whole work of his provincial district. All the superintendents are members of the general council of the mission in China. From the extent of the country it is not possi ble for the whole number to meet together fre quently, but a sufficient number of them are able to attend the quarterly meeting of the council to confer with the director and deputy director concerning matters that affect the whole work of the mission in China. All the missionaries connected with the C. I. M. go out without guaranteed salary. Between 60 and 70 of them are either possessed of private means or are supported by special friends who are interested in them, and there fore need no supplies from the general funds of the mission. The funds are remitted from time to time from London and Toronto to the treasurer in China, and he supplies the needs of all those not otherwise supported by remit tances, whieh vary somewhat from time to time, according to the monthly income of the mis sion, the funds being distributed pro rata. The history of the mission affords numerous exam ples of God's faithfulness in hearing and an swering prayer. Sometimes the funds received from home have been wholly inadequate ; prayer has gone up to God, and unexpected donations have been received from persons resi dent in China. Remittances to distant parts of the country have failed to reach their desti nation when due, perhaps owing to the wreck of a mail-boat in the rapids, and though the money has been ultimately recovered, consid erable delay has ensued. In some way or other the Lord has always provided for the need of His trusting servants. Ou one occasion a mis sion station was wrecked by rioters, everyroom was entered with one exception, and whatever the people thought worth having was carried off or destroyed. There were four bed-rooms on one corridor: the first, second, and fourth were looted; the third had the door ajar all the time, and lying ou a bed were the money sup plies and the books of the station, the money having arrived just as the riot was commenc ing; providentially that room was never en tered, and when the riot was quelled, the money and the books were found untouched. But space would fail us were we to attempt to tell even a few of the evidences of God's providen tial care and deliverance. The work of tbe mission being interdenomi national, it is found helpful to cluster together workers whose views of church government sufficiently correspond to enable them to work happily together. When a number of natives have been converted, and the time comes to organize a church, the senior missionary who is responsible for the conduct of the work is perfectly free and unfettered, and will organ ize the church according to his own conscien tious convictions. "When a church has once been formed on any definite lines, those who succeed in superintending the work do so on the condition of carrying it on as it was com menced. Though the mission embraces Epis copalians, Presbyterians, Cougregationalists, Baptists, Methodists, and a few independent workers, all recognize each other as fellow- servants of the same Master, happily meet when occasion requires at the table of the Lord, and recognize each others' converts, how ever or by whomsoever admitted to the privi- CHINA INLAND MISSION 375 CHINESE BLIND lege of church fellowship, provided they are walking consistently before God and their fel low countrymen. A happy family feeling per vades the whole mission to an extent seldom to be found among so large a body of workers, especially when many 'differ so largely from one another as do the members of the C. I. M. The observant reader will probably have no tice* that the principal distinctive features of the C. I. M. are: First. Its interdenominational character. Second. That the workers have no guaran teed salary, but trust in the God whom they serve to supply their needs, and are not dis appointed in their trust. Third. That the direction of the work in the field is carried on, not by home committees, but by senior and experienced missionaries, who help and guide as they are able, those who have less experience in the Lord's work in China. Fourth. That no personal solicitation or col lection of funds is made, voluntary contribu tions alone being received; to which we may add, that the names of donors are never pub lished, but each one receives a dated and num bered receipt, by which he can trace his own contribution into the list of donations, aud thence into the annually published accounts of the mission. The number of missionaries in February, 1890, was over 380, the stations and out-stations of the mission about 150, and the number of organized churches upwards of 80. There has not yet been time to receive statistics from our distant stations up to the end of the year 1889, but the additions to the church by baptism al ready reported for that year are about 500. Chi-iian-fu, a city of northeast China, in centre of West Shantung, 300 miles south of Pe king and 370 miles west of Chefoo. Temperate, healthy. Population, 150,000, Mongolian Chi nese chiefly. Language exclusively Mandarin Chinese. Religions; Confucianism, Buddhism, Taouism, and Islamism. People well-to-do, peaceable, and industrious. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North (1875); 6 mis sionaries and wives, 4 native helpers, 1 church, 125 members, 3 schools, 18 students. S. P. G., 1 missionary, an Anglican church in the for eign settlement, a school for boys, and a train ing-school for young men. Chinese Blind, Mission to the. Sec retary, William J. Slowan. 224 West George Street, Glasgow, Scotland. — This work for the blind of China began when William Murray, a colporteur of the National Bible Society of Scot land, succeeded in perfecting a method where by the blind beggars, who are so sadly numerous in China, may not only be taught to read and write, but may even become active missionary agents, as Scripture-readers and singers of sacred songs. William Murray was born in Port Dun das, Glasgow. When about nine years of age he lost his left arm while too fearlessly examin ing the machinery in a saw-mill. But for this accident he would probably have become a saw-miller; as it was, as soon as be was able to work for a living, he obtained employment as a rural letter-carrier in the neighborhood of Glasgow. His own wish was to be employed in some sort of mission work, and he applied again and again to the National Bible Society. But though greatly attracted by the lad, the Secretary feared that one so simple and unas suming would 'prove an unsuccessful colpor teur; but as the same Secretary now says, "What could he do against a man who was praying himself into the service of the Bible Society?" — for the young postman confided to him afterward that he had divided his long daily walk into three parts, and as he tramped along the monotonous road, he beguiled one third of the distance by the study of the Scrip tures in Hebrew, one third was devoted to the Greek Testament, and the last section was for daily prayer that he might be employed in di rect missionary work in a heathen land. In 1864 he renewed his application to the Bible Society, his services were accepted and he commenced work among the ships congregated on the Clyde. Very soon the Society discovered that it had never before had such a colporteur. His facility in acquiring foreign languages made him very successful in his work among the sailors from many countries. During the summer months he was sent to push his Bible- cart over the moorlands in the wild districts of the Scotch Highlands. Before long his re markable aptitude for languages attracted the notice of the Directors of the Bible Society, and a friend promising to help pay the fees, he was permitted to attend classes at the old Col lege in the High Street, Glasgow, provided his studies did not interfere with his regular work, All day long, therefore, through the gloomy Glasgow winters, he stood in the streets beside his Bible- cart, hurrying back to his lodgings for a hasty supper, studying till nine o'clock and rising daily at 3 a.m. in order to prepare for bis classes at college, from 8 to 10 a.m., at which time he began a new day's work of street-selling. After seven years of apprenticeship he ob tained his heart's desire, and sailed for China in 1871. In four months he had acquired about 2,000 of the 4,000 intricate characters by which the Chinese language is represented, and started ou his pioneer journey in the Province of Shan tung. For 16 years he has labored incessantly as a colporteur, in various provinces of China, and also in Manchuria and Mongolia. During this time 100,000 copies and portions of the Bible in tbe Chinese and Tartar languages have been sold. Many of them were purchased at great fairs by merchants and influential men from re mote districts, and some copies penetrated to the Imperial Palace. But we pass on to Mr. Murray's peculiar gift — that of enlightening the physically as well as morally blind. From the time of his arrival in China he had been deeply impressed with the extraordinary num ber of blind men who mingle in every crowd — sometimes alone, sometimes in gangs of eight or ten, each guided by the man in front of him, the leader feeling his way with a long stick. This large proportion of blindness is due to leprosy, small-pox, neglected ophthalmia, smoky houses, and general dirt. The number of the blind in China is supposed to be 500,000, but this estimate is probably far below the ac tual number. As Mr. Murray in his daily tasks mingled with the ever-changing crowds, the thought of brightening these dreary lives was never absent from his mind. He appealed to other missionaries, but they, already heavily burdened, could do nothing. During his resi dence in Glasgow he had mastered Moon's sys tem of embossed alphabetic symbols and Brail- CHINESE BLIND 276 CHINESE VERSION le's system of embossed dots. Now he cease lessly revolved in his mind wthether it might be possible to adapt either of them to the bewil dering intricacies of the Chinese language, with all its perplexing "tones," which by an al most inappreciable difference of pronunciation cause one word to convey a dozen different meanings. Mr. Murray wrestled with this per plexing problem for a long time, apparently without result, until one day, weaned with a long morning's work, he had lain down to rest during the noouday heat ; suddenly he saw, as clearly as he now sees one of his stereotyped books, outspread before him the whole system, which he patienlly and laboriously worked out during time stolen from sleep (for the whole day was devoted, as before, to the service of the Bible Society). At last, after eight years, the system was completed, and daily experience proves it be so extraordinarily simple to the Chinese intelligence, that any blind man or lad of average mental powers can thoroughly ac quire the arts of reading and writing within two months, and a sharp lad can do this in six weeks. The little school at Peking has been carried ou for eight years, and possesses five books of the Bible in stereotype, some small books on sacred subjects, and a considerable number of music books, also many manuscripts which will soon be stereotyped ; for Mr. Murray's pupils are taught to do everything needed in the preparation of their books. This adaptation of Braille's system also enables the students to write out musical scores with great rapidity and accuracy; and English tunes being easily ac quired and accurately remembered, many of the pupils have become organists and gospel singers in the service of various Christian missions. Many are Bible-readers. In 1886 Mr. Murray went to Scotland, and after pursuing special studies in theology, Greek, and Hebrew, received ordination from the United Presbyterian Church as a missionary in China in connection with the National Bible Society of Scotland ; his marriage took place about this time, and he returned with Mrs. Murray to China in October, 1887. He hopes now, with the help of his wife, to be able to do much for the blind women of China. It is hoped that a separate school may soon be opened for them. One blind man is now itinerating among the mountain hamlets of his own district in Man churia, that vast, remote province, where even the Inland Mission has as yet no representative, and the only beginning of Christian work is that of the Irish aud United Presbyterian churches. The widely-scattered students keep up a correspondence with their friends in Pe king. To prevent the crushing of the embossed characters, their letters are mailed in tin tubes just large enough to contain them. New hymns and tunes and any matters of interest are thus interchanged. Unlit 1886 Mr. Murray defrayed all expenses of his work, including the board, lodging, and clothing of the students. In 1887 the " Mis sion to the Chinese Blind " was formed in Scot land, and its receipts for 1888 amounted to £2,208, 9s. 5rf. Chinese Version. — A few portions of the Scriptures appear to have been translated at various times by Roman Catholic mis sionaries in China, but no successful efforts were made by them towards the production of an entire version. All versions now existing belong to this century; and at present there are in China proper, with its 380,000,000 souls, fine leading versions in, Chinese, i.e., in the literary, classical, or book language (wen-li) as distin guished from the so-called colloquial versions, which may be found under their proper alpha betical heading. The classical versions are as follows: 1. Dr. Marshman's version, commenced in 1806, and published at Serampore in 1822 by the Baptist Mission. 2. Morrison and Milne's version, commenced in 1807, and published in 1823 at Malacca. 3. Medhurst's or The Delegates' Version. — At the suggestion of Dr. Medhurst, who had translated the New Testament into Chinese (published at Batavia in 1837) for an improved translation of the Bible, a convention of a com mittee of delegates from the several stations in China met at Shanghai, and the result of their labors, or rather of those of Drs. Medhurst, Stronach, and Milne of the London Missionary Society, was the Delegates' Version of the New Testament, first published at Shanghai in 1852. In 1855 tbe Old Testament, also translated by these missionaries, followed. Many subsequent editions are spoken of under the name of The Delegates' Version. An edition of the New Testament of The Delegates' Version with mar ginal references was published in 1869. For a considerable time there has been a growing de sire among Chinese missionaries for an edition of the Chinese Bible in a less classical and sim pler style than the Delegates' Version published by the British and Foreign Bible Society. As a first step towards this end, the Rev. G. John of the London Missionary Society translated ten chapters of the New Testament, which were circulated among the missionaries with a view to ascertain their opinion. As this translation was received with great favor, Mr. John con tinued his work, and his New Testament in Low or Easy Wen-li was published at Hankow by the National Bible Society of Scotland in 1885. On the other hand, Dr. Blodget of Pekin, and Bishop Burdou, of the committee which made the Mandarin version, earnestly advocated the publication of an Easy Wen-li version made from the Mandarin by such modifications as the genius of the language requires. To com ply with their request the American Bible So ciety authorized the printing tentatively of cer tain portions of the New Testament, and in 1886 the Gospel of Matthew and the Epistle to the Romans were published accordingly at Pekin. [And in 1889 the entire New Testament was printed in octavo form at Foochow.] 4. Outzlaffs Version. — A translation of the Old Testament made by the late Rev. Dr. Gutz lafE was published about the year 1840, and a new edition in 1855. His New Testament, a modification of that published by W. H. Medhurst of the London Missionary Society, was often reprinted by the Chinese Union, a native Christian society. 5. Bridgman and Culbertson's Version. — Soon after the completion of the Delegates' Version, the Revs. E. C. Bridgman and M. S. Culbert son of the American Board commenced their version of the Bible. The New Testament was published in 1859; the entire Bible in 1863. Different editions of this version were issued by the American Bible Society, and in 1887 a CHINESE VERSION 377 CHOCTAW VERSION pocket edition of the New Testament was issued at Shanghai, besides a diglott edition in Chinese and English. These are at present the five leading versions of the Bible in the Wen-li or classical Chinese. A translation of the New Testament made by the late bishop of the Russian church at Pekin was published in 1864; and another by the Rev. T. H. Hudson was completed about the year 1867* At the Missionary Conference held in Shang hai, May, 1890, three committees were ap pointed to select three corps of revisers who shall make a standard version for China in the three forms: the Wen-li, high classical; simple classical, or Easy Wen-li; and the Mandarin. This version is to take the place of all the dif ferent existing versions. The same conference also recommended the use of the colloquial and the Romanized versions. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) 2\^h # "ffl * ft is ft. ft Vk % 2. Cliin-hna (see Kinhwa), a city in the prov ince of Chih-kiang, China, a station of the China Inland Mission; founded in 1884; 63 church-members. Ching-Ch o-Fn (Tsing-chu-f u), & city in the province of Shantung, Northeast China, 236 miles from Chefoo. The central station of the English Baptist Missionary Society. A medical department, with a hospital, has recently been organized; and an educational department, with a high-school and theological seminary, is being carried on. The principle of the mission is self-support, and the work of each year hastens towards this end. In the whole field of which this is the centre there are 13 missionaries, 4 evangelists, 1,023 church-members. Chin-Kiang, China, is on the Yang-tsz- kiang, 157 miles northwest of Shanghai. Cli mate is damp, subject to extremes, temperature ranging from 20°-100° F., but moderately healthy. Population, 120,000. Language, Man darin. Religion, Buddhism, Taouism, Confu cianism, worship of ancestors. People semi- civilized, but low and degraded. Mission Station Southern Baptist Convention (1889); 3 missionaries and wives, 5 native help ers, 12 out-stations, 1 church, 10 members, 1 school, 20 scholars. Presbyterian Church (South), U. S. A., 2 missionaries. Methodist Episcopal Church (North), U. S. A. ; 2 missionaries and wives, 3 female mission aries, 27 church-members. Chipewayan Version. — The Chipewa, which belongs to the Athabascan branch of American languages, is used by the Indians from Churchhill on the east to the Great Slave Lake on the west. In the year 1877 the British and Foreign Bible Society published the four Gos pels, in the syllabic character and in para graph form, at London, under the editorship of the Rev. E. A. Watkins of the Church Mission ary Society. In 1880 an edition of the entire New Testament, consisting of 1,000 copies, was published under the editorship of Archdeacon Kirkby of the Church Missionary Society. Thus far 1,506 portions of the Scriptures were disposed of. These people are sometimes con founded with the Ojibwas of the United States — a different tribe. (Specimen, verse. John 3 : 16.) Apeech zhahwaindung sab Keshamunedoo ewh ahkeh, ooge-oonje megewanun enewh atafr tatabenahwa Kahoogwesejin, wagwain dush ka> tapwayainemahgwain chebahnahdezesig, cheah* yong dush goo ewh kahkenig pemahtezewio. Chittagong, a town of Bengal, East India, 212 miles east of Calcutta. Climate very un healthy; subject to all kinds of diseases arising from impure water and imperfect drainage ; efforts are now being made to improve this. Population, 20,969, Moslems, Hindus, etc. Mission station Baptist Missionary Society; 1 missionary, 7 native helpers, 4 out-stations, 115 school children, 25 church-members. Chitangali, a town near the coast of East Central Africa, a little north of the Rovuma River and Cape Delgado, south of Masasi, and northeast of Mwala. Mission station of the Universities Mission to Central Africa. Chitesi, a town on the east shore of Lake Nyassa, East Central Africa, opposite Lakoma Island, and southeast of Bandawe, on the oppo site side of the lake. Mission station of the Universities Mission to Central Africa. Chittoor, a city of Madras, South India, 80 miles west of Madras City. Population, 5,809, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Lan guages, Tamil, Telugu, Hindustani. Mission station Reformed Church in America (1854); 2 missionaries and wives, 13 native helpers, 10 out-stations, 2 churches, 124 members, 11 schools, 335 scholars. Choctaw Version. — The Choctaw be longs to the Florida or Appalachian branch of American languages, and is used by the Indians in the Southern States of the United States. They were made acquainted with the Scrip tures in 1831, when an illustrated Old Testa ment history and parts of Luke and John, also illustrated, were published at Utica, N. Y. In CHOCTAW VERSION 278 CHRISTIAN VERN. ED. SOC. 1839, the American Board published the Acts at Boston. In 1841 the Epistles of John ap peared at Park Hill; in 1843 the Epistle of James. In 1848 the New Testament, prepared by the Rev. Asher Wright and his associates, was issued by the American Bible Society. In 1886 tbe same Society published the Psalms, translated by the Rev. John Edwards, a Pres byterian missionary, having previously pub lished Genesis to Kings. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Chihowa yut yakni asj hullo fehna kut; kvma bosh yumroa A yimmikmvt ik illo hosh, amba ai okchayut bilia yo pisa hi o, Ushi achvfa ilia holitopa ya auet ima tok. Chombala (Tsjombala or Tschombala), a city ou the west coast of South India, Cochin District, south of Calicut. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society; 2 missionaries, 1 female missionary, 29 native helpers, 178 church-members. Christianagarain, a town of Madras, British India, in the Tamil Laud, ou the coast, a station of the S. P. G., with 2,643 members. Christianenburg, a town of East Natal, South Africa, at the mouth of the Tugela River, northwest of Durban. Mission station of the Berlin Evangelical Lutheran Society (1854); 1 missionary, 9 native helpers, 2 out-stations, with 1,300 members and an active temperance society. A Roman Catholic mission (Trappists) is very active in the neighborhood. Christiansborg, a town on the Gold Coast, West Africa, a little northeast of Jamestown. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society, with 11 missionaries, 7 missionaries' wives, 17 native helpers, 614 church-members, a boys' school, and a high-school. The place was origi nally a Danish colony, but as the climate is very trying to Europeans, and one after another the Danish missionaries died, the work progressed very slowly until in 1843 a Christian negro colony was transplanted thither from the West Indies. In 1850 the place was sold to the Eng lish, and that change gave occasion, in 1852, to some unfortunate disturbances. But the place has now 6,000 inhabitants, is the seat of the government, and a centre of traffic and com merce. Christian Faith Society.— Secretary, Rev. Henry Bailey, D.D., West Tarring Rec tory, Worthing, England. — The founder of the Christian Faith Society was the Honorable Robert Boyle, a man distinguished not only for his extensive learning, and as being one of the first philosophers of the age in which he lived, but also remarkable for his zeal and ac tivity in promoting the cause of Christianity, both at home and abroad. He was very influ ential in procuring the charter of the East India Company, and being for many years one of its directors, he made a proposal that some attempt should be made to propagate Christianity in the East, and himself aided in the commencement of the work by an initiatory contribution of £100, to be added to as soon as the work should be actually begun. For thirty years he was gov ernor of the "Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England." instituted by the "Long Parliament" in 1649, and kept up a correspondence with John Eliot and other missionaries sent to North America by Crom well. During his life he contributed £300 to that Society, and at his death left for it a further sum. He expended £700 on the edition of the Irish Bible, which by his order was dis tributed in Ireland; and contributed largely to the printing of the Welsh Bible, and designed also to defray tbe expense of publishing the New Testament in the Turkish language. The Turkey Company, however, allowed him to be a contributor only to that undertaking. The four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles were translated into the Malay language iu 1677 by the learned Dr. Hyde, Professor of Oriental Languages at Oxford, and printed under his supervision, at the expense of Mr. Boyle, and sent to the East to be distributed. Mr. Boyle also bore the whole cost of the publication of the celebrated work of Grotius, De Veriiate Christiana!, into Arabic, and of its circulation in countries where that language was spoken. His life-work was crowned by the formation, after his death, according to directions in his will, dated July 28th, 1691, of the "Christian Faith Society," as it is now known. The will directed that a certain part of Mr. Boyle's per sonal estate should be laid out by his execu tors in charitable purposes, at their discretion; but they were advised to use the greater part for tbe "advancement of the Christian religion amongst infidels." The executors accordingly purchased an estate in Brafferton, Yorkshire, the income of which should be forever applied to the extension of Christianity. From this time until the war of the American Revolution the rents of the estate were sent to William and Mary College in Virginia, to be applied to the instruction of Indian children. At the con clusion of the war permission was obtained by Dr. Porteous, Bishop of London, from the Court of Chancery to employ the funds in some part of the British dominions approaching as nearly as possible to the original intention of Robert Boyle; and the " Society for the Conver sion and Religious Instruction and Education of the Negro Slaves in the British West India Islands" was accordingly established by royal charter. Upon the abolition of slavery in the British colonies in 1834 the Society applied for a new charter, which was granted in 1836 by King William IV., making it a corporation under the name of the " Society for Advancing the Christian Faith in the British West India Islauds;" and tbe sphere of its operations has since been extended to include the Mauritius and other islands belonging to Great Britain. The grants of the Society are repeatedly ac knowledged to be of very great value by those who receive them; but for their assistance many undertakings could never have been begun, or must have been brought to a close. Christian Reformed missionary Society. Headquarters, Leyden, Holland. — Founded iu 1839; has missionaries in Batavia and Surabaya. Christian Vernacular Education Society for India. Headquarters, 7 Adam Street, Adelphi, London, W. C., England.— Iu 1857 Great Britain was deeply moved by the alarming intelligence of the mutiny in India. A feeling of pity, not of revenge, was aroused in many hearts, as it was believed tbat the re bellion against the Government was owing to the ignorance of Christianity. It was accord- CHRISTIAN VERN. ED. SOC. 279 CHURCH OF ENG. BOOK SOC. ingly resolved to endeavor to diffuse the light of the Gospel throughout the Indian Empire. In addition to the extension of the labors of the various missionary societies, it was deemed ad visable to unite Protestant Christians of all de nominations to make a combined effort for the education of the people. This was cordially agreed to; and in May, 1858, at a public meeting held at St. James' Hall, Piccadilly, London, was organized the Christian Vernacular Educa tion Society for India. Since that time the Society has been actively employed in carrying out the purpose for which it was formed. Foreign Work. — The following is a brief sketch of the operations of the Societ}' : 1. The Training of Native Teachers. — One thousand native Christian teachers have been trained and sent into the mission field. 2. The Instruction of the Young. — In Bengal, where there is a large number of heathen schools, the society has for many years adopted apian for bringing the children under Christian influence. Groups of village schools are formed into circles, each comprising five or six schools, and a Christian teacher is set over each circle. His work consists in teaching in one or more of his schools daily, devoting a portion of his time to supplementing the secular instruction given by the village school-teacher, and tbe remain ing and larger portion of it to teaching the truths of the Christian religion. 3. The Publication of Christian Literature. — Fourteen millions of copies of 1,250 publications have been issued in the chief languages of India. These include books for children in schools, young men in colleges, women at home, and Christian literature for native Chris tians and the people generally. The Society's books are used more or less by every mission in India. (li nana or Sechuana Version.— The Chuana belongs to the Bantu family of African languages, and is used by the Bechuana and Matabele tribes of South Africa. The Rev. R. Moffat translated the New Testament, of which the first part, the Gospel of Luke, was published at Cape Town in 1831 ; and ten years later the whole New Testament was issued by the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society at London. In 1857 the entire Bible left the press at London. A revised edition of the Chuana Bible, prepared by the missionaries at Kuruman, was published in 1877, under the editorship of the Rev, R. Price and of J. Brown of the London Missionary Society. The British and Foreign Bible Society intends to publish an edition of the Bible in the new orthography. In order to give the missionaries time to come to an agree ment regarding the revised orthography, an edition of the Bible of 1877, consisting of 10,000 copies, was carried through the press by the Rev. J. Mackenzie. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British and Foreign Bible Society disposed of 32,310 portions of the Scriptures, either as a whole or in parts. The Society for Promoting Christian Knowl edge also published in 1885 tbe Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. (Specimen verse. John 3. 16.) Gone Morimo o lo oa fata lehatsi yalo, ka o 16 oa naea Moroa ona eo o tsecoeQ a le esi, gore moSue le mofiue eo o rumelafi mo go ena, a si ia a hela. mi a ne le botselo yo bp sa fehutlefi. Chn Chia Tsai, a village in the Province of Shantung, 140 miles south of Tientsin, Northeast China. The centre of the country work of the Methodist New Connexion, (1887); 2 ordained missionaries, 1 physician and wife, 15 native preachers, 31 out-stations, 5 churches, 1,300 church members, 10 schools, 110 scholars, and a flourishing hospital. Cliudderghaut, a suburb of Haidarabad, Madras. Mission station of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. See Haidarabad. Chundicully, a station of the C. M. S. in the Jaffna district, North Ceylon. Connected with the mission is a seminary with 199 pupils. Chung-King, a city in the Province of Sz- chuen, China, 1,400 miles from the sea, at the juncture of the Yangtszkiang and Kialing rivers. This commercial centre, the largest west of I-Chang, was opened to foreign trade by the latest treaty between England and China. A British commercial agent is located here and a custom service established. Mission work met with great difficulties in 1886, when all the resi dents were driven out and their houses de stroyed; but two years later the missionaries returned. A hospital and a work for women have been started and are doing well. Mission station of China Inland Mission; 9 missionaries, 5 church-members. Chuprah, India, a town of Bengal, on the Ganges. Population, 30,000. It is built on low ground very little above the level of the Ganges (here only navigable during the rains), and most of the houses, with the exception of the temples and dwellings of the wealthy native merchants, are built of mud, with tiled roofs. Mission station of the Gossner Missionary Soci ety. Church of God of Sforth America, General Missionary Society. Secretary, J. R. H. Latchaw, Findlay, Ohio. — The General Missionary Society was organized in 1845. Foreign work has not been undertaken as yet, but efforts are being made to raise a Foreign Mission Fund with which to carry on work in other countries. Home-mission work is prose cuted in 17 States and Territories, including the Indian Territory. Church of England Book Society. Headquarters, 11 Adam Street, Strand, Lon don, England. —The object of the Church of England Book Society, founded in 1880, is to promote the circulation of sound Christian lit erature in English or in foreign languages, among all classes, at home and abroad. The books circulated may be of a religious or secu lar character, provided they contain nothing inconsistent with evangelical teaching, or an tagonistic to the Church of England. Free grants of books, including hymn-books and the Book of Common Prayer, tracts, etc., are made to poor clergymen in the United Kingdom, for themselves, and for distribution in their par ishes; to missionaries, and to parish and other libraries. During tbe year 1887-88 the Society made grants of books, etc., in the United Kingdom to the value of £2,561 17s. Id. ; and to East Equatorial Africa, Sierra Leone, India, Jamaica, Jerusalem, etc., to the value of £357 17s., 4d.; making a total of £2,919 14s., 5d. The Society makes no appeals for support, but CHURCH OF ENG. BOOK SOC. 280 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. disburses whatever comes in to it from voluntary contributions. Church of England in Canada. Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society. Secretary, Rev. C. H. Mockridge, D.D., Wind sor, Nova Scotia. — The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Church of England in Canada was formed in 1883, but has not as yet undertaken direct missionary work, its funds having been sent to missionary bishops in various places lo assist in the prosecution of their work. Contributions have also been sent to several English missionary societies, especi ally to the S. P. G. As soon as the Society can depend upon au adequate yearly income direct missionary work will be entered upon, and missionaries will be sent to India, Japan, or other heathen countries. Church Missionary Society. Head quarters, Mission House, Salisbury Square, London, E. O, England. History. — Among those most influential in founding the Church Missionary Society were the men who also led the " Evangelical Move ment," — Newton and Cecil, Charles Simeon, Charles Grant, Thomas Scott of Olney, Wilber- force, Josiah Pratt, and Henry Venn, members of the " Eclectic Society" instituted in 1783, for the discussion of religious questions by evangelical clergymen who were mainly of the Church of England. From these discussions sprang the Church Missionary Society, the idea of which was first suggested in a paper read by Charles Simeon. On the 16th April, 1799, six teen clergymen met at the "Castle and Falcon," in London, which five years before had wit nessed the formation of the London Missionary Society, and organized the " Society for Mis sions to Africa and the East," whose object was to send the Gospel of Christ to the heathen aud Mohammedan world, whether within or with out the dominion of Great Britain. (The work ofthe Society for the Propagation of the Gospel being until 1826 purely colonial, no clergymen of the Church of England had as yet gone to either heathen or Mohammedan lands.) ln 1812, in order to make more conspicuous its connec tion with the Established Church, the name of the Society was changed to " The Church Mis sionary Society for Africa and the East," now commonly called simply The Church Mission ary Society, its field being not only Africa and the East but embracing almost every country in the world. When the change of name was made it was expressly stated that the friendly inter course with other Protestant societies engaged in the same work of spreading the Gospel of Jesus Christ should be maintained, and The Church Missionary Society has continued to be " remarkable not only for this brotherly co operation and honor, but also for its evangeli cal large-heartedness, its sound principles of method and its excellent government and or ganization at home and abroad." Notwithstanding its fundamental recogni tion of the Episcopal privileges (ordination, con firmation, and consecration of churches), and the relative supervision of the missionaries who should be sent out, a year elapsed before the Society received a "verbal, indirect non-dis approval on the part of a bishop," and for 15 years the crown bishops withheld their sanction; in the year 1815, for the first time, two bishops took part in the Society; 25 years later there were among its members 9 bishops; and at the present time 3 archbishops and 99 bishops be long to it. For many years after its formation no clergymen of the Church of England offered their services to the Society, and the only mis sionaries who could be obtained were German Lutherans who had been educated at the mis sion institutions of Berlin and Basle.* In 1815 the Mission Seminary at Islington was instituted, and in the same year the Rev. Mr. Jowett of the Church of England offered his services to the Society. The number of missionaries sent out by the Society now ex ceeds 1,200, more than 500 of whom were trained at Islington, while over 220 were Uni versity men. The most important agency for raising funds is that of the Local Associations, which number about 3,700, and extend over the United King dom. In one way or another the Society is supported by about 5,400 parishes; 7,500 ser mons are preached, and 3,000 meetings held annually for its benefit. Organization and Constitution. — The Society is conducted by a Patron, always a member of the Royal Family; a Vice-Patron, the Archbishop of Canterbury; a President, who must be a layman; Vice-President, usu ally clerical; a Committee and such officers as may be deemed necessary, — all being members of the Church of England or Ireland. The Committee consists of 24 laymen and of all the clergymen who have been for at least one year members of the Society. Of the 24 lay mem bers, 18 are reappointed each year from the existing Committee, the rest being elected from the General Body of the Society. The committee appoints sub-committees of Patronage(or nominations), of Funds, of Cor respondence, of Finance, and Estimates. The Foreign work is in general directed by the Committee of Correspondence, who elect from among themselves a clerical sub-committee for the examination of missionary candidates. The Committee deals with the reports of the sub committees, decides on countries where mis sions shall be carried on, and superintends and controls the affairs of the Society in general, ap pointing such officers and assistants as may be necessary; its meetings are held once a month oroftener; the Patron, Vice-Patron, President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer and Secretaries, at least one of whom must be a layman, being con sidered ex-officiis members of all committees. Five members are necessary to form a quorum of the Committee; three form a quorum of the sub-committees. An annual meeting of all members of the Society is held in May, when the proceedings of the foregoing year are re ported, the accounts presented, and a Treasurer and Committee chosen. Candidates for the missionary office are ex amined by the Committee of Correspondence, and if being found properly qualified they are accepted by the Committee, they receive such * In 1802, Henry Martyn, influenced by Carey's work, was in communication with the Church Missionary So ciety through Charles Simeon, with a view to going as a missionary to India; but owing to the policy ofthe East India Company this plan could not be carried out, and Martyn accepted instead a chaplaincy in that Com pany. Although therefore never technically a mission ary, he was in fact the first clergyman of the Church of Eugland to offer to go to the heathen, and the magic of his name has been a mighty influence since to stir up others. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 281 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. instruction and preparation for their further employment as the Committee of Correspond ence may judge expedient. Each candidate must consider himself ready to go to any part of the world at any time, as the Committee shall decide; and, when duly prepared and finally approved for missionary work, must be willing to go out either ordained or unordained, at the discretion of the Committee. Under the authority of the law of England, the Bish ops of the Established Church ordain and send forth (ecclesiastically speaking) the Society missionaries, and in the event of their being appointed by the Committee to labor at stations within the jurisdiction of a bishop of the Church of England abroad, it is the practice of the Society to apply to the bishop for licenses, in which are specified the districts to which the missionaries have been assigned. This is done upon the understanding tbat licenses will neither be refused nor, when granted, be with drawn from the missionaries during their con nection with the Society, except for some as signed legal cause. All questions relating to matters of ecclesiastical order and discipline, respecting which differences may arise between a bishop of the Church of England abroad and the Committee, are referred for decision to the archbishops and bishops of the Provinces of Canterbury and York. In consequence of the difficulties whieh ritualistic colonial bishops throw in the way of the Society's work, it is more and more constrained to have special missionary bishops consecrated wherever it is possible. Owing to the trying climate of its mission fields the Society has for many years followed the plan of allowing its missionaries to visit the home land on furlough at intervals of six or eight years; and after having labored in the cause of the Society to the satisfaction of the Committee until age or infirmity prevents further exertion, provision is made to render their declining days comfortable. The Commit tee has also in its power to assist in particular cases the dependent relatives of those missiona ries who, by devoting themselves to the ser vice of the Society, are prevented from contrib uting to their support. Development of Missions.— The Church Missionary Society, looking upon Africa as "one universal den of desolation, misery, and crime," and commiserating the people, and more particularly the negro race, on account of the cruel wrongs which the slave-trade has inflicted upon them, selected its western coast, the seat of operation of Christian slave- dealers (the slave-trade of the eastern coast is carried on by Mohammedans), as its first field of missionary enterprise; and the Suso country being a centre of this traffic, was chosen for the opening of the first mission in 1804, which led in 1842 to a missionary settlement in the Bullom country, and in 1816 to the undertak ing of systematic missionary work at Sierra Leone. In 1838, some freed slaves having heard the Gospel at Sierra Leone and about to return to their native country, Yoruba (for merly called the Slave Coast), petitioned that a missionary might be sent with them; this peti tion was the origin of the Yoruba Mission. In 1851 Lord Palmerston, then Foreign Secre tary, dealt a final blow at the sea-going traffic by stopping the export of slaves at Lagos. A treaty was signed by Akitoyo, the king of the Lagos, who placed himself under British pro tection, and immediately after the establish ment of the protectorate the Church Missionary Society began its mission at Lagos. In 1841 the celebrated "Niger Expedition" was under taken by the British Government, and tbe Church Missionary Society obtained permission for two of its agents to accompany the party for the purpose of inquiring into any openings for missionary work which the great river might present. This first expedition closed in sorrow and disappointment; but twelve years later a second attempt was made to explore the river; the chiefs and people were found ready to receive the Gospel; and upon the third expedition, sent out by Lord Palmerston in 1857, the Niger Mission of the Church Mission ary Society was commenced. Africa was also the starting-point of the Society's work in "the East," which was first attempted in 1819, when the Rev. W. Jowett was sent to Egypt to confer with the ecclesiastical authorities of the ancient Coptic Church. As a result of this and subse quent visits, five missionaries were sent by the Society to Egypt. The finding of a manu script translation of the Bible in Amharic, the vernacular language of Abyssinia, by Mr. Jowett, led to the founding of the Abyssinia Mission in 1830, from which country all the missionaries were expelled in 1838 through the influence of two French Romish priests. One of these missionaries, John Ludwig Krapf, while spending three years in Shoa, south of Abys sinia, became much interested in the great Galla nation, inhabiting a vast extent of terri tory reaching nearly to Mombasa; and when excluded from Shoa in 1843 by Romish influ ence, to reach them sailed down the coast and founded what became the East Africa Mission. Krapf 's and Rebmanu's remarkable discoveries gave a great impetus to the exploration of Africa from the east, and their accounts of a "great inland sea," of which they heard from the na tives, attracted Speke and Burton, Grant, Sir S. Baker, and other celebrated travellers, and led to the discovery of Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza, and of Uganda. Ln Novem ber, 1875, appeared Stanley's famous letter in the London " Daily Telegraph," describing his intercourse with King Mtesa, and challenging Christendom to send missionaries to Uganda; and in June, 1876, the Church Missionary So ciety sent out a well-equipped party to open a mission on Victoria Nyanza. The mission to Egypt, resulting after many years in the establishment of the East Africa Mission, was also the foundation of the Medi terranean Mission. The founders of the Church Missionary Society were most desirous to send back to the sacred lands of the East a pure gospel, and the very first English clergyman who offered himself in 1815 to the Society was appointed to commence the Mediterranean Mission, the attention of the Committee having been specially drawn to the Levant by Claudius Buchanan in 1811. This mission included the work at Malta, Constantinople, Greece, Smyrna, Arabia, and Palestine. Of these all but Pales tine were relinquished, Constantinople being reoccupied in 1858 and again given up in 1880. A plan for a " Church Mission to India" was formed in 1788 by David Brown, chaplain for the East India Company, who with Claudius Buchanan, Henry Martyn, Daniel Corrie, and Thomas Thomason, did so much for India. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 282 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. Mr. Chas. Simeon of Cambridge was consulted in regard to carrying out this plan; nothing came of the project then, but the correspond ence suggested to Simeon a larger scheme, aud as has been said, it was a paper of his which led to the formation of the Church Missionary So ciety. Owing to causes before mentioned, India was not open to missionary effort until 1813, when the East India Company's charter was renewed, and, by the determined efforts of Wilberforce, was passed with what were called " the pious clauses," relating to the introduction of religious knowledge in India. The list of missionary societies which entered this country within the next twenty years is a long one; but the laborers were few, the efforts tentative, and except in a few cases, the progress was slow. The commencement of the work of the Church Missionary Society, now extending throughout the length and breadth of India, was made at Madras in 1814. The Persian Mission, as will be seen farther on, was in reality an outgrowth of the Indian work, as was also the Mission to Mauritius. Ceylou was entered in 1817. Three years earlier, the mission to the Maoris of New Zealand, which has met with such marvellous success, had been undertaken by the Society at the invitation of Samuel Marsden, chaplain in New South Wales. In 1822 the great field of Brit ish North America was added to those already claiming the Society's interest, and when China was rendered accessible by the Treaty of Nan king (1842) the Church Missionary Society im mediately sent its representatives to carry the Gospel thither. In 1869, just after the wonder ful revolution in Japan which restored power to the Mikado, the first Church Missionary So ciety missionaries landed at Nagasaki. The latest extension of the Society's work is in the Arabian Mission, commenced in 1885. In ad dition to those above mentioned, other missions have been undertaken by the Society, but hav ing developed into self-supporting churches or been relinquished for other reasons, are not now upon its list. Statement of Missions. — I. West Afbioa. — The Church Missionary Society commenced its labors in West Africa, where missions had been before attempted by the Moravians, and by the Baptist, Glasgow, Scot tish, and London Missionary Societies. All of these missions had to be given up, and none of .the missionaries remained in the field-when the work was undertaken by the Church Mission ary Society. The very first work done by the Committee had been the preparation and print ing in the Susu language of a Grammar, Vocab ulary, Spelling-book, three simple catechisms, and the Church Catechism. Tbe Church Mis sionary Society employed for this work an agent of the Glasgow Missionary Society who had been in West Africa. Armed with these, the first missionaries entered on their labors for the Susu people on the Rio-Pongas in 1804; the Susu Mission was not, however, actually set on foot until 1808. A few years later a missionary settlement was opened at Yongro, opposite Sierra Leone, for the Bullom tribe, by Nylander, a devoted missionary who for 19 years faith fully labored for Africa and died there in 1825, without having once returned home. In 1815 a settlement called Gambier (for Lord Gam- bier, then President of the Society) was opened about 70 miles north of Sierra Leone. These pioneering efforts were carried on under the most discouraging circumstances, and were at tended with serious loss of life, ln 1817 the slave-trade revived, and at the instigation of the slave-dealers the mission buildings were destroyed by fire. On all sides the opposition become so formidable that the missionaries were compelled to withdraw from the settle ments they had formed, and to take refuge in Sierra Leone. The Pongas Mission was never resumed by the Church Missionary Society, wider openings having presented themselves elsewhere; the Bullom Mission was, however, resumed in 1861, and in 1875 was transferred to the Sierra Leone Native Church, which still carries it on, and which has also in its care the missions founded by the Church Missionary Society in I860, in Sherbro and the neighbor ing Mendi districts to the south. In 1840 the Society began a mission to the Temn6 (or Timneh) people, occupying for that purpose Port Lokkoh, a place of some importance up the Sierra Leone River, on the caravan route to the far interior. The Rev. C. F. Schlenker resided there for ten years, and did a remark able linguistic work; but the mission had then to be closed owing to Mohammedan hostility. Subsequently a negro clergyman from Jamai ca, the Rev. T. Wiltshire, labored among the Temne at Magbele in Quiah; but in I860 his house was plundered, and he had to fly for his life. The work in Quiah was resumed three years later at other places, and is now contin ued by the Sierra Leone Church. Port Lok koh was reoccupied as an outpost by the Society in 1875, and the Gospel is patiently preached to the Temnes, heathen and Moham medan, and to the Sierra Leone native traders settled there. Sierra Leone. — It was not until 1816 that the Church Missionary Society undertook system atic missionary work at Sierra Leone, but as has been shown, the colony served as a base for the Susu and Bullom missions, and one of the missionaries usually acted as colonial chaplain. In 1812-14 the English Government was in negotiation with both the Church Missionary Society and the Wesleyans, with a view to their providing education for the freed slave chil dren, and iu the latter year the " Christian In stitution" was founded on Leicester Mountain. But in 1816, when 26 missionaries and their wives had gone to Africa, and when 15 out of the 26 were dead; when the Susu and Bullom missions were being carried on in constant dif ficulty and danger owing to the hostility of the natives, — the Church Missionary Society Com mittee sent one of their own body, the Rev. Edward Bickersteth, to inquire on the spot into the position and prospects of the work. He visited the Rio-Pongas and baptized the first six African converts to Christianity; but his main work was the formation, in consultation with the Governor of Sierra Leone, of plans for the systematic division of the colony into par ishes, and the provision of churches and schools, tbe Society to supply missionaries and schoolmasters, and the Government to defray part of tlie cost of instruction for the liberated slaves. Upon Sierra Leone, therefore, the mis sionary force was now concentrated, and by the labors of Butscher, Nylander, Wilhelm, Din ing, W. A. B. Johnson, and others, thousands of the liberated slaves were brought under Christian instruction, and within three years, a marked change came over the whole colony. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 283 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. Mr. Johnson entered on his work in June, 1816, and on the 14th wrote: "If ever I have seen wretchedness, it has been to-day. These poor depraved people may be indeed called the off scouring of Africa. But who knows whether the Lord will not make His converting power known among them. With Him nothing is impossible." His first congregation consisted of ninp persons. Three years afterwards the average number of worshippers at Regent was 1,200 on Sunday and 500 at daily prayers; and 500 scholars of all ages were at school. In 1819, when he left for a short visit to England, hundreds of the poor people followed him five miles to Sierra Leone, and bade him a tearful farewell. He returned the following year and continued his work, but died of yellow-fever in 1823. His name, like those of his brethren, was taken by many of the baptized ex-slaves, and among the present African Johnsons are some of the ablest of the race. Seasons of se vere trial and disappointment followed, and Sierra Leone again and again justified its title of "the white man's grave." By the begin ning of 1826, twenty-two years after the first party sailed for West Africa, only 14 (mission aries, schoolmasters, and their wives) re mained out of 79 who had been sent out. This great mortality among tbe European mis sionaries proved the necessity and value of a native agency, and in 1827 Fourah Bay College was started. The first name on the roll was Samuel Crowther, who had been brought from Sierra Leone four years before as a freed slave-boy, had been baptized December 11th, 1825, and admitted to holy orders June, 1843. In the 47 years that have since elapsed about 80 African clergymen have been ordained, 50 of whom passed through Fourah Bay College. The Grammar School and the Annie Walsh Memorial School, both important educational institutions, were established in 1845. In 1847 the Rev. Dr. S. W. Koelle was sent to Sierra Leone and during the six years of his residence there compiled a remarkable work, "Polyglotta Africana," containing brief com parative vocabularies of no less than 200 lan guages and dialects which he found spoken by the liberated slaves at Sierra Leone; and the fact tbat representatives of so many different tribes of the interior had collected at this point was regarded by the missionaries as a provi dential arrangement for the supply of laborers for tbe evangelization of Africa. The reduc tion of the different languages to writing, which had been begun in 1829, was continued with renewed vigor; and as in Asia, America, and Australasia, so in Africa, the great propagan dists of linguistic knowledge have been the missionaries of Christ's kingdom. The linguis tic work accomplished by the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society in West Africa includes, in addition to the Susu books already mentioned, a Grammar, Vocabulary, and por tions of the New Testament in Bullom; Gram mar and Dictionary, New Testament, Prayer- book, Bible stories etc., in Temne; Grammar and Vocabularies in Vei and Bornu (Kanuri); together with similar works in Mende, Hausa, Fulah, Yoruba, the many languages of the Niger, etc., etc. At the close of 1848, Captain Forbes, of theEng- lish ship ' 'Bonetta," informed the missionaries that near Cape Mount he had met with indi viduals of an African tribe which possessed a written language, and that he had brought with him some of their books and a man who couid read them. A lively interest was created in Sierra Leone, as it had been generally be lieved tbat of all the languages of Africa not one had been committed to writing, and iu the hope that this discovery might be of use in spreading the Gospel, Sir. Koelle was sent at once to visit the tribe. A journey of four months brought him to his destination, where he found that the art of writing was of recent invention, and confined to the single tribe of Vei, on the coast. The writing is syllabic, about 200 characters representing all the syllables in the language. The inventor was found lo be a man of great intelligence and deep religious feeling, wbo had learned the Roman alphabet from an American missionary when a child; he told Mr. Koelle that some years before he had had a dream which had given him an im pulse to express his language in writing, and with some assistance from his companions he had invented the characters and procured, through the favor of the chief of his tribe, the means of establishing schools and teaching the people. War soon afterwards broke out and the people were dispersed, not, however, before the greater number of them had learned to read; they had quite a number of books on various subjects, but the religion taught in them was mainly Mohammedan. Upon re ceiving Mr. Koelle's report, the local com mittee at Sierra Leone determined to establish a mission among the Vei tribe as soon as possible. The diocese of Sierra Leone was established in 1852, chiefly at the instance of the Church Missionary Society; the bishop, Rev. O. E. Vidal, who had devoted rare linguistic talent to the study of the Yoruba and other African languages, died two years after his consecra tion while returning from a visit to Yoruba. In 1855 he was succeeded by Bishop Weeks, for many years a missionary of the Church Missionary Society in Sierra Leone, who con tracted fever in the Yoruba country and died early in the year 1857. The next bishop, Dr. Bowen, who had been a Church Missionary Society missionary in Palestine, likewise fell a victim to the climate, dying in 1859, Thus in seven years three bishops had gone out, and the bones of all three lay in Kissey churchyard, "which," Bishop Vidal had said in 1852, " is a silent but eloquent witness to the kind of schooling which the missionary for Africa re quires." Since 1860 there have been three bishops, and the Church in Sierra Leone owes much to each of the six episcopates. Very early in the history of the mission the Church Missionary Society's Committee foresaw that the time would come when tbe Native Church must learn to be "self governing, self-support ing, and self -extending," and the converts from the first have been trained with this end in view, and have been expected to support their own church ordinances by a system of weekly class payments; this habit, perpetuated to the present day, now gives the Sierra Leone Church £900 a year. In 1840 the native Christians voluntarily established a Church Missionary Auxiliary, which in its first year sent home to the Society £89, and from 1845- 1874 remitted £7,000, while at the same time they undertook the cost of elementary schools in the various parishes. In 1862 the Church was formally organized on a footing indepen- CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 284 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. dent of the Society, and passed "from a mis sionary state into a settled ecclesiastical estab lishment, under the immediate superintendence of the bishop." Ten native pastors were at once transferred, and all the others subsequently. "Self-governing" and "self-supporting," the Sierra Leone has also become "self-extend ing;" as has been stated, several of the West African Missions of the Church Missionary Society are now supported by the " Sierra Leone Church .Missions," a Society established in 1875. Individual members of the church show great liberality: in 1883 a new church was opened on Tasso Island, which had been built at the sole cost of an African gentleman , and in the same year the leading bookseller at Freetown, also an African, invested £1,000 for the benefit of the pastoral, educational, and missionary work of the church; and this when, only 70 years ago, Sierra Leone was a heathen land, and its poor people most miserable and most vile. During the present year (1890) the Rev. J. A. Selwyn has held special mission services for the uplifting aud quickening of the spiritual life of the Sie rra Leone Church. " Th e ser vices commenced in Sierra Leone, February 16th, with a three days' mission to the students of the Fourah Bay College, and on February 19th special services were commenced in the Cathe dral, which were continued during the follow ing twelve days. Then the parishes of Kissey, Wellington, Waterloo, Hastings, Benguerna, Regent, and Kissey Road were visited; and services at Sherbro, from April 10th to 14th, concluded a mission which the bishop believes will be a turning-point in tbe spiritual history of the Church." Yoruba. — The Yoruba people, under which term are included the Yoruba proper and all the Yoruba tribes now known by other names, Egba, Oudo, Ife, etc., number upwards of 2,000,000. There are many traditions regard ing their origin, one of them making Ife tbe cradle, not only of this nation, but of the whole human race, and it is to this day regarded as a place of the greatest sanctity by all the Yoruba tribes. Another tradition ascribes their origin to tbe " remnant of the children of Canaan who were of the tribe of Nirnrod." They have suffered more than any other nation from the West African slave-trade; their seaboard was formerly called "Tbe Slave Coast," and the whole country inland was devastated, 300 towns iu the Egba district alone having been destroyed within fifty years. About 1825 the scattered Egbas began to gather together again. The refugees from 153 ruined towns combined for mutual protection, and around a rock 200 feet high there sprang up a great city, four miles in diameter within the walls, and peopled with 100,000 souls, to which they gave the name of Abeokuta, or Understone. It stands on the river Ogun, 70 miles from the coast. Meanwhile large numbers of Egba slaves had been rescued by British ships, aud like others bad been taken to Sierra Leoue; about the year 1838 some of them began to make their way back to their native land. The first to go were idolaters, and they went avowedly to get away from their Christian neighbors ; but several of the latter soon followed, who petitioned that a missionary might be sent to minister among them ; this petition, as has been stated, was the origin of the Yoruba Mission. In 1843, Mr. Henry Townsend paid a prelim inary visit to Abeokuta, was warmly received by the principal chief, and returned to Sierra Leone and to England with a most favorable report ; and he and Mr. Gollmer, with Samuel Crowther (a native of1 Yoruba), were commis sioned to begin the new mission. In December, 1844, the missionary party sailed from Sierra Leone, reaching Badagry in January, 1845; the disturbed state of tbe country caused their detention at this place for 18 months, during which time efforts were made for the good of the Badagry people. At length in a remark able manner the way was opened to Abeokuta. A notorious slave-dealer at Porto Novo, finding his traffic in human flesh much impeded by the tribal wars, sent an embassy with £200 worth of presents to the Abeokuta chiefs, ask ing them to open the road, and promising to supply the best cloth, tobacco, and rum in ex change for slaves. But with this embassy the missionaries contrived to send a trusty mes senger to Sagbua. The slave-dealer's bait took, the road was opened, and a letter from Sagbua invited the "white men" to come up immedi ately. Thus the slave-dealer cleared the way for the gospel of liberty ; and in August, 1846, Townsend and Crowther entered Abeokuta, amid the heartiest manifestations of welcome, not only from the Christian Sierra Leone people already settled there, but from the population generally, and particularly from Sagbua. In 1848 the Egba chiefs sent a letter to the Queen of England, thanking her for having rescued so many of their countrymen from slavery, and begging that further measures might be taken to put an end to the slave-trade, and to introduce Yoruba to lawful commerce. The work of the missionaries was gratefully spoken of. The Queen's reply, together with two splendid Bibles, English and Arabic, and a steel corn- mill from Prince Albert, was delivered to a great gathering of chiefs and elders in May, 1849. The Yoruba Mission had thus begun with great promise, and for several years held the first place in the interest of the Society. Rapid progress was made, persecution was bravely borne by the converts, whose numbers steadily increased, and the work gradually extended to other towns. Ibadan and Ijaye were occupied by English missionaries, and Oshielle, Oyo, Iseyin, Ishagga, Ilesha, etc., by catechists. At the same time Mr. Venn, supported by Sir T. D. Acland, Sir E. N. Buxton, Mr. Clegg of Manchester, and other philanthropists, was endeavoring to foster legitimate commerce at Abeokuta, especially the production of cotton; and the large cotton trade now carried on with England through the port of Lagos was initi ated by his efforts. The first cotton-gins used in Abeokuta were a gift to the mission from the Baroness Burdett-Coutts. The subsequent history of the Abeokuta Mission has been a checkered one. The Egba state itself has many times been endangered by the invasions (of which, between 1851 and 1876, there were seven) of the savage army of Dahomey. More than once Christian converts and teachers were captured. In 1862 the town of Ishagga was entirely destroyed by the Dahomians, who crucified Egba Christians and kept others in cruel captivity. Abeokuta itself has always repulsed the invaders, the Christian converts taking a prominent part in its defence. Not CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 285 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. less disastrous than the invasions have been the inter-tribal wars between the different sections of the Yoruba people, principally caused of late years by jealousies and disputes regarding trade routes to the coast. In one of the wars, in 1862, Ijaye was destroyed by the Ibadan people ; Mr. and Mrs. Manu narrowly escaped with their lives, and Mr. Roper was taken cap tive— Mr. aud Mrs. Hinderir were shut up for four years in Ibadan, suffering many privations; but at Abeokuta the work prospered until 1867, when disputes between the chiefs and the British authorities on the coast, fostered by some ill- disposed Africans from Sierra Leoue, led to a popular outbreak against the mission, the ex pulsion of the missionaries (not as missionaries, however, but as Englishmen), and the destruc tion of the mission buildings. For many years no white man was allowed in Abeokuta, but the native Christians held together with their own clergy and leading laity, and increased in numbers. The town is now opened again to Europeans, and a Church Missionary Society missionary generally resides there; the once extensive and promising work in the interior has been much curtailed, com prising now five African clergymen, and 3,500 Christian adherents, of whom about one third are communicants. Of late, solicitude regard ing the future of this work has been occasioned by widely current rumors as to French attempts to secure the "protectorate" of Abeokuta. The Egbas have a strong feeling against a French connection, and at one time ordered the expul sion of all the Roman Catholic priests, who were, however, subsequently allowed to remain. One enormous drawback to the work of the missionary in Yoruba is the profuse use of rum and gin. At births, weddings and funerals, and idol feasts, men, women, and children are constantly " drinking themselves drunk," many baptized people also having fallen into the snare. On all sides, amongst chiefs and people, heathen and Christian, the drink is felt to be a curse, and yet they will drink it. England paid £21,000,000 to free the slaves, but the missionaries consider the drink a far greater curse even than slavery, which still exists in Yoruba, unaffected by British law. ' ' So curse is added to curse." The Lagos Mission, established in 1852, has now, in addition to 6 churches in Lagos, a pastorate organization comprising 4 parishes (on tbe same plan as Sierra Leone), which is independent of the Society. Other points on the coast and elsewhere are still in connection with the Church Missionary Society, which also retains the supervision of the educational insti tutions at Lagos. A large reinforcement has recently been sent to this mission, and Abeokuta is now occupied as it has not been since the expulsion of the missionaries twenty-three years ago. Niger. — In response to an urgent appeal by a deputation from the Church Missionary Society, Lord Palmerston in 1857 sent a small steamer to make a third ascent of the Niger River, thus enabling the Society to start tbe "Niger Mis sion," which had been planned upon the return of the second expedition. Having learned a lesson from tbe terrible mortality among Eng lish missionaries who had been sent to West Africa, the Church Missionary Society resolved to conduct the new mission chiefly, if not entirely, by native agents. Accordingly it was arranged that Crowther, who had accompanied the first and second expedition, and a staff of picked native teachers, to be stationed at six different places, should go in the steamer; but at this juncture Bishop Weeks and two English missionaries at Sierra Leone died, and the bereaved mission could not spare the men in tended for the Niger; Crowther was therefore accompanied by only one native clergyman aud one interpreter, both of whom he stationed at Onitsha. The steamer was wrecked at a point 400 miles from the sea, and Crowther, unable to get away, was detained on the upper river a year and a half, when he at last reached Lagos overland through the Yoruba couutry. In 1859 be revisited the mission, but after that there was for two years no way of ascending the river, and the difficulty of communication has again and again inter fered with the progress of the mission. The first stations were Onitsha, Gbebe, and Idda. Gbebe, the scene in 1862 of the first baptism on the Niger River, was destroyed by a civil war, and the converts were scattered; while Idda was abandoned, owing to the treachery of a chief, who seized Crowther and demanded a heavy ransom for his release. Unfortun ately, Sir. Fell, the British consul on the river, while effecting Crowther's release was himself killed by a poisoned arrow. In 1864 Crowther was consecrated in Canterbury Cathedral first Bishop of tbe Niger. Soon after his return to the Niger as bishop the missions in the Delta were begun. Bonny was occupied in 1866, Brass in 1868, New Calabar in 1875, and Okrika in 1884. The occupation of Bonny was in response to an invitation to do so sent to the Bishop of London by its king, who had visited England. Tbe place was be coming prosperous from its rapidly growing palm-oil trade, but bore a bad character for its degrading superstitions and cruel customs. Cannibalism, which had been rife a few years before, was scarcely extinct; human sacrifices were offered at the burial of chiefs; the ju-ju or fetish temple was paved and decorated with the skulls and bones of enemies who had been killed and eaten; and among the most sacred gods were the lizards tbat infested the town. A. school-chapel was opened and a native teacher appointed, but for several years no fruit appeared. Gradually inquirers, chiefly slaves, came forward. On January 1st, 1872, St. Stephen's Church was opened, and on Trinity Sunday in that year the first five converts were baptized. The second baptismal service was the signal for a violent outbreak of persecution, which lasted more than four years, and in which two converts bravely met death rather than deny their Lord, while others endured severe sufferings. In 1878 the edict against Christian ity was withdrawn and the church suddenly became crowded, and large numbers, including some of the chiefs, have since professed their faith in Christ. In 1888 Bishop Crowther paid a visit to England, and upon his return St. Stephen's new iron church was opened. By common consent, this church, the largest in the mission, is known as St. Stephen's Cathedral; the "bishop's throne" was subscribed for en tirely by the Bonny school-children, and was made of teak-wood from an old wreck. Since the bishop's return to Bonny the Church Mis sionary Society's Committee has received all the former objects of worship at Bonny, — the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 286 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. old wooden idols, the two brazen iguanas (Birmingham manufacture),* tbe two ivory tusks on which the blood of all the human victims was poured and in which the spirits of their departed ancestors were supposed to reside, together with other relics. The history of the otlier stations iu the Delta is very similar to that of Bouny, and will therefore not be dwelt upon. Higher up the river several stations have been opened, but of late years many dif ficulties have beset the inissiou. The growth of trade has brought into the Niger an increas ing foreign population, including some white men, but mostly semi civilized Africans from other parts of tbe coast; gin and rum have been imported iu appalling quantities, aud, as on the frontiers of civilization everywhere, the moral tone is of the lowest. The native pastors and teachers have unhappily not always withstood tbe evil influences arouud them, and discredit has thereby in some places been brought upon the mission. The large measure of success which has, notwithstanding, crowned tbe work is all the more remarkable. During the present year this work has been greatly expanded, and in consultation with Bishop Crowther the Committee have decided to divide it by a line running east and west through Beaufort Island. The northern section, to be known as the " Soudau and Upper Niger Mission," will be principally to the Moham medan tribes speaking tbe Hausa and Nupe languages, and having Lokoja as its head quarters. The southern section, to be called the "Delta and Lower Niger Mission," will be mainly directed to the evangelization of the pagan population speaking the Idzo and Ibo languages, with Bonny and Onitsha as the head quarters of the Delta and main river respec tively. The Committee in this extension of work have adopted the course frequently urged by Bishop Crowther, of having European missionaries labor side by side with their Af rican brethren, who, it is hoped, will thus be led on to more vigorous and spiritual methods of work. II. Eastern Equatorial Africa.— The commencement of missionary work in East Africa dates from 1844. At the close of 1843, John Ludwig Krapf, compelled to abandon his persevering attempts to plant the Gospel iu Abyssinia and Shoa, sailed from Aden in an Arab vessel for tbe Zanzibar coast. In January he landed al Mombasa, where he settled iu the foUowing May, armed with a letter to Sayyid Said, which commended him to governors and people as " a good man, who wishes to convert the world to God." Heavy trials marked the beginning of what has proved to be so great an enterprise, for, within two months of his settle ment at Mombasa, Krapf buried on the main land his wife aud infant child. He could not foresee that close lo the very spot where lie laid them would rise, thirty years afterwards. the mission station of Frere Town. In 1846 John Rebmann joined Krapf, ancl together they established the mission station of Kisulutini, in the Rabai district, fifteen miles inland; and iben began the series of journeys with which opens * It may not be generally known that an idol manu factory exists in Birmingham, England, which sends to Africa, India, etc., often in the same vessel which carries the missionaries, large numbers of images, which are bought and used as objects of worship by the heathen. the history of East and Central African explora tion. Slay 11th, 1848, Rebmanu discovered Mount Kilima-Njaro, aud in the following year Krapf sighted Mount Kenia. Influenced by his enthusiasm, the Society formed large plans for occupying Central Africa, and in 1851 the attempt was made. But the men sent out died or returned home sick, and Krapf, who started alone and reached far into Ukamba, was deserted by bis native followers, and only regained the coast after extraordinary adventures and much suffering. His later labors were chiefly lin guistic. In 1856 Rebmann was driven from Kisulutini by an invasion of the Masai, who destroyed the station and dispersed the people under instruction. Rebmann retired only to Zanzibar, where he patiently carried on his linguistic studies for two years, and then re turned to his old post. (For further account of Krapf and Rebmann, see Biographical Sketches.) On the return of Sir Bartle Frere from his special mission to Zanzibar in 1873, to put down the slave-trade, he urged on the Church Mis sionary Society the importance of developing its work on the coast, and advised the establish ment of a settlement for the reception of liber ated slaves at Mombasa. Two missionaries were at once sent out to join Rebmann; but in tbe following year an extraordinary impetus was given to all missionary enterprise in East and Central Africa by the news of the death of Livingstone. (For account of Livingstone's "Nasik boys," see "Indian Mission" of Church Missionary Society. ) The sympathy of the Christian public was thoroughly aroused, and a large special fund enabled the Society to plan a great development of tbe work. In the autumn of 1874, the Rev. W. S. Price, who had been in charge of the Society's Nasik Mission in India, was sent to Mombasa, and 150 of his old African proteges, most of them Christians, were brought from Bombay to form the nucleus of the new colony. Land was purchased on the mainland opposite Mombasa, close to Mrs. Krapf 's grave; houses were built; the settle ment was named Frere Town, in honor of Sir Bartle Frere; and in 1875 some 450 slaves, rescued by British cruisers, were received from the Consul-General at Zanzibar. Many of them were subsequently transferred to the old station of Kisulutini, where the ground is more easily cultivated; aud around tbat station a large number of the Wa-Nika, natives of the country, have settled, placing themselves under Chris tian instruction. The spiritual fruits of this mission have been remarkable. In 1884 a desolating famine in the country led to a revival of the slave-trade, the people selling them selves in order to obtain food; and through the activity of British ships large numbers were rescued from slave dhows, of whom nearly 400 were handed over to the mission at Frere Town, and the missionaries were assisted in their care of these liberated slaves of 1885 by the liber ated slaves of 1875, now intelligent Christian people. In this year (1885) two native teachers, freed slaves of an earlier period at Nasik, were ordained by Bishop Haunington. Some work has also been done in the Giriama district, 50 miles north of Mombasa, whither the Gospel was first carried by one of Rebmann's converts, and where there was at one time a large com munity, afterwards scattered by the Swahili slaveholders. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 28< CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. Nyanza. — Three days after the publication in the "Daily Telegraph" of Stanley's letter, al ready alluded to, a sum of £5,000 was offered lo the Church Missionary Society towards the es tablishment of a mission in Uganda; another offer of £5,000 quickly followed, and ultimately £24,000 was specially contributed. Arduous as the enterprise confessedly was, doubtful as seemed the policy of plunging a thousand miles into IRe heart of Africa before the intervening countries were occupied, the Society could not hesitate, for it was felt that this was no mere call from a heathen king, no mere suggestion of an enterprise never thought of before. A long chain of events had led to the invitation: at one end was a fugitive missionary of the Church Missionary Society, led by the provi dence of God to a point on the coast where he heard vague rumors of a great inland sea cover ing a space till then blank upon the map; at the other end was the Church Slissionary Soci ety, again receiving the offer of a noble contri bution to undertake the work of planting the banner of Christ on the shores of the largest of the four or five inland seas discovered in the interval. If this were not a providential lead ing,- what could be? So "immediately they endeavored to go;" and in June, 1876, within seven months of the resolve of the Society to undertake the work, the first party for Uganda were at Zanzibar, actively preparing for their arduous march to the Victoria Nyanza. Of the eight men in the party one died on the coast and two others had to be sent bome on account of illness. The remaining five were Lieut. G. Shergold Smith, R.N.; Rev. C. T. Wilson, B. A.; Mr. T. O'Neill, architect; Dr. ¦ John Smith of the Edinburgh Medical Mission; ' and Mr. A. M. Mackay. Mr. Mackay was detained on the coast for some time by sick ness, but the other four reached the lake after a long and trying journey. Dr. Smith died at the southern end of the lake. Lieut. Smith and Mr. Wilson sailed across in a boat brought in sections from England, and reached Rubaga, the capital of Uganda, June 30th, 1877. They received a warm welcome from Mtesa, the king, who avowed himself a believer in Chris tianity and asked for further instruction, and regular Christian services were at once begun in the palace by Mr. Wilson. Lieut. Smith, leaving him at Rubaga, returned to the south end of the lake for Mr. O'Neill, who had re mained there with the stores. While the latter was making a large boat for their conveyance, Smith explored some of the rivers and creeks, and constructed charts, which were sent to . England aud published. A quarrel arising between the king of the island of Ukerewe and an Arab trader, tbe latter fled for protection to the mission camp, which was forthwith at tacked, and Smith, O'Neill, and all their native followers but one were killed, on or about December 13th, 1877; and Mr. Wilson was left alone in the middle of Africa. After some months he was joined by Mr. Mackay, and reinforcements were sent^ from England both by way of Zanzibar and of the Nile, the latter party ascending the river under the pro tection of Gordon Pasha. In the spring of 1879 seven missionaries were in Uganda, but various difficulties arose through tbe hoslile in fluence of the Arab traders, and the arrival of a party of French Romish priests, who greatly perplexed Mtesa by their repudiation of the Christianity he had been taught. He agreed to send an embassy to Queen Victoria, and after the departure of Wilson and Felkin with three envoys for England, in June, 1879, his friendliness returned, and both chiefs and people showed great eagerness for instruction. By means of a small printing-press, reading- sheets were supplied and large numbers learned to read; the public services, which had been stopped, were resumed; but an other great change came in December, when, under the influence of a sorceress, Mtesa and his chiefs publicly pro hibited both Christianity and Mohammedanism, and returned to their heathen superstitions. The year 1880 was a time of great trial, during which Mackay and Pearson, although their lives were in imminent danger, went on quietly teaching tbe few lads who came to them. A new era for the mission seemed to begin in March, 1881, when the envoy, who had reached England and been presented to tbe Queen, returned to Uganda. From that time the missionaries labored with much encourage ment. Linguistic work was vigorously prose cuted, portions of the New Testament were tentatively translated, and hymns, texts, etc., printed and widely circulated. In Starch, 1882, were baptized 1he first converts, and this year was also made memorable to the mission by the departure of the French priests.who had resided iu the country three years and a half. In 1884 King Mtesa died, and his son Mwanga soon showed that he possessed his father's vices with out bis virtues. A period of much trial fol lowed his accession; jealousy and suspicion prevailed, and in January, 1885, three boys who had been baptized were roasted to death. Nev ertheless learners and inquirers continued to come forward, and in July, 1885, there was a congregation of 173 persons and 35 communi cants. Sleanwbile the young king, disappointed at the non-arrival of two expected missionaries, had invited the French priests back to Uganda; but in October he became alarmed by rumors of the German annexations in East Africa, and when news arrived of the approach of a white man of distinction (Bishop Hannington — see Biographical Sketch) by what was called the "back door," i.e., from tbe east, through Usoga, orders were sent to kill him. Another time of severe trial followed; in the spring of 1886 persecution again broke out, and in June some fifty or sixty of the converts (Protestant and Roman Catholic) were cruelly tortured and put to death, some by the sword and some by fire; yet with even so terrible a fate before them some still sought admission to the Church, and twenty baptisms took place within a month of the martyrdoms. The only missionaries now remaining at the station were Messrs. Ashe and Mackay. Tbe former being sent away by the king returned to England, and Mr. Mackay re mained alone at Uganda until July, 1887, when he left for the south end of the lake. The Rev. E. C. Gordon immediately took his place, and was joined in April, 1888, by the Rev. R. H. Walker. A succession of political revolutions left the Mohammedan Arabs in possession, and through their hostility Messrs. Gordon and Walker with the French missionaries were, in October, 1888, expelled from the country, and while in exile at Usagala were encountered by Mr. Stanley on his return march after penetrat ing the recesses of Darkest Africa; and in them he saw the fruits, after fourteen years, of his CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 288 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. own invitation to the Christian Church to send the gospel to Uganda. While iu Uganda the missionaries had made considerable progress in reducing the language to writing: one whole Gospel had been translated, and with other portions of Scripture and of the Prayer-book had been widely circulated. Intermediate stations between the East Coast and the lake have been established at Mpwapwa audMamboia, in the Usagara hills; at IJyui, in Unamwesi; aud at Usambiro audNasa, near the south end of the lake. At these stations valu able work has been done in establishing friend ly relations with the people and in reducing their language to writing, but the progress has been arrested by German attempts to subjugate the country near the coast, and great uncer tainty and anxiety have been felt regarding tbe missionaries, in consequence of the irregularity of communications. For four months, from June 26th to October 25th, no letters were re ceived from Mpwapwa, while from the more distant stations at the lake none were received between April 22d and November 23d; since the latter date, except a short letter in January, uoue came to hand until April 24th. The let ters from home were naturally subjected to the same delay. At Mpwapwa those of February last year and subsequent months were not re ceived until the end of October. Curiously, however, letters of February and March reached the lake in July; but after this an interval of nearly five months passed without intelligence from tbe coast. The activity in the region between the coast and Mpwapwa of Bushiri and Bwana Heri, the Arab chiefs of Bagamoyo and Saadani, in hostility to the Ger mans, has been the disturbing cause. The Mpwapwa mission-house and church buildings were destroyed by Bushiri on the night of July 8th. A fortnight before mes sengers had arrived from Mamboia, giving warning that Bushiri, having been defeated by the Germans at Bagamoyo, was proceeding up-country to attack the Europeans at Mamboia and Mpwapwa, intending to kill the Germans and capture the English. The day after the receipt of this intelligence, which was not credited, Bushiri arrived, and the same evening (Sunday, June 23d) entered the house of Lieut enant Giese, the German officer in command, whose companion was unfortunately shot by the Arabs, but he himself escaped through a window and got safely to the coast. Mr. Price was providentially at Kisokwe that night. Bushiri retired for a time, but returned on July 5th, and sought an interview with Mr. Price, whom his earnest assurauces of friend ship deceived into a sense of security. The latter, however, was secretly informed by one of Bushiri's men (a convert of the mission, whom he had baptized in 1885, but who had subsequently left Mpwapwa to live with his friends in Usagara) that he had heard Bushiri offer a reward to ten of his men if they could succeed in catching him, Mr. Price, aud the chief of Mpwapwa. Mr. Price says: " Regarding this as a providential warning, I came off with all our mission people (about a dozen, including wives and children) by moon light to Kisokwe, which we reached about 3.30 a.m. (Tuesday, July 9th). At 11 a.m. some men came from Mpwapwa to tell us that the Arab's men had broken into the house. They had thought of trying to catch me ' with guile.' They borrowed three tusks of ivory from a caravan which had arrived at Mpwapwa the previous day, and intended to come and ask me to weigh it for them, when they would be able to bind me. Finding the bird had flown, they sent back word to their camp, and soon a large body arrived with flags and shouting. " They burnt every building belonging to the mission — church and all — except the house at Vyanje (which they possibly did not know of). Everything is gone. I saved nothing but some bedding, and three small boxes containing clothing, some of my translations, and a few books, which I had put in a friend's tembe (but) the day before we fled." From this time until November Mr. Price resided at Kisokwe, but he then returned and occupied a native tembe, pending the restora tion of the mission-house, in which work he had the ready assistance of the Wagogo. When at last communication was reopened and letters from Nyanza were received, there stood revealed a strong body of professing Christians of Uganda, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, able to hold their own and ready to fight the dominant Arabs. The Societies' missionaries had declined to give sup port to warlike enterprises, but warmly sym pathized with the Christian party, which after a severe struggle delivered the country from the Mohammedan usurper. These Christians now have the government of Uganda in their own hands, and invite Christian teachers to occupy the whole land. These brighter pros pects for the mission have since been darkened by the mournful tidings of the death, from fever, of Mackay, "the brave little Scotch , missionary," the last remaining member of the first party sent out fourteen years before. Throughout these years Mackay had borne a leading part in the mission, not only in the necessary secular work for which his engineer ing experience especially qualified him, but in preaching, teaching, and translating, and in the care of the converts. With the Uganda Mission his name, alongside those of Shergold Smith, Hannington, and Parker, will ever be identified. After the tidings of the Christian occupation of Uganda were received in England, a band of Cambridge men offered their services to the Company, aud were sent to reinforce the mission there. They have been joined at Frere Town by the Right Reverend Alfred Robert Tucker, the new Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (consecrated in April, 1890), whom they are now accompanying into the interior. III. Mediterranean. — In 1815 the Rev. Mr. Jowett, the first English clergyman and University graduate who offered himself to the Society, was appointed to commence the Medi terranean Mission, which had the twofold object of carrying the gospel to the ancient Christian churches in the East and to the Mohammedans. At first the prospects were most encouragiug. Mr. Jowett and other mis sionaries travelled over Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, aud Egypt; were cordially re ceived by patriarchs and bishops, and collected much valuable information. From a printing- press established at Malta (which was managed for a time by John Kitto, afterwards so well known for his Biblical works) Bibles and tracts in the Italian, Modern Greek, Arabic, CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 289 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. Maltese, Abyssinian, and Turkish languages were issued in large numbers, and also school- books, which were largely adopted by tbe Greek Church for use in its own schools, but the sanguine hopes awakened were not realized. In 1821 the revolution in Greece began; the wars and political troubles of the next ten years put an end for a time to active work in the Turkish Empire, and since then the churches in the Easliriiave for the most part manifested little desire to be quickened into life by emissaries from the West. The enterprise, therefore, as a whole, failed. Stations in Malta, Constan tinople, Greece, Smyrna, ancl Arabia were given up, and the work in the Levant has for some time been confined to Palestine, to which the Society was invited by Bishop Gobat in 1851. Jerusalem, Jaffa, Nablous, Nazareth, Salt, Gaza, aud several other places are occupied. Gaza is interesting as being an almost purely Mohammedan mission; the dispensary there is found to be very useful. The work carried on from Salt (believed to be the ancient Ramoth Gilead) is among the Bedawin of Gilead and Sloab. Education is a very important feature of the work throughout Palestine. The Turk ish authorities, taking alarm at the success of the schools, have closed some of them, and at other places have forbidden Mohammedan boys to attend. The Church Missionary Society looks forward to the time when religious liberty shall prevail in the East, and then their patient work of seed-sowing in this field will not fail to show a bounteous harvest. IV. Persia. —Persia is almost the youngest of the Church Missionary Society's mission fields, but it was one of the first thought of by the original Committee. In the first " Annual Report" (1801) and again in the second (1802) the Persian language is mentioned as one to receive early attention with a view to the evangelization of the East; but Africa soon ab sorbed all the Society's young energies, and the first attempt to carry the Gospel to Persia was that of Henry Martyn in 1811. His trans lation of the New Testament, begun and fin ished within a year, reached London, where it remained until the present Church Missionary Society mission was opened by Dr. Bruce in 1869. From 1858-1869 Dr. Bruce was a missionary of the Church Missionary Society in the Punjab, India; had there learned the Persian language, and when upon his way back from India after a visit to England he stopped at Julfa, the Armenian suburb of Ispahan. Finding the Mohammedans quite ready for conversation on religion, he stayed on for a while, ln 1871 came the terrible famine, when he and Mrs. Bruce gave themselves up to the work of sav ing the starving people, dispensing £16,000 sent to them from England, Germany, and India, after which they opened an orphanage for children whose parents had perished. In 1875 the Church Missionary Society formally adopted the mission, and the Bible Society joined in its support, Mr. Bruce acting as super intendent of the Bible colporteurs, who have done a wonderful work in the sale of Scrip tures all over Persia. A Medical Mission was opened in 1880; and in 1882 a station was opened in Baghdad, a city in the Turkish Empire, but resorted to by thousands of Persian pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Kerbela. The languages spoken are Persian and Arabic. V. Arabia.— In 1885 the Society resolved to commence a mission in Arabia at Aden, to which Gen. Haig had directed their attention. A medical missionary was accordingly stationed at Aden in 1886. Political and other difficulties interfered, however, and Dr. Harpur has been transferred to Egypt, whence he makes occa sional visits to Aden. VI. China. — By the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which closed the first Chinese war, Eng land gained possession of Hong Kong and the right of residence at five leading ports. The Church Missionary Society took advantage of this opening for missionary work in the great Empire by commencing a mission at Shang hai in 1845. Ningpo was occupied in 1848; Fuh-Chow in 1850; Hong Kong and Peking in 1862; Hang-Chow in 1865; Shaou- hing in 1870; Canton in 1881. In 1880 Peking was transferred to the Society for the Propaga tion of the Gospel. The work as now organ ized comprises (1) the South China Mission, under the Episcopal supervision of the Bishop of Victoria residing at Hong Kong, and includ ing the Kwantung and Fuh-Kien Provinces; and (2) the Mid-China Mission, under the Bishop of Mid-China, and including the Kiang-su and the Chih-Kiang Provinces. (1) South China. — The Society has amission at Hong Kong, and several out-stations in the Kwan-tung Province worked from Canton as a centre, and also a mission at Pakhoi, started in 1886; but its chief work is in the Fuh-Kien Province, which, although one of the smallest of China's 18 provinces, contains an estimated population of 20,000,000. The capital, Fuh- Chow, one of the five ports opened in 1842, is said to have 600,000 souls within the walls, and 2,000,000 if the suburbs and suburban villages in the Min valley are included. The Fuh-Kien Mission was commenced in 1850 by the Revs. W. Welton and R. D. Jackson. The latter was soon removed elsewhere, but Mr. Welton labored for six years amid many difficulties, but with unfailing patience. He was the first to obtain a footing in the city itself, the Ameri can missionaries who preceded him by four years being allowed to reside only in Nantai, a suburb on a large island in the Min, communi cated with by means of a rough but massive bridge built of enormous blocks of granite. It is a third of a mile in length, and is called the Wan-Show-Keaou, or Bridge of Ten Thousand Ages. Mr. Welton, assisted by the British consul, obtained the right to live on an emi nence within the walls, and there the headquar ters of the mission were established, and from thence much faithful work was done. But at the end of ten years two out of five missiona ries had died, two had retired, and the eleventh year found the work in charge of a solitary young missionary, unfamiliar with the language and without a single convert or inquirer. Tbe abandonment of Fuh-Chow was now seriously contemplated, but the solitary laborer earnestly asked to be allowed to remain, and in that very year bis patience was rewarded. In December, 1860, three inquirers appeared, two of whom were baptized in March, 1861. Others came forward, and prospects began to brighten; but in 1863, Mr. Smith died, and again the care of the mission was bequeathed to a new-comer, the Rev. J. R. Wolfe; there wasnow, however, an infant native church, comprising 13 baptized members and 5 inquirers, under the CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 290 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. pastoral care of Wong-Kin-Taik, a convert of the American Mission, afterwards admitted to holy orders. In 1864 occurred a violent out burst of popular fury against the little band of Christians, but not one wavered. In the follow ing year a church for the mission, built by European merchants, was opened in the heart of the city, and in 1866 lhe number of converts rose to 50. In the mean time Air. Wolf had been zealously carrying the gospel to other towns and villages, lu 1876, when Bishop Alford visited the mission, he found l,443,adult Christians, 53 catechists, 80 volunlary helpers, and 17 students, not iu the city of Fuh-Chow, but mainly in the cities aud villages occupied one after another by Chinese catechists, (here being only one, or sometimes two, English mission aries at work. For 27 years the mission had remained in peaceable possession of Wu-ski-shan (Black- stoue) Hill, ln 1877 a new college building was begun there, and when almost completed was deliberately destroyed by a riotous mob led on by jealous mandarins, Much trouble followed, and ultimately the mission was expelled from the city altogether, and new quarters had to be found in tbe suburbs of Nantai, before mentioned. In 1879 a medical missionary was sent to reinforce the mission; in 1882 he proceeded to Fuh-Ning, a city north of Fuh-Chow, where in 1883 a dispensary was opened; studeuts were received for medical training, and a hospital aud medical college erected. A native church has been organized, native church councils established, and some of the districts have their own local missionary associations. For some years education was not a strong point in this mission, but there are now 82 schools in the province with a total of over 800 pupils, chiefly children of Christians. An industrial school has been established by the gifts of the foreign community, and a girls' boarding-school, largely helped from the same source, is sustained by the Society for Female Education in, the East. A Bible- women's class is conducted by the wife of the college principal, assisted by native women, and many of the Bible-women have done good service. The mission staff now numbers eleven, four of whom have been sent out for extension work in the northeast of the province. This work -has been (1890) largely developed, and pioneers from Oxford and Cambridge have gone for ward into large cities hitherto unreached by the gospel. (2) Mid-China. — The Kiang-su Province, with Shanghai as its central point, was occu pied in 1845. Shanghai is described by the missionary in charge as a great centre of mer cantile enterprise, of life, of gayety, of sin, and of opportunities almost unequalled in China for wide-reaching influence. In addition to the English missionary, a band of eleven native agents, including three Bible-women, are em ployed in the work of the mission, which con sists of street aud chapel preaching, house-to- house visitation, schools, etc. The chief sta tions in Mid-China are, however, iu the Chih- Kiang Province, in the cities of Niiurpo (1848), Hang-Chow (1861), and Shaouhing ("1870). In the earlier years of the mission much success was achieved in the numerous towns and vil lages around Ningpo, notwithstanding frequent changes in the mission staff through sickness, and the hindrances caused by the Taiping re bellion. Many of the Christians have shown most admirable Christian steadfastness and zeal, and within a period of fourteen years five of them have been ordained. Tbe college at Ningpo has always been a successful agency. At Hang-Chow there is a medical mission, and a new hospital and opium refuge was built in 1885, chiefly with English funds; but many English and American residents in China and even the Mandarins of Hang-Chow contributed to the cost of its erection. A few years ago there was a very interesting movement in the Cbu-ki district, an offshoot of the Hang-Chow Mission, when 30 converts were gathered in from about 25 villages, and hopeful accounts continue to be received of their strong Chris tian character. The Society is now endeavor ing to commence new work from some point on the Tsien-Kiang River above Yen Chow Fu. VII. Japan. — The work of the Church Mis sionary Society in Japan was undertaken in 1869, immediately after the wonderful revolu tion which restored power to the Mikado. Only very quiet and indirect methods of mak ing known the gospel could at first be used, but within the past few years religious toleration has been tacitly though not avowedly accorded to Christian efforts, and the work of the Society has gradually strengthened and increased; and the new constitution promulgated in 1889, which confers many civil liberties on the peo ple, and coutains a clause granting to all subjects of Japan freedom of religious belief, will make possible great extension of evangelical work. The work of the Church Missionary Society is carried on (1) on the main island (Nippon), (2) island of Kiu-Shiu, (3) Sbikoku island, and (4) island of Yezo. (1) Nippon. — Tbe Society's chief stations here are Osaka and Tokyo, the capital of the empire, more than 300 miles eastward along the coast. At Osaka more than one third of the whole European staff of this mission are en gaged; at Tokyo there are two European mis sionaries. Many outlying towns and cities are occupied by native evangelists, who secured their training at these central stations. The Bishop Poole Memorial Girls' School is located at Osaka. (2) Kiu-Shiu — The principal stations on this island are Nagasaki, Fukuoka, and Kamamoto, with many out-stations. The Society reports a considerable increase in the number of adher ents and more than 180 adult baptisms. (8) Shikoku. — This is the smallest of the four islands, and lies between the main island and Kiu-Shiu. It was the first out-station from Osaka, and was visited iu 1880 at the invitation of two natives who had beeu members of tbe Greek Church. As at the other stations, mis sionary work in all its branches is carried on with encouragiiu;- success. (4) Island of Yezo. — This mission for the Aino aborigiues has already beeu successful in gath ering iu a small church. A good school was started in 1888 at Hakodate, of which the first Aino Christian has beeu appointed school master. VIII. India.— The Church Missionary So ciety has missions in almost all the great divi sions of India; indeed in all parts of the country, with the exceptioii of Eastern Bengal, Chhota Nagpore, Orissa, Gujarat, and Southern India. Its operations are carried on in fifteen languages, including Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. The CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 291 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. divisions of the Indian work are (1) North India, (2) Punjab and Siudh, (3) Western India, and (4) South India. (1) North India. — The work of the Society here was really begun before any missionaries were sent out, by a Corresponding Committee formed in 1807, of which Henry Martyn and Claudius Buchanan were members. To this Committee the Society made a grant for trans- lati(A%, and under its auspices Corrie sent Abdul Masih, Henry Marty n's one couvert, as au evangelist to Agra, in 1813. In 1816 work was begun iu Calcutta, but for many years very little was accomplished. In 1824 tbe Calcutta Church Missionary Association was formed, which carries on evangelistic and school work iu the city, mainly with local fuuds, but in connection with the Society; the work of the Association includes also ministrations in hos pitals, instruction of native servants, and mission agencies for special classes, such as the poorer Mohammedans, theChamars (workers in leather), and the Kols, Santals, aud other tribes repre sented in the capital. The Society's own evangelistic work is among all classes in the city, reaching the educated and wealthy Brah mins, and also the poorest outcasts — even the lepers in the Leper Hospital. The year 1821 marked the commencement of a great branch ' of missionary work in India, for it was then that Miss Cooke (afterwards Mrs. J. Wilson), of the ©hurch Missionary Society, began in Cal cutta her work amoug the women and girls, the forerunner of the "Zenana Missions" of modern times. In 1857, the year also of the Sepoy Mutiny, which destroyed much of the Society's property, but, by the deep interest which it aroused, caused a great extension of work afterwards, tbe work in Calcutta was strengthened by the addition of the " Cathedral Mission," in connection with which was estab lished the "Cathedral Mission College" in 1864. In 1880 the college work of this insti tution was discontinued, and the buildings were appropriated to the new Church Mission ary Society's Divinity School for Bengal. To Daniel Corrie, who initiated so much Church missionary work in North India, is owing the commencement of the mission to Benares, to which city he was appointed chap lain in 1817. In tbe following year a large school which had been established and endowed by a wealthy Hindu, Rajah Jay Narain, as a thank-offering for recovery from sickness, was transferred to the Society, and has ever since been an important branch of the Church Mis sionary Society's work in Benares. In 1821 an ordained missionary was sent to this post, but he and others who followed remained only a short time. W. Smith and C. B. Leupolt, ap pointed to this post in 1832, for forty years la bored side by side, the former as a preaching missionary, the latter as organizer of schools, orphanages, and industrial institutions. The headquarters of the mission are at Sigra, a suburb in the northwest of the city, where are now its mission-houses, Christian village, church orphanages, French normal school, and industrial school (where women and chil dren work at lace-making). There is a second mission church, which is a centre for evangel istic work, in the city close to 1he Dasasamedh Ghat, one of the five most sacred places of pil grimage in this "Mecca of the Hindus." The missions at Benares and its out-stations, among which are Gorakbpur and Allahabad, owed much in past years to Christian government officials, particularly to Mr. Thomas Thomason, Lieut. -Governor of the Northwest Provinces, a son of the Calcutta chaplain elsewhere men tioned. To him almost all the great officials ancl civilians of North India owed their impulse in favor of missions. In Gorakbpur a large tract of waste land was allotted to the mission b}' Lord Bentinck, to be cultivated by native Christians; aud upon it was built a village for them to dwell in. The place was entirely de stroyed in the Mutiny, but was afterwards re built, and remains a prosperous settlement to this day. A similar village was built in 1883, and named Sternpur, after the Rev. Henry Stern, who had been iu charge of the whole mission for more than 35 years; both villages are self-supporting. In 1858, after tbe Mutiny, Allahabad, instead of Agra, became the seat of the British Government. This brought the Government Press from Agra, with its employes, many of whom were Church Missionary Society native Christians, aud a Church Missionary Society station was therefore started at Allaha bad in 1859; the village built, for these Chris tians was named Muirabad, after Sir William Muir. The Krishnagar district is the seat of the Society's chief work in rural Bengal. In 1833 the Rev. W. Deerr baptized 30 persons from the Karta Bhoja (a sect half Hindu aud half Mos lem) in the face of much persecution ; and from that time the movement towards Christianity began to gather strength, till in 1838, when much relief was given to sufferers from a famine, no less than 600 families, about 3,000 persons, placed themselves under Christian in struction. In 1839 the movement had ex tended to 55 villages, and 900 persons were baptized on one occasion. Great hopes were entertained that in a few years the bulk of the population would become Christian; but these expectations were not realized, and for many years the condition of the Krishnagar native church caused more sorrow than joy. In 1887 new plans for improving its spiritual condition were set on foot, and at the same time a new itinerant mission was started among the heathen and Mohammedan villages, and has since been zealously carried ou. Sir Henry Lawrence, appointed Commis sioner of Oudh just before the mutiny, had in vited the Church Missionary Society to plant a mission at Lucknow. After its reconquest in 1859, Sir Robert Montgomery wrote to the Church Missionary Society Committee : "As Sir H. Lawrence's successor, I have the privi lege of repeating bis call ;" and an association was formed, with Sir Robert himself as presi dent, on September 24th, 1858, the eve of the anniversary of the relief of the city by Have- lock. Notwithstanding very efficient schools and diligent preaching, the fruits of the mis sion have not been large. In Faizabad there is a small congregation with a native pastor. The Santal Mission was begun iu 1860 by the Rev. E. L. Pixley, who had been a cavalry of ficer. In 1863 he established the station at Taljhari, which has since been the headquarters of the mission. The first converts were bap tized in 1864, and many hundreds were received in the next few years ; but owing to a Hindtir izing process which was going on among the people (Santals, an aboriginal hill-tribe) and CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 292 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. rendering them less accessible, after 1870 the progress was less rapid. But there were in 1885 no less than 2,600 Santal Christians attached to the five Church Missionary Society stations, Taljhari, Bahawa, Hirampur, Bhagaya, and Godda, worked, with their out-stations, by six missionaries and four native pastors. The Psalms, Gospels and Acts, the Prayer-book, aud Pilgrim's Progress have been translated iuto Santali by the Church Missiouaiy Society mis sionaries, and printed by the Bible Society, the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowl edge, aud the Religious Tract Society, respec tively. Missions lo the Gonds, inhabiting hills and jungles of the extensive plateau called Gond- waua, and to the Bhils, a wild hill-tribe wide ly spread over Western Iudia, have been estab lished, the former in 1879, the latter iu 1880. The Gonds are a peaceful and industrious race, very ignorant, but teachable ; the first convert was baptized in 1885. The Bhils, owing to their fear of Europeans, are very difficult of access, but a promising work has been beguu among them. (2) Punjab and Sindh. — The Church Mission ary Society undertook work in the Punjab in 1850, having been urgently pressed by military friends, and cordially invited by the American Presbyterians, already established there, to ex tend its work in this direction ; a mission at Kotgur, on the high-road over the Himalayas, established and endowed by military and civil officers, having been entrusted to tbe Society in 1877, before the annexation of the Punjab. Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, etc., comprising what are known as the Central Missions, were the first stations established. At Amritsar, besides the mission church with its congregation of 500 persons, and the evangelistic work of catechists and Bible-wom en, there are extensive educational agencies, particularly the high-school and its branch schools for boys, tbe Lady Lawrence Memorial Girls' School, the Girls' Orphanage and the Alexandra Christian Girls' Boarding school (so named in memory of the Prince of Wales's visit in 1876). A mgdical mission was begun in 1882, and several out-stations have been estab lished. From Amritsar and Lahore are carried on, respectively, two interesting itinerant-mis sions; and at Lahore, to which the Church Mis sionary Society was invited by Dr. Newton and other American missionaries, there is the well- known St. John's Divinity School, founded in 1870, for high-class theological training of pas tors and evangelists in the vernacular. Multan has been occupied since 1856, but has always been feebly manned. The Frontier Mission begins at Simla aud Kotgur (already mentioned), among the hill tribes who dwell between the Punjab plains and Tibet and Eastern China. Next comes Kangra, the chief city in a district comprising many frontier states; and Kashmir, with its trib utaries of Ladak and Iskardo, stretching out in the direction of Yarkand. The frontier line would bring us next to Hazara and Abboltabad, out-stations of the. Peshawar Mission, and Iben to Peshawar itself, whose influences affect Chi- ti-al and Kafiristan, aud almost every Afghan tribe from the Indus to Cabul. It is hoped that the influence of these frontier missions may in time extend not only to Candahar, but may penetrate to Merv and Bokhara, to Kohan and Herat, and bring into communication the mis sionaries in Persia and Baghdad. Peshawar, the chief city of British Afghanis tan, near the mouth of the Khyber Pass, is a great military post, and the headquarters of the Church Missionary Society's Afghan Mission', founded in 1853 by Captain Martyn, under the auspices of Major Herbert Edwardes, the Com missioner. The Afghans of Peshawar were most turbulent and fanatical, and the previous Commissioner (who was assassinated by an Afghan) had refused to allow a mission ; but Edwardes, having no fear tbat a Christian mis sion here would disturb the peace, earnestly ad vocated its establishment. For many years the dreaded " Peshawar fever" was a great obstacle to continuous missionary effort, aud the fanati cism of the people made all work difficult. Five missionaries died and several were sent bome in ill-health ; one was struck at by an Afghan knife, but the blow was averted. An American missionary was shot by his servant. Nevertheless the influence of the mission has been remarkable; and in December, 1883, exact ly thirty years from its foundation, a handsome memorial mission church was opened in the presence of native Christians, English officers, and Mohammedan Afghan chiefs, the Rev. Dr. Imad-ud-din preachiug the sermon. The pas tor is a convert from Islam. From Peshawar visits have been twice made by native Christians to Kafiristan, a country hitherto inaccessible to Europeans ; and one Kafir boy, the first con vert from that race (which is not Moslem, but pagan), was baptized in 1884. The long strip of country southward from Peshawar, called the Derajat, contains several stations among wild and fierce tribes. Western India. — The Society's work in West ern India is limited. At Bombay there is the Robert Money School, founded in 1836, a spe cial mission to Mohammedans, and various other agencies. In the large district of Nasik the Church Missionary Society is practically the only missiouaiy agency ; a mile or so west of the town of Nasik 'is the Christian village of Sharampur, founded in 1854 by tbe Rev. W. S. Price. The African Asylum, commenced in Bombay in 1853 for the reception and training of liberated slaves, was transferred lo the vil lage of Sharanpur in 1860, and carried on there till 1874. During this period about 200 Africans were received and educated, many of whom subsequently returned to East Africa to join the Christian settlement at Freretown. The " Na sik boys" who accompanied Dr. Livingstone in his last expedition and brought his body to the coast were brought up in this institution. Other stations are at Malegaon, and at Auran- gabad, in the Nizam's territory, where a most successful mission is carried on by the Rev. Ruttouji Nowroji, formerly a Parsee, and into this mission some hundreds of converts have been gathered from the outcast Mangs. There are now little churches gathered together in a large number of the surrounding villages, while active and continuous evangelistic work is car ried on throughout the whole district. At Poona has been established the Society's Divin ity School for the West India Mission. South India includes tbe work in Madras, Travancore, Tiunevelly, and the Telugu Mis sion. The Madras Mission, begun in 1814, now occupies the unique position of being carried on entirely by natives, its affairs being con- CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 293 CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. ducted by its own Church Council. A separate mission to Mohammedans is under the con trol of the Church Missionary Society. In 1820 the attention of the Society was drawn to Tinnevelly, the southernmost province of the Indian peninsula, by the chaplain of Palam- cotta. Two missionaries were at once set apart for this work, and from that time the Gospel has not ceased to spread among the Tamil population, chiefly among the Shanars, or cul tivators of the palmyra tree. In North Tinnevelly a vigorous itinerant mission was established byRagland,DavidFenn, and Meadows. There are uow more than 1,000 villages in which there are Christians in the Church Missionary Society districts alone (be sides many others worked by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel). The Church Missionary Society has 72 native clergymen, and the native lay-agents are so numerous that Tinnevelly has been able to supply evangelists for the Tamil coolies in Ceylon and Mauritius. Nearly £3,000 are raised annually by these poor Shanar Christians towards the support of their own pastors, churches, and schools; the latter are well organized and very efficient. Travancore and Cochin. — The mission in these semi-independent states was begun in 1816, and continued for twenty years mainly with a view to the reform of the ancient Malabar Syrian Church, which claims to have been founded by the Apostle St. Thomas. Owing to internal dissensions of that church, and its unwillingness to abjure errors in doctrine and abuses in ritual, the effort failed; and since 1837 the missionaries have worked indepen dently. The result has been the adhesion of many Syrians to their purer faith, and also au active reforming movement in the Syrian church itself. Considerable progress has been made in the organization of a native church, and there are 23 native pastors trained at the Cambridge Nicholson Institution. The Telugu Mission, begun in 1841, has re sulted in the founding of a growing Telugu native church, chiefly drawn from the Malas and other low-caste or out-caste people. A mission among the Kols, a non-Aryan tribe on the Upper Godavery, was founded in 1860. IX. Mauritius.— In the year 1854, the Rev. David Fenn, secretary of the Society's missions in South India, while visiting Mauritius for the sake of his health, became warmly interested in the thousands of coolies who had been brought from Bengal and South India to work on the sugar plantations, and the work for their benefit which he initiated was continued by Captain Gordon, an officer of the Royal Engineers. The " Fort George Juvenile Asso ciation " was organized to aid these Indians, who form two thirds of the population of the island, and the funds collected were devoted to the employment of a catechist, whose faithful ness and zeal secured him the honor of being the first native ordained pastor in Mauritius; and when in 1856 a missionary of the Church Missionary Society was appointed to this field of labor, the nucleus of an Indian church bad been already formed through the labors of this pastor and the efforts of a colporteur of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The success of the mission has been remarkable, and the converts have been systematically instructed, so that a large corps of native teachers now strengthens the missionary staff, which at present numbers 15. In connection with this work a mission for liberated Africans has been opened in the Seychelles Islands. X. Ceylon.' — This mission, commenced in 1817, comprises evangelistic, educational, and pastoral work among the two races, Sinhalese and Tamil, which form the population of the island. There are Sinhalese congregations at Colombo, Cotta, Baddegama, and Kandy; and Tamil congregations at Colombo, Kandy, and three or four places in the Jaffna peninsula in the extreme north, as well as in several places in the coffee districts. Some of them are min istered to by native pastors, cousiderable prog ress having been made in self-government and self-support. Native missionary associa tions have also been formed for the spread of tbe gospel among tbe surrounding heathen. Two features of especial interest in this work are the Kandyan Itineracy and the Tamil Cooly Mission, both working in the hill-coun try in the centre of the island, the former among the Sinhalese village population, the latter, which for thirty years has been mainly supported by a committee of coffee-planters, among the Tamil coolies on the coffee estates, 1,700 of whom are now on the rolls of native Christian churches. The educational agencies comprise TrinityCollege, Kandy, and important schools of various kinds at Colta and Jaffna. XI. New Zealand. — The mission to the Maoris of New Zealand, the second of the So ciety's missions in order of time, was under taken in 1814, when Samuel Marsden, with three laymen, sent out as pioneers, landed on the northern island. Other missionaries fol lowed whose lives were entirely in the power of the ferocious cannibals, and were frequently in imminent danger. For eleven years uo re sults whatever were seen; in 1825 the first conversion took place, and no other natives were baptized for five years. Then began the marvelous movement which resulted in almost the whole Maori nation being brought under Christian instruction and civilizing influences, and which led Bishop Sei wyn, ou his arri val in his new diocese in 1842, to write: "We see here a whole nation of pagans converted to the faith. . . . Where will you find more signal manifestations of the presence of the Spirit, or more living evidences of the king dom of Christ?" In 1840, New Zealand was made a British colony, and emigration on a large scale ensued, introducing the vices as well as the benefits of civilization. The inevi table conflicts of race began, and the continual disputes about the sale and possession of land led to prolonged and bitter wars which shook the native church to its foundations. In 1864 arose the " Pai Marire" or " Hau-hau" super stition, a strange compound of Christianity and heathenism, which spread rapidly among the natives and led to the barbarous murder of missionary Volkner. The condition of the native church is now generally prosperous. Forty-eight Maori clergymen have been ordained, ancl the church members now number more than 18,000; among them are over 300 voluntary lay help ers. The Christians build their own churches, and in part support their own ministers, their contributions in 1818 amounting to £1,216. The whole Bible and Prayer-book have been rendered by the missionaries into the Maori language. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOC. 294 CITY MISSIONS XII. North America. 1. Northwest American Mission. — This mis sion to the remnant of the Red Indian tribes scattered over the vast country formerly known as the Hudson's Bay Territory, and now in cluded in the Dominion of Canada, was com menced in 1826 by the Rev. John West, at a trading settlement on the Red River, a little south of Lake Winnipeg. The first step in the great extension of the mission in recent years was lhe sending forth from Red River, in 1840, of Henry Budd, a native teacher trained by Mr. West from his boyhood, to open a new station at Deron, 500 miles off. Now from lhe United States border line to the Arctic Ocean, and from Hudson's Bay to the Rocky Mountains, the praises of the Redeemer are sung by thou sands of Indians, and in eleven different lan guages. The Red River district is now the flourishing colonial Province of Manitoba, and a large part of the Society's work has devel oped into the settled ministrations of the church in the colony, and one of its churches has become tbe Cathedral of the Diocese of Rupert's Land. The Ecclesiastical Province of Rupert's Laud, the area of which probably exceeds tbat of the Chinese Empire, is divided into seven dioceses, viz., Rupert's Land, Moo- sonee, Mackenzie River, Athabasca, Saskatche wan, Calgary, and Qu'Appelle. In all these dioceses the Society's agents labor, and three of the bishops are on the list of missionaries. Under circumstances of danger, hardship, aud privation of no ordiuary degree, their life is cheerfully spent in behalf of the simple inhab itants of these vast wilds. The Diocese of Moosonee includes extensive territories round the shores of Hudson's Bay and stretches to the borders of Canada; a great majority of the Indians in these regions now profess Christianity. The Diocese of Sas katchewan includes missions to the still heathen and untamed Plain Crees, Sioux, and Blackfeet of the great Saskatchewan plain. The Diocese of Mackenzie River, the largest, most desolate, most sterile, and most frigid of them all, and that of Athabasca, comprise mis sions to the Chipewyan, Slave, Dog-rib, aud Tukudh tribes. Among the Tukudh, who are found beyond the Rocky Mountains and with in the Arctic Circle on the Youcon River, the spread of the gospel has been very rapid. About 1,500 have been baptized since 1863, aud a still larger number are under Christian in struction. At various points iu the Moosonee and Athabasca districts, fringing the Arctic Ocean, bands of Esquimaux have been visited. Bishops Bom pas, Horden, and others, and three missionaries, are now set apart for their evangelization. The whole Bible and Prayer- book exist in Red River Cree, and considerable portions, with hymn-books, etc., in Moose Cree, Ojibbeway, Soto, Slave, Chipewyan, and Tukudh. 2. North Pacific Mission. — In 1856 Captain Prevost, R.N., drew the Society's attention to the savage state of the Tsimshean Indians ou the coast of British Columbia, aud a young schoolmaster, Mr. W. Duncan, was sent out; a great blessing was vouchsafed to his labors, and in 1862 the Christian settlement of Met- lakahtla was founded. In 1881, Mr. Duncan refusing to work on tbe lines of the Church of England, ceased to be a missionary of the Church Missionary Society; in 1887 he re moved with some hundreds of Indians to a place 70 miles distant, within the territory of Alaska, renouncing allegiance to the Queen of England and coming under the protection of the United States, and the station at Metlah- kahtla was put in the charge of other mission aries sent out by the Society. Other mission ary settlements are at Kincolith on the Naas River, among the Kitiksheans of the interior, the Hydahs of Queen Charlotte's Islands, and the Kwa-gutl Indians of Fort Rupert, at all of which zealous work is being carried on. In the West Indies and in British Guiana the Church Missionary Society carried on mis sions at Antigua, Jamaica, Trinidad, and at various points in British Guiana, for many years with considerable success. City Missions. — This term designates, in current usage, those agencies and lines of work through which the Church ministers to the ma terial and spiritual needs of the industrial classes and of the poor in the great towns and cities of Christian lands. It is applied to the varied ef fort which aims at the ingathering and instruc tion of neglected children, the evangelization of the masses, the relief of the poor and wretched, and the rescue of the drunken, the depraved, and the vicious. Great cities in all circumstances require work of this sort. A large population inevitably in cludes a considerable proportion of poor people who need from their more prosperous neighbors the helping hand. There is also certain to be a vicious and criminal element in every such com munity; for city life, with its peculiar opportu nities for vice and for evil companionship, is especially alluring to the rogue and the profli gate. The poor arc compelled by the exigencies of their condition to inhabit the less desirable parts of town. The vicious have also their favorite quarters; and as poverty promotes vice and vice begets poverty and crime, all three are frequently found together in regions remote from the churches and from all good and help ful influences. Such places unless subjected to the patient and vigorous application of moral disinfectants become hotbeds and nurseries of every sort of evil. But the amount and importance of the mis sionary effort which the cities demand has been immeasurably increased by those social and industrial changes which modern times have brought to all civilized nations. The discovery of the steam-engine, its application to the indus tries, the consequent development of machinery, with its thousands of attendant discoveries and inventions, have together resulted in the transfer of a great share of the world's work from the rural districts to the towns, whither the world's workers have followed it. This immense de velopment of manufactures and the consequent increase of traffic have caused the cities in all civilized lauds to grow with amazing rapidity throughout the nineteenth century, and espe cially during its latter years. It would be diffi cult to parallel in all history, in a city of the same size, the growth, for example, of Chicago, which in 1880 numbered 503,185 souls and in 1890 had reached 1,098,576. If the city churches had nothing more to do than to keep pace with the expanding popula tion, their task would be one of no small mag nitude; but other elements have entered into the problem which very seriously enhance its diffl- CITY MISSIONS CITY MISSIONS culty. The steady flow of the human stream into the great towns has crowded them to an oppressive and truly terrible degree. Such overcrowding has had a twofold evil effect upon the artisan: it has prodigiously increased his rent, plunging him into so much the deeper poverty; it has also driven him into narrow and more narrow quarters, until it has stripped him of every semblance of a home. Tlrtf census of 1880 reports one third of the families in Glasgow as living in a single room, and another third as occupying but two rooms. Less than one family in ten in the Scotch me tropolis enjoyed so many as four rooms for its home. Health and morality seem alike impos sible to children brought up under such condi tions. New York is even more straitly crowded than any of the Old World cities, having an aver age of sixteen persons to each dwelling-house, while London has but nine (census 1880). Out of this overcrowding has sprung the tenement system— a system by which several families, usually not less than six or eight, sometimes as many as twenty -five, have been huddled together under a single roof, with common entries and halls, narrow rooms, and dark bed-rooms. This plan of housing the working people is the one that generally prevails in American cities, al though there are some marked exceptions, like Philadelphia. More than three fourths of New York's population, or 1,250,000 souls, are at present living in her 37,316 tenement-houses. The ordinary tenement offers to its unfortu nate inhabitants the poorest conceivable apology for a home. Its atmosphere is both physically and morally unwholesome to a degree, and fairly poisonous. The saloon is at the corner, the drunkard reels up the common stairs; the shouts of countless rude, neglected children fill the air with shrill profanity; the discordant notes of the neighbors' quarrels and the wail of sickly babes pierce the thin partitions. There is no quiet day nor night, no privacy, no chance for the development of healthy family life. From the midst of such environments the city mis sionary must glean his scanty harvest. The problem of city evangelization is further complicated by the fact that in their growth the great towns have a tendency to remove those portions of society whose influence would natu rally be conservative and helpful from those who most need their help. The dwellings of rich and poor are more and more widely sepa rated from one another. The most flourishing. and able churches are farthest away from the fields that most urgently require their aid. The suburban movement, like a great eddy, draws off into the beautiful park-like villages about the town great multitudes of the middle-class folks, the bone and sinew of the churches' strength. In addition to these difficulties, religious effort in the cities of the United States meets with an even more serious obstacle in the complex and ¦ confusing mingling of nationalities in the pop ulation which it seeks to win. The immigrants which have come to us by the million during the past twenty-five years have settled for the most part in tide towns. They and their chil dren it is that people the tenement-house to-day. Eighty per cent of the inhabitants of New York are of foreign extraction, and Chicago and several other cities have an even larger foreign population. Every nation of Europe and more than one Asiatic nation has its colonies, one or more, in our metropolis; but among the tene ments, at least, there is no American quarter. Being of many races and speaking divers lan guages, being largely Roman Catholic iu faith, and when nominal Protestants having in most cases very few and meagre conceptions of re ligion, these denizens of the tenement have proven exceedingly difficult to reach, and have rarely been gathered in great numbers into the churches of our fathers. The latter have de pended largely for their increment on converts from families of American stock ; but such families bear ODly a small proportion to the population of most of the great cities. This ex plains the fact that while in the country at large more than one fifth of tbe people are members of evangelical churches, in the great cities the proportion varies from one tenth to one twentieth. Tbe reason also appears for the fact that while church-membership in the whole country has mcreased much faster than the popu lation, in great cities it has fallen behind the population. Notwithstanding these obstacles and difficul ties, largely, perhaps, because of them, the work of city missions has been making wonderful ad vances in recent years. The broadening and deepening of public interest in its problems, and the sudden increment of wealth and talent and consecrated service devoted to its cause, are so remarkable as to give prophecy of, if indeed they do not already constitute, a veritable renaissance of City Missions. The following are some of the most marked characteristics of the new movement: (1) A tendency to interest iu its problems and engage in its varied work, in unparalleled numbers, men of fine culture and large abili- ties. (2) A tendency to minister to the physical and intellectual needs of the poor, as well as their spiritual necessities, and to do this, not by alms giving, but by the scientific treatment of poverty, pauperism, and crime. (3) A deepening interest in the labor question and all social problems among religious people, and an attitude of greater charity for and sym pathy with the working classes. (4) Efforts to improve the mission Sunday- school in such ways as shall make it more ser viceable to the children and youth which it gathers in. This is done by so extending it as to include a system of week-day religious meet ings and classes adapted to the needs of pupils of all ages; also by supplying to the children of the tenement so far as possible, through clubs, societies, reading-rooms, evening schools, in dustrial schools, and the like, their lack of a Christian home. (5) A tendency to establish "people's churches " in place of mission chapels, and to equip them, by the employment of assistant pastors, missionaries and other helpers, as well as by the opening of "parish houses," with reading-rooms, club-rooms, class-rooms, gymna siums, etc., for a larger style of work than has formerly been thought needful. (6) A tendency to co-operation among the churches. This is manifest in two ways: by family churches in prosperous communities combining to sustain and enlarge, through con tributions both of workers and means, the work of people's churches among the poor; and by churches of different denominations uniting in general schemes of evangelism, such as those CITY MISSIONS 296 CITY MISSIONS which have been proposed by the Evangelical Alliance. Every city of consequence in Great Britain, the United States and Canada, and several on the continent of Europe include some sort of city mission work. With local variations the same problems are met, the same general methods prevail, and the same tendencies are observable everywhere. The work as it is found in four typical cities, New York, Brooklyn, Boston, and London, will serve us as sufficient examples. New York City, U.S. A. In the metropolis the whole work may be divided as follows: — 1. Church-chapel Work. — Each of the older and stronger churches has one or more chapels under its care, the mother-church being respon sible for the direction of the work and the out lay. 2. Denominational Work. — The Episcopal, the Baptist, and the Methodist Episcopal Churches have each a complete denominational organiza tion. While the Episcopal Church has various church missions, their denominational work is carried on exclusively in connection with the benevolent institutions of the city. 3. City Undenominational Missions. — These missions are conducted by the organization known as the " New York City Mission and Tract Society," whose field is below Fourteenth Street, with headquarters at 104 Bible House. 4. Rescue Missions. These are open every night of tbe year. They labor for the irre sponsible, homeless crowds who are without families and are mere drifting adventurers. There are (1890) eighteen such missions. None of these missions have a Sunday-school, nor do they come in contact with family life; their work is confined to the men of the drifting class, of whom there are 70,000 in New York. Be tween Cooper Union and Chatham Street there are 5,000 beds for this class, which are fully occupied during the winter months. 5. Medical Missions. — These have dispensaries, and provide preaching and religious instruction in connection with their ministries to the sick and disabled. 6. Missions for Fallen Women. — There are about 7,000 of this class in New York, many of whom are brought within the saving and caring influences of the following missions, whose doors are ever open and where services are conducted nightly: 1. The Margaret Strachan Home; 2. The Wetmore Home; 3. The Midnight Mission, on Mercer Street; 4. The Florence Mission, on Bleecker Street, where large numbers of both men and women attend. 7. Seamen's Work. — There are six Missions for Seamen. Two are of the Episcopal denomi nation and four are undenominational. The largest of these is the Mariners' Mission, on Catherine Street, which has a branch near tho Christopher Street Ferry. 8. The College Settlement.— In October, 1889, a new work was begun by college women, on the plan of Toynbee Hall, London. (See London City Missions.) It consists of a colony of college women, seven in number, who have taken up their residence in a remodelled tenement- house at 95 Rivington Street. The work is not a charity, but rests in part at least on a business basis, the payments made by the residents for board covering all the household expenses. The rent and salaries are met by the annual subscrip tion-fees of $5, paid by the members of the College Settlements Association. The original plan of the Settlement is to work in existing in stitutions ; and it is founded on the belief in the power of friendship to shape character. Al though the work consists chiefly in the indirect influences of an intelligent Christian home in an ignorant unchristian neighborhood, there are regular lines of work, viz. : clubs for girls and boys, free circulating library, reception of bank deposits, receiving and returning neighborly calls, public baths, and Sunday work in the home and outside. Though begun and so far carried on by college women, it is not by its constitution restricted in its membership, and needs the cooperation of all earnest Christian women. The New York City Mission and Tract Society. — On October 20th, 1828, a meeting of gentlemen was held at the Tract House for raising funds with the special view of extending the American Tract Society's oper ations in the West, and the question was asked, Why not .supply the accessible population on this side of the mountains, and immediately around us, as well as the West ? The result was that in March, 1829, a City Committee was appointed by the New York City Tract Society, consisting of one member for each of the four teen wards, who, in connection with distributers from the churches, entered upon monthly dis tribution, each member of the committee being the agent for his ward. In November, 1834, the plan of employing missionaries throughout the respective wards was adopted; and in March, 1835, twelve missionaries were employed, which number was soon increased to fourteen. Of late years the number employed has been about 55. On December 14th, 1864, the present name was adopted, and the Society was incorporated Feb ruary 19th, 1866, and the charter amended February 24th, 1870. In 1866 the Society was reorganized, mission chapels established, and mission work was concentrated in the destitute parts of the city below Fourteenth Street. In 1870 the mission converts were organized into bands of Christian brotherhood, on an unde nominational basis, and the Christian ordinances were administered in the mission chapels. " The objects of this corporation are to pro mote morality and religion among the poor and destitute of the city of New York, by the em ployment of missionaries, by the diffusion of evangelical reading and the Sacred Scriptures, by the establishment of Sabbath-schools, mis sion stations, and chapels for the preaching of the Gospel and for the ordinances of divine worship." The business affairs and the estate of the corporation are managed by a Board of fifty Directors, who are chosen from different religious denominations. The Society is erecting churchly buildings and organizing independent congregations on the principles of Christian union and co-opera tion, with the Aposi les' Creed as the symbol of faith and a simple form of church government. The ministers in charge are regularly ordained by some one or other of tbe evangelical denomi nations, and associated with them for counsel and help are church officers chosen by the people. These missions are constituted on the basis of the Evangelical Alliance and are called "churches for the people. " Some of these edifices are large, spacious, elaborate in their accommodations, and CITY MISSIONS 297 CITY MISSIONS of architectural comeliness, combining beauty without and comfort within. These churches are as follows: Olivet (63 Second Street); De Witt Memorial (280 Rivington Street); Broome Street Tabernacle (395 Broome Street); Italian Church (151 Worth Street); German Mission (63 Second Street); German Mission (280 Riving ton Street). Tlie Woman's Branch is sustaining and direct ing Aver 40 experienced visitors and nurses, who are daily carrying the Gospel to the homes of the people. De Witt Memorial Church in the report (Rev. Theo. Leonhard) for 1889 presents the general features of mission work in a great city. Order of Services: — Sabbath — Chinese Sunday- school, 9.30 a.m. ; men's prayer-meeting, 10 A.M. ; preaching, 11 a.m.; Sabbath-school, 2.30p.m.; German Preaching, 4.15 p.m.; Christian En deavor, 6.45 p.m. Monday — Christian Endeavor (twice a month), 8 p.m. Tuesday— Church prayer-meeting, 7.45 p.m.; missionaiy meeting (monthly), 7.45 p.m. ; Christian Endeavor (monthly), 7.45 p.m. Wednesday — German prayer-meeting, 7.30 p.m.; missionary meeting (monthly), 7.30 p.m. Thursday — Woman's prayer-meeting, 2.30 p.m.; children's service, 4p.m.; lectures and entertainments, 8 p.m.; King's Daughters, 8 p.m. Friday — Prayer, praise, and testimony meeting, 7.45 p.m.; choir rehearsal, 8 p.m. Saturday — Children's mis sionary meeting, 10 a.m. "Once a month we have preached a short sermon on natural history, and have endeavored to teach instructive lessons from the animal world. The boys and girls especially enjoyed the talks on the 'Horse,' the 'Dog,' the 'Dove,' the 'Eagle,' and the 'Elephant.' It is quite common to hear the mothers repeat to us portions of these talks which the children heard at church and rehearsed in their homes." Various schemes for benefiting the people are connected with the mission, such as the following: — "The Helping Hand," which is a society having for its object the gathering of the women together for the preparation of gar ments. Sixty-seven women last winter made 658 garments, thus being helped to earn their own clothing. A bank is also connected with the mission, and to encourage young depositors, 10 per cent interest is allowed. Mutual-benefit Societies. — 1. The Insurance Society. When a member dies an assessment is made in order to meet the funeral expenses. 2. The Tontine Society. The members are all men. The payment of 50 cents monthly entitles them to benefit in case of sickness or accident. 3. The German Woman's Society. This society employs a physician who attends all members for a small monthly fee. A com mittee reads to them the Word of God. The Society has $773 in bank, the receipts being $260 for the year. Meetings on Saturday afternoon are conducted in behalf of the Jews, who take much interest in the discussion of religious subjects and per mit their children to attend the Sabbath-school. The Mission has also a free circulating li brary, having loaned during the year about 10,000 volumes. Open-air services are conducted in the streets near the missions. The Broome Street Mission reports between 4,000 and 5,000 making use of its reading-room during a period of two months in the winter. This mission has also a gymnasium and baths— a plunge-bath for males, and a bath-tub for females. The Home is an important agency conducted by the women. The necessity for trained work ers having been greatly felt, the preparation for such a class was undertaken at the Home. The work aimed al is distinctively woman's work and not for the pulpit or the platform. Though each worker is expected to do her part in carry ing on the Sabbath-schools and church services, her efforts are directed primarily to the field and not the church. Tlie desirableness of develop ing ability to cut and make garments, to attend to household duties or ordinary business mat ters, as well as to preside over children's meet ings, will be questioned by none who have experimental knowledge of the needed acquire ments for the best work for the people. Mothers' unions, day nurseries, sewing- schools, homes provided for the aged and indi gent, tract distribution, are also agencies which are especially employed by the Woman's Branch. The following summary is reported by the Branch for 1889 : Tracts given, 48,580; Bibles given, 556; volumes loaned, 10,062; children in Sunday-school, 526; adults in Bible classes, 218; meetings conducted, 1,012; missionaiy visits and calls, 43,915; nurses' visits, 4,347; garments given out, 1,970; expended by missionaries and nurses, $1,668.28. The New York City Mission and Tract So ciety have expended for the year ending Decem ber 31st, 1889, the sum of $33,689.43. Forty -five benevolent societies in New York received for the year 1889 a total of $1, 810, 674. 81. Seventeen Roman Catholic societies received from municipal allowance and excise appropri- tion the total sum of $1,000,521.44. Twenty- eight other societies (including four Hebrew societies, which received from the city $175,- 946.41) received from municipal allowance and excise appropriation a total of $802,086.04. Brooklyn, NT. Y., U. S. A. The Brooklyn Mission and Tract So ciety. — The establishment of the Brooklyn Tract Society was first proposed at a meeting held at the house of Mr. Zachariah Lewis, on the evening of July 17th, 1829, ten persons being present besides Mr. Lewis. On July 22d, 1829, it was organized in the Apprentices' Library, notice of this organization having been given in the various pulpits of the "village" on the pre vious Sabbath. The first president was the late Episcopal Bishop Mcllvaine of Ohio, who filled the office for three years and was succeeded by the late Rev. Dr. J. S. Spencer of the Presby terian Church. The town of Brooklyn contained at that time less than 15,000 inhabitants, aud New York 200, 000. Steam ferry-boats had been introduced to ply between the two cities fifteen years before, and the first daily paper was introduced in Brooklyn twelve years later. The first anniversary meeting was held De cember 30th, 1830, at St. Ann's Church; and the treasurer's report for the eighteen months preced ing showed the receipts of the Society for that pe riod had been $231.31, the expenditures $219.48, and the Society was indebted to the American Tract Society for tracts purchased to the amount of $98.35. The collection lifted in response to an earnest appeal to cover this indebtedness amounted to $33.68. (At the forty-third anni versary, April 21st, 1872, after a sermon by Rev. CITY MISSIONS 298 CITY MISSIONS Dr. Wm. M. Taylor, the spontaneous outpour ing was $10,000.) At the annual meeting, Jan uary, 1848, it was reported that eleven churches had contributed $1,073.37, and one missionary had been employed and 125 visitors had been circulating tracts. It was not until 1849 that three missionaries were employed, and the col lections amounted to $2,134.46. In 1858 the constitution was amended, and the Society was named " The Brooklyn Mission and Tract So ciety." The employment of missionaries, in distinction from the simple circulation of relig ious tracts, became thereafter its principal work, and the happy effect of the change upon its re sources and operations and on the interest felt in it by the churches at once became apparent. The first number of its "Journal " was issued in January, 1862. The contribution to the Society by a single church in the year 1887 almost equalled the combined contributions of the 23 churches which aided its treasury only ten years before. In 1865 the Society was incorporated, and so became legally qualified to hold property by title and to receive bequests. Tlie Woman's Auxiliary was started in 1886 under the leadership of Mrs. Lucy S. Bainbridge, aided by most efficient and able officers. From the date of its organization to April 11th, 1889, the financial ingathering of this Auxiliary amounted to $12,467.78, representing the united contribu tions of 8,000 women, as well as from organized and individual effort. It is undenominational, and is represented by ladies of nearly all the leading churches of the city. In Brooklyn, as in New York and other pop ulous cities, each of the larger and stronger churches conducts and sustains one or more missions. In some cases they are conducted as chapels, in other cases they are organized as dis tinct churches, but in the main draw their sup port from the mother-church to which they owe their existence. Field and Scope. This Society with its auxiliary has divided its work into a number of depart ments, some of which are determined topo graphically by the wards of the city, and others by the numerous institutions, or the callings or nationality of those who are to be addressed. From house to house the missionary conducts his visits. By this means he endeavors to be come acquainted with the condition of each family: if impenitent he reasons with them "of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come." He prays with them if they allow it. Then he persuades them to attend the weekly prayer-meetings. After some weeks' attendance on the prayer-meetings, they begin to come to the house of God on the Sabbath if they have suitable clothing — and if they have not, an en deavor is made to supply it. The most dis couraging class the missionaiy has to deal with are the intemperate. These constitute a large proportion of those who live in tenement-houses, the temperate being mere exceptions. Among the most hopeless classes in the boats and basins', in garret and cellar, in sick-room and hospital, in the jail and penitentiary, the success of the work is surprising. To the poor in tenement-houses, and that by hundreds of thou sands; to the prisoners in jail ancl penitentiary; to the insane in the asylums; to sailors on vessels moored at the docks, the missionaries have gone. The sick and the strangers have been systemati cally visited and cared for both in their temporal and their spiritual interests. Bibles, Testaments; religious papers.books, and tracts are freely used in the prisons, asylums, and institutions, besides the regular services con ducted, visits paid, and personal interviews and conversations with the inmates. Much time is also spent in writing letters and communica tions for the inmates of these institutions. These means have resulted, as is uniformly shown by the numerous reports of the thirty missionaries and hundreds of visitors, in rich and abiding fruits of grace and holy living on the part of the many rescued ones. In ten years previous to 1873 there were no less than nineteen hundred and fifty-seven who were "hopefully converted " through the labors of this Society's agents. The incidents furnished in many of the annual reports by the missionaries can scarcely be sur passed in thrilling interest within the range of dramatic literature. Work among the shipping, boatmen, and long shoremen is effectively carried on by the mis sionaries visiting the vessels during Sabbath fore noons, conversing with the men, distributing reading-matter, and inviting them to appointed religious services. These services are held in the afternoon, and many are induced to attend the different churches in the evening. The Society also conducts many excursions to the country, and obtains places for the enfeebled and young to visit for rest and recuperation. Home Medical Missions. — This agency is now at work in the city of Brooklyn, having estab lished (March, 1887) Dispensary No. 1 at the Red Hook Mission, South Brooklyn. The success of the Red Hook work led to the opening of Dispensary No. 2, near the Navy Yard, under the auspices of the First Presby terian Church. Work among tlie Scandinavians is a most important part of the Society's endeavors, as there are over 15,000 Swedesj Norwegians, and Danes in the city. This class are put at great disadvantage upon their arrival, as, unlike the Germans and Irish, they have no friends and representatives in the municipal governments of these great cities. For twenty-four years the Rev. J. P. Swan- strom (recently deceased, November, 1889) dis tinguished himself as a faithful, wise, kind, patient, and successful laborer among the Scandinavians, and was known as the Swed ish Missionary. Mr. Swanstrom began ser vices in a room of the Hanson Place Metho dist Episcopal Church, kindly provided by the trustees. Soon a church building was necessary, and Mr. Swanstrom became the pioneer in the erection of the first place of worship for his countrymen in the city of Brooklyn. As the number of Swedes increased, he heartily en gaged in the work of erecting or establishing other places of worship, giving not only himself and his time, but unstintedly of his own slender means. His labors have abruptly ended. His zeal and ceaseless toil have closed a consecrated life. The report of 1889 shows preaching and prayer services, 2,520; other meetings (for mothers, children, and for sewing), 1,490; visits made, 40,000 ; received, 15,430 ; to jails and other institutions, 1,670 ; conversations on religion, 36,095 ; conversions, 180 ; employ ment found for 652 ; tracts, etc., given, 200,000 ; Bibles and parts of, 2,315 ; receipts, $21,753 ; Woman's Auxiliary, $3,068. CITY MISSIONS 299 CITY MISSIONS Boston, Mass., U. S. A. City Missionary Society. — There is prob ably no more vigorous and effective organiza tion for city evangelization in the land than the City Missionaiy Society. In 1816 the Society was organized under the name "Boston So ciety for the Moral and Religious Instruction of the Poor." In 1841 it took the name "City MisSRmary Society." The first work of the Society consisted largely in the establishment of Sunday-schools in Boston and vicinity. In this method of work it soon made itself felt. It is curious to notice tbat much of the space in the early reports is taken up with a direct or indirect defence of this, at that time, new institution, the Sunday-school. It is defended cautiously as at least good for the poor. "What schools," says one report, "are so easily supported, and so very favorable to the circumstances of those parents who re quire the services of their children on week days, as Sunday-schools ?" Another forcible argument was advanced by a real-estate owner, who declared that after the opening of a school in his district he had witnessed no disturbances or depredations on the Sabbath, while the year before sixty panes of glass had been broken in his houses on a single Sabbath. At that day, work in the schools was largely in the direction of memorizing, at least upon the part of the "females." For example, it is said of the "females" in the Hingham School, " They have committed to memory 400 chapters of the Bible and 266 hymns, besides questions in the Cate chism not enumerated." Of the school in Marlborough it was recorded: "Since the school commenced, the classes have recited 7,697 Cummings' Questions, 12,839 an swers in Emerson's and the Assembly's Cate chisms, 2,460 verses of hymns, and 534 verses in the Bible." This proportion, less favorable to the Bible, was no doubt rectified in later years, for we read of the Mason Street school (1819): "Since the 1st of February, 54,029 verses of Sacred Scripture, 1,899 hymns, and 17,779 an swers to questions in the Catechism have been recited." A little more than ten years from the organi zation of this Society, it had eighteen Sunday- schools under its charge; but about this time the churches of the city, appreciating their inesti mable advantages, established parish Sunday- schools, the "Boston Sunday-school Union" was formed, and both local and parish schools were placed under its care, thus leaving the Society to devote its energies to other depart ments of Christian work. In 1841 the Boston Sunday-school Union was dissolved, and the care of the local or mission schools was resumed by the City Missionary Society. Another interesting fact is that this Society proved to be the parent of other societies and institutions doing important Christian work. The Boston Seamen's Friend Society, with its long and beneficent history,, is an outgrowth of the City Missionary Society, the Rev. Dr. Wm. Jenks, its first secretary, having taken great interest in the cause of the mariners, and hav ing, at an early period, begun to preach to them in connection with his missionaiy labors. From this fruitful source was born also the "Penitent Females' Refuge," and it was also largely in strumental in the establishment of primary schools in the city of Boston. Work among the Chinese. — The growth of interest in giving the Gospel to the Chinamen in Boston is shown by the increase of schools for them, these being held now (1889) in six places. In 1876 the school held at the Mount Vemon Church was commenced. Another, about 1879, was started in the Young Men's Christian Asso ciation Building; Charlestown followed, about 1884, with the one now meeting in the Temple Street Methodist Episcopal Church. One at the Clarendon Street Baptist Church was opened nearly three years ago; one at the Berkeley Temple in 1888, and one at the Warren Avenue Baptist Church in 1889. Three of the schools hold sessions not only in the afternoon, but also in the evening. In connection with the latter, prayer-meetings are held, in which Chinamen take part in prayer and explanation of the Scriptures in their own language. Among the Jews an encouraging work is be ing carried on by the Society, largely by private and personal conference; but there are 125 Jewish children connected with the Old Colony Sunday-school. CoUege Student Work. — The Committee for Christian Workers locate students in different cities under the supervision and instruction of those in charge of missionaiy work, for two months of their summer vacation, paying them sufficient for their support. The object is to bring young men, while in college, face to face with city evangelization. They enter upon house-to-house visitation, inducing people to at tend public worship on the Lord's day, gather ing children into Sunday-school, and engaging in personal conversation on the subject of re ligion. They also conduct meetings in chapels, hospitals, and other public institutions. Here is a large field to occupy the energies of young men. Children's vacations in the country often in volve much labor on the part of the missionary. Children at times are found in such ragged, dirty, and destitute condition that the mission ary must procure material for new clothing, call in aid, and sit up until 12 and even 3 o'clock at night, in order to fit the children for brief visits to benevolent homes in the country. Through the Fresh-air Fund there were distributed (in 1887) 51,730 street-car tickets, 6,234 round-trip harbor tickets, and 7, 252 persons were permitted to enjoy a day's vacation or a visit in the coun try. Thanksgiving^Day, Christmas, and Easter are made occasions for special offerings, gifts, and remembrances to the needy. The following will serve as illustrations of tbis work: At Easter (1888) 20,930 Easter papers, leaflets, and cards were distributed, the inmates of thirty-two institutions and the aged and ill in many homes having their eyes directed to Him who said : "I am the resurrection and the life." At Christ mas, papers, leaflets, and cards to the number of 19,830 were distributed. On Thanksgiving Day (1887) 1,452 families were remembered, and the whole number who shared the supplies was 8,982. Mothers' meetings are also conducted by mis sionaries of the Society, aided by the voluntary help of ladies who engage in benevolent work. "Rosemary Cottage" (Eliot, Maine), a spa cious, well planned and appointed building, having a separate structure for a laundry, and all admirably situated for the promotion of CITY MISSIONS 300 CITY MISSIONS health and comfort, has been given (1887) by Mrs. Moses G. Farmer in trust for a summer home, where tired mothers, feeble children, and overworked shop-girls can find a temporary respite from tbe burdens of poverty and toil. At the seventieth anniversary the following statistics were presented, which, however, give the sum totals only for the forty-six years since 1841 , when the Society assumed its present name: Years of missionaiy service, 757; visits, 1,566,- -608; families visited, 371,234; to the sick, 224,- 274; funerals, 1,652; papers and tracts, 8,098,- 137; Bibles given, 10,374; Testaments, 15,930; persons induced to attend Sabbath services, 14,- 703; children in Sunday-schools, 30,261; in public schools, 5,354; chapel and other meet ings, 69,712; conversions, 2,665; persons fur nished employment, 12,730; families furnished with pecuniary aid, 56,692; times aid afforded, 221,005; garments given, 230,615; temperance pledges obtained, 6,764; received for mission, $488,070; to relieve the poor, $181,424; Thanks giving and Christmas offerings, $30,191.18; Fresh-air Fund, $24,940.33. The report for 1889 gives the statistics from Old Colony Chapel, Shawmut Chapel, Phil lips Chapel, ten Sunday-schools, with the fol lowing sum totals for the general work: Re ceived for all purposes, $42,233.32; mission aries, 23; visits, 48,932; families visited, 12,205; sick visited, 6,188; funerals, 50; papers and tracts given, 175,816; Bibles, 315; Testaments, 525; persons induced to attend Sabbath services, 273; children gathered into Sunday-schools, 1,- 070; into public schools, 25; chapel and other meetings, 2,028; conversions, 113; furnished em ployment, 447; families aided, 1,753; times aid afforded, 8,311; garments given, 8,620; temper ance pledges obtained, 81. London, England. London City Mission. Headquarters, Mis sion House, 3 Bridewell Place, New Bridge street, E. C. — The work of the London City Mission in its beginning nearly coincided with the accession of her Majesty Queen Victoria to the throne of England. The metropolis has grown from "a cluster of stockaded huts" in the time of Julius Csesar to its present im mense proportions, ln the 12th century Fitz Stephen could scarcely find words to express the grandeur of the city, when it possessed 126 parochial churches, 13 conventual establish ments, and contaiued 40,000 inhabitants. Even in 1631 the population had reached only 130,000. In 1348 began the first of the eleven awful pes tilences which decimated the inhabitants, when the streets of the city were filled with the dead and dying. In 1661, four years before the Great Plague, the population reached 384,000; and although the great fire of 1666 swept away 400 streets and 13,000 houses, the number of inhabitants reached about 530,000. Tlie growth of this wonderful city has been especially notable during the present century, as will appear by the following table: 1851 2,362,236 1861 2,803,989 1871 3,254,260 1881 3,814,571 1801 958,863 1811 1,138,815 1821 1,378,947 1831 1,654,994 1841 1,948,417 Now " Greater London" (including the Metro politan aud City Police district) has 700,000 in habited bouses," and (in 1888) a population esti mated at 5,527,886. Her 1,300 miles of houses, if extended in a line, would be more than enough to form one long street stretching across Scotland, England, France, and Switzerland, from Dunnet Head, in Caithness, to the banks of the Mediterranean. No less than 111,000 souls are added to London's teeming population every year, and this, the greatest city the world has ever seen, is the most destitute part of Great Britain, while the number of those who never enter the churches and chapels which at great cost have been erected for their benefit, is variously estimated at from one to two millions. Although the church-sittings have nearly doubled during the last 34 years (1851, 691,723; 1884, 1,388,792), and the ratio of the provision to the population has increased more than five per cent, the aggregate deficiency is now (1885) 40 per cent more than in 1851. (Church Quar terly Review, January, 1885.) Even fifty years ago London was an exceed ing great city, having then a population of nearly two million souls, who were concentrated into a small area, the poor being crowded to gether in particular neighborhoods, while the criminal classes monopolized whole districts to themselves. At that time London had degener ated to the lowest condition known in its long history. Brought up in the midst of corruption, physical and moral, uneducated and uncared for, many had lapsed into practical heathenism, having lost the very knowledge of God. The constabulary arrangements proved unequal to cope with the lawless classes, while the occa sional demonstrations of the masses aroused great anxiety as to the safety of the city, and even of society itself; while a large immigration of political and immoral refugees inflamed the working classes with socialistic and red-repub lican opinions, and Indian and other sailors, of debased morals and habits, leavened with their abominations the poor of London East. It was at tbis time that the London Mission was organized. On the 16th of May, 1835, in his cottage, No. 13 Kenning Terrace, Hoxton, David Nasmith, having joined with two friends, Richard E. Dear and William Bullock, in a meeting for prayer, proposed, "That we who are now present form ourselves into a society, to be called the London City Mission, and that the following be the constitution and laws ofthe institution." David Nasmith was a na tive of Glasgow, Scotland, where he had shown great zeal for the religious welfare of the out cast, and had, January 1st, 1826, formed the Glasgow City Mission; now, at the age of thirty-six, he entered, with great zeal and self- denial, upon the mighty work in London. The Society formed was evangelical in its doctrines, unsectarian in its operations, scrip tural in its methods, and pioneering in its cha- l neter. From sixty missionaiy workers at the close of the second year, it now employs continuously about five hundred; and from having received an income at tbe same period of £5,000, it now commands a revenue of about £62,000, with ability to sustain its sick and disabled agents, and to care for the widows and orphans of those who are deceased. For the twenty- five years preceding 1887, 115,412 persons had been induced to attend public worship; 38,387 had been added to the Church; 173,013 children had been sent to school; 4,587 shops had been closed on the CITY MISSIONS 801 CITY MISSIONS Lord's Day; 16,280 families had been induced to begin household prayers; 38,832 drunkards had been reclaimed; 14,446 fallen women had been restored to their homes or admitted into asylums; and 27,370 Bibles, Testaments, and portions of Scripture had been distributed. "The annual revenue of the Metropolitan Charities," wrote Arnold White several years agom "The Problems of a Great City," "is greater than the whole of the expenditure in Sweden on maintaining royalty, the adminis tration of justice and foreign affairs, army and navy, internal, educational, and ecclesiastical affairs, and in providing interest on the Swedish debt." The income of the London City Mission Society alone reached in its fifty-third year (1887-88) the sum of £87,738, or about $435,000. The following figures represent the work done during 1889-90 by 500 missionaries : Visits and calls, 3,641,331; to the sick and dying, 278,433 ; Testaments and portions dis tributed, 12,802; religious tracts distributed, 4,857,909; books lent, 41,055; indoor meetings and Bible-classes held, 47,026; additional in door meetings in factories, work-houses, peni tentiaries, 23,951; persons visited and conversed with in factories, 190,312; outdoor services, 10,464; readings of Scripture in visitations, $844,399; new communicants, 2,172; restored, 489; families induced to begin family prayers, 1,052; drunkards reclaimed, 1,923; unmarried couples induced to marry, 173; fallen women restored to their homes or otherwise rescued, 358; shops closed on Lord's Day, 150; induced to attend public worship, 5,520; children sent to Sunday-school, 5,395; adults visited who died, 8,061; of whom visited by missionaries only, 2,150. The methods adopted by the Society in its work are much the same as those which are pursued in other great cities for the relief and evangelization of the destitute and vicious classes. Each missionaiy visits once a month about 500 families, or 2,000 persons. Their work is to act as pioneers in a place where the faithful pastor may in due time follow. They read the Scrip tures, pray with and exhort the people, give them tracts, see that the children go to school, and that every family is possessed of a copy of the Word of God. Whilst the Society's missionaries are forbidden to give money or to so deport them selves as to be looked upon as mere charity agents, they render most effective service in bringing relief to those whose destitution de mands immediate attention; but their constant aim is, through Gospel instrumentalities, to reach and renovate the character, and thus transform the personal and family life. When this end is attained the family is at once lifted permanently above the level of vice and want. The field in London is so vast that it may be rightly termed unparalleled, imperial and na tional in its proportions. In order to come into effective touch with this vast urban field, the Society divides and appor tions its laborers to different districts, classes, and trades, and encourages the use of every means which experience has proved to be effective in reaching and rescuing the fallen. The following constitute some of the depart ments of labor: House-to-house Visitation ; Mis sion Halls ; Open-air Work; Special Missions to Bakers, Day and Night Cabmen, Canal Boat men, Chelsea Pensioners, Coachmen, Grooms and Hostlers, etc. ; to the Docks, to Drovers in Islington, to the Factories, to the Fire Brigade, to the French, to the Germans, Italians, Span. iards, Asiatics, Africans, Jews, and Foreign Sailors ; to Hospitals ; to Navvies ; to Omnibus and Tramcar Men, Railway Men; to Post-office Employees, Telegraph Boys, City Police, Metro politan Police, Public-houses, Common Lodging- houses and Coffee-shops ; to Hotels and Clubs ; to Builders on Public Works ; to Soldiers in Lon don and Woolwich ; to Theatre Employees ; to the Welsh ; to Workhouses and Infirmaries; and to Gypsies. Drunkenness — reckoned as the most appalling of the seven curses of London — has been steadily diminishing in recent years beneath the effort of the London Missionary Society and the many other active agencies for religious work. Coffee- shops and cocoa-rooms are still on the increase, while the number of public-houses decreases ; and in many of the latter the landlords sell tea and coffee at stated hours, and also various kinds of temperance drinks, while not a few proprietors furnish a regular dinner. A well-known writer uses the following lan guage : " One improvement must be thankfully chronicled. Religion and Temperance have stepped in and taken a tighter grip of the masses. In several low parts that I passed through I found a bill in every window — the printed notice of a sermon to be preached next Sunday — and on entering into conversation with the inhabitants, I found that tbe great bulk of them were tee totallers. The manners of the people have also appreciably improved. In places where a few years ago I was received in much the same spirit as the cannibals of the Pacific isles were wont to display when a white stranger landed on their shores, I found a courteous welcome from both men and women." Preaching in halls and in the open air has been attended with remarkable results. One mission ary in the south of London reports 1,089 hours, during one year, spent in "additional mission work," 218 meetings having been held in a room, with a total of 9,096 in attendance ; whilst an other, in the East End of London, reports no less than 630 meetings held in his mission-room by himself and his voluntary co-workers. These meetings are in many cases exceedingly varied in their nature, consisting of Gospel services, temperance meetings, mothers' meetings, prayer- meetings, Bible-classes, and children's services. Sunday-schools are also held in neighborhoods where special need exists. Out of 5,491 induced to attend public worship during the year (1886), 2, 1 14 became communicants. Open-air Services have been followed with well-marked results, nearly all the Society's missionaries engaging in this sort of labor. Hyde Park, Battersea Park, Chelsea Embank ment, the steps of the Royal Exchange, Regent's Park, Lisson Grove, Drury Lane, Pentonville, Whitechapel, St. George's-in-the-East, Step ney, Stratford, Victoria Dock Road, Millwall, Mile End, New Town, Bethnal Green, Deptford, Walworth, Bermondsey, Lambeth, the Mile-End Waste, and the general metropolis, in by-ways and lanes, in courts and alleys, as well as in the great highways and more open spaces, may be said to have furnished occasions innumerable for the faithful proclamation of saving truth, the audiences varying from fifty, sixty, one hundred, to fifteen hundred and even two thousand. The following is the testimony of an East End worker: "I have found, more than ever, that CITY MISSIONS 302 CITY MISSIONS the Gospel preached in such language as the people can easily understand, and presented in an earnest, conversational, semi-argumentative style, has a fascination in it that will hold an audience, not only at midsummer, but also in midwinter, when the earth is locked in frost and mantled with snow. From the opening of spring to the close of December I held about 150 meetings, of au average length of two hours, and at twenty different places; have ad dressed not less than 50,000 of the working- classes, and received testimonies from many who have turned from the power of Satan unto God. The magnitude, severity, and difficulty of the work will more clearly appear from the follow ing citations, selected from among many which have been published iu connection with the So ciety's reports: "I have paid," says one mis sionary, "during the past year 5,694 visits and calls, in which I read the Scriptures 4,671 times, besides offering prayer. To the sick and dying I paid 556 visits. I have given away 10,665 re ligious tracts and periodicals, and 12 copies of the Scriptures; 32 persons were induced to at tend public worship, of whom 9 became com municants; 23 families were induced to estab lish family prayer; 15 confirmed drunkards were led to abslaiu ; 5 backsliders were restored; and 3 couples living together unwed, were in duced to many." One appointed to work in the "Angel Gar dens " because he was young and strong, found the " Gardens " were filthy courts of tumble down houses, whose population of several thousands (in a space of 280 by 160 yards) were vagrants and criminals, many of the houses be ing deus of thieves, robbers, and murderers. "I had not been many hours at work," he reports, " when I was accused of being a policeman in disguise. At once I was hounded out by a des perate howling mob of thieves and outcasts. Upon my return home I was so cast clown as to be able to gain relief only in tears and prayer. Very cautiously I went to work next day; but upon ascending a very steep, rickety staircase, a women with hob-nail boots came on to the landing and declared, with bitter oaths, if I came a step higher she would kick my eyes out; so I retreated. Desperate efforts to gain a foot ing were continued for several months, and so hard was tbe conflict that I have sometimes stood at an entrance to the district in silent prayer for a quarter of an hour before I dared venture down. This perseverance, however, with the Word of the Living God, was effective, and constant, brutal opposilion was overcome, though for long years I was subjected to low abuse and occasional acts of violence. No Chris tian but myself dared venture into ' Angel Gar dens,' aud I was therefore called to visit the sick aud dying at all hours of the day and night, and many a strange scene have I witnessed. In full day I saw a geutlemau, who had ventured dowu the place, surrounded, his coat taken off aud run away with. One morning I saw two women dragging a ' slavey ' into the yard by her hair A few hours after, that child of thirteen was found beaten to death iu the yard. At another time I saw two women fighting, when one who had fallen dragged the other down by the long hair of her head, then bit pieces out of her lips and cheeks and spat them out of her mouth. One Sunday, on going out early, I saw a woman ou the ground with the blade of a knife sticking out of the chest-bone. She had robbed a sailor of alibis money, and he had stabbed her. I also witnessed a murder when a Spaniard killed a girl named Norali with a dagger, and before I could prevent it, he blew half his head off with a pistol . After I had succeeded in opening a room for meetings and a ragged-school in the centre of my district, I was often stopped in the service by the cries of murder and by fights. ' ' After many years of unceasing effort I gained entrance into many rooms and into most of the dens. My care for tbe sick and the children disarmed opposition; then, in room after room, attention was secured to the reading of the Bible. Friendship on the part of many took the place of hostility, and I have been rescued from a band of roughs by a powerful and sav age Irishwoman, who on that very evening was arrested for robbery, and was transported for five years. " The work went on; people listened; the rag ged-school was crowded, and the meetings were well attended ; soul after soul was brought un der conviction, and many were gathered into the fold of Christ. The neighborhood was opened up to the clergy and consecrated lay- workers; sanitary and other improvements were made; and so, through the entering in of the Gospel, the district changed its character to that of a far more respectable place. " Christian literature is also an effective means as used by the Society's agents, millions of tracts being distributed in a single year, and not only read as a rule by the receivers, but carried and redistributed among acquaintances in the prov inces and even in distant lands, finding their way not only to Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, .but to America, Africa, Australia, and other parts of the earth. The Religious Tract Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society have fur nished, in grants, a large proportion of the re ligious literature thus distributed. Missions of the Established Church. — Besides the work done by the London general society, the mission enterprises of both the Church of England and the Dissenting churches are effecting much for the non-religious and de graded classes of the metropolis. The Establishment had, 1886 (not including tbe two great cathedrals), 920 churches, besides a large number of mission halls and schools. Of the 920 churches, 286 have a daily service, and parochial missions are becoming a marked feature in the life of the Establishment. In their method they closely resemble the Ameri can revival meetings and protracted services. Meetings are held in factories, in the open air, and in streets and other places. Societies and guilds are common both in the Church Estab lishment and among Nonconformists. Most of the larger churches employ more than one clergyman, and some as many as three or four; besides whom are missionaries, Bible- women, deaconesses, trained nurses, and other assistants. The city has also "The Lay Helpers' Asso ciation" with about 5,000 members, who act as teachers, superintendents of Sunday-schools, who also hold services in halls and rooms, doing any sort of missionary work as opportunity pre sents. There are also bands of visitors, who are so distributed that every family can be reached. Mothers' meetings, held weekly, are among the important agencies, instruction being given in making garments, and in various kinds of CITY MISSIONS . 303 CITY MISSIONS household work. Clothing clubs are nearly always connected with these meetings, members being encouraged to deposit small sums, weekly, until they can purchase needed garments or furniture; in one case the membership has reached 900. The Girls' Friendly Society is another agency, its membership (1886) reaching 125,000. It is patronized by the Royal Family. Its aim is to binff*the girls together in a pure, obedient, more useful life, giving them the sympathy, advice, and helpful care of friends, who continue to look after the members even after they have emigrated to foreign lands. Lodges are pro vided in the metropolis and in larger towns; girls' work is looked after under eight depart ments, lectures are provided, and instruction is given in methods of earning their own living. One of its departments relates to caring for the sick. In the wide range of work such additional agencies as the following are employed, especially in the East End: Deaconesses and Sisters of Mercy (who adopt a distinctive dress); Friendly Societies and Workingmen's Clubs, Temper ance Friendly Societies, The Church of England Temperance Society (having its branches in al most every parish), the White Cross movement, and Lending Libraries. Art Exhibitions are a novel featuie, the most notable being that of St. Jude's in 1886, which was visited by 56,000 people, who enjoyed the sight of many of the very finest works of art, loaned for this purpose; .gentlemen and ladies were in constant attend ance, to aid, by their explanations and criticisms, the classes who were invited to attend. The University Extension Society is also of Tecent organization, composed of graduates of Oxford, who live among the poor in a special house, with arrangements for the giving of lec tures and instruction to the luckless population around them. They also encourage the poor artisans by giving exhibitions of their work, and devising methods for securing purchasers for it. Work by Dissenters. — Many of the methods employed by the Dissenters are quite similar to those used by the Church of England. Dissent ing churches number (1886) about 700, and they employ the usual methods of Evangelistic work. Many of the missions are carried on by the .separate churches, and with such success that entire neighborhoods attain to uewer and greatly •elevated living. With one church — Highbury Quadrant — are connected no less than 56 institutions for speci alties in Christian enterprise, all of which, ex cepting five, meet at least once a week. The penny banks have 926 depositors ; temperance organizations include 700 members. It is esti mated that 517 members of this church come in contact with at least 10,000 lives. The Tolmer Square Congregational Church employs a number and variety of effective agencies. Besides the Sunday-school and Band of Hope, are two lodges of Good Templars, Sons of Temperance, a Woman's Temperance Society, a Thrift Society, three Building Societies, a Mutual Improvement, a "Help Myself" So ciety, two Phoenix (temperance and friendly) societies, a penny bank and a number of evening classes, "smoking concerts," penny concerts, mission prayer-meetings, and mothers' meetings. The East London Tabernacle furnishes us the most notable example of extended and effective missionary organization and labor. The work is carried on in that deplorable district which gave voice to " The Bitter Cry" of Out cast London. The plan adopted is first to minister to the immediate physical wants of the poor, then to help the unemployed to find work. Nine mis sionaries, in the service of that church, go from house to house, from room to room, carrying relief and preaching the Word ; not one apart ment is left unvisited. During 1885, 26,340 visits were made ; in 8,428 instances food was given. During the year about 35,000 loaves of bread were distributed, 80 hundred weight of rice, 35,000 pounds of potatoes, 1,000 pounds of tea, and 5,600 garments. Besides the day work, evening meetings are held in four halls, and weekly reports are made, at personal interviews with the pastor. Money is never contributed except in special cases, tickets being used upon which the orders are given. On the garments is stamped the name of the pastor, to prevent their acceptance at the pawn-shops. The church and its friends also maintain both an orphans' house and a sea-side home for the exhausted and for convalescents, besides a great number of clubs, societies, meetings, and classes. Great vigor of life is a mark of the church, yet nothing is spasmodic, for the people are lifted by degrees. They are first touched by the missionary in their homes, are then persuaded to visit the mission chapels, and thus are lifted a step higher. By degrees they learn to enjoy the prayer-meetings, and are finally brought into the regular services of the Lord's house. Under this system it is testified there is no hopeless class, however abandoned they may have been. The money is obtained for the regular support of such expensive agencies without begging. It comes sometimes as thank-offerings, and often in larger sums, unsolicited, in answer to prayer; but the means are never wanting. In connection with another church (Regent Square Presbyterian) an institute for working lads has been founded, in which is given "am bulance instruction:" they also have classes in English literature and composition, in English grammar and elocution, in political economy, singing, writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, French, and German. There are also nine differ ent science classes, besides technical instruction in carpentry, plumbing, printing, and lithography. Games, innocent and healthful, are also provided, such as chess and checkers; also a cricket-club, a foot-ball club, a swimming club; a club of "barriers" is formed among the members. This institute has proved of priceless value in both what it prevents and what it secures. The Salvation Army has also proved an effective agency, for they employ such means and adopt such language and modes of presen tation as arrest and secure the attention of those who can receive ideas and impressions only as their own rough and simple language is used. It " is a mission from the lower classes, by the lower classes, for the lower classes. " Out of au humble beginning (about 24 years ago) by Wil liam Booth, on a waste piece of land near Mile- End Road, East London, has grown this mighty agency, whose officers number thousands and the soldiery hundreds of thousands. "It has many excellent features. The ear nestness and courage of its leaders, and their enthusiasm for the salvation of the very lowest, CITY MISSIONS 304 COAN, TITUS cannot be too highly praised," says one who has closely investigated the work iu Londou. Whatever may be said, justly, iu the way of criticism, the Salvation Army has certainly had great influence in stirring up the churches to an appreciation of the needs of the poor and their duty toward the outcast. As a result of all these evangelizing energies there is less drunkenness, less pauperism, less crime, in the great metropolis to-day than ten years ago. The missionary spirit is abroad, and it is one of the modern miracles to see a city growing better aud better while she is daily adding to her immensity. Clan William, a town of Northwest Cape Colony, South Africa, 140 miles northeast of Cape Town. Climate salubrious, soil fertile. Population, 7,041. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Claremont, a town of Natal , South Africa, southeast of Durban and Port Natal. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Clark, Ephraim W., b. Haverhill, N. H., April 25th, 1799; graduated at Dartmouth College, 1824; Andover Theological Seminary 1827; ordained at Brandon, Vt. ; sailed with the second reinforcement as a missionary of the American Board, November 3d, 1827, for the Sandwich Islands, reaching Honolulu, March, 1828. He was stationed there, and by request of the mission devoted a part of his time to the seamen and foreign residents. With others he had charge of the high-school at Lahainaluna 1835-43, and then for three years he was en gaged in preaching and other missionary work at Wailuku, on Maui. In 1848 he returned to Honolulu to have the pastoral care of the First Church. That church soon assumed his full support, and he became a " corresponding member "of the mission. In 1852, as Secre tary of the Hawaiian Missionary Society, he went with the first company of American and Hawaiian laborers to Micronesia to assist and advise in commencing the mission there. In 1856, and again in 1S§9, he visited the United States. In 1863, having been for fifteen years pastor of the large First Church at Honolulu, he resigned the pastorate, partly because of in sufficient strength, but mainly that he might engage more fully in Bible revision. Having spent a year on that work at the islands, he was sent to New York in 1864 by the mission to superintend the printing of the Hawaiian Scriptures by the American Bible Society, read ing proofs, preparing references, etc. This was followed by the translation and printing of the Tract Society's Bible Dictionary, and several other books and tracts. The last work completed was a hymn and tune book. He did not return to the islands. He made his homo several years ago with his children at Chicago. He died July 16th, 1878, aged 79. Clarkahad, a town of the Punjab, India. Station of the C. M. S.; 5 native workers, 58 church-members. Clarkson, a town in Cape Colony, South Africa, in the Zitzikamma district, east of Cape Town. Prettily situated on the slope of a chain of mountains. A station of the Moravi ans, opened in 1839 in accordance with the re quest of Sir George Napier, then governor of Cape Colony, who was moved by a sincere desire to help the poor Fingoes, whom the Kaf fir war of 1836 had made free, but left without any care or protection whatsoever. He invited the missionaries to occupy a well wooded and watered district, where a considerable number of Fingo freedmen and others had located, and the Sloravian Brethren at once embraced the of fer, and called the place Clarkson, after the phil anthropist of that name, who with several friends had contributed largely toward the expense of the station's establishment. At present there are in charge of this station 2 missionaries and their wives. The work has prospered and the congregation has steadily increased. Clay Ashland, a town of Liberia, West Africa, on the St. Paul's River, northeast of Monrovia. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North; 2 missionaries, 51 church-mem bers, 94 scholars. Methodist Episcopal Church North, 2 missionaries, 16 native helpers, 74 scholars, 98 church-members. Protestant Epis copal Church, U. S. A., 1 school, 7 communi cants. Clifton Hill, a town in Barbadoes, West Indies, between Mount Tabor and Sharon. It is finely situated on an elevation commanding an extensive view of the southern and south western portions of the island. Mission station of the Moravians, opened for the benefit of those emancipated slaves whom the church at Sharon was not able to accommodate. The missionary and his wife in charge of this sta tion being temporarily withdrawn on account of health, it is cared for by the missionaries at Mount Tabor. Clydesdale, a town in Southeast Natal, South Africa, northwest of Uinzuuibe, south east of High-flats. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 3 missionaries. Coan, George Whitfield, b. Byron, Genesee County, N. Y., December 30th, 1817; graduated Williams College 1846, Union Theo logical Seminary 1849 ; sailed the same year as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for Persia. His department was distinctively field work and especially among the villages of Kurdistau, as well as those in the plains of Persia, he was everywhere and always the laborious, earnest bishop of the infant churches, and the preacher of the Word. For this he had special qualifi cations of fluent utterance, and with a more than usually correct knowledge and use of the Syriac language he was au impressive and often eloquent speaker. For years he had the bur den of physical infirmity. In 1862 he was com pelled by ill-health to seek a change and rest at home, and again in 1875. He died in Wooster, Ohio, December 21st, 1879. Coan, Titus, b. Killingworth, Conn., February 1st, 1801 ; graduated at Auburn Theological Seminary 1833; ordained to the ministry, and in August the same year sailed, under the direction of the A. B. C. F. M., with Rev. William Arms on a mission of exploration to Patagonia. Having tried in vain to make known their message to the savages, finding themselves captives and their lives in danger, they availed themselves of a chance vessel and escaped by stratagem, reaching New London May, 1834, after an absence of four months. Mr. Coan sailed December 5th, 1834, with six others under the American Board, for the Sand- COAN, TITUS 305 COAN, TITUS wich Islands, arriving at Honolulu June 6th, 1835. He was at ouce stationed at Hilo on Hawaii, where he remained till his death, a period of forty-eight years. Some mission work had already been done here, and most of the natives had a liltle knowledge of Christian truth; about one third had learned to read, and a church of thirty-six members had been gath ered. Before the close of the year Mr. Coan had fltade the circuit of the islaud by canoe and on foot, a trip of 300 miles. On this tour he preached 43 times, examined 20 schools with 1,200 scholars, conversed with multitudes, and as a physician ministered to the sick. These tours were repeated in succeeding years. The volcanic structure of the island made travelling laborious. Deep ravines, beetling crags, barred his way; swollen torrents, foaming rivers, threatened his life. "Some of the rivers," says he, "I succeeded in fording; some I swam by the help of a rope to prevent my being swept away; and over some I was carried pas sively on the broad shoulders of a native, while a company of strong men locked hands and stretched themselves across the stream just be low me and just above a near cataract, to save me from going over it if my bearer should fall. This experience was often repeated three or four times a day." Mr. Coan feeling that the work laid upon him was to bear to "every creature" iu all Puna and Hilo the message of salvatiou through Christ, allowed no obstacle or inaccessibility to interfere with his purpose. The more " dis creet and prayerful members" of his church were trained to aid him in this work. Going two and two, " they visited the villages, climbed the mountains, traversed the forests, and ex plored the glens in search of the wandering aud the dying sons of Hawaii." In 1836 he says: " I began to see tokens of interest that I scarce ly understood myself." Wherever he preached the people flocked to hear, and afterwards lin gered and crowded around him to inquire about the good way. In 1837 occurred such a re ligious awakening as is rare even in Christian lands. Nearly the whole population of Hilo turned out to hear the preaching of the Word. The sick and lame were brought on litters and on the backs of men; villagers came from miles around, and built temporary dwellings that they might be near the mission-house. With in a mile on every hand the cabins stood thick. Hilo, the village of ten hundred, saw its pop ulation suddenly swelled to teu thousand, and here was held literally a "camp-meeting" of two years. Meetings for prayer and preaching were held daily, schools were established for old and young. In the intervals of these exer cises the people cultivated their taro patches, or sought food in the ocean. The ladies taught the children not only religious truths, but "to attend to their persons, to braid mats, to make their tappas, hats, and bonnets." At any hour of the day or night a tap of the bell would as semble from three to six thousand. God's truth was preached simply, and sent home by the Holy Spirit. The theme was the great salvation. Many cried aloud for mercy, " and the noise of the weeping" at times "silenced the preacher." Mr. Coan says: "When we rose for prayer some fell down in a swoon. There were hundreds of such cases. On one occasion I preached from the text ' Madness is in their hearts.' The truth seemed to have an intense power. A woman cried, ' Oh, I'm the one; madness is in my heart!' She became a true Christian. A man cried out, ' There's a two-edged sword cutting me in pieces ! ' A back woods native, wicked, stout, who had come in to make fun, fell suddenly. When he had come to, he said, ' God has struck me.' He was sub dued, and gave evidence of being a true Chris tian. Once, on a tour, while I was preaching in the fields to about two thousand persons, a man cried out, 'Alas! what shall I do to be saved? God be merciful to me a sinner!' The whole congregation joined in with ejaculations. It was a thrilling scene. I could get no chance to speak for half an hour, but stood still to see the salvation of God. "There were many such scenes; and men would come and say, ' Why don't you put this down?' My answer was: 'I didn't get it up.' I didn't believe the devil would set men to praying, confessing, and breaking off their sins by righteousness. These were the times when thieves brought back what they had stolen, quarrels were reconciled, the lazy became in dustrious, thousands broke their pipes and gave up tobacco, drunkards stopped drinking, adul teries ceased, and murderers confessed their crimes. Neither the devil nor all the men in the world could have got this up. Why should I put it down? I always told the natives that such demonstrations were no evidence of con version, and advised them to quietness. And I especially tried to keep them from hypocrisy." An event scarcely less remarkable, consider ing tbe time and circumstances, than the revival itself, occurred November 7th, 1837. It was a sudden divine visitation, a sermon more pun gent than any that human lips could utter, and reached many who had before resisted the word. Mr. Coan says: "At 7 o'clock, as we were call ing our domestics together for prayer, we heard a heavy sound as of a falling mountain on the beach. This was succeeded by loud waitings and cries of distress extending for miles around the shores of the bay. The sea had all on a sudden risen in a gigantic wave, which, rushing in with the rapidity of a race-horse, had fallen on the shore, sweeping everything into indis criminate ruin. Everything floated wild upon the flood. The wave fell like a bolt of heaven, and no man had time to flee or save his garment. In a moment hundreds of people were struggling with the raging billows, and amidst- the wreck of their earthly all. Some were dashed upon the shore, some were drawn out by friends, some were carried out to sea by the receding current, and some sunk to rise no more. It was probably the effect of a submarine volcanic eruption near the mouth of the harbor. To the people it seemed ' as the voice of Almighty God when he speaketh, ' and it appeared to promote the work of the Spirit then going on." The work continued with power the following year, and the converts were numbered by thou sands. Mr. Coan had ever believed in childhood conversion, and much labor was expended by him and others in the instruction and training of children. During bis labors in the island several hundred children under fifteen were con nected with his church. Previous to his visit to the United States in 1870 he had received into the church and himself baptized 11,960 persons. Among these were "not only the young and strong, but tbe old and decrepit, the lame, the blind, the maimed, the withered, the paralytic, COAN, TITUS 306 COKE, THOMAS and men and women who had been guilty of almost every sin." They had not been admitted without months of scrutiny and careful sifting, and results tested by after years have shown that a transformation beyond the power of preacher or teacher, however enthusiastic and faithful, had passed upon the character of a large proportion of these converts. Under this train ing the people became more and more settled in faith aud morals. The industries of civilization have largely taken the place of the old savage indolence. The Sabbath is generally observed. Fifteen places of worship have been built by the money and labor of the natives. A very large proportion of the people read and write. Their gifts for benevolent and religious purposes com pare favorably with those of more advanced communities. A considerable number of their own members have been sent by these churches as missionaries to the Micronesian Islands. Mr. Coan's later years were devoted to the care of the church of Hawaii. In 1882, during another revival, into the labors of which he en tered with his old ardor, he was stricken with paralysis, aud after a few weeks, full of love, joy, patience, aud submission, he passed into rest, in the 82d year of his age. Mr. Coan was not only a missionary, but an enthusiastic and careful observer of those won derful phenomena of nature which his long resi dence in those volcanic islands brought to his notice. He published two volumes, " Adven tures iu Patagonia" and " Life in Hawaii." Cocanada, a city at the mouth of the Godavery River, on the east coast of India. A station of the Baptist Missionaiy Society of Canada, with 2 missionaries and a flourishing girls' school. Cochin, a district of the Madras Presidency, South India. Occupied by the C. M. S. in 1817. Stations now at Trichur and Kunnaukulam. 500 communicants. Cochin China, a country of Southeastern Asia, bouuded on lhe northwest by Cambodia, south and east by the Chinese Sea, and west by the Gulf of Siam. Population estimated atl, 858,- 807—2,000 Europeans, chiefly French; 1,500,000 Annamites, 105,000 Cambodians, 50,000 Chi nese, 8,000 savages, and a floating population of about 20,000 Malays and Malabariaus. It was incorporated into French Indo-Chiua in 1887. Chief town, Saigon; population, 82,000; 490 schools, 20,520 pupils. Catholics, 5,800; the remainder chiefly Buddhists. No Protestaut mission work. Cochran, Joseph G-., b. Springfield, N. Y., 1817: graduated at Amherst College 1842, aud Union Theological Seminary 1847; sailed the same year as a missionary of the A. B. C F. M. for the Nestorians. He look the place of Mr. Stoddard as principal of the male -seminary at Seir, aud with that school his life's work was identified till the day of his death. He remained principal from 1848 till Mr. Stoddard's return from the United Slates in 1851. From 1851 till the death of Dr. Stod dard, in 1857, the two were associated in the conduct of the seminary. Mr. Cochran then became principal, and continued such till 1865. During those seventeen years it is said that he did more thau any other man to educate and equip teachers and preachers for the Nestorians and for Persia. The report of the mission gives the number of graduates from 1846 to 1866 as 98, of whom 56 were ordained ministers, 26 evangelists, colporteurs, and teachers. Besides his work in the seminary, Mr. Cochran had special charge of the district of Barandooz, containing 30 villages, the rudest and most iguorant portion of the Nestorians in Persia. When he took charge there was no congrega tion or Sabbath-school; before the close of his life several churches were organized, and a Presbytery formed, embracing twenty-five congregations. He was a voluminous author aud translator in the Syriac. He prepared a very complete Bible Geography and History, and several school-books, as Algebra, Astron omy, Natural Philosophy, and later a valuable work on Pastoral Theology and Homiletics. Iu 1865 he visited America to arrange for the settlement and education of his children. He returned to Persia in 1867, leaving some of the children at home. In 1870 Mrs. Cochran was obliged to return to America with an invalid daughter, he remaining at his post. On her return he met her at Constantinople. During the last days of the journey to Oroomiah he was attacked with chills, which were followed by typhus fever. He died November 21st, 1871, after an illness of thirty days. Codacal (Kodakal), a town of Malabar, on tbe Southwest Coast of India, north of Kunnan- kulain, on the railway connecting Calicut with Madras. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society (1859); 2 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife, 17 native helpers. 3 schools and an or phan asylum, 205 commuuicants. Coimbatore, a town of Madras, South India. Climate temperate. Population, 20,000, Hindoos, Moslems, Europeans, and Eurasians. Languages, Tamil and Canarese. People miser ably poor and low. A station of tbe L. M. S. (1830); 2 missionaries and wives, 21 native helpers, 2 churches, 691 members, 241 com municants, 15 schools, 1,160 scholars. Also a station of the Evangelical Lutheran Society of Leipsic, since 1858 with 423 church-members. Coke, Thomas, LL.D., went out under the "Wesleyan Missiouaiy Society " to Nova Scotia in 1786. Antigua, aud Ceylon. Dr. Coke was a clergyman of the Church of Eugland and a graduate of Oxford. In 1776 he became the intimate friend of John Wesley, and en tered heartily into his plans for tbe spread of the Gospel. He worked with Wesley for 15 years as superintendent of his work. In 1786 Dr. Coke set sail from Eugland to begin a mission in Nova Scotia. Adverse winds drove them out of their course, and the ship springing a leak, the captaiu was compelled to go to Au- tigua. Here Dr. Coke found a very interesting mission already under Mr. Baxter, a Wesleyan from England, and a storekeeper in English Harbor. Dr. Coke examined into the stale of this mission and decided to leave Mr. Warren- ner here, who was to have been one of his companions in Nova Scotia. He then went back to England to raise funds for the West Indian Mission. In the course of ten years Dr. Coke made four voyages for the mission, and also visited the United States at the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He super intended all the work on the West India Islands, and under his wise guidance the mission pros pered so much, that he now turned his attention COKE, THOMAS 307 COLONIAL MISSIONS to Ceylon and India. He was so anxious to commence this mission that he offered to defray all the expenses himself, amounting to £6,000, and to go with the missionaries, as he always did, in spite of his declining years. His friends tried to dissuade him from this long voyage, but he said, " If you will uot let me go you will break my heart." He sailed from Spithead in company with six others. He had not been out mauy days when he took cold. For many days he seemed failing, and soon a shock of paralysis followed, and he was found dead in his cabin. He was buried at sea June 1st, 1814. Colar: see Kolar. Colombia, The Republic of, a country of South America, occupying the northwestern corner, including the Isthmus of Panama, and bounded on the east by Venezuela and on the south by Ecuador. The whole of that section gained its independence from Spain in 1819, be ing officially constituted December 27th, 1819, but soon split up into Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada. This last was again changed (1858) into the Confederation Granadina, made up of eight states. In 1861 it adopted the title of United States of New Gran ada, and in 1863 au improved constitution was formed, which reverted to the old name Colom bia — The United States of Colombia. The year 1885 brought another revolution, after which the states became departments, and tlie title of the country the Republic of Colombia! Area, 504,773 square miles. Population, 3,878,600, including 220,000 uncivilized In dians. Only a small section of the country is under cultivation. It is believed to be rich in minerals. Much of the soil is fertile, but of no present value from want of means of communi cation and transport. Agriculture is in a back ward condition. Coffee is most largely culti vated. A large amount of gold and silver is ¦exported, $200,000 being sent from one prov ince annually. The most important trade is the transit trade through the Isthmus of Pan ama. The language is Spanish and the religion Roman Catholic, though other religions are permitted so long as their exercise is "not contrary to Christian morals nor to the law." The chief towns are: Bogota, the capital, situ ated 9,000 feet above the sea; population 100,- 000; Barranquilla, on a canon of the river Magdalena, and connected by a railroad (20 miles) with a seaport, population 20,000; Bu- caramanga, 12,000; and Cucuta, 10,000. Mis sion work is carried on by the Presbyterian Church North, U. S. A., with stations at Bo gota, Barranquilla, and Medellin. Bible work by the American Bible Society. Colombo, a city on tbe west coast of Ceylon. Population, 110,500, Tamil, Sin halese, and Dutch and Portuguese mixed. -Im portant naval post. Mission station of the C. M. S. (1852), carried on in three branches, English, Tamil, and Sinhalese; 2 missionaries and wives, 2 female missionaries, 3 native clergymen, 369 communicants, 2,999 scholars. S. P. G., 2 missionaries, 4 churches, 243 com municants, 1,520 scholars (including St. Thomas College). Baptist Missionary Society (England), 3 mis sionaries, 391 church-members, 175 scholars. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, 3 missionaries, 6 native ministers, 222 members, 968 scholars (including Wesley College). Colonia, a town of Uruguay, South America, on the estuary of the La Plata, oppo site Buenos Ayres, 98 miles west-northwest of Montevideo. Population, 2,500. A mission circuit of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North); 1 missionary, 1 assistant missionaiy, 3 native helpers, 1 theological school, 12 teachers, 1 other school, 34 scholars. Colonial and Continental Missions. — These are missions established by the differ ent churches of England, Scotland, and Ireland, primarily for work among the English resi dents of the colonies and on the continent of Europe, and secondarily to assist various evan gelical churches in Europe in their own home work. They carry on their work by sending out special missionaries, appointing chaplains, assisting in the erection of chapels, giving grants in aid to local churches and organi zations, assisting in schools, providing for divine service at army and navy stations, etc. One of their most important lines of work is that of supplying services at the various resorts of summer and winter visitors on the continent of Europe. Almost every prominent resort of tourists has one or more chapels, where there is preaching on the Sabbath by a minister, who is on hand also through the week to render as sistance such as a pastor can give in case of need. These stations are in a degree, sometimes entirely, supported by the gifts of those who attend. But it is the rule that some one of these societies is the actual supporter of the services, without which the Sabbath of the traveller would give no opportunity for congenial wor ship. Another line of work scarcely less im portant than the so-called regular foreign-mis sionary work is that of supporting those evan gelical churches that, under great discourage ments and with much opposition, are seeking in Belgium, France, Italy, Spain, Bohemia, and Moravia to stem the tide of priestly dom ination and preach a pure Gospel. Many of them would be not only weakened, but crip pled and even overpowered, but for the timely aid received by them from the Christians of Great Britain, largely through the medium of these societies. Many of the foreign-missionary societies carry ou a colonial and continental work of the above description in connection with their work for heathen and Mohammedan lands. Among these are the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, tbe South American Missionary Socie ty, the Methodist and Baptist Societies. We give below a list of those societies either distinctively engaged in this work or combin ing it with their foreign work in definite degree. Fuller statements will be found under each so ciety. Church of England.— Society for the Pro pagation of the Gospel, 19 Delahay Street, West minster, London; South American Missionary Society, 1 Clifford's Inn, Fleet Street, London; Colonial and Continental Church Society, 9 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street, London; Anglo- Continental Society, Blickling, Aylsham, Nor folk, England. Presbyterian. — Continental Evangelization Committee of the Presbyterian Church of Eng land, 6 Beech Street, Liverpool; Free Church COLONIAL MISSIONS 308 COMMERCE AND MISSIONS of Scotland Colonial Committee, 15 North Bank Street, Edinburgh; Free Church of Scot land Coutinental Committee; United Presby terian Church of Scotland, Continental and Colonial Board, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh; Church of Scotland Colonial Committee, 22 Queen Street, Edinburgh (Continental work is carried on by the Committee in correspond ence with foreign churches); Presbyterian Church of Ireland Continental Mission, 12 May Street, Belfast, Ireland. Methodist. — Wesleyan Methodist Mission ary Society, Bishopsgate Street Within, Lou don; Uuited Methodist Free Churches, Foreign Missions, 443Glossop Road, Sheffield, Eugland; Methodist New Connection Missionary Society, Richmond Hill, Ashtou-uuder-Lyne, England; Primitive Methodist Missionary Society, 71 Freegrove Road, Holloway, London, N. ; Bible Christian Foreign Missionary Society, 79 Her bert Road, Plumstead, Kent, England. Baptist. — Baptist Missionary Society, 19 Furnival Street, London, E. C; General Baptist Missionary Society, 60 Wilson Street, Derby, England; Strict Baptist Missionary Society, 58 Grosvenor Road, Highbury, Lon don, N. Congregational.— Colonial Missionary So ciety, Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street, Lon don, E. C. Friends — Friends' Women's Committee on Christian Work in France, 5 Warwick Road, Upper Clapton, London, E. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Headquarters. Society House, 9 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street, London. — The "Newfoundland School Society" was insti tuted in June, 1823, with the object of carry ing the Gospel to English colonists and their children in Newfoundland. Being joined by the Colonial Society in 1851, it began rapidly to extend operations, and soon embraced all the priucipal colonies, thus including, with a vast number of hitherto neglected British set tlers, the French in Lower Canada, the negroes in Upper Canada, the Indians in their scattered reserves, and also the Eurasians in Hindostan. The Society has placed chaplaincies in many countries on tbe Continent of Europe, which are increasingly appreciated, not only by Brit ish tourists and residents, but to a considerable extent by the inhabitants of those countries. Au interesting development of the Society's work is that among sailors iu foreign ports, especially in Amsterdam, Boulogue, Bilbao, Dunkerque, Seville, Stockholm, etc. At Duu- kerque, France, there are in addition to the church, parsonage, etc., a Sailors' Iustitute and a Sailors' Home, the latter containing forty beds. The Society holds at present about 200 sta tions in the colonies, aud 140 chaplaincies on the Coutiueut. Its present name was adopted in 1861. Receipts for 1889, £24,352 8s. Id. Colonial missionary Society. Head quarters, Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street, London, E. C. — The Colonial Missionary So ciety was formed in 1838 by the Congregational churches of England. Its aim is to promote evangelical religion, according to the doctrine and discipline of the Congregational Church, among the settlers in the colonies aud depend encies of Great Britain and in other parts of the world, by sending well-qualified ministers to suitable stations, and assisting while needful in their support; promoting the spread of the Gos pel in destitute regions; educating young men to be Christian ministers in the colonies; circu lating Bibles; etc., etc. It sustains or aids churches in Canada, Newfoundland, British Columbia, where new and interesting work at Vancouver has been recently entered upon; Manitoba, with new work at Portage la Prairie and Winnipeg; Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Demerara in South America, Madras aud Calcutta in India, and Hong Kong and Shanghai in China. Coinagg as, a mission station of the Rhen ish Missionary Society among the Nama or Namaqua people, a Hottentot tribe inhabiting the dry, meagre steppes to the northwest of Cape Colony, South Africa, on both sides of the Orange River. The Namas— a fickle- minded people, greatly in awe of ghosts and much given to drunkenness and sensuality — were first visited iu 1805 by London mission aries, but in 1840 the mission was transferred to the Rheuisb Society, and at Comaggas Schmelen translated the four Gospels into Nama with the aid of his wife, a native woman. The congregation numbers 250 ac tive members. Combaconnm, a town of the Tanjore district, Madras, South India, in the richest tract of the Kavere delta. It is one of the most ancient and sacred towns of Madras, and so celebrated for its learning as to be called the Oxford of South India. Being much fre quented by pilgrims and visitors, a brisk trade is carried on. Population, 50,098, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary, 4 schools, 87 scholars, 174 communicants. Evangelical Lutheran Society of Leipzig (1836); 1 missionary, 280 communicants. Combe', a station of the Moravian Brethren in Dutch Guiana, South America. On the northeast side of the town of Paramaribo there is a large suburb known as Combe, about two miles distant from the large mission church, and at present somewhat densely populated, chiefly by negroes. For a number of years the missionaries in the town kept services there, and it was regarded as an out-station of the town congregation. In 1858 a piece of land, with a dwelling-bouse, was purchased in this suburb. The land was cultivated as a vege table-garden, and one room of the dwelling was used as a place of worship. This station was generally occupied by a brother who did not feel stroug euough for much active work aud yet was unwilling to retire altogether from service. The converts gathered here became members of the large church in lhe town. But in 1882, when the town congregation was di vided, a new church was built at Combe, and the people there formed into the Fourth Mora vian Church of Paramaribo under the name of Combe. Commerce and Missions. — Commerce is a word used to denote the exchange of com modities between different countries. When God created tbis globe with a great diversity of climate and productions, He intended to lay the foundations of an exchauge that would be prof itable to all concerned. Thus the rock-bound coast of New England hews down its granite COMMERCE AND MISSIONS 309 COMMERCE AND MISSIONS cliffs and exports the proceeds to pave the streets and build the structures of the cities on the stoneless flats of the lower Mississippi, and receives in return the sugar, cotton, and rice of the same region. The South is benefited by the solid pavements that lift its business out of the mire, and New England derives uo less advantage from productions that could never be produced in her northern climate. This mutual* advantage is tbe result God meant to proceed from commerce when carried on in accordance with His law; nor is it contrary to that law to buy a commodity at a low price where it is produced, and sell it at an advance where it is not produced. For both the labor ers that produce it and those that transport it to the place of sale are alike deserving of their reward. It is wroug, however, to take advan tage of the ignorance of the buyer and demand more than the commodity is really worth, and no law, human or divine, can justify commerce in an article which injures health, degrades character, and destroys life (see article Liquor Traffic and Missions), much less can anything justify the' forcing of such products ou nations that are unwilling to receive them (see Opium in China). Unfortunately history is full of the wrongs inflicted by civilized countries in their commerce wiih savage races. Instead of their weakness awakening a chivalrous desire to lift them up from their low estate, their capacity for receiving injury has tempted to its infliction. The African slave trade was a noted example of such a wrong, and only the fact that it has ceased throughout Christendom ren ders it unnecessary to rehearse the terrible story of its inhuman cruelties, abominations, and wholesale murders. The only relic of this great wrong that survives to-day is the interior slave trade carried on by the followers of Mo hammed in a way that by no means commends either the humanity or the beneficence of* the religion of Islam. The Prophet Ezekiel described the character of commerce in his day, when he says of Tyre: " Thou wast in Eden, the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, the topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx and the jasper, the sapphire, the eme rald, and the carbuncle, and gold. Thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day that thou wast created, till unrighteousness was found in thee. By the multitude of thy traffic they filled the midst of thee with violence, and thou hast sinned. Thine heart was lifted up because of thy beauty, thou hast corrupted thy wisdom by reason of thy brightness. By the multitude of thine iniquities, in the unrighteousness of thy traffic, thou hast profaned thy sanctuaries" (Ezek. xxviii. 12-18). These words of the proph et denouncing the wickedness of the queen of ancient commerce may stand for the rela tive attitude of missions to commerce from that day to this. Christ Himself said, "Make not My Fatner's house a house of merchandise " (John ii. 16). And among the first things an apostle was called to do in Europe was to deliver a slave-girl from the greedy clutches of those who made merchandise of her Pythian powers (Acts xvi. 16-18). It is mainly through her mission aries that the Church has protested against the villainies of commerce. Other pages in this Encyclopedia speak of the traffic in alcohol and opium; but another is more shameful still, and can best be set forth in the shape of facts which seem almost too vile to be believed, were we not able to give dates, names, and places. In October, 1825, Rev. W. Richards and family labored alone on Maui, one of the Hawaiian isl ands. The crew of the English w haler ' ' Daniel, " Captain Buckle, because the native women did not visit the ship as formerly, complained to the missionary. He tried to reason with them, but they replied with threats of burning his house and butchering his family. Mr. Richards re plied, "Come life, come death, we cannot undo the work of God." Mrs. Richards with their children stood ready to share her husband's fate. Next day the captain promised peace on condi tion that their demands were complied with. He himself kept a native woman on board, for whom he had paid $160; and when, the day after, they came with a black flag, knives, aud pistols, and, like their predecessors in Sodom, pressed toward the door, the clubs of indig nant natives drove the cowards away. Through night and day a guard was needed to protect their missionary from Christian sailors. Two years later the British consul at Honolulu, with this same Captain Buckle and several foreign merchants, demanded of King Kaahumanu that Mr. Richards be punished for writing an ac count of these things to the American Board I In January, 182-, the U. S. schooner "Dol phin, " Lieutenant John Percival, took ground in Honolulu against the law that indorsed the sev enth commandment, and on Sabbath, February 26th, sent a detachment to the chief demanding its repeal. They were driven out after they had broken the windows, and only the prompt rally of natives saved the missionary and his family from violence, while an officer of the navy of the United States of America vowed that the law should be repealed. We can understand the con duct of the drunken crew of a whaler recruited from the rabble of a seaport, but that an officer of the American navy should thus dishonor the flag, shows the attitude that commerce has too often assumed toward missions, better than any words could describe it. Missionaries have found many savage coun tries possessing an admirable climate and fertile soil, but the people were too slothful to do more than consume the f ruits that Nature offered to their hands. Oppression combined with indo lence to discourage labor; but no sooner has the Gospel entered the heart than men wake up to the possibilities of development here as well as hereafter, and the demand for the supply of new wants at once necessitated the supplies of commerce. This has led them not only to procure decent clothing, but also comfortable dwellings and convenient furniture in place of their un furnished huts, for good clothing calls for clothes presses, and corresponding advance in all directions. John Williams found that in the South Seas savages did not care for civilization until the Gospel woke them to a new life. European houses stood for years in Tahiti, and no native thought of copying them. Missiona ries wore civilized clothing, but no Tahitian women felt the need of a dress till the power of a new life led them to desire to dress like Christians. Sir Bartle Frere, familiar with heathenism both in India and South Africa, says, " Civiliza tion cannot precede Christianity. The only suc cessful way of dealing with all races is to teach them the Gospel." Simon Van der Stell, Governor of the Cape COMMERCE AND MISSIONS 310 COMMERCE AND MISSIONS Colony, sent a Hottentot to school in a military suit, with gold-trimmed hat, silk stockings, and a sword. He learned Dutch and Portuguese in India, and on his return donned his old caross (skin robe), and with nothing else save his sword and cravat, went back to the bush (L. Grout's " Zululand," p. 53). May not this explain the return of some Indian graduates of our Eastern schools to their tribal habits in the West ? It may be we will find that they were educated, but not converted. Rev. J. C. Bryant writes ("Missionary Herald," 1849, p. 414): " Of fourteen young men who have left my employ within two years, one has since been converted, and of course clothes himself; the rest go naked as before, showing how impos sible it is to civilize men without first converting them. Wash a pig and shut him up in a parlor, he may stay clean for a while, but as soon as free he will return to wallowing in the mire. Make a lamb of him, and he at once gives up his filthy ways. To try to civilize heathen without converting them is to try to make lambs of swine by washing them and putting on them a fleece of wool." Rev. L. Grout ("Zululand," p. 99) says that Zulu women plant patches along the edges of streams. The mother binds her babe on her back, balances her seed-basket on her head, and with a pick weighing eight or ten pounds on her shoulder, goes forth to work. Sometimes she carries her babe all day long under the hot sun. With the Christians it is different: a level field is ploughed by oxen, but among the heathen in the same tribe woman is both plough and ox, cart and horse. She is sold for oxen, which are never yoked, but only eaten by their lazy owners. The Christians buy ploughs and wagons, build houses and furnish them. In 1865, 500 Ameri can ploughs were sold in Natal alone, with a growing demand for saddles and harnesses, cloths, books, and maps, while the heathen are marked by their nakedness and misery. After long years of toil for the Bechuanas, among the first things to cheer Robert Moffat were the rows of candles hanging on the walls of the native huts. Till then they had laughed at him for wasting his fat meat for light, but now that they were learning to read the Word of God, they needed the candles for themselves. Rev. J. H. Seelye, D.D., President of Amherst College, says: "The savage does not labor for the gratifications of civilized life, since these he does not desire. His labors and desires are both dependent ou some spiritual gift which quickens his aspirations and calls forth his toil . Unless he has some help from without, some light and life from above, the savage remains a savage; and without this all the blandishments of the civili zation with which he might be brought in contact could no more win him to a better state than all the light and warmth of the sun could woo a desert into a fertile field." " English missionaries in Canada had skilled workmen to teach the Indians bow to labor. But they would not work. They preferred their wigwams and skins, their raw flesh and filth, till inward transformation through the Gospel led them to work for the improvement of their out ward condition. The same is true everywhere. Civilization does not reproduce itself. It must first be kindled, and can then be kept alive only by a power genuinely Christian " ("Congrega- tionalist," January 22d, 1881). The English "Journal of the Society of Arts" (June 1 3th, 1879, p. 648) states that at the Eden- dale Mission ' ' seventy monogamous Zulus live in houses like Europeans, with furniture in and gardens around them. They have a school and stone church, built by themselves; while 300,000 of the same race, though they have been in contact with English civilization for nearly half a century, are yet without » bed to lie on, a chair to sit on, a table or furniture of any kind." The same journal (p. 648) states that in Lagos, Western Africa, "a native built himself an ele gant house, furnished it in approved style, and yet with his family occupied a hovel adjoining it. " Would he have done so if he had been con verted ? Dr. J. L. Wilson ("Western Africa," p. 327) says, "Something more is needed to civilize heathen than specimens of civilized life. This would imply that ignorance alone hindered their improvement, whereas there inheres in heathen ism au aversion to those activities which are essential to prosperity. We look in vain for any upward tendencies in pagans till their moral natures are quickened; and as Popery has no power in that line, we are not surprised to find so little trace of civilization on the field of for mer Jesuit labors in the valley of the Congo." So in Turkey, while those wbo do not read the Bible live on in their gloomy and comfortless abodes, chairs and tables, books and book cases, Yankee clocks and glass windows, mark the homes of Bible-readers. Within 16 years nearly 500 sets of irons for wheat-fans have been ordered through our missionaries in Har poot from one firm in New York, and natives have been taught to make the woodwork. (" Missionary Herald," 1881, p. 86). Rev. H. Marden of Marash says (Ibid., 1880, p. 48): "The Oriental left to himself is entirely satisfied with the customs of his fathers; no contact with western civilization has ever roused him from his apathy, but when his heart is wanned into life by the Gospel, his mind wakes up, aud he wants a clock, a book, a glass window, and a flour-mill. Almost every steamer from New York brings sewing-machines, watches, tools, cabinet organs, or other appliances of Christian civilization, in response to native orders, that but for an open Bible would never have been sent; aud now as you pick your way along the narrow streets, through the noisy crowd of men, camels, donkeys, aud dogs, the click of a Yankee sewing-machine or the music of an American organ greet the ear like the voice of au old friend from home." Rev. Mr. Harris of tbe London Missionary Society reports the progress made in the Har vey Islands. Thirteen years before, wlien he began his work there, only cobra (dried cocoa- nut) was exported. Now, besides that, lime- juice, coffee, fungus, and oranges, though cotton is the principal export. Fifty tons have beeu sold in one year from the single island of Maugaia. This enables the natives to purchase the products of other lands. All, both men and women, are clothed in European garments. Some wear watches, gold rings, lace, and embroi dery. Nearly all have umbrellas. Sewing- machines abound. Cups and saucers, plates and dishes, lamps, knives and forks, and clocks are in nearly all the houses. The islands furnish a good market for European goods. These material benefits follow, they did not precede, the Gospel. An aged Mangaian said recently: COMMERCE AND MISSIONS 311 COMMERCE AND MISSIONS "I owe to the gospel all these beautiful clothes in which I stand upright;" but the uprightness of the man was more beautiful than his clothes ("Missionary Herald," 1884, p. 366). The entire cost of the Sandwich Islands Mis sion up to 1869 was $1,220,000 (Dr. Anderson's ' ' Sandwich Islands, " p. 340). The imports of the islands in 1863 were $1,175,493 (Dr. Anderson's "Hawaiian Islands, "p. 251),and the exports were $1,029*G52. The customs receipts that year were $122,752, and the number of vessels entered 98, averaging 500 tons each, besides 102 whalers. Recent tables give the value of exports to the islands from San Francisco alone, for 1867-69, as $4,702,039. Take one third of this as the exports for one year, and we find that these isl ands, without commerce or material for com merce when the gospel was carried there, except the sandal-wood of their mountains, now pay at one American port, in one year, $367,343 more than the entire cost of their Christianization during sixty years ("Missionaiy Herald," 1880, p. 84). Take two more facts : The commerce of the United States of America with these islands in 1870 was to the value of $4,400,426, while the amount expended by all denominations in our land for foreign missions that year was $1,633,801, and the profits of our trade with the islands in 1871 were $660,964 more than half of the entire amount expended ou tbe mission for fifty years ("Missionary Review," 1888, p. 393). During the year ending June 30th, 1879, the trade between Boston alone and these islands amounted to $125,355; profits on this at 12| per cent would be $15,669. San Francisco the same year traded with them to tbe amount of $5,053,013; tbe profits there at the same rate would be $631,626. The whole trade with them that year amounted to $5,546,116, against less than $2,000,000 in 1871; and its profits at the same rate would be $693,264: so that the entire amount spent in Christianizing the Islands from 1820 up to 1870 would be paid back in less than two years by such profits. The trade of the United States with Micro nesia in 1879 amounted to $5,534,367, say with a profit as before of $691, 796. During tbat year the mission to Micronesia cost only $16,975; so that for every dollar spent on the mission, com merce, from the trade created by it, reaped $40.75 ("Foreign Missionary," 1881, p. 391). A writer in the ' 'New York Times" of Septem ber 5th, 1879, after visiting the Santee Agency in Nebraska, testifies that ' ' the houses are well built, and many of them furnished in good taste. The Dakotas sleep on mattresses and bedsteads, sit on chairs, and eat with knives, forks, and spoons, from white stoneware. Some have clocks and framed engravings on the walls, and all have good stoves and kitchen-ware. The women, especially the young ladies, have a fond ness for Saratoga trunks. In several houses we found baby-coaches, in which Indian mothers lay their babies instead of strapping them to a board and hanging it on a tree. Both sexes wear civilized clothing. It is easy to distin guish those who have been to school, they are so neat and clean. Many dress in good taste, and tie their long black tresses with bright ribbons." Dr. F. F. Ellinwood writes in the "Missionary Review" for 1888, p. 882; see also "Report of Missionary Conference," London, 1888, i. 119: " Three things have been found almost uni versally true: I. The gospel has always elevated the character and established the power of our civilization in whatever lands its influence has reached. More than once it has been confessed that England could scarcely have retained her Indian pos sessions but for the conservative influence of those missions, which restrained injustice while they promoted intelligence and loyalty. II. Tbe first contacts of commerce are for the most part evil. Whether adventurers precede or follow the missionary, they blight society. Whalers in the South Seas, couvicts in Tasma nia, slave-traders iu Congo, kidnappers in Mel anesia, opium-dealers in China and liquor- sellers among the Indians and in Africa — all have proved a curse. There was a time in San Francisco when the courts were paralyzed, and true hearted citizens felt driven to send to Hawaii for a missionary to come back and establish a church at home. Even saloon-keepers joined in the call, alleging that without Christian institutions no man's life was safe. III. Improvement generally follows. Chris tian homes are established, and the missionary is- supported instead of opposed. Dark as Africa now is, civilization there fifty years hence will be full of life and light. But we should hasten to allow equal natural rights to the humblest native; and the proudest Caucasian might must not make right, but weaker nations should re ceive the same treatment as the strongest. Treaties should not be made with a country like Japan merely for the convenience or profit of the great powers of Europe, and commerce should be so regulated by the golden rule of love as to bless and not curse the nations with whom we have to do. Evils destructive of commerce are not, how ever, confined to civilized nations. The isles of the Pacific furnish abundant illustrations of savage ferocity and violence Look at some of them. October 5th, 1835, the whaler " Awash- onks " was cruising near one of the Marshall Islands. While one watch was below, and three men aloft, natives on board, at a signal agreed on, snatched the whale-spades from the rack, and killed instantly the captain, mate, and second mate, with four of the crew. The third mate fired up through the binnacle and killed the chief, and when he fell his people fled, else the whole crew had shared the fate of the "Waverley," "Harriet," "Glencoe," and others, where none were left to tell the tale of slaughter. The brother of the chief got away badly wounded, but afterwards was led by mis sionaries to Christ, and once saved the " Morn ing Star " from destruction. His people, too, be came as noted for their kindness to strangers as they had been for their barbarities (Dr. A. C. Thompson in "Missionary Herald, " 1880, p. 92^. In places once noted for piracy hundreds of thou sands of dollars have been saved from wrecks and sent home to their owners by Christian natives. ("These for Those," p. 205). Again, Peruvian pirates had carried many natives of the Marquesan Islands into slav ery. A chief whose son had been carried off vowed to kill and eat the first white man that fell into his hands. Mr. Whalon, first mate of an American whaler, was that man ; and Kekela, a native missionary, ransomed him from the angry father with a new six-oared boat that he had just received from Boston. Abraham Lin coln heard of it, and sent him a valuable present COMMERCE AND MISSIONS 312 CONFUCIANISM Kekela wrote in his reply; " As to this friendly deed of mine, its seed was brought from your own land by some of your own people who had received the love of God. It was planted in Hawaii, and I brought it here that these dark regions might receive the root of all which is good and true, and that is love. How shall I repay your great kindness ? This is my only payment. — that which 1 have received of the Lord — love. May tbe love of the Lord Jesus Christ abound toward you till tbe end of this dreadful war." (" Story of the Morning Star," pp. 64-66). Missions promote commerce by correcting heathen dishonesty. Rev. J. L. Wilson (" West- tern Africa," pp. 247-256) tells how some tribes overreach those who come to buy their ivory. One native has heard of a tusk of unusual size at some distance in the interior; others indorse the story, and dilate on its immense value. The eagerness of the trader is nursed with great shrewdness till he offers a sum in advance so as to secure it, giviug what he thinks will allow him a safe margin. Weeks pass, and a chief liv ing on the road must have toll to let it pass. This also is paid, only to call forth fresh de mands, till in desperation the trader keeps on paying merely to secure the outlay already paid. When al last the prize reaches him, he finds it no prize at all, but only an ordinary tusk, and if he could know the whole story he might find that his sharp African friend bad. the article in his possession before he spoke of it at all. Such duplicity threatened to destroy com merce altogether, till some of the natives were converted and carried their religion into their trading, and then business revived: for " godli ness is profitable for the life that now is, as well as for that which is to come. " In this way as in every other, the missionaiy work is indispensable to the highest development of commerce between nations, and when it is completed commerce will flourish as it never has done before. Comilah (Kumilla), a town of Bengal, East India, on the Gumti River, 50 miles south east of Dacca, on the main road thence to Chit tagong. A pleasant place, with excellent and well-shaded streets, dyked to prevent inunda tion. Climate fine. Population, 13,372, Hin dus, Moslems, and Christians. Mission station of the Baptist Missionary Society ; 1 missionary, 2 helpers, 2 out-stations, 44 church-members. Concepcion, a town of Chili, South America, 300 miles south of Valparaiso, con nected with Santiago by rail. Climate mild, healthy. Population, 35,000, Spanish aud Araucanian mixed. Language, Spanish. Re ligion, Roman Catholic. Social condition, good. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North (1880) aud (1889); 1 missionary and wife, 1 native helper, 1 church, 45 mem bers; contributions, $421.30. Concordia. — 1. A town of the Argentine Republic, South America, Province of Entre Rios, on the Uruguay River. Population, 5,498. Mission station of the South America Missionary Society, under the charge of the missionary at Fray Bentos, Uruguay. — 2. A station of the Rhenish Missionary Society among the Namas, east of Comaggas (q.v.); was founded in 1863, and owes its existence to the discovery of a very rich copper-mine in the vicinity. It has a fine church with 335 mem bers. Confucianism. — Confucius was one of a constellation of great names which appeared in the world's history about 500 B.C. Of these were his own countryman, Laotze, Gautama of India, Pythagoras of Greece, aud, in the opin ion of Sir Monier Williams and some others, Zoroaster of Persia. They were all nearly contemporary with the Hebrew prophet Zecha riah. To speak accurately, Confucius, or Kungfutze, was born, according to Chinese rec ords, in the year 551 B.C. Laotze, though con temporary, was born fifty years earlier. They both appeared in a degenerate age of Chinese history, and both aimed at what seemed almost hopeless reform. The ancient religion of China, which is still thought to be represented by the Temple of Heaven in Peking, had greatlydeclined, and a superstitious nature-wor ship, with endless polytheistic manifestations, occupied the minds of the people. The various provinces now embraced in the one empire were more or less independent, and were often at war. Princes were corrupt and tyran nical, and their subjects were disheartened, reckless, and debased. Mencius, the commen tator of Confucius, says of the times in which his great teacher arose: " The world had fallen into decay, and right principles were disre garded. Ministers murdered their princes and sons their fathers. Confucius was frightened at what he saw, and undertook the work of reform." These environments and this one great aim will go far to explain the character and teach ings of Confucius and the history of his life. It was no part of his purpose to establish a re ligion, and such his system cannot be consid ered. He was a political reformer, and with that end in view he became a teacher of gen eral ethics. The state was the supreme object of his effort, but to secure the highest welfare of the state the family must be considered, and all the minor relations of mankind. It has been common among ancient monarchs and law-givers to regard the state, or rather its rulers, as of supreme importance, while its sub jects were mere slaves, and little regard was had to the family. Confucius was wiser. He looked upon human society as a pyramid, and saw clearly that whatever entered into the low est foundations concerned the whole structure. Both he and Laotze, even iu that early age, taught that kings existed for the good of the people, and had no right to employ them merely as the means of furthering their own ambitious designs. Confucianism emphasizes the worship of parents and ancestors, though if strict defini tions be observed, it might be difficult to draw auy very clear distinction between the rever ence to be paid to the dead and that which was due to those who were still living. In both cases reverence to parents, extending however many generations back, was supposed to prove a salutary influence in maintaining the perpetuity of the state and the welfare of so ciety. The worship of trees, mountains, riv ers, and countless other objects is a part of Taouism or of the old nature- worship. Both Confucianism and Taouism honor heroes, though their images are generally found only iu the Taouist and the Buddhist temples. CONFUCIANISM 313 CONFUCIANISM The Life of Confucius.— The incidents given of the life of Confucius are simple, and have not, as in the case of Gautama, Mohammed, and even Laotze, been overlaid with absurd leg ends. The sage was the son of an old man and was left fatherless at three years of age. At fifteen he evinced remarkable intellectual powers, and at twenty-two he was already in structing a class of disciples in the principles of gWernment. At twenty-four he lost his mother, for whom he had a high regard. The conical tumulus which he raised over her grave is said to have been the pattern from which the circular grave-mounds of North China originated. The earliest public recognition which Con fucius received was his appointment, when he was about thirty years old, to the tutorship of two young princes of the Marquisate of Lu. At the dying request of their father they were taught political economy, and the art of gov ernment. In accompanying his wards to the •capital of the country Confucius met Laotze. He is said to have sought instruction from the old sage, but he very soon found that there could be no agreement between them. Laotze was already suffering tbat keen disappointment which embittered his last days, and which Con fucius himself at last experienced to some de gree, and he received the young teacher with critical disdain. He considered him a noisy aud pretentious reformer, all of whose roseate theories were yet to be tested. For himself, Laotze was too proud and self-sufficient to be a successful leader of men. He was utterly des titute of magnetism, and repelled where he should have striven to win. He was much more of a philosopher than Confucius, but was far less practical. He gloried in reticence, and thought that the zealous remonstrances of his rival against the public vices only advertised them. On the other hand, Confucius confessed him self puzzled by the character of Laotze, and could only compare him to the incomprehensi ble ways of the dragon. After two or three rather unsuccessful at tempts as councillor of different provincial rulers, Confucius gave up political life, and de voted himself for fifteen years to teaching. He had been disgusted with the profligacy of those who had employed him, and despaired of the princes of his time. They all came short of a practical appreciation of his high standards of either private or political virtue. As a teacher he met better success. He is said to have had not less than three thousand disciples — a fact which reflects great credit not only upon him, but upon the intellectual activ ity of his generation. Five hundred of these pupils became mandarins, and over seventy are said to have been distinguished scholars. The last effort of Confucius as privy coun cillor was with the Marquis of Lu — supposably his former pupil. He was now fifty-two years old. For a time this prince by steady devotion to his public duties greatly prospered. He was becoming powerful, and to the neighboring princes formidable. The ruler of a rival prov ince or chief city seeing this, sought to break the power of Confucius over him, and lead him into vice. A band of beautiful young dancing- girls were sent to him as a present, and with the desired effect. He soon became indiffer ent to the counsels of Confucius, and giving himself up to pleasure he crippled his power. The disappointed sage sought other similar en gagements, but in vain. Many would gladly have employed him, but would not follow his high standards. In tbe one great ambition of his life he met with constant disappointment, and his political career he considered a failure. But although not practically a statesman, he was one of the most successful political theorists that the world has known. Probably no other man ever stamped his ideas or his influence so deeply upon the institutions of his country as Confu cius. No other has ever influenced so many millions of mankind, and contributed such marvellous stability and perpetuity to the gov ernment of a nation. Confucius cannot be ranked among philoso phers, strictly speaking. There was nothing speculative in his nature. He was a compiler of the ancient wisdom of his country, and he succeeded in putting it into such practical shape, and in urging it with so much sincerity and earnestness of purpose, as to enlist many disciples at the time, and to win at last univer sal honor and devotion. He was possessed of a sturdy honesty, and this he claimed from all men. His social system was a superstructure, of which he placed the state at the apex or bead. His reasoning was as follows : The ancient princes, in order to govern their states, first reg ulated their families. To regulate their fami lies they practised virtue in their own persons. In order to such virtue they cultivated right feelings. To have right feelings they culti vated right purposes. To this end they sought intelligence by studying the nature of things." This reminds one of the "eightfold path" of the Buddha only that it is more logical, and is better adapted to all the wants of life. The "Five Relations" are those "between friend and friend, between brother and brother, hus band and wife, father and son, ruler and sub ject." Such is the pyramid of Chinese sociol ogy. Confucius, who in his lifetime could not hold permanently the position of privy-coun cillor to a petty prince of a province, has since his death ruled the empire for twenty-four centuries. The five relations had been recog nized long before his time, but not in the same clear form and in the same practical applica tion. Confucius so exaggerated the efficacy of his theories as to exclude God. The emperor stands virtually in the place of deity, aud Chi nese ancestors are tbe great cloud of wit nesses, from whom all celestial impulse is thought to descend upon men. And there are other exaggerations affecting social and domes tic life. The father may be an unresisted ty rant over his child, and the older brother may exact a humiliating fealty from the younger. No social system can be entirely sound which subordinates woman to a position so inferior as that which Confucianism consigns her. Con fucius himself, though most reverent toward his mother, has been charged with indifference toward his wife. Compared with many other systems of the East, the Chinese ethics show a degree of respect to woman, but they fail of that symmetry and just proportion which the New Testament demands in all the relations of the household. The Teachings of Confucius.— From the age of sixty-six Confucius devoted his re maining years to the editing of books. He ad- CONFUCIANISM 314 CONFUCIANISM mitted that he was not an originator, but only a compiler and editor. Only one of his works, the Chun isew, or " Spring and Autumn An nals," can be considered an original produc tion. His other works, lhe Shoo King or " Book of History, " the She King or " Book of Odes, " were only compilations or revisions. These, with the Yih King or "Book of Changes," had ex isted before bis time, and in his revisions or abridgments they suffered at his bauds. The Shoo King, especially, lie cut down from about 3,000 paragraphs or verses to less than 400. What might be considered the religious ele ment in this work he almost entirely eliminated, reserving only those practical teachings which suited his theories of society aud tbe govern ment of the state. Those remains of the Coufucian ethics which are most highly valued by the Chinese are certain collections known as the Lun Yu or "Confu cian Analects," tho Ta Hee or " Great Learn ing," aud the Chung Yung or " Doctrine of the Mean." The last two of these are supposed to have been edited by Tsze-sze, a grandson of the sage. They all claim to reproduce the teach ings of Confucius, especially tbe "Analects." The monopoly of Chinese wisdom was given to Confucius by a singular circumstance. About 220 B.c. the Emperor Che Hwang-te ordered all books to be burned, with the exception of the Zoon li King of Laotze. The execution of the order was very sweeping, but the works of Confucius were afterwards restored piecemeal, some from fragments, some from oral tradi tion, while the great body of literature from which he had made his compilations was al most entirely lost. The wisdom of the ages, therefore, was rep resented almost exclusively by the works of Confucius. Mencius and others added com ments, but the foundation was that received from the one great sage. Thus Confucianism became a monopoly, aud was made canonical by the decrees of Emperors aud the common consent of the people. The national litera ture thus settled once for all was embodied in five classics, viz. : the Yi King or ' ' Book of Changes," the She King or "Book of Poetry," the Shoo Kingov " Book of History," the Le Ke or "Book of Rites," and the Chun tsew or " Spring and Autumn Annals." These were in whole or in part compiled by Confucius. There are besides what are known as "The Four Books," viz., the " Great Learning," tbe " Doc trine of the Mean," the " Confucian Analects," and the " Works of Mencius." These books have for ages constituted the text-books in Chinese education; they are also the basis of the competitive examination for public office. That so narrow a field of study — one so destitute of science or general history, one which is iu every respect so far behind the spirit and move ment of the age — should be supposed to supply all knowledge requisite for tbe intelligent per formance of all possible duties of statesmanship and diplomacy, is a marvel. Such a- standard cannot be maintained for many generations longer. When we consider the low and corrupt state iu which Confucius found the religion of his country, we are not greatly surprised that he rejected that element from the fabric which he hoped to rear, and depended on social and po litical ethics merely. He was not an atheist, nor, in the strictest modern sense, was he an ag nostic. According to the conclusions of Mar tin, Legge, Douglass, and Max Miiller, he really believed in a supreme being, known as "Shangte,"or the God of Heaven. He be lieved also in unseen spirits, and he taught his disciples to "respect the gods." He had, however, no moral sense of duty toward " the gods, " nor the consciousness of any special de pendence on them. " Treat them with re spect, " he said to his disciples, "but keep them at a distance," or rather, as Dr. Martin renders it, " keep out of their way." The same author speaks of Confucianism as "the leading religion of the empire." Its ob jects of worship he divides into three classes — the powers of nature, ancestors, and heroes; and he adds: " Originally recognizing the ex istence of a supreme personal deity, it has de generated into a pantheistic medley, and ren ders worship to an impersonal anima mundi, under the leading forms of visible nature. Besides the concrete universe, separate honors are paid to the sun, moon, and stars, moun tains, rivers, and lakes." Though Confucian- iam recognizes these objects, the system so far overlaps the pantheon of modern Taouism. The teachings of Confucius must be acknowl edged to have embodied many noble precepts. His political ethics were above the average of those practised by the most enlightened nations. The great end recommended to rulers was not their own gratification or glory, but the good of the people; and no teacher ever insisted more strenuously upon the duty of example. Princes were constantly reminded that public virtue could not be enforced in the face of royal vice and wickedness. Reciprocity was one of Confucius' favorite expressions for social and political virtue. This, in the broad sense in which he employed the term was nothing less than a practical ap plication of the Golden Rule. Thus a father in exacting reverence from his son should be reverent towards the authority of the state, and he should render himself worthy of reverence by a proper regard to all his own relations and duties. The Prince in claiming loyalty from his ministers should fulfil all the conditions which might promote their fidelity. Loyalty was another broad expression used by tbe sage. It included all duty, not only to a father or a prince, but to every interest of soci ety. "Let the superior mau," he said, "never fail reverently to order his conduct, and let him be respectful to others and observant of pro priety; then all within the four seas will be his brethren." "Faithfulness" was enjoined, as having, if possible, even a more sacred character than loyally. " Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles," said the sage; "I do not see how a mau is to get ou without faithfulness." He maintained that while the subordinate must in all cases be faithful to his ruler, the latter must be equally faithful to his word and to his assumed character as the father of his people. In the cultivation of social and political sin cerity, Confucius taught that tbe very first step iu the reform of a corrupt state was " The Recti fication of Names." No vice or dishonesty should be allowed to take shelter under specious titles. All littleness or dishonor or incapacity should be exposed. Everything should be brought to par, and should be stamped accord- CONFUCIANISM 315 CONFUCIANISM ingly. Men should be rated at their true value. One great principle which has doubtless had great influence in China is known as the "Doc trine of the Mean." Confucianism assumes that many evils flow from extreme opinions. There is always another side, and the balanced truth generally lies between. Every virtue should be held in poise by some other. For a very early exemplar, a minister of the great Emperor Shun, when asked what are the nine virtues, replied: "Affability combined with dignity; mildness combined with firmness; bluntness combined with respectfulness; aptness for government combined with reverence; docility combined with boldness; straightforwardness combined with gentleness; easiness combined with dis crimination; vigor combined with sincerity; and valor combined with righteousness." It is but just to say that while reverence for sovereignty is so strongly enjoined, yet that rev erence is coupled with discrimination. No his tory of any country deals more severely with the memory of unjust rulers than that of China, and in many instances tyrants have been over thrown. It is perhaps due to the doctrine of the mean and to the conscious dignity of moderation, that the Chinese Government has often shown so much self-poise amid the exasperations of for eign diplomacy. The outrages inflicted by foreign governments during the last fifty years have been sufficient to warrant the most retaliatory measures, and it is often a wonder that every foreigner, especially every American or European, is not expelled from the country. But the Chinese government seems to be governed by its own principles of ac tion irrespective of the misdeeds of other nations. But the character and teachings of Confucius are far enough from perfect. It has already been shown that his ideal virtues were distorted to promote his theories of society. Reverence to parents was pushed to such extremes as to destroy that reciprocity which he made a test of highest character. The authority of the parent is not duly balanced by parental consideration, and the worst of tyrannies is often seen in the Chinese home. Practically there is no such symmetry of the domestic virtues as that found in Paul's Epistles. Confucius was no model in respect to the rights of woman. He gave seven grounds of divorce, on some one of which he divorced his own wife. His code of morals, though above the morality current in his age, was not high. He spoke slightingly of what he called the "small fidelity" which binds a hus band to one wife, and he imposed a stricter vir tue on the one sex than on the other. Polygamy was allowed in cases of barrenness, and was never a crime. The marital license allowed to the sovereign is of itself sufficient not only to ruin the royal line, but by the influence of high example to promote general immorality among the people. Though Confucius enjoined humility, he did not hesitate late in life to claim perfection. ' ' At fifteen," he said, "my mind was bent on learn ing. At thirty, I stood firm; at forty, I had no doubts; at fifty, I knew the decrees of heaven; at sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth; at seventy, I could follow what my heart desired without transgressing what was right." Unfortunately his character showed to the least advantage in his old age. Professor Douglass, in speaking of the later political life of the sage, remarks: " It is impos sible to study this portion of Confucius' career without feeling that a great change had come over his conduct. There was no longer that lofty love of truth and of virtue which had dis tinguished the commencement of his official life. Adversity instead of stiffening his back had made him pliable. He who had formerly re fused money which he had not earned, was now willing to take pay for no other service than the presentation of courtier-like advice on occasions when Duke Ling desired to have his opinion in support of his own; and in defiance of his oft-re peated denunciation of rebels, he was now ready to go over to the court of a rebel chief in the hope possibly of being able through his means "to establish," as he said on another occasion, "an eastern Chow." His friend Tsze-loo ex postulated with him upon his inconsistency, but he justified himself with a lame excuse. Confucius evinced great weakness at the last, by being apparently more solicitous for his own good name than for the welfare of his country. When seized by a presentiment of death he said: "The course of my doctrine is run, and I am unknown." "Never does a superior man pass away without leaving a name behind him. But my principles make no progress, and I — how shall I be viewed in future ages?" The Relation of Confucianism to the Ancient Worship of China. The Sage had been peculiarly reticent in regard to a su preme deity aud to the future life. ' ' We do not know life," he said; ¦' how can we know death?" Yet when his life-work was done he gathered his books, and, ascending a hill where the wor ship of Shangte was observed, he laid the books upon the altar, and then kneeling before them he gave thanks that he had been permitted to live to see their completion. There is a differ ence of opinion as to whether he believed in a supreme being, whom he saw fit to pass in si lence for a purpose, or whether he was utterly agnostic. His teachings incline to general scepticism, but whatever may have been his personal views there is scarcely room for a dif ference on the question of whether a religious faith more or less monotheistic preceded Con fucius. The best Chinese scholars agree so far. Real Chinese history can be traced no farther back than the reign of Yaou, 2356 b.c, and there we find clear and distinct traces of a wor ship of the supreme god Shangte. Yaou shared his throne with Shuu, who succeeded him. Both have been looked upon in all succeeding ages as perfect models of sovereigns. Yaou was the King Alfred of China, who by his wise ad ministration united all the warring states in one empire. He encouraged astronomical re searches and all useful science. We are told that when he died the virtues of his colleague Shun "were heard on high," and he was there fore appointed to the throne. One of his first acts after coming to full power was to sacrifice to Shangte, the supreme god. "Thereafter," we are told, " he sacrificed specially, but with the ordinary forms, to Shangte; sacrificed with purity and reverence to the Six Honored Ones, offered appropriate sacrifices to the hills and rivers, and extended his worship to the hosts of spirits." "This," says R. K. Douglass, Professor of Chinese in King's College, London, "is the first mention we have in Chinese history of religious wor- CONFUCIANISM 316 CONFUCIANISM ship, though the expressions used ('but with the ordinary forms') plainly imply that the worship of Shangte at least had previously existed. It is to this supreme being that all the highest forms of worship have been offered in all ages. By his decrees kings were made and rulers executed judgment. ... In all probability there was a time when the worship of Shangte was the expression of a pure monotheistic faith of tbe Chinese. By degrees, however, corruption crept in, and though Shangte always remained the supreme object of veneration, they saw no disloyaltj' to him in rendering homage to the powers of nature which they learned to person ify, aud to tbe spirits of their departed ancestors who were supposed lo guard and watch over in a subordinate manner the welfare of their de scendants." Professor Legge of Oxford, in "The Religions of China," has illustrated this distinction by quoting the prayers of an emperor of the Ming dynasty, which were offered in the Temple of Heaven in the year 1538 a.d., in which he first invokes the spirits of the mountains and the hills, and asks their intercession with the supreme God, whose name he proposes slightly to change, that the change may be acceptable to Him. He then proceeds to pray directly to the God of heaven, whom he addresses as the cre ator and upholder and ruler of all things. These prayers show how, in spite of the teach ings of Confucius, the old monotheism which he ignored still survived, and they show also what great truths underlie the worship offered in the Temple of Heaven in Peking. In his prayer to the spirits he says: " Before hand we inform you, all ye celestial and all ye terrestrial spirits, and will trouble you on our behalf, to exert your spiritual power and dis play your vigorous efficacy communicating our poor desire to Shangte, aud praying him gra ciously to grant us bis acceplance and regard, and to be pleased with the title which we shall reverently present." " This prayer shows." says Professor Legge, "how there had grown up around the primitive monotheism of China the recognition and wor ship of a multitude of celestial and terrestrial spirits, aud yet the monotheism remained." How differently does the emperor proceed when, having thus invoked tbe interceding spirits, be approaches Shangte directly. He begins: "Of old, in the beginning, there was the great chaos, without form and dark. The five elements had not begun to revolve nor the sun and moon lo shine. In the midst thereof there presented itself neither form nor sound. Thou, O spiritual Sovereign! earnest forth in thy presi dency, and first didst divide the grosser parts from the purer. Thou madest heaven; thou madest earth; thou madest man; all things got their being with their producing power." After stating the title which he proposes to give to Shangte, he adds: "Thou didst produce, O spirit! the sun and moon and live planets; and pure aud beautiful was their light. The vault of heaven was spread out like a curtain, and the square earth supported all on it, and all creatures wore happy. I thy servant presume reverently to thank thee." Farther on he says: " All living thiugs are indebted to thy good ness, but who knows whence his blessings come to him? It is thou alone, O Lord, who art the parent of all things." Professor Douglass charges Confucius with having promoted the spread of polytheism by attempting to suppress the knowledge of the supreme God. He substituted for Shangte, (god), Tien (heaven); and that change has sur vived. But the people, feeling a need of some thing less vague, have fallen into the worship of countless other objects, and particularly the worship of ancestors. "But," says the pro fessor, " in spite of the silence of Confucius on the subject of Shangte, his worship has been maintained, not perhaps in its original purity, but with works of reverence which place its object on the highest pinnacle of the Chinese Pantheon. At the present day the imperial worship of Shangte on the round hillock to the south of the city of Peking is surrounded with all the solemnity of which such an occasion is capable. " Dr. J. Edkins, in describing the Temple of Heaven and the solemn worship by the em peror, says: "The altar is a beautiful marble structure, ascended by 27 steps and ornamented by circular balustrades on each of its three ter races. On it is raised a magnificent triple-roofed circular structure 99 feet in height, which con stitutes the most conspicuous object in the toute ensemble. . . These structures are deeply en shrined in a thick cypress grove. . . . " On the day before tbe sacrifices the emperor proceeds to the Hall of Fasting on the west side of the south altar. Here he spends the night in watching and meditation, after first inspect ing the offerings. . . . There are no images. At the time of the offering the tablets to heaven and to the emperor's ancestors are placed on the top (upper terrace). . . The emperor with his suite kneels before the tablet of Shangte and faces the north. The platform is laid with marble stones forming nine concentric circles; the inner circle consists of nine stones cut so as to fit with close edges around the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels, and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their enclosing walls, and then by tbe circles of the horizon. He thus seems to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and turning to the north iu the at titude of a subject, he acknowledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven, and to heaven alone." After describing various offerings presented, Dr. Edkins adds: " To heaven alone" (as dis tinguished from the imperial ancestors) "is offered a piece of blue jade, cylindrical in shape and a foot long, formerly used as a symbol of sovereignty. But the great distinguishing sign of superiority (of Shangte) is the offering of a whole-burut sacrifice to heaven." This con sists of a bullock without spot or blemish. Were other proofs necessary to show the supremacy of Shangte, or the God of heaven, they are found throughout tbe history of the Chinese dynasties where heaven is often appealed to, or otherwise recognized, as the omnipotent arbiter over em perors as well as people. The temple-worship of Shangte (for real personality is still recognized, though the name be changed for Tien, heaven) has always beeu associated with the Confucian system. There is no evidence tbat it was ever suspended, even temporarily, after Confucius came; and here, in the prayers of the Ming emperor, two thousand years after his time, we find the old name Shangte reasserted. No more impressive account has been given CONFUCIANISM 317 CONGO FREE STATE of this surviving monotheistic worship in Peking than the following from the pen of Dr. Wm. A. P. Martin, D.D. President of the Imperial Col lege: "Within the gates of the southern divi sion of the capital, and surrounded by a sacred grove so extensive that the silence of its deep shades is never broken by the noises of the busy world, stands the Temple of Heaven. It con sists aLa single tower, whose tiling of resplen dent azure is intended to represent tbe form and color of the aerial vault. It contains no altar, and the solemn rites are not performed with in the tower. But ou a marble altar which stands before it a bullock is offered once a year as a burnt-sacrifice, while the master of the em pire prostrates himself in adoration of the spirit of the universe. This is the high place of Chinese devotion, and the thoughtful visitor feels that he ought to tread the place with un- sandalled feet. For no vulgar idolatry has entered here; this mountain top still stands above the waves of corruption, and on this sol itary altar still rests a faint ray of the primeval faith. The tablet which represents the invisi ble deityis inscribed with the name of Shangte, the supreme Ruler; and as we contemplate the majesty of the empire prostrate before it while the smoke ascends from his burning sacrifice, our thoughts are irresistibly carried back to the time when the King of Salem officiated as "Priest of the Most High God." " There is no need," he adds, "for extended argument to establish the fact that the early Chinese were by no means destitute of the knowledge of God. They did not, indeed, know him as the Creator (evidently the prayer of the Ming emperor recognized Him as such), but they recognized Him as supreme in provi dence, and without beginning or end." Whence came this conception? Was it the mature re sult of ages of speculation, or was it brought down from remote antiquity ou the stream of patriarchal tradition ? The latter, we think, is the only probable hypothesis." There has been a long and earnest discussion among missionaries as to how far tbe identity of Shangte with the true God once made known to men may be traced. Certainly if there be a real succession many attributes have been lost and the conception in any Chinese mind is very dim. Yet is there not at least an important reminiscence, and may not the earnest mission ary have the same grounds that Paul had for saying, "Whom ye ignorantly worship, de clare I unto you." Congo Free State, The.— Origin and History of the Congo Free Stale, and Henry M. Stanley's Connection with it. — While the open ing of Central Africa, which had so long been an unknown land, to commerce and civilization, has been one of the greatest enterprises of mod ern times, the hand of God has nowhere been more plainly seen than in the series of events by which this vast territory has been made accessible to the gospel. Henry M. Stanley, a Welsh boy, born in 1840, near Denbigh, Wales, ships as cabin-boy on one of the Cardiff vessels, while still a lad, and arriving in New Orleans, is adopted by a merchant of that city, and given opportunities for acquiring an edu cation. In 1861 he enlists in the Confederate army, and is taken prisoner; he volunteers for service in the United States navy, and be comes acting ensign on an iron-clad. After the war, he engages as a newspaper correspondent in Turkey and Asia Minor; in 1868 he accom panies the British Expedition to Abyssinia, as war correspondent for the New York ' ' Herald. " In October, 1869, he is employed by the "Her ald " to lead an expedition to learn the fate of Livingstone, the African explorer. He reaches Zanzibar in January, 1871, aud in March starts for the interior. He finds Livingstone living near Lake Tanganyika in November of that year. Having explored tbe northern portion of the lake, he returns to England in July, where he is received with distinguished honor. Previous to this expedition, he had been, like many young journalists, inclined to scepticism; but Livingstone's holy life, devoted Christian character, and earnest prayers had been the means of his conversion. Tidings of Dr. Liv ingstone's death iu Central Africa having been received in Europe aud America, Mr. Stanley was invited to lead an expedition to explore the lake region of Equatorial Africa, the whole cost of which was borne jointly by the New York "Herald " and the London " Telegraph." This expedition, one of the most perilous ever under taken by private enterprise, occupied nearly three years. In conducting it, he had mani fested such rare courage, executive ability, self-possession, and tact, that none could doubt his right to be regarded as a born leader of men. He had crossed the continent, explored the great lakes, and traced the Congo from its sources to its mouth. He had lost many of bis men from sickness, from drowning, and from the assaults of savage tribes; but he had not only won the ardent love of all his followers, but the respect and homage of the various tribes with whom he had come in contact. He reached the mouth of the Congo in August, 1877, and his "Through the Dark Continent " was published the following year. This expedi tion and the narrative describing it were among the primal causes of the founding of the Congo Free State. Leopold II. , King of Belgium, conspicuous alike for his vast wealth, his geuerous and philanthropic spirit, his great attainments in geography, ethnology, and linguistics, and his rare executive ability, had, for some years, been looking for an opportunity to introduce the blessings of civilization, education, and commerce into Central Africa. He had studied the whole subject very thoroughly, and had watched the course of Stanley and his finding Livingstone with interest. In 1876 he had called together a congress of African travellers and explorers in Belgium, over which he pre sided; and had formed there a Comite d' Eludes du Haut Congo (Committee for the Study of the Upper Congo). This committee determined that active work must be begun at the earliest mo ment for the regeneration of Central Africa. It was important that the whole course of the Congo and its larger tributaries should be explored; that roads and stations should be established; that numerous hostile tribes, some of them cannibals, should be conciliated; that treaties should be made with all; that this should not be for the benefit of Belgium, or any other single European state, but that, under the guaranty of all the maritime powers, there should be established a, great Free State, with freedom of commerce and navigation, freedom of religion and education, and the entire extir pation of the slave trade. It was a vast under taking—such a one as had never before been CONGO FREE STATE 318 CONGO FREE STATE contemplated in the interests of humanity. After the return of Stanley from the Congo, and the publication of his • ' Through the Dark Con tinent," there was no question that he was the only man capable of carrying out an enterprise of such responsibility successfully ; and the committee, now enlarged into L' Association In ternational Africaine, composed of representa tives of the United States and the seven leading European powers, granted to him and the expe dition under his charge plenary powers to make treaties, to purchase steamers, make roads, build stations, and explore the Congo and its naviga ble branches, etc. , etc., and furnished him with ample funds aud supplies for tbe long and perilous undertaking. Five years (1879-1884) were consumed in this great work. Two years and more were passed before he had overcome the difficulties in his way, and placed his first steamer on the Upper Congo, above Stanley Pool. Twice in this period he was brought to death's door by the terrible coast fever, and the second time his life was only saved by his return to Europe. But he was soon at his work again, more zealously than ever. His mission com pleted, 22 stations established, steamers placed on the Upper and Lower Congo, and treaties concluded with over 450 "kings" or chiefs, Mr. Stanley returned to Europe, and early in August, 1884, reported in full to King Leopold. A con ference of the nations of Christendom was called for November 15th, 1884, at Berlin. It was under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, and had accredited representatives of the highest order from 14 nations, including the United States, Russia, and Turkey. The conference remained in session until February 26th, 1885. This conference received from the African In ternational Association the treaties signed by more than 450 kings in the Congo basin, brought by Mr. Stanley, and the declarations and conventions agreed between the maritime powers represented in the conference and the Association; and in its sessions passed a general Act or deed, declaring the entire freedom of trade, for all nations, from Ambriz to Settee Cama on the West Coast, from the mouth of the Zambesi to the mouth of the Tana River on the East Coast, and including the entire basins of the Congo and Zambesi aud their affluents, and the whole region of the great lakes. They also carefully defined the boundaries of the Congo Free State as extending from 4° north latitude to 12° south latitude, including the northern slope of the Lokinga Mountains: and from the Luapola River, the western shores of Lakes Bangweolo, Moero, and Tanganyika, to the 30th meridian of east longitude, while on the west it followed mainly the course of the Mobangi, Liboko, and Congo, including also a small tract on the north bank of the Congo, be tween Manyanga and Banana. Over this vast territory, comprising about 1,508,000 square miles [about equal to the United Slates east of the Rocky Mountains], with a population estimated at 39,000,000, it was declared that "Liberty of conscience and religious tolera tion are expressly guaranteed to the natives, as well as to the inhabitants and foreigners. The fret- and public exercise of every creed, the right to erect religious buildings, and to organize mis sions, belonging to every creed, shall be subject to no restriction or impediment whatsoever." All scientific expeditions were to be entitled to special privileges, which were enumerated. The slave-trade and any traffic in slaves is for bidden, and to be broken up and punished with the utmost severity; and domestic slavery sup pressed as speedily as possible. Other provi sions in regard to navigation, trade, and the conduct of the Free State, in regard to any of the signatoiy parties who might at any time be at war with each other, were also enacted. This act >vas to be ratified by all the parties to it, and has been so ratified since the conference. It was not to be expected that these great re sults could have been attained without much discussion and diplomacy. The representatives of the United States were the first to recognize the proposed Free State, basing their action on the fact that the African International Associa tion had acquired its title in the only legitimate way — by purchase and treaty from the native owners and rulers of the country. Their action was followed soon after by all the European powers, except France and Portugal. France presently gave its consent, only requiring a treaty of delimitation, by which its rights at Stanley Pool and above, on the north bank of the Congo, derived from exploration and discov ery, should be recognized. This was granted; but Portugal was stubborn and imperious in her demands. She claimed, on a grant from Pope Sixtus IV. in 1481, the whole west coast of Africa, from Angola to the river Ogowai — a grant absurd in the first place, since the Pope could not give away territory which he had never possessed, and it was also territory which she had never occupied. It included the whole of the Lower Congo, and shut out from ocean commerce the proposed Free State. England had favored her claim at first, but Prince Bis marck and the United States representatives opposed it strongly, and the other powers also resisted, till finally Portugal compromised the matter, gaining more than was her right, but opening the Congo and the country adjacent to free trade. Another difficulty was the opposi tion of Turkey and Russia to religious freedom, and the admission, protection, and encourage ment of missionaries of all creeds in their work. Mr. Stanley, who was technically a delegate from the United States, made an eloquent speech in their behalf, and the article we have quoted was unanimously adopted. The 22 or 23 stations reported by Stanley to tbe Berlin Conference as purchased and estab lished by him in the interest of the Africa In ternational Association, aud by it transferred to the Congo Free State, are all on or near the Congo River, beginning at Boma on the Lower Congo, and extending to Stanley Falls Station, about 1,200 miles from the mouth of the Congo River. About 268 miles of this distance is to be traversed by a railroad beginning at Matahdi, opposile Vivi, on the soutli" bank of the river, and exlending most of the distance through a gently rolling country to N'dolo, at the upper end of Stanlej' Pool, where freights can be de livered on steamers which have a river naviga tion of from seven to teu thousand miles. These stations thus purchased and made over to the Congo Free State, as well as many others since acquired, and the missionary stations plauted, actually command but a very small fraction of the Free State, though from their position they can control it in some degree. The huudred or more large rivers discharging into the left or south bank of the Congo,' and the 70 or more equally large affluents of the CONGO FREE STATE 819 CONGO FREE STATE great river on its north or right bank, are al most all navigable for a considerable portion of their course. Large and iu some cases warlike tribes of varying degrees of civilization in habit the banks of these streams, many of whom have never seen a white man, and are yet igno rant that white men claim dominion, for their elevation and good, over their broad lands. The case is much the same as it was in the United States 55 years ago, when the white population being almost wholly east of the Mississippi, its government claimed aud ruled over territories stretching over the Rocky Mountains and to the shores of the Pacific. A complete judicial and administrative gov ernment has been formed for the Congo Free State, of which Leopold II. is the elected sov ereign. His power is exerted by means of three general administrators, who preside re spectively over the departments of the Interior, of Foreign Affairs, and of Finances. These three officers form a council, which considers the interests of the country, and submits the con clusions to which they have arrived to the sovereign; if he approves, they issue decrees and make laws. The department of the Inte rior takes charge of the administration of the police, the development of internal communica tions, transportation aud other service, the public forces, native politics, and the provision ing of the stations. The department of Fi nances considers all questions relating to impo sition of taxes, the expense of improvements, and is endeavoring gradually to introduce a cur rency in place of barter, now universally prac tised. The department of Foreign Affairs reg ulates the connection of the State with foreign countries, the posts, and the administration of justice. The sovereign is the ultimate authority in all disputed questions, and from his decision there is no appeal. The government in Africa is administered by a Governor-General, assisted by an Inspector-General, a Secretary, and the fovernors of the different provinces. Since tr. Stanley's return from his last expedition across Africa for the rescue of Emin Pasha, King Leopold has appointed him Governor- General of the Congo Free State, and it is hoped that he may assume office early in 1891, if his health will permit. The lands of the Free State are divided into three classes. First, those in the actual occupa tion of the natives, who do not recognize private property in the soil, but hold their lands as long as they choose to cultivate them, but have no permanent title to them. The second class is composed of lands now occupied by foreigners, who bold by a government title. All these titles are registered, and there is no difficulty in the sale or transfer of these lands. The third class consists of lands as yet unoccupied . These to the extent of 25 acres can be occupied by a foreigner, if he comes to an understanding with the natives about them; but he cannot cut timber or open mines without a concession from the government. There are now (1890) 11 provinces or dis tricts in the Congo Free State, all of them more or less directly connected with the Congo river. The number will doubtless be increased, and some of these divided, when the officers of the government and the missionaries have more thoroughly traversed the as yet unexplored regions lying south of the main river, and those lying north of it and between it and the Mobangi- Welle River. Parts of the latter region are yet in a condition of primitive wildness, while in some of the eastern districts the in habitants are in constant terror from the raids of the Arab slave-traders. Missions in the Congo Free State. I. Protestant Missions. — There are now 9 Protestant missions in existence in the Free State, and several others without its bounda ries, but within the commercial free-trade area established by the Berlin Conference. The following are the names of these missions, the societies to which they belong, and the date of the commencement of their work: (1) The Livingstone Inland Mission, founded in February, 1878, at Banana, near the mouth of the Lower Congo, by the Livingstone Inland Mission Society, of which Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness, the founders and managers of the East London Institute for Home aud Foreign Missions; Rev. Alfred Tilly, of the English Baptist Missionaiy Society ; and others, were active promoters, and Mr. Henry Craven, the first missionary. In 1880 the entire con trol of this mission was placed in the hands of Mr. and Mrs. H. Grattan Guinness. In the autumn of 1884 the mission, which then had seven stations, four on the Lower and three on the Upper Congo, with twenty missionaries, together with the steam-launch " Livingstone" on the Lower Congo and the fine steamer " Henry Reed " on the Upper Congo, was trans ferred to the American Baptist Missionaiy Union, which still maintains, and has materially enlarged it. It had in 1890, 5 stations, 4 out- stations, over 400 members, 39 missionaries, and 13 native assistants. (2) The English Baptist Missionary So ciety, whose first mission was founded in 1878, at San Salvador, on the M'paso, a tributary of the Congo, in Portuguese territory. This station it still maintains, and has added seven others, four of them in the Upper Congo. It will be observed tbat both of these missions were founded seven years before there was a Congo Free State, though not till after Stanley's expedition of 1874-1877 had demonstrated the need of mis sionary work on the Dark Continent. (3) The Swedish Missionary Society's Mis sion, originally connected with the Livingstone Inland Mission, occupying the station Mukim- bungu, between Isanghila and Manyanga. When the Livingstone Mission was transferred to the American Baptist Missionary Union in 1884, it was arranged that the Swedish Mission ary Society should take this station as the nucleus of an independent mission, and extend its work on the right or north bank of the Lower Congo. It has now three stations and about twenty missionaries, and has been very successful. (4) Bishop Taylor's Mission (American Methodist Episcopal Church), commenced in 1886, intended to plant itself on the largest south ern tributary of the Congo, — the Kasai, — but was founded on tbe principle of self-support and colonization. So far its missionaries have not succeeded in reaching their field of labor or commencing any direct missionary work. There were about twenty-four missionaries under the bishop's own leading, and they brought from America a steamer which was so constructed that the heavier portions of its ma chinery could not be landed at Vivi or carried up to Stanley Pool, and it has been of no use CONGO FREE STATE 320 CONGO FREE STATE as yet. The principle of self-su pport has proved a failure, many of the agents of the mission hav ing suffered great privations, several dying, and others leaving the Congo; some are scattered around Banana, Vivi, and Isangbila, where they are making a brave struggle to sustain life, by shooting hippopotami and selling the dried flesh to the natives in exchange for tbe produce of the country. Four of them are occupying an old Free State station at Kimpoko, on Stauley Pool, and attempting a little agriculture and trade; but none of them have been able to spend much time in acquiring the languages or teachiug lhe people. At the last report there had been no conversions, but the bishop was sanguine of ultimate success. Tbe latest report received is that his steamer has been re constructed, aud was launched in the summer of 1890, to ply on the Lower Congo. (5) The Missionary Evan gelicalAlliance, called also " Simpson'sMission," also an Amer ican organization, has been attempting self-sup port, and with about the same results. The missionaries of the Alliance have a little place near Vivi, where they live by hunting buffalo and antelopes, smoking their flesh, and selling it to the natives. Of course they have very little time to acquire the difficult languages of tbe Lower Congo, to translate the Scriptures, or to preach in these languages. Moreover, the climate of Vivi is a very trying one for either Americans or Europeans. They have been here since 1884. (6) Arnot's Mission, established by Mr. Frederick S. Arnot in 1888 in the southeast ern part of the Congo Free State, around the headwaters of the tributaries of the Congo, in what is called the Garenganze country, near the watershed which divides the sources of the Zambesi and Shire from those of the Congo. Mr. Arnot had explored wearily, for a long time, the Zambesi and Barotse districts, and finally fixed upon this region, which has a fer tile soil, a healthy climate, a friendly king, and a people more intelligent and cordial than most of the tribes. The principal objection is, that it is hundreds of miles distant from any base of supplies, and that there are no routes of easy communication by land or water. Mr. Arnot, however, who is an experienced traveller and explorer, of great courage and daring, and fully equipped for his work, has no misgivings, and returns from England to his work accompanied by his wife and other helpers, assured of suc cess. (7) The London Missionary Society has a mission with two stations on Lake Tanganyika, founded in 1877. The stations are Kavala Island, toward the southern extremity of the lake, and Fwamboon, on the mainland. This mission is probably tbe oldest one within the limits of tbe Free State. It was long under the care of Captain Hare, and has endured many trials. It is 800 miles from Zanzibar, and though nearer to the Zambesi and Shire, that route was too often blocked by the Arabs to be safe. The mission has a steamer, tbe "Good News," on the lake, and has accomplished much good by its schools and the preaching of the gospel, but the field is a difficult one. (8) The Congo-Balolo Mission was estab lished in 1889 by Mr. and Mrs. II . Grattan Guinness, or rather by the East London Mis sion Institute, of which they are the principal managers. It is interdenominational, aud has for its field the Balolo country, extending over a large territory in tbe arch of the Congo, where the Balolo, who all speak the same lan guage, have a population of not less than teu millions. The mission has for its sphere the six southern or eastern tributaries of the Con go beyond Equatorville, viz., the Lualanga, Slaringa, Lopori, Ikalemba, Juapa, and Bosira. It joins on the west the field of the American Baptist Missionary Union, transferred by the Guinnesses to them in 1884. The two organi zations work in perfect accord. The " Henry Reed " steamer was loaned to the Congo-Balolo Mission for a year till their own new steamer, the " Pioneer," could be transported to the Upper Congo. They have four stations already selected, which were manned by October, 1890. They had at that date 14 missionaries in the field. 9. The Soudan Mission, originating in Kan sas, U. S. A., with which Mr. Graham Brooke has been connected, and which is, we believe, to be under the control of the English Church Missionary Society, embraces in its field not only what is generally known as the Western Soudan, but .a part of the tract north of the Congo and lying between that river and the Mobangi- Welle River. This mission has been started during the present year, and owes its existence to Rev. H. G. Guinness, though he is not now connected with it. Like the China In land Mission, it is to be supported by the volun tary contributions of its friends, and the mission aries have no stipulated sum for their support. The region is now claimed by the Mohamme dans, and it is said that the missionaries are to adopt the Mohammedan dress. The number of missionaries will probably be large. The relation of these missions to each other is very cordial, so far as they are brought into proximity. The missions of the A. B. M. Union, of the English Baptist Missionary Society, the Swedish Missionary Society's Mission, and the Congo Balolo Mission are all on or near the Lower and Upper Congo or their larger tributaries, and each is alert to extend a helping hand to the other when needed. The two Methodist Missions — Bishop Taylor's and the Simpson Mission — are regarded with cordiality by the others ; but as they have no stations as yet, and are not engaged in direct missionaiy work, there is no opportunity for reciprocal courtesies. The London Missionary Society's Mission on Lake Tanganyika, and Mr. Arnot's Mission in Garenganze, are so remote as to be inaccessible from the west coast. The Western Soudan Mission is not yet fully organized, and its proposed eastern stations will not probably for some years approach to the vicinity of the Congo. II. Roman Catholic Missions. — Of these there are four, each under different organizations. 1. The Mission du Saint Esprit, at Banana and Boma, under the care of Monseigneur Carrie. There are four priests and two lay breth ren at these stations, and some small schools which give industrial training to the children. 2. The Belgian Mission. — Established in 1888 at Kwa-mouth on tbe Upper Congo, with a second station projected at Luluaburg on the Lulua River, a branch of the Kasai, just on the southern boundary-line of the Congo Free State. 3. A New Mission at Bangola, on the northern bank of the Upper Congo, about 1 25 miles above Equatorville. This is under the CONGO FREE STATE 321 CONSTANTINOPLE care of the Jesuits. The Catholic mission steamer "Leo XIII." is plying on the Upper Congo. 4. The Mission op the Peres d'Algerie (Algerian priests), on Lake Tanganyika, in the southeastern part of the Free State. They have 2 stations, Kibanja on Burton Gulf, and Mpala at the mouth of the Lofuku, both on the lake. They syx laboring among the Urua tribe, but do not report much success. The Catholics have several flourishing mis sions in the Portuguese territory south of the Free States. Obstacles and Difficulties to be en countered in Missionary Work in the Congo Free State. — These are many, but not insurmountable. Tbe first is tbe climate. This is deadly to most Europeans or Americans who spend any time on the coast or in the lowlands. The Lower Congo, below Stanley Pool, and both its shores, is not a region in whieh a precious human life ought to be risked for forty-eight hours. Fifty-five missionaries, nearly all of them on this Lower Congo, have died within ten years. When the railway now in process of construction is completed, and the healthier highlands of the Upper Congo can be reached in from six to ten hours from the landing of the steamer, the condition of things will be changed. The Upper Congo is, for an equatorial climate, moderately healthy, but the utmost carefulness is necessary, even there. Business, travelling, or work which requires exposure to the direct rays of the sun, should not be undertaken ex cept in the hours between 4 a.m. and 11 a.m. or between 5 and 10 p.m. Exposure to rains or heavy dews, or anything which will bring on a chill, should be carefully prohibited. Bathing should be practised daily, and all use of alco holic stimulants avoided, except when pre scribed by a skilful and judicious physician. Excessive fatigue must not be permitted. God does not require the sacrifice of life and health except in cases where our duty is made abso lutely plain, and the missionaiy who voluntarily exposes himself or herself to disease and death, without absolute necessity, tempts God. The vast, number of languages spoken by the forty millions or more of the inhabitants of the Congo Free State is a very serious obstacle to missionaiy labor. There are said to be 168 dif ferent languages spoken in this area, and though one of these languages (the Balolo) is spoken by ten millions or more of a homo geneous race, and the philologists tell us that the other 167 are only dialects of the Bantu, yet what good does that do, when neither the mis sionary nor the native understands Bantu, or can cause themselves to be understood in speak ing it to others ? Nowhere is a universal speech more of a desideratum. Slavery and the appearance of tlie Arab slave- trader, are very real terrors to nearly all these tribes, and sadly interfere with the progress of the gospel ; but there is reason to hope that this great crime against humanity will be swept from the face of the earth, and the nation which upholds and practises it will be obliterated, and utterly destroyed. The traffic in liquor is another blight on the missionary enterprise and the spread of the gospel. It will bring down the just vengeance of God on the nations which permit it. These two terrible crimes must be banished from the earth if Ethiopia is to be brought to own its Lord. Islam is another source of dread and dis tress to the missionaiy in Africa. Already has its baleful standard crossed the African conti nent. It is so identified with the slave-trade, and so commends itself to the weak and sen suous, as well as the brutal instincts of the African, that there is great danger that he will be carried away by it, and thus be led captive by the False Prophet and dragged down to per dition. The converts from Mohammedanism are few, and generally weak. These and other obstacles are leading the missionaries in this great territory to cry mightily to God for His delivering grace ; but we know that the Lord reigns, and that in His own time the kingdoms of earth shall be His, and to Him shall every knee bow, and every tongue confess. Consolidated American Baptist missionary Convention. Headquarters, No. 999 St. Mark's Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.— The Consolidated American Baptist Missionaiy Convention was formed in New York in 1840, and at that time included all the colored Baptist churches of the North. Two missionaries were sent to Africa, but were not able to occupy the field permanently. Iu 1866, on account of its union with the Western and Southern colored Baptists, ' ' Consolidated " was added to the name of the Convention. In 1878, the Southern and Western Baptists withdrew ; and the Consoli dated Convention was obliged to contract its work according to its receipts, and finally to abandon all except that at Hayti, assumed in 1872, where good work continues to be done. The mission property at Port-au-Prince is valued at $4,000. Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire, is located at the confluence of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmora. The history of this remarkable city is so well known that this article will confine itself to Constanti nople as a seat of missionaiy. operations. We shall notice, 1st, its location ; 2d, its political relations ; 3d, its population ; 4th, the mission aiy work carried on in it, 1. Location. — Constantinople is the natural centre toward which converge the lines of inter est, of trade, and population, of Southeastern Europe and Western Asia. Lying partly in Europe and partly in Asia, it partakes of the character of both continents to such a degree that the natives of each find themselves at home in it. The beauty of its scenery is scarcely more marked than are the characteristics that make it a healthy residence at every season of the year, and a convenient center from which in fluences may make themselves felt in every por tion of the empire and even the adjacent coun tries. The value of its location has been much impaired by the restrictions upon trade of absurd custom-house regulations, and that jealousy of all foreign investments that has characterized the Turkish Government. Produce that was formerly brought from the ports of the Black Sea and reshipped at the Golden Horn for Europe, now goes direct from Odessa, Varna, Poti, and Trebizond. Even Bithynia and Euro pean Turkey have found ports of their own at Banderma, Rodosto, and Dedea Agatch, while Southern Asia Minor, reached by railway from Smyrna and Mersine, has become largely inde- CONSTANTINOPLE 322 CONSTANTINOPLE pendent of the capital. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, however, Constantinople is still the centre, and must continue to be the "key of the East." Topographically it is divided into three parts: 1. Staniboul, or the city proper, between the Marmora and the Golden Horn, occupying the site of the old city. 2. Galata, Pera, and Hass- keuy, between the Golden Horn aud the Bos phorus, dating uot farther back than the time of the Genoese occupation, and mostly grown up within 300 years. 3. Scutari and Kadikeuy, on the Asiatic shore of the Bos phorus and Marmora, the latter occupying the site of the Greek Clialcedon. Then along both shores of tbe Bosphorus and the Marmora stretch villages, largely held as summer resorts of the wealthier Turks and Europeans, though the introduction of steamers connecting them with the city has drawn to them a large num ber of the poorer classes. In each section of the city there is an ascent from the sea in many places quite abrupt, so tbat there is the best of natural drainage, and tbe general health is excellent. The climate is in general mild through the whole year, the winter being tempered by south winds, while in the summer the prevailing winds are from the north. There is usually some snow, but very little ice. In the summer the thermometer very rarely rises above 90°. While the spring months, April, May, and June, are the most favorable for visiting the city, it is never out of season. The chief drawback to residence is tbe heavy winds, which are hard for delicate throats and lungs to bear. The houses were formerly almost entirely frame houses, very poorly put together, which burned like tinder when a conflagration was once started. Successive disasters of this kind have resulted in the use of brick and stone in a great degree, though much that appears to be brick is really only stucco. 2. Political Relations. — Constantinople is the very key to the "Eastern Question," but aside from its wider international impor tance, its political influence is a most important element in its national life. It is the seat of all government for the empire (see Turkey). Every local official from Adrianople to Bagdad, from Trebizond to Assouan, feels the influence that binds him to the capital, and this in more ways than the mere reference to responsible chiefs there. Delegated authority in Turkey is almost unknown. The central government keeps its eye not merely upon the pashas, but on every little village mudir; and uo one, from the highest to the low est, can tell when he may be called upon to account to headquarters for some act that it would bo supposed was left entirely to his dis cretion. Hence if any disturbance occurs among the Kurdish Mountains, on the Persian border, it must be settled, not at the capital of the province (vilayet), but at Constantinople. The absolute centralization of the Turkish government in Constantinople is even almost more marked thau is that of Russia in St. Petersburg. The same thing is true of the various hierar chical influences. The Armenian Patriarch resident in Constantinople is subordinate spiritually to the Catholicos at Etchmiadziue (in the Caucasus) and to those at Akhtarmar (Lake Van) and Sis (in Cilicia); but politi cally he is the head of the Armenian nation, and the supremacy of the Patriarchate is maintained in much the same way as is that of the Porte. So with the Greeks and other Christian com munities. So, again, Constantinople as the seat of the foreign embassies is the centre for those foreign influences which permeate the empire to a degree almost iuconceivable to any one not ac quainted with the country. If a difference arises between two Turkish subjects in Mosul on the Tigris, the chances are that it will be tried in Constantinople, in the presence of lhe drag omans of the French and English embassies. If an Armenian is imprisoned in Erzroom, the Russian Ambassador has probably an active in terest in either his detention or his release. Some American missionaries in Syria bought a piece of property. They had to prove their title in the courts of Constantinople against the best efforts of the French Embassy. Thus Constantinople is the centre of the political as well as the governmental interests of the remotest sections of the empire. 3, Population. — The population of Con stantinople is variously estimated at from 800,- 000 to 1,000,000; of these something more than one half are Turks. Tbe Aimenians and Greeks number perhaps 80,000 each, the Jews 70,000, while the remainder comprise almost every race of Europe and Western Asia. One very im portant element is that of the "bekkiars" (bachelors), men who come up from the vil lages of the interior, spend a few years, and then having amassed a little money return to their homes. The number of these it is impos sible to estimate at all accurately. They make up by far the majority of the laboring class, the porters (hamals), boatmen, carpenters, and even the petty tradesmen. They are divided about equally between Turks and Armenians, though there are some Greeks. In former times each race occupied a dis tinct quarter of the eit}-. Stamboul had its Turkish, Armenian, Greek, and Jewish quar ters, while the Europeans were found chiefly in Pera, and intermingling was almost un known. Of later years that has changed in a great degree: districts have encroached on each other until in some cases boundary-lines have been practically obliterated. In like manner other distinctions are disap pearing. At one time few Turks were engaged iu business. Almost every department of trade was in the hands of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, while the Turks were house and laud owners, government aud military officials, aud hangers-on to the pashas. Now they are taking their share more generally in business. Dress, too, has become more uniform, and while the fez is everywhere the sign of a sub ject of the Sultan, it is less and less easy to dis tinguish the different races. There is a general commingling of the people, each more acces sible than ever before to others, whether foreign ers or natives. The languages are as varied as the races. The official language is Turkish, the court language French, while Greek, Italian, Ger man, are almost essential to any one whose busi ness relations are extensive. Armenian is used only among Armenians, who, however, all speak Turkish, while many of them write it. Besides these one hears a perfect jargon of sounds — Bulgarian, Russian, Arabic, Persian, Spanish, CONSTANTINOPLE 323 CONSTANTINOPLE etc. — as he passes through the streets or stops in a restaurant or cafe. 4. Mission Work. — The above statements will readily explain the importance that has always been attached to the occupation of Con stantinople as a centre for missionary opera tions. The British and Foreign Bible Society occupied it very early, but the A. B. C. F. M. was the^first missionary society to send mis sionaries there (see articles American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and Armenia), and since 1830 it has been perhaps the most important mission station of that Board. The American Bible Society has also made it the headquarters for its Levant Agency (q.v.). The Church Missionary Society commenced a work designed especially for Mohammedans, but withdrew. Various smaller societies have commenced work, but have given it up, largely on account of the difficulties and the great ex pense involved. The societies now at work there are the A. B. C. F. M., the Foreign Christian Missionary Society (U. S. A.), the Jewish Missions of the Scotch Established and Free churches, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews, the London Society for the Promotion of Christianity among the Jews. The American and the British and Foreign Bible Societies have agents there, the American Baptist Publication Society supports an Armenian preacher,, the Friends of England have a medical mission among the Armenians, and there are two English ladies who carry on a work among seamen and natives in what is known as "The Constantinople Rest.'' The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel is represented by the rector of a church built in memorial of the English who fell in the Crimean War. Robert College and the Bible House are independent of all connection with mission societies. (See articles on the different societies.) 1. Centres of Work. — The chief of these are : (a) The Bible House ; (b) The Scotch Mis sion House ; (c) Robert College ; (d) The Ameri can College for Girls. Each of the Jewish so cieties has its own buildings, but the above are the most prominent. (a) The Bible House was erected through the efforts of Rev. Isaac G. Bliss, D.D. (see bio graphical sketch). It stands in the centre of the business part of Stamboul, and is very prominent, both for its location and its fine ap pearance. It accommodates the offices and storage-rooms of the American Bible Society, the A. B. C. F. M., the British and Foreign Bible Society, and printing and binding estab lishments owned by Armenians who learned their trade in America. There are also a large service-room, an apartment for missionaiy resi dence, a book-store, and stores for rental. (b) The Mission House of the Scotch Free Church, situated in Galata, includes two larger schools, an orphanage or home, a dispensary, a missionaiy residence, and a hall for public service. (e) Robert College, situated at Roumeli Hissar, on the Bosphorus, "about six miles from Stam boul, near the towers built by Mohammed II. when he captured Constantinople, the site of a Roman temple, and the point where Darius crossed the Bosphorus on his Scythian expedi tion, is a memorial to the benevolence of a Mew York merchant, Christopher Robert, and the energy and skill of Rev. Dr. Cyrus Hamlin. Established in 1863 in the premises of the Mis sion Theological Seminary at Bebek, its present imposing building was erected in 1869. Its present (1890) staff consists of 18 professors and instructors, and 163 students. The whole number of students from the beginning is 1,551 representing twenty different nationalities. Its students represent almost every nationality resi dent in Constantinople. Although not connected with any society, Robert College has exerted an incalculable in fluence for Christian life all over the empire. Among its graduates are many of the most prominent men in Bulgaria, and it is perhaps not too much to say that that nation really owes its existence to the influence exerted by President George Washburn aud his associates. The College is under the direction of a Board of Trustees resident in New York City. (d) The American College for Girls, on the heights of Scutari, originated in 1872 in the Home School started in a modest way by Miss Julia Rapelye, in Stamboul. At present it oc cupies two large fine buildings, with spacious grounds, and has 18 professors and instructors, and 103 scholars, of seven different nationalities. The graduates are taking an increasingly promi nent part in the social life of their communities, and are doing much to effect a marked change for the better. These, however, are only the more promi nent points of missionary interest. There are many other scarcely less important preaching places and schools connected with the same or different societies. 2. Departments of Work. — (a) Evangel istic ; (b) Educational ; (c) Publishing ; (d) Book distribution ; (e) Superintendence; (/) Political. (a) Evangelistic. — There are not less than 13 places where there is public preaching in native languages every Sabbath, and in many there are two or three services. In connection with several there is a Sabbath-school, and there are also weekly evening meetings. The larger number of attendants are Armenians, but there are many Greeks and Jews, and not a few Moslems. There are also a number of preaching services in English. The languages are chiefly Arme nian, Turkish, Greek, and Spanish. There is also a large amount of direct pastoral work done, both among the natives of the city and the " bekkiars" (see above). This last work has been especially productive of good results. (b) Educational work has been extended wide ly in Constantinople by all the different socie ties. Each community has its local schools, generally managed by themselves, with perhaps some help from the missions. Then there are the two colleges mentioned above, and the large schools for Jewish children in Galata, Hass- keuy, and Ortakeuy. The grade of instruc tion is, as a rule, of the highest. (c) Publishing is carried on very extensively both by the Bible societies and the A. B. C. F. M. Printing and binding that it was formerly thought must be done in England or America is now done equally well in Constantinople, and it is possible to find almost as complete sets of editions of tbe Scriptures there as in London or New York. The mission publications include re ligious books, school text-books, and periodicals. There are weeklies and monthlies in Armenian, Turkish, (in the Armenian character, and also in the Greek character— (see Caramanlija), and Bul garian. The monthlies are illustrated child's pa- CONSTANTINOPLE 324 COQUIMBO pers. The good accomplished by them is im measurable, reaching as they do the remotest parts of the empire. (d) Book Distribution. — Colportage is carried on extensively by the two Bible societies. The men are native Armenians, Greeks, etc., and they And their way into every quarter of the city, and reach many who never attend services. The government has frequently tried to stop their work, but has alway failed, and they keep ou, finding increasing success. («) Superintendence. — Constantinople as the centre of the empire is also, the centre of mission work. The wide extent especially of the work of the A. B. 0. F. M. necessitates a great de gree of organization and superintendence. This is located chiefly in the Treasurer's rooms at the Bible House, and there can be learned the par ticulars of work all over the empire. Much of the business of the Persian and Syrian missions of the Presbyterian Board North also comes here. (/) Political work is a phase of missionary life in Constantinople of no small difficulty, but of great importance. The missionaries them selves often have cases affecting their rights as citizens which must be carried to the embassy; and there are innumerable instances when their kind offices are sought in behalf of people who have been for one cause or another imprisoned or persecuted in every part of tbe empire. This work requires time, tact, patience, aud an in timate knowledge of the country and its people, their laws and customs. While there is much valuable missionary work done in Constantinople, its chief importance after all is as a strategic point. To withdraw or eveu weaken tbe force there would be to court disaster in the whole empire. If Constantinople can be held, the Levant must be conquered. Constitucion, a town of Chili, South America, near the coast, 300 miles south of Val paraiso, connected with Santiago by railroad. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 native pastor. It is worked as an out-station of Valparaiso. Coiiva, a town on the west coast of Trini dad, West Indies, North of San Fernando. Mission station ofthe Baptist Missionaiy Society; 2 missionaries, 12 native helpers. Presbyterian Church in Canada; 1 missionaiy. Coonoor, a town of Madras, South India, 6,000 feet above the sea ; at the head of the principal mountain pass from the plains. A lovely town and good sanitarium. Climate cool, equable, averaging 62° F. Population, 4,778, Pariah Hindus, Europeans. Mission station of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, U.S.A. ; 1 mis sionary, 2 schools, 102 scholars, 72 church- members : Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Soci ety ; 9 church-members. Copay, a station of the C. M. S. on the northern coast of Ceylon, East Indies, with an organized church, and a teachers' seminary (established in 1847). Included under Jaffna. Copiapo, a town on the coast of Chili, South America, south of Chanaral, and 4()0 miles north of Valparaiso; connected with Santiago by railroad. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North ; 1 missionary aud wife, 6 out-stations. Copperamana, a town in the interior of South Australia. In 1866 the Moravian Breth ren established a station here among the entirely savage tribes roaming about in that region. But in 1872 it was given up, partly on account of the terrible scarcity of water, partly on ac count of the utter defencelessness of the place. In 1878, however, Bavarian Lutherans reoccu- pied the station, and they have baptized 56 natives. Coptic Version. The Coptic, which be longs to the Hamitic group of the languages of Africa, was once the vernacular tongue of Egypt, but it was superseded by the Greek, more especially by the Arabic, and is now only cultivated by biblical scholars and a very few of the Coptic priests. There are three principal dialects in Coptic, viz., the Memphitic, Sahidic, and Bashmuric. The Memphitic, spoken in the neighborhood of Memphis, is the least pure of the three ; tbe Sahidic or Thebaic, spoken in Upper Egypt, is more purely Egyptian ; whereas the Bashmuric, spoken in Bashmur, a province of the Delta, differs from the others chiefly by cer tain changes in the vowels and in some of the consonants. The Coptic Old Testament was made from. the Septuagint, and in all probability during the course of the second or third century. The New Testament was drawn immediately from the original Greek. No complete edition of the Old Testament has yet been published. The Pentateuch was published by David Wilkins, (London, 1731), by Fallet (Paris, 1854), and by Lagarde (Leipsic 1867); the Psalms (Coptic and Arabic) by the Propaganda Society (Rome, 1744), and by Ideler (Berlin, 1837); critical editions by M. G. Schwartze (Leipsic, 1843), and Lagarde (1875); fragments of Isaiah and Jere miah by Mingarelli (Bologne, 1785), Miinter (Rome, 1786), and Engelbrecht (Copenhagen, 1811). Proverbs was published by Bouriant (in Recueil de travaux relig., Paris, iii., 1882, 129 seg.). H. Tattam published the Prophets with a Latin translation (Oxford, 1836-1852), and Job with an English translation (London, 1 846). The New Testament was published by David Wilkins (Oxford, 1716); the Gospels by Schwartze (2 vols., Leipsic, 1846-47); the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles, by P. Botticher, alias Lagarde (Halle, 1852). The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge published the JNew Testament in Coptic and Arabic. (2 vols., 1847-52), tbe text having been revised by Lieder. Of late A. Ciasca commenced the publication of Sacrorum bibliorum Fragments Copto-Sahidiea- musei Borgiani jussei et sumptibus Sacrm Con- gregalionis de Propaganda Fide, edita. Vol. I. Romae, 1885. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Hupirf ? fteneg. Copts : see Africa ; United Presbyterian Church, U. S. A. Coquimbo, a town on the coast of Chili, South America, north of Valparaiso and south COQUIMBO 325 COULTART, JAMES of Chanaral. Sub-station of South American Missionaiy Society. Corapat, a Breklum mission station in Jeypur, Presidency of Madras, British India, founded in 1884. See Breklum Missionary- Society. Cordoba, a town of the Argentine Repub lic, South America. Formerly the ecclesiastical metropolis of South America, it still retains that character, and the clergy and their connections form the most influential part of the city. Its trade is very important. Population, 28,523. Mission station of South American Missionary Society; 1 missionaiy. Corea : see Korea. Corfti, the largest of the Ionian Islands, in the Adriatic, off the coast of Greece. Area, 431 square miles; population, 106,109. There is no special missionaiy work, but there is a depot of the British and Foreign Bible Society. (See Greece. ) Corisco, an island on the west coast of Africa, 55 miles north of the equator, and 20 miles from the mainland, near the mouth of the Gaboon River. It is under Spanish rule. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North, U. S. A. (1850). A native ordained preacher is in charge. Attendance on services about 90, with twice that number at com munion seasons. Corytiba, a town of Southeast Brazil, South America, near the coast, about 500 miles southwest of Rio de Janeiro. Chief town of the Province of Parana. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church North; 1 missionaiy and wife, 2 native helpers. Cosihuiriachic, a city of 4,000 inhabitants, in New Mexico, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre Mountains, 75 miles west of Chihuahua, 300 miles south of the Rio Grande. Climate temperate, ranging from 15° to 100°. Popula tion of the district 120,000, mostly Indians and Spaniards. Language, Spanish, except among the Tarahumare Indians in the mountains. Religion, Roman Catholic. Mission station A. B. C. F. M. (1888); 1 missionary and wife, 1 native teacher, 30 communicants, 40 Sabbath- scholars. Costa Rica, a republic of Central America. Area, 22,000 square miles. Population, 205,- 730, chiefly mestizoes, negroes, and Indians. Language, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic, but not bigoted. Capital, San Jose, in a beau tiful valley in the central part of Costa Rica. Punta Arenas is the port of San Jose, situated on the Gulf of Nicoya, the best harbor and only port of entry on the Pacific coast. The main range of the Andes, entering Costa Rica from the southeast, traverses its entire territory, widening towards the northwest, and forming a table land, on which are situated the principal towns and centres of population. The rivers of Costa Rica, although numerous, are of in considerable size, the San Juan, which serves as a boundary between it and Nicaragua, being the only one navigable for steamers. It has no lakes of any great importance, but numerous small ones at the foot of the moun tain ranges. Costa Rica is of volcanic origin, and therefore subject to frequent earthquakes. The soil is very productive, and, though less rich in minerals than some of tbe neighbor ing countries, it contains some rich gold-mines. The climate is mild and delightful in the up lands, hot on tbe plains, but everywhere health ful, except along the lagoons on the western coast. Costa Rica has been a republic since 1821, and is governed under a constitution promul gated 1859, but modified frequently since that date. The President holds office for four years. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are also elected for a term of four years, half of them retiring every two years. Instruction is given in primary schools, of which there were 201 in 1888 with 12,733 pupils. Commerce is carried on with the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany. The exports are chiefly coffee, bananas, and hides. Railroads are being built, 200 miles have already been opened, and 600 miles of telegraph are in opera tion. No mission work is carried on in the republic. Cotagiri, a town in the district of Nila- giri, Presidency of Madras, British India. A station of the Basle Missionary Society, with 142 members. Cotsclii (Kotchi), a seaport on the Malabar Coast, Madras, India. Population, 14,000. It was formerly a Portuguese, then a Dutch fort ress, and was often visited by missiouaries to preach to the natives, and for the sake of the Jews living there. It is now a CM. S. branch station. lombo, Ceylon, East Indies, formerly a royal resi dence. It is now the chief station of the C. M. S. since 1822. It has good educational institutions. Within a radius of ten miles from Cotta there are twelve or fifteen markets where the Gospel is regularly preached. Including the Sinha lese work in Colombo, the statistics are: 3 native pastors, 369 communicants, 56 schools, 2,909 scholars. Cottayam, the capital of Travancore, Madras, South India. Station of the C. M. S. (1817), with a college, 381 students, a theologi cal seminary, a printing establishment, and 6,000 Christians. It is in charge of 3 missiona ries, and is a centre for the work in the Alwaye Itinerancy, which covers an area of 1,850 square miles, with a population of 600,000. In the Cottayam Council there are 6 pastorates of the native church. Conltart, James, a missionary of the English Baptist Missionary Society. Educated at Bristol, England. Sent out to Jamaica Feb ruary 7th, 1817. Soon after his arrival at Kingston, on account of the failure in health of Mr. Compere, whom he had come to assist, he assumed all the duties of the station. Both he and his wife were soon prostrated by fever and Mrs. Coultart died. After spending several months in England he returned to Kingston, and at once commenced the erection of a chapel to accommodate 2,000 persons. Already within 12 months some 200 had been admitted to the church. The chapel was opened in 1822, over 2,500 persons assembling to attend the exercises. In March 1,600 communicants partook of the Lord's Supper, and his congregation now num bered 2,700 persons. In 1823 some hundreds COULTART, JAMES 326 CREOLESE VERSION were added. Obtaining permission to hold ser vice by candlelight, he had audiences of 3,000, and in 1826 there were 2,000 communicants. A day-school was connected with the mission, whose examinations were attended by the more respectable classes; and when an auxiliary to this institution was formed, the exercises were attended by magistrates and members of the Assembly. A Sunday-school containing 200 children was also connected with the church. After 14 years of most faithful and successful service he returned to England on account of failing health. Crane, Wathanicl M., b. West Bloom- field, N. J., December 12th, 1805; studied at Williams College for a time, but graduated at Washington College, Pa., 1832. Spent two years in Western Theological Seminary, Alle ghany, Pa., and finished his theological course at Auburn, N. Y. ; was ordained by the Pres bytery of Cayuga 1836, and sailed the same year for India under the A. B. C. F. M. Having labored for seven years in the Madura Mission, his health failed beyond the hope of recovery in that climate, and he returned to his native land. His health being partially restored by a resi dence on a farm for two years, he commenced preaching in 1848, and continued in the pastoral work till his death, in Iowa, of typhoid fever, September 21st, 1859. Cranmer, a South American mission station on Keppel Island, one of the Falkland Islands, which has educated and sent forth native missionaries to Fire Island. Occupied 1855; 1 catechist, 1 farm bailiff. An industrial farm, a school and a workshop are conducted, and the natives of Terra del Fuego are instructed in Christian doctrine, and trained to work. Cree Version. — The Cree language, which belongs to the Algonquin branch of American languages, is spoken by an Indian tribe which inhabits all,' or nearly all, the region watered by the numerous rivers which discharge themselves into Hudson Bay. In Canada and in the coun try on the river St. Lawrence they are more nu merous than any other race of Indians; yet in many districts they are so intermingled with other tribes that it is difficult to form a cor rect estimate of their numbers. There are two dialects of the Cree — the Eastern and Western. 1. The Eastern. — This dialect is used by the Cree Indians of Hudson's Bay Territory. For them the Rev. W. Mason, of the Church Mis sionary Societ3r, translated the entire Bible, which was published in syllabic characters by the British and Foreign Bible Society at Lon don, betweeu 1854-61. A New Testament, trans lated by Bishop John Horden of Moosonee, was also published in 1870. 2. lhe Western. — This dialect is used by tbe Indians in Rupert's Land. In this Western or Red River Cree dialect the Gospels of Mark and John were printed in 1855 by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1876 the Psalms and the greater part of the New Testament, translated by the Rev. II. Budd, who was aided by Archdeacon Hunter, botli of the Church Missionary Society, were published in Roman characters. Altogether, the British and Foreign Bible Society disposed of 33,590 portions of the Scriptures, in whole or in parts, up to March 31st, 1889. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) trA'T kp"C P^unb <> b p">np ip' >wd"hQ.j ' faP^ a'uvaa (Boman.) Weya Muneto a, ispeeche saketapun uske,,lco makew oo pauko-Koosisana, piko una "tapwato- wayitehe numowcya oo ga nissewunattssety, mafia oo ga ayaty kakeka pimatissewir* Creekj a name given to the Muskoki In dians of North America (q.v.). Creek Town, a town of Old Calabar, near the Guinea coast, Africa, on the Cross River, 60 miles from its mouth, and 100 miles from Fernando Po. Climate tropical, ther mometer ranging from 80° to 130° Fahr., hav ing rainy and dry seasons. Population com posed chiefly of negroes. Religion, Fetichism. Social condition very depraved, most of the people being in a state of serfdom, differing, however, from the former slavery and that of the West Indies. Station of the Africa Mis sion .United Presbyterian Church; occupied in 1844; 1 missionary and wife, 2 female mission aries, 6 out-stations, 2 organized churches. 174 communicants (18 added in 1888), 6 preaching places with an average attendance of 600, 1 or dained preacher, 3 other helpers, 6 Sabbath- schools, 500 scholars, 3 theological students, 140 day-school scholars of both sexes, 5 teachers. Creole. — All people born in or near the Tropics, of European ancestors. They are generally above the ordinary height, but not proportionately robust. The Creoles are dis tinguished for the freedom and suppleness of their joints, which enable them to move with great ease, agility, and grace. From the same cause they excel in penmanship, and in every thing requiring flexibility of movement. The women are generally very beautiful, and of fine figure. The Creole negroes present a marked distinction from those imported from Africa, being much more slender, agile, and graceful, though not less strong or capable of labor, with quicker perceptions and more vola tile dispositions. The dialects which have sprung up in America, formed by the corrup tion of Spanish, French, aud English, are gen erally called Creole dialects. (See Mauritius.) The British and Foreign Bible Society works aniong the 350,000 Creoles of Mauritius. Scrip tures, St. Matthew and St. Mark, in Mauritius Creole. Creolese Version.— The Creole is a dia lect of the Baetsfi language, and belongs to the Teutonic branch of the Aryan language-family. It is spoken iu Danish West Indies. A trans lation of tbe New Testament into this language was published at Copenhagen by tbe order of the Danish Government, in 1781. Another edi tion of the New Testament, made by Mr. Mag- ens, was published by the Danish Bible Society at Copenhagen in 1818. A translation of the Gospel of Mark, made by Dutch missionaries, was published in 1863 with the aid of the American Bible Society. CREOLESE VERSION 327 CROWN COLONY (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Want soo Godt 1^ hab die Weereld lief, dat hem ka" giev sie* eenig'geboorert Soon,1 dat sellie* almael. die gloov na hem, no- sal kom verlooren, maer sal hab "die eewig Leven.. Crete, or Candia, an island in the Medi terranean Sea, belonging to Turkey. It is very irregular in form, about 160 miles long, and varying in breadth from 6 to 35 miles. It has suffered all the vicissitudes that have charac terized the political history of the Eastern Medi terranean, being the prey of each of the suc ceeding conquering nations. The population numbers about 200,000, of whom only 70,000 are Turks, the remainder being Greeks. Crete has for many years been a hotbed of insurrec tion against the Turkish Government, the Greeks, both of the island and of Greece, seek ing by every means to secure its being joined to the Greek kingdom. There is no mission work in Crete, though colporteurs of the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society visit the island. Crimeo-Turki. — The same as Krim. A rude dialect of the Nogai-Turkish language, as spoken in the neighborhood of the Crimea, in Russia, by the Karaite Jews and Tartars. The only Scriptures published are the Book of Genesis, by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Croatia, a province of the Austro-Hunga- rian monarchy, forming with Slavonia a king dom united with that of Hungary. Area, 5,220 square miles. Surface hilly rather than moun tainous; well drained and watered. Climate varies in different parts, along the Adriatic be ing similar to that of Italy, and producing the olive and vine; but in the elevated regions the snow is frequent and lasting. Soil generally fertile, mineral products of little account. Population, 757,477, chiefly Croats, with a few Germans, Magyars, and Jews. Religion, Roman and Greek Catholic. Education almost wholly neglected. Capital, Agram. The only missionaiy work is that done by the colporteurs of the British and Foreign Bible So ciety, who during 1889 sold over 4,000 copies of the Scriptures. Croatian Version. — The Croatian, which belongs to the Slavonic branch of the Aryan lan guage-family, is, like the Servian, spoken through out Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, etc. The difference between the Servian and Croatian is in the writ ten character. The former use a modified Cyril- lian character, while the Croats use the Roman character. The first translation into Croatian or Dalmato-Servian on record is a version of the Gospels made by Bandulovitch and published at Venice in 1613. The entire Bible by the Jesuit Bartholomew Cassio, made in 1610, was never printed, and the version made by the Roman Catholic priest Stephen Rosa was rejected by the pope in 1754. In 1832 the Franciscan monk and professor. Katancsick, completed a version from the Vulgate, which was printed in Roman letters, and adopted at once by the Roman Catholics of Dalmatia and Croatia. When the British and Foreign Bible Society commenced its operations among the Croatians, Mr. Kar- adcic was engaged to prepare an entirely new translation, which was completed by Mr. Dani- cic, and published in 1868 at Vienna and Pesth. In 1876 the above Bible Society resolved to adopt the Croat version in the spelling now commonly employed. Dr. Sulek, secretary of the South Slavic academy at Agram, was en gaged in removing the Servian idioms and pro vincialisms which created a prejudice againsl the version in the minds of the Croats, while Prof. Micklovich helped to prepare the revised text, of which the New Testament was published at Vieuna in 1876. A revised edition of the New Testament and Psalms by Dr. Julek, consisting of 10,000 copies, was published in 1877, and a second edition in 1888. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British Bible Society disposed of 88,025 por tions of the Scriptures, in parts or as a whole. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Jer Bogu tako omifje svijet da je i sins svojega jedinorodnoga dao^ da ni jedan koji ga vjeruje ne pogine, nego da ima zivot vjecni. Croats. — To the Servian branch of the Sla vic race belong also the Croats, who inhabit Dalmatia, Slavonia, Croatia, and the western part of Bosnia. The linguistic differences be tween the Servians and the Croats are insignifi cant; their chief distinction lies iu their religious confession and in their alphabets. The Servians belong to the Eastern or orthodox branch of the Christiau Church, while the Croats are al most all Catholics, and use the Latin alphabet in their literature. This distinction has led to a great deal of coolness and even hatred between the two nations. The Croats appeared on the Balkan Peninsula almost simultaneously with the Servians, and like them they received Christianity first from Rome and then, in the second half of the ninth century, from Byzantium; but, unlike the Ser vians, they soon fell under the dominion of the Romish Church and accepted Catholicism. Politically the Croats remained independent till 1102 a.d., when they united themselves to Hungary and shared in the vicissitudes of Hungarian history. This union was a free and spontaneous union on the part of the 'Croats, and the Hungarian kings were styled kings of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. The Croatians had a constitution of their own, and the country was ruled over by royal commissioners or bans. But in the present century the claims of the Hungarians to domineer over the Croats led to dissensions between the two nationalities, and to the bloody conflicts in 1848-50, since when the relations between them have been strained. The Dalmatian Croats, especially in the little re public of Dubrovnik or Ragusa, attained in the latter part of the 15th, the 16th, and 17th cen turies a great literary development. A great number of writers, especially poets, flourished in Dubrovnik, who were educated and trained un der the influence of the Italian Renaissance, and who produced some very important poetical works; while here were also born some other men who have gained a world-wide reputation, as the -archaeologist Banduri, the mathemati cians Boshcovitch, Ghetalditch, etc. Crown Colony, a term used by the Brit ish Government to denote those colonies, de pendencies, protectorates, and spheres of in fluence where the Colonial Office in London possesses the control of both legislation and ad ministration, or of administration, the legislation CROWN COLONY 328 CUTTACK being in the hands of representative bodies. These colonies vary very much in general form of government, having sometimes two legisla tive bodies elected by the people, sometimes a council partly elected by the people, partly nom inated by the crown, sometimes a simple mili tary governor, but in all the fundamental prin ciple is that of administrative direction from England. Cuddalore, a town of South Arcot, Madras, India, 116 miles south-south-west of Madras, 16 miles south of Pundicherri. It is one of the largest towns of South India. Climate moderately healthy. Population, 43,- 545, Hindus, Moslems, aud Christians. Mission station of the S. P. G. since 1832; 1 missionary (native), 3 schools, 159 scholars. A Halle sta tion was founded here as early as 1728. A Leipzig station was established in 1858 and has 510 members. Cuddapah (Kudapa'), a town of Madras, India, 161 miles by rail from Madras city. Climate one of the hottest in the district, unhealthy, malarious; mean temperature in summer 97° F. The town is badly built and squalid in appearance. Population, 18,982, Hin dus, Moslems, and Christians. Mission station of the London Missionary Society; 2 mission aries and wives, 105 out-stations, 295 church- members, 32 schools, 560 scholars. Culbertson, Michael Simpson, b. Chambersburg, Pa., U. S. A., January 18th, 1819 ; graduated at the Military Academy, West Point, 1839, standing high in character and scholar ship ; was Assistant Professor of Mathematics in the Academy 1839-40; served, 1840-41, with the rank of lieutenant of artillery at Rouse's Point during the Canada border disturbances. Resign ing his commission in the army, he entered the Theological Seminary at Princeton, N. J., grad uating m 1843. He was regarded by Dr. Hodge as ' ' among the foremost members of the institu tion." He sailed for China in 1844 as a mis sionary of the Presbyterian Board ; was stationed at Ningpo 1845-51, and at Shanghai 1851-62. He visited the United States for his health in 1856. Dr. Culbertson's main work for several years was in connection with the translation of the Scriptures into Chinese. During his visit to this country he published a work entitled "Dark ness in the Flowery Kingdom; or Religious Notions and Superstitions in North China. " He died of cholera at Shanghai, 1862. Dr. Culbert son was highly esteemed by his missionary asso ciates and by the church at home. Dr. Martin, in a commemorative discourse at Shanghai, said: "Of the excellencies of his character I need offer no delineation ; they are attested with one voice by all the Protestant missionaries of all ecclesiastical connections in this community. ' Our devoted brother,' they say in a paper adopted a few days after bis death, ' was a man of a meek and quiet spirit, and remarkable for his singleness of aim and straightforward energy ancl industry in his Master's service. He labored in connection with the late Dr. Bridgman for several years with assiduity and perseverance in preparing a revised translation of the sacred Scriptures in the Chi nese language, a labor of love, which he regarded as the great work of his life; and it was a source of great consolation to him, just before bis de parture, that God had enabled him to complete it."* Cumberland Presbyterian Church. Board of Foreign Missions. Headquarters, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S. A.— In the year 1818 the Cumberland Presbyterian Church sent evan gelists aniong the Chickasaw Indians. This ef fort resulted in the establishment, in 1820, of a mission to the Indians. The Rev. Robert Bell and wife were the first missionaries in this first work of the Society among pagans, which has been continued with marked success, carrying on churches and schools, among the Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Cherokee Indians. In 1857 the Rev. Edmund Weir was sent to Liberia, where he remained for ten years. Work in Turkey was undertaken in 1860, and the Rev. J. C. Armstrong was sent to Constantinople, but owing to troubles at home arising from the civil war, he was recalled. In 1873 work was commenced on the island of Trinidad, and was continued for several years. The foreign work of the Society consists at present of its missions to Japan and Mexico. In Japan seven stations have been established, at Osaka, Wakayama, Mitani, Hakati, Tanabe, and Shingu. During the past year several preach ing places in the neighborhood of these stations have been opened. Boarding and day schools have been established in Osaka, Wakayama, etc. etc. The Mission in Mexico was organized in 1886. At Aguas Calientes a chapel has been built and schools established. Stations have been formed at Guanajuato and Asientos. The Board also has under its care the home- missionary work of the church. Cumbum (Kambam), a city of Kurnul district, Madras, South India. Climate very unhealthy ; most subject to fever of any town in Madras. Population, 7,170, Hindus, Moslems. Mission station of the American Baptist Mis sionary Union ; 1 missionaiy and wife, 41 native helpers, 6 out-stations, 19 schools, 305 scholars. Cunningham, a town of South Africa, in Kaffraria, Transkei. Climate temperate. Popu lation, 3,000. Mission station of the Free Church of Scotlaud (1868) ; 1 ordaiued missionary and wife, 18 native agents, 9 out-stations, 1 church, 550 church-members (49 added in 1888), 10 day- schools, 8 sewing-schools. Cupans, the capital of the western, Dutch part of the island of Timor, East Indies. The Dutch Missionaiy Society maintained a sta tion here from 1819 to 1858, and gathered in 860 baptized converts. After the Dutch Gov ernment assumed the direction of affairs the number of Christians increased to 2,700; but church life aud spiritual life are not always the same thing. A chief from the interior was recently converted, and is very active in propagating the faith. Cura^ao-iVegro Version. — The Cura cao is a dialect of the Spanish, and is spoken by the colored population in the island of Curacao, in the Caribbean Sea. A translation of the Gospel of Matthew into this language was made by the Rev. Mr. Conradi, and published at Curacao in 1841 by the Netherlands Bible Society. A trans lation of the Gospel of Mark was pubhshed in 1865 by the American Bible Society. Cultack, capital of the district of Cuttack, Bengal, East India, 220 miles southwest of Cal cutta. Population, 40,000. It is half in ruins, has little trade, and contains no handsome build- CUTTACK 329 DAKHANI VERSION ings. Mission station of the General Baptist Missionary Society; 4 ordained missionaries and their wives, 7 out-stations. Cyprus, an island, the third largest in the Mediterranean, 60 miles from the coast of Asia Minor and 41 miles from the coast of Syria. It is almost 150 miles long and 55 miles broad, with an area of 3,584 square miles. The greater part of*he island is mountainous, a range 7,000 feet high running the whole length of the island. In the mountain districts valuable timber grows, and the vine and olive are cultivated. Mag nificent plains well adapted for agriculture and producing cereals, make up two fifths of its surface. The vineyards also produce excellent wine. The climate in general seems to be healthy, though the heat is intense in the central plain, and fevers are prevalent in summer. The winters are short and cold, with very little snow except on the mountain-tops. Population (1881), 186,173, of whom fully three fourths are fol lowers of the Greek Church, and the remainder are Mohammedans and Christians. By the treaty of 1878 between the Sultan and Great Britain, Asiatic Turkey was placed under British protection, and since that date Cyprus has been governed by an English High Commis sioner. The members of the Legislature are elected by all male Ottomans, British subjects, or foreigners twenty-one years of age, who have resided five years and are payers of ' ' Verghis " — taxes. The island is divided into six administra tive districts: Nicosia, Larnaca, Limasol, Fama- gusta, Papho, Kyrenia. The principal towns are: Nicosia, the capital and seat of govern ment, population, 11,536; Larnaca, 7,833; Limasol, 6,006, both important ports ; Fama- gusta, 2,564. Cyprus is renowned in ancient history, and in modern times is of note as the scene of the discoveries of General Cesnola. Under British sway the agricultural and com mercial importance of the island is increasing. The government appoints an inspector of schools, and contributes £3,000 per annum to elementary education. In 1888 there were 219 Christian schools, 10,357 scholars; 86 Moslem schools, 3,063 scholars. Weekly newspapers are published in the English, Greek, and Turk ish languages. Mission work was for a while carried on by the Reformed Presbyterian Church, U. S. A., which had a mission school at Larnaca, but it was closed December, 1889, on account of lack of funds. The field invites missionary effort, and is most promising. At Larnaca there is a depot of the British and Foreign Bible So ciety. Czech : see Bohemia. D. Dacca, a town in Bengal, East India, 150 miles northeast of Calcutta. Formerly capital of Bengal, and a most populous and brilliant city. It is now in size the fifth city in Ben gal, but retains none of its former elegance. Population, 79,076. Mission station of the Bap tist Missionaiy Society (1816); 4 missionaries, 5 out-stations, 53 church-members, 84 scholars in the day and Sabbath schools. Daghestan, a province of Russia, com prising most of the eastern slope of the Caucasus towards the Caspian Sea. Parts of the country are very mountainous, with deep valleys, numerous lakes, streams, and glaciers. The climate in the higher regions is severe; the narrow valleys are fertile; the mines are rich, but only developed to supply the ne cessity of war; cattle are raised in large numbers. Western Daghestan is the chief abode of the Lesghians, a powerful tribe, chiefly Moham medans of the Sufi sect. They are virtually in dependent of Russia, to which their country nominally belongs. Farther north live Tartar tribes of Mongol descent, all of them Moham medans, more or less nomadic, living principally by the raising of cattle and horses. Most of them are peaceable Russian subjects. The few large towns, among them Derbent, the capital, are situated on the Caspian coast. There is no direct missionary work, though the British and Foreign Bible Society have published the Gospel of Matthew in Kumuki (q.v.). Dahana, a station of the Rhenish Mission ary Society (1878) on the eastern coast of Nias, an island near the west coast of Sumatra, East Indies. The Nias, about half a million, are a lively and active people, fond of dancing, sing ing, and cutting off each other's heads. They have withstood Mohammedan instruction, and it was partly on account of Mohammedan intrigues that the Dahana station was established. It has 25 communicants. Dahomey, a section of the Slave Coast, West Africa, between Little Popo and Porto Novo. It is now a Portuguese protectorate, though the king is still absolute monarch. The chief city, Whydah (Glehweb, Fida, Heve- dah, Uida), was formerly called Juda, and its inhabitants were said to be Jews, while the river Allala (Efra) was spoken of as the Euphra tes. During the slave-trade Dahomey was fa mous, 16,000 to 18,000 being taken annually from Aguda, as the Portuguese called the city. Along the coast the land is very swampy, but inland it rises to a table-land 1,000 feet high, on which is situated Abomey, the capital. The "city within an enclosure" is surrounded with walls, a deep ditch, and a thick-set hedge of thorny trees, and covers a large area, though the actual space covered by the houses is com paratively small. Formerly the walls of the royal residence were stuck around with human heads or skulls as witnesses of the power of the king. Under tbe protectorate of Portugal this is no longer allowed. Dahomey has been en tirely outside of the reach of Protestant mission ary effort, except as the Wesleyan missionaries in Little Popo succeed in reaching the people occasionally. There is a Roman Catholic mis sion at Agwi. Dakhani, or Madras Hindustani Version. — The Dakhani is a dialect of the Hindi, and belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan language-family. For the use of the Mohammedans in the Madras Presidency the Book of Genesis and the New Testament were published by the British and Foreign Bible So ciety at Madras in 1863, under the care of Messrs. DAKHANI VERSION 330 DAMASCUS Dawes and Eastwick. In 1875 Psalms and Proverbs were also published at Madras, the translation having been made by Mr. E. Tell. A revision of the Gospels was undertaken by the Rev. M. G. Goldsmith of the Church Missionaiy Society, and published in 1885. In the same year an edition of Genesis and Exodus passed through the press, also translated by Mr. Gold smith. The translator's aim is to bring out with his assistants a thoroughly idiomatic South In dian Hindustani, which differs considerably from North Indian Urdu. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) " \J--J1 ^\ £ orf /)' uj^jY Dakota Version.— The Dakota belongs to the Sioux or Dakota branch of American languages, and is used west of the Mississippi. The Dakota Indians were first made acquainted with Bible truth through a histoiy of Joseph, by G. H. and S. W. Pond, published at Cincinnati in 1839. In the same year were published " Old Testament Extracts," by J. Renville and T. S. Williamson, who also published the Gos pel of Mark in that year. Other parts of the Bible followed in 1843; and in 1865 the New Testament, as translated by Dr. S. R. Riggs, was published by the American Bible Society at New York. The complete Bible, translated by Drs. T. P. Williamson and S. R. Riggs, was published by the same Society in 1879. One of the translators estimated that he spent on an average fully thirty minutes on each verse he has translated. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Wakantanka oyate hin cantewicakiya,_ heon Cinhintku isnana icage ein wicaqu, qa tuwe awaein-kinhan owihanke kte sni, tuka Q.wi: hanke wanin wiconi yuhe kta. Dakotas : see Indians of North America. Dalhousie, an English sanitarium in the mountain region at the entrance of Cashmeer, Punjab, Northern India. The Church of Scot land has a station here; evangelistic services among the natives and among the troops are carried on, and a boys' school has been opened. Dalmatia, one of the provinces of the Austrian Empire, occupies a narrow strip along the eastern shore of the Adriatic, between Croa tia on the north aud Albania on tbe south. Her zegovina and Montenegro bound it on the east. With its adjacent islands it is the most southern crown-land of the Austrian Empire. Area, 4,940 square miles. The coast is steep and rocky, but numerous 1 lays afford good harbors and ports. Spurs from the Dinaric Alps cross the interior, reaching an elevation of 6,000 feet in Mount Orien, while on the north the Bele- bech Mountains rise to a height of 5,000 feet. There are few rivers of any importance; with the exception of the Kerka and the Cetlina, most of them are mountain torrents which dry up during the summer beat. The numerous lakes which are found are but temporary pools, and also dry up in summer. The climate is warm and in general healthy, the mean temperature being 60° F. ; 28 inches is the average rainfall, but a wet year is usually followed by a dry one. Most of the land is given up to pasture. The little that is cultivated produces cereals, grapes, hemp, and potatoes. Olive-oil, wine, and salt are the principal exports. The population (1888) is estimated at 521,638; with the exception of about 10 per cent, the people belong to the Mor- lacks or Dalmatians proper. The remainder are Italians, Albanians, and Jews. Full liberty of faith and conscience is secured, and every relig ious body has the right of ordinary public wor ship or instruction. The majority of the popu lation belong to the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, but the Evangelical-Lutheran, the Evangelical Brotherhood, the Gregorian-Arme nian, and the Jewish churches are recognized by the state. Education is carried on in ele mentary schools and gymnasia, and attendance is compulsory between the ages of six and twelve. Dalmatia furnishes nine representatives to the Reichsrath or Imperial Diet. The principal cities are Zara, the capital; Benkovacz, Cattaro, Curzola, and Imoski. During the reign of Augustus, Dalmatia was a Roman province, and was renowned as the na tive place of tbe Emperor Diocletian. He beau tified Salona, the capital, with magnificent build ings. In the seventh century the Slavs conquered it, and in the eleventh century the Hungarians were the ruling race. By the treaty of 1797 it was given to Austria, and since that time, with the exception of the Napoleonic period, Austrian rule has been supreme. Dalmatians or Morlacks are a people be longing to the Servian race, and speak a dialect of Slavonic called the Ulyric. Physically they are a fine race, tall, well developed, with regular features and dark complexions. Those living on the coast are excellent seamen, noted for their daring and braveiy. They were the chief strength of the military prowess of Venice during the Middle Ages. The violent storms and per ilous navigation on the Dalmatian Archipelago developed to the highest degree their vigor and skill. The Morlacks of the interior are lovers of liberty and independence, brave soldiers, who have withstood successfully the aggressions of the Turks. They are noted for hospitality, while at the same time deceitful, rapacious, and ad dicted to drunkenness. Mission work among the Dalmatians is con fined entirely to the colportage of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who publish the entir& Bible in the Servian and Croatian dialects. Damascus, a city of Syria, about 60 miles from the Mediterranean. One of the oldest cities in the world, and especially honored by the Moslems, who call it Sham-el-Kebeer, Damas cus the Great, or Sham-es-Shereef Damascus the Holy. The Arabs consider it one of the four terrestrial Paradises. The view of the city as one descends from the range of Lebanon is veiy beautiful, the surrounding gardens almost con cealing the city itself, except as the minarets rise above the mass of houses. Inside, however, it is very like other interior Oriental cities, with narrow streets and miserable houses. The popu lation, numbering about 150,000, is almost en tirely Moslem, the Christians (19,000) and the Jews (5,000) being not only few in numbers, but weak in influence. At the time of the Druse massacre, in 1860, almost the entire Christian DAMASCUS 331 DANISH MISSIONS and Jewish population was either slain or driven from the city. Since then they have returned in some uumbers, but the city is overwhelm ingly Moslem, and the seat of much Moslem fanaticism. Various efforts have been made to do mission work in Damascus, chiefly among the' Jews, by the United Presbyterian Church of America and the Irish Presbyterian Church. At present the Irish Presbyterian Church Jew ish MrSion has 1 missionary. There are 2 preaching places in the city, and 7 oul-sta- tions, 14 schools, 705 scholars. The Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society also has a mission ary, who works in the city in the winter and in the mountains in the summer. The London Society for the Jews has also a missionary, who conducts a school with 32 scholars. Daminer, a small island among the South ern Moluccas, Bast Indies. The older inhab itants are Christians, but have no minister to take care of them; the younger would probably like to become Christians, but have no teachers to instruct them. Since the Dutch Government in 1842declared the missionaries "unnecessary," and took charge itself of the Christian church, things go on in Dammer as in Aru, Babber, Celebes, etc. — Christianity dies out and Islam grows stronger. Danish missions. — The first evangelical mission from Denmark to heathen lands was begun under Ziegenbalg and Henrik Pleutschau, who were ordained in Copenhagen in 1 705, as missionaries of the Lutheran State Church to India. The next year they arrived in Tranque- bar and began work among the Tamil-speaking people. The mission was known both as the "Danish Tamil " and the "Danish Hallsk Mis sion," from the fact that many of the missionaries were educated iu Halle, by the friends of the old Pietists' Mission. In 1714 the Royal College of Missions was opened in Copenhagen for the train ing of missionaries for its own work; but the mis sion was still so distinctively German that it never became popular, and the death of Fred erick Schwartz in 1798, who for nearly fifty years had beeu devoted to it, put an end to its prosperity. It was not long before the rational istic tendencies of the Kings College so hampered the work that it was decided that the mission in Tranquebar should be given up. In 1825 the king declined to send any more money, and or dered work to be done only where there was a' good prospect of success. By the year 1843 the English had gained control of all the stations, Christopher Kuudsen being the last Danish mis sionary on the field; and iu 1847 the Mission College Government in Copenhagen gave over all their church buildings to the " Leipsiger Mis sion Society." When this Mission College was in its prime it supported not only the " Old Tamil Mission," but "Von Westens Finmark Mission," and the mission of Hans Egede in Greenland. Beside the work of the state church through the Mission College for Heathen Missions, in the last of this century much work was done by Danish missionaries in the service of foreign societies, most of them amoug the Moraviaus. Ten were sent to Surinam, fourteen to Tranque bar, eleven to Labrador, of whom two had been in Greenland; seven to Danish West Indies, nine to English West Indies, one to North Amer ica, three to South Africa, one to the Mosquito coast, one to Australia. Altogether 53 Danish missionaries have been in the Moravian missions. The best known apostle in Greenland was Jans Haveu, who died 1796, at Hernnhut. In 1843 the " Northern Schleswig Mission" was founded to help the Moraviaus iu the Danish West In dies, although later Southern Jylland was sepa rated from Deumark. This Society still has its branches in Jylland, from which it received donations as late as 1888. While the work de clined more aud more iu the Mission College, in this century's first decade a dim light burned in Denmark. One little company of ministers and believers bad gathered together in Fyen, aud like-minded people in Southeast Jylland and Schleswig drew near to the Hernnhut mission at Kristiansfeld, because they found here in this consecrated place that which they had so much missed in their old homes. This society pub lished from 1801-1804 a "Magazine Evangelical for Danish Truth Lovers, " which from 1 805-1806 was published under the name of "Christian Monthly Journal." The Society did nothing for heathen missions, and it went out of exist ence when the "Dauish Mission Society" was formed iu 1821. The mission movement in the beginning of this century began in Eugland, and going ou to Germany gave rise to the mission societies in Basle aud Berlin. It reached Denmark also, and inspired priest Bone Falck Ronne to found the "Danish Mission Society," June 17th, 1821. Its motto was, "Be not fearful: only believe" (Mark 5: 15). This Society seemed to him a necessity, for tbe Mission College was not kind, and the strength of the free workers was very great. In 1823, on a journey to Fyen, Ronne had asked many of the priests to hang up boxes in the parsonage for free gifts to the mission. Bishop Plumb indicted him in the court of chancery, and Ronne was rebuked. The ministers had to take down their boxes, and Ronne was thankful for such slight punishment. The Danish Mission Society began to help the Greenland Mission by books, letters, and donations, but the acts of the Mission College became more oppressive. They denied the mis sion in many ways, and would not allow the missionaries to write to any one else but the col lege about their work. When missionaries announced themselves for the work of the Society they were obliged to be educated in the Moravian Seminary or in the Mission College. The society in self- defence in 1874 founded two seminaries, which were united in 1875. L. Bertelsen, the first con vert, was ordained by a Danish priest. The Danish Missionary Society supported for a lit tle while from 1827 J. W. Cappellen, a Norwe gian, in the Basle Missionary Institution. In 1829 two men, P. P. Jager and Andreas Riis, were sent out from Basle, and in 1832 arrived at Ussu, near Christiansborg, in Danish Akra- land. Jager soon died, but Riis worked for 13 years, first at Akra and later at Akropong, for four years the only missionary at this station. He returned to Norway, where he spent his last days in mission work. His brother's son kept up the mission for three years. When Denmark sold her African pos sessions to England, then the Danish Society went over to the " Grundtvigianers' " hands. The mission work went on independently, and yet not very successfully. In 1842 the min ister L. G. Hass and the seminarist E. M. Kold DANISH MISSIONS 332 DANISH MISSIONS began a mission in Smyrna. They worked among Mohammedans and Jews, and among the Greeks and Armenians. A great deal of money was spent on this mission, but it was giveu up in 1847. In 1848 the society sent out a Swede, candidate Glasell. His poor health pre vented him from ever becoming a missionaiy, and they helped a theological candidate, Wise- iug, who was sent out by an English society in 1827, in whose service two others, Rosen aud Hanberg, had already gone. All three went to South India, and were the first to be sent to the Danish part of Africa, where they worked from 1808-1822, when they decided to work with the Basle Missionary Society. In 1826, by kingly permission, the Danish Society was allowed to send out a missionaiy, and in 1827 he was ordained in Copenhagen. Four Basle missionaries went with them, together with Davuna, the son of a negro chief, who had been baptized in Copenhagen, aud who had helped the distinguished linguist, Professor R. K. Rask, in bis "Guide to the Akra Language," with additions to the " Akvanbuisk," published 1828, at the Society's expense. Three of the Basle missionaries died the year after. In June, 1860, at a meeting held in Nyburg, it was decided that the Danish Society should become the leader in all mission work in Denmark, and that Unions should be formed, and that the bishop should issue a call to the ministers to interest themselves in the matter. Two years later a mission school was founded, and the Danish Mission Society became an independent work. In 1863 a delegate was sent from Germany to inquire if the Danish Mission Society would take the independent mission at Bethanien in Tamilland, which Mis sionary Ocbs had begun, after he had left the Leipsic Society on account of a difference be tween himself and the missionaries on the question of caste. Ochs was at that time in Europe, and came to Denmark, when the Dan ish Missionary Society promised to help him in India with gifts and workers. This was the beginning of the New Danish Tamil Mission. It began a mission in 1882 among tbe Tamil-speaking Malays in the Sjer- varog Mountains. In 1864 a large number of Danish missionaiy friends interested them selves in other mission work. A Greek Dan ish Missionary Society was founded by Victor Block in 1863; they planned to unite with the Greek Catholic Church, and with this do a work among the Mohammedans. When the Danish Missionaiy Society would not con sider this, they founded the Greek Danish Missionary Society, and Otto Larger was sent out as missionary. In 1867 Pastor Block went with him to Athens, and the next year the mission was given up. In 1872 the first schol ars of the Danish Missionary Society, Loven- thal and H. Jensen, went to Vellur in India. They worked together till 1874, when Jensen went inlo the Danish Missionar}' Society's service, Loventhal carrying on an independent mission. Danish Missionary Society. Head quarters, North Olslu, Denmark. Founded June 17th, 1821, by Bone Falck Ronne. Motto, " Be not fearful: only believe." It is a church society of all the Dauish church people, and is conducted by a bome committee, with head quarters at Gladsaxe Sjolland. A. V. Holme, President. Its own particular work is among tbe Tamils in India, but it works harmoniously with other missions. Its own missionaries are all ordained, and those who have been on mission ground for three years direct the affairs of tbe Society on the mission field. A yearly report must be sent to the home committee in Denmark. They have now ten members, and a conference was held in 1887. This Society has on its list Danish Greenland Mission, Danish Malay Mission, New Danish Tamil Mission, Northern Santal Mission. It has also assisted the Loventhal Mission. Greenland Mission. — Founded in 1721 by Hans Egede, now supported by the Danish Missiouaiy Society. Egede's family were from Sjaland, in Denmark, but he was born in Nor way. At the age of twenty-one he was a minister in Vaagen. His brother-in-law had in 1677 made a journey to Greenland, and his report of the degradation of the inhabitants in tbe southern part, who were entirely cut off from the privileges of the gospel by the diffi culties of travel, touched Egede's heart, who considered himself related to them by a com mon ancestry. The salvation of these people became his only ambition, and for 13 years he prayed and planned, keeping his desire to him self, until the publication of a pamphlet, 1710, written by himself, entitled " A Proposition for Greenland's Conversion and Enlightenment." This he sent to the Bishops of Bergen and Trondhjem. A storm of opposition rose against him among his friends aud relatives, and for an instant, overcome by the prayers and tears of his wife, be repented of his plans and the steps he had taken. "God saved him in this hour of temptation by His word, Matthew 10: 37, aud he became a prisoner to God's will," " His distinguished wife soon came to the same mind and stood heroic by his side." ln the year 1717 he laid down his work in Norway, and with his wife and four children went to Ber gen and from thereto Copenhagen, 1719, to lay before the king and the Mission College " God's business, which now had become his life's busi ness." With the help of 18,000 k. from his friends and 600 k. of his own money, he started for Greenland with a few colonists in the ship "Haabet" (Hope), May 3d, 1721. The voyage lasted over eight weeks, and they were in great danger Of beiug wrecked. They landed, aud he built his house with the help of the natives, and preached his first sermon in Greenland from Psalm 117. He was three years learning the language. The second year he founded the colony Good Hope. His first assistant was Albert Tap, and from 1725 his eldest son, Paul Egede, now IS years old, was his greatest helper. New Year's Day, 1725, the first con vert, Fred. Christian, was baptized, who later became a Greenland teacher. On tbe accession of Christian VI. to the throne the protection afforded by Frederick IV. was withdrawn, and Egede was deprived of his salary of 600 kroners, which had been granted him by the king. Tbe colony and his colleagues left Egede almost alone in this desert. He appealed to the king, who so far relented as to send 2,000 rix dollars for the support of the mission. But now, to add to his misery, the small-pox broke out, and Fred. Christian was among the first to fall. After the epidemic, of 200 families only three were left. The strain upon health and spirits was too severe, and he returned to Denmark to DANISH MISSIONS 333 DANISH MISSIONS work there for the people he so loved. Just be fore leaving, his brave wife died; and taking her body with him, he and his son Nils and two daughters bade farewell to the land that for 15 years had been so full of trouble to him. Through his influence the king founded a semi nary for the education of teachers and mission aries, and Egede was appointed superintendent. In 1740 he was made Missionary College direc tor for all the work in Greenland. This caused him much suffering, for they were not particular enough in choosing missionaries, and the work languished. The lack of concord between Egede and the Missionary College increasing, he retired to his own quiet home. He died in the merchant city Stubbekjoping, on November 15th, 1758. His son Paul Egede succeeded him as director in the seminary. The result of the work in succeeding years was that all Greenland became Christian, al though the people in many cases still cling to their old customs. The Danish Missionaiy So ciety continues its interest in and superintend ence of the work, having one missionary with several native assistants in their employ. New Tamil Mission.— Founded in 1861 by Missionary Ochs, in the southern part of the Presidency of Madras, among the Indian Tamil- speaking people. Headquarters in Copenhagen, aud sustained by the Danish Missionary Society. Work, chiefly evangelistic. Has 4 stations, 3 churches, 2 schools. After the caste difficulties with the Leipzig Society, Missionary Ochs visited Denmark, and made an agreement with the Danish Mission ary Society for aid in the New Dauish Tamil Mission. He then went to Pattambakam, and founded a station at Bethanien, two Danish miles from the coast. In 1869 Anderson was sent to his assistance, and a station was es tablished south of the river Ponar, not far from the village of Tukulur, called Siloam, with a mission house and a school building which was turned into a church. Anderson labored here for 12 years, when he gave up on account of his health. In 1882 Missionary Ihle became mission director. The people were then suffering from famine, and their hearts were opened to the truth by the care of the mis sionaries for their temporal wants. Many were baptized. At this time the Baptists decided to give up their mission, and the Danish Mission bought of them the school at Tiruvanammalai, four and one half Danish miles from Tiruko- valur. In 1886 a church was built in Sengal- modu, " Johannes Church," and about the same time a church was consecrated in Siloam, and two native ministers were ordained — Ma- thems and Tesudasen. The missionaries suf fered many trials, and not the least of them was the ignorance of some of the native teachers, who did much harm. Missionaiy Ihle suffered so much from the climate that he was obliged to return home, and Missionary Anderson took his place. la 1887 Herman Jensen began work in the villages of Arcot, Ranipet, and Sallasapet. These three villages contain 100,000 inhabitants. Jansen worked principally in Ranipet. He combined with his street preaching the practice of medicine, and at one time bad the valuable assistance of Missionary Ihle. He, however, be came so ill he had to suspend his labors, and on going to Madras with his wife after his recov ery he worked there. Jensen arrived there just at the time of the caste troubles among the five working classes — the goldsmiths, copper smiths, ironsmiths, carpenters, and masons He visited in these Hindoo homes, and his influence was very great. He received great assistance from John Lazarus, a native Christian, the fourth generation in his family. His father had been in the London Missionary Society's service. He went through a four years' course in the University of Madras in the higher Tamil, and is celebrated among all tbe missionaries in Ma dras. Jensen and Lazarus preached in the streets daily, and although Jensen went home to Denmark, Lazarus still went on with the preaching, most of which was done at night. Missionaiy Phillips of the London Society is the only other one who has done tbis. The mission work in Blacktown being almost entirely school work, the mission friends felt that a church was much needed. They tried to raise money, but it was a hard struggle until the English Government finally gave the Dan ish mission land and 15,000 kroners to help them. This move has given the mission more popularity in Madras. Madras has a station called .Fonnere, north of the city, and the village Gumidinpundi, two Danish miles from the coast and five miles north from Madras, has been chosen for a new station, and a catechist has been sent there (O. J. Devaneson), to work under the direction of the missionaries. Two native assistants, Solomon aud Visvasam are engaged in street preaching. They were educated in the American Missionary Seminary in Madura, and speak the Tamil and the Telugu languages. Two Biblewomen have begun work among the women also. In 1888, N. P. Hansen, from Jylland, Denmark, left his work there and went with his family to Madura to do mission work. They were accompanied by two dea conesses, who went to work among the women in Madras. In 1888 two houses were purchased for the missionaries. Malay Mission. Founded 1883, by the Dan ish Missionary Society, to Malays in India in the Sjervaroj Mountains, and among the Kullier people who work on the coffee plantations. The Danish missionary Kofoed was sent out to India in 1881, and in 1882 commenced a mission at Jerked. In 1886 he moved to Assampur, where he built a school. At the three stations Assampur, Mulivi, and Kilijur there are meet ing-houses. In 1888 the small-pox so depopulated the country that the mission was given up. Loventhal's Mission. Headquarters, Vium, Denmark. Founded 1872 by Loventhal and H. Jensen (Copenhagen); work evangel istic and independent. The headquarters of its committee of direction is at Vium, near Viborg. President, A. S. Lund. The committee has nine members (all men of the Grundvigsk belief), with three head directors. The pripripal com mittee has many smaller committees connected with it for raising funds. The foundation of the Society is Baptism; its motto, "Be born again;" and it is a mission to the common people. The directors simply raise money, and do not give advice nor instruction to the mis sionaries, who work independently. Loventhal and Jensen went out to India in 1872, and founded a station at Vellur (see review Danish Missions), 20 Danish miles by rail southwest from Madras. Loventhal's desire is to have the hea- DANISH MISSIONS 334 DANISH MISSIONS then retain their manners and customs as much as possible. He has no schools, and travels from place to place. He has 3 Hindu assistants, ordained by Jensen in 1880. His principal aim is to baptize the natives, whom he accepts if they seem honest in their desire to believe as the missionaries do. Out of 100 Hindus and 8 Par iahs he has baptized, only 20 remain true to the Christian life. Red Karen Mission (founded 1884) to the Red Karens at Pobja. An independent mission, in charge of L. Schreuder of the Askof High School. Has no committee of direction. Sustained by private subscriptions and funds from the Grundvigsk Society. ' Hans Paulsen (a farmer) had a dream which inspired him to become a missionaiy, and turned his attention to a mission among the Red Karens. He interested a friend, Hans G. Jensen, and after completing their education they were helped by their friends and the Grundvigsk Society. They went out in 1884 to Rangoon, India, and spent some time in study. A home was built at Uahdo. When H. Paulsen could make himself under stood, he went in 1886 to a small city of the Red Karens, Pobja, and was allowed to work there. His mission soon came to a close, for he died in the same year. Jensen suffered very much from the climate, but remained. He was not successful in learning the language well enough to preach in it, but he was able to talk to the people. In 1866 J. K. Knudsen, the son of a carpen ter, born in Holstebro and educated in America, came to his assistance from Denmark to Toungu. About this time Andrea Gehlart, a woman doc tor, was sent out to care for Missionary Jensen. It was his earnest desire to go back to Pobja, and she started with him, but he died on the journey. She buried him, and then returned to Toungu, where Knudsen was, and worked in an orphan home, in Rangun. In 1888 R. Mad- sen, a Dane, went out and joined Knudsen at Pobja. They were both soon very ill, and Mad- sen went home to Denmark; Knudsen stayed at Toungu. The outlook for this mission is now (1888) very dark. The American Baptists have sent a native Red Karen to found a school at Pobja. Northern Santal Mission. — Northern Santal Mission is under the direction of Mission aries Boresen and Skrefsrud, as president and treasurer. The mission receives its income through committees in Europe — an English committee in London ancl Liverpool; for Scot land, in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dundee. In Norway, besides one central committee in Chris tiana (with B. Pauss as president), smaller com mittees in Lillehammer, Skien, Drainmen, Aren- dal, Kristianssand, Bergen, Trondhjem, and TromsO. Sweden has committees in Stockholm (president, Pastor Leuwgren), Upsala (president, Professor Rudin), Goleborg (Pastor Wieselgren, president). They receive help from Denmark through the Danish Mission Society. The Dan ish Missions president is Paslor V. Birkedal; the Copenhagen president is Count A. Moltke. There are several smaller unions and some wom en's unions that work for the Santal Mission. The most important of these smaller ones are: NOragers' Mission Union (under Count Moltke, of Norager), Rosenvold Mission Uuion (under Count Rantzau, of Rosenvold). The head treas urer for Denmark is theological candidate V. Jacobson, in Copenhagen. (See also Indian Home Mission to the Santals). The founder of this mission was Boresen, whose father was a Norwegian carpenter. B0- reson was born in Denmark. In 1852 he went to Berlin to work in a lace factory. Here he was very lonely, because he could not understand the German language. While reading his Bible the parable of the Prodigal Son touched his heart; he was at once convicted of his own sins, and prayed to God for forgiveness. After some years spent in preparation he applied to the Gossner Society to be sent to the Kols in North India. He was accepted, and went in Novem ber, 1864. Before Skrefsrud became a mis sionary he was imprisoned for some offence, and while in Christiania he read of the Missionaiy Fjellstadt. His interest was awakened, and he applied for admission to the mission school, but could not get in. He went to Berlin, and there met BOreson, who proved a friend to him. He went to the Gossner Mission School, and was sent out to the new station Perulia. Boresen and Skrefsrud went out with lhe understanding that they were to work at the same station, but on the death of Gossner they were to be sepa rated. They would not consent to this, and left the Society's service to found a mission for themselves in Santalia in 1867, where they joined a Baptist missionaiy who bad been work ing on his own account since 1869. This was the first station, Ebenezer, and the chief one up to this time. A Norwegian named Bucholdt began to think of the mission work after reading an ac count of John Williams of the South Sea Islands, and entering the seminary at Skeens he became a teacher. Skrefsrud visited Norway in 1874, when Bucholdt met him and returned with him to Santalia, and worked in the girls' school in Ebenezer. He was ordained in 1888, and is now director for the station Shandarpur. Pastor Berg, the son of a Norwegian minister, went with Skrefsrud to Santalistan in 1883. Extension of the Northern Santal Mis sion, begun in 1867. The first baptism took place in 1869. About this time the head chief of the Santals began to oppose the missions. He was taken prisoner by the English, and his followers thought this a punishment from the Christians' God. Martheopargana soon after this became a Christian, with many of his people. A school for boys and girls was founded at Ebenezer. In 1880 the Colon}' of Assam was begun. The Santals were so poor and the country so densely populated, that the missionaries set about to im prove tbe coudition of lhe people. Skrefsrud took seven Santals with him to explore the country. Assam was decided upon, and the conseut of the English Government was ob tained, the land given, and the colonists re moved to Assam, a fruitful country, where the mission has flourished. Seven villages were built under one government, and a native priest, Siram, is working there among his own peo ple. . Five Santals have been ordained, and they translate and compose hymns in the language. BOreson has the direction of both Santalistan and Assam. Skrefsrud is the leader in the liter ary work, in school-books, religious history, and language. For two years a committee was at work in publishing Santal literature. In 1887 Skrefsrud visited the Mech people, who DANISH MISSIONS 335 DARLING, DAVID are the aborigines of the country, and have their own language. They live north from Assam, near the Himalaya Mountains. The Santals from Assam have begun mission work among them, and Skrefsrud has four Mech boys in his school in Ebenezer, one from Raj-Bungri, a race east from Assam. The first convert, Teklo, is now working among his own people, with two Santals, Singrai and M uka. Their headquarters are in% Mechlands village, Radsjadhab'u, 16 miles northwest from Assam. Here they have a meeting-house.Danish Mission School. — This school was founded near Copenhagen in June, 1862, with six scholars, under the direction of Dr. Rordan. Its course was to be six years, but the first two scholars, Andersen and Thompson, weut, after studying three' years in the Danish school, to India to complete their studies under Missionary Ochs, where the theo logical department was under Bishop H. V. Styhr. Very soon dissensions arose in the school, and the result was that the scholars went away and the school was closed. Of these scholars two — Lowenthal and H. Jensen — began their own missiou. H. K. Paulsen went to Radsjamundri; I. A. Pedersen, the year af ter, was sent out in the Society's service. One of them gave up and went to America. H. E. Smith went to Radsjamundri. After the clos ing of the school tbe scholars were educated in private in Copenhagen, where they gained knowledge but not training to fit them for their work. Iu October, 1887, three scholars were educated in a private home under Pastor H. Ussing iu Aaihus. After their course is finished the scholars go to the king's minis ter, and by kingly permission are examined in a written aud oral examination by two theo logical professors and two Copenhagen minis ters. Those wbo are fitted are ordained by the kingdom's bishop. The others are sent out un- ordained, and after studying some time in India they may be ordained by the Conference bishop. Danish Version. — The Danish belongs to the Teutonic branch of the Aryan language- family, and is used in Denmark, whose popu lation in 1888 was 2,130,000. Hvidtfeld (died 1609) states in his " Danmarks Kronike," that in different monasteries translations of the Old Testament, especially of the Prophels and the Psalms, were to be found. Such a translation, containing the first twelve books of the Old Testament, made after the Vulgate, is found in a manuscript of the year 1470. From this manuscript the principal books were edited by Prof. Christian Molbech, Copenhagen, 1828. The first Danish version of the New Testa ment, translated by Hans Mikkelsen of Malmo, and executed under the patronage and at the command of King Christian II. , was published at Leipsic in 1524. The first translation of the Psalms appeared at Rostock in 1528; the trans lator was Frans Wormordsen, lector at Malmo. An improved version of the New Testament appeared in 1529 at Antwerpen, made by Chris ten Pedersen. A second edition followed in 1531, besides a new translation of the Psalms. The Danish Teformer Hans Tausen (died 1561 as Bishop of Ribe) translated the Pentateuch, which was pub lished at Magdeburg, 1535, 1536, and 1537; and P. Tidemand published the Book of Ruth in 1539. In 1550 the whole Bible was issued in Danish, at the instance of Christian III., at Copenhagen, under the care of Christen Peder sen, aided by other learned professors. This version closely followed Luther's. A reprint was made in 1589. In 1604 King Christian IV. appointed Bishop Hans Povelsen Resen (died 1638) to prepare a version according to the original texts. The New Testament was pub lished in 1605, and the entire Bible in 1607. A. revised edition was issued by Bishop Svaning, Resen junior, and P. Wintrup in 1647. The College of Missions established at Copen hagen issued several editions of Svaning's text, 1717, 1718, 1722, and 1728. After the mission press had been destroyed by fire in 1728 and the Orphan House had obtained the exclusive privilege of printing the Danish Bible, several editions were issued between 1735 and 1745. A new translation of tbe New Testament was published in 1780, and another by O. H. Guld- berg, minister of the State, in 1794. In 1815 a commission of revisal was appointed, and in 1819 the New Testament was published at Copenhagen, Bishop Hunter and Professors P. S. Miiller, J. Mailer, B. Thorlatius, aud Rev. J. P. Mynster having made the revision. In 1872 the revised Old Testament, as prepared by C. Rothe, Kalkar, Martenseu, and Hermansen, . was published, which was adopted by the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society, with the excep tion of a few of the marginal expositions, which appeared to savor too much of the nature of comments. Of other translations we mention an edition of the entire Danish Bible by J. Chr. Lindberg, 1837-56 ; by Profs. Hermansen, Fr. Helveg, C. Levinsen and Dr. Kalkar, 1847. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British and Foreign Bible Society circulated 997,350 portions of the Scriptures. imen verse. John 3 : 16.) Sty faa Oauer ©ub elffet SSerBen, at $an &aoer gibe! (in San ben eenbaarne, baa bet at l)Ber ben, fom tree baa 6am, We ffat fortabc6, men Ijaoe et reigt Sib. Dapoli, a town of Bombay, on the Bhima River, Western India, 85 miles southeast of Bombay city, 5 miles from the sea. One of the healthiest places in India. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary, 12 native helpers, 8 schools, 221 scholars. Darfur, a country of the Soudan. (See Africa.) Darjeeling (Darjiling), a town of Ben gal, North India, 360 miles from Calcutta by rail. It is a hill station (7,000 feet) and sani tarium, which is rapidly becoming very popu lar. Population, 7,018, consisting of Nepalis, Lepcbas, and Bhutias, each speaking its own language, and Plain-men, speaking Bengali, Hindu, and Hindustani. Condition of people good. Mission station of the Established Church of Scotland (1870); 2 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife, 2 other ladies, 18 native helpers, 13 out-stations, 4 churches, 189 mem bers, 21 schools, 904 scholars. Darling-, David, b. 1790 ; sent by the Lon don Missionary Society to the South Seas in 1816. Stationed at Eimeo and Tahiti, making various missionaiy tours from Bunaania. In 1834 he went to Marquesas to commence a mission oa those islands, returning the next year to Tahiti. He assisted in translating the Scriptures into the DARLING, DAVID DEMERARA Marquesan language. Returning from a visit to England 1852, he made his home in Tahiti till 1859, when he retired from active service and settled at Sydney, where he died December 6th, 1867. David, Christian, b. in Moravia, early in the 18th century, his father a Bohemian, his mother a German. Of himself he says: "I was quite a zealot for the Roman Church. So super stitious was I, that if an old woman crossed me in the early morning, or a hare ran across the path, I deemed myself unlucky. Great indeed was the darkness which lay upon me till it pleased God in His mercy to direct me, poor, blind, and miserable, into the right way." Finding- little sympathy among Lutherans of the National Church, and being unsafe from the Jesuits, after various wanderings he went to Gorlitz, where he was much strengthened by intercourse with "Rev. Mr. Schafer and other children of God." He now "felt stirred" to visit his native land, which he did twice, preach ing "repentance and faith in the Lord Jesus." Persecution followed, and the Brethren solicited him to find some place for them where they might dwell. Returning to Gorlitz, he for the first time met Count Zinzendorf, who on hearing bis statement said to him: "If you will come to me, I will give you a place to dwell in ; money I have not, for I too have hitherto been an exile. With what I had I have purchased an estate, and if it is agreeable, you may come in God's name and settle there. If you are seeking God, I shall be glad to receive you." Of this Zinzen dorf writes: "Christian David was so intent on the Moravian emigration, that, when engaged in wainscoting the saloon of my house at Berthels- dorf in 1723, and had about finished his work, he left his tools, and set off, without hat, a journey of nearly 200 miles, to Moravia, to lead back emigrants. He made eleven or twelve journeys in all, and though often in the most imminent danger from the officers of justice who rode in search of him, he was passed by or preserved from them in the most wonderful manner." The removal to Berth elsdorf began in 1722 with ten persous, and within seven years 300 others had joined the little company, and built the town called Herrnhut. In 1733 Christian David ac companied the first Moravian missionaries to Greenland. After various journeys in the service of the church and another voyage to Greenland, he in 1748 accompanied the great missionaiy colony to Pennsylvania. In August, 1749, after revisiting Greenland, he made another visit to America, and assisted in building the chapel- house at Nazareth, Penn. He died at Herrnhut, 1750. Day, Samuel Stearns, b. Ontario, Canada, May 13th, 1808; graduated Hamilton Literary and Theological Institute ; sailed as a missionary of theAmericau Baptist Missionary Union lo the Telugus, India, September 20lh, 1835. lie was stationed first at Vizagapatam, then at Chicacole, and in 1837 at Madras, ln Madras he spent three years preaching in Telugu and English, and organized an English church, of which he was the pastor. Having made several tours into the Telugu country, he fixed upon Nellore as the most suitable place for n mission, and in 1840 removed thither with his family. His health failing, he returned home in 1845. Find ing the executive committee on his arrival dis cussing the propriety of abandoning the mission, he earnestly protested against giving up that field. The committee decided to await further indications of Providence, and his health being partially restored he returned in 1848 to Nellore. His health again failing, he returned in 1853 to the United States. For two or three years he was an agent for the Society in Canada. After years of great physical suffering, he died Septem ber 17th, 1871, at Homer, N. Y. Mr. Day was the founder of the Telugu Mission. Amid many discouragements and obstacles he continued to labor, in firm faith that the gospel would triumph in that heathen land. Dehra, Dehra-Dun District, Northwest Provinces, India, 47 miles east of Saharanpur. Prettily situated in a mountain valley more than 2,300 ft. above the sea. Population, 18,959, Hindus, Moslems, Jains, Christians, etc. Mis sion station of the Church Missionary Society; 1 missionaiy and wife, 1 school, 101 scholars. Presbyterian Church North ; 1 missionaiy and wife, 3 other ladies, 19 native helpers, 1 school, 83 church-members. Delaware Version. — The Delaware, which belongs to the Algonquin branch of American languages, is spoken by the Delaware tribe of Indians. The Rev. Christian F. Dencke, a Moravian missionary, stationed at New Fair field in Upper Canada, translated the Epistles of John, which he forwarded in 1818 to the Ameri can Bible Society, by which they were published shortly afterwards. (Specimen verse. 1 John 2: 2.) Woak neeama guliechtagunenanall 'karat; tauchsowoagannenanall, taku kiluna neehoha; schuk ulaha wemi elgigunkihaki omattauchso- woaganowa^Uectftohepannlv Delhi, a town of Punjab, North India, 113 miles from Agra, 954 from Calcutta. Noted for its wonderful old palaces and magnificent old buildings, in some respects the most beautiful and curious in the world. No city in India has finer thoroughfares than Delhi; most of its houses are of brick, well built, and substantial. Popu lation, 173,393. Mission station ofthe Baptist Missionaiy Society ; 4 missionaries, 2 native helpers, 2 out-stations, 52 school-children, 486 church-members. S. P. G. and Cambridge Mission (1853); 9 missionaries, 9 ladies, 93 native helpers, 1 church, 163 communicants, 29 schools, 1,251 schoolars, and, since 1877, a flourishing college, which exercises a considerable literary influence among the higher classes. Evening service is held in open air in front of the school- houses, and is very well attended, especially by women of the lower classes. As Delhi was the former residence of the Great Mogul, many Turks, Afghans, and Mongols have settled here, and life among the upper classes has a decidedly Mohammedan character. The rich and distin guished Hindu ladies live secluded in their Zena nas, but Zenana missionaries are generally well received. The neighboring village, Rampur, inhabited by weavers, is entirely Chrislian. Dcmcrara, a river aud settlement in British Guiana (q.v.). A mission field of the London Missionaiy Society ; 1 station, Ebenezer (q.v.), and 3 out-stations, having 5 native preachers, 196 church-members, 2 Sunday-schools, 255 Sabbath-scholars, 200 day-scholars. In 1878 the Moravian Brethren commenced work among DEMERARA 337 DERVISH the emigrants from the Barbadoes, as a branch of the Barbadian Mission, and with stations at Graham's Hall and Beterverwaehtung; 2 native missionaries, 341 communicants, 2 schools, 179 scholars, 2 Sunday-schools, 237 scholars. Deoband, a town in the Mussorie district, Bengal, East India, not far from Lahore. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal ChurchjpNorth; 1 missionary, 1 single lady, 3 church-members, 1 school, 34 scholars. Deoli, a town in Rajputana, Northwest Provinces, India, 70 miles southeast of Ajmere. Climate tropical. Population, 3,000, including Rijputs, low-caste Hindus, and Minas. Lan guages, Hindi, Merwari. Religion, Hinduism. An enterprising place, with a brisk trade. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1871); 1 missionary and wife, 3 native helpers, 1 out-station, 1 church, 17 members, 8 schools, 275 scholars. Depoh, a village 20 miles south of Batavia, Java, East Indies. It was Christianized in 1714, and was the seat of a Dutch Missionaiy Society (JNederl. Zeuding.) station from 1834 to 1852. In 1878 the Rhenish Missionary Society established a seminary here for the education of native teachers. Dera Ghazi Khan, a town in the Pun jab, North India, near the Sulaiman Hills. It contains many mosques, a fine bazaar. The popu lation of 22,309 consists of Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs, Christians. Mission station of the C. M. S., which is trying to reach the Hill Beluchees, a nomadic race living in rustic sim plicity, who roam the hills. The Gospel of Matthew is the only portion of the Bible so far translated into Beluchee. It has 1 missionary, 1 native pastor, 10 communicants, 1 school, 57 scholars. Dera Ismail Khan, a town of the Punjab, North India, 4£ miles west of the Indus River, 200 miles west of Lahore, 120 miles north of Multan. A well-planned town, with houses of modern construction, but very badly drained. It contains few buildings of interest, but is one of the most aristocratic towns in Punjab, with a large number of resident native noblemen. Population, 22,164, Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs, Jains, etc. Mission station of the C. M. S. ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 schools, 322 scholars, 1 native pastor, 17 communicants, 1 high-school, 300 scholars, 1 day-school, 49 pupils. Dervish, a Mohammedan mystic. Etymo- logically the word signifies a mendicant, one who begs from door to door, and may be understood literally, or in a figurative sense as implying that the dervish is a suppliant at the door of God's mercy. A Turkish proverb says, "The Christian's lazy man becomes a monk, the Mus lim's a dervish." (Kristianin lenbeli keshish olour, Mu&ulmaninki, dervish). But the class of men comprised in the widest application of the word dervish are rarely mendicants and never monks. They prefer to call themselves Ehli Tesavvuj, or followers of Theosophy or Sufism. In theory, tbe orders of dervishes number twelve, all of which claim to have derived their doctrine and practice from four orders reputed to have been instituted by the four Caliphs who were companions of Mohammed, from whom they are supposed to have derived the ' ' mystery. " But in fact there are many more than twelve orders, and there is no evidence of the existence of mystics among Muslims before the 9th cen tury. The present system of Mohammedan mysticism appears to have arisen about the 11th and 12th centuries, when the most eminent dervish teachers flourished in Eastern Persia and Bokhara. Among the more prominent of the orders of the dervishes now known are the Mevlevi (whirling dervishes), the Rufayi (howling der vishes), the Nakshbendi (seers of lights and visions), the Bektashi, the Kadiri, the Khal- veti, the Sbazili, the Kalenderi (mendicants), etc. All who belong to any of the orders are known in common parlance as Sufis, or pious people. The various dervish orders differ from one another in method of development and in the interpretation of the terms of mysticism, and their doctrines range from the most extravagant , Pantheism and Gnosticism to the quieter mysti cism of the Christians of the middle ages. The theories which underlie the whole dervish system are in outline as follows: The soul emanates from God and must return to Him. Men commonly suppose that the return of the soul to God occurs after death, but to certain ones has been revealed the "mystery " that, in spite of the opposition of the world and the flesh, there is a " way " by which the soul may return to God while yet in the body. By follow ing the " way " the soul is blessed with manifes tations of the perfections of God, and, becom ing insensible to earthly things, in an ecstasy of delight it attains to union with God; this ec static condition becoming at length the normal condition of life, its subject becoming intoxicated with God ancl seeing God in all things. The saint (veh) who has attained this condition of unbroken union with God is believed to be used as a channel for the exercise of the Divine power, shown in the healing of the sick, the foretelling of events, the exchange of thought with those at a distance, etc. These miraculous exhibitions of power do not depend on the will of the man through whom they are exhibited; hence they continue after the death of the saint, and reward those who have recourse to his grave. Both before and after death such saints are believed to have a place in the Divine system by which mundane affairs are controlled, which is a regu lar hierarchy of governors, of whom one or two are placed in a position resembling the Gnostic Demiurges, with power only less than infinite. For this reason the deceased saints of the der vish orders are always addressed in prayer by their followers. The method by which union with God is to be attained is differently taught in the different orders, but the principle substantially followed by all divides the process into three exercises: (a) The purification of the mind from earthly thoughts and desires; (b) The concentration of the mind upon the being of God or His attri butes; (c) The repeated recitation of the names of God. In some of the orders the purification is sought by penances and ascetic austerities; this is especially the case in tbe Arabian orders. In other orders repentance for sin and prayers to God are relied upon to fill the mind with such a desire for spiritual things as will supplant earthly desires. The zikr or recitation of the name of God is silent in some orders, but be comes a wild shout in others. Thus the Whir! ing Dervishes as they spin round, and the DERVISH 338 DINDIGUL Howling Dervishes as they shout in frenzied tones, are alike engaged in the zikr, which is supposed to bring them into ecstatic union with God at those public services to which travellers in oriental countries flock as to one of the "sights " of the place. The zikr is assisted by certain mechanical exercises, such as the hold ing of the breath, doubling back the tongue on the roof of the mouth, etc. Some of the orders use drugs or even spirituous liquors as an aid to religious fervor. The organization of the Dervish orders is a purely voluntary association, guarded in some orders by secret signs and passwords. For the convenience of assembly a chapel or Telcke is built in some suitable place, and endowed by legacies of rich men. To this place all Muslims may resort for worship. Here may reside such members of the order as have a vocation to do so, for such time as they choose. In the Tekke they are under the absolute rule of the «lder or Sheikh, who represents in that place the Pir or founder of the order. No member is forced to live in the Tekke, and all may have their families near at hand if they choose. All the members are " brothers " (Ikhvan-. ) The specific method in use is the "way" (Tarikal). The man who inclines to walk in the way is a novice or " seeker " (Murid), and after he has learned to escape the bonds of the flesh he be comes a "walker" (Salik). Any Salik of long experience may be a Murshid or instructor of novices, and is eligible to the office of Sheikh, or director of a Tekke; this office is often heredi tary. The Mohammedanism of the Koran, being ¦essentially a religion of outward observances, teeps the eyes of its followers fixed upon the minute deeds of self, and has little for spiritual natures. The dervish system appears as an exotic addition to the doctrines of the Koran, with the object of giving to Muslims a satisfac tion for spiritual aspirations which they must otherwise lack. The regular religious doctors and theologians of Islam frown upon the der vishes. But tens of thousands of Muslims seek spiritual content in the dervish orders, trying one after another of the systems, and still ever groping after the "way" and the "perfect _guide " who shall give them rest to their souls. The literature- of the Dervishes is a rich field for research, comprising the finest poetical works of the Persian and Turkish authors. Jellafuddin, the author of the Mesnevi, was a Mevlevi dervish, as was Saadi. Jami was a Nakshbendi. The modern works of the better class of dervishes contain much that is spiritual and lofty and inspiring. Devon (or Pas), a town in Canada. A C. M. S. mission station in the Saskatchewan dis trict, Northwest America; 170 church-members, 2 schools, 56 scholars. Dharwar, a town of Bombay, India, 288 miles southeast of Bombay city. Population, 27,191, Hindoos, Moslems, Jains, Christians, Parsis, etc. Mission station of the Basle Mis sionary Society; 3 missionaries, 2 missionaries' wives, 14 native helpers, 90 communicants. Diarbekir, a city of Eastern Turkey, on tbe Tigris, the ancient Amida, and called by the Turks Kara (black) Amida, on account of the walls, which being built of black basalt, have a peculiarly forbidding aspect. The pop ulation (40,000) is composed of Turks, Aime- nians, Syrians, Koords, etc. Being the capital of the province and the centre for trade, it has always been an important place, and was for many years the seat of the British military consul for Koordistau. Mission work was commenced early in the history of the Turkey missions, but it was confined for many years chiefly to passing visits of missionaries to Mesopotamia (see Ar menia and A. B. C. F. M.). When fully occupied as a station the work progressed rapidly, and a strong, self-supporting church was formed among the Armenians. Work is also carried on among the Syrians or Jacobites of the city and the surrounding villages, conducted by the missionaries from Mardin. Dibble, Sheldon, b. Skaneateles, N. Y., U.S.A., January 26th, 1809; graduated Hamil ton College 1827, Auburn Theological Semi nary 1830; ordained Utica, October 6th, 1830. Sailed the same year with the fourth company of missionaries to the Hawaiian Islands. He was stationed at Hilo till 1836, when, on account of ill-health, he was assigned to the Seminary at Lahainaluna, on Maui. Mrs. Dibble died February 20th, 1837. In November of that year he sailed for America, where he made an ex tended tour, delivering lectures upon the isl ands and the missionary work. An abstract of these was published, entitled "Hawaiian His tory" (New York, 1839). He returned with his second wife in 1839. Mr. Dibble was " among the foremost of the mission educators." He translated part of the Old Testament, prepared eight text books on grammar, natural history, and Scripture history in the Hawaiian language; and wrote a " History of the Sandwich Islands Mission" (New York, 1839) and a "History of the Sandwich Islands" (Lahainaluna, 1843). He died at Lahainaluna, Hawaiian Islands, June 22d, 1845. Dikele Version.— The Dikele or Kele be longs to the Bantu family of African languages, and is used in the region of the river Gabun. A translation of the Gospel of John, prepared by the Rev. Albert Bushnell of the Presbyterian Gaboon Mission, was published at New York by the American Bible Society iu 1879. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Nadiambilindl Anyambie a midinh pSnzhe nyi na thadinh that! tha tha ye miy6 Miana ngwfii ngwadikika, na mutyi jeshe ngwa y6 bundlie a tyi magwa, nji a be' na thaki' th" adukwa jeshe. Dinajpur (Dinajpore), a town of Bengal, East India. 210 miles north of Calcutta. There are no temples, and but one mosque in the place. Population, 12,560, Moslems, Hindus, etc. Mission station of the Baptist Missionary Society; 2 missionaries, 8 out-stations, with 130 communicants. Dinapur, a town in Bengal, East India, on the Ganges. Population of town aud can tonment, 37,893, Hindus, Moslems, Christians, etc._ Mission stetion of the Baptist Missionary Society; 1 missionary, 7 native helpers, 218 school-children. 8 church-members. S. P. G.; 1 school, 25 pupils. Dindigul, a town in Madura, Madras, South India, 30 miles northwest of Madura. Con- DINDIGUL 339 DOBRUDJA nected by railroad with the chief towns of the Presidency. Population, 14,182, Hindus, Mos lems, Christians. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M.; 1 missionaiy and wife, 3 churches, a medical mission, school, and semi nary. Djimma, a town in Abyssinia, Africa, and station of the Swedish Evangelical National Association. Doane, Edward Topping-, b. Tomp- kiusville, Staten Island, N. Y., U. S. A., May 30th, 1820; graduated at Illinois College, Jack sonville, 111., 1848; Union Theological Seminary 1852; ordained 1854, and embarked June 4th, the same year, a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for Micronesia, arriving February 6th, 1855. Though circumstances made it necessary for him to be transferred temporarily to the Mar shall Islands and to Japan, yet the people of Ponape, where he was stationed, had his heart, and to them he returned and for them labored with unwearied gentleness and courage, and with cheeriug success. In 1887, when the Span ish forces occupied the island, Mr. Doane was seized, put in the hold of a vessel, aud sent as a prisoner to the Philippine Islands. The na tives were so roused by this unwarrantable act, tbat, being without Mr. Doane's influence to restrain them, they rose and took the life of the Governor. Through the efforts of Julius Voigt, the United States Consul at Manila, he was liberated by the Spanish Govern ment, and was returned with apologies to his station. His influence throughout the islands was in creased by what had happened. Though bis health declined, he clung to his work till the spring of 1890, when he was conveyed by the "Morning Star" to Honolulu, where in two weeks he quietly breathed his last, at the house of the Rev. Dr. Hyde, on the 15th of May. Tlie evening before he died, too weak to utter many words, he said to Dr. Lowell Smith, "lam trusting in Jesus. " Rev. Luther Gulick, the only survivor of the early company of missionaries on Ponape, except Mr. Bingham, writes: "I was in Ponape when he arrived in 1855, and soon learned to love aud admire him. He was disinterestedly attached to missionary work, and his hopefulness was very marked. He was in many, respects a model missionaiy, cheerful, manly, and sensible." He had been 35 years a missionaiy of tbe American Board. Dober, Leonard, a missionary of the United Brethren to the Danish West Indies. He was a potter by trade. His attention was called to this field through a conversation with a servant of Count Zinzendorf, who came with him to Copenhagen in 1731 to attend the coronation of Christian VI. Anthony stated that he had a sister who desired some one should be sent to instruct them iu the way of sal vation, and had been praying to God to help them. Whoever went to these poor people on the island of St. Thomas must become a laborer to work among them; and Leonard Dober offered himself to be sold as a slave, if neces sary, in order to reach them. It was a year before anything was done. When it was deter mined by lot, Dober was selected, and went to Copenhagen accompanied by Nitschman, who was to go with him to St. Thomas and then return to Herrnhut. The Brethren knew very little at this time of missionaiy under takings, and gave them only these instruc tions: "In all things follow the guidance of the Spirit of Christ." They set out on their journey of 600 miles to Copenhagen, with only their staves iu their hands, aud only six dol lars in their pockets. In all this long way they met many pious people, but no one approved of their undertaking, or gave them the least encouragement, excepting Count Zinzendorf and the Countess of Stallberg. The latter told them that "the adorable Re deemer, in whose cause they were engaged, was worthy that His servants should sacrifice not only their comforts, but their lives, for His sake." They were told at Copenhagen that it would be impossible to get a vessel to go to St. Thomas, and if they succeeded in get ting there no one would permit them to teach the slaves. Even Anthony retracted all he had said in regard to his sister and her com panions. Nothing could shake their determi nation, and their steadfastness of purpose raised up some influential friends for them among the royal family, councillors of state, and two of her majesty's chaplains. They ar rived in St. Thomas, December 13th, 1732, after a voyage of ten weeks. They immediately fouud Anthony's sister, who, with her compan ions, rejoiced to see them. A letter had been written without their knowledge to a wealthy planter named Lorenzen, who kindly received them into his house aud gave Nitschman work at his carpenter's trade, by which he support ed not only himself, but Dober. For four months they worked happily together, when Nitschman had to return to Europe. On his departure Dober was left destitute of any liveli hood, for there was no clay on the island suitable for the making of pottery. He was for a time tutor to the governor's son, but this interfered with his missionary work among the negroes, and he asked to be dismissed. He then Went to Tappus, a small village, where he lived in great poverty. In 1733 a famine and riots, whieh lasted six months, made his work almost impossible. The only cheering thing was the news that helpers were coming from Eng land. They arrived the 11th of June, and two months later Dober returned to Europe, to fill the office of superintending elder in the con gregation at Herrnhut. Dobrudja, the portion of the BalkanPenin- sula on the right side of the Danube, extending from Silistria and Varna lo lhe mouth of that river, offering the most accessible military route from the north to Constantinople. The country is flat, containing several large swamps and lakes on the coast. Some parts are very fertile, and produce good crops of grain; others are covered with grasses. The herbage dries up early in summer, and flocks of sheep and herds of buffaloes go to the borders of the Danube for pasture. Population consists of from 16,000 to 20, 000 families of Bulgarians, Tartars, Cossacks, Turkomans, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, who support themselves by the raising of cattle and bees, by the manufacture of salt, and by fisher- ips. The most important towns are Tultcha, Kustenji, Baba Dagh, and Hirsova. The Rus sians commenced in this district their operations against Turkey in 1828, and again in 1854, when they gained an important advantage by securing Matchin, one of the towns of Dobrudja. It was restored to Turkey by the treaty of peace in DOBRUDJA 340 DRUSES 1856. Some missionary work is done by the Methodist Episcopal Church North, and the British and Foreign Bible Society send colpor teurs to tbe different cities. Dodd, Edward Mills, b. Bloomfield, N. - J.,U. S. A., June22d, 1824; graduated at Prince ton College 1844; graduated at Union Theologi cal Seminary, New Vork, 1848; sailed in 1849 for Smyrna as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M., to the Jews at Salonica. His health having failed in three years, he returned to the United States; but on its recovery he again sailed for Smyrna in 1855, where, having learned the Turkish language, he labored for eight years among the Armenians. The Jewish mission was given up. In 1863 he was transferred to Marsovan, with special reference to his taking charge of the girls' school. His sudden death from cholera occurred two months after the school was opened, on August 20th, 1865. "His first missionary language was tbe He brew-Spanish, of which he had a fine command, and he was still able to use it. When trans ferred to the Armenian work, he learned the Turkish, which he used with more than ordinary correctness. He devoted considerable attention to Turkish hymnology, and contributed more largely to the collection of Turkish hymns now in use than any other person." Dogri Version. — The Dogri, a dialect of the Punjabi, belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan language-family, and is used by a people inhabiting the mountainous or northern districts of Lahore. The late Dr. Carey, assisted by some pundits, prepared a translation of the New Testament into this dialect, which was published at Serampore in 1824, but never reprinted. Dohnavur, a town and district in Tinne velly, India, giving name to a church council of the South India Mission of the Church Mis sionary Society, founded in 1827 by a special gift of Count Dohna. It includes 70 villages, 6 churches, 565 communicants, 35 schools, 789 scholars. Dole, Daniel, b. Bloomfield (now Skow- hegan), Maine, U. S. A., September 9th, 1808; graduated Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1836; Bangor Theological Seminary 1839; sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M., November 14th, 1840, for Honolulu. On bis arrival he was appointed principal of the Punahon school, and when the school was incorporated as Oahu College, he became the president, which posi tion he held till 1855. He then removed to Koloa, still continuing his labors as a teacher, in which capacity he wasvery successful. " He will be remembered," says the Honolulu "Friend," "not only as a teacher, but as a preacher in Honolulu, Koloa, and other parts of the islands. He was a pure-minded, thoughtful, scholarly, devout Christian missionary." He died at Koloa, Kauai, August 26th, 1878. Domasi, atown of Eastern Equatorial Africa, on or near the east shore of Lake Nyassa, not far from Blantyre. Mission slalion of the Estab lished Church of Scotland (188-1) ; 3 missionaries, 1 physician. 3 church members, 140 scholars. Dom burg-, an important government plan tation, lyiDg on the western bank of the Suri nam river, in Surinam, South America, about twelve miles above Paramaribo. At and near the village there is a population of about 1,200 persons connected with the Moravian Church, and many heathen in the surrounding districts, but hitherto no place of worship. A large church is now in process of construction. Doiningia, a town of Rio Pongas, western coast of Africa, at the junction of the Rungalong and Fallelan rivers. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Dominica, one of the British Leeward Islands, West Indies. Area, 291 square miles; population, 29,500, of whom the majority are Roman Catholics. Previous to 1759 it belonged to France. Sugar, fruit, cocoa, and timber are the chief products. Mission station of the Wesleyan Methodists; 651 church-members. Dondo, on the Coanza River, west coast of Africa, 180 miles from its mouth, is a noted trading centre, at the head of steamboat naviga tion. Population, 5,000, mostly negroes. It is a station of the Bishop Taylor's Mission (q.v.), where property worth $5,000 has been secured, and much hard preparatory work has been done. Three missionary heroines are buried there. Doty, Elihu, b. 1812; graduated at Rut gers College 1835, and the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, N. J., U. S. A., 1836; was ordained the same year as a missionaiy to the heathen. He was a member of the first mission sent by the Reformed Dutch Church and the A. B. C. F. M. to Java, where he labored from 1836 to 1840, when he was transferred to Borneo, and labored among the Dyaks till 1844. Thence he was removed to China, and was con nected with the Amoy Mission till his death. Mrs. Doty died October 5th, 1845. Mr. Doty left Amoy for America, November 12th, 1845, with his two motherless children and the two of Mr. Pohlman, arriving at New York, March 6th, 1846. He returned to Amoy with his second wife, August 19th, 1847. He left China for home in 1865, and died at sea in March, four days before the arrival of the ship at New York. "Mr. Doty was an excellent Chinese scholar and preacher; an indefatigable, courageous, self-denying laborer; a man of singular frank ness; and was closely identified with the mission at Amoy from its origin." DoAvlaishvaram, South India, a town in the Godaveri district, Madras, 32 miles by the shortest canal from Cocanada, and 4 miles south of Rajahmundiy. Population (1881), 8,002, Hindus, a few Moslems, and Christians. When first built the town was a place of much impor tance; at present it is a permanent station of the district engineering staff, and the government workshops here turn out much work for the Public Works Department. The town is con nected with Madras and with several points on the coast, by numerous navigable canals. Mis sion station of the Evangelical Lutheran Gen eral Council; 1 missionaiy, 52 communicants; 1 boys' school, 46 scholars; 1 girls' school, 26 scholars. Druses, a peculiar race and sect living in North Syria, among the slopes of Mount Leba non and Anti-Lebanon. There are also some settlements in the Hauran and a colony at Safed, Palestine. They are found as far north as Bey- rout, as far south as Tyre, and as far east as Da mascus. About 120 towns and villages are occu- DRUSES 341 DUFF, ALEXANDER pied exclusively by them, and together with the Maronites iq.v.) they compose the population of over 200 more. They are estimated at 65,000 men. Deir-el-Kamar, about 15 miles southeast of Beyrout, is their chief town. The origin and ethnographical affinity of the Druses is by no meaus settled. The most cred ible theory is that they have sprung partly from the Culhites, by whom the devastated cities of Samarii#Were repeopled under the rule of Esar- haddon; partly from the warlike Mardis, who were brought to Lebanon in the time of Con stantine; and partly from the Arabs, who have made so many incursions in this region; with, perhaps, a little of the blood of the Crusaders mingled with this Mohammedan ancestry. Whatever their origin, their nationality is dis tinct from the close of the tenth century. They speak Arabic as correctly as the people of Mecca; they possess a knowledge of the Chinese Empire, with which their own traditions connect them ; and they exhibit a refinement in conversation and manners, an appreciation of education, es pecially that of women, which is in striking con trast to the olher Syrian races with which they are surrounded. Hakim Biamr Allah, Caliph of Egypt, who began to reign 996 a.d., is the reputed author of their peculiar religion. Twenty-five years of tyranny wild and terrible leave little doubt of his insanity, under the influence of which he claimed to hold direct intercourse with the Deity, and proclaimed himself the Incarnation of God. His claims were made known in a mosque at Cairo by one Darazi, but they were received with such bitter hostility that Darazi fled to the mountains of Lebanon, where he taught the new faith, and the word Druse is supposed by some to be derived from this first apostle. Hamze, the vizier of Hakim, is regarded as the real founder of the sect, for he formulated the creed, and succeeded in gathering together a large body of adherents. The Druses believe in one and only one God, who is without form or substance, incomprehen sible, without attributes, but before whom man is dumb and blind. Ten times has this God re vealed himself in human form, and Hakim was the tenth and the last. A fixed number of human beings exist which can neither be added to nor subtracted from, and all who are living now have lived before, and will continue to live in other forms until the end of the world. At the death of one man the soul occupies a new body, and will be of noble or base rank corre sponding to the deeds done in the life before. After myriads of years, when the soul has been purified from every stain, there will come a time of total rest. The Druses do not acknowledge the claims of any other religions, but they coun tenance an outward profession of any religion whenever it may be expedient,and unite with the Mohammedan in his prayers and washings with the same indifference with which they sprinkle holy-water in the Maronite churches. This ap parent apostasy is due to the fact that no converts are desired or permitted, and the faithful are enjoined to keep their religion sacred and con cealed, if necessary. Seven commandments of Hamze take the place of the seven great points of Islam. These are: 1st. Truth in words (only between Druses); 2d. Care for the safety of each other; 3d. Renunciation of all other religions; 4th. Separation from all who are in error; 5th. Recognition of the unity of "Hakim, our Lord;" 6th. Complete resignation to his will; 7th. Obedi ence to his orders. They do not pray, for prayer is an impertinent interference with the Creator. There is none of the fatalism of Islam, however, for they recognize tbe freedom of the human will. A special class, called Akals, are distin guished from the rest of the Druses by their deeper attainments in the mysteries of the creed. The Akals are supposed to be of exceptional sanctity, or ability. Polygamy is not permitted, but divorce is freely allowed. About the year i860 a dissension sprang up between the Druses and the Maronites, which culminated in the atrocious barbarities that called the attention of all Europe to these warring races. Punishment was inflicted upon them by the French troops, and the commissioners of France and Turkey drew up a new constitution, signed in 1864, under which the Lebanon is ruled by a Christian gov ernor appointed by the Porte, and since that time the Druses have peaceably tilled the soil, raising mulberries, olives, and vines, and manu factured silk. Dualla Version.— The Dualla, which be longs to the Bantu family of African languages, is spoken in the Cameroons. The Rev. A. Saker, of the Baptist Missionary Society, translated the Gospels and the Acts, which were published by the Baptist Translation Society in 1868; parts of the Old Testament by the same translator were published iu 1870 by the British and Foreign Bible Society. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Loba lo bo wasi ndulo, na a boll mpom mau jmo Jluna, na motu na motu nyi-.dube tenge na mo', a' si manyami,- .'ndi a ma bene longe la bwindiaa Dudhi (Singrowli), a town in Northwest Provinces, India, about 100 miles directly south of Benares. Has a native pastor and church among the agricultural population, under the care of the London Missionary Society. Duff, a town of Northeast Kaffraria, South Africa, northeast of Cunningham. Mission sta tion of the Free Church of Scotland ; 1 mission ary, 6 out-stations, 1 church, 142 communi cants, 6 schools, 310 scholars. Duff, Alexander, b. April 25th, 1806, in Perthshire, Scotland. He entered the univer sity of St. Andrews at the age of fifteen, and studied under the celebrated Chalmers. The Church of Scotland having awakened to the duty of sending the gospel to the heathen, Dr. Duff was appointed its first missionary, and embarked at the age of 23, October, 1829, for India. During his voyage he was wrecked twice, first on a reef of rock while rounding the Cape of Good Hope, again on the coast of Cey lon, and barely escaped a third near the mouths of the Ganges. In the first wreck he and his wife lost everything, including his library, plans of operation, and many valuable manu scripts. He reached Calcutta after a voyage of eight months. One of the chief objects he had in view in going to India was the establishment of a Collegiate Institute which should confer the highest education on native youth. His school was to be conducted on two great principles, first, that the Christian Scriptures should be read in every class able to read them, and to be used as the entire foundation and pervading salt DUFF, ALEXANDER 342 DULLES, JOHN WELSH of the school ; second, that as the vernaculars of India could not supply the medium for all the requisite instruction, the sciences of the west should be taught through the English language. This was against the opinion of the government, all learned Orientalists, and the most experienced missionaries in Bengal, that it should be in Sanskrit. With the assistance of Rammohun Roy, who entered fully into Dr. Duff's views, the school was opened July 12lb, 1830, under a banian-tree, with five young men, but was soon removed to a commodious build ing. Tbe instruction was in English, and the Bible held a chief place. Before the end of the first week there were more than 300 applicants. Of these 250 were received. At the end of the first year a public examination, attended by a large number of Europeans and natives of high rank, gave great satisfaction. The next year the number of applicants was more than trebled. In 1839 Dr. Duff wrote: " The five who entered the first day have since swollen to an average attendance of 800. The Governor-General, Lord Bentinck, considered the ablest and most enlightened Governor-General India has pos sessed, did homage to it by publicly proclaiming in the face of all India that it had produced unparalleled results." The number of pupils was soon increased to a thousand. Among the first converts were two from the educated and influential class. One was Babu Krishna Baner- jea, a Brahman of high social position, editor of a newspaper, afterwards a minister of the English Church, and a distinguished professor in Bishop's College, Calcutta. His influence on natives of all classes, especially the educated, has always been great. The other was Gopee- nath Nundi, who afterwards became a mission ary in connection with the American Presby terian Mission in the Northwest Provinces, and in the time of the Sepoy mutiny, when threat ened with death, nobly testified for Christ. In 1834 Dr. Duff returned home in ill-health. On its restoration he made a tour through Scot land, and greatly increased the interest in the missionary cause by his thrilling appeals and the report of his successful work. The degree of doctor of divinity was at this time conferred upon him by the University of Aberdeen. He re turned to India in 1839. At the disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843 he cast in his lot with the Free Church, abandoning his beloved and prosperous institution, its valuable library and apparatus, and for twenty years conducted missionary work tinder that body. He built, a new institution from the foundation, and equipped it as well as the old had been. The influence of his work continued to increase. Interesting conversions took place. In 1846, on the death of Dr. Chalmers, he was offered the office of principal and professor of theology in the Free Church ( 'ollege in Scotland, and though urged by Presbyteries, Synods, aud General Assembly, to sacrifice his own predilec tions and accept, he declined, begging them to "allow him to relain, in the view of all men, the clearly marked and distinguishing character of a missionary to the heathen." In 1850 he again returned home to work for the missionaiy cause, and sought to arouse the Free Church to more earnest efforts for India. In 1851 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly. In 1854, under tlie auspices of Mr. George H. Stuart, he visited the United States, where, as also in Canada, he addressed thousands on the missionaiy work in India. The University of New York honored him with the degree of LL.D. Returning to India in 1857, he opened his school for high-caste girls in the house of a Brahman. At the first examination, attended by distinguished native gentlemen, who ex pressed great satisfaction, 62 were on the roll. In 1864, his health having utterly failed, he took a final leave of India. He received on his de parture from Calcutta from all classes of the community, native and European, heathen and Christian, emphatic testimony to the great value of his services rendered for nearly thirty- five years in India. During the fourteen years spent in Scotland he urged with great eloquence upon the churches their duty to give the gospel to the millions of India. His correspondence was extensive, many letters being to native con verts and Hindu students. He had the chief management of the foreign work of the Free Church. In 1873 he was again elected modera tor of the Assembly. In 1867 he was appointed professor of evangelistic theology in the col lege of the Free Church, which office he held for eleven years. He died at Sidmouth, Devon shire, February 12th, 1878, aged 72. He has been well described as "a man of dauntless will, consummate eloquence, impassioned piety, great self-reliance." His published works are: ' ' New Era of the English Language and Lilerature" (1837); "Missions the Chief End of the Christian Church" (1839); "India and Indian Missions" (1839); " The Indian Rebellion, its Causes and Results" (1858). "The Calcutta Review" was mainly established by him. Duke of York's Islands, a group of islands belonging to what, since 1884, has been styled the Bismarck Archipelago, Melanesia. They are visited by Wesleyan Methodists from Fiji and Tonga; 435 church-members. Duke of York's Island Version. — The Duke of York's Island language belongs to the Melanesian family of languages, and is used by the inhabitants of the Duke of York's Islands, south of New Ireland. In 1885 the British and Foreign Bible Society published at Sydney the Gospel of Matthew, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Psalms, prepared under the auspices of the Australian Wesleyan Missionary Society. Duke Town, a town in Old Calabar, on the Bight of Biafra, West Africa, 100 miles from Cameroons and Fernando Po. Climate hot, unhealthy. Population, 10,000. Language, Efik, into which both the Old Testament and the New have been translated. Religion, fe tichism. Social condition degraded; slavery still exists. A great obstacle to mission work is the existence and workings of a secret, order among the natives called Egbo. The character of the people is similar to that of the natives of Creektown (q.v.). The missionaries have the confidence of the chiefs, and the schools are well attended. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland; 1 ordained missionaiy and his wife, 2 European colpor teurs, 1 single lady, 3 native helpers, 1 church, 93 church-members, 3 day-schools. Dulles, John Welsh, b. Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., November 4th, 1823; graduated at Yale College with high honor in 1844, and at. Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1847; married Harriet Winslow, daughter of Rev. Dr. Miron Winslow; ordained October DULLES, JOHN WELSH 343 DUTCH EAST INDIES 2d, 1848; sailed as a missionaiy of the A. B. C. F. M. the same year for Madras. He was sta tioned at Royapoorum, having charge of the church and schools. In 1850 he made a tour with Rev. Henry Scudder through a part of Southern India with a view of establishing an out-station to the Madras mission, and on their advice Arcot was selected, and afterwards be came the field of the Arcot mission. Mr. Dulles was welPfitted by talents, education, acquisition of the language, and genial manners for the missionaiy work. But his own ill-health and that of his wife compelled them to relinquish the field, and they returned in 1852. For three years after his return he served the American Sunday-school Union as Secretary of Missions. He then became editor of the ' ' American Presby terian." In 1856 he was appointed Editorial Secretary of the Publishing Committee of the Board of Publication in the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, appointed to the same position in the reunited church in 1870, and on the resignation of Dr. Schenck in 1885 was elected General Secretary of the Board. In 1854 he wrote "Life in India,", which was published by the American Sunday-school Union, and has had a large sale. In 1872 the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by Princeton College. In 1880 he visited Pales tine, and on his return wrote " The Ride through Palestine," an instructive and inter esting book. Dr. Dulles died at his home in Philadelphia, April 13th, 1887. Duma, a town on the northern peninsula of Ternate, one of the Moluccas, East Indies; a station of the Utrecht Missionaiy Society (1866), with 160 baptized members among the natives. Dumagudiem, a town in Madras, South India, on the Godaveri River, 15 miles above Bhadrachalam, 116 miles north of Rajamuudry. Population, 2,121. chiefly Kois. Mission station of the Church Missionary Society; 1 missionary and wife, 7 schools, 121 scholars. A converted native, Razu, has labored with great success in the adjacent villages of Nisano, where he has formed a congregation of over 400 members, of which he takes pastoral care. The Gospel ac cording to Luke and 1 John have been translated into Koi. Durban, chief town of Natal, East South Africa, 3 miles from its harbor on Port Natal Bay, 45 miles east-southeast of Pietermaritz- burg. It contains several public buildings of importance, and has a large trade. Population, 5,581. Mission station of S. P. G. ; 1 mission ary. The Wesleyans have also labored here with great success among the imported coolies, to whom they preach in Hindustani and Tamil. Durbhanga, India, a town in the Behar district, Bengal, on the state railway, 44 miles north of Bark. It is a thriving place, though built on low and almost swampy ground, and has fine public buildings. Mission station of Gossner Missionaiy Society (Germany). Dutch Version. — The Dutch belonging to the Teutonic branch of the Aryan language- family, is spoken not only in Holland, with its 4,390,857 inhabitants, but also in the Dutch col onics, in the colony of Cape of Good Hope, etc. The first complete edition of the Scriptures in Dutch was published at Antwerp in 1526, by Jacob van Liesvelt. Several successive editions followed. At last the printer was condemned and beheaded because in one of the editions he ventured to say that " the salvation of mankind proceeds from Christ alone." Liesvelt's Bible was supplanted by a new translation of the New Testament published at Embden by John van Utenhove in 1556, and by his Old Testament published in 1562. In 1587 Paul Harkius pub lished a Bible according to the Geneva version; and an edition with the notes of Tremellius, Junius, Beza, and Piscator was issued at Am sterdam and Arnheim in 1614. As all these edi tions were more or less a version of a version, the need for a translation made directly from the sacred originals was felt more and more, till at last the necessary steps were taken by the Synod of Dort (1618-19) to procure a transla tion which was made from the original texts. The commission appointed by the Synod for that work commenced the translation at Leyden. in 1626, and in 1637 the first edition of the so- called States-General version was published. For the Lutherans of Holland, Ad. Vischer published in 1648 a new translation according to Luther's version, which is still in use. For the Remonstrants, Chr. Hartsocker published in 1680 an edition of the New Testament, professedly made from the Greek. G. Vissering provided the Mennonites with a New Testament with notes, which was published at Magdeburg in 1554, again in 1854. The Jansenists were fur nished with a translation by A. van der Schueren, 1618, and ^Egid de Witt, 1717. The New Testament was also published by C. Cats, 1701; van Hamelsveld, 1789; and van der Palm, 1818. A revised edition of the authorized version, made in accordance with the orthographical system of Prof. Siegenberk, was published in 1834, but was not adopted in later editions, which were published with a modernized orthography. The versions circulated by the British and For eign Bible Society are tbe States-General, Luth er's, and Schnur's New Testament. The Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society disposed, up to March 31st, 1889, of 2,046,515 portions of the Scriptures, besides 5,o0o copies of the Dutch- English New Testament. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Want alzoo lief heeft God de wereld gehad, dat hi} I zijnen s eeniggeboren' J Zoon $ gegeven heeft, opdat een iegelijk*, die*in bem gelooft,, niet verderve,* maar net eeuwige Ieven hebbe. Dutch East Indies is the name given to the territory in Asia under the sovereignty of the Netherlands. The East India Company created by the Dutch in 1602 conquered the ter ritory and ruled it for nearly two centuries, but since 1798 the Compan}"- has ceased to exist, and the mother-country rules the possessions which are situated between 6° north and 11° south lat itude, and between 95° and 141° east longitude, comprising Java, Madura, island of Sumatra, Rian-Lingga Archipelago, Banca, Borneo, Ce lebes, Moluccas, Timor Archipelago, Bali, Lom- bok, and New Guinea, to 141° east latitude, with a tota? area of 719,674 square miles, and a popu lation of 28,906,172, of whom 21,716,177 are natives, 225,573 are Chinese, 15,463 Arabs, and 50,792 Europeans, mostly Dutch or of Dutch descent. Religious instruction is given by both the Roman Catholic and Reformed Church. In DUTCH EAST INDIES 344 DUTCH REFORMED MISS. SOO. 1886 there were in Java and Madura 11,229 Christians among the natives and foreign Orien tals, and in the remaining islands 225,375. In 1887 there were in Netherlands India 67 mis sionaries of various societies. Dutch Missionary Society. Headquar ters, Rotterdam, Holland. — The Dutch Mission ary Society was organized in 1858, at Rotter dam, Holland, and began its work in Western Java, among the Sundanese. The first mission aries sent out, in 1863, were soon followed by others. The prevailing religion of the Sunda -districts, as well as of the other portions of Java, is Mohammedan, and the missionaries, as is the case with all who labor among Mohammedans. meet with much opposition. At first their labors seemed almost hopeless, but before long they were encouraged by seeing many of the Sunda nese receive Christianity. The work is carried -on at present from 8 chief stations and 10 sub stations, the 7 European missionaries being as sisted by 24 native Christians. At some of the .stations there are schools. Since the foundation of the Society the entire Bible has been trans lated by one of its missionaries into the vernac ular; a grammar and dictionary, stories from the New Testament, a confession, arithmetics, readers, and some volumes of a lighter kind have also been published in Sundanese. The income of the Society is now between £3,000 and £4,000. In its general outlines experience of all the Dutch societies is very similar: they labor against many discouragements, and with little appearance of success. Nevertheless they persevere, hoping that they may yet see that their work has not been in vain. Dutcli Reformed Missionary So ciety. Headquarters, Rotterdam, Holland. — The Dutch Reformed Missionary Society was founded at Amsterdam in 1859, by the Rev. Dr. Schwartz, missionary of the Free Church of Scotland to the Jews in that city. The original intention was to form a society for the propagation of the gospel among the Jews liv ing among the heathen and Mohammedans in the Dutch (Indian) colonies, aud through them to reach the heathen and Mohammedans. The government, however, out of deference to the Jews in Holland, refused to recognize the pro posed Society, and it was resolved to commence work amoug the heathen and Mohammedans in the island of Java. Additional cause for this resolve lay in the fact that the old Nether lands Missionary Society (q.v.) had become rationalistic in spirit and and action, their mis sionaries being decided rationalists, who al lowed the so-called advanced "modern" teach ing in their mission schools and churches. A number of the supporters of tills Society had withdrawn from it about 30 years before/form ing the " Utrecht Mission Society" and the "Netherlands Mission Society," neither of which, however, though founded on orthodox principles, accepted the confession of the Dutch Reformed churches, and tho new Sociely was therefore formed to act in conformity with the recognized standards of these churches. The required legal recognition was procured in 1860. The Society acts upon the principle that the churches, and not societies, should propagate the gospel iu heathen and Mohammedan lands, and preach it to the Jews, and that pri vate individuals should engage in mission work only when the church neglects its duty and privilege; and one of the fundamental rules of the Society is to give up its work as soon as the churches of Holland will take it up. The policy of the Society is not so much to establish sta- tions as to plant churches. Being Presbyterians themselves, the missionaries prefer that these shall be Presbyterian churches, holding by the same principle as the mother-church. These principles, however, are not enforced; but the Heidelberg Catechism, translated iuto Javanese, is given to the native Christians, and churches are gradually formed according to Presbyterian lines. During the years 1878-84 the Society passed through a great straggle in financial and other matters, but since 1884 it has greatly increased in strength, contributions have come in freely, a heavy debt has been paid off, and in every way its life has revived. The present Secretary of State for the Colonies, Mr. L. C. W. Keuch- enius, and his brother at Batavia, have for many years furthered to their utmost the cause of Christ among the Javans and Malays in Dutch India; and in May, 1888, the former published a document, stating that the Dutch Government would value it highly if the mission societies in the Netherlauds would put forth their utmost efforts to increase the number of missionaries in Dutch India, and to counteract the influence of Islam among the heathen in the Indian Archi pelago. Thus the doors to missionaiy efforts have been thrown open through the length and breadth of Dutch India. Missions. — The field of the Society's labors is Central Java, and the principal station is Poer- woredjo, where there is a flourishing church, and connected with it a training-school for native evangelists, teachers, and preachers. Buildings have lately been erected with accom modations for sixty pupils, besides homes for European and Javan teachers. The institution bears the name of "Keuchenius School," in honor of the Secretary of State. Two mission aries labor here, and a third is stationed at Ban- joemas, where there are a church and school in fair condition. Within the last few years a most remarkable movement has taken place in Djocjakarta, which is still under the rule of a sultan, who is, however, a vassal of the Dutch Government. Until the proclamation above mentioned, no missionary was allowed to preach the gospel to the natives, or be in anj- way en gaged in missionary work, without a special gov ernment license, which was ouly granted for a particular residency opened for the mission work by resolution of the governor-general in council. - Djocjakarta was not so "opened," and no missionaiy was allowed to preach the gospel there. Notwithstanding, the gospel found its way in. A Javan official of highrank was converted lo Christianity and baptized (in Poerworedjo), and after that the truth spread from desa to desa, so that in 1888 there were 8 native churches, with a membership of over 1,000. The Christians suffered some persecu tion from the Mohammedan rulers and people uutil the Dutch Government interfered, and until the whole country was opened were obliged to go to Poerworedjo for the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper. Now all this is changed, and the prospects for mission ary work are very cheering. The mission has now 53 churches, with a membership of 5.000 in the four residencies: Tegal (1860); Pekalon- gan (1860); Banjoemas (1865); and Bagelen DUTCH REFORMED MISS. SOC. 345 DYER, SAMUEL (1869); and Djocjakarta. Within the past year a medical mission has been opened in connec tion with the Society, under the charge of a missionaiy physician from the Medical Mission Institute in London. Annual income of So ciety about £1,400. Dwarahat, a town in the Northwest Prov inces, India, in the Kumaon district, not far from Pithoragarh and Naini-Tal. Mission sta tion of the Methodist Episcopal Church North; 1 missionary and wife, 19 native helpers, 22 church-members, 2 churches, 4 schools, 180 scholars. Dwight, Rev. H. G. O., D.D., son of Seth Dwight and Hannah Strong Dwight, b. at Conway, Mass., U. S. A., November 22d, 1803, but reared at Utica, N. Y. Graduated at Ham ilton College 1825, and at Andover Theological Seminary 1828. Appointed missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. while yet in the seminary, and spent a year in an agency of the Board among the churches. Ordained at'Great Barrington, Mass., July, 1829, and shortly afterwards married Miss Elizabeth Barker of Haverhill, Mass. Sailed from Boston for Malta in 1830. With Rev. Eli Smith he explored the northern parts of Asiatic Turkey, the southern part of the Cau casus, and the western parts of Persia, from May, 1830, to May, 1831. This tour of ex ploration, which was performed on horseback from Constantinople, the two missionaries being dressed for the sake of safety in the Turkish robes and turban, prepared the way for the missions of the A. B. C. F. M. among the Ar menians of Turkey and the Nestorians of Persia. In 1831 Dr. Dwight was associated with Rev. William Goodell in the establishment of the mission at Constantinople. He studied the Ar menian language, and was soon on the most friendly terms with the Patriarch and leading men of the Armenian Church. In 1837 his wife and one of his sons died of the plague, and in 1838 he returned to the United States to recu perate after his terrible experience. In 1840 he married Miss Mary Lane of Sturbridge, Mass. , and returned to Constantinople. His ceaseless activity brought him impaired health, and in 1848 he was obliged again to go to the United States for treatment and rest. In 1851 he was back again in his field of labor. In 1860 his home was again broken up by the death of his wife; and in 1861 he made an extended tour through the regions which he had explored with Dr. Smith thirty years before. In the autumn of the same year he went to the United States, full to overflowing with the story of the wonder ful changes of which he had seen the fruits in his long tour. While occupied in telling this story to the churches, he had occasion to journey by rail through Vermont, and was killed by a railroad accident near Shaftesbury, January 25th, 1862. The department of labor in which Dr. Dwight was chiefly engaged was the direct expounding of the gospel to assembled hearers or to indi viduals whom he sought out in their houses or shops. In the performance of this hand-to- hand work, which he loved, he was tireless, not only going about the city continually, but mak ing extended tours along the coasts of the Sea of Marmora or in the neighboring regions of Bithynia, Thrace, and Macedonia. He also gave much time to the preparation of books and tracts in Armenian, and occasionally to the edi torial care of the weekly newspaper published by the mission in Armenian. His correspondence was voluminous, including in its sphere men of all ranks in Turkey, in Europe, and in England and Scotland, and it all centred about tbe one idea of the development and support of the great work of reform to which his life was de voted. During the persecutions which followed the adoption of evangelical views by some of the Armenians, Dr. Dwight took a leading part in the publication of details of the persecutions, in order to bring aid to the sufferers from abroad, ancl was energetic in the steps taken to secure the intervention of the British Govern ment in behalf of religious liberty in Turkey, with the ultimate result of the recognition, by the Sultan, of Protestantism as one of the toler ated creeds of the empire. In personal character Dr. Dwight was of marked spirituality. His conversation and his letters alike showed him to be eminently a man of God. His executive ability was very great, and was consecrated entirely to the interests of the cause to which he had given himself so wholly. He was remarkable for his sound judgment, particularly in times of perplexity or danger, and possessed an unfailing tact and courtesy in dealing with men. These traits made him a leader in the councils of the mis sion, gave him very great influence among the native communities, to whom his name is prec ious, and endeared him to the hearts of many in different parts of Europe and America. The published works of Dr. Dwight are: "A Memoir of Mrs. E. B. Dwight," 1840; " Christi anity Revived lu the East," 1850; and a revised edition of the same, called " Christianity in Turkey," published in London in 1854. He also furnished part of the material used in "Re searches of Smith and Dwight iu Armenia," 1833. He was a contributor to the "Journal of the American Oriental Society," furnishing such articles as " A Catalogue of Armenian Lit erature in the Middle Ages," "Notes on the Armenian Names in the Vicinity of Mount Ararat, " etc. He was also a frequent writer for the periodical press both in England and in America. Dyak Version. — The Dyak (also Dajak) belongs to the Malaysian language, and is spoken by the people of Borneo. A New Tes tament, translated by Mr. Aug. Hardiland of the Rhenish Missionary Society, was published at Singapore in 1846. A new and revised edi tion was published at Borneo in 1858. The Old Testament, also translated by Mr. Hardiland, was published by the Rhenish Missionary Society at Amsterdam in 1858, and in the same year also the Netherlands Bible Society published the whole Bible in Mr. Hardiland's version. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Krana kalot'a -kapaham Hatalla djari sinta kalunen, sampei ia djari menenga- Anake luja tonggal, nakara gene-genep olo, idjii pertjaja huang_ ia, -ala binasa, baja mina pambelomj awang katatahi. Dyer, Samuel, b. January 20th, 1804, at Greenwich, England; educated at Gosport, and Missionaiy College, Hoxton; sailed, April 11th, 1827, a missionary of L. M. S., for Malacca, but went to Penang, where he remained three years. In 1835 he removed permanently to Malacca. His most important work in China was the in- DYER, SAMUEL 346 EAST LONDON INSTITUTE vention of movable metallic type for printing the Chinese Scriptures. He labored under every disadvantage, having only once seen the process of type-founding in England. He per sonally superintended all the work, and the type that he cast were remarkable for their beauty and finish. So great was the improvement over the old Chinese method of printing, that the Bible formerly printed in half a dozen volumes was reduced to one, and the New Testament to less than ninety pages. He also took an active part in the translation and revision of the Chinese Scriptures. While acting as Secretary to the General Convention of Missionaries at Hong Kong in 1843, he was attacked by fever, and died on his way home at Macao. E. East Eondon Institute for Home and Foreign Missions. Headquarters, Harley House, Bow, London, E. History. — The East London Institute was founded in 1872, by Mr. H. Grattan Guinness, with a view to increase the number of mission aries among the heathen and in the darker regions of Christendom, by providing for the education and training of the many young men and women who, while earnestly desirous of engaging in missionary work, have neither the leisure nor the means to acquire this training, nor the ability to go forth at their own charges. This Institution helps to tit such persons for ser vice in heathendom, or in other needy spheres, by offering them freely a course of suitable study and practical training. It then introduces them to the field for which they seem best adapted, and if need be sustains or helps to sustain them in it. It seeks also, and in order to this, the diffusion of information by press and platform as to the world's wants and the Lord's work, so as to deepen in the hearts of Christians at home practical compassion for the heathen, and a sense of responsibility to give them the gospel. Mr. Guinness' project was put into execution in an old fashioned house on Stepney Green, and during the first year 32 students were received. Greater accommodatious were soon required, and a second house was taken, which also proving inadequate, necessitated the renting of a third, while a wing was added to " Harley House." The present college, with accommo dations for 50 male students, was opened in 1879; and a branch college in North Derby shire, with equal facilities, was completed about the same time. There are also in con nection with tbe Institute a " Training Home" for young women, and several Mission Halls. The Institute is broadly catholic in its prin ciples and practice, and is as comprehensive as it is possible to be within the limits of evan gelical truth, training men of all evangelical denominations, all nationalities, and all classes, for all societies, all lands, ancl all spheres of Christian effort. During the sixteen years of its existence more than 3,000 young men have applied to be received at the Institute; of these about 800 have beeu accepted, and 500 are now laboring in either the bome or foreign field. These students have been of various nationali ties; not only English, Scotch, Irish, and Amer ican, but French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Danish, Russian, Bulgarian, Syrian, Egyptian, Kaffir, Negro, Hindu, Parsee, Koor- dish, and Jewish; and also of various denomi nations. The large majority of those who have gone out as missionaries are now connected with about twenty different societies and associations, while a number are working independently as self-sustaining missionaries. Graduates of the Institute may now be found in various parts of the home field, and in China, India, Syria, Armenia, Egypt; in France, Spain, Portugal, Italy; on the east and west coasts of Africa; in Natal and Cape Colony; in Prince Edward's Isle, Cape Breton, Canada, and the Western States of America; in the West Indies, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic; iu Australia and New Zealand, The especial object of the In stitute is to send evangelists to " lhe regions be yond" those already evaugelized. Over 100 students are now in training at the Institute. The entire property of the Institute is vested in a body of trustees. Regularly audited ac counts are published annually. The Institute has few regular subscribers, but is sustained by the free-will offering of Christian friends. The annual expenditure has been for several years about £12,000. The services of the Director and of the Secretary are rendered gratuitously. Extension of Work. — In 1878, through the efforts of Mr. Tilly, Dr. Guinness, and a few others, the Livingstone Inland Mission, of which a sketch will be given later, was founded. In 1880 it was made a branch of the Institute, and was carried on by the Directors until 1884, when it was transferred to the American Bap tist Missionary Union. The policy of the A. B. M. U. is one of concentration and radi ation from a centre; while the idea upon which the L. I. M. was organized was a chain of stations to reach far into the interior. The Union felt that the L. I. M., with its extreme stations 800 miles apart, would give them room enough and to spare for several years to come, and they were unwilling to extend operations beyond the equator. The Directors of the In stitute, on the other baud, were constantly ask ing what of the region beyond, with its tens of millions of people yet to be evangelized ? And at length, iu 1888, thej' resolved to take up the African work again, extending it farther up the Congo and along the tributary rivers. Thus the Congo Bololo Mission was formed to be in perfect harmony with, but independent of, the A. B. M. U. (see Bololo Mission). The latest development of the work of the Institute is the Soudan Pioneer Mission, a result of Dr. Guinness' receut tour in the United States. Missions.— Livingstone Inland Mission. —Even before the great "water-way" to the heart of Africa had been discovered many persons longed to send the gospel into the interior, far beyond the points upon the coasts then occupied. One of the directors of the Baptist Missionary Society, the Rev. A. Tilly of Cardiff, having an intense desire to do something for Central Africa, invited the co-operation of the Directors of the East London Institute in an attempt to send a few evangelists right into the interior. The EAST LONDON INSTITUTE 347 EAST LONDON INSTITUTE sympathy and financial aid of the Messrs. Cory of Cardiff and James Irwine of Liverpool also having been enlisted in the spring of 1877. it was resolved that no time should be lost in sending out voluuteers for an inland mission ; and upon the publication of Mr. Stanley's letters in the autumn of that year it was further decided to attempt an entrance into Africa by the new route, the friends above named forming them selves infB a Committee for the conduct of the enterprise, to which was given the title, The Livingstone Inland Mission. The mission was to be evangelical but undenominational, and it was hoped at first that it might be made self-sup porting; but subsequent experience abundantly proved that the climate of the Congo, at any rate in the cataract region, is such as to preclude the possibility of European self-support. Agri culture is out of the queslion, and the only other means— trade — inevitably obscures the character of a Christian mission, and gives it a most un desirable aspect of self-interest in the eyes of the heathen; therefore the idea of self-support was soon relinquished by the Committee. Funds to start with having been contributed chiefly by the Committee, volunteers for this danger ous pioneer work were furnished by the Insti tute. Mr. Tilly acted as Secr&tary for the first three years, but in 1880 the work had so in creased as to require more time than he could spare from his pastoral duties, and Mr. and Mrs. Guinness were asked to undertake the sole responsibility of the mission, and its support, as a branch of the East London Institute, the Com mittee to resign all share in its management, and act only as an advisory council. Mr. and Mrs. Guinuess assented to this plan, and the mission was thus conducted, Mrs. Guinness being secre tary until its transfer to the A. B. M. U. in 1889. The pioneer of the mission, Mr. Henry Craven, of Liverpool, reached Banana, at the mouth of the Congo, in February, 1878. He was accom panied by a Danish sailor (who afterward proved unfit for the service, and was quickly recalled). A merchant resident at Banana gave them a passage in a trading- vessel to Boma; about 70 miles up the river. Beyond this point the only conveyance was by native canoes; and at Yellala Falls, 100 miles up the river, all navi- fation ceased, and all above it, save for Mr. tanley's letters, was an absolute terra incognita. After a short delay the missionaries purchased a canoe, and made their way to some native settlements on the south side of the rivers Masuka and Nokki. Then began the usual ex periences of all who try to live in Central Africa; but notwithstanding them all, a landing-stage was built at Matadi, at the end of the lower river navigation, and the first permanent station formed at Pala Vala, a town some 1 5 miles in land, built on a plateau 1,600 or 1,700 feet above the sea-level, and in the midst of a con siderable population. The king of the place was friendly, gave land for a house and garden, and countenanced the settlement of the white men. By the beginning of 1879 Mr. Craven had acquired the language sufficiently to be able to preach a little to the people, had translated the commandments for them, and wrote that the truth was beginning to tell upon their hearts Later on, two boys were sent from tbis station to England for training, and are now successful helpers in the mission. In the summer of 1878 Messrs. Telford and Johnson joined Mr. Craven. Within six months the former died of fever, but the vacant place was soon filled by another brave young volun teer. By the end of this year ten missionaries had been sent out, and the third station of the mission planted at Banza Manteka, since the scene of the first great awakening on the Congo. As the missiouaries made their way up the river the obstacles and difficulties increased, and the question of transport became a very serious one. The natives for many reasons could not be re lied upon as carriers, and Kroo-men, only to be obtained by importation from Sierra Leone, were the sole dependence. To hire them, very large supplies of barter goods were needed; con sequently more transport, and hence greater ex pense. Experience had by this time shown that the stations, far from becoming self-supporting, had been too slenderly supplied with resources and helps, and the Committee plainly saw that if the mission was ever to be planted upon the upper river, stronger and better equipped detach ments must be sent out. Much earnest prayer was made that He under whose providence the new world had been opened up would also pro vide the men and means to evangelize it, and in answer to these prayers, and as the result of much hard work, an expedition better organized and better supplied than any previous one left England in March, 1880. Its leader was Adam McCall of Leicester, who had had much experi ence of travel in South and South Central Africa, and was in every respect well qualified for his work. Four other students from the Institute had volunteered to go out under his lead. The party reached the mouth of the Congo in April, and though at first things looked bright, soon began the usual African experience of delays, disappointments, and fevers. The new recruits found that Mr. Kergow, who had come out the previous year, was ill at Matadi; Mr. Richards was laid up with fever at Boma ; and many another circumstance tried faith and patience: but throwing all his cheerful energy into the task, and seconded most heartily by his col leagues, McCall pressed through the initial dif ficulties, and got his party, Kroo-men, donkeys, — brought in the vain hope of making transport easier, — and all up as far as Boma. Here they were met by the heavy tidings that Mr. Petersen, all alone among the heathen, with none to nurse, none to prescribe, to soothe, or to com fort, had died of fever at Banza Manteka. He had been but a little more than a year on the Congo. On the 25th May the party were ready to proceed up the river to its farthest navigable point, just below the Falls of Yellala. The very difficult journey was accomplished, and with a view to the convenience of landing goods and travellers a station was erected at Matadi Minkanda,a rocky point above the M'poso River, and just opposite Vivi. This party had started with the hope of being able to go right on to Slanley Pool in one dry season, but many things detained them, and by the time they reached a place in the territory of Manyanga, called Bemba, the rainy season was fully upon them, the river was tremendously swollen, tornadoes aud storms were frequent, and it was evident that little more could be done that year in the way of advance. While they waited, they learned what they could of the language, made friends with the people, and collected their goods at that point to be ready for a fresh start as soon as the weather permitted, for, notwithstanding all perils and hardships, their determination to EAST LONDON INSTITUTE 348 EAST LONDON INSTITUTE reach tlie interior never faltered. This most in teresting story of this mission can only be glanced at here, and the merest outline of it given; therefore all details showing the heroism of the little band of volunteers must be passed over. The year 1881 was a most important one in the history of the mission at home in London and on the field in Africa. A great step for ward was made possible by the advent of the little steam-launch "Livingstone" in May of that year. With the " Livingstone" arrived four more young volunteers for the work, and a little later another party of five, making twenty-four since the starting of the mission. But, alas ! death had again visited the little party, while the health of several was broken, aud four others had been recalled because of want of fitness for the work ; so the staff, for all the large reinforce ment, was no greater at the end than at tbe be ginning of the year. Among those who returned home on furlough were the first missionary on the Congo, Mr. Craven, and his wife, who had gone out a year later: they brought with them three native children — two lads and a little girl. Mr. Craven's fv : lough was even more useful to the mission thf _i bis presence in Africa, for now he had time to reduce the Fioli language, a branch of the great Bantu family, of which he had gained considerable knowledge, to writing, and to prepare in it Bible stories and read ing-books for tbe children in the schools. As soon as well enough, he set about preparing a small dictionary, and when the native lads could speak English fairly well, Mr. Guinness made use of them to assist him in studying out the grammar of their language; and after many months of careful, persevering study and work with these boys, succeeded in preparing a small elementary grammar, which was of the greatest use to the missionaries, until they could them selves with fuller knowledge prepare a better one. In the mean time the work in Africa passed through many vicissitudes. In January one of the missionaries died, others were very ill of fever, and in February Matadi station was utterly destroyed by a tornado; but to offset these troubles hopeful signs of progress ap peared in the stations of Palabala and Banza Manteka. The new station at Banana was erected during the summer of this year, and Mr. McCall pushed forward with great energy, and amidst great difficulties, the work of the mission; but his health, which had for some time been failing, utterly broke down in the autumn, and he was compelled to leave the country. He was able only to reach Madeira, where he died in November. Iu the same month occurred the death of Mrs. Richards, who bad joined her husband at Banza Manteka in 1880. The fact that five deaths had taken place in the mission within four years caused much serious thought to friends of the mission, some of whom questioned the propriety of continuing it; but, remembering the similar experiences of the Church Missionaiy Society, the London Mis sionary Society, and the Baptist Mission on the Congo, the Directors could find no argument for the abandonment of their work, or the ces sation of effort to evangelize the interior of the Dark Continent. Therefore, the mission was not abandoned; and in May, 1882, a party of six, including a medical missionaiy and two ladies, left London for the Congo. Considerable ad vance was made up the river during this year. Sufficient goods and provisions having been collected at Bemba, three of the missionaries, with a good gang of Kroo-men, went up to Stan ley Pool by the north side of the river, a journey of 160 miles, thirty of which had been cleared by Stanley, who was just now building the station of Leopoldville, on the south shore of the Pool. The road was in places fairly good and easy, in other parts extremely difficult— "like climbing up and down a church tower." On account of its difficulties and the great scarcity of provisions, the north side of the river was definitely abandoned, and two new stations, the sixth and seventh planted by the mission, were founded on the south side of the river, at Mukimbungu, a little out of the direct line to Stanley Pool, and nearer to the river, and Lukunga, about 30 miles far ther on, beyond which point the carriers absolutely refused to go. The burning of Bemba station, and the deaths of three more missionaries were the great calamities of this year. In regard to the latter, the brave men remaining wrote to the Directors: " We are not in the least daunted hy these deaths. Forward is the order, and, wiih God's help, forward we will go !" The fifth year of the missiou, 1883, was more encouraging than any previous one, though not without its sorrows. Dr. Sims had by this time reached the Upper Congo, and had obtained from Mr. Stanley, whom he met on his way up at Manyanga, a piece of land for a station in the new settlement of Leopoldville — which was already becoming a considerable village, the first European settlement on the Upper Congo. To the missionaries it was a place of profound interest, the key of Central Africa, the goal of five jears' arduous labor, the starting-point of a navigable water-way extending for many thou sands of miles all over the interior of the Dark Continent, of a road that was practicable and open, and on which the mission could be inde pendent of gangs of carriers,— and their past ex perience had immensely enhanced their appre ciation of the last consideration. With the erection of a good station at Stanley Pool, the first task of the mission was accom plished. The doubtful dream of 1878 had he- come the established fact of 1883. A chain of stations had been formed past the Middle Congo, the various tribes on the road had been concili ated, the language had been learned, and some fruit had been gathered (the first converts had been_ baptized in 1882), and the millions of the interior were now no longer beyond the reach of Christ's ambassadors. The next task was the transportation of the mission steamer, the "Henry Reed," — a gift to the mission from Mrs. Reed of Tasmania, — from London, where it had been constructed, to Stanley Pool. The weight of the boat and machinery complete was about 14 tons, —over 500 man -loads,— and it was no easy matter to carry it all up over rocky mountain paths, and through many a rushing, bridgeless river for hundreds of miles, nor to re build the vessel under African suns on the Upper Congo. In order to bolt the 160 plates into one vessel again 16,000 rivets had to be driven; the machinery and all internal fittings had to be re constructed, and the vessel painted with several coats to resist the water action of the tropics; but all was successfully accomplished, and a tenth station was built— Equator Station— 700 miles from the coast, which carried the work of the mission into the great interior. It was at this EAST LONDON INSTITUTE 349 EAST LONDON INSTITUTE point, in 1884, that the mission was transferred to the A. B. M. U. (q.v.). At the time of the transfer seven stations were in working order, namely, Mukimocka, Palabala, Banza Man teka, Mukimbunga, Lukunga, Leopoldville, and Equatorville. The ' ' Henry Reed" was afloat on the Upper Congo, and twenty missionaries, four of them married, formed the working staff of the mission. Since thWoundation of the work nearly fifty had volunteered for it and had been sent out. A few proved unfit and were recalled, some were broken in health, and eleven had given up their lives on the Congo. Congo Balolo Mission — In 1888 Mr. John McKittrick of the L. I. M. returned home on fur lough, bringing with him from the advanced outpost of the mission, Equator station, where he had been at work, an intense interest in the Balolo and zeal for their conversion, and also a living specimen of the race, a Balolo boy named Bompole. The result of this apparently accidental visit was the Balolo Mission. Until about eighty years ago the/dwellers on the south ern bank of the Upper Congo were of the peace ful Bantu tribe. At that time a great nation came travelling westward, and took possession of the left bank of the stream, turning out the former occupants, and bringing in a new lan guage, customs, and people. The powerful in vaders were significantly called Balolo, Iron- people, or, as we should say, the strong tribe. Similarly, Ba-konga, means "hunting people;" Ba-bwande, " travelling people;" Ba-teke, " trad ers," etc., etc. (See " The New World of Cen tral Africa," by Mrs. Guinness.) The country which the invaders conquered, and have since kept and dwelt in, is nearly five times as large as England, and fills the horseshoe bend of the Congo — extending from the Lomami in the east to Lakes Mantumba and Leopold on the west, and from Lopori on the north, to the head-waters of the Bosira and Jaupa on the South. The Balolo are more civilized than the na tives of the Lower Congo. Being expert in the working and smelting of brass, they produce axes, planes, hoes, spades, and other useful im plements of architecture, and thus are able to clear away the tangled undergrowth of the for est and to cultivate maize and mandioca. " Ev ery village has its smithy, if not its spreading chestnut-tree," and the smith is held in high repute among his townsmen, for besides the implements of toil and the weapons of war, he is skilled in the production of bracelets, neck laces, and other ornaments. The Balolo canoes are swift and serviceable, and are manned by practised paddlers; a considerable flotilla is at tached to every town; the towns are large, the streets straight and regular, and the large, com modious houses are built of palm fronds. In places where the banks of the Congo are very steep and high, ingenious zigzag paths have been cut in the sides of the declivity by the na tives, and the way made still less difficult, by ladders of curious construction. In their physi cal frames, as in everything else, these Upper Congo natives are a contrast to the dwellers on the lower river. Stanley visited these people and described them, but the missionaries of the L. I. M. were the first persons to make their acquaintance from the station at Equatorville. When the new mission was resolved upon, Mr. McKittrick was liberated by the A. B. M. U. , in order that he might become the leader of the first party to the Balolo country and to pre vent delay in starting, the L. I. M. steamer, the " Henry Reed," was lent to the Balolo Mission for a year. A farewell meeting was held for the pioneer party of the Congo Balolo Mission, at Exeter Hall, in March, 1889. Many speeches were made — one at least unexpected and unpre meditated. It was spoken by Bompoles' dark lips, and in his high, shrill voice. Hundreds of listen ers in the great hall were hushed into silence to hear the few and ignorant words framed into broken sentences, for Bompole's vocabulary was very limited, and of grammar he knew nothing. The little lad said his people, "wanted gospel," and then asked, "Isn't it a shame — shame to keep gospel to yourself? Not meant for English only ! Isn't it a shame? My people wanting gospel! Isn't it — isn't it a shame ?" Was ever the cause of foreign missions more forcibly put? The mission band sailed from England on the 18th of April, 1889, and reached its destination on the Lulonga River in the middle of August — four months only to accomplish what ten years before could not have been done at all ! How different tbe experience of this party from that of the pioneers of the L. I. M. ! The hearty co-operation of the missionaries al ready in the field not only facilitated the journey, but also averted the danger from exposure and inexperience, to which the earlier workers in so many cases had succumbed. No fatal illness occurred on the journey, and the missionaries have since their arrival continued in good health. Early in 1890 the second party arrived, and with them the mission's own steam-launch, the " Pioneer," which had been built in London, and was to be reconstructed, as the "Henry Reed" had been, at Stanley Pool; 11 missionaries were now in the field, and two stations, Lulong and Ikan, had been planted. A third party of Balolo volunteers has since gone out to form the John Wallis Alexander Station on the Maringa, and a fourth to found the Berger Station, probably on the Jaupa, will soon be ready to start. The sphere of the Balolo missions comprises the six southern tributaries of the Congo beyond Equatorville — the Lulonga, Waringa, Lopori, Ikelemba, Jaupa, and Bosira, presenting to gether about 2,000 miles of navigable waterway. The basis of the Congo-Balolo Mission is in terdenominational, "simply Christian," and thoroughly evangelical. Members of any of the evangelical churches are welcomed as work ers in it. Its management is in the hands of the Directors of the E. L. Ins., who are assisted by a council at home and a standing committee of senior missionaries in Africa. The general support of the mission is under taken by the Directors ; the support of individual missionaries being in some cases defrayed by Y. M. C. A.s, Y'. W. C. A.s, circles of local friends, the churches of which the missionaries may be members, and in other ways. The Pioneer Soudan Mission. — During Dr. Guinness' recent tour in the United Slates he presented the destitution of the vast region which is known as the Soudau, in wdiich there are about 125,000,000 of people absolutely ne glected, before the Y. M. C. A.s of Kansas and Nebraska, and in each State about twenty of the foremost men volunteered to go as pio neers; and the " Soudan Pioneer Mission " was founded, with a branch in each of the towns in which Dr. Guinness' meetings were held. EAST LONDON INSTITUTE 350 ECKARD, JAMES READ Several young men from the Y. M. C. A. of St. Paul, Minn., and thirty colored men from the Southern States, have siuce offered them selves for the Soudan. In October, 1889, a meeting in behalf of the mission was held in Topeka, Kansas, after which three of the volunteers for the Soudan, Messrs. Mail, Helmick, and Kingman, spent several mouths in visiting the larger cities and colleges of Kansas, and also some of the large cities in Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indi ana, and Arkansas, and aroused much interest in the mission. In January, 1890, upon tbe in- vitatiou of Mr. Graham Wilmot-Brooke, Mr. Kingman sailed from Mew York for England, to join the Wilmot-Brooke party for lhe Sou dan. Mr. Kingman accompanied the party as far as Liberia, and there gained much infor mation in regard to the Soudan aud the essen tials for missionary work there, which greatly helped those who were to join him in their preparation. On May 22d, 1890, a party of eight, including two ladies, and two young men from the Y. M. C. A. of St. Paul, Minn., who went with the pioneers of the "Upper Congo Missionaiy Colony," sailed from New York for Africa. The entire party go out "in faith," with no promise of financial support except such as they find in the Bible. Ebenezer. — 1. A town of West Cape Col ony, Africa, on the Olifant River, northwest of Clan- William. Mission station of the Rhenish Missionary Society; 1 missiouaiy, 4 out-stations, 280 church-members, who contribute half of the expenses of the mission. — 2. On the west side of the Sinoe River, Africa, is one of the stations of Bishop Taylor's self-supporting mission. The king of the tribe has proclaimed Sunday as God's day, on which his people are not to work, but. must go to His house and hear His Word. A new house has just been built, and the prop erty is worth $800: 1 missionaiy, 1 school, 20 scholars. — 3. A town in the district of Alfredia, Natal, South Africa. Mission station of the Hermannsburg Missionary Society, with 100 church-members. — 4. A town in the district of Tratoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Mission station of the Hermannsburg Missionaiy So ciety, with 315 church-members. — 5. A city of Bengal, India. The chief seat of the Indian Home Mission to the Santals, founded in 1867 by the Dane, Boresen, and the Norwegian, Skrefsrud. It has 3, 385 church-members, several out-stations, a colony in Assam, a seminary, etc. The mission is self-supporting. The two great est evils the missionaries had to fight against here were not the perverseness and degradation of the Santals, but the Hindu usurer aud the English-whiskey dealer: against the former, tbe English Government was not unwilling to lend its aid, but there was no other means by which to fight Ihe rum-shops than by preaching temperance to the natives. — 6. A lowu in Brit ish Guiana, South America. Station of the Lon don Missionary Society, wiih six native preach ers, and 285 church-members. — 7. A town in the Wimera district, Victoria, Australia, 200 miles northwest of Melbourne. Station of the Moravians, begun in 1859. Has 1 married and 1 unmarried missionary. The mission buildings are on a plot of ground given by the govern ment. The success of their work far exceeded the an ticipation of the missionaries, aud the mission is still growing in all its branches. Ebon, the largest of the western or Ralik chain of the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, 350 miles northwest of Apaiang. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M., with a seminary, a printing establishment, 3 native ordained pastors. The whole New Testament has been translated into the language of the island: 3 schools, 178 pupils, 198 church-members. The German occupation of lhe islands has proved an annoyance in many ways. Ebon was fined $500, and then assessed for a tax as great as that for other islands twice as large. Ebon Version.— The Ebon, which belongs to the Micronesinn branch of languages.isspoken in the Marshall Islands by about 15,000 people. In 1857 two missionaries from the American Board, the Rev. George Pierson and Edward T. Doane, settled upon the island of Ebon. Portions of the Gospel of Matthew translated by the two missiouaries were printed on the island in 1858; other portions were published in 1862. The Gospel of Mark, translated by Mr. Doane, was printed at Honolulu in 1863. The Rev. B. G. Snow, who succeeded Mr. Doane, besides revis ing the Gospel of Mark, prepared the other Gos pels and the Acts. The remaining books of the New Testament were translated by the Rev. E. M. Pease, who carried through the press of the American Bible Society in New York an edition of 1,500 copies of the entire New Testa ment in 1885. The Book of Genesis was trans lated by the Rev. J. F. Whitney, and 400 copies were printed b}r him at the mission press on the island in 1877 and reprinted at New York in 1882. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Bwe an Anij yokwe lol, einwot bwe E ar letok juon wot'Nejin E ar keutak, bwe jabrewot eo ej tomak kin E e jamin joko, a e naj mour in drio. Ebuta-Meta, a town at the mouth of the Ogun River, Gold Coast, West Africa, opposite Lagos. Is visited by missionaries of the Church Missionary Society. It has a congregation qf the Lagos Native Pastorate Association, which was founded by fugitives from Abeokuta (q.v.), and numbers (1888) 1 pastor, 300 com municants, 1 school, 11 scholars. Eckard, James Read, b. Philadelphia, November 22d, 1805; graduated at the Univer sity of Pennsylvania 1823; studied law and practised iu Philadelphia and Pittsburg till 1831 ; graduated at Princeton Theological Sem inary 1833; ordained at Philadelphia, and sailed the same year for Ceylon as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. He was stationed at Panditeripo. In 1835 he removed to Madura, and was connected with the new mission. Re turning home iu 1843 on account of the ill- health of his wife, he spent two years in Georgia under the Home Missionaiy Board, and from 1844 to 1846 was Principal of Chatham Acad emy, Savannah. Returning north in 1847, he received several calls to churches which he de clined, but accepted in 1848 the call to the Sec ond Presbyterian Church iu Washington, D. C. While here the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by Lafayette College. He was Pro fessor of History and Rhetoric in Lafayette Col lege, Easton, Penn., from 1858 to 1872. After that he lived in Germantown, and later with ECEARD, JAMES READ 351 EDINBURGH MED. MISS. SOC. his son, pastor of the church in Abington, Penn. He died there suddenly, March 12th, 1887. Tbe writer of this knew Dr. Eckard well, having been with him in the seminary, and for several years associated with him in the Ceylon Mis sion. He was highly esteemed by the mission as a faithful worker. With his brethren he was always the courteous gentleman and genial companion. Ecufftlor, one of the South American re publics, lying, asits name implies, on either side of the equator, is bounded by Colombia on tbe north, on the east by Brazil, on the south by Peru, and on tbe west by the Pacific Ocean. Boundary disputes with Colombia and Peru which are still unsettled render it impossible to define its exact limits. Area, 118,630 square miles, divided politically into 17 provinces. With its lofty plateaus and intervening valleys it affords every variety of climate. Descending from the snow-capped mountains a temperate climate is met with, which then increases to tropical warmth as the plains are reached. The rainfall, especially at the head-waters of the Amazon and its tributaries, is excessive. Earth quakes frequently occur, and there are at least 16 volcanoes. The population, estimated at 1,000,000, includes pure-blooded Indians (6 per cent), mixed races (3 per cent), and whites of Spanish descent. The government is modelled after that of the United States of America. There is a president, vice-president, senate, and house of representatives. The capital, Quito, has a population of 30,000, and Guayaquil is the principal commercial city. The religion of the republic is Roman Catholic, and all other religions are excluded. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. There is only one railway in course of construction, but there are 1,200 miles of telegraph lines. Quito is con nected with Guayaquil, with the Republic of Colombia, and by cable with the rest of the world. Eden, or New Eden, a town in Jamaica, West Indies, pleasantly situated upon the Man chester Mountains, commanding a fine prospect. The climate is exceedingly hot and unhealthy. The first station of the Moravians in Jamaica. It was opened in 1820, and has had great success. At present a native missionary and his wife are in charge. Edengudi, formerly Caldwell's Sta tion, a town in the Tinnevelli district, Madras, South India, situated on the sea-coast. A sta tion of the S. P. G. , with 690 members. Ediraa, a town in the Bassa-district, Gold Coast, Africa, at the mouth of the St. John's River, northwest of Buchanan and southwest of Bexley. Mission station of the Methodist Epis copal Church (North) ; 5 native helpers, 200 church-members, 1 Sunday-school, 140 scholars. Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. Headquarters, 56 George Square, Edinburgh, Scotland.— In 1841 the Rev. Peter Parker, M.D., a medical missionary from America, who bad labored for many years and with much success in China, passed through Edinburgh on his way to the United States. During his brief stay in that city he was the guest of the late Dr. Abercrombie, who be came so greatly interested in the intelligence received from him, especially with his experi ence of the value of the healing art as a pioneer to missionary effort, that he invited to his house a few friends to hear Dr. Parker's account of his work, aud to consider the propriety of forming an association in Edinburgh for the pro motion of medical missions. A public meeting was held on November 30th, when the following resolution was adopted and the Society formed: "That this meeting, being deeply sensible of the beneficial results which maybe expected to arise from the labors of Christian medical men co operating with missionaries in various parts of the world, thus giving intelligent proofs of the nature and practical operation of tbe spirit of love, which, as the fruit of our holy religion, we desire to see diffused amongst all nations, resolve to promote this object and to follow the leadings of Providence, by encouraging in every possible way the settlement of Christian medical men in foreign countries, and that for this purpose a society be formed under the name of the 'Edinburgh Association for Send ing Medical Aid to Foreign Countries.'" It was at the same time resolved that " the ob jects of the Association shall be to circulate in formation on the subject, to endeavor to origi nate and aid such kindred institutions as may be formed to prosecute the same work, and to ren der assistance at missionaiy stations to as many professional agents as the funds placed at its disposal will admit." Dr. Abercrombie was chosen president, and till his death in November, 1844, he took the warmest interest in the operations of the Socie ty. Others there were of great eminence, whose names are identified with its origin. The Rev. Dr. Thomas Chalmers and Professor Alison were elected vice-presidents at the inaugural meeting. Dr. James Begbie, Professor Sir George Ballingall, Dr. William Beilby (who succeeded Dr. Abercrombie as president), Pro fessor Syme, Dr. John Coldstream, Mr. Joseph Bell, Dr. Ormond, Dr. Handyside — all well- known and honored names — are found among the first list of directors. At the second annual meeting (November 28th, 1843), it was resolved that the association should be designated " The Edinburgh Medi cal Missionaiy Society." For the first year the income of the Society was only £114, and at the close of its first dec ade the annual income had never exceeded £300. Until 1851 the funds of the Society were mainly expended in diffusing medical mission ary information. Lectures on the subject of medical missions were delivered by several of the directors, and afterwards were published and widely circu lated; prizes were offered for the best essays on this subject, and every available opportunity taken to advocate the claims of this new and interesting department of missionaiy service. From time to time grants of money for the purchase of medicines and instruments were made to the few medical missionaries then at work in the foreign field. In reviewing the first ten years of the So ciety's history the report of the Society for 1852 thus speaks of the work accomplished dur ing the first decade: "We feel satisfied that tbe subject of medical missions is gradually be coming more familiar to the public mind, that there is a growing interest in its favor, and that at no distant day its importance will be uni versally seen and acknowledged. Let us look EDINBURGH MED. MISS. SOC 352 EDINBURGH MED. MISS. SOC upon the last ten years as the vernal period of the Society, during which we have been main ly occupied in prepaiiug the soil aud scattering the seed ; and let us anticipate a season, not far distant we trust, when the silent and unseen germinating process which is uow advancing will declare itself by a sudden growth of fresh and vigorous manifestation." As the results of medical missionaiy work become more widely known and generally ap preciated, it was quite natural that this parent society should be called upon to supply men for the field. For several years the aid rendered to students was merely pecuniary. Dr. Handyside, who had learned in his be nevolent work bow much more readily aud effi- cieutly the sick and suffering could be reached by the gospel when the hody w'as first relieved, made an experiment by opeuiug (November 25th, 1853) the " Main Poiut Mission Dispen sary," whicli was the first home medical mis sion in Great Britain, and the origin of the So ciety's Training Institution. In 1858 the attendance of patients had so largely increased that it became imperative to secure more suitable and commodious premises. Seeing "To Let" over a whiskey-shop, — No. 39 Cowgate — the place was secured by Dr. Handyside and in a few days it was transformed into a medical mission dispensary. Progress was rapidly made, and on November 18th, 1861, the " Cowgate Mission Dispensary " became the "Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society's Training Institution." By this ad vance the second decade of the Society's history was made memorable. The Society in other respects during this pe riod made gradual but decided progress. It commenced, together with the Free Church of Scotland, a medical mission in Madras, and conjointly with the London Missionary Society it supported for four years a medical mission ary at Mirzapore, and also established a medi cal mission in Ireland, supporting the medical missionary there for six years. In addition to this work, several well-known medical mission aries were helped forward by the Society. By publications, by public meetings and lec tures, much was done by tbe Society during these years to promote an interest in the cause, and its income rose from £350 in 1852 to £1,250 in 1862. Under the superintendence of Mr. W. Burns Thomson, F.R.C.S.E., who, while agent of the Society from 1860 until 1870, labored with much success and enthusiasm to promote the cause of medical missions, the training institu tion soon became not only thoroughly efficient, but likewise a powerful and much-blessed local benevolent and evangelistic agency. In the report for 1865 the following reference is made to the progress of Ihe work: "A general ret rospect of the period since the amalgamation of the Dispensary with the Society calls for thankfulness and praise ; for it is known by those mainly engaged in the work that many of the lowest and most degraded resorting thither have not only heard the gracious offer of the gospel, but have become partakers of the salvation which is in Christ Jesus. . . .Year by year the value of the Institution as a training- school for missionaries is becoming more and more apparent, and it would be difficult, we imagine, to find a band of more devoted and accomplished young men than those who have already issued from its walls." Increased accommodation was secured by leasing the adjoiuing premises, and thus au added step was taken in tbe development of this important department of the Society's work. Soon after the much- felt loss by death (1864) of Professor Miller, a memorial fund was raised of above £2,000, with which the conven ient and commodious house 56 George Square, now known as the "Miller Memorial Medical Mission House," was purchased and furnished, and made over to the Society as a residence for the superintendent and students. Medical mission dispensaries were also opened in Glasgow, Aberdeen, Liverpool, Lon don, Manchester, and other centres; and where- ever these have been established they are rec ognized as powerful auxiliaries to home-mis sion work. In 1861 the income of the Society was £590; in 1871 it amounted to £1.314. The decade of the Society's history 1871-81 is, however, the period during which it made the greatest prog ress. In 1871 there were only seven students; in 1881 there were sixteen. At the beginning of 1886 there were upwards of 170 qualified medical missionaries in active service at home and abroad. In 1881 tbe income amounted to £5,506; while also, during the decade, above £15,000 were raised for special objects, inde pendent of the Society's general income. The erection of the new and commodious premises iu which the work is now carried on marks the beginning of a new era in the Soci ety's history. On the site of the "Old Whiskey Shop" now stands the " Livingstone Memorial Medical Missionary Institution," a most fitting memorial of the great African explorer whose name it bears, and who was both a medical missionary and a corresponding member of the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. At the laying of the corner-stone (June 9th, 1877) Rev. Dr. Robert Moffat (tbe father-in-law of Dr. Livingstone) remarked that a medical mis sionary was a missionar}' and a half, or rather, he should say, a double missionaiy ; that it was impossible to estimate the value of a mis sionary going out with a thorough knowledge of medicine and surgery. At a bazaar the same year nearly £5,000 were realized, the expenses being only £388, which were more thau met ly the entrance-money. It was a Christian enterprise, no raffling or ob jectionable features being permitted. The Livingstone Memorial with its furnish ings cost nearly £10,000; this amount was pro vided before the building was completed. The ground floor contains the jauitor's residence, the laboratory, consulting-room, vaccination or class-room, and a waiting-room comforta bly seated for one hundred and fifty. The east end of the room is adorned with a beauti ful stained-glass window, the gift of several hundreds of the poor patients themselves; the centre represents our Lord healing the sick; on the one side are these words: " Himself took our infirmities;" on the other, "Aud bare our sicknesses." A handsome marble bust of Dr- Liviugstone and an oil-painting of Dr. Moffat ornament the dining-hall. The third floor is occupied by tbe library, and bed-room parlors of the students. The wide-spread and successful efforts made to raise the funds necessary for the erection of EDINBURGH MED. MISS. SOC. 353 EL BAYADEEYYA the Livingstone Memorial gave a great im pulse to the cause of medical missions. Besides the Nazareth Medical Mission and that at Madras, the Society established (1874) a most successful medical mission at Niigata, Japan, and more recently a mission in Damas cus. It has also helped to inaugurate the Belleville Medical Mission in Paris, and in the last few years has remitted upwards of £2,000 in gra*ts for the purchase of medicines, in struments, etc.. to medical missionaries labor ing in India, China, Africa, Turkey, Syria, Egypt, Rome, and in other lands and islands of the sea. There is a growing appreciation of this form of benevolent agency. The days of apologetic pleading have passed, and objections which formerly prevailed are now never heard. ' In 1885 there were in active service upwards of 170 qualified medical missionaries, and the number has been steadily increasing, while missionaiy periodicals bring the news of med ical missionary triumphs in all parts of the world. Efat «', the southernmost, and also the most beautiful, island of the middle group of the New Hebrides, Melanesia. It has about 6.000 inhabitants, all of whom speak the same lan guage. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church of Canada; one missionaiy aud wife, 92 school children. Here, as everywhere in the archipelago, the natives were made miserable by tbe frauds, the crimes, the abomi nable passions, and the horrible diseases which European traders introduced among them. Later on they took their revenge. The first missionary who visited Efate, 1839, was slain and eaten. Others met with the same fate. Now, however, there are five Christian villages in the island, with 380 communicants. Mark and John have been translated into the Efate language. (See New Hebrides Mission.) Eiatese, a term very commonly used to des ignate the language of the island Efate, in the New Hebrides. (See Fate.) lv li k Version. — The Efik, which belongs to the Negro group of African languages, is vernac ular 1o the people living by the old Chalabar River, West Africa. Mr. Hugh Goldie trans- . lated the New Testament, which was published by the National Bible Society of Scotland at Edinburgh in 1862. In 1868 the same Society issued at the same place the Old Testament, translated by Mr. Robb. Egede, Hans. (See Danish Mission to Greenland.) Egedeminde, a town in the northern circle of Greenland. Station of the Danish Mission ary Society. The whole circle numbered, in 1883, 4,278 Greenlanders in 76 settlements, all of whom are Christians. Egypt (Misr), a country in Northwestern Africa, extending from the Mediterranean to Wady Haifa, about 800 miles up the Nile from Cairo. It is a tributary state to Turkey, and is governed by a Khedive. The title of the gov ernor was originally that of Vali, but was changed to " Khidewi-Misr," or more com monly Khedive. Previously to 1884 the sov ereign of Egypt claimed rule over territories extending almost to the equator (see article Soudan). After the rebellion of tbe Soudanese those provinces were practically abandoned, although still nominally Egyptian, and the present boundary at Wady Haifa was provision ally agreed upon. In addition to the territory immediately including the valley of the Nile and section between that and the Red Sea, there belong to Egypt certain oases in the Libyan desert, and a small province, El-Arish, iu Syria. The total area is 400,000 square miles, but "the cultivated and settled area is only 12,976 square miles, lying along the Nile valley and in the Delta, and dependiug for its fertility en tirely upon the annual overflow of the Nile. During the remainder of the year, whatever of irrigation is necessary is obtained by a system. of small canals filled from the river. The cli mate is hot and unhealthy, the temperature varying from 32 to 84 degrees; but the heat is ¦very oppressive, and the sand in the air causes a great deal of ophthalmia. Along the borders of the Mediterranean, near Alexandria, there are a number of towns where people from Cairo and farther up the Nile are in the habit of going for a time during the heat of summer. Egypt is divided into two sections: Lower Egypt, in cluding the districts of Alexandria, Damietta, and Rosetta in the Delta; Cairo, the Isthmus of Suez, and the Province of El-Arish. Upper Egypt covers the section south of Cairo, and includes the districts of Kosseir, Fayoum, Minieb, Beni-Souef, and Assiout. For mission work see articles United Presbyterian Church of the United States and Church Missionary Society, and the biographical sketch of Miss Mary Whately. (See also Africa.) Ehlobane, a town in North Zululand, Southeast Africa. Mission station of the Her mannsburg Missionary Society (1882). Ehlomohloino, a town north of the river Ukulatuzi, East South Africa, under tbe au thority of the Boers. Station of the Hermanns burg Missionary Society among the Zulus, Besides Ehlomohlomo and Bethel, there are three other stations. Eniyati, Ekuhlengeni, and Esihlengeni, which together have thirty members. Ehst, synonymous with Esthonian, or the root-word of Esthonian (q.v.). Ekhmeem (Akbmim), a town of Egypt, in the Province of Girgeh, on the east bank of the Nile, between Girgeh and Assioot. Mission out- station of the United Presbyterian Church, U. S. A.; (1879); 4 uative workers, 40 church- members. Ekjowe and Ekombe, towns in East South Africa, south of the river Uhmlatuzi, under British aulhority. Stations of the Nor wegian Missionaiy Society among the Zulus. Have, together with Ungoji, 120 church-mem bers. Ekoinbela, a town in Southeast Trans vaal, East South Africa, between Entombe and Ehlomohlomo, northeast of Utrecht. Mission station of the Hermannsburg Missionaiy Society. Ekuhlengeni, a town in South Zulu- land, East South Africa. Mission station of the Hermannsburg Missionary Society. El Bayadeeyya, a town in the Province of Assioot. Upper Egypt. Out-station of the United Presbyterian Church (1879); including EL BAYADEEYYA 354 ELIOT, JOHN three sub-stations, it has 1 organized church, 115 communicauts, 2 schools, 68 scholars. Eleuthera, one of the nineteen islands in cluded iu the Bahamas or British West Indies. Area, 132 square miles; population, 5,500. Sta tion of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society; 2 missionaries, 8 chapels, 1,120 church- members, 8 Sunday-schools, 1,218 scholars. S. P. G. (1849); 1 missionary, 407 communicants. Baptist Missionaiy Society; 3 evaugelists, 3 stations, 212 church-members, 216 sabbath- scholars. Elim. — 1. A town in the extreme south of -Cape Colony, South Africa, about 80 miles .southeast of Gnadendal. Station of the Mora vian Brethren among the Hottentots, founded in 1824, in order to reduce the number of in habitants at Gnadendal, which had become overcrowded. It has gathered a congregation of 1,500. The Hottentots are described as very «asy to impress and always ready with the tongue, but less capable of any real develop ment, and always in need of watching. Still the work of the three married missiouaries and their wives, who are now stationed at Elim, is very successful and encouraging. — 2 A town in Northern Transvaal, South Africa. Station of the Mission Romande (Free Churches of French Switzerland) founded in 1879, from Valdesia. Il has 215 church-members. — 3. A town in the circle of Alfredia, Natal, South Africa. Station of the Hermannsburg Mis sionary Society, with 100 church-members. Eliot, John, b. 1604, in Nasing, Essex Co., England. He had eminently godly par ents, " by whom," to use his own words, his first years were " seasoned with the fear of -God, the Word, aud prayer." He was educated at tbe University of Cambridge in 1623, where he acquired a thorough knowledge of the origi nal languages of Scripture, was well versed in the general course of liberal studies, had a partiality for philology, and was an acute .grammarian. On leaving the university he became au usher in the grammar-school of Rev. Thomas Hooker. To his connection with him he traces bis conversion. " When I came to this blessed family," said he, "I saw as never before the power of godliness iu its lively vigor and efficiency." Mr. Hooker having been silenced for nonconformity, became au •exile in Holland, and thence emigrated to New England. Mr. Eliot resolved to devote himself to the ministry, and, being exposed to the tyranny of Laud on account of his nonconfor mity, followed Hooker with sixty others iu the ship " Lyon " which reached Boston, November .3d, 1631. Some of his brethren who contem plated going to America exacted from him a promise that, if they came, he would be their pastor. On his arrival he supplied the place of Mr. Wilson, the pastor of the Boston church, absent in England, ln the following summer the young lady who was betrothed to him, and had promised to follow him soon, arrived, and in October I hey were married. In 1632 the brethren whom he had left came aud settled in Roxbury. Mr. Eliot was installed as their pastor, continuing in that relation 1 ill his death, nearly sixty years. In 1639 he was ap pointed with Welde and Mather, by the civil and ecclesiastical leaders of the colony, to pre pare a new version of the Psalms. This Psalter, issued in 1640, was the first book printed in America. It was entitled "The Psalms in metre, faithfully translated for the Use, Edifica tion, and Comfort of tbe Saiuts in public and private, especially in New England." It was called "The Bay Psalm Book," but afterwards " The New England Version of the Psalms." The book passed through twenty-one editions. Soon after Eliot was settled in Roxbury he became deeply interested in the Indians, and the legislature having passed au act for the propagation of the gospel among them, he resolved to learn their language that he might preach to them. Through a young Pequot, who had learned a little English, and whom he had received into his family, he obtained some knowledge of their language. He soon became sufficiently familiar with its vocabulary and construction to translate tbe ten command ments, the Lord's Prayer, some texts of Scrip ture, and a few prayers. In October, 1646, he made his first visit with three others to their camp near the site of Brighton , on the border of Newton, and preached to them assem bled in the wigwam of Waban, their chief, — the first sermon ever preached in North America in a native tongue. The service con tinued three hours, the Indians asking many questions. Two weeks after he made a second visit, when an old warrior asked with tears if it was not too late for him to come to God. In another fortnight he made a third visit, when a deep, serious interest was manifest, though many Indians had been incited by the pow wows against him. These powwows, conjurers or juggling priests, violently opposed him. At this third visit Waban was so impressed that he gathered his people at the evening camp-fire, and talked to them about what they had heard. Desiring to civilize as well as Christianize the In dians, Eliot had those to whom he had preached gathered into a community on the site of their old camping-ground. This was about five miles west of Boston, and to it, at the suggestion of the English, the}- gave the name INonantum, signifying rejoicing. Eliot exerted great influ ence over them with rare tact and sagacity to encourage them to adopt the modes of civilized life. A simple civil administration was estab lished, and in 1647 the General Court estab lished a court, over which an English magis trate presided. With social and industrial im provements they were trained with the aid of some native helpers in religious duties. These Indians received the appellation of "praying Indians." Another place for religious meetings and in struction was Neponset, within the limits of Dorchester, among a body of Indians, whose chief was the first sachem to whom Eliot preached. A sachem at Concord now induced his people to petition for a tract near the Eng lish, that they also might be instructed. Their request was granted, a teacher given them, and religious services were commenced. They adopted a code of rules regulating their civil and religious duties and their social comfort. In 1648 Mr. Eliot visited Pawtucket, 35 miles southward, where was a powerful chief. He and his two sons gave evidence of true conver sion, aud desired Mr. Eliot to live wiih and instruct them, offering him the choicest loca tion. About this time came an earnest request from a chief living 60 miles from Roxbury, the present site of Brookfield, that Mr. Eliot would ELIOT, JOHN 355 ELLIS, WILLIAM come and teach his people. As the journey would take him through a region where his life would be iu danger, a sachem through whose country he must pass came with twenty of his warriors to escort him. He set out on horseback. The exposure and fatigue severely taxed his strength. "I have not been dry," he states, "night or day from tbe third day of the week until the sixth, but so travel, and at night 3 in hem gelooven, niet verloren wor- den, maar het ceuwige leven hebben. Florida Version.— The Florida, which belongs to the Melanesian languages, is spoken in the Solomon Islands. A translation of the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles into this language was published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1887. Foochow (Fuhcbau), the capital of the province of Fuhkien, China, situated on the river Min, 34 miles from its mouth, is one of the treaty ports opened in 1842. The city is three miles from the north bank of the river, and is surrounded by a wall 30 feet high, 12 feet thick, and 5 miles in circumference, pierced by 7 gates. Between the city and the river, on the island of Nantai and on the south bank of the Min, lie tbe extensive suburbs, while the river is filled with a large aquatic popula tion. A long stone bridge connects the two banks. Ou Pagoda Island, 3 miles down the river, is the Foochow Arsenal. The tea trade is second in importance only to that of Shanghai. The value of the imports of all kinds in 1888 was over $4,500,000, and the ex ports $11,500,000. The populationis estimated at 630,000. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1846); 7 missionaries and wives, 5 female mis sionaries, 22 native helpers, 23 out-stations, 16 churches, 402 members, 3 schools, 350 scholars. Medical work was begun in 1878, aud the hos- pilal is now accomplishing much good, not alone in Foochow, but far up the banks of the Min the people are benefited, healed, and in- , strutted. First station of the Melhodist Episco pal Church in China (1847). It is now the seat of the FoOchow University, with its Anglo-Chi nese College and Medical Department, while the mission press printed during the year 1889- 15,503,564 pages. In the Foochow district are 8 stations, 5 missionaries and assistant mission aries, 5 female missionaries, 13 native ordained FOOCHOW 375 FORD, JOSHUA EDWARDS preachers, 301 church-members, 10 day-schools, 170 scholars, 11 Sabbath-schools, 395 Sabbath- scholars. C. M. S. (1850); theological college, 30 students, 1 boarding-school, 34 students, 2 missionaries and wives, 3 female missionaries (0. E. Z. M. S.), 1 girls' boarding-school, 1 church, 59communicauts, 3 schools, 120 schol ars. From 1850-52 the first Christian mission of the Swedish Church was carried on iu this city, but wo»k was suspended on account of the ill-health of the missionary. Foochow Colloquial Version. — The Foochow colloquial dialect of the Chinese is spo ken in Foochow and its neighborhood. A trans lation of the New Testament into this dialect was made by the Rev. W. Welton of the Church Missionaiy Society, and was published in 1856. In the same year another translation, made by the Rev. L. B. Peet, was also published. A third translation, the joint work of the Revs. Maclay, Gibson, Baldwin, and Hartwell, was published by the American Bible Society in 1866. At the request of the Rev. R. W. Stew art, supported by tbe Church Missionary So ciety, the British and Foreign Bible Society pub lished in 1884 an edition of the Gospel of John, in the Roman character. This part was well received, and the entire New Testament in 1,000 copies was published in the same character in 1888, under the editorship of Mr. Stewart, at London. Of the Old Testament the greatest part has been translated by American missiona ries, and published by the American Bible So ciety. In 1887 a revision committee was formed, consisting of American and English mission aries. The books as revised will be printed under the care of the Rev. N. J. Plumb of the American Methodist Episcopal Mission, and the cost of printing and binding will be shared by the American, and the British and Foreign Bible Societies, in proportion to the copies taken by each Society. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) £> Forbes, Anderson Oliver, son of the missionary Cochran Forbes, b. April 14th, 1833, near Kealak^kua Bay, Hawaii; came to the United States iu 1848 for education; graduated Washiuglon College, Pa., 1853, and Princeton Theological Seminary, 1858; ordained iu Phila delphia May 5th, 1858; sailed the following Au gust, a missionaiy of the A. B. C. F. M., for the Sandwich Islands, reachiug Honolulu Septem ber 16th, the same year. He died suddenly at Colorado Springs in Colorado, July 8th, 1888, while on a temporary visit to the United States. " He had more than ordinary gifts as a public speaker, often rising to eloquence, and moved with deep emotion. His pastoral labors were repeatedly blessed by joyful revivals and in gathering of souls. He had rare social quali ties, charming in conversation, both by natural wit and wide and cultivated intelligence, also by a native tact in winning attention and regard. He was personally very popular among natives and whites. He was intimately acquainted with Hawaiian modes of thought, and was one of our best authorities on Hawaiian customs and antiquities, as well as on the niceties of the Ha waiian language." Forbes, Cochran, b. Goshen, Chester Co., Pa., U.S. A., July 21st, 1805; graduated at Prince ton Theological Seminary 1831; ordained the same year by Presbytery of Philadelphia, and sailed soon after as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M . for the Sandwich Islands. He was stationed at Kealakekua 1833-45, when, on account of the ill-health of Mrs. Forbes, he resigned the pastor ate, and became Seamen's chaplain at Lahaina until 1847. He then returned to the United States. He was pastor of the united churches of Glade Run and Rural Valley from 1848 to 1856. From 1857 to 1865 he was pastor of the church at Kendallville, Ind. He supplied other churches till 1872. In 1873 he accepted the chaplaincy of the Presbyterian Hospital, Phila delphia, which position he occupied till his death in 1 880, aged 75 years. He was a faithful missionary to the heathen, and at home an ac ceptable pastor. He is said to have been " es pecially useful as chaplain in the hospital. His kind and gentle ways, his cheering and comfort ing words, won all hearts; while his attractive and genial character secured for him the respect and confidence of all his Christian brethren." Ford, Joshua Edwards, b. Ogdens- burgh, N. Y., U. S. A., August 3d, 1825; gradu ated at Williams College 1844, and Union Theo logical Seminary, New York, 1847; ordained September of same year; sailed for Smyrna, De cember 2Hlh, 1847, to join the Syria Mission, reaching Beyrout in the early spring. He was stationed at Aleppo for seven years. The state of religious inquiry at Mosul, then without a mis sionary, induced him to leave his family at Alep po, and make the long and toilsome journey to that place, where he spent the winter of 1849-50. Returning to Aleppo in the spring he contin ued his labors among tbe Arabs and Armenians, studying the Turkish language, the Armenians being mostly unacquainted with Arabic. In 1855 it was arranged that he should remove to Beyrout. After the arrival of Drs. Thomson and Van Dyck, he joined Mr. Eddy at the Sidon and Hasbeiya station in 1858. Day after day found him on horseback, making the long and tedious rides to visit tbe churches of Kana, Alma, Merj-Ayum, and Hasbeiya. During the FORD, JOSHUA EDWARDS 376 FORMOSA times succeeding the massacres of 1860 he re moved with his family to Beyrout, remaining two months for personal safety, and then returned to his station. Besides his missionary work, he was occupied in connection with the Anglo- American Relief Committee for tbe relief of the suffering thousands driven from their homes, and escaped from the massacres of Lebanon and Hermon. In 1864 Mr. Ford removed with his family from Sidon to the village of Deir Mimas, to look after the churches in that re gion, and devote more time to the training of native candidates for the ministry. During that winter he and his family suffered much from the malarial winds of the lake. In May, 1865, by the urgent advice of physicians, Mr. Ford sailed with his family for the United States, reaching New York in August. Having spent part of the autumn among the churches of New England, he went to Geneseo, 111., where he re sided until his death, April 3d, 1866, from in flammation of the lungs. Though not able to say much during his last illness, he left a mes sage, part of which we give. As his disease lay heavy upon him, he suddenly roused himself, and said with great emphasis: "Tell the Chris tian young men of America that the responsi bility of saving the world rests on them." "His knowledge of Arabic was thorough, and he could use it with power in preaching as well as in conversation. At Aleppo he devoted some time to the Turkish, and was able to use it to advantage among the Armenians of that city. His mind was logical, his judgment sound, and his views enlarged." Foreign Christian Missionary Soci ety. — Headquarters, Southwest corner Fifth and Walnut streets, Cincinnati, Ohio, U. S. A. The Foreign Christian Missionary Society was organized by the churches of the Disciples of Christ, in Louisville, Kentucky, in the year 1875. Its object is to make disciples of all nations, and to teach them to observe all things whatsoever Christ has commanded; the first intention was to preach Christ only where He had not been named, but circumstances led to the commence ment of its work in Denmark. A young Dane who had been converted in this country was at his own request sent (in 1876) to labor among his countrymen. As he has opportunity, he visits Norway and Sweden, also. The Soci ety was led to its second field, Turkey, by a young Armenian who had found his way to Dallas, Texas; he was converted there, and an unquenchable desire sprang up in his heart to return to Turkey and preach Christianity to bis own people. He was sent to Turkey iu 1879, ancl began work in Constantinople. Two others have been sent out since, aud are at work in Marsivan and Marash. Native helpers are em ployed in Bardizag, Smyrna, Sivas, Zarah, Antioch, Biridjik, HajiKeui, Charshambah KapouKaya, and Aintab. Work was com menced in India in 1882. Four stations have been established iu the central provinces, at Hurda, Bilaspur, Mungeli, and Chapa. In 1883 work was commenced in Japan. There are now two stations, at Akita and Shonai. Work was begun in China in 1884, and sta tions have been established at Nankin, Chu Chen, Wuhu, aud Shanghai. By request and at the cost of an English gentleman, missiona ries have been sent to England, and are carrying on work in London, Liverpool, Southampton, Cheltenham, ancl Birkenhead. Methods of work followed are: preaching at the stations and throughout the adjoining terri tory; distribution of Scriptures and other Chris tian literature; training native pastors and teachers; medical, zenana, day and Sunday school work. The Woman's Board of this Church is an independent organization, and carries on a work of its own in India and Jamaica; its receipts are not included in the receipts of the general soci ety. Recently funds have been raised by the stu dents of three of the colleges of the Disciples of Christ to send one of their own number to the mission field. Foreign Evangelization Society.— Secretary, Rev. Horace Noel, Woking- Surrey, England. This Society sprang from one that was founded at the time of the Franco-German war in 1870-71, the object of which was to raise funds in behalf of some of the Christian institu tions which were then in danger of collapse. After the war, the readiness of the people in France and elsewhere to hear the Gospel, and the success of the McAll and other evangeliza tion missions, led to the decision that the For eign Evangelization Society should be continued, and that whatever funds it could collect should be devoted to the aid of local missions, conducted by individuals. This work the Foreign Aid Society, which has existed for many years, is unable to do, being bound by its constitution to bestow all its funds upon evangelization soci eties and national Protestant churches on the continent. The Foreign Evangelization Society transmits, as desired, subscriptions given for special pur poses; its general fund is distributed by the Committee at its discretion. Formosa. — The island of Formosa is part of the province of Fuhkien in China. It lies between latitude 21° 53' 30" north and latitude 25 33' north, about 90 miles from the mainland of China, from which it is separated by the Straits of Formosa. Its total length from north to south is 235 miles, and its greatest width is about 80 miles. Through the centre of the island runs a chain of mountains, on each side of which are well-wooded slopes. The coasts are rocky and uninviting, with few good har bors. The climate is in general more salubri ous than that of the opposite mainland. Coal, salt, sulphur, petroleum, and camphor are the natural products. Tea is the principal agricult ural product, though sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, maize, and potatoes are also raised in the fertile valleys. So abundant is the growth of rice that the island has been called "the granary of China." Tbe rainfall is very heavy, and the vegetation and fauna are those of tropical lands. The inhabitants are of three classes — the Chi nese immigrants, the civilized aborigines and the uncivilized ones. The Chinese are from the Amoy district and some Hakkas from Swatow. The aborigines, who have adopted iu part the customs of the Chinese, are called Pe-pa-hwan or Peppohoans, while the untamed savages are called Che-hwan. These natives are part of the Malay stock, and are broken up into many tribes and clans. Physically they are of middle height, muscular and broad-chested, large eyes, round forehead, broad nose, and large mouth. FORMOSA 377 FRAZER, EDWARD They are remarkable for their large hands and feet. Their language possesses no written char acters, but there are man^ dialects. In the dis trict of Posia alone eight entirely different dia lects have been recognized. The social condi tion of the natives is very low. They are not so given to deceit and trickery as the Chinese, and are more tolerant of foreigners, but they are a fierce and warlike people, and fierce feuds are common arffBng them. The skulls of the foes they have killed are part of the ornaments of their huts. Tattooing is universally practised. The women do a great part of the work in the fields as well as that of the house. In some instances women have held the position of chief of the tribe. The Chinese claim jurisdiction over the island, but that part which constitutes the department of Taiwan is composed mainly of the western slope of the island. Beginning at the north the principal cities of importance are Kelung, a treaty port, where the coal mines are worked; Tamsui, another treaty port on the river of that name, is one of the few harbors — it has a popula tion of 100,000; Bangka, further up the river, is an important commercial town ; Tek-cham is on the highway which runs from Bang-ka to Pangliau in the south, and is the head of the Tamsui district with a population of 30,000. Chianghooi is the second city in the island, with a population of sixty or eighty thousand; Tai wan is the capital, and a treaty port — it was once the Dutch settlement of Zealandia; Takow, another of the treaty ports, is situated on the coast in latitude 22° 37' north. Many other set tlements containing several thousands of people are found, and the entire population of the island is estimated at 1,500,000. The island of Formosa was known to the Chinese at an early date. In 1480 a.d. emi gration to it was recorded. In 1624 the Dutch built a fort, Zealandia, at the place where now stands Taiwan, and their power was maintained for thirty-seven years. In 1682 the power of the Emperor Kang Hi was recognized, and since then it has formed a part of the Chinese Em pire, though outbreaks on the part of the abo rigines are common. The treaty of Tientsin, 1860, opened the island to European commerce, and Formosa tea is now found the world over. Missions.— The Presbyterian Church of England (see article) commenced mission work on the island in 1863. The Presbyterian Church of Canada (see article) has taken the northern part of the island for its field. The Roman Catholics have also a mission whieh dates from 1859. _ Within the last ten years the prospects of the civilization of the island are rapidly becoming brighter, as the island is becoming more and more Chinese in its nature, while the Chinese government is building telegraph lines and improving the means of communication. The friendliness of its people, and its temperate cli mate make it a most promising field for mis sionary endeavor. Formosan Version.— The Formosan belongs to the Malaysian language, and is spoken in the island of Formosa, in the China Sea. The earliest efforts to Christianize the island were made about the year 1624, when Dutch ministers landed there. In 1647 a missionary named Daniel Gravius landed there and re mained for four years. Having returned to his native country, he commenced a translation of the New Testament into the Formosan, and the Gospel of Matthew into the Sinkang dialect was published in 1661. While the book was in press, Formosa was invaded by Chinese rebels, and the aboriginal converts were exterminated. Again a period of heathen gloom continued for 200 years, till 1865, when the Presbyterian Church of England established a mission among the Chinese-speaking people of Formosa. The Rev. William Campbell, one of the missiona ries at Taiwanfu, the capital of Formosa, con ceived the happy idea of arousing interest in the work by reprinting tbe Dutch-Formosan version of Matthew made by Gravius, from an only copy existing in the university library at Leyden. The Gospel was issued at London (Triibner & Co.), 1889. Fouracariah, a station of the Wesleyan Missionaiy Society, near Kapoto, the capital of Limba, Sierra Leone, West Africa, founded in 1880 ; has 65 church-members, 64 catechu mens, aud 1,500 coming to hear the sermons. Two Gospels have been translated into the Limba language. When the king died, the heir-apparent, Lahai, refused the crown to de vote himself to missionary work. Fray Bent os,a town on the Uruguay River, Uruguay, South America, 50 miles from its mouth; is the headquarters for certain celebrated meat-extracting operations. Station of the South American Missionary Society; 1 church, 1 missionary, 10 communicants, 1 school, and a parsonage. Frazer, Edward. — Appointed as mission ary to Dominica, under the English Wesleyan- Methodist Missionaiy Society, 1828. To use his own words, be says: "I am what is called a colored person and a bondman, said to have been born in the island of Barbadoes, towards the close of the year 1798." From his youth up he was favored in being owned by a kind-hearted man, who allowed him to pursue his education as best he could without hinder- ance. He was early taught by his mistress to read and write, and at the age of twenty-five he had mastered the first six books of Euclid, read the writings of Locke and most of the standard divines of the Church of England. His love of study kept him secure from many of the evil influences by which he was surrounded. He says, "I can thankfully trace the preventing grace of God in many things." From a gentle man visiting in the f amily he received many lasting religious impressions, and was stimu lated by conversation with his young master, who was a student at Oxford He had read the lives of some of the saints, and was struck with the resemblance they bore to tbe Methodists. The death of a brother of his master, who had taught him bookkeeping, turned his attention particularly to serious things. There was no community of Methodists where he was, so he went to the station at Hamilton (1819) and visited Mr. and Mrs. Sutcliffe, missionaries there. Here with them he received Christian love and advice. Two years later he was a class-leader, and through the sanction of Mr. Dunbar he held prayer-meetings among the unconverted colored people. He soon read plain sermons to them, and when at last, through the advice of Mr. Dunbar, he tried to preach, his whole soul seemed filled with " di- FRAZER, EDWARD 378 FREEWILL BAPTIST MISS. SOC, vine unction." With the assistance of Mr. Cox he began subscriptions for the building of a chapel, which after some delay was accom plished. He was ouce offered the position of cat- echist to tbe Church of England, but declined, as it would involve his emaucipation, which would separate him from the society to which he belonged and prevent his publicly addressing tbe slaves. The committee did not rest content with this refusal, and wished him to enter the ministry, aud proposed him to the conference as a regular missionaiy, if his master would grant him his freedom. His application to the committee is charac terized by the most Christlike self-depreciation, and his gentleness and meekness are manifested particularly in his position as bondsman ; for he says, "I know not how to excuse a willing ness to leave my master and his family, until your verdict might make my call to higher du ties unquestionable." His certificate of manu mission was sent to the committee by F. Light- bourne, Esq., his noble- and indulgent master, "without fee or reward." In no account of any mission do we find such love and harmony prevailing as in this one. In 1830 the society numbered 200, and the school-children num bered 363. Fredericksdal is the most southerly of the Moravian settlements in Greenland, lying about ninety miles from Lichtenau and half that distance from Cape Farewell. It was com menced in the year 1824 with the hope that the locality would be suitable for bringing the gospel message to the heathen Greenlanders on the east coast. This hope has been realized to a considerable extent. In the first year after the establishment of the station, about a hun dred converts were baptized, and since then many more have been brought to the knowl edge of the truth. During the first two years the brethren stationed here underwent great hardships aud much discomfort. Their sole habitation was a hut of sods. Frederikshaab; a station of the Danish Missionaiy Society in southern Greenland. Though there now are very few heathen among the Greenlanders, the Danish mission has not succeeded in educating native preach ers — there is at present only one ; and though the importation of whiskey is absolutely for bidden, the introduction of coffee, tobacco, Danish dress, etc., has done much harm among the Eskimo. Free Church of Scotland.— Head quarters, 15 North Bank Street, Edinburgh, Scotland. See article on Presbyterian Church of Scotland, where the origin of the work of the Church is traced until the disruption in 1843, after which dale the Established and Free Churches are treated separately, Freewill Baptist Foreign Mission ary Society. — Secretary, Rev. T. H. Stacy, Auburn, Maine, U. S. A. The Foreign Mission ary Society of the Freewill Baptists (variously known as "Free," " Free Communion," and, " Open Communion " Baptists) owes its organ ization to the instrumentality of the Rev. Messrs. James Peggand Amos Sutton, who were among the earliest missionries sent out by the General Baptists of England to Orissa, India. Their correspondence with Elder John Russell, at that time the leader of the Freewill Baptists, was published in the "Morning Star," their religious paper, and resulted in the formation, in 1832, of the Freewill Baptist Foreign Missionary So ciety in the " old meeting-house " at North Par- sonsfield, Maine. The Act of Corporation was obtained from the Legislature of Maine in Janu ary, 1833. During this year the Rev. Amos Sutton visited America, and lectured upon missions in the churches of the Freewill Bap tists and other denominations. At a meeting held at Gilford, where Dr. Sutton pleaded the cause of India, a collection of $100 was taken, which was considered a marvel for those days. In 1835, after three years of existence, the receipts of the Society aggregated $2,660. With this sum in the treasury the Society had faith to send four missionaries to India. The first accepted missionary was ordained at the New Hampshire Yearly Meeting held at Lisbon in June, 1835, in the presence of three thousand people. Dr. Cox of England preached the sermon, and Dr. Sutton and the Rev. David Marks were among those who took part in the services. On the 22d of September, 1835, the ship " Louvre " sailed from Boston with a com pany of twenty missionaries. Among the num ber were Mr. and Mrs. Noyes and Mr. and Mrs. Phillips of the Freewill Baptist Society. India was practically many times more distant then than at present, and on this occasion one hundred and thirty-six days were consumed in the passage to Calcutta; from whence the Bap tist missionaries proceeded to Cuttack, a station of the English General Baptist Society, where they remained while acquiring the language. In January, 1837, they established a station at Sumbalpur, a large and populous town in the hill district of Orissa. After a year of sickness, sadness, and death, the place was abandoned. All the missionaries were sick; a child of Mr. and Mrs. Noyes, a child of Mr. and Mrs. Phil lips, and Mrs. Phillips herself died. But the effort made at Sumbalpur was not altogether a failure. The children gathered there formed the nucleus of a future mission school, and among them was one who is now a trusted na tive preacher. After this, Balasore, the north ern district of Orissa, and Midnapore, a district of Bengal, were consigned to the Freewill Bap tists as their especial field of labor. Early in 1838, Balasore, previously occupied b3r the Gen eral Baptists.was surrendered to them. A station was established and the foundations of perma nent missiouaiy work were laid. From that beginning there has been steady growth ; five additional stations have been established,, at Jellasore (1840) ; Midnapore (temporarily in 1845, and permanently in 1862); Santipore (1865) Bhimpore (1873); and Dantoon (1877). There are also several Christian villages. A mission church was early organized at Balasore ; there are now churches at each station, and two at places which are not stations. The number of communicants in all these churches is 527. The first aim of the Society is to proclaim the gos pel. Tbe means used are chapel and bazaar preaching and itinerating : the last method is for the benefit of those dwelling in remote regions. It was upon one of these tours that the Santals, a tribe of extremely degraded peo pie living among the hills, were discovered. Much labor was devoted to them, and the sta tions at Santipore and Bhimpore were opened especially for their benefit. Mr. Phillips re duced their spoken language to a written one, REEWILL BAPTIST MISS. SOC. 379 FREETOWN id gave them portions of the Scriptures, and joks for elementary instruction. For the ser- iees rendered in their behalf he received the lanks of the British Government. Schools have been generally established iroughout the territory belonging to the Soci- ty. From 1848-60 a school was sustained at ialasore for victims rescued by the British rovernmenj^from human sacrifice. Marked features of the mission are the girls' rphanage, established at Jellasore in 1861, and he many Santal schools scattered through the tingles, taught by natives trained by the mis- ionaries. In 1865 zenana work was under- iken, and has since been carried forward at lidnapore and Balasore. A Bible school was pened at Midnapore in 1879. Dr. Bachelor, fho was sent to reinforce the mission in 1840, stablished a dispensary at Balasore, and formed medical class composed of native young men. ?he dispensary remained at Balasore for twenty ¦ears, with an annual attendance of 2,000 pa- ients. It was removed in 1862 to Midnapore, there it continues a great blessing to the com- lunity. At Jellasore an asylum was founded or the benefit of sick and suffering pilgrims. n 1862 printing work was begun. This branch f work has always been self-supporting, and in ecent years has also contributed to the support f the other work of the mission. Since the ounding of the Society in 1833 38 missionaries ave been sent to India. Free Churches of French Switzer- and.— Foreign Mission Board. (Mis- ion des Eglises Libres de la Suisse Romande.) iecretary, M. Paul Leresche, Lausanne, Switz- rland. In the year 1874, the Synod of the Free 'vangelical Churches of the Swiss Canton de raud (Presbyterian) resolved to create a mis- ion of its own among the heathen, and accord- agly two young missionaries, Messrs. Ernest Ireux and Paul Berthoud, were sent to South Lfrica. They remained for some time with tie missionaries of the Foreign Missionary Soci- ty of Paris in Basutoland, and then found in 875 a mission field for themselves in the north- rn part of the Transvaal Republic, among the J-wamba negroes. The work has extended to lie Gwamba tribe living to the east of the Trans- aal, on the Limpopo River, and on the coast f Delagoa Bay. There are now in the Trans- aal three stations, Valdizia, with two mission- ries ; Elim and Shiluvane, each with one mis- ionary. On the eastern coast there are also hree stations, Lorenzo Marques, Rikatla, and Lntioka, with one missionary at each one. The Tew Testament and portions of the Old have leen translated into the Gwamba language; and he work at all the stations has been very suc- essful. On the coast the climate is very uu- iealthy, and the missionaries have suffered auch from its effects. The aim of this mission is to prepare effi- ient native evangelists and teachers to work mong their people. Already, those wbo have een trained have done much useful work. For nine years this mission was under the are of the Free Church of Canton de Vaud ; a 1883 the Free Churches of Neuchatel and reneva(both Presbyterian) formed a federation rith the Free Church of Canton de Vaud, and lie mission has since been under their joint irection, hence its present name. At present the mission has 6 stations, with 9 European and 16 native workers, 651 adher ents, 256 communicants, and 8 schools with 330 scholars. Freeman, John Edgar, b. city of New York, U. S. A., Dec. 27th, 1809; was appren ticed at the age of fifteen to a trade; in 1829 publicly professed his faith in Christ, and same year decided to study for the ministry; pur chased the last year of his time for $80, and commenced study with Mr. John T. Halsey; graduated at Princeton College 1835, Theolog ical Seminary 1838; ordained July 12th, 1838, by Presbytery of Elizabeth town ; sailed for India October 12th, same year, as a missionary of Pres byterian Board of Foreign Missions; stationed at Allahabad, having charge of orphan boys and firls until the death of Mrs. Freeman in 1849. n impaired health, he visited the United States April 28th, 1850, with his two children. In 1851 he returned, with his second wife, and was stationed most of the time at Mynpurie for six years. In 1856 he removed to Futtegurh. At the breaking out of the mutiny he attempted with others to reach Allahabad, a British station, for safety, but was made a prisoner by the Sepoys, and put to death at Cawnpore by order of the rebel chief Nana Sahib, June 13th, 1857. The Rev. E. D. G. Prime, his classmate in the seminary, thus writes of him: "He was a man of high social qualities. He was very cheerful. I do not remember ever to have seen him depressed. He was of a very ardent temperament, and earnest in all his impulses. His whole heart was in the cause of missions." One who labored with him for eight years speaks of his "ready tact in all business- matters requiring promptness, attention, and energy." Freetown, on the south side of the estuary of the Sierra Leone River, West Africa, is the capital of the British colony. It has an excel lent harbor and is an important coaling station. The climate is equable and healthy. Popula tion, 4,930, and of the surrounding district 18,000. The Europeans, half-castes, and immi grants occupy distinctive quarters of the town. The Church Missionary Society commenced its work in 1816, which is now conducted mainly in educational institutions, as a Sierra Leone native church has been organized; the gram mar school has 147 scholars, and many useful men, high in the service of the government and of the church, have received their education at this school. A college at Fourah Bay, two miles above Freetown, was built in 1840, and is the principal college in connection with the West African Mission. In 1876 it was reor ganized, and affiliated with Durham University. The native church withdrew finally from the C. M. S. in 1889 so far as receiving aid from the parent society is concerned, and in Free town there are now 4 native clergy, 3,012 com municants, 3 schools, 541 scholars. The Wes- leyan-Methodist Missionary Society have 2 cir cuits in the district, 12 chapels, 8 missionaries and assistants, 3,423 members, 9 Sabbath- schools, 1,825 scholars, 4 day schools, 1,063 scholars. United Methodist Free Churches; 2 itinerant preachers. 36 local preachers, 2,158 church-members, 5 Sabbath-schools, 867 schol ars. African Methodist Episcopal Church (1886); 1 missionaiy and wife, 2 out-stations, 3 churches, 205 members. FRENCH VERSION 380 FRIEDENSFELD French Version. — The French, which be longs to the Groeco-Latin branch of the Aryan language-family, is spoken in France, the Chaunel Islands, Switzerland, Belgium, and French Colonies. The number of French translations is very numerous. Of the older versious we mention only those which are still in use. The basis of all tbe French versions, Protestant as well as Catholic, is the translation of the Scriptures made from the Latin Vulgate by Jaques le Feore d'Etaples, commonly called Jacob Faber Stapulensis, published at Antwerp between the years 1512 and 1530 and often reprinted. Speaking of Protestant versions, we mention: (1). Olivetan's version of the Scriptures, trans lated from the original texts and printed at Neufchatel 1535, and again at Geneva 1540, aud, with a few corrections by his rela tive the celebrated Calvin, again at Geneva in 1545. Edition after edition followed, but none became as important as the one familiarly known as the " Geneva Bible," published at Geneva in 1588, after having been corrected by the college of pastors and professors of the Reformed Church at Geneva. A revision of the Geneva Bible was undertaken by David Martin, who rendered it more conformable in point of style to the modern idiom. Martin was- a native of Languedoc, and was pastor in that part of France till he was exiled by the revolu tion of the edict of Nantes. He then settled in Utrecht, as the pastor of the Walloon church in that city, and died in 1721. The New Testa ment he published in 1706, and the entire Bible in 1707. This, (2). Martin's version, was revised by Pierre Roque, pastor of tbe French church at Basle, and published in 1736 and often since. The British and Foreign Bible Society still cir culates Martin's version. (3). A new revision of the Geneva Bible was undertaken by J. F. Osterwald, a pastor of the Lutheran chureh at Neufchatel, which was published in 1724, and another and revised edition in 1744. As Osterwald's translation became the standard version, it was also adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society and issued from time to time. In 1868 an effort was made to attain to a uniform text of Oster wald's version, and the Bible Societies con cerned in the matter undertook the revision of the text in such a manner that words and phrases that appeared antiquated aud op posed to modern modes of speech should be removed and as far as possible the original lan guage of Osterwald be adopted. The New Testament iu this revision was issued in 1869, and the Old Testament in 1871. A thoroughly revised version prepared by M. Fossard and other French pastors was published by the French Bible Society in 1887, and this revised text was also adopted by the British aud Foreign Bible Society. Besides the British Bible So ciety, tbe Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge published a revisiou of former ver sions, so carefully corrected as to be essentially a new version, between 1842 aud 1850. Martin's revision was taken as the basis of this edition. Of other Protestant versions, not published by Bible Societies, we mention the New Testament by E. Aruaud (Geueva, 1858-1865), Rilliet (1858), and H. Oltramare (1872, 8th ed. 1885); the Old Testament by Perret-Gentil (Neufchatel, 1852), and by Louis Segond (Geneva, 1864— 2d ed. 1877, at Nancy; 3d ed. 1879, at Geneva), and his new translation of the New Testament from the Greek in 1879. Segond's work has been accepted by the University Press, Oxford, Eng land, Bridel's translation (Lausanne, 1861 seq.— 2d ed. 1888); Ledrain's (Paris, 1885 seq.), besides the translations prepared for the Bible works by Reuss (Paris, 1874-81) and by a company of theologians and pastors (Neufchatel, 1878 seq.). Of Catholic Versions we mention: De Sacy's New Testament made from the Vulgate and printed by the Elzevirs, Amster dam, 1667, for Migeot, a bookseller of Mons, whence it is often called the Mons Testament. It appeared under the approbation of Cardinal Noailles, but was condemned by Pope Clement IX. (April 20th, 1668). De Sacy prepared his translation while in the Bastille. The entire Bible with notes (Paris, 1672) was often repub lished, and is still widely used in France, espe cially as it is circulated by the British and For eign Bible Society. Of the more recent efforts among Roman Catholics, we mention Orsim's Bible (Paris, 1851); Delaunay's (5 vols., 1856 and often since); Genoude's (1865); Gaume's New Testament (1863); the translation in the famous Bible work by Paul Dracz (Paris, 1869-82, 16 vols.) and by Trochon (Paris, 1887 seq. ). The most note worthy is the translation of the gospels by Henri Lassere, published in 1887 under the authority of the Archbishop of Paris, which has reached already more than 20 editions. It is inscribed to " Our Lady of Lourdes" as the " Queen of Heaven." The British and Foreign Bible Society up to March 31st, 1889, disposed of 10,979,935 portions of the Scriptures, including copies of its diglott New Testaments, as follows: of French-Bre ton, 5,p40; French-English, 22,600; French- Flemish, 10,000; French-German 18,070. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) CarJDieu'a tellement aime le "monde;- qu'il a donnS son Fils unique, afin que -quiconque croit en lui ne perisse point,, mais qu'il. ait. la vie eternellc-.j Freretown, a town in British East Africa, near Mombasa (q.v.), has been pervaded with new life and energy by the improvements of the British East Africa Company. It is the coast port at the beginning of two routes to the in terior. Mission station of the Church Mission ary Society; 2 missionaries, 3 female mission aries, 1 lioys' school, 1 girls' school. The mission press has issued St. John's Gospel in Kigogo, besides hymn and school-books. Friedensbcrg, a station of the Moravians in the western part of the island of St. Croix, West Indies. It was begun in 1771, in order to reach the large number of slaves on the sur rounding plantations. The dwelling and church are advantageously situated on a hill to the east of the town of Fredricksted, commonly called "West End." The mission premises command a fine and extensive view of the roadstead and the sea beyond. On fine days the island of Porto Rico, some seventy miles distant, can be seen. Fricdcnsfeld, a town on St. Croix Island, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians (1804); 1 missionary and wife. Situated near FRIEDENSFELD 381 FRIENDS' FOR. MISS. ASSOC. the centre of the island, and is the only country church in St. Croix, all the others being in the towns of Christiansted and Fredrickstecl, which are fifteen miles apart. Friedensfeld diffuses religious light and knowledge among a large population, consisting almost entirely of the black and colored laborers on the numerous estates in the vicinity. FriedeMSlhal, a town on St. Croix Island, West Indies. Mission station of the Moravians (1754); 1 missionary and wife. This station was one of the immediate results of the faithful and self-denying labors of Frederick Martin. It is pleasantly situated on rising ground to the west of the town of Christiansted, which, together with a great expanse of ocean, reach ing as far as St. Jan and Tortota, is seen from the windows of the missionaiy dwelling. About four miles distant is the estate " Great Princess," on which Brother Frederick Martin carried on his labors of love. And here on a knoll behind the village his remains lie buried. He gained the love of the negroes to such a degree that to this day they venerate tbe place of his burial and lovingly care for his grave. Friendship, a town in Jamaica, West In dies. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1838); 1 native pastor, 289 communicants, 1 Sabbath-school, 230 scholars. Friendly or Tonga Islands, a group in the South Pacific, extending from 18° 5' to 22° 29' south latitude, and from 173° 52' to 176° 10' west longitude, was discovered by Tasman in 1643, and named Friendly Islands by Captain Cook, but is now called Tonga after the princi pal island. There are about 150 islands, com prising a total area of 374 square miles. Part of these are of volcanic nature, but a majority of the islands are level and covered with rich, productive soil. The water supply, however, is scarce, as streams are very rare. The principal island is Touga or Tongatabu, 120 miles in area, on which is situated the capital, Nutrualopa. Earthquakes are frequent, and at times volcanic eruptions have taken place. The climate, like that of Fiji, is warm and humid. Southeast trade-winds blow except for a few months in the winter. The islands are now Christianized, and are governed by a Christian king, George I. Tubu, and their independence is recognized by treaties with Great Britain and Germany. For merly Tonga was noted for cannibalism, infanti cide, and other crimes characteristic of savages. The people are intellectually far in advance of most of the Polynesian race, and have at one time and another conquered many of the sur rounding islands. Nearly every one can read, and they are industrious farmers as well as skilful sailors. They number now 23,000, of whom 437 are Europeans. Mission work in this group has until recently been carried on by the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, but for some years past the native church has formed a district in connection with the New South Wales and Queensland Conference. The triumphs of the gospel in Tonga, the devoted zeal of the king, and tbe proud position which Torigan converts have held as pioneers of Chris tianity to Fiji and other Polynesian groups are striking testimonials to the civilizing and regen erating power of Christian missions. Friends' Foreign Missionary Asso ciation. — Secretary, Mr. Charles Linney, Hitchin, Herts, England. The Society of Friends has always been remarkable for the de votion of almost every member to the missionary as well as to every other philanthropic cause. From the times of George Fox, the founder of the Society, when they sent out missionaries to China and to Prester John's country, they have shown by many practical illustrations their ap preciation of the duty of all men to preach the gospel of Christ. Many devoted men and women have beeu engaged in work in foreign countries, and in some instances their work has extended over considerable periods of time and extensive areas of country. But these were only isolated cases, and, being such, were gene- ally not of lasting effect. It was not until 1835 that any united effort was made by the Friends as a body in behalf of foreign missions, but in that year tlie subject was brought before the central yearly meeting of the Society at Lon don aud given serious cousideration. The in terest thus aroused steadily grew — increased in 1859 by George Richardson of New Castle, who himself wrote and circulated letters among his fellow-members, urging them to concerted ef fort for the salvation of the heathen. Stirred to action by this appeal, an address was issued in 1861 by the Society's central governing body, calling on all members of the Society of Friends to aid the mission cause, and this action was em phasized by appeals from William Ellis, mission ary of the L. M. S. in Madagascar. In 1865 a provisional committee, formed to promote the cause of missions among the English Friends, succeeded in raising funds sufficient to send out their first missionary, Rachel Metcalf, who sailed for India in 1866. Thus was formed the Friends' Foreign Missionaiy Association, through which the entire Society of Friends is enabled to work harmoniously and easily, and every year with increasing effect in India, Mada gascar, and China, as weil as to assist by their hearty co-operation in the work of all evan gelical missions. India first demanded the attention of the Friends' Association. Rachel Metcalf, embrac ing the long-wished-for opportunity for active service in a foreign field, offered to go to India in answer to an appeal of Mrs. Leupolt of the C. M. S. at Benares, asking for some one to assist her in her industrial school in that city. Her offer was accepted, and in October, 1866, she sailed, and upon her arrival took up her duties as assistant under Mrs. Leupolt; in which position she remained until 1869, when the ar rival of two new missionaries, Elkanah. and Irene Beard of America, made it possible to open a separate station, first located at Benares, but in the following year removed to Jubalpur. In 1872 Mr. and Mrs. Beard were obliged by reason of ill health to return to America, and their place was supplied, February, 1873, by a young English Friend. Charles Gayford. Shortly after this the station was again removed, this time to Hoshangabad, the centre of a large district in the Nerbudda valley, comprising a population of three or four millions, then totally untouched by any Christian influence. Here it has since remained, the city itself form ing the base of operations, from which, in the cold season, itinerant journeys are frequently made into tbe surrounding villages, etc. In 1878 the mission, reinforced by fresh laborers, Samuel Baker and John H. Williams and their wives, opened a branch station at Sahagpur, a FRIENDS' FOR. MISS. ASSOC. 382 FRISIANS town 30 miles distant, where John Williams and his wife are still actively engaged. In 1883 Ellen Nainby was sent out to take charge of the zenana work and girls' school at Ho- shangabad, where she was joined in 1886 by Auna L. Evans, who now superintends tbe girls' orphanage in place of Rachel Metcalf, its founder, who died June 12th, 1889. Henry C. E. de St. Dalmas and his wife arrived in 1886, and are at present in temporary charge of So- hagpur. Madagascar. — In the same year (1866) that Rachel Metcalf weut to India, two American Frieuds, Louis aud Sarah Street, and James S. Sewell, of Hitchin, Englaud, interested in the mission work by the addresses of Dr. Ellis, of fered themselves for service in Madagascar, where they arrived in 1868, "just at that juuc- ture when the adoption of the Christian religion by the queen had given an immense impulse to the existing missions." The Friends did not attempt to start a separate mission, but at once set to work to aid the educational department of the missionaries of the London Missionaiy Society, who were making every effort to meet the suddenly increased demand for Christian instruction. As the work grew, however, it was necessary to divide the central province of Imerina into districts, and the care of the Ambohitantely Church devolved upon the Friends. The area of the entire allotted mission district was 2,000 square miles, and had in it when first taken in charge by J. S. Sewell, in 1868, 6 chapels, increased in 1872 to the number of 62 congregations with 37 schools. At Antananarivo the Society established a boys' school, placed successively in charge of Mrs. Street and Helen Gilpin. Later a training col lege was added, which has thrived wonderfully and now supplies almost all the teachers em ployed in the country schools. In 1872 a print ing office was started, which issues a monthly magazine for adults, and one for children, and where the native boys are taught printing, lith ography, map-making, etc. In 1880 the Society joined with the L. M. S. in carrying on a hos pital and medical mission at Analekely. Tbis branch of their work is very important, since their kindness to the sick and suffering gives them a hold on the hearts of the people, and they have been able to instruct many of the native youth for medical work or trained nurses. The best proof of the noble work done in Madagas car is the fact tbat now the native churches maintain independently a native missiouaiy so ciety and an orphanage for boys. There are now in the field 7 missionaries and their wives, and 5 single ladies. China was occupied in 1886 by Robert J. Davidson and bis wife, wbo located at Han- chung, where they were joined in 1888 by Caroline N. Soulhall. The chief feature of this work is the dispensary, whither more than 6,000 patients have eome during the year, seek ing relief both bodily aud spiritual. The business of the Association is transacted by an executive committee, appointed annually by the general meet iug held at such time aud place as is appointed. Friends' Medical Mission among the Armenians.— Headquarters, 18 Rue Sagh, Pera, Constantinople.— This work was begun in 1881 by Gabriel Dobrashian, who when a boy of twelve made his way to London with the hope of receiving an education which would fit kim to be a missionary to his own people. He studied in England for seven years, and finally obtained the diploma of M.R.C.S. After prac tising a year in the Mildmay Hospital, he was sent to Turkey by the Society of Friends, to open a medical mission in the Armenian quarter of Constantinople. Associated with Dr. Dobrashian in this work is his cousin, Dr, Giragosian. Meetings for worship are held in connection with tbe medical work, and a school for children has been opened. The number of patients for 1888 was 6,500 ; number of visits paid to patients far and near, 1,000. Friends' Syrian Mission.— Headquar ters, 12 Bishopsgate Street Within, London, E.C, — The Friends' Syrian Mission, founded in 1874, had its beginning in the efforts of Eli and Sybil Jones, who while holding religious meetings in Syria and Palestine halted at Ramallah, near Jerusalem ; here they were induced to establish a day school for girls ; soon after they estab lished others at Jifneh and Ramleh. For these three schools the two Friends held themselves responsible, until their support was assumed in 1874 by the Friends' Syrian Mission Committee, For some years after its formation an important . branch of the work of the mission was its grants in aid of girls' schools in various parts of Syria and Palestine, under the care of other societies. As its own work increased, these grants became smaller, amounting now to only £62 per year. In 1875 ground was purchased, and the erec tion of a boys' Training Home begun near Bni- mana, in the Lebanon district. This Home has accommodations for 30 boarders. In 1871 an industrial school was established, and in 1881 a cottage hospital containing 18 beds and a dis pensary, ln this year a girls' school, accom modating 20 boarders, was erected on a site ad joining Ain Salaam, and afterwards incorpo rated with it. The funds for this were raised mainly by the New England Friends' Commit tee. Other schools have been established, mak ing the whole number eight, having an attend ance of about 400. The Ramallah mission is similar to that at Brumana, but ou a smaller scale. In addition to the boys' and girls' schools, there is a cottage hospital with four or five beds aud a dispen sary. The meetings for worship are well attended. The Ramallah mission was in 1888 transferred to the New Eugland Committee, in return for their share in the Brumana mission. Frisians.— A German people who inhabit the northwest coast of the German portions of Holland and some of the adjacent islands, The southwest Frisians early lost their charac teristic race features, laws, and language. The small remnant who still retain Frisian peculiar ities are divided into three branches : the West Frisians, who live along the easteru coast of Holland ; the East Frisians, who live in the fens and marshes of Saterland and the island of Wangeroog; and the North Frisians, who occupy the western shore of Schleswig and some of the adjacent islands The dialects of these three branches are widely different, and almost each village has its own way of speaking. The lan guage is not used for literary purposes, and its forms are not constructed according to gram matical strictness. The only work that is carried on among the FRISIANS 383 FUTUNA VERSION Frisians is the distribution of Matthew's Gos pel in Frisian by the B. & F. B. Society. Frisian Version. — The Frisian belongs to the Teutonic branch of the Aryan language- family, and is used in Holland. A translation of the Gospel of Matthew had been prepared by the Rev. Dr. Halbertsma from the Greek, and Prince Lucien Bonaparte published an edition of 250 copies in 1858 for linguistic purposes. From this version the British and Foreign Bible Society issued an edition of 2,000 copies in 1883. Fuh-ning, a town and district in Fuhkien, China. Mission station of the Church Mission ary Society; 1 missionaiy and wife, 2 female missionaries, 20 communicants, 3 schools, and 58 scholars. Fukping (Fukwing), a city on the north shore of the estuary of the Canton River, Kwangtung, China, between Canton and Hong kong. Mission station of the Rhenish Mission ary Society; 2 missionaries, 4 native helpers, 2 out-stations, with 250 church-members. . Fukuoka, the principal town in the north western part of the island of Kiu-Shiu. Japan, is situated on the shore, and is divided into two parts: the business quarter and port, called also Hakata, which contains 28,000 people all eager in the race for wealth; and the old feudal town, pervaded with the quiet and decorum of the olden time. It is the centre of instruction for a population of over a million. The Methodist Episcopal Church North has here a native preacher and two foreign female missionaries in charge of a girls' school with 100 pupils. The Church Missionary Society has 1 missionaiy and wife and 129 communicants in the district. It is also an out-station of the A. B. C. F. M. Fu 1 1 til on, Robert Stewart, b. Bloom- ington, Ohio. U.S.A. November 23d, 1821; graduated at Miami University, Ohio, and Alle ghany Theological Seminary; ordained by Pres bytery of Chillieothe. 1850; sailed the same year for India as a missionaiy of the Presbyterian Board. Remaining a short time at Futtehgurh and Mynpurie, he was soon sent to Agra with his wife to commence and conduct two institu tions, a male and a female school, for the East India community. He was relieved of the boys' school on the arrival of Rev. R. E. Williams. At this time he became pastor of the Presby terian Church at Agra, which charge he con tinued to hold, and also that of the female school, till the mutiny in 1857, which broke up the schools and the mission. The girls' school, which he conducted with his wife, continued for five years, and did much to elevate the tone of Christian feeling in the East India commu nity. The church of which he was pastor grew under his care. After the suppression of the mutiny he went to Futtehgurh to look after the scattered remains of the mission and prosecute the mission work. His labors at Agra had been to his regret, but necessarily, mainly in English. At Futtehgurh he gave himself with great dili gence to the native language, and soon became a fluent and effective speaker. He recom menced, as soon as practicable, the Furrukhabad High School, and besides the charge of that he cared for the native church in the city, spending much time also preaching in the bazaars. Under all his labors his health at the end of three years gave way. He went to the Dehra station on the hills in 1864, laboring there faithfully till near the end of his life. A malignant disease at tacked him, from which he died after three months of great suffering. His death occurred at Landour, Himalaya Mountains, October 4th, 1865. He is spoken of as an unusually devoted Christian, of marked intellectual ability. " He was," says one, "social in bis nature, fond of society, full of good humor and ready wit. It was this which made him a cheerful and desirable companion, and attached all hearts to him." " His death was one of triumph." Just before his death he said to his family and friends: "I am so unspeakably happy that I must talk to you a little while. I wish to say that I would not exchange this bed of pain for crowns and kingdoms. I did not think that I should be permitted to enter the land of Beulah here on earth, but I have entered it. Do not think that this is excitement. I am as calm as ever I was, but my peace and joy are beyond expression. Heaven is indeed begun below. All is bright and beautiful." Fulneck (New Fulneck), a station of the Moravians in Jamaica, West Indies, 20 miles from Fairfield. When the station was opened there was not a church or chapel within seven or eight miles of the place, while the surround ing negro population exceeded 20,000. The mission chapel is under the charge of a married native missionaiy. Fung-hwa, the capital of a county in Che- kiang, China, on the coast, 30 miles from Ning po. Mission station C. I. M. (1886); 1 missionary and wife, 2 out-stations, 5 churches, 60 commu nicants. Furreedpore (Faridpur), a city of Bengal, East India. Population, 10,263, Hindus, Mos lems, etc. Mission station of the Baptist Mis sionary Society; 1 missionary, 5 female mission aries, 2 out-stations, 1 school, 17 scholars. Futschukpui, a town of Kwangtung, China, northeast of Canton, west of Swatow. Mission station of the Basle Missionary Society; 1 missionary and wife, 8 native helpers, 1 out- station, 141 communicants. Futtehgurh, Furrukhabad, two towns, about three miles apart, on the Ganges, 723 miles northwest of Calcutta, India, are virtu ally one place, and form an important station of the Presbyterian Church (North) in India. The population of the surrounding district, estimated at 900,000, consisting chiefly of Hindoos, with a very few Mohammedans, terribly poverty- stricken and morally degraded, offers a rich field for their labors. Urdu and Hindustani are the dialects spoken. Futtehgurh (1838) is the residence of most of the foreign workers, while Furrukhabad (1844) is the centre of the itinerat ing work, preaching- services, evangelistic schools, and zenana visiting, which is carried on by the mission; 2 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife, 1 female missionaiy, 8 native assistants, 1 out-station, 160 church-members, 860 day scholars, 1,402 Sabbath-school scholars. Fu I u ua Version. — The Futuna, which be longs to the Melanesian languages, is spoken in Futuna, New Hebrides. In 1866 the' Rev. Joseph Copeland settled on the island, and after having reduced the language to writing he translated the Gospel of Mark, which was print- FUTUNA VERSION 384 GALLA VERSION ed at Sydney in 1869. The other Gospels were also published at Sydney. Mr. Copeland was followed by the Rev. Dr. William Gunn, from the Free Church of Scotland, who re -translated the Book of Genesis and the Acts of the Apos tles, translated by Mr. Copeland. The Acts were published at Sydney in 1887 under the editorship of Mr. Copeland. Fwainbo, a town in Central Africa, 50 miles east of the southern extremity of Lake Tanganyika, has a fine, elevated, healthy site between fotir and five thousand feet above the sea. A mission station of the London Missionary Society (1887); 2 missionaries and wives, 1 phy sician. The position of these missionaries in the interior of Africa is dangerous in the extreme. An attack was planned by the Arabs of Ujiji,' which threatened the lives of the missionaries and the prosperity of the work ; but Mahommed, a representative of the well-known Tippu Tib, espoused the cause of the missionaries and checked hostilities. For many months com munication was interrupted, but the prospects in the mission are now brighter, and all cause for anxiety seems to have passed away, G. Gaboon, a town in the Gaboon district, West Coast, Africa, at head of bay of same name. Climate hot and unhealthy. Language, Mpon gwe. Religion, fetichism and the fear of evil spirits. People degraded; polygamy and slav ery common. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1842), transferred to Presbyterian Church (North), 1870; 2 ordained missionaries, 1 lady, It native helpers, 6 out-stations, 4 churches, 239 members, 2 schools, 85 students. Gaelic Version. — The Gaelic, which be longs to the Keltic branch of the Aryan language- family, is vernacular to the Highlanders of Scot land, who received a New Testament in their language in 1767. The translation was made by the Rev. James Stuart o£ Killin, .and published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowl edge in 1767, and again in 1796. The Old Tes tament, translated by different translators, was published in 1801, and in a revised form, uni form in style, in 1807, at Edinburgh, under the care of the Rev. Alexander Stewart of Dingwall. Other editions followed. A revised edition pre pared by Clerk and McLaughlin was published in 1860 by the National Bible Society of Scot land. For the members of the Roman Catholic Church the bishops George Hay and John Gedder prepared a translation which was pub lished at Edinburgh 1796-1797. Another trans lation of the New Testament, by Colin C. Grant, was published at Aberdeen in 1875 with episco pal approbation. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Oifis ann mar sin a ghradhaich Dia an eaoghal, gu'n d'thug e' 'abn-ghin Mhic ffiin, Cluim as-ge b'e neach a chreideas ann, nach egriosar.e(j ach gu'm^bi a'bheatha shiorruidh aige. Oalkissa, a town in the southwestern por tion of Ceylon, East Indies. A station of the S. P. G. The missionaries complain that their converts are very slow in developing an active and independent Christian life, and tbat re lapses are frequent. Buddhism lias evidently outlived itself, but it is still lingering in the form of demon-worship and magic, which often show themselves in cases of sickness and com pel the church to employ very strict measures of suppression. It has 2 churches, 107 com municants, 5 boys' schools, 2 girls', and 5 mixed schools; total attendance, 884. Galla, a country and people of Abyssinia, Africa, q.v. Galla Versions. — The Galla belongs to the Hamitic group of African languages, and is vernacular in the Galla country, East Africa. The Galla has three dialects, the Shoa, Ittu, and Bararetta. Portions of the Scriptures have been published in the first two dialects, and a translation in Bararetta is in course of prepara tion. 1. Shoa-Galla Version. — During his stay in Shoa, between the years 1839 and 1842, the late Dr. Krapf translated parts of the New Testa ment and the Book of Genesis. In 1844 the Shoa mission was abandoned and the work of translation suspended for a while. Of late it was taken up again, and the Psalms were pub lished by the British and Foreign Bible Society at the Chrischona press, near Basle, under tbe editorship of Dr. Krapf in 1871. In 1872 the Book of Genesis, in 1875 the New Testament, and in 1877 the Book of Exodus were published, all in Amharic characters. As there are Gallas who do not understand Dr. Krapf's northern version, the above Bible Society issued in 1888 a version of the Gospel of John, made by the Rev. T. Wakefield, henceforth to be called the southern Galla version. 2. Ittu-Galla Version. — In this dialect aver sion of the Gospel of Matthew was prepared, at the suggestion of Professor Rheinisch of Vienna, by Hajlu, a Galla freedman from Ha- rar. Hajlu was trained by the Swedish miss- sionaries at Massowah, and afterwards travelled with Prof. Rheiuiscb in Africa as his servant. The Gospel was published by the British Bible Society in 1885. Of the former version the same Society disposed up to March 31, 1889, of 7,077, and of the latter of 500 copies. (Specimen verses. John 3 : 16.) $»A$? t: t 2S.Aon : &m-ro Sovoocmo 3cj>|IjQi5 d6u, mSrnS wrr>ancmL (iilttjt Derloren, jpntrii^foubrrn- baS cmige Seben habea, German Baptist Brethren Church. General Church Erection and Missionary Com mittee. Headquarters, Mount Morris, 111,, U S. A. The foreign-mission work of the German Baptist Brethren was commenced in Denmark in 1875, and in Sweden in 1885. Five mission aries are now at work in the two fields. The report for 1889 shows 821 meetings held, and 8 baptisms. In 1887 the committee was authorized to adopt plans to secure an endowment fund for the missionaiy work of the Church. $50,009 have already been secured. German Evangelical Synod of North America. Secretary, Rev. John Huber, Attica, N. Y., U. S. A. The Church consists of 674 ministers and 886 congregations, many of the latter being very small and unable to support themselves entirely, and nearly all gathered and established during the last twenty- five years. The Synod did not possess its own mission until 1884, although many of the pas tors, having proceeded from the mission-houses of Basle, Barmen, and Berlin, were naturally interested in the work, and many congregations contributed. The contributions were directed to the European societies, and several attempts of the friends of missions to originate a synodal work among the heathen failed. This aim was not lost sight of, however, and the most de voted of these friends issued a monthly periodi cal, "The Missionary," not only to further the cause at large, but with the avowed intention of agitating a synodal mission. Others, who from their early education were more connected with Basle and Barmen, began an opposition paper, which advocated the support of those societies, under the title of "Evangelical Friend of Missions." Without giving rise to any just complaint as though the demands of charity were ever trespassed upon, it was felt to be a strange discrepancy among the mem bers that such oppositional views should be ad vocated in the Synod on a subject the Biblical necessity of which all were agreed upon. Hence a committee of nine was appointed to report on the advisability of the Synod's undertaking an independent work in some foreign field, the report to be delivered before a general meeting of tbe Synod in St. Louis, October, 1883. Of the nine but few intended to aid a favor able report on their arrival ; but the providence of God opened doors during the week of con ference of which nobody had had any presenti ment, and by which the way to be chosen was laid open. For some years previous a mission society had been organized in New York City, com prising Christians of various German denomi nations and tbe Dutch Reformed Church. Its official name was German Evangelical Mis sionary Society of the United States. This Society sent Rev. Oscar Lohr, in 1867, to India, with instructions to choose a field according to God's leading ; and through a small party of Satwami in Bombay he was induced to begin work among these people, the first station being established in Bisrampore, near Raipore. The work proved successful, inasmuch as a small congregation was gathered and formed into a colony on a tract comprising 1926 acres of laud, the property of the mission ; and by 1883 two out-stations, one in Raipore, the other in Ganeshpore, had been begun, when the home Society saw more and more plainly that it was GERMAN EVANGEL. SYNOB 389 GITANO VERSION unable to raise the funds so necessary in the expansion of the work. Through Rev. Julius Geyer of New York City, a proposal was there for brought before the General Conference of the German Evangelical Synod of North America in St. Louis to take entire charge of the promising work of the Society. The offer was accepted, since every delegate at the con ference saw in it a higher direction, and in 1884 the Synod <6ok complete control of the work, the formal act of transmission taking place in the church of Rev. Schlegel, New York. At that date two ordaiued missionaries were in the field— Messrs. Lohr and Stoll ; one, Rev. Tanner, who since then was sent out, had to be withdrawn after a nearly two years' struggle with the climate. Quite a revival has taken place in Bisrampore and vicinity, the increase in members in that station amounting to 291, children included. In Raipore extensive grounds with buildings have been purchased, and a boarding-school contains a number of orphans, besides about 100 day- scholars. Here the work is conducted almost solely among the Hindoo population. The official representative of the Society in America is Rev. John Huber, Attica, N. Y. Mr. Wm. Behrendt of Cleveland edits the "Friend of Missions" — sent to 14,500 sub scribers. The two former periodicals have been united in this one. The contributions show a steady increase. Although no inconsiderable sums are still directed to European societies, the mission board of the German Evangelical Synod last year received |8,109.90 in direct contributions, and $900 as the net gain of its missionaiy publications. $8,881.41 were ex pended in the year ending March, 1890. Ghazipur, a city in the district of Benares, Northwest Provinces. India, on the Gauges River. Population, 39,000. A station of the Gossner Missionaiy Society, with 670 members. Gheg. — Albanian written in Greek char acters. (See Albanian.) _ Gibraltar, a crown colony of Great Britain, situated on a rocky peninsular headland pro jecting into the Mediterranean from the Prov ince of Andalusia, Spain. It is an impregnable fortress, and commands the entrance to the Mediterranean. Its area is only 1T97 square miles. The population, exclusive of the Eng lish garrison, is 19,000, of whom the majority are descendants of Genoese settlers. Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion, and there are three churches. The Wesleyan Methodists work at Gibraltar among the men of the gar rison, and also among the Spanish-speaking people; 1 missionary, 1 chapel, 41 members, 1 bunday-school, 20 scholars, 2 day-schools, 264 scholars. Gibraltar is a diocese of the S. P. G., with one resident missionary. The Free Church of Scotland has a congregation, with a pastor and 59 communicants. Gilbert Islands (Kusaie), a cluster of coral islands in Micronesia, on both sides of the equator. Population estimated at 60,000. The climate is equable, and though warm is not oppressive. The inhabitants resemble the Malays. The people are divided into three classes— chiefs, landholders, and slaves. There is no general authority recognized throughout the group, but there are several kings, and in some places the government is administered by public assemblies. The islauders are fond of war and prone to suicide ; but they are kind to their children, hospitable, generous, and more considerate of women than is usual among savages. They are said to eat human flesh occasionally but are not habitual cannibals. Their clothing is made of the leaves of the pandanus ; their houses and canoes, though constructed of rude materials, are su perior in size, strength, and elegance to any others in the Pacific. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1852) in connection with the Hawaiian Evangelical Association; 2 missionaries and wives, 1 female missionaiy, 12 churches, 5 Hawaiian missionaries, 1 native pastor, 10 assistants. Out-station of the London Missionary Society in the Samoan Islands. Gilbert Islands Version. — The Gilbert Islands language belongs to the Micronesian languages, and is used in the Gilbert Islands, where missionary operations were commenced in 1857. The first part of the Scriptures trans lated into this language, were eleven chapters of Matthew, made by the Rev. H. Bingham, and published in 1860 at Honolulu. In 1864 the Gospels of Matthew, John, and the Epistle to the Ephesians were issued at Apaiang, and in a second edition at New York in 1866. In 1873 the entire New Testament was completed, and in 1877 a revised edition was issued at Honolulu — a priceless gift to 30,000 people. A third edition was printed in New York in 1880, and three more were issued. In 1883 Mr. Bing ham commenced the translation of the Old Testament, of which some books have already been printed. Of the New Testament about 9,000 copies were purchased by the Gilbert Islanders. i verse. John 3 : 16.) Ba e bati tanirante aomata iroun te Afuaj tna naia are e araa Natina ae te rikitemana", ba e aona n aki mate ane omniakina, ma e na fiaaiu n aki toki. Gill, William, b. January 14th, 1813, at Totness, England ; sailed April 11th, 1838, as a missionary of the London Mission Society, for Rarotonga ; stationed at Arorangi in that island. In 1842, in the absence of Mr. Buzacott from Rarotonga, he took charge also of his station and of the institution at Avarua. Between 1843-46 he visited the other islands of the Hervey group, spending six months in Mangain and the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and the Loyalty Islands, returning by way of Samoa to Rarotonga. In addition to bis evangelistic and pastoral work he revised the Rarotonga version of the Scriptures, and wrote several books in that language. His wife devoted herself to the elevation of the native women. In 1853 he went to England and did not return to the mis sion field. Before his connection with the Society ceased he printed the second edition of the Rarotongan Bible, besides other books in that language. In October, 1856, he was settled as pastor at Woolwich, and died at Blackheath in 1878. Gitano Version.— The Gitano belongs to the isolated languages of Europe, and is used by tbe Spanish gypsies. The Gospel of Luke was translated into this dialect by Mr. George Burrow, and published at Madrid in 1838 by GITANO VERSION 390 GOBAT, SAMUEL the British and Foreign Bible Society. In con sequence of a fresh demand for the book, the same Society invited the translator to revise it before printing it afresh. The new edition was published in 1870. (Specimen verse. Luke 15 : 18.) MangnereTdiKelai'S, y chalarfl al fcatuseh; y lo penarG: -Batu, he querdi delete contra o.Tajpe y anglal de tucue. GisB (Geeze). — Another name for the ancient and dead Ethiopic of Abyssinia (q.v.) Gleason, Anson, b. Manchester, Conn., U. S. A., May 2d, 1797. In 1822 he became an assistant missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. , and in January, 1823, started for the Choctaw coun try. He travelled the long journey on horse back. After eight years of service among the Indians, the health of his family obliged him in 1831 to return north. While among the Choctaws, 50 miles from any other mission sta tion, he ' ' built a house, chapel, and school, all in one, for $5.50, and in that house he enter tained at the same time Messrs. Evarts, Bying ton, Kingsbury, and Worcester." Upon the solicitation of Miss Sarah L. Huntington, afterwards the wife of Rev. Eli Smith of the Syrian Mission, he came into connection with the Mohegans near Norwich, Conn., where a church was formed, to which he, hav ing been ordained, ministered till 1845. For a time he acted as District Secretary of the Board in Vermont and New Hampshire. In the fall and winter of 1845-6 he revisited the Choc taws, who had been removed by the Govern ment to the Indian Territory, taking with him three lady teachers from the American Board. While there, as he went from station to station, he found a deep religious interest, and many converts were reported, some of whom became ministers of the Gospel. In 1850 he began la bors among the Seneca Indians near Buffalo, N Y., remaining among them ten years. After that he became a city missionary in Rochester, Utica, and Brooklyn. He died in Brooklyn, February 24th, 1885. He had lived under the administration of all our Presidents up to that date, and reached the age of 87 years and 10 months. "Exuberant cheerful ness characterized him to the last; so did love for all good men and good objects. A larger, warmer heart has seldom beaten. His interest in the cause of missions kept unabated." Glenthorn, a town in Mankazana, district of Bedford, Cape Colony, 25 miles from Ade laide. Population, Europeaus (descendants of British and Dutch settlers), Hottentots, and Kafirs. Religion, heathenism. Social condition on the whole fairly good; some of the natives drink Kafir beer or brandy, but tbe district is not known as unruly. Their least hopeful characteristic is their idle and indiffer ent carelessness. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1840); 1 mis sionary and wife, 6 native workers, 10 out-sta tions, 1 church, 169 members. Gnadendal is the oldest aud the principal mission settlement of the Moravians in South Africa. Founded in 1737 by George Schmidt. On bis expulsion from the colony the work was suspen ded for nearly fifty years ; it was then, in 1792, renewed by three brethren, who found an old convert of Schmidt's still residing there, and carefully preserving a Dutch Testament he had given her. The settlement is situated near the junction of a rocky glen called Barian's Kloof (or "Glen of Baboons ") with the valley of the Sonderend, down which it extends nearly a mile and a half. It is about 50 miles east of Cape Town. God's blessing rested on the la bors of His servants among the Hottentots, al though they had to endure much opposition and persecution from the Dutch farmers. During the years 1802-6 the Dutch governor visited the station, and was so well pleased with the results of the mission, that at his sugges tion, it is said, it received the present name of Gnadendal, i.e., Valley of Grace. In the year of emancipation, 1838, a training-school for male teachers was opened at this place, which has done good service in training schoolmas ters, some of whom have become native minis ters. Gobat, Samuel, b. Cremine, Berne, Swit zerland, January 26th, 1799. At the age of nine teen, having an earnest desire to be a mission ary, he entered Basle Missionary Institution, previously perfecting himself in the German language. In 1823 he was sent to Paris to study Arabic at the Missionary Institution, at tending the Arabic lectures of Baron de Sacy. He studied also Amharic and Ethiopic. At the end of a year he was recommended by the di rectors of the Basle Institution to the C. M. S. for appointment as a missionary. Proceeding to England, he resided nine months in the Church Missionary College in Islington, devot ing himself chiefly to Oriental study under Pro fessor Lee of the University of Cambridge. Ap pointed in 1826 to commence a mission in Abyssinia, he returned to the continent, re ceived Lutheran ordination, and sailed for Africa, reaching Egypt in September of that year. A company of Abyssinians living at Jeru salem in a monastery, he was directed to visit that city, to obtain fuller information from them concerning Abyssinia and its languages. He spent three months there in 1827. On ac count of the unsettled state of the civil affairs of Abyssinia, he did not commence operations till 1830. From Massowah, a seaport in the Province of Tigre, he proceeded to Adigrate in the same province, and was favorably received by Sebagadis, the Chief or Ras of Tigre. Thence be went on a missionary tour to Gondar, capital of Amhara, another province. From 1830 to 1833 he travelled extensively, holding earnest discussions with the priests and people, anil proclaiming the gospel of Christ. From Cairo in 1833 he went to Europe. Having married, he returned in 1834 to Abyssinia with Rev. C. W. Isenberg. His health having failed, he left for home at tbe close of 1836. Continued ill-health preventing his laboringin Abyssinia, he was associated in 1839-42 with the Society's missionaries at Malta, in superin tending the translation of the Bible into Arabic, and taking charge of the printing-press. In 1841 he made a visit to Syria to ascertain the moral condition of the Druses, and the expedi ency of attempting a mission among them. On the establishment of a Protestant College at Malta by a committee in London for the bene fit of the youth of the Levant, he was appointed vice-president in 1845, and the same year visit ing England was ordained deacon in the GOBAT, SAMUEL 391 GOODELL, WILLIAM Church of England. After his return to Malta the Bishopric of the Anglican Church at Jeru salem becoming vacant by the death of Bishop Alexander, Mr. Gobat was nominated as his successor by the King of Prussia (Frederick William IV.), and consecrated at Lambeth July 5th, 1846. His work in Jerusalem was vigorous and successful. Especially worthy of mention are the Diocesan School ancl the Or phanage on MBunt Zion. The former was be gun in 1847 with nine children. When he died there were in Palestine under his care 37 schools with 1,400 children. He had also twelve native churches. He died in Jerusalem May 11th, 1879. He wrote "A Journal of Three Years in Abyssinia " (London, 1847). Bishop Gobat is said by all who knew him to have been a man of extraordinary talents, great humility, and devoted piety and zeal. He spoke eight languages. He had wonderful tact in dealing with all classes of men. His life was one of " adventure, hardship, exposure, and suffering." Godda; a district and town in Bengal, In dia; subdivision of the Santal Perganas district. Area 966 square miles, containing 1,758 villages. Population of the district, 348,493, Hindus, Moslems, Santals, Kols, and other aboriginal tribes of whom a few are Christians. The town is a mission station of the C. M. S.; 1 missionary and wife, 77 communicants, 9 schools, 178 scholars. Goederwacht. — A town in Cape Colony, South Africa, 50 miles north of Mamre. Its name, which signifies "well protected," indi cates the nature of the locality, which is a deep glen in a spur of the Picket Mountains. Station of the Moravians, occupied in 1888. This place is a Hottentot settlement, which originated in the bequest of a proprietor who died years ago, leaving his property to four of his slaves, after the death of the last of whom the estate was to be sold at auction, and the proceeds to be di vided among the numerous children of the slaves. When the last of the four slaves died, by her earnest wish the property was sold to the Moravians, who now own the entire station. The school and large congregation here are under the care of a native pastor. Godthaab, a station of the Danish Mission in southern Greenland, founded by Hans Egede in 1728. It has a teacher's seminary. Here the first Eskimo, Kajaruak, was baptized in 1739. Gogo (Gogha), a town and subdivision in Bombay, India. The town is a port on the Gulf of Cambay, about 200 miles south of Ahmadabad, and contains 7,000 Hindus, Mos lems, Jains, and Bheels. Gujarati and a mixed dialect called Mussulmani are spoken. The climate is temperate and healthy. Mission sta tion of the Irish Presbyterian Church (1844); 1 missionary and wife, 2 out-stations, 35 communi cants, 18 preaching places, 4 Sunday-schools, 290 scholars, 6 schools, 343 scholars. Gogo Version. — The Gogo belongs to the Bantu family of African languages, and is spoken by the Wagogo, who number about 100,000. They inhabit the region between the Umyamwezi district on the west and that of the Usagara on the east. They are bounded on the north by the Masai country and that of the Wataturu, and on the south by that of the Wahebe and the Wasango. For this tribe of east Equatorial Africa the Rev. J. C. Price translated the Gospel of Matthew from tbe Greek, by the help of the English Revised Version and Rebmanu's Swahili Version. The Gogo language is closely allied to the Kaguru, but sufficiently distinct to render the Kaguru Version useless among the Wagogo. With the sanction of the Church Missionary Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society published Mr. Price's version in 1886, of which thus far 507 copies have been disposed of. Gond Version. — The Gond belongs to the Dravidian family of the Non-Aryan languages, and is spoken by the Gonds, one of the most remarkable of the hill tribes in Central India. The Rev. Dawson of the Free Church Mission translated the Gospel of Matthew into this lan guage, which was published at Allahabad in 1872. The Gospel of Mark followed in 1873. In 1884 the Gospel of John and the Book of Genesis were issued. Thus far 1,500 portions of tbe Scriptures have been disposed of. (Specimen verse. Matt. 5 : 16.) «r*^ frn totti wnprrfcsn *rir ^ra* >w^ ?^ *"" t* dn% ifai >rvgsi Minn! isiffjif rtfo *t'1si*fl *isHl J|tlMMI{ iSK u Goodell, William, b. 1792, at Temple- ton, Mass. His father had earnestly desired him to be a minister of the gospel, but had not the means to educate him. The son, hearing that beneficiary aid was granted at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., went, walking and riding, sixty miles to Andover. Finding the charity fund overloaded and other applicants waiting, he "footed it the whole distance" home again. The next term, "without money, without credit, or any plan," he put his books and clothing into bis trunk, strapped it on his back, and began his march of sixty miles again. He was received; and having at this academy fitted for college, he entered Dartmouth, where he graduated, and then studied theology at Andover. After leaving the seminary he studied medicine, andspent a year in visiting the churches and the Indian missions at the South west. He sailed December 9th, 1822, for Beirut, where, after a few months spent at Malta, he arrived November 16th, 1823, expecting to proceed to Jerusalem, but the disturbed state of the country in consequence of tbe Greek revolu tion prevented. At Beirut he aided in estab lishing a mission, and pursued the study of the Turkish, Arabic, and Armenian languages. War raging between Greece and Turkey, and persecution from tbe ecclesiastics prevailing, his work was interrupted, and, consular pro tection being withdrawn, he was often in great peril. In 1828 he went with his family for a time for safety to Malta. There he issued the New Testament which be had translated into Armeno-Turkish. In 1831 he was transferred to Constantinople to begin a new mission to the Armenians. His time here was chiefly occupied in translating the Old Testament into Armeno- Turkish. Two years after, in a fire which destroyed nearly a square mile of the city, all his property, including grammars, dictionaries, commentaries, translations, and manuscripts of every kind, was consumed. In 1839 he was in the midst of the plague in its most frightful GOODELL, WILLIAM 392 GOSSNER MISSIONARY S00, forms. The persecution of converts and friends of missionaries, increasing in violence, threat ened to break up tbe mission work. But while be was awaiting the order to leave, God inter posed, in the defeat of the sultan's army, the death of the sultan himself, a destructive fire in Constantinople, and the overthrow of many leading persecutors. His great work, the trans lation of the Bible into Armeno-Turkish, was completed in 1841 ; but so anxious was he to secure perfect accuracy that it underwent repeated revisions, and the final one was not finished till 1863, four years before his death. On the day that he fiuished it he wrote to Dr. John Adams, his teacher at Andover: "Thus have I been permitted by the goodness of God to dig a well in this distant land, at which millions may drink, or as good Brother Temple would say, to throw wide open the twelve gates of the New Jerusalem to this immense population." In 1851 he visited his native land, where for two years he travelled twenty-five thousand miles, addressed more than four hundred con gregations in aid of foreign missions, besides meeting students of colleges and theological seminaries, and Sabbath and select schools. In 1853, he returned to Constantinople, where he labored with enthusiasm and success till 1865, when, on account of failing health, he requested a release from the Board. He returned home after forty-three years of missionary work, preached and delivered addresses, attended meetings of the Board at Chicago and Pittsfield, and died in 1867, aged 75, at the residence of his sou in Philadelphia. ' ' He was rarely gifted, full of genial humor, sanguine, simple, coura geous, modest, above all, holy. He won hearts and moulded lives." Gooty, a town in Madras, South India, 50 miles east of Bellaiy. Climate dry and hot. Population, 5,394, chiefly Hindoos and Mos lems. Languages, Hindustani and Telugu. Natives poor and degraded. Mission station of the Londou Missionary Society (1855); 2 mis sionaries (1 married), 15 native helpers, 28 out- stations, 1 church, 104 members, 2 schools, 186 scholars. Gorakbpur, a town in the Northwest Provinces of India, on the Rapti River, 80 miles east of Faizabad. The town is filthy, ill-kept, and overrun with troops of monkeys, here the object of popular veneration. Population, 57,922, Hindoos, Moslems, Christians, etc. Mission station of the Church Missionary Society (1883); 1 missionaiy and wife, 4 sta tions aud out-stations, 321 communicants, 15 schools, 1,500 scholars. Gordon, Andrew, b.Putnam.N.Y., U.S. A., September 17th, 1828; graduated at Franklin College, O., 1850; studied theology at Canons- burg, Pa., 1853; appointed by synod missionary to Sialkot, North India; ordained August 29th, 1854, by Presbytery of Albany; sailed Septem ber 28th, 1854. Dr. Gordon was the founder of this mission of the United Presbyterian Church. He was a devoted and useful laborer with pen and tongue. He returned to the United States in 1865 greatly debilitated, and remained so for several years; but having gained sufficient strength to warrant active labor again, he re- embarked in 1875, and was stationed at Gurdas- pur, Northern India. He returned home the second time because of illness of members of his family, and looked forward confidently and eagerly to a return to his work in India. He received the degree of D.D. in 1885 from Franklin College, New Athens, O. After a long and painful illness he died in Philadelphia, August 13th, 1887, and was buried at West Laurel Hill Cemetery. Dr. Gordon was prepar ing a version of the Psalms in the Urdu language when he returned. He published a valuable work, "Our India Mission," 8vo, pp. 516 (1886). Gordon Memorial, a station of the Free Church of Scotland, in Natal, South Africa, a few miles from the frontier of Zululand, opened in 1874, by means of funds given by the Countess of Aberdeen as a memorial to her son, Hon. J. H. Gordon, (see account of Natal Mis sion under the Free Church of Scotland), and now conducted by the Ladies' Society. It has 2 female missionaries, 29 boarding pupils,' 50 day scholars. Goshen.— 1. A town in North Jamaica, West Indies, near the coast, southeast of St, Ann's Bay. Mission station of the United Pres byterian Church of Scotland; (1840); 1 native pastor, 1 out-station, 350 members, 2 Sunday- schools, 270 scholars. — 2. A town in East South Africa, on the Windoogelsberg River, southeast of Silo. Mission station of the Moravians, opened in 1850 for the benfit of the Tambook- ies and Kafirs. The work prospered. "One Kafir hut after another was erected around the missionaries' dwellings, and the barren wilder ness rapidly assumed the aspect of a garden of the Lord." It was but a year old, however, when the Kafir war of 1851 laid it in ruins. It was rebuilt, and is again in a prosperous condi tion under the care of the present missionary and his wife. Gossner Missionary Society. Head quarters, 31 Potsdamer Strasse, Berlin, Ger many. — Johannes Evangelista Gossner, born at Hausen, near Augsburg, December 14th, 1773; died in Berlin, March 20th, 1858, was baptized and educated in the Roman Catholic Church, and held a small benefice at Munich, which en abled him to continue his studies and engage in literary pursuits. He came early under the in fluence of Martin Boos, and gradually his evan gelical tendencies became so apparent, that in 1817 he lost his benefice. But he did not pub licly embrace Protestantism until 1826. From 1829 to 1846, when he retired as pastor emeri tus, he had charge of the Bethlehem Church in Berlin. The missionary zeal which gave his life its peculiar character of grandeur may have been awakened by Martin Boos, who, though he never left the Church of Rome, was himself a kind of evangelical missionaiy, and for that reason was violently chased from place to place by the Jesuits. But otherwise it was a sponta neous outgrowth of his own nature, and he re ceived his specific impulse towards the preach ing of the gospel to the heathen from his inti mate connection with Spittlar, one of the founders of the Basle Mission Society and a rep resentative of the Pietist circles in Germany, and with the Moravian Brethren, who for a whole century had been the sole representatives of the missionaiy idea in German civilization. He became in 1831 one of the directors of the GOSSNER MISSIONARY SOC, 393 GOSSNER MISSIONARY SOC. newly founded Berlin Mission Society in Ber lin, and in 1834 he began to publish "Die Biene" (The Bee), which, still flourishing, has contributed very much to awaken and consoli date the interest of the German public in mis sionary work. In 1836, however, he broke off his connec tion with the Society ; he felt that they could not work together. He could not bring bis ideas of what* Christian missionary should be into harmony with the Society's ideas of how a Christian mission should be worked. He had his eyes fixed upon the Apostle — a man driven onwards by the fire of his faith and throwing all his cares on God, and the Society bad adopted the English model of a mission — a thoroughly organized institution, supported but also governed by the Christian community that established it. Gossner felt perfectly certain that he was not wrong, but it was a long time before he came to understand that the Society was not wrong either. He seems to have given up in despair, and felt very much perplexed when, some months later, eight young men, artisans, who could and would sup port themselves wherever they went in the world, came to him and asked to be instructed and prepared so as to be sent out by some mis sion society, or to go out on their own account to preach the gospel to the heathen. How ever, "this comes from the Lord," he said to himself, and undertook the task. After about six months' preparation these young men went, under the leadership of the Scotchman, Dr. Lang, to South Australia, and in the mean time new pupils had been received. But other difficulties arose. The ecclesiastical authorities of Berlin took umbrage at the in formal and unauthorized way in which Goss ner acted. He was compelled to petition tbe king for a permit to form a regular mission society. The king refused his consent, and added, with a little tap of the corporal's staff, that there was a royal mission society, and that Mr. Gossner, if he wanted to do anything in that line, must address himself to said soci ety. The king died, however, a few months afterwards, and by a cabinet ordinance of June 28th, 1842, his successor, Friedrich Wilhelm IV., allowed and confirmed the Gossner Mis sion Society. But no real change was thereby wrought in Gossner's method. In 1839 he had sent out another body of his pupils, under the leadership of William Start, an Englishman, who settled them at Hajipur in British India, and in that way he continued to transfer his missionaries to other societies or to let them go on their own responsibility. It was the mission to the Kols — that grand trial but grand triumph of Gossner's life — which finally forced him from merely individual action into a true ¦organization on the broader foundation of asso ciation. In the middle of June, 1844, a number of Gossner's pupils, among whom were the theolo- f'an Schultz, and two teachers, Brandt and Fr. atsch, left Berlin for Calcutta. They wanted to go as missionaries to the heathen, but, as usual, they had no very definite plans as to where to go and how to work. They might seek a field in Farther India, or they might join some other Gossner missionaries in Hither India; that had to be decided on their arrival at Calcutta. Their friends there, however, among whom was the Wurtemberger, Haber- lin, in the service of the English Church Mis sion, were not in favor of either of these plans. While they were hesitating what to do, their attention was incidentally drawn to the Kols, a degraded race, sunk in misery and stupidity; and when the English Government promised assistance, they made up their minds to go thither. The field proved very hard, and the only aid they had from Gossner consisted in his letters: "I will pray more for you." It took five long years before the first Kol was bap tized, June 9th, 1850; but after that success came, overwhelming and rarely experienced. Evidently lhe question was not about a more or less slow progress by single converts, but about the conversion of a whole people. " We will have them all," exclaimed Gossner in his enthusiasm; " every one of them." But it was as evident that in its then organization — a loose association of individual eff orts^the mission was not able to manage the affair. When the mis sionaries fell out with each other, Gossner had no other means of setting them right than tell ing them: "If you don't agree, I shall stop praying for you." Then two great calamities befell the undertaking — the Sepoy rebellion and the death of Gossner. At first the rebellion actually threatened to extinguish the mission. The missionaries fled to Calcutta; their houses, schools, and churches were demolished, and the native members of the congregation were ex posed to harsh persecution. When this news reached Berlin Gossner made an off er to transfer the whole institution to the English Church Missionaiy Society, in order to secure its continuation. For some reason the Society gave no immediate answer, and in the mean time the national feeling in Germany became thoroughly roused, and sorely hurt by the idea that this undertaking, German in its origin and so promising of success, should be left to others to be carried through. Suddenly Gossner took a decision without waiting for the answer from the English society, and, shortly before he died, he transferred the mission and all his personal property to a Curatorium. From bis accounts it appeared that in twenty-one years he had re ceived from others 300,000 marks, which he had spent on his mission, besides paying out of his own pocket 33,000 marks. He left personal property worth 150,000 marks, which he wished to have invested as a permanent fund. The total number of missionaries he had sent out was 141. After the suppression of the rebellion the English Government gave the Gossner mission aries ample compensation for as much of their property as had beeu destroyed by the rebels. But about this money there arose an unfortunate disagreement between the missionaries and the Curatorium, the former claiming it as their per sonal property, and the latter protesting that it belonged to the mission. It was smoothed over, but it soon broke out again under other forms. The real cause of the discontent lay deeper. On the one side the missionaries wanted to be placed in exactly the same relation to the Cura torium as the English missionaries to their re spective societies. On the other side the Cura torium was more than willing to assume the dignity and power of a government, but it was as yet unable to fulfil its duties. After ten years of haggling the split came. In 1869 a majority of the older missionaries, teachers, and helpers entered the service of the English Society for GOSSNER MISSIONARY SOC. 394 GRANT, ASAHEL the Propagation of the Gospel, followed, it was said, by 7,000 members; and the worst was that, for the following ten years, the two societies labored in this region in steady rivalry with each other, founding stations, establishing schools, etc., in direct opposition to each other. The mission now has 8 stations, 165 churches, 17 native preachers, and 30,027 church-mem bers. Gottwald, John Daniel, b. August, 9tb , 1726, at Westhofen, near Strasburg. Receiv ing a knowledge of the love of Jesus through a discourse delivered by John Jacob Franz, 1741, he joined the Brethren's congregation at Herrnhaag 1743. After serving the church in various capacities, he was appointed to com mence a mission on the island of St. Kitts in 1776, where he labored faithfully aud success fully for ten years. He died by an apoplectic stroke August 20tb, 1805. Graaf Reinet, a town of Cape Colony, South Africa, on the Sunday River, 200 miles north of Port Elizabeth. A thriving town, called from its beautiful location "the gem of the desert." Population, 3,717. Mission sta tion of the S. P. G. (1846). Gracebay, a mission station of the Mo ravians (1797) on the island of Antigua, West Indies, 6 miles west of Gracehill. The village is built about a little knoll just large enough to hold the mission church and premises, and over looking a beautiful bay. One missionary and his wife are at present in charge of this station. Gracefleld, a town on the northern coast of Antigua, West Indies. It is pleasantly situ ated close to tbe sea, the cool sea-breeze making it one of the healthiest places on the island. A mission station of the Moravians, established to reach the negro population who were too dis tant to attend the other congregation. A church and school-house have been built, and are now under the care of native workers aud the mis sionaries at St. Johns (q.v.). Gracehill, a town of Antigua, 8 miles east- southeast of St. Johns. A station of the Mora vians, opened as au auxiliary preaching place of St. Johns, where the increase of hearers made it necessary to provide church accommodations for those living on the more distant estates. The mission buildings stand on a very uneven tract of land, the inequalities of which Jhave been artificially remedied. A chapel was built voluntarily and almost entirely by tbe negroes. Graham's Hall, the centre of the Mora vian missionaiy activity in Deinarara, British Guiana, South America. It is a little village on tbe Industry Plantation, 10 miles east of George town, and consists of a number of cottages for the laborers, a huckster-shop, the little chapel, and the neat-looking residence of the school master. (The missionary and his wife reside about a mile from Ihe village.) The population is composed chiefly of negroes from the Bar badoes aud some East Indian coolies. The suc cess of the mission here has been very marked in spite of the droughts and depressions in the sugar market, which seriously affected the finan cial prospects of the estate and the circum stances of the people. Grahamstown, a town in Cape Colony, South Africa. Pleasantly situated, well kept' and thriving. Population, 8,000. Mission sta tion of the S. P. G. (1853), since 1854 the seat of a bishop, and since 1861 of a college. It has several out-stations with about 3,000 adherents. Gran Chaco, a district in the Argentine Republic, South America, inhabited by roving Indians. Mission field of the South American Missionaiy Society, with one missionary residing at Alexandra Colony. Grand Cayman, one of the Cayman Islands, West Indies, 176 miles northwest from the west end of Jamaica. The island is 17 miles long and 4 to 7 miles broad. Climate tropical. Population, 4,000, composed of English settlers, European and African mixed, and pure negro. Language, English. Religion, Protestant. Mis sion station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1832); 1 ordained missionary and his wife, 1 ordained native, 12 other helpers, 7 stations, 6 churches, 612 members. Grand Turk, one of the Turk's Islands, West Indies, is 7 miles long by 2 broad. The town has 2,300 inhabitants, and is the seat of fovernment for the islands, which belong to amaica. Mission station of the Baptist Mis sionary Society; 1 missionary, 6 native helpers, 234 church-members, 190 Sabbath scholars. Grant, Asahel, M.D. — The very name of Dr. Grant assures us that the foundations of his character were laid in a Christian home. Only parents who lived in the Scriptures would have called their son Asahel. He was born in Mar shall, N. Y., U. S. A., the second son of William and Rachel Grant, from Litchfield County, Conn., the home of Bellamy, the native place of Samuel J. Mills, and the seat of the mission school where Obookiah and others received their education. Dr. Grant's life was a short one, — only from August 17th, 1807 to April 24th, 1844,— hut it was filled with Christian service. Even before his conversion, when only 16 years of age,he taught school with the dignity of riper years. At 18 he married Miss Electa S. Loomis of Tor- rington, Conn. She was the mother of Seth Hastings and Edwin Hodges, his oldest sons, and was a true helpmeet, especially in his religious life. She was spared to him only four years, but in tbat time exerted an influence that was felt to tbe eud of his life. The year after mar riage be graduated from the Medical Institution in Pittsfield, Mass., and the year after that he settled in Braintrim, Pa., on the banks of the Susquehanna, along which Zeisberger, the Mo ravian missionary to the Indians, frequently passed on his journeys to bis different fields of labor. In his 20th year he joined the Presby terian Church in Clinton, N. Y., and was chosen ruling elder in Baintrim where it is said he read more sermons to the congregation on the Sab bath than he heard from the living preacher. When Mrs. Grant died he carried his motherless children to be cared for by his own mother, and soon resumed his medical practice in Utica. Here again he was chosen elder, though only iu his 24th year, and none of his fellow-elders were less than 40 years old. The American Board met in Utica in 1834, and October 28th he offered himself as a medical missionary. April 6th, 1835, he married Miss Judith S.Camp bell, a lady as remarkable for her scholarly at- GRANT, ASAHEL 395 GRASSMAN, ANDREW tainments in those clays as for her piety. In Persia, Nestorian bishops were astonished to see a woman consult her Greek Testament when any question arose as to the meaning of a pas sage, and learn Syriac through the Lexicon of Castell, that gave the definitions in Latin. May 11th they sailed for Smyrna, and arrived there June 28th. August 19th they sailed from Constantinople on their way to Persia, but did not reach their future home in Oroomiah till November 20th, in a driving storm, to find the house unfinished and the walls so wet that days after the grains of barley sprouted and grew in the mud plaster. The medical skill of Dr. Grant was at once called into active exercise, and gave access to all classes, from the prince to the beggar. The haughty moollah kissed the borders of his gar ments, and some even kissed his shoes; and yet it was not all sunshine. Parents went away without medicine rather than take the unripe fruit out of the hands of their children, though it was the cause of their sickuess. Then after the most explicit directions came such inquiries as whether the milk must be that of a sheep, buffalo, ass, or cow, and if the last, what must be her color ? — what must be the sex of the fowl used in making broth? They were full of strange notions: bleeding in one vein took blood from the head, and another from the stomach; this one from the heart, and that one from the liver. Accustomed to have sen tences written from the Koran to be swal lowed by the patient, some asked whether the paper must be swallowed with the medicine, if indeed they did not devour it at once without inquiry. Then the pulse must be felt in both wrists, and on a fast-day some would rather die than taste the nourishment necessary to keep them alive. Often, after all his explanations and charges, the patient would go directly con trary to the directions, however plain. Then, on the other hand, he sometimes got more credit than he deserved. Once, when he applied a blister behind the ear for a local pain, he had the credit of thawing out the water that had run into the ear and frozen there. Patients came from all quarters — Kurds from the vicinity of Mosul, and even from the borders of Georgia. When he afterwards entered the mountains, on more than one occasion, he was indebted for his safety to his recognition by some patient whom he had prescribed for in Oroomiah. With all this, he was careful to give no offence to the native doctors, but rather helped them, both with medicine and instruction; for there was far more work to be done than he could hope to do alone. He rather discouraged wealthy patients unless there was some special reason for helping them, and sometimes prescribed only as a consulting physician. Then, as patients multiplied, he thinned their ranks by requiring a certificate from their religious teachers, whether priest, moollah or rabbi. This relieved him from trivial cases, and prevented the clergy from per secuting inquirers. A Jacobite bishop in Mosul once anathematized all who applied to Dr. Graut for medicine, but the people could not be kept from coming, nor could the clergy come them selves and refuse certificates to the sick. Dr. Grant found no lack of labor in Oroomiah. Besides his daily medical practice, he instruct ed young men in medicine, he visited outlying villages and distant places, he estabhshed and superintended schools, and entered every door that opened for religious instruction. In person Dr. Grant was not tall or large, but alert and full of vigor. His complexion was dark, his eye bright, his aspect friendly, with a dash of enterprise and enthusiasm. In his walk and his attitude in the saddle there was a great deal of the soldier — straight, firm, and ener getic. It was this soldierly bearing of his that led a member of the English Embassy to Persia to say: " A good soldier was spoiled when that man became a missionary." The rest of the life of Dr. Grant is identical with the history of the mission to the mountain Nestorians. Grassman, Andrew, b. February 23d, 1704, at Senftleben, Moravia: called "to the clearer light of the gospel" through Christian David in 1725. Persecuted in Moravia, he, with others who sympathized with him, removed in 1728, under the leadership of Christian David, to an estate at Berthelsdorf, afterwards called Herrnhut, provided for them by Count Zinzen dorf. From 1731 till 1737, he, with some com panions, travelled, learning successively the Swedish, Finnish, and Russian languages, sup porting themselves at their respective trades, and making known the gospel, as opportunities offered, in parts of Germany, Sweden, and Lap land. Having passports only to Archangel, and their hearts burning " with desire to preach the gospel to the poor, ignorant Samoyedes," they applied to the Russian authorities of Arch angel for a passport. The result is given here in his own words: "Our friends strongly dis suaded us, telling us what would be the result, but we felt it our duty to make the trial. After being put off from day to day for a fortnight, we were at last asked what kind of people we were, and what we wanted in those regions where no foreigner was ever allowed to travel. Two days after, February 13th, 1738, we were taken to prison, and confined in separate rooms. After five days we were examined each apart, and all our answers written down. In the sequel we were tried and sifted in every possible way, as they took us for spies employed either by France or Sweden. After we had spent nine weeks in prison, a passport was given us for St. Peters- burgh, and an escort of three soldiers, our examinations having been sent before. We reached St. Petersburgh in safety April 19th, 1738, and were taken" straight to prison. On the 23d we were separately examined as before, and minutes taken. After we had been at St. Petersburgh a quarter of a year, the decision came that we were to be sent out of the country. Its purport was as follows: Because we had un dertaken to go secretly in her Majesty's domin ions, in order to introduce our religion among them, though we knew that her Majesty was endeavoring to convert them to her religion, we had deserved to be punished according to the laws. But as her Majesty had ever been gra ciously disposed towards the Germans, the pun ishment should this time be remitted. But in case we or any other member of our church were found engaged in similar enterprises, we should without mercy suffer the punishment prescribed by law. This, as was explained to us, was to be burnt alive." Subsequently Mr. Grassman labored in Greenland, Holland, Den mark, and Germany. He was consecrated Bishop of the Brethren's Church in 1756. In GRASSMAN, ANDREW 396 GREECE 1761-62 he had charge of the congregation iu Herrnhut, and in 1765 removed, as Provincial of the Silesian congregations, to Gnadenberg, whence he was called to superintend the Bohe mian congregations at Berlin and Rixdorf. He died March 25th, 1783. Grebo Version.— The Grebo belongs to the Negro group of African languages, and is used in the region of Liberia. The first translation of tbe gospel into Grebo was made by the aid of the A. B. C. F. M. : tbe Gospel according to St. Matthew was printed at Cape Palmas in 1838. Luke was translated by the Rev. John Payne of the Protestant Episcopal Missionary Society of America, and an edition published by the Ameri can Bible Society. Mr. Payne also translated tbe Book of Genesis, which was published at New York in 1850, and the Acts, issued in 1852. In the same year the Gospel of John was pub lished at New York. Since then the Epistle to the Romans and that of 1st Corinthians were published by the American Bible Society. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Kare'kre. Nyesoa nuna kona 2,h npwanena, a bnyina a sSye ah koka-yu donh, be nya be a p6 na hanhte, a neh te wanh, nSma a ma kon&- se-honhnonh ka. Greece. (Hellenic Kingdom). — The Hel lenic Kingdom embraces a territory of about 25,000 square miles, and has a population of 2,200,000, Greeks and Albanians. Scotland has the same extent of territory aud almost twice as many people. As for wealth and natural re sources, Greece is proverbially the poorest country in Europe. Her rugged mountains and barren shores are fitted, for the most part, for only the scantiest vegetation. Her commerce is still undeveloped, and she is cut off from Europe by the treacherous Adriatic, and by the inhospitable strip of Turkish territory that promises lo keep her for an indefinite future from opening her railway connection to the north. This little kingdom has a debt of $80,- 000,000, and supports an army as large as that of the United States. Agriculture occupies the attention of the ma jority (seven eighths) of the inhabitants. Only seven cities can boast of more than 10,000 peo ple. Fifteen cities (from Athens, 114,355, to Missolongbi, 6,324) contain only 250,000 inhabi tants, or about one ninth of the whole popula tion of Greece. Nearly ten percent are shep herds; as mauy are seafarers. There are 100,- 000 Albanians scattered about the kingdom. They began migrating southward over four hundred years ago, at the time of the Turkish conquest. These people, wbo still speak their unwritten language, have become largely Hel- lenized, yet are easily distinguished from the Greeks proper. They are found mainly in Attica, about Thebes, on tlie Isthmus of Corinth, throughout ancient Argolis, in the southern dis tricts of Eubina, aud in a few neighboring islands. The war of the revolution (1821-9) left Greece in a deplorable slate. Tbe Protocol of London declared her a kingdom under the pro tectorate of England, France, and Russia. Prince Otto of Bavaria ascended the throne January 25th, 1833. King George, son of the King of Denmark, succeeded King Otto in 1863. Under both these reigns the kingdom has seen slow but steady advancement. Under the present constitution (adopted October 29th, 1864) the whole legislative power is vested in a single chamber of representatives, called the Boule, and the executive power is in the hands of the king and his responsible ministry. The fact that only a fraction (2 millions out of 8 mil. lions) of the Greek- speaking people in the Le vant are included in the present kingdom of Greece keeps the ambitious little country con tinually in a restive condition, and the great powers have frequently been obliged to for cibly compel the Greeks to keep the peace. This restriction is received with bad grace by the people. An extension of the territory of the kingdom to the north (1881) only whetted its appetite for more. The island of Crete has been in a chronic state of unrest. The latest elections (1890) have brought the radicals once more into power, under Delyannis, and the fu ture of the country is likely to be stormy. Athens has been the capital of "the Kingdom of the Hellenes " since 1830, and has grown from a squalid Turkish village, clinging to the northern slope of the Acropolis, to a large (114,- 335 inhabitants in 1889), clean, and beautiful city, with its palace and gardens, its fine hotels and boulevards, its cathedral and university, its art museums and its public schools. To the scholar and students of modern life it is one of the most interesting cities in the world. The Acropolis, crowned with ruins, is visible from every point. Lycabettus, to the northeast, af fords the finest views of the city. The " eye of Greece" is a charming resort in winter, but from May to October is avoided by travellers, March and April are the attractive months, but later on the heat and dust are disagreeable. The city is a busy hive of educational institu tions. The school conducted under the aus pices of the Episcopal Church, U. S. A., by Miss Muir, is dear the " Tower of the Winds," on the northwestern slope of the Acropolis. The " Hill Institute," conducted by Miss Masson, is on the same slope farther to the east. The English church and the Protestant Evan- felical Greek church are to the east of the .cropolis, near the ruins of the temple of Ju piter Olympus. The British and American schools for research in Greece are on the south ern slopeof Mount Lycabettus. The surround ings of the capital are very interesting, there be- iug fine drives in every direction. Piraeus, the seaport of Athens, is five miles to the southwest. The Boule meets November 1st (old style) every year, and the city thereafter presents a brilliant scene, in which the royal retinue, the deputies, the foreign ambassadors, the military classes, the church hierarchy, the throng of students from the whole Greek world, together with f or- ciguers from every clime, make the modern city vie with its ancient self in picturesqueness and interest. The great majority of the inhabitants of the kingdom are adherents of the Greek Orthodox church. According to the census of 1889 there are 1,902,800 Greek Orthodox Christians, 14,- 677 other Christians (mainly Roman Catholics in the Corfu district), 5,792 Jews, and 24,165 Mohammedans. The constitution of 1864 de clared tbe Greek Orthodox faith the religion of the state, but guarantees complete toleration and liberty to all other sects. This breadth of view is somewhat limited by allowing no school 10 11 12 13 GREECE 397 GREECE to exist in which the clergy of the established church do not give instruction in religion. The state church, though nominally under the Pa triarch of Constantinople, is entirely in the hands of the "Holy Synod," consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, and 4 archbishops and bishops. The state church has also 9 archbishops and 8 bishops in Northern Greece ; 6 archbishops^ind 6 bishops in tbe Pelopon nesus; 1 archoishop and 5 bishops in the islauds of the Greek Archipelago; and 5 archbishops and 10 bishops in the Ionian Islands. There are 162 monasteries and nunneries, with 2,620 monks and 485 nuns. During the revolution (1821-9) over 400 monasteries were destroyed. The activity of the monks in the patriotic cause drew down special vengeance upon their heads. But it seems to be a fact that all these so-called "religious" institutions flourished belter under Turkish rule than they have since, and to-day they are relics of an older time rather than a force in modern Greece. The government seems inclined to encroach more and more on the property of the monasteries. The land granted by the Greek authorities to the Ameri can Classical School was taken, not without some demur, from the grounds of the neighbor ing convent of the Astomaton. The most encouraging thing about modern Greece is its splendid system of schools, which in another generation will exterminate illiteracy throughout the country. There has never been a time when Greece has been absolutely desti tute of educational facilities. Even during that long period of abject oppression under Turkish rule — which lasted from the opening of the sixteenth century until the war of inde pendence, 1821-29 — the rudiments of an educa tion had been taught by the clergy of the Greek Orthodox Church. However poor this instruc tion was, however irregular and unfruitful, it was cherished as the only glimmer of hope for better things in this land of Plato and Sophocles. Even during the revolution schools were cov ertly carried on. When the country came out of this baptism of blood the national mind was roused as only a great struggle for freedom can rouse it, and efforts were immediately put forth to put its schools on a solid foundation. It was necessarily a most difficult undertaking, The country was bankrupt. The majority of the children in Greece were orphans. But the struggle for freedom had elicited a world-wide sympathy. Few people are living to-day in the United States who can recall the widespread interest taken by Americans in that struggle. There appeared in the " Missionary Herald " (A. B. C. F. M.), in February, 1830, a report entitled " Intercourse with the Greek Govern ment on the Subject of Education in Greece." It embodies the letters written by J. A. Capo- distrias, the President of Greece, to Secretary J. Evarts and Rev. Mr. Anderson of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and to the President of the Society for Elementary Instruction at Paris. From these communications we learn that at that critical hour in the nation's life the influence of English, French, and American sympathizers was a large factor in starting the whole long and interest ing development of educational affairs in Greece. American influence was felt especially in two directions — the study of the Bible in all Greek public schools, and the education of the girls of Greece. Two more fundamental results could not have been attained, and from all appearance these would not have been attained but for American impetus. The work of Dr. and Mrs. Hill and of Dr. Jonas King will be spoken of later. King Otho ascended the throne in 1833. Under his influence schools began to be insti tuted after the German pattern. The univer sity was established at Athens. Queen Amelia took great interest in the education of girls, and a large orphanage at Athens to-day bears her name. Rich Greeks outside the kingdom be gan to take pride in building up the institutions of their native land. Gradually the country began to recover from the desolation of war. The legislative powers began to act. Since 1863 educational affairs have moved on faster than ever, until to-day there are in this little kingdom, with only the population of Massa chusetts, over 2,000 elementary schools for boys; about 300 schools of the same grade for girls, with over 2,500 teacheis, wale and female, most of them holding certificates from normal schools ; 331 secondary schools, with 1,400 teachers and more than 15,000 pupils ; 35 gym nasiums, with 216 instructors, and in round numbers 5,000 pupils ; a university with four departments, 100 professors, and 2,500 students; a half-dozen high-class normal schools ; a poly technic school at Athens, with 24 instructors and 500 pupils ; and a large number of private and ecclesiastical schools. Teaching has be come a regular profession, and tbe old age of teachers is provided for by a judicious pension system, regulated by the term of service. More than half the teachers in the elementary schools are women — a remarkable fact when we consider tbat through the centuries of Turkish oppres sion the education of woman was almost entirely neglected. To-day womanhood is coming to the front in Greece. One of the most interest ing institutions in Athens is the "Arsakeion," named from its founder, M. Arsakes, a wealthy merchant, originally from Epirus, who left a fortune of 500,000 drachmai for the purpose of founding a girls' school at Athens. It was the result of the American idea fostered by Dr. and Mrs. Hill. To-day it is by far the finest girls' school in Greece. The property consists of nearly a whole square. in the best part of the city, and the buildings accommodate 1,500 girls in daily attendance, 90 of whom are residents in the boarding department. The government is especially interested in this school, recognizes its diplomas, gives teachers' certificates in return, and contributes 20,000 drachmai annually toward its expenses. The institution is graded carefully up from the kindergarten to the nor mal department, taking a girl from the age of four or five up to eighteen or twenty, and will compare favorably with lhe same kind of schools in Germany, England, and America. Rich and poor are found together. It is a cus tom for far-away villages to select their bright est girls, collect money for their expenses, and send them to the Arsakeion, that they may have efficient teachers for their village girls. Since its start this school has scattered more than 2,000 graduates over Greece and Greek-speaking lands, and most of them teach. The forces that have helped to bring the edu cational affairs of Greece to their present hope ful state may be summarized as royal, legisla tive, local, and private. The kings ana queens have always promoted education enthusiasti- GREECE 398 GREECE cally. The Boule or Chamber of Representatives has acted, especially of late years, with zeal and wisdom in this particular. Local authorities and the population in general have followed willingly the iuitiative of those over them, and private individuals have come liberally to the aid of the young kingdom. M. Arsakes and his Arsakeion have already been mentioned. M. Barbakes established at large outlay a gym nasium at Athens. M. Hajji Kosta and his wife left nearly half a million drachmai for a boys' orphanage at Athens, which has a capac ity for 400 pupils. M. Zappa of Epirus has founded a large institution for the purposes of a permanent national exhibition. The poly technic school at Athens was erected and en dowed, at the cost of over a million drachmai, by three gentlemen from the north of Greece. M. George Sina, a Macedonian, left 3,000,000 drachmai with which to build an academy, which is the architectural gem of modern Athens, and is to be used as a meeting-place for the literati. The university has been the recip ient of large sums from almost every section of the Greek world. A monk at Mount Athos left a million drachmai to it. M. Constantine Belios, a Macedonian, left a fund of 200,000 drachmai to the university, to be at the service of Mace donian youth who aspired to a higher education. The list of private benevolences for educational purposes might be indefinitely increased. In proportion to her size, population, and wealth, the little Hellenic kingdom surpasses even open- handed America in this point. The original text of the New Testament is so much like modern Greek that all the children can understand the Gospels, and these are a reg ular text-book in all the elementary schools. The children are required to study the Gospel story, and to learn by heart large portions. Greek priests are required to give catechetical instruction iu the schools once or twice each week. There can be no doubt that Greek children are taught more about the Bible in the public schools than are American children in our public schools. Tbis fact, as well as the universality of education in the country, make the outlook for Greece very propitious. From the evangelical standpoint there is no more hopeful spot iu the lands under the sway of the Greek Orthodox Church thau Greece, aud the tendency to revert to the simple gospel truth and practice is sure to grow stronger and stronger. The following is a brief sketch of the actual mission work carried on in tbe country since the revolution : Mission Work. — When the struggle for independence called the attention of the civil ized world to Greece, Christian work was begun in the land by various churches of America. The Church Missionaiy Society of England had already sent missionaries in 1815, their opera tions being mainly confiued to tbe Ionian Islands. The Episcopal Church of America sent out Rev. J. J. Robertson in 1828 to see whether Greece presented an encouraging field for the efforts of this Church. The sentiment and the hope with which this mission was undertaken may be seen from the instructions he received from his society : "The Greeks, as is well known, have a Church constituted after what we believe to be the apostolic model, and to be acknowledged by us as a sister Church, except in its corruptions of the gospel. There is good hope that through the benevolent efforts of Protestant Christen dom, favored by Him without whose power all efforts are vain, the darkness that has so long rested upon that Church maybe dispelled." This mission was reinforced in 1830 by the arrival of Rev. Dr. and Mrs. Hill. They went first to the island Tenos, where they spent six months; then removed to Athens, the scene of their long and successful educational work, carried on in the spirit of the instructions given! with a careful avoidance of anything that might look like a wish to proselyte from the Greek Church. (See biographical sketch). In 1828 Rev. Jonas King, whose previous so journ in Jerusalem and Smyrna had given him au opportunity to acquire some knowledge of the modern Greek, and also awakened a deep interest in their spiritual condition, was chosen by a committee of ladies in New York to take charge of supplies for the physical wants of the impoverished Greeks. His knowledge of the language enabled him at once to do something to meet their still deeper spiritual wants, and be was permitted to remain, supported by these ladies, till 1831, when the American Board de cided to enter Greece as a mission field, and Mr. King was transferred to its service and re moved from Tenos, where he too, like Dr. Hill, had begun his work, to Athens, where he established schools of a high grade for boys, held preaching services, and also devoted much time to the preparation of religious literature, for which he was particularly fitted by his great and varied attainments as a Christian scholar. In 1834 Dr. and Mrs. Elias Riggs opened a school at Argos, and were subsequently joined by Mr. Benjamin. This station was given up iu 1837, Mr. Riggs going to Smyrna. Though removed from the Greek field, he never lost his active, prayerful interest in the people among whom his missionaiy labors were begun, and has continued to assist not only by his kindly sympathy and wise counsel, but by his conse crated gift in hymnology, having translated into modern Greek many of the hymns used in the Evangelical Greek churches both in Greece and Turkey. About this time (1837) the Rev. S. Houston and Rev. G. W. Leyburn of Virginia, also in connection with the American Board, went to Areopolis, iu Lacouia, in response to an ear nest invitation of Petro Bey Mavromihalis. They soon had two schools for boys in success ful operation, in oue of which the Rev. M. D. Kalopothakes, now so long associated with evangelistic work for his countrymen, received his earliest religious impressions. The Baptists also began a mission under Mr. Buel and Mr. Arnold. It was natural that in a country like Greece education should receive at the outset special attention from those aiming at its spiritual ele vation, and for a time everything seemed to justify the hope with which the friends of Greece entered upon this work. A printing establishment had been founded at Malta, where publications in tbe various lan guages of the East were printed. Very soon there was a much greater demand for those in Greek than in any other language. In 1830_the Rev. Mr. Temple, who was in charge of this depart ment of the work, reported that the previous year the press had been employed wholly on GREECE 399 GREECE modern Greek, to the amount of 4,670,000 pages, chiefly schoolbooks. The demand for books was such that they rarely accumulated on the shelves. Those were years of hope for all who were looking for the renovation of the Greek Church, both clergy and people seeming gratefully to appreciate the advantages extended to the com munity. But soon a change came. The mis sionary ente^rise began to be regarded with suspicion through the gross misrepresentations of the Greek press, both as to the motives and practices of foreigners. There is every reason to believe that this was brought about by out side intrigues, working through individuals here who found it for their interest to appear very zealous for the "faith of the fathers." Through the same influence a change in the constitution, was effected, restricting the full re ligious liberty which was granted by the first constitution, to toleration of recognized religions, but forbidding proselytism. The law, too, re quiring "sacred lessons" to be taught in all schools, and which at first received such a nat ural and liberal interpretation as to be met by the Scripture teaching of the missionaries, was now made to refer to the "sacred lessons" of the Greek Church, particularly the catechism, in which instruction was to be given by a Greek ecclesiastic. After a somewhat lengthy discus sion of the point several of tbe missionaries withdrew. The American Board withdrew all its representatives except Dr. King, who was unwilling to go. Tbe Baptist missionaries also returned after a time to America. Dr. King's persecution and his long struggle with the government are fully recorded in Dr. Anderson's work on missions in the East. At that time the need of a periodical in the interests of the evangelical movement began to be deeply felt. This finally led Dr. Kalopothakes to issue a Christian weekly, "The Star of the East,"— 'Aorijp rrji 'AvaroXiji, which was continued without interruption 27 years. During this period the native element became prominent in the work. Dr. Kalopothakes, Rev. G. Constantine, and Rev. D. Sakellarios worked for some years together under the American and Foreign Christian Union. Later there were dis tinct organizations. The Baptists were repre sented by Mr. Sakellarios. The Congregation alists sustained Mr. Constantine, who, besides preaching, did much valuable work through the press. He removed a few years ago to Smyrna, where he is carrying on a similar work with marked success. The organization known distinctively as the Greek Evangelical Church was under the care of the Southern Presbyterian Church during the thirteen years previous to 1886. Rev. Geo. E. Leyburn and his venerable father joined the mission in 1875. The latter was removed by death within a few months. The former re mained till the close of 1877, when he returned to America. The next year Rev. T. Sampson was sent out, and worked for a few years, first at Athens, then at Volo, and subsequently at Salonica, where he still is. At the close of 1885 the Evangelical Native Church withdrew its connection with the South- em Presbyterian Church and became indepen dent. Since that time there has been no "mission work," so called, in Greece, except the primary school for poor children founded by the late Mrs. Hill, sustained by the Protestant Episco pal Church of the United States. It is under the care of Miss Muir, a Scotch lady who was long connected with Mrs. Hill. More recently Mile Raymond, of Geneva, has been associated as colleague with Miss Muir. The school num bers about 500. There is a school for the better classes — in a certain sense a continuation of Mrs. Hill's work — on the same premises, under the efficient direction of her niece. Miss Masson, It is con ducted on the same general principles aud with the same object, but it is no longer a mission school in the sense of being sustained or directed by any foreign society. It is now Miss Masson's private school, though the pro perty formerly occupied by the mission was given, by the friends in America so long inter ested in the work, to Greece, to be used always as a school for girls. The Rev. Mr. Sakellarios, too, has continued independently the work he formerly carried on under the Baptist Missionary Union of the United States, but he can no longer be called a missionaiy. So also with the work of the native Greek Evangelical Church with which Dr. Kalopothakes is connected. This work even when under the mission differed to a consider able extent from other missions in the fact that it was inaugurated and carried on for many years through native instrumentalities, so that the native element had a training from the first calculated to develop the capacity of the church for active forms of service and for responsi bility, and through this an inclination to inde pendence of action which was bound speedily to lead to self-support. The good results of this have been manifest in the history of tbe church at Athens during the five years since its separation from the mis sion. There has been more outward growth and internal harmony than ever before, and it seems evident that the church has entered upon a stage in which it may carry on the evangelistic work which it has assumed in the field it claims for its operations — the territory included within the kingdom of Greece. There are at this date but three stations — Athens, Piroeus, and Volo ; and a branch station at Larissa. The Greek Evangelical Church is Presbyterian in doctrine and form of government. A local synod has been or ganized called the " Synod of the Free Evan gelical Church in Greece." It has under its care the Bible work of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The colporteurs employed are all Christians who are able to do an important evangelistic work iu connection with their sales of the Scriptures. The Efir/juepiS roov Tlai- 8}yd.7n)Vv alaviov. (Modern. Roman.) SicbthiVthelo ipaghi pros ton patera" mu, ke thelo"lpi pro9 afton, Pater, imartoh is ton ura- non ke enopion su.— (Duke xv. 18.) Green, Samuel H., b. Worcester, j U. S. A., October 10th, 1822; practised medicine for a while in Worcester; sailed for Ceylon as a medical missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. April 20th, 1847; returned home on account of ill- health in 1873. He continued the preparation of medical works in the Tamil language. Several standard volumes were prepared by him, covering in all between three and four thousand pages, and are used as text-books in India. Dr. Green's uame stands a household word among the people of the island to whose interest he devoted his life. " There is recorded no more marked expression of the useful results of a life of self-denying devotion to the most , elevated work." He died at Worcester, May 28th, 1884. Greenbay, a small town on the island of Antigua, West Indies, near St. John's. After the emancipation of the slaves in Antigua, the idle, the vicious, and immoral gathered here and made the place notorious for vile deeds of every description. The Moravian Brethren then opened a preaching place, with such success that in a short time the character of the people changed completely. A native minister, the first in Antigua, labored here from 1848 until his death in 1885. At present the work is carried on by a missionary and his wife. Greenland, an extensive region, including 46,740 square miles, belonging to Denmark, lying northeast of North America, from which and its outlying islands it is separated by Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay. Cape Farewell, its GREENLAND 401 GUANAJUATO southern extremity, is a point on a small island from which the east coast extends northeast towards Cape Brewster, where it takes a more northerly course, and stretches towards the Pole to an unknown distance. The southern part of this coast is washed by the Greenland Sea, and the north by the Arctic Ocean. The outline of the coast is rugged and barren, with cliffs and precipices which are visible far out at sea. A number of ifllets, the principal of which are Scoresby and Davy sounds, extend an unknown distance into the interior. Climate very healthy , temperature varying according to the distance from the Pole. Fogs are prevalent most of the year, and but little rain falls. Population, except about 300 Danes, consists entirely of Esquimo, who live by hunting and fishing, and number 9,780. A few live on the east coast, but all the villages and settlements are on the west coast, upon the low lands along the fiords. After years of discouraging efforts on the part of the missionaries, all the natives have been converted to Christianity. They have given up their nomadic habits and enjoy the benefits of civilization, while they are afflicted with fewer of its vices than are the Indians who have come into contact with the white man elsewhere. Liquor is prohibited in all the settlements, and it is only once a year, on the king's birthday, that every man in Greenland is permitted to receive from the government store-houses a glass of schnapps to drink the health of his sovereign. Greenland is divided for administrative pur poses into two inspectorates, North and South Greenland, each subdivided into seven districts, having a director wbo is assisted by a parliament chosen from the principal men. The soil of Greenland is not productive, the vegetation is slight, and if any minerals exist, they are not mined. The crown of Denmark has a monopoly of the trade, which is carried on under the direction of the Greenland Trading Company. Missionaiy societies at work there: the Mora vians, with stations at New Herrnhut, Lichten- fels, Lichtenau, Fredericksdal, Umanak, and Iglorpait; 17 missionaries, 1,597 church-mem bers. Also the Danish Missionary Society. Greenland Version*.— Greenland be longs to the Arctic coast languages of North America, and is spoken in Greenland. The first attempts to supply the people of Greenland with the word of God were made by Hans Egede, a Norwegian clergyman, at the beginning of the 18th century. The work was continued by his son Paul Egede, and in 1766 the New Testament was published at Copenhagen. A second attempt was made by Fabricius, whose New Testament was published in 1799. Both these translations were very deficient, and Moravian missionaries made a third version from Luther's German, which was published in 1822 by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and republished by the Danish Bible Society. The latter also published in 1829 at Copenhagen a translation of the Old Testament, made by the Rev. Peter Kraght. In 1851 the British and Foreign Bible Society published at Herrnhut a revised edition of the New Testament, under the editorship of some retired Moravian mis sionaries from Greenland. A large portion of the Old Testament has also been published by the same Society, which, up to March 31st, 1889, disposed of 3,200 portions of the Scriptures. verse. John 3 : 16.) Sillarstlb innue Gudib taima assakigei1, Ernetue tunniullugo taukkonunga, tamarmife taursomunga opertut tammarkonnagit, naksaun» gitsomigle innurstitekarkollugit. Greenville. — 1. A town in Sinoe County, Liberia. Mission station of the Protestant Epis copal Church, U. S. A.; 1 organized church, 1 native pastor, 32 communicants, 1 Sunday- school, 48 pupils, 1 day-school, 66 pupils.— 2. A town on the Naas River, British Amer ica, 650 miles north of Victoria, B. C. The climate is wet in summer, with frequent frosts ; dry and cold in winter. The 250 inhabitants belong to the Nescagh tribe of the Tsim-shean Indians. Station of the Naas River Mission of the Methodist Church of Canada (1877) ; 1 mis sionary and wife, 3 out-stations, 3 organized churches, 198 communicants, 1 Sunday-school, 60 scholars, 1 school, 25 scholars. Grenada, one of the Windward Islands, West Indies, with an area of 120 square miles and a population of 49,337. It is under the rule of Great Britain. The governor of the Windward Islands resides at St. George, Gren ada. Mission station of the S. P. G. ; 1 mission ary, 124 communicants. Griffiths, Davis, b. December 20th, 1792, at Glanmeilwch, Carmarthenshire, Wales; edu cated at Wrexham and Gosport ; sailed as mis sionary of the London Missionary Society for Madagascar, October 25th, 1820. He made the first translation of the whole Bible into the Malagasy language, assisted by Mr. David Jones. In 1834 his connection with the Soci ety was dissolved, and he returned to England. Returning afterwards to Madagascar, he settled at Antananarivo for purposes of trade, but made great efforts to assist the persecuted Christians. Returning to England in 1842, he became pas tor at Welsh Hay. He published " History of Madagascar " in Welsh, revised the Malagasy version of the Bible, and prepared numerous works in the Malagasy language. He died at Machynlleth, March 21st, 1863, and Mrs. Griffiths died at Swansea, June 14th, 1883. Guadalajara, a city of Mexico, the sec ond in importance of the republic, capital of the State of Jalisco, is situated on the left bank of the Rio Santiago, in the midst of a vast bar ren plain. Population about 70,000. Besides the cathedral, there are many churches and convents. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic. The condition of the Mexican and Spanish population is low morally, but among the upper classes there is a considerable degree of civilization. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1872) ; 1 missionary and wife, 1 female missionary, 1 training-school, 1 girls' boarding- school, 30 pupils. Southern Baptist Conven tion (18871 ; 1 missionaiy and wife, 1 church, 20 communicants, 1 Sunday-school, 30 scholars, 1 girls' school, 18 scholars. Methodist Episco pal Church South ; 1 missionary. Guanajuato, a town in Central Mexico, 160 miles northwest of Mexico city. A pleasant city, with many fine buildings. Population, 70,000. Mission circuit of the Methodist Epis copal Church (North); 2 missionaries, 2 schools, 90 scholars, 126 communicants. Cumberland Presbyterian Church ; 1 missionary and wife. GUARANI VERSION 402 GUIANA Guarani Version. — Guarani is a South American language, and is spoken by 500,000 Guarani of Paraguay. In the year 1887 the British and Foreign Bible Society published at London a tentative edition of the Sermon on the Mount, in diglott form with Spanish. A favorable reception of this part of the Gospel among Guarani scholars will insure the publi cation of the complete Gospel. The translation was made by a young Paraguayan scholar of Assuncion. Guatemala, a republic of Central Amer ica, bounded on the north by Yucatan, east by British Honduras, the Bay of Honduras, and the republics of Honduras and San Salvador; south by the Pacific, and west by the Mexican State of Chiapas. Its greatest length from uoi-th- east to southwest is 325 miles, its greatest breadth about 300 miles ; area, about 46,800 square miles. Climate, excessively hot in the low and cool in the high regions, is generally Lealthy. During the wet season heavy rains fall, and although snow is seldom seen, frosts are frequent. The soil is exceedingly fertile, but poorly cultivated. Population about 1,200,- 000, chiefly made up of whites descended from the early Spanish settlers ; mestizos, a mixture of Spanish and Indian blood; negroes, pure and mixed; and pure-blooded Indians. The Indians live mostly by themselves, and the civil authori ties immediately governing them are chosen from their own race. Indolence and licentious ness are the besetting vices of all the people. Language, Spanish. Religion, Roman Catholic, but all other creeds have liberty of worship. The government is republican; the legislative power is vested in a Congress, and the executive in a President, assisted by three ministers, elect ed for four years. The capital is Guatemala, by far the finest city in Central America, situated in a picturesque plateau in the southwest part of the republic. Almost the whole surface of the republic is composed of an elevated plateau, a continuation of the tableland of Yucatan, intersected by numberless mountains, many of which are volcanoes, and deep valleys, but no continuous mountain chains. The country is watered by numberless rivers, the principal of which is the Usumasinta, which rises in the mountains in the central part of the republic, and flows north west into the Gulf of Mexico. Guatemala la Bfueva, the capital of Guatemala, has a population of 65,796, of whom only one tenth are of European origin. Mis sion station of tbe Presbyterian Church (North) (1882) ; 2 missionaries and wives, 2 female mis sionaries, 4 communicants, girls' school, 88 pupils, 50 Sabbath-scholars. By evangelistic tours the missiouaries are endeavoring to reach the Indian aborigines, who practise their mys terious rites, ministrations, and sacrifices on tbe mountains, unaffected by the Spanish Catholi cism. Gudur, South India, a town in the Nellore district, Madras, on the Great Northern Trunk Railroad, 23 miles south of Nellore town. Populatiou, 4,862, Hindus, Moslems, Christians. Mission station of the Hermannsburg Mission ary Society. Guiana, an extensive territory on the north east coast of South America, bounded on the north by the Atlantic, on the east and south by Brazil, and on the west by Brazil and Vene zuela. The country slopes from the south, where the mountains reach an altitude of seven thousand feet, to the lowlauds of the north. Six large rivers, whose general trend is north, drain the country. In the lowlands the hot cli'. mate is tempered by the easterly breezes, which blow all the year. Terrific thunder-storms often occur, and at times earthquake shocks are felt. The fertility of the soil is unsurpassed in South America. This territory is divided between Great Brit ain, France, and the Netherlands. — 1. British Guiana, formally ceded to Great Britain in 1814, is the largest of the three colonies, and includes the settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, named from the three rivers. It ex tends from 9° to 1° north latitude, and from 57° to 52° north longitude, including an area of 109,000 square miles. The government is ad ministered by a governor, assisted by a court of policy. There are over 150,000 acres under cultivation, half of which is devoted to the raising of sugar. Population, 278,477, com posed of negroes, mulattoes, East Indians, and Chinese. For many years Chinese immigrants were brought to work on lhe sugar-plantations, but about 1870 all organized importation was discontinued. There are 159 schools, which receive government grants, with 21,384 pupils. Georgetown is the capital and principal city. Mission work iu British Guiana is carried on by the L. M. S., with stations at Ebenezer; and by the Moravian Brethren (1878), with stations at Graham's Hall, and Beterverwagtung in Dem erara; and by the C. M. S., with stations at Essequibo, Cabacaburi, Potaro River, and Orealla; 160 communicants. Until the year 1889 the Presbyterian Church of Canada sus tained a missionary at Demerara. 2d. French Guiana, or Cayenne, was ac quired by France iu 1626, aud includes an area of 46,850 square miles, and has a population of 26,905. It is by far the hottest of the three colonies, is poorly cultivated, and its trade is very insignificant. Cayenne, the capital and largest city, has 8,500 inhabitants. 3rd. Dutch Guiana (Surinam) is separated from French Guiana on the east by the river Marowijane, and on the west from British Guiana by the river Corentyn. It was first ac quired by the Netherlands in 1667, and was finally surrendered to its possession by the peace of Paris, 1815. The area is 46,060 square miles, much of it consisting of flat and swampy land, while the high mountains are found toward the south. The population is 57,141, aDd engaged principally in agriculture. Sugar is the princi pal product. Paramaribo (27,422) is the capi tal. The government is in lhe hands of a gov ernor and the council, who are nominated by the king. Entire liberty is accorded to the members of all religious confessions, and in 1887 tbe religious connections of the people with the Reformed and Lutheran Churches were 15,615; Moravian Brethren, 23,646; Ro man Catholic, 8,938; Jews, 1,409; Mohamme- daus, 1,629; Hindoos, 47,031; Buddhists, 114. Mission work in Surinam is carried on by the Moravian Brethren (1735), with stations at Paramaribo, Clevia, and other places on the Surinam River; numerous stations on the Com- mewyn, the Para, and Saramacca rivers; at Salem on the coast; and Waterloo, near the mouth of the Corentyne. GUINEA COAST 403 GUNONG SITOLI Guinea Coast : see Africa. Gujarat, British India. — The name Gu jarat does not refer to any political division of the Bombay Presidency, but rather to the area within which the Gujarathi language is the ordinary vernacular of the Hindu inhabitants. This region is composed in part of districts be longing to the Bombay Presidency, and in part of the territories of many different native states. It lies along tne shore of the Indian Ocean, at the northeastern angle of that great body of water. But it does not reach inland beyond the range of mountains known as the western Ghats, which stretch along about 30 miles from the sea, north and south. On the south it reaches to latitude 20° north, some 70 miles north of Bombay; its most northern point, where it touches Rajputana, is in latitude 24° 45'. It includes the peninsula of Kathiawar, Kachchh, the native states of Baroda, Cambay, those of Mahi Kantha, Rewa Kantha, aud Palanpur, and several other inferior chieftain ships. It also includes five districts or col- lectorships of the Bombay Presidency, which contain together a population of 3,000,000. The total area — British and native combined— is 70,038 square miles, and the total population about 10,000,000. The Irish Presbyterian Mis sion is the only missionary body prosecuting missionary work in Gujarat. The city of Surat is one of the oldest missionary stations in India; it was occupied by missionaries of the London Missionary Society as early as 1815. In 1846 the mission was transferred to the Irish Presbyterians, who had already occupied several adjacent stations, and by whom the work has since been pushed with much vigor and success in the principal cities of Gujarat. Gu.jaratlii Version. — The Gujarathi be longs to the Indie branch of the Aryan language- family, and is spoken in Surat and in the Province of Gujarat. The New Testament into the Gujarathi was made by Serampore mission aries, and in 1820 their translation was published at Serampore. A. revised edition of the New Testament prepared by the Irish Presbyterian missionaries was published by the Bombay Auxiliary Society in 1887. A diglott edition of the Gospels of Luke and John in Gujarathi and English was also published between 1886-87. Another version of the entire Bible was made by the Revs. Skinner and Fyvie of the London Missionary Society, who were stationed at Surat. In 1827 the New Testament, and in 1832 the Old Testament, was issued at Surat, whence this version is called the Surat version. A revised edition of the Bible was issued at Bombay be tween 1856-61, prepared by a Bombay commit tee. The Old Testament is now also in the hands of a translation committee. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British and Foreign Bible Society disposed of 161,878 portions of the Scriptures, and of 8,000 portions of the diglott Gospels. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Jni 1\ •nn'w *t«ui h1(H f&T, a ¦?uA. nq :»i Ethiopia (of doubtful location) may 3). have learned of Christ through the eunuch baptized by Philip. The apostle James famil iarly addresses " the twelve tribes which are of the dispersion." Peter addresses the " sojourn ers of the dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cap padocia, Asia, and Bithynia." He sends greet ings from Babylon (Rome ? in Egypt ? or on the Euphrates?— probably the latter). The in numerable traditions about the apostles and early disciples we must dismiss as unreliable aud misleading— such as that of Paul in Britain, Lazarus iu Gaul, Thomas in India, Bartholo mew in Parthia, Andrew in Russia, Thaddeus in Edessa, Philip in Scythia, Matthew in Ethio- HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 429 HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. pia, and Judas the Zealot in Arabia. Yet we cannot doubt that these men were busy some where preaching the gospel and building up churches. Further research may clear up the difficulties in the way of accepting some of these traditions. Of this we can be sure — Christianity found a lodgment during the first century from Spain to Babylon (3,000 miles), and from Rome to Alexandria. It had taken the whole Mediter ranean as its field of work. In 30 a.d. , at Jeru salem there were at most 500 Christiaus ; 100 a.d. there were probably 500,000. A map of the Christian world at this date, containing only certainties, would not give a true impres sion of the geographical extent of Christianity. From the uuexampled spread a little later we must allow a large growth in these early times before the great persecutions. The map should show the routes Paul took on his missionaiy journeys and on his way to Rome. The cities of iElia Capitolina (Jerusalem after 70 a.d.), Samaria, Joppa, Caesarea, Ptolemais (Acre), Tyre, Sidon, Damascus, Salamis, Antioch, Tar sus, Derbe, Lystra, Iconium.Antiochia, Hiera- polis, Colossse, Philadelphia, Sardis, Thyatira, Pergamum, Ephesus, Smyrna, Philippi, Thes- salonica, Beraea, Corinth, Cenchreea, and Rome should be plainly marked. The following cities and countries should be put down as probable : Babylon, Edessa, Arabia Petrsea, Alexandria, Cyrene, Ancyra (in Galatia), Perga, Troas, Athens, Rhodes, Crete, Mileta-, Puteoli, Car thage, and Southern Spain. It is possible that Dalmatia, Britain, and the Rhone valley should be included. Clement of Rome (30 a.d. — 102 a.d.), in his first epistle to the church at Corinth (§ 42), says that there was "preaching every where iu country and town." The Apostolic church was to all intents and purposes a Greek-speaking church. It was largely drawn from the Jewish element, al though Gentiles took more and more a promi nent part. Christian prejudice against the Jew as a Jew had not yet arisen. The hopeful, buoyant tone of the apostolic letters indicates a growing success in the work. The churches do not seem to have been thoroughly organized as one church, and so we note no internal geo graphical divisions. III. The Ante-Wicene Church. — The Church of tbe second and third centuries is under even a denser cloud than that of the first. We no longer have apostolic writings, and we have to rely for data on the whereabouts of Roman persecutions aud casual references. The era of representative church councils was just beginning. Justin Martyr (105 a.d.— 167), a fairly reliable Christian writer living in Pales tine, says somewhat rhetorically : " There is not a nation, either Greek or barbarian, or of any other name, even those who wander in tribes and live in tents, amongst whom prayers and thanksgiving are not offered to the Father aud Creator of the universe by the name of the crucified Jesus. " The still more reliable " Epistle to Diognetus " of the same century says (Chapter VI.) : "To sum up all in one word, what the soul is in the body, that are Christians in the world. The soul is dispersed through all the members of the body, and Christians are scattered through all the cities of the world." Irenseus, bishop at Lugdunum (Lyons), on the upper Rhone (130 a.d.— 202 a.d.), says (Adv. Haer. i. 10) : The Church, though dispersed throughout the world, even to the euds of the earth, has received from the Apostles and their disciples this faith. . . . For though the languages of the world are dis similar, yet the import of the tradition is one and the same. For the churches which have been planted in Germany do not believe or hand down anythingdifferent; nor do those in Spain, nor those in Gaul, nor those in the East, nor those in Egypt, nor those in Libya, nor those which have been established in lhe central regions of tbe world (Rome or Palestine)." Tertullian, who wrote in the second and third centuries, speaks of the Christians as a "great multitude," " a majority of every state." " We, though of yesterday, have filled every sphere of life — cities, castles, islands, towns, the ex change, the very camps, the plebeian populace, the seats of judges, the imperial palace, the senate and the forum. They (enemies) lament that every sex, age, and condition, and persons of every rank also, are converts to that name." Among other nations he enumerates the Gsetu- lians (Moors), "all the limits of Spain," "the diverse nations of the Gauls," "the haunts of the Britons, inacessible to the Romans, but con quered by Christ," the Sarmatians, Dacians, Germans, and Scythians. Beyond these rather highly colored generali zations we are largely dependent upon Church councils and mart.yrologies for our informa tion concerning tbe spread of Christianity in this obscure period. Eight savage Roman per secutions of the Church took place before Christianity won for itself imperial recognition. Those instituted by Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Decius, and Diocletian were most notable. The Diocletian persecution was in describably savage. The universality of several of these persecutions shows how widely the faith had spread. Tbe wisest Roman emperors ordered tbe severest persecutions, because they feared the spread of this secret religio-political cultus, as they considered it. This is another indication of the numerical strength of the Christians. It is estimated by the most careful students that by the opening ofthe fourth cen tury there were 10,000,000 Christians in the Roman empire, as contrasted with the 500,000 at the close of the first century. We can hardly account for such a gain in the face of such ob stacles. A conservative guess as to the number of churches at the close of this period places them at 1,000 Oriental and 800 Occidental. We have very unsatisfactory data on which to lean. Important Church councils were held at Car thage (254 a.d.), Elvira (Spain, 305 a.d.), Aries (Gaul, 314 a.d.), Ancyra (Asia Minor, 314 a.d), and Nicasa (Asia Minor, 325 a.d.). Contem porary documents give us the names of the bishops or presbyters wbo were present. But not a third of the churches could have been represented. Martyrologies help us out some what. In all we can give the names of 525 cities where there were churches at the time Christianity was coming out from under perse cution. They are distributed as follows (see Lectures of Professor R. D. Hitchcock. D.D., Union Theological Seminary) : In Europe 188 in all (Britain 3, German lands 3, Gaul 38, Spain 45, Italy 62, Southeastern Europe 37); in Asia 214 (Asia Minor 136, Northern Syria 36, Palestine 24, Arabia 18); in Africa 123 (Egypt and Lybia 28, North Africa 95). The map indicating this condition of HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. things is sprinkled all over with cities contain ing Christian churches. Multiply them by three or four, and we shall see why the rather secular mind of Constantine the Great led him to throw in his lot with the Christians. Be sides York, Lincoln, aud London, represented at the Council of Aries, 314 a.d., there were doubtless churches scattered all over the laud as far north as the Roman wall. All along the Rhine aud Danube frontier we see a striug of Christian fortresses. Roman soldiers were the missionaries in this dangerous region. The Euxine is fringed all around with churches. Italy, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Southern Spain, aud the Rhone valley are thickly dotted with churches. Christianity is still strictly municipal, as we might have pre dicted. What were the agencies of this vast growth of the faith ? We can fasten upon few names which we can call strictly missionaiy in their associations. There were the church fathers — Polycarp, Ignatius, Barnabas, Theophilus, Julius Africanus, and Justin Martyr, of Asia Minor and Syria ; Pantsenus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Egypt ; Tertullian, Cyprian, and Aruobius, of North Africa ; Irenseus of Gaul, Clement of Rome, Hippolytus and Lanctantius of Italy ¦ these are the more prominent leaders. The great aim was to con vert the centres of civilization. It was an era when there was no distinction between home and foreign missions. The vigor of Christian thought was shown in an unfortunate but in evitable way, by the outcropping of differences of theological opinions. Herelical sects sprang up in all directions — the Ebionites in Syria; the Alogi Gnostics, Montanists, in Asia Minor ; the Manichseans in Persia; Allans and Meletians in Egypt; the Donatists in North Africa ; the No- vatians and Sabellians in Rome. The most prominent work of the church fathers was in defending tbe church from these and other errors, and their distinctive missionary activity was not so manifest. But underneath all this controversy the most active propaganda in favor of the new religion was going on. Gregory Thaumaturgus was made bishop of his native city, Neo- Csesarea in Pontus. At the start there were twenty-seven Christians in the city; at the close of his ministry there were said to be only twenty-seven pagans left. The almost incredi ble expanse of Christianity was brought about largely by obscure men, who voluntarily gave their lives to this work. The laity figured prominently if not. overwhelmingly iu this labor, women as well as men — merchants, miners, sailors, soldiers, craftsmen. Every true Christian was a missionary, and thousands sealed their faith with their blood. Translations of the Bible into the vernaculars, always foremost agencies in missionaiy work, appeared in different parts of the empire — the " Peshitto " in S3'ria, the "Itala" in North Africa aud Italy, aud the Coptic in Egypt. During this period there were no geographi cal divisions within the Christian church. Bishops had control over particular cities, but were all equals. At the close of the period we see the beginnings of the metropolitan dignity that was to grow inlo the patriarchal control and the clear geographical demarcation of Christendom. IV. The Imperial Church (311-600 a.d.). — With Constantine's decree of amnesty to Christians (311 a.d.) the church entered upon a uew era. Under imperial favor Christianity be came a state religion, and the Roman Empire found that its vital force was no longer pagan ism, but the long-persecuted religion of the cross. The centres of civilization were won. The era of foreign missions proper now began. The imperial system of government was adopted in the home church. The emperor was virtually at the head of both church aud state. What the prefectures, dioceses, eparchates, and states were to the secular power, the patriarchates, dioceses, metropolitanates, and bishoprics were to the religious power. This terminology was subject to change. The divisions were more und more definitely drawn as time went on, until tbe patriarchates of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, were firmly established and the Bishop of Rome, although never tailed a patriarch, was equal in dignity and power to his Eastern brethren. Bishops at the capital cities of the various provinces were called in the East, Metropoli tans; in the West. Archbishops. These metro politans had control of the bishops within the province. Within the empire paganism was slowly going to pieces. Under Julian the Apostate it made one spasmodic effort to regain its ascend ancy, and then gradually disappeared, or was absorbed by the church or by some of lhe heretical sects. At the close of this period there were probably thirty or forty million Chris tians in the territory occupied by the empire when at widest extension. Besides the heretical seels already mentioned, some of which did most of their work in this period , (Arianism, Donatism, and Manichseism), we nole the Nestorians at work in the far East early in the fifth century, the Monophysites in Syria and Egypt a little later, and a century after the Monothelites ; later we shall have occasion to speak of themissiouary zeal of the Allans and the Nestorians, and the disasters to the south eastern provinces of the empire through the disaffection of the Monophysites. Let us look now at the foreign field. Lay preaching was condemned in 398 a.d., but tbis decree could not affect the foreign-mission work. Laymen still did the major part. Dur ing this period tbe workers included merchants, soldiers, captives, exiles, hermits, embassies from tbe emperors, and regular missionaries. When we consider the voluntary nature of the work, we are assured of the vigor of the young church, and are amazed at the far-reaching results. In fact this propaganda outside the empire had been going on for several centuries. It now came to notice and was carried on more systematically. Armenia, lhe battle-field be tween Roman and Persian, was tbe first nation, as such, to embrace Christianity. Early in the fourth century these mountaineers, under their king Tiridatcs, were converted by Gregory the Enlighteuer, who was their first patriarch aud ecclesiastical writer. The whole country seems to have received the new religion. Schools and churches were built, and the Bible was translated. An alphabet had to be invented for this last undertaking, and the Scriptures became the fountain-head of Armenian litera ture. Owing to some misunderstanding at the time of the council of Chalcedon (451 a.d.), the Armenian church became estranged from the HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 431 HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. imperial church, and in 491 a.d. it set up a separate communion. Since that date it has had a continuous life. We have seen bow during days of persecu tion Christiauity had made its way around the border of the Euxine. The gospel now pushes into the interior of the Cancasus range, and the Albanian and Iberian tribes are reached and won over. Tbe record is not. as clear as we could wish, but a female captive, Nino by name, is said to have been tbe agent that opened the country.* All the tribes of this region were under Roman rather than Parthian or Persian influence. The most interesting mission of this period was to the Goths, various tribes of whom bad been moving along the north shore of the Euxine and up tbe Danube. During their iuroads they penetrated in the third century as far as Ephesus and Athens. A large number of Christian captives from Cappadocia were dragged north ward across the Danube to the Dacian rendez vous of these rude northmeu, and thus the first gospel seeds were planted. Progress must have beeu made, for the Gothic bishop Theophilus was present at the council of Nica^a, 325 a.d. The apostle of the Goths, however, came a little later in the person of Ulfila, a sou of Cappado cian captives. Beginning early in the fourth century (313 a.d.), his work was spread over the century. He and his couverts went through fiery persecutions (35U a.d. and 370 a.d), but the work of conversion seems to have gone on with increasing momentum. Both the East and West Goths were reached effectually, and through all their wanderings disseminated a more or less helpful Christian faith. From the first Christianity had beeu pushing rapidly eastward. Mesopotamia must have had a large Christian population. Bishops came to Nicasa from as far east as Arbela aud Nisibis. Persia had been reached at an early period. During the reign of Sapor II. (390 a.d. — 379 a.d.) we learn of terrible persecutions which indicate a large Christian population. When the Nestorians were driven from the Roman dominions, they commenced their mis sionary march eastward, makiug a first lodgment iu Persia in the fifth century, at a time when Christianity was tolerated. . The Persian church seems to have adopted the Nestorian phase of the faith. The story of Nestorian missions does not belong altogether to this period, but the greatest conquests of territory were made dur ing the sixth and seventh centuries. They sent missionaries southwestward into Arabia, to the southeast into India and Ceylon, and eastward to China. A Nestorian monument of the date 781 a.d. has beeu discovered in the latter country; but we are wholly at a loss to know the extent of the spread of Christianity in these vast regions. The St. Thomas Christians in India aud the Christians of the Syrian cult at Oroomiah in northwestern Persia are all that have remained faithful up to modern times. Turning to Africa, we find a most interesting expansion of Christianity in Abyssinia (q.v.) during this period. Under the Syrian mission ary Frumentius this great upland of Africa seems to have received the gospel. Axum, the capital, was first reached. The Bible was trans- * See Moses Chorenensis, II. § 3; Rufinus Eeel. Hist., I. 10; Philostorgius I. 8: Socrates. Hist., I. 20; Sozomen, II. 7: Le Quien, I. p. 1333; Assemanus, III. p. ii. fol. 38, ibid, folio 616. lated into Ethiopic, and long before the Moham medan invasions the whole nation had become Christian. The king or Negus was in commu nication with the court at Constantinople, and at various times championed the cause of Chris tianity in Arabia. Nubia and the upper Nile were reached, but not as effectively as the mountainous regions of Abyssinia proper. We are not certain when missionary work on the peninsula of Arabia began. Doubtless the deserts south and east of Syria furnished a refuge to Christians during times of Roman per secutions, and the much-frequented caravan- routes gave easy access to all parts of the pen insula. Hermits betook themselves to the rocky fastnesses of Pella and the Sinaitic peuinsula, and at au early date came in contact with Bed ouin tribes. During the. fourth century we hear of missionaries among the Himyarites in the extreme southwest of Arabia. About the same time we are told of a travelling bishop who followed the wandering tribes of the Syrian des ert. A number of tribes were completely won over to Christianity — the Ghassauites, the in habitants of Najran, part of the tribes of Tay aud Kudaa, the Rabia, Taghlab, Bahra, and Tunukh tribes, as well as the Arabs of Hira (Nestorian influence). We hear of a terrible persecution of the Christians of Najran by the Jewish usurper Dhu Nowas (see article Moham medanism). By 600 a.d. we shall find tbe map of Arabia thickly sprinkled over with indica tions of Christianity. Turning to the extreme northwest limit of the known world, we find the Christian faith in this period laying hold of an island that long be fore it learned of Christianity was called "The Sacred Island." Hibernia, or Scotia Major, or Ireland, was well known to the early navigators and the Romans. Prudence restrained the lat ter powerf rom attempting its conquest, although they were frequently tempted to do so at the solicitation of petty chieftains. We are told of the anger of the Druids against Cormac, a prom inent monarch in the island about the middle of the third century, who turned from them "to the adoration of God. " For many years Chris tianity seems to have quietly spread from indi vidual to individual. Coelestius, an Irish Chris tian, was a follower of Pelagius, the champion of Pelagianism, early in the fifth century. It was not, however, until this century that Christianity had any substantial following in Ireland. The career of Patrick, a native of Brittany in Gaul, as a missionaiy to Ireland began early in tbe fifth century and lasted probably until very near its close Through his exertions the faith seems to have spread in every direction and to have taken possession of the island, although paganism still lurked about. The inroad of the pagan Picts from the north of Great Britain and the heathen Angles, Saxons, and Danes from the east, during this century, drove the British Christians into the western mountains, and thousands of them must have flocked across the channel to Ireland Thus reinforced, Patrick made the most substantial advance, so that at his dealh (492 a.d.?) the whole island was Chris tian. It seems that about 431 a.d. a monk, by name Palladius, was ordained and sent by Pope Celestine to those far-away Irish Christians to be their bishop. They seem to have cared very little for this intruder and clung to their apostle, who drew his inspiration from the Bible rather than from Rome. Palladius, discouraged, retired HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. to Britain. Tradition has mixed the careers of Patrick aud Palladius so thoroughly that the facts of the case are much obscured. It is quite certain that for some centuries Ireland did not receive commands from Rome. The statement that Patrick founded 365 churches in the island must be received as legendary. Brotherhoods and sisterhoods of celibates seem to have been in existence in Ireland before the time of Patrick, and they grow plentiful during his. lifetime. Brigid (St. Bridget) flourished from 453 to 525 a.d. and founded the famous nunnery of Kil- dare. Beuignus at Armagh, Finnian at Clonard, Mochay at Nedrum, Brendan at Clonfert, Kieran at Clonmacnois, Comghal at Bangor were prominent leaders. A pupil of the last named, Columbanus, in the next period, was a most prominent missiouaiy on the continent. The most illustrious of the Irish churchmen of the sixth century was C'olumba (or Columb- kille), who was born a.d. 521 and died 597 at I ona. After a rather impetuous career on his native island, in 563 with twelve companions he retired to this lonely island off the Scottish coast and established a monastery which became a bea- con-ligbt of the faith in northwestern Europe. From tbis island retreat Columba began mis sionary work among the Picts of the mainland. St. Niuian seems to have been at work among the southern Picts a little earlier than this. Columba and his zealous followers entered into the labors of others, and before his death the whole northern part of the island seems to have become Christian. As we have seen, Britain proper was lost to Christianity and the heathen Saxons and kind red tribes exterminated the faith except in Corn wall, Wales, and Cumbria. The Isle of Man seems to have been Christianized during this period. Clovis the Frank became a Christian after the Roman type and led his followers to accept the gospel. The German border was in constant turmoil owing to the ceaseless invasions from the north and east. The Gothic hordes that swept over the country had received a crude sort of Chris tianity, and so had the Vandals; but Attila the Hun was a heathen. Many of the Christian institutions founded in the fourth century were swept away. However we hear of Valentinus preaching the gospel in the Tyrol in 441 a.d. Paulinus was martyred at Ratisbon 470 a.d. Severus, bishop of Treves, was making efforts to spread the truth in Germany 435 a.d. Severinus was preaching in Noricum and Pan- noniain453. The Burgundians, the Franks, and the Lombards were reached effectively, as well as the Alans and the Suevi. The Slavonians and Avars in Illyria and Moesia received Christianity about 550 a.d. It will be seen that few, if any, Teutonic or Slavonic tribes were converted during this era before they entered the confines of Christendom. Themap at the close of this period shows.how- ever, all about the borders of Christendom a lacework of Christian missions. The only strik ing loss was southern Britain, which was soon to be won back. V. The Feudal Church (600 a.d — 1095 A.D.). — There are great changes in tbe geography of Christendom during the feudal period. The gains and losses balance each other. The greatest organized enemy of Chris tianity, Islam, began its decimating work early in the seventh century. Arabia, Syria. Persia, Egypt, the north coast of Africa to the Atlantic, Spain, and the Mediterranean islands were suc cessively conquered. Christianity was wiped out in Arabia, Nubia, and North Africa. Feeble churches remained in Persia, Egypt, and Syria. In Spain Christianity still was vigorous. The mountainous regions of the peninsula were never wholly conquered, and even in the con quered portions Christianity flourished under the lenient reign of the Kaliphate of Cordova. In the Asturias and Navarre the Christians were independent of Moslem rule. In Egypt and Nubia the monophysite Christians for tlie most part turned traitors, caring less for orthodoxy from Constantinople than fancied protection from Medina. Nestorianism was cut in two by the conquest of Persia and already began to decline. (See Mohammedanism.) Its work went on in the far east. Timothy, Patriarch of Syria (778-820), sent missionaries to China and India. In 845 we hear of Christiausbeingproscribed in China, although they had been tolerated all through the 8th century. The Taurus range and the highlands of Armenia remained the frontier fortresses of the Eastern church for many centuries, but as this period was closing, were being success fully penetrated by a new scourge from the East— the Turk. All through Europe missionaiy work made substantial geographical gains. Pagan England was reclaimed and thoroughly Christianized. The marriage of jEthelberdt of Kent and Bertha Christian, daughter of tbe Frank king Charibert, of Paris, opened the way. A Chris tian bishop followed her to Canterbury and the ruined church of St. Martin was repaired and put at his disposal. The story of how Gregoiy the Great, then deacon and later bishop at Rome, noted captive Angles from Deira in the slave- market at Rome and said whimsically, "Nor Angles but angels," and wished to save their people "deira" (from the wrath of God), is very familiar. As soon as opportunity came, Gregory sent Augustine (St. Austen) with a band of monks to the court of the Christian Bertha. They landed in 597 on the island of Thanet at the mouth of the Thames, on the very spot where Hengest the sea-rover had landed a century or so before. Kent was won over within a year. Essex and East Anglia followed. Northumbria was reached through Paulinus. The heathen made a fierce struggle, but between tbe Irish church on the north and west and Augustine and his zealous followers on the south, the victory of Christianity was the inevitable. Oswald, king of Northumbria had fled for refuge in his youth to the monastery at Iona and now in his regal capacity applied there for missionaries. Aidan was- sent who founded churches and monasteries. The Mercians, having lost their indomitable pa gan king Penda (655 a.d.) "rejoiced to serve the true king, Christ." Monasteries were established all over the island— at Lindisfarne, Melrose (St. Cuthbert), and Whitby (where English Chris tian poetry arose). A Greek monk, Theodore of Tarsus, was dispatched as archbishop to Eng land (669 A.D.-690) and systematized the whole English church. Then followed Breda and Alfred the Great. Danish heathenism of the 9th century was warded off, and England with Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, was thoroughly Christian at the close of the feudal period. In the meanwhile fhe fervid missionary zeal of the Irish church was at work on a larger arena. HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 433 HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. In the 7th century Ireland was called " the Isle of Saints," largely because of its numerous monastic establishments. Having won over the Picts and Scots to the faith, thousands of Irish monks looked longingly towards the heathen wilds of the Continent. We cannot follow them all as they went forth to tbe dangerous work. Columbanus, a disciple of Oomghall, Abbot of Bangor, born about 543 a.d., was the most dis tinguished of these. Starting in 595 with a number of companions, he went from place to place, and finally settled among the Vosges Mountains, on the German frontier. Later we hear of him in Switzerland and Lombardy. St. Gallus, his disciple, worked in Switzerland, and gave name to an illustrious monastery and to a ' Cantou. Another Irishman, Kilian (martyred 689 a.d.), was "the apostle of Franconia." Fursey, Livin, Fridolin, and many other Irish missionaries set the rather sluggish churches of the Continent examples of simplicity, piety, and missionary zeal that electrified the whole of western Christendom. From Gaul went forth Amandus (d. 681 or 684) aud Eligius (d. 659). From England came Willebrord (Clement), aud Boniface (Winfrid), "the apostle of Ger many. " The Frisians were slowly won over from au unusually savage paganism. The last and overwhelming argument came from the sword of Pepin D'Heristal. Willebrord made a futile attempt to reach the Danes. A century later Ansgar (800-865 a.d.) became the apostle of Denmark. About this time the sword of Charles the Great (Charlemagne) compelled the stubborn Saxons to cast away their idols and accept the cross. Sweden was reached by Ansgar, and in 834 Gautbert was consecrated bishop of that country. The real influence that brought Den mark, Sweden and Norway to Christianity, came somewhat later from England. Siegfred, Tryg- vason, and St. Olaf were the leaders. In 912 Rollo the Norman obtained Neustria, and was baprized as Robert Duke of Normandy. While the Belgians, Normans, English, Frisians, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Saxons, and other Teutonic tribes in Germany were being won over largely if not exclusively by the Irish, English, and Gaelic missionaries, the Roman church was fighting for life itself with repeated marauders from the north and the Saracens from the east and south. North Af rica and Spain were entirely lost to the Muslims. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica soon fell before the crescent. Later, as the flood-tide of Islam began to subside, the missionary efforts from Rome became more noticeable. The heathen Magyars (Hungarians) crossed the Carpathian Mountains in the 9th century, and settled on the Theiss and Danube. In 972 their leader, Geyza, married a Christian princess, Sarolta, daughter of the Transylvanian prince Giula.who had been converted during astay at Constantinople. The German missionaries pushed dowu into the country more aud more. In 994 Adelbert of Prague baptized Goyza's son Voik, and gave him the name of Stephen, who was afterwards famous as St. Stephen, the patron-saint of Huugary. Under his lead Hungary became thoroughly Christianized, and has ever been a firm adherent of the Roman church. Turning i o the Greek church, we find a more promising- field for missionaiy zeal. The Bulgarians are first heard of as a race of Finnish or Tartar blood, living on the Volga. In the 7th century a portion of them moved southwest, crossed the Danube, and spread over the country between that river and the Balkan Mountains. The Sla vonic tribes occupyiug this region submitted to the new-comers, but in turn gave their language to their barbaric conquerors. The Bulgarians received Christiauity during tbe 9th century. Cyril the theologian and Methodius the painter, both natives of Salonica, were the apostles of this race. King Borogis was impressed by a painting representing the Judgment Day, and the con version of the whole nation followed. After a sharp contest between the ecclesiastical powers at Rome and Constantinople, the Bulgarians re ceived au archbishop from the Greek church, and have ever since been loyal to that body. Cyril aud Methodius constructed the Sla vonic alphabet, and translated the Bible into that language, thus laying the foundation for Sla vonic literature. The Servians and Croats were reached by these same missionaries. The Czechs of Bohemia and Moravia, also a Slavonic race, learned of Christianity a little late in this same century (9th). Methodius spent the last years of his life in this work. The Czechs had already been reached by Ger man missionaries, but not until the baptism of Barziway, the Duke of Bohemia, aud his wife, and the arrival of Methodius, was much progress made. Even then there were several reactions. Under Boleslas II. the Geruiau influence predominated, and a bishopric was established at Prague (s*73). A century later all traces of paganism had vanished, and in 1092 the sacred forests were cut, and the last heathen priests banished. The most important conquest of Christianity during this period was the conversion of the Russians at Kiev. The traditions linking the Apostle Andrew to this country must be set aside entirely. During 955 Princess Olga visited Constantinople, and was so impressed with the Christian ceremonial that she was bap tized, and she adopted the Christian faith. Re turning to her northern home, her attempts to spread the faith were for a long while ineffec tive. When her grandson Vladimir came to the throne missionaries from Moslems, Jews, Roman and Greek Christians, urged upon him their respective religions. After some superficial in vestigation the decision was in favor of Greek Christianity, which brought with it the hand of the sister of the Byzantine emperor in marriage. In 988 Vladimir, his court, aud all his subjects were baptized at one lime in the river Dnieper at Kiev. This was the begiuning. The story of the spread of Christianity through out the vast European tracts owned by Russia to day is obscure. The consequences of the conversion of Vladimir, however, are immeas urable. Another Slav race, the Poles, were reached early in the 10th century by Greek mission aries coming from Moravia. In 966 their ruler, who bad married a Bohemian princess, was baptized, aud a large number of his court and people followed him. The work of Chris tianizing Poland was greatly interfered with by a struggle between Greek and Latin mission aries. The liturgy, rites, discipline, organiza tion, and service were all in the Polish tongue, according to tbe Greek method of missionary work. But the German and Latin missionaries gradually supplanted the Greek, and by the 11th HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 434 HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. century the whole nation was thoroughly organ ized after the Latin notions, and the Poles took their ecclesiastical law from Rome. The missionaiy work that must have aston ished Christendom most during this period was that done far across the Northern Atlantic, iu Icelaud and Greenland. Iceland was visited in the latter part of the 8th century by Irish monks, and was settled a century later by Nor wegian pagan emigrants. Through their mother-country they became acquainted with the gospel, aud by the year 1000 Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the settle ment. Greenland was discovered in the 9th century, and two small Christian settlements were established. The most far-reaching results came to Chris tendom through the checking of the Saracens at Constantinople by Leo III., the Isaurian, and at Tours by Charles Martel (752). Crete and Cyprus were soon won back by the Byzantine Empire. The Moslems were out of place in France, and soon were driven out of Narbonne, Aries, aud Niines. Charles tbe Great pushed them back in Spain to the Ebro. By 1030 the kingdom of Leon was well established in the northwest corner of Spain; and Navarre, Ara- gon, and Castile were beginning to gather headway. In 1017 Sardinia was reclaimed from the Saracen, aud in 1050 Corsica. Such was the geographical status of the feu dal church. Although it was a dark age, and Mohammedanism almost pressed out the life of the church, we must consider it on the whole an age of astonishing progress. The dark age was above all a missionary age. It prepared the soil for the more substautial harvests that were to be reaped iu a later and happier era. Its gains were mainly superficial, and when we scan well its losses we shall count those super ficial also. Vital Christianity was not swept away by Islam. VI. The Crusading Church (1095 a.d. — 1500). — The geographical spread of Christian ity duriug this period was almost altogether military in character. The appeal everywhere was lo the sword. It was a desperate fight for life with Islam and pagauism in Spain, Sicily, Palestine, Asia Minor, the Balkan peninsula, Russia, and along the Baltic. It was an era in which Christendom was organizing, unifying itself. Centralization was the watchword of the hour in church and state. The great na tionalities of Europe were carved out, and modern political life began. Intelligence was awakening, universities were springing up everywhere. This was the period of the great monastic orders. Since 529 the Benedictine Order had been spreading all over Europe, but with the eleventh century a new impulse seemed to come lo 1he church, and we see a quick succession of organizations based on lhe monastic principle. The most important orders were the Augustinian (not thoroughly organ ized until this period), the Carthusian (1084), the Cistercian (10981, the Carmelite, Alcantara (1156), Calali-ara (1158), Santiago (1175), the Dominicans (1216), and the Franciscans (1210- 23). Then came the military orders: Knights of St. John, Knights-Templars (1119), Teutonic Knights or Knights of St. Mary, and the Sword- brothers or the Order of Christ The Crusades proper did little or nothing for the geographical spread of Christendom. They may, however, have put a check upon the Sel- juk Turk, which gave Europe a respite before tbe more serious onset of the Ottoman Turk. The Seljukian Turks took possessiou of Bagdad as early as 1058, and made their way through Syria to the Mediterranean. They conquered Armenia, and seriously threatened lhe Byzan tine Empire by establishing in Central Asia Minor the formidable kingdom of Iconium or Roum. Urgent appeals from Constantinople, and pitiable tales of persecution of pilgrims at Jerusalem, aroused the restless chivalry of west ern Christendom. The first crusade was pro claimed by Pope Urban II. at Clermont 1095 A.D , and in 1291 Acre, tbe last Christian strong hold in Syria, fell, bringing the Crusades to an end. The Crusades broke the aggressiveness of the Sefjuks, but the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders weakened the Byzantine Em pire so that it was powerless against tbe Otto man Turks that soon followed, who were to totally change the geography of Asia Minor and Southeastern Europe. These orthodox Mos lems appeared ou the scene of action during the middle of the thii teenth century. By 1299 they were firmly established on the borders of the already lessening Byzantine Empire, with Brusa as their capital. With the exception of Trebi zond, Cilicia, the strip of land along the Bos phorus, and a few fragmeuts, the emperors at Constantinople had lost all their Asiatic posses sions by 1340. The well-disciplined Ottoman army entered Europe 1354, and held Adrianople wilhin seven years. Then followed a rapid advance to the Danube and clown along the Hellenic peninsula. Servia and Wallachia from being dependent states soon became a part of the Sultau's dominions. A momentary check, caused by the victory of Timour (Tamerlane) over Bajazet at Angora, 1402, gave Constanti nople a brief respite; bui in 1453 the last ves tiges of the Eastern Roman Empire fell with the capital city. Ivan HI. of Russia married the niece of the last Greek emperor, and adopted the double headed eagle of the Byzan tine Empire on his banners, thus taking up tbe long quarrel. The movement of the Ottoman now was northward. Tbe heroism of the Christian nations of Southeastern Europe, un aided to any valuable extent by Western Eu rope, was of no -avail against lhe fatalistic Mos lem batallions armed with the most approved weapons. The whole southern shore of the Euxine was gained. The remainder of the Greek mainland followed, with Albania and Bosnia. Euboia fell and the other islands fol lowed, the brave Knights of St. John holding ou to Rhodes to the last. Early in the next period tbe Janizaries crossed tbe Danube, took Hungary. Transylvania, Podolia, and controlled the whole coast of the Euxine (Biack Sea). During the last part of the seventeenth century the tide turned, aud the Ottoman rule in Europe has ever since slowly but surely been ebbing. In the meanwhile another Mongol horde, pagan as lo religion, bad been penetrating Christendom further to the north. Genghis Khan, after spreading bis rule through vast regions in Asia, moved westward north of the Caspian, iuvaded Russia, captured Moscow, Kiev, burned Cracow, and defeated the German armies under Henry tbe Pious at Wahlstatt (1241). Then tbe Mongols retired from Europe, leaving the " Golden Horde" on the lower Volga, which for two centuries kept Russia in turmoil. At length, late in the 15th een- HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 435 HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. tury, Moscow and Novgorod and other depend ent Russian states threw themselves against the several khanates into which the " Horde" had been broken up, aud under such leaders as Ivan the Great and Ivan III., succeeded iu makiug the Tartars dependent. The long- drawn battle between Russian and Tartar {Turk) still goes on, aud must to the end. The Nestorians seemed to have been favored by the ? ? ? Tartars of this time. Missionaries were sent to them. The mysterious Prester John was a Tar tar prince converted in the 12th century. Late in this period another Mongol appears, — Tamer lane, — a descendaut of Genghis Khan, who made himself master of the countries from China to the Mediterranean and from the Volga to Egypt. He defeated the " Golden Horde," and thus indirectly helped the Russian Chris tians, but in his bloody advances in Asia he made havoc with the Nestorian churches in the far East and Central Asia. Christianity was almost completely blotted out of those regions. A few colonies of Nestorians remained, which were visited by Roman Catholic missionaries in the 13th and 14th centuries. Tamerlane died in 1405. Turning to the southwestern corner of Europe we witness throughout this period substantial geographical gains for Christendom. During the previous period the good work had been well begun. As in Russia so in Spain, no out side forces were called in during the long suc cessful crusade. The Saracens at the opeuing of this period were broken up into small king doms — Cordova, Seville, Lisbon, Zaragoza, Toledo, and Valencia. Moors were called over to help the Moslems. The Christian kingdoms tended toward unity, and made a common cause against Islam. Portugal began its national existence. Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Barcelona pushed forward. There were advances and retreats. The Balearic Isles were won by Aragon. At tbe middle of the 14lh century the Moors were hemmed up in the mountainous retreats of Granada. At length, through the joint efforts of the King of Ara gon and the Queen of Castile, Ferdinand and Isabella, the last rampart was taken, and in 1492 Boabdil, the last Saracen ruler, sailed away to Africa. Turning to the laud of the Baltic, we find a most interesting geographic gain to Christen dom during this period, coming through the valor of the Teutonic knights. In the 11th century some progress had been made among the Wends, a Slavonic people living on the Bal tic between the Elbe and the Vistula. Gott- schalk, their ruler, suffered martyrdom in 1066. Vicelin worked among them in the following century successfully, and the Wends slowly accepted Christianity. In 1155 Saint Eric, the Swedish king, undertook the conquest and con version of Finland, across the Gulf of Bothnia. This crusade against heathenism went on for centuries with varied success, but the Chris tianity of Finland was superficial until after the Reformation. The Knights of the Sword, or Sword-bearers, conquered Livland early in the 13th century, and Prussia was gained by the Teutonic Knights or Knights of St. Mary a little later. Lithuaniaand Pomerania were next won. Heathenism gave way to the cross at nearly every point, aud at last Russian Chris tianity was met more than half-way by the militant faith from the west. Enough has been said to justify us in calling tbis tbe crusading era of Christian missions. Very little missionaiy work of the ordinary kind was done during these stirring centuries. In 1265 mendicant friars were sent among the Moguls by Innocent IV. In 1315 a disastrous attempt was made to convert Moslems in Africa. Franciscans in Northwestern Persia are said to have had several thousand adherents at the close of the 14th century, ln 1344 the Canary Isl ands, off the Atlantic coast, became a fief of the Pope. The Madeiras (1418-20), the Azores (1432-57), aud the northwest coast of Africa (1486-97) received missiouaries. The Cape of Good Hope was reached, the way to the East Indies opeued up, and a new world was dis covered just at the close of this period, and the whole geographical problem that faced the Christian church began to be understood. VII. The Colonising Church (1500- 1700). — Great as had been the spread of Chris tendom in each of the previous periods, the ex pansion during the 16th aud 17th centuries was unexampled. The Russian church, after the defeat of the " Golden Horde," quickly spread all over the territory now occupied by European Russia. In 1580 Gen. Ycrmak crossed the Ural Mountains, and within eighty years the Pacific was reached and over 4,000,000 square miles were added to Christendom — the whole upper half of the largest continent in the world. Church and state went hand in hand. The zeal of the church carried it over the straits to Japan, and across the arm of the sea to Alaska. Tbe conquests for Christianity in this vast ter ritory were as substantial as those we were deal ing with in the previous period. But the great expansion of Christendom took place across the Atlantic, largely under the ban ners of Spain, Portugal, and France, and through the instrumentality of Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits. The missionary work was almost altogether colonial in its nature. The fervid imagination of the church was set on fire by the great discoveries of this period. The chivalric spirit threw itself into the work of the dis coverer and the missionary. By 1585 Mexico was conquered and brought nominally to Chris tianity, somewhat in the same way as the greater part of Europe had been. A little later Central America, Peru, Chili, and the rest of South America, with the exception of the extreme southern peninsula, were dealt with in a simi lar fashion. Paraguay was a republic under the Jesuits as early as 1586. California, New Mexico, and Florida were reached. The earliest attempt of Protestants to do for eign-missionary work was colonial in its nature. Under the patronage of Coligny a missionary colony was undertaken in Brazil in 1555, but the venture soon collapsed through the treach ery of the leader. In 1559 Gustavus Vasa began mission work in Lapland, and substantial progress was made. Another attempt at plant ing a missionary colony in America, made by Coligny under Ribaut in Florida, was unsuc cessful, the colonists having been savagely butch ered by the Spaniards in the so-called "last crusade." In the meantime the English colo nies in North America brought substantial gains to the geography of Christendom. France pushed up the St. Lawrence, and the Jesuit missionaries found their way to the great lakes. In 1646 John Eliot, the first great English missionary, began work among the HISTORICAL GEOG. OF MISS. 436 HOISINGTON, HENR7 R. New England Indians. The Meyhews followed in Rhode Island and on the islands off the coast. In 1649 the Long Parliament legalized a " Cor poration for Promoting and Propagating the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England." At the close of this period the " Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge" was established in England (1698). In the meantime missionary work was pushed vigorously in the East. The Franciscans were the vanguard. The bishopric of Goa was established in 1520. In 1528 the Capuchin order was founded. In 1540 the &>- cietas Jesu was established at Rome. Francis Xavier went to India aud Japan. Father Ricci was in China. In 1622 the Propaganda was organized at Rome. Great but ineffectual efforts were made to do missiouaiy work in Africa especially on the Congo ancl in Morocco. In 1688 lhe missionaries were expelled from Japan, and a terrible massacre of native Chris tians occurred. (See Roman Catholic Missions.) The Dutch followed upon the heels of tbe Por tuguese in the East Indies. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company was chartered. Ceylon was taken (1636), as well as Java, Formosa, Amboyua, Sumatra, Celebes, and other islands. The natives were forcibly Christianized. The' map of the globe by the year 1700 was fairly complete. The great discoveries had all been made. The Christiau world was at last fully aware of the nature of the world-problem. The Greek aud Latin churches had made deter mined efforts to spread the faith, and had pat terned their work on the crusading model in vogue during the preceding period. Siberia, South America, Central America and Mexico, the West India Islands and the Atlantic sea board in North America were the special ad ditions to the territory of Christendom; in all fully 12,000,000 square miles. It is true that the Ottoman Turk made further inroads beyond the Danube, penetrating as far as Vienna, but there the advance was checked, and ever since the tide has been steadily rolling back to the Bosphorus. VIII. The Organised Church (1700- 1890). — It is not until we enter into this last period of the expansion of the geography of Christendom that we find the church or churches systematically pushing forward to the conquest of the globe. It is true that the Propaganda was founded at Rome in 1622, dur ing the previous period; but during the 18th and 19th centuries all the religious bodies of Christendom have been one by one? aroused to the work of overcoming heathenism aud Mo hammedanism. By 1732 the little Moravian church centering at Herrnhut was thoroughly organized on the missionaiy plan. National aggrandizement was still a prominent motive, but now a new spirit appears. The desire to follow the simple command of Christ, without reference to political affairs, began to spread. The great missionaiy societies, beginning with the Baptist Missionary Society of England (1792), followed one after the other, until to-day the whole world is systematically parcelled out, and the gospel is being preached in almost every dialect. It would be impossible in an article of the length allowed to this to give even the briefest account of the geographical expan sion of Christendom during the past two hun dred years. The great advances have been made in tbe interior of the great continents. North America as a whole has been brought in. South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, have shown the most substantial gains. Missionaiy work has made great ad vances in Japan, China, India, Persia, Turkey, and Africa. Heathenism seems everywhere to be waning, while Mohammedanism has shown great vitality, and is still spreading in Africa, India, and Australasia. Hitchcock, Harvey Rexford,b. Great Barrington, Mass., U. S. A., March 13th, 1799 ; graduated at, Williams College 1828, Auburn Theological Seminary 1830; sailed as a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M. Nov. 26th, 1831 , for the Sandwich Islands, arriving at Honolulu May 17th, 1832. He was stationed on the island of Molokai, where he labored faithfully aud suc cessfully for twenty-three years. He visited his native land for the benefit of his health, but without success. He died at Molokai August 29th, 1855. Mr. Alexander, who attended his funeral and wrote an obituary notice of him for the ' ' Friend," thus writes of him: " He died re joicing in the hopes of the gospel. His domi nant passion had always been to preach, and his great desire to live longer seemed to be simply that he might preach more." Ho, a town near Wegbe, on the Slave Coast, West Africa. A station of the North-German Missionary Society, with 218 members and sev eral out-stations. Human sacrifices are still common. Hoachanas, Namaqua Land, Southwest Africa, on a tributary of the Orange River, north of Berseba. Mission station of the Rhen ish Missionary Society (1853); 1 missionary, 5 native helpers, 307 members. Hobson, Benjamin, b. January 2d, 1816, at Welford, Eng. ; studied medicine in Lon don ; sailed July 28th, 1839, as a medical mis sionary of the L. M. S., for China, reaching Macao December 18th. There he performed his medical work till the beginning of 1843, when he removed to Hong Kong, and on June 1st opened a hospital. In 1845 he went to Eng land. Returning in 1847, he took charge of the hospital at Hong Kong. The next year he removed to Canton, to which he was originally appointed, and on the outbreak of hostilities in Canton, in 1856, he retired with his family to Hong Kong. Invited by the missionaries in Shanghai, he removed to that station, and on the departure of Mr. Lockhart for England, took his place in the Mission Hospital. In 1859, his health having failed, he returned to England, and, beiug unable to resume work in China, he retired, after a while, from the service of the Society. Besides his labors in Chinese hospitals, he wrote and translated into Chinese treatises on anatomy, surgery, medi cine, midwifery, and natural philosophy, which have had a very wide circulation. He died at Forest Hill, near London, February 16th, 1873. Hoffenthal, a town of Natal, East South Africa, between Harrismith and Emmaus. Mission station of the Berlin Evangelical Luth eran Society (1868) ; 1 missionary, 4 native helpers, 3 out-stations, 50 church-members, 10 schools, 30 scholars. Hoisington, Henry R., b. Vergennes, Vt., U.S.A., August 23d, 1801; learned the print er's trade in 1815 in Buffalo, and pursued it in Utica and New York. He fitted for college HOISINGTON, HENRY R. 437 HONG KONG under Dr. Armstrong at Bloomfield Academy; graduated at Williams College in 1828, and Auburn Theological Seminary in 1831 ; ordained aud settled in Aurora, N. Y., the same year; sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for Ceylon in 1833. In 1834 he was sent with Mr. Todd to the city of Madura to establish a new mission. In 1836, Dr. Poor having re moved to Madura, Mr. Hoisington returned to Jaffna, and was placed at the head of the seminary. On account of ill-health he visited the United States in 1842, and returned to Jaffna in 1843. Though feeble in health, he accomplished a good work for the seminary, in which he took a deep interest. Continued ill- health compelled him to leave his mission work and return home in 1849. With health par tially restored he spent two years visiting the churches of southern New England as agent of the Board. From 1854 to '56 he supplied the Congregational church in Williamstown, lecturing also to the college students on Hindu ism. In April, 1857, he was installed pastor of the church in Centre Brook, Conn., aud died suddenly, May 16th, 1858. Mr. Hoisington pos sessed a vigorous and acute mind, and his work as instructor of Tamil youth led him to study profoundly Hindu science, metaphysics, and theology, and in the department of higher Tamil literature he had perhaps no superior in Southern India. After his return home he wrote for the American Oriental Society a Syllabus of tbe Siva Guana Pothum, a Tamil translation of an old Sanskrit Agama, which treats of deity, soul, and matter; also an English translation of the same work, with an introduc tion and notes. He published also in the " Bibliotheca Sacra " an essay on the tenets of philosophical Hinduism. Hokchiang, a town in Fuhkien, China, southeast of Hinghwa, a district of the Foochow mission of the M. E. Church (North); 1 mission ary, 1 native pastor, 10 out-stations, 61 church- members. In tbe town, 1 day-school, 13 scholars, 3 Sabbath-schools, 26 scholars. C. M. S. work is carried on in the district by the missionary from Foochow. The turbulent, lawless character of the people, added to poverty, sickness, and famine, have proved seri ous obstacles to mission work, but tbe growth has been steady and gratifying. 615 com municants, 1 pastor, 19 schools, 203 scholars. Home Missions. — The line between Home Missions, City Missions, and ordinary church work is ono that it is almost impossible to draw sharply. Usage varies according to the cus toms of different denominations, different coun tries, and different sections of the same country. In general, however, Home Missions may be con sidered as that department of the work of the church iu which the outlying sections of its own country are provided for. It includes the providing of ministers and churches for places destitute of either or both, the assistance of churches that for one reason or another are not strong enough to stand alone, the furnishing of facilities for Christian education in new communities, and the meeting with Christian in fluence the great mass of immigration that so often threatens to overrun and break down Christian institutions. As America is the great field of Home Missions, the subject is more fully considered under the article United States. Honduras, a republic of Central America, lies between the Caribbean Sea on the east, the Pacific Ocean and San Salvador on the west, and separates Nicaragua from Guatemala. It became part of the Central American Confeder ation in 1822, but asserted its iudependence iu 1838, and is now governed by a president elected by popular vote for four years. Its area is estimated at 46,400 square miles, with a pop ulation of 431,917, the majority of whom are aboriginal Indians and Mestizos, with 5,000 descendants of the early Spanish settlers and 5,000 negroes. In general, the country is mountainous, the Cordilleras crossing it from north to south. There are many rivers, most of them flowing east. On the highlands the climate is pleasant and equable, but along the Caribbean coast it is hot and malarial. The soil is extremely fertile and luxuriant, and tropical vegetation is found along the coast. Silver, gold, and other metals are abundant, though the mines are almost abandoned on ac count of the difficulty of transportation. The principal city and capital is the ancient town of Tegucigalpa (12,600 inhabitants), nearly in the ceutre of the state, which will be the chief station on the prospective interoceanic railway. Roman Catholicism is the religion of the country, and 20,518 scholars attend the 573 schools under the supervision of the govern ment. A few of the Moskito tribe of Indians live near the Nicaraguan border, and are reached by the Moravian Brethren. Honduras, British, a crown colony on the Caribbean Sea south of Yucatan, east of Guatemala, and 660 miles west, from Jamaica. It has an area of 7,562 square miles and a pop ulation of 27,452. The capital is Belize, with 5,800 inhabitants. Mission field of the Wes leyan Methodist Church, with six principal statious: Belize, Corogal, Stann Creek, Toledo, Ruatan, and San Pedro; 25 chapels, 8 mission aries aud assistants, 1,793 church-members, 25 Sabbath-schools, 1,576 scholars, 17 day-schools, 1,332 day-scholars. Hong Kong, an island at the mouth of the Pearl or Canton River, on the southeast coast of China, is a British possession, having been ceded by the treaty of Nanking (see China). It is a rocky, mountainous island, nine miles long, and from two to six broad, and comprises an area of 29 square miles. Previous to the occupation of tbe island by the British it was the home of a few fishermen, who oftentimes changed their occupation to that of piracy when opportunity offered. Now it is one of the most important British posses sions in the East. Victoria, the capital and main city, is on the northern shore of the island, by the side of a safe and ample harbor. Fine streets and terraces cut iu the side of the moun tains, laid out with the best of engineering skill, and beautified with trees and tropical plants, have changed the entire appearance of this rocky island. Other settlements on the island are Aberdeen, on the south side, and Kowloon, a strip of land on the peninsula of that name, which was ceded to the British in 1861. The healthiness of the colony is as good as any in a like latitude. Oppressive heat and humidity last from May to October, but during the four winter months the bracing, cool at mosphere makes residence there delightful. Hong Kong is a port of call for the lines of HONG KONG 438 HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN RACE mail steamers running from Europe to Shang hai, aud is the terminus of two lines of steamers running from California, and one from Van couver's Island aud Australia. Daily steamers run between Victoria and Canton and Macao, while numerous lines ply between Victoria and the coast ports of China. The population (1881) was over 160,000, of whom 6,000 were white of all nationalities (only one third English), and 130,000 Chinese. The government supervises 97 schools, attended by 6,258 pupils, ln these schools English is taught. Mission work in Hong Kong is identified with the early history of the various missionaiy societies who work in China (q.v.). The London Missionaiy Society (1843) has 3 missionaries, 3 female missionaries. One of the missionaries is superintendent of tbe Alice Memorial Hospital, which is supported by the Hong Kong public, and is a centre of medical training for Chinese students. One church, 257 members, 12 girls' schools, 737 scholars, 8 boys' schools with 757 scholars. Church Missionaiy Society (1862); 1 missionaiy, 2 female missionaries, 1 girls' boarding-school, with 55 scholars; the Anglo-Chinese school (supported by the Chinese), 240 boys, 13 day- schools, 800 pupils, 97 communicants. Wes leyan Methodist Church; 1 native preacher, 43 church-members. Work is also carried on among the English garrison; 1 minister, 50 members. Independent Diocese of S. P. G. (1849); 1 bishop. The importance of looking after such Chinese as may have been converted in the United States has led to the appointment of a missionary by the A. B. C. F. M., who is stationed at Hong Kong, but who carries the work into the districts on the mainland from which the immigrants almost universally come. Two out-stations have been located on the mainland, and in Hong Kong are 4 boys' schools, 1 girls' school, 318 pupils. Basle Mission (1847); 150 communicants. 3 schools, 111 scholars. The Berlin Ladies' Association maintains a foundling hospital and a native preacher. Honolulu, the seat of government and principal seaport of the Hawaii Islands, situated on the southeastern coast of Oahu, is a thor oughly civilized commercial city. Its mild aud equable climate ranges from 67° in January to 83° in August, making the annual mean 75°, with a variation in either direction of only 7°. It is a port of call for the steamers plying be tween San Francisco and Australia, and occa sionally for the steamers between Sau Francisco and Hong-Kong, while it is the terminus of a line of steamers running semi-weekly to San Francisco. The inhabitants number 20,487, among whom are a great many Chinese, half- breeds, and natives of various islands of the Pacific. Christianity is tbe prevailing religion of the islands, and the Church of England has a bishopric at Honolulu. Mission work is carried on by the Hawaiian Evaugelical Asso ciation (q.v.), and there is a Chinese church and mission to the Chinese in charge of a minister supported by the A. B. C. F. M. The Japanese are also under the care of the Association. Tbe S. P. G. has 2 missionaries in Honolulu, 320 communicants; work is also carried on among the Chinese; 31 communicants. Hopedale, a station of the Moravian Brethren in Labrador, is situated about 150 miles to the south of Nain, on the spot where the first attempt to establish the mission had been made 30 years before, in 1752. Jens Haren served here the last two years of bis long stay in Labrador. The eagerness with which tbe Eskimo listened to the message of the gospel shed a bright light upon that veter an's last days of faithful self-denying service. Subsequently much injury was done here by the evil influence of European traders, who used every means to induce the Christian Eskimos to withdraw from the mission, and succeeded to a sad degree; but in 1804 the Lord's time of refreshing came. A wretched, despised, outcast woman was savingly con verted, and a powerful work of grace begun, by which the whole community was influenced. The European settlers in the south of Labra dor are regularly visited and ministered to now from Hopedale. Hoputale, a town in the Uva district of Central Ceylon. Climate varied, that of Upper Uva being good, and of Lower Uva unhealthy. Population of province, 170,000, Sinhalese, Tamils. Religion, Buddhism and demon-wor ship. Mission station of the Wesleyan Mission ary Society (1886); 1 ordained missionary and wife, 2 unordaiued, 3 ladies, 6 native helpers, 6 out-stations, 2 churches, 50 members, 9 schools, 351 scholars. Hoshangabad, a town in the Central Provinces, India, near the Nerbudda River, on tbe high-road to Bombay, having an excellent trade. Population, 15,863, Hindus, Moslems, Kabir-panthis, Christians, Jains, Jews, non- Hindu aborigines. Mission station of the Friends' Missionaiy Society (1874); 1 missionary and wife, 2 female missionaries, 1 boys' school, 50 scholars, 1 orphanage, 30 girls, 10 chuich- members, 1 dispensary, 888 patients (1888). Hoshiarnur, a district, with capital of same name, in the Central Provinces, India, 97 miles by 30, contains 2,100 villages, with a population of 500,000. The city of Hoshiarpur is 50 miles southwest of Lodiana; has a popula tion of 20,000, mainly Moslems, Jains, Hindus, and Sikhs. A conservative theistic movement has been started among the half-educated men who are dissatisfied with Hinduism and are not prepared to accept Christianity, by a Brahman. He teaches monotheism along with metempsy chosis, and strongly opposes idolatry, con tending that the hymns to Agni, Indra, and Surya in tbe Vedas are hymns to one God, who- is without shape, or any second. The 40 or more adherents to this doctrine are bitter op ponents of Christianity. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North) (1867); 2 native pastors, 57 members, 1 girls' orpbauage, 14 girls, 2 girls' schools, 56 scholars. Hottentot-Bushman Race.— When the southern angle of Africa was discovered by Diaz and De Gama four centuries siuce, as when it began to be colonized also by Euro peans in 1652, it was found to be occupied by a somewhat peculiar aboriginal race, which soon came to be known as the Hottentots. Out of this parent stock have come several affiliated groups known as Bushmen, Naniaquas, Koran- nas, and Griquas. The Hottentots called them selves, originally, Khoi-Khoi, the Men of Men. Pilchard regarded their present name as a cor ruption of Houteniqua, the name of an extinct tribe. But those who know the language, HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN RACE 439 HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN RACE finding in it no roots of such a word, prefer tbe opinion advanced by T. Hahn, a scholar, who knew the language as his mother-tongue, hav ing been born and bred among them as the son of a missionary, that the Dutch gave them this name, Hottentot, because of the curious sounds, especially the clicks, in which their language abounds, as if they stammered ancl stuttered. Indeed, in Low German the word Hottentot. ' or Hlittentut, is said to mean ' ' a quack. " More than two centuries since, they were represented by the traveller Dapper as " speak ing with clicks like Calicut hens." These clicks, of which there are several kinds, as labial, palatal, dental, or lateral, seem to have had their origin in the onomatopoetical prin ciple, with headquarters in the Hottentot tongue, aud from this to have been taken over and adopted into some of the neighboring languages, especially into the Kafir and the Zulu. The Hottentot abounds also in harsh consonants and aspirated gutturals, which, with the clicks, are hard for a foreigner to acquire. The eminent comparative philologist, Dr. Bleek, who had the best of means for forming a correct opinion, calls the Hottentot a suflix- pronominal, sex-denoting language, and classes it with the Hamitic of North Africa. According to T. Halm, in correspondence with Dr. Cust, it is strictly monosyllabic, and every root ends in a vowel. It uses suffixes and postpositions, has three grammatical genders and three num bers, four clicks aud three tones. It has an extensive oral literature of songs and animal- stories, is highly developed, and anything but the mere jargon which the early Dutch settlers fancied it to be. In respect to the origin and early history of this ancient race, the writer has permission from those who hold the copyright to quote from his "Zulu-Land " as follows: " The geographical position of the Hottentot, from the time he was first known to the Euro pean, situated as he was at tbe southern ex treme of the African continent, and flanked from sea to sea on his north or inland side by a broad belt of people of a very different language and appearance, would seem to indicate that any search for his pedigree and ancestry, pro vided the present be not his original home, must be made in regions far removed iu respect to both time and place. Happily, within the last few years, a careful study of his language and a comparison of this with the old Egyptian and Coptic tongue have given us a clew to his ancient abode. If we may credit some of the most learned aud acute philologists of the pres ent day, and those who have had the best opportunities for studying tbe Hottentot and Bushman, together with other African dialects, this Gariepine tongue of the southern extreme belongs to the same family as the old Egyptian and Coptic, the Berber, Haussa, and Ethiopic, in the farthest north of the continent; and what is also highly interesting and important, this southern branch of the family is found to sur pass all the rest in the integrity with which it has preserved the more essential characteristics of the original stock. "Admitting the correctness of these views, we can have no doubt as to the earlier ancestry of our neighbors of the Hottentot and Bushman class, including the Koranna and Namaqua, and that their origin is the same as that of the nations of northern Africa, the old Egyptian and kindred tribes; including, perhaps, the Libyan or Berber and the Guanches. " This conclusion is supported by other con siderations. The appearan ce, manners, cus toms of tbe Hottentots are all different from those of the Bantu race, while they afford good reason for classiug tbem with the old Egyptian. Tbe antiquities of Egypt give us impressions and pictures so like the Hotteutot as to make it quite certain that persons of this class must have formed the original of these represen tations. The Hottentot of olden time wor shipped the moon, and from ancient history it is evident that sidereal worship was not un common among some of the northern nations of Africa; but of this we find no trace among the Bantu tribes. The Hottentot tribes differ from the Bantu, but agree with many a nation of olden time in the use of the bow and arrow. But the strongest reason for regarding the Hot tentot and old Egyptian or Coptic as one in origin is found iu the likeness of the language of the one to that of the other. With facts like these before us, it is easy to believe this stock. originally one, was, at an early age, split and separated into the two parts we now find, one in the extreme north and another in the extreme south of the continent, by the incoming of the sundering wedge of another race, as the Bantu, from the northeast. Irruptions from that quarter, in those early ages, were not uncom mon, as we know from the incoming of the Israelites and of the Shepherd Kings. As the families in the northeast grew and multiplied, it was but natural that some of them should press to the south and west, as from the Euphrates into Egypt. Finding Egypt already filled by a previous family, some of which had doubtless beguu to move on up the Nile, southward, it was easy for the new race to split the old, and push a part before it, each advancing up the Nile and onward to the south, like one wave after another, till finally that in the lead was crowded into the extreme south and flanked by the other on its northern border, the former now called the Hottentot, the latter the Bantu race, each of them continuing to keep up its dis tinctive aboriginal traits in a remarkable man ner. In personal appearance the Hottentot is short in stature, of a yellowish-brown in color, like a faded leaf, with high cheek-bones, chestnut eyes, nose flat, hair twisted into clusters. When first discovered by the Portuguese they were reported as pastoral in their pursuits, rich iu cattle, scant in dress, living in huts, and re markable for the excellence of their morals. But almost everything in respect to their freedom, mode of life, and morals was greatly changed, often for the worse, by the coming in of the white man. Subsequently, by the introduction of a better rule and much missionary work in their behalf, the condition of many of them was greatly improved. Some of the tribes have been civilized, and many of the people become good citizens, intelligent, steady, and industri ous, and not a few are brought to embrace the gospel. Many are in the employ of the Dutch farmers; but their tribal home, so far as they have any, is on tbe Orange River, north and south, and from the Atlantic eastward half across the continent. Out of this original Hottentot stock, at an early date, came a large branch, the San tribe, now called the Bushmen, an Anglicized form of HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN RACE 440 HOWLAND, WILLIAM S. the Dutch Bosjes-men. Indeed, some speak of the original stock as opening out into two branches, the Kboikhoi and the San, the former being, primarily, given to the pastoral mode of life, the latter to hunting. For this wandering, hunting, predatory kind of life the Bushmen of to-day have the same love as their ancestors, the San, had when first discovered, centuries ago, by the Europeans. Their habitat is here and there among the wild region sof the Orange, in the bush, among the rocks and ravines of the hills, or secluded recesses of the mountains, on the outskirts of other tribes. They build no houses, have no tents, nor herd, nor flock. They are very diminutive in stature, of a dark yellow color, their hair like wool twisted to gether in small tufts. They have no national ity, and it, would seem tbat their religion con sists chiefly in a few superstitious notions con cerning evil demons. , In their unsettled, wan dering coudition it has been difficult to cany on mission work among them, though some have been induced to join stations among other tribes, and been, in this way, brought to a knowledge of the gospel. They speak essen tially the same language as the Hottentots, and yet the points of difference are many. In one respect they are an enigma, that is, in the "signs they have given of intelligence and artistic skill; for," as Dr. Cust says, " they have exhibited a wonderful power of graphic illustra tion. The rocks of Cape Colony and the Drakenberg have everywhere examples of San drawing, figures of 'men, women, and children, animals characteristically sketched, and as a proof that the art is not extinct, figures of their enemies, the Boers, appear unmistak ably. Rings, crosses, and other signs have given rise to the speculation, quite unsupported, that they may represent some form of indige nous writing, but tbe facts, such as they are, must not be stretched beyond what they actua- ally evidence, and this is sufficiently note worthy." Another tribe of Hottentots, the Namaquas, living as nomads near the Atlantic along the Orange River, the Great Namaquas on the north side and the Little on the south, speak essen tially the same language, have the same com plexion, kind of eyes and hair, as the Bushmen and other Hottentots; and yet are tall, well-pro portioned, and under the training of mission aries have come to be somewhat enterprising and industrious. Some of them have been educated and led to embrace tlie Christian faith. Not unlike to these are the Korannas and the Hottentot tribes who live also along the Orange, to the east of the Namaquas. Going still farther east, to a region near to where tbe Vaal and Modder enter the Orange, we come to where the noted Griqua tribes began lo be gathered and consolidated with others a century since. Being a mixed race, many of them the offspring of colonists and Hottentot women, they speak two languages, the Hottentot and the Dutch, though the latter is fast supplanting the former. Their well-watered valley, a little north of the Orange, had an attraction for others, and soon became the abode of free blacks aud Hottentot refugees from the Cape Colony; aud soon they were joined by two companies of mixed bands from Little Namaqualaud, in the lead of Adam Kok and his sons, all of mixed blood. Neighboring clans of Korannas and Bushmen became a part of the settlement. A mission station was formed among them at Klaarwater, aud Messrs. Anderson and Kramer began to teach Ihem the gospel, how to read, to cultivate the soil, and build houses more substantial than mat huts. Their history for all these generations, like that of other Hottentot and Bushmen tribes, has been remarkably diversified — in many respects sad, and full of wrongs. Many of tbem, profit ing by the teachings of the missionaries, as the years have gone by have become intelligent, industrious, Christian men, while others have continued to prefer the savage life. A negro race on the west coast, north of the Orange, having been subjugated by the Nama quas and called Damara, or " conquered," though adopting the language of their conquer ors, do not really belong to the Hottentot race, though sometimes spoken of as such. Those of the Damara who speak the Hottentot are called the Hill Damara, to distinguish them from the Herero, who are of the Bantu race, and called Cattle Damara. For all these tribes much good mission work has been done. Through the patient endurance of many trials, in face of much opposition from those who should have been helpers together with them, the missionaries laboring to raise these benighted, persecuted tribes to a better plane of life on earth, and fit them for the life to come, have seen their labors greatly blessed, have seen great secular, social, civil good brought to them and souls not a few fitted for a blissful immortality. The first mission work ever done in South Africa was begun aud done for tbis Hottentot-Bushman race when, in 1737, George Schmidt, sent out by the Moravians, began to tell the story of the cross to a little company of this dark-skinned, dark-minded people at Bavian's Kloof, afterwards called Gnadendal, or Vale of Grace, 130 miles out from Cape Town. But after a few years of violent opposition on the part of colonists the work was suspended for half a century, and then renewed and carried on, till now the Moravians have, among them and other tribes in that south land, no less than 16 stations, 60 missionaries, and more than 12,000 converts to the Christian faith. In 1799 the devoted, faith ful Vanderkemp was sent out by tbe London Missionaiy Society lo work for this people. Then others came, and the work, beginning to take in the Kafirs also, went on to prosper, de velop, and extend, till they have now raised up more than 100 native preachers, brought 6,000 souls into the church, and won to its instruction about 30,000 adherents. The Wesleyans, work ing for this and the Bantu race, now number 40 stations, 60 missionaries, and 6,000 church-mem bers in that south land. The Rhenish Society, which has doue much for this race, especially for the Namaquas, as well as for Bantu tribes, began its operations iu that field in 1829, and now numbers more than 10,000 members. The Berlin and other societies have also done some thing. The Dutch Boers, who have had so many of that people-in their employ, are begin ning to show a commendable interest in their spiritual well-being. Howland, William Southworth, b. Batticotta, Ceylon, July 8th, 1846, son of Rev. William W. and Susan R. Howland, ofthe Cey lon Mission; graduated at Amherst College 1870, Andover Theological Seminary 1873; ordained May 7th, 1873 ; sailed the same year, as a mis sionary of the A. B. C. F. M., for India; was sta- HOWLAND, WILLIAM S. 441 HUNGARIAN VERSION tioned at Mandapasalai, in tbe Madura Mission. The number of villages conuected with the sta tion is 103, containing 2,557 Christian adher ents aud 618 communicants. Here he labored, with 4 pastors, 52 catechists and teachers. He was diligent in all the details of his work, faith ful in seeking out the members of his congre gation, practical in applying his mechanical akill for the good of tbe people, especially in ? the erection and improvement of suitable build ings for churches and schools, and in providing wells where needed. Besides a large number of small prayer-houses and temporary mission buildings, he planned and built several perma- neut churches. His crowning effort was the "beautiful church be erected at Mandapasalai. "With unskilled builders, and rude instruments he wrought, supplying in himself the necessary skill, and stimulating his workmen by his own personal labor ou the roof as well as on the floor, until he succeeded in completing a church that marked a new era in the architecture of missions. His photographs, taken by himself, and the slides prepared from them, make up a collection unequalled in its illustrations of In dian life." After thirteen years of mission service he returned home with Mrs. Howland, but in less thau a year they were removed by death. They both died at Auburndale, Mass., she March 5th, and he March 7th, 1887. Howrah, a large town and important rail way centre on the Hugli River, Bengal, Iudia, opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by steam-ferries and a pontoon bridge. Mis- siou station of the S. P. G. (1833); 1 missionaiy, 89 commuincants, 1 boys' school, 295 scholars. Baptist Missionary Society; 1 missionary, 62 church-members, 54 day-scholars, 85 Sabbath- scholars. Station of the Baptist Mission Society; 1 missionary, 40 scholars. Huahine, one of the Society Islands, was the earliest field of tbe London Missionary Soci ety. Its sole missionary is now continuing on the island simply to prevent the utter wreck of Christian work, for on account of the French annexation of the Islands, the work was to be handed over to the care of tbe Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, but the people have utterly ref used to have anything to do with the French, and seem determined to provoke a conflict by insulting the French flag. The outcome of such action cannot fail to be disastrous to the welfare and Christian life of the people. Hubli, a city of Bombay, India, 13 miles southwest of Dharwar, on the main road from Poona to Hariwar. The center of the cotton trade of the Maratba country. Population, 36,677, Hindus, Moslems, Jains, Christians, Parsis. Mission station Basle Missionary Society (1840); 2 missionaries and wives, 8 native helpers, 1 out-station, 303 church-members. Huchow-fu-che-kiang, a town and de partment of the province of East China, 100 miles west-southwest of Shanghai, on the Tai- Hu Lake. Climate of plains damp, malarious; hill-country healthier. Population, 70,000. Mission station American Baptist Missionary Union (1888) ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 native helpers, 1 out-station, 7 church-members, 1 ¦school. Hudson's Bay, a dialect of the Cree lan guage spoken by Indians in the part of Canada bordering on Hudson's Bay on the east, and dif fering widely from the Moonsouee on ihe west. (See Cree.) Huine, Robert Wilson, b. Stamford, Conn., U. S. A., Nov, 9th, 1809; graduated at Union College, 1833, taking high rank us a scholar in a large class ; studied theology at Andover and Princeton; acted as an agent for the A. B. O. F. M. part of the time, and part of the time studied Marathi, and attended medical lectures; ordained in 1839; and sailed April 1st, the same year, as a missionary of lhe Board for Bombay, with Mr. Burgess. He was stationed for fif teen years at Bombay, spending a part of the cool months making tours on the continent. In the cause of temperance he took a deep interest and au active part. For some years he was Sec retary of the Bombay Temperance Union, and editor of its journal called the "Temperance Repository," which attained a high place for ability and usefulness. For ten years he was Secretary of the Bombay Tract and Book Soci ety, and did much to make it one of the most efficient institutions of the kind iu India. It was through his influence that, instead of gratuitous distributions, as had formerly been the custom, colporteurs were employed, who went into all the districts of Western India, and sold hundred of thousands of these publications. One of the Bombay Journals, referring to this Society, says: "The rapid advance the Society has made of late years has been due mainly to Mr. Hume's prudent and energetic manage ment." Soon after his arrival in India a monthly magazine was commenced by the Maratha missions in the native language, with a view to diffuse correct religious knowledge, and to refute the falsehoods, cavils, aud objec tions contained in native journals concern ing the Scriptures and Christianity. The mag azine was called " Dnyanodaya," — Rise of Knowledge; at first monthly, then semi-month ly. A small part of it was in English, but most of it in the native language. Mr. Hume was the editor for ten years. The labor was great, a.s he had to prepare most of the matter. It was the only Christian journal in any native language in Western India. His labors were highly appreciated. In 1854, in the rainy sea son, he was taken very ill, and the physicians decided that his life could be saved only by his going to a colder climate. There being no American vessel at Bombay, he proceeded in an English vessel to Cape Town. He was so ill that it was feared he would not live to embark. He sailed with his family September 20th. The passage was long and the weather stormy, and he died Novenber 26th, in sight ofthe coast of Africa, a week before the arrival of the ship at Cape Town. He was highly respected by the English and native community in Bombay, and his death was a heavy loss to the mission in its various operations, to the native church, and to the different religious societies with which he was connected. Hungarian Version. — The Hungarian language belongs to the Finn branch of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, and is spoken by the Magyars of Hungary and Transylvania, who, according to the census of 1880, num bered about 6,422,000 souls. There is no doubt that parts of the Scripture were trans lated at an early period into Hungarian. Of Margareth, daughter of King Bela IV., who HUNGARIAN VERSION 442 IARINDRANO died in 1271, we are told that she read portions of the Bible in the Hungarian dialect. There are also extant some MSS. containing portions of a Hungarian version. The first to translate the New Testament into Hungarian was Joannes Sylvester (d. about 1555). Tbe first edition appeared in 1541 (2d ed. 1574), from tbe printing-press set up by Count Nadasdi, the chief protector of the Reformation in Hungary. Towards the end of the 16th century the Jesuit Stephen Szanto made a translation from the original text, which was never printed. In 1626 a translation made from the Vulgate by the Jesuit George Kaldi, and still used among the Roman Catholics, was published at Vienna, and often since. For the Protestants, Gaspard Karolyi, a Mag yar, translated the Bible inlo Hungarian, which was published at Visoly, near Guns, in 1590; a revised edition was issued by Albert Molnar at Hanau in 1608. This edition contains also a Magyar translation of the Heidelberg Catechism, tbe liturgy of the Hungarian churches, and a metrical version of the Psalms. Reprints were issued at Oppenheim, 1612; Utrecht, 1794; Pesth, 1837; Koszegen, 1852. Another translation was published by Caspar Heltai, 1551-1564, at Clausenburg; by Georg Esipkes, Leyden, 1717; by Andreas Torkos, Wittenberg, 1736; by G. Barany, Lauban, 1754. In 1869 the British and Foreign Bible Society engaged a reformed pastor in Hungary to revise Kaldi's New Testa ment. Whether this edition was published we are not aware. In 1881 a carefully revised edition by Bishop Filo was published by the above Society; a second edition followed in 1885. In the same year a representative com mittee under the presidency of Bishop Szasz of Pesth was formed to prepare a version of the Old Testament, retaining as much of Karolyi's text as was consistent with a faithful rendering of the original, aud a style intelligible to the people generally. The Book of Genesis was published in 1888. The British Society has, up to March 3 1st, 1889, disposed of 861,502 portions of the Scriptures. Hunt, Phineas R., b. Arlington, Vt., U.S.A., January 30th, 1816. From his conversion in earlylife he was an active and zealous Chris tian. He went lo India in 1839 as a missionary printer of the A. B. C. F. M, and was stationed at Madras. His warm-hearted, Christian efforts among the English-speaking population, native and foreign, and his generous sympathy en deared him to a wide circle of friends. He had the charge of the mission press in Madras, and was also treasurer of the mission, in both which. departments he discharged his duties with great fidelity. He greatly improved the style of Tamil printing. The Tamil Bible and the Dictionary of Dr. Winslow, both printed by him, are monuments of his skill and painstaking efforts. In 1861 the native and foreign Chris tians of Madras presented to him, as a token of their regard, an elegant gold watch, bearing the following inscription: " To Phineas R. Hunt, Esq., from native Christians and friends of missions in Southern India, in token of their appreciation of bis labors for the improvement of Oriental Typography, January, 1861." On the discontinuance of the Madras mission he gladly accepted tbe offer of the American Board to send him to Peking, to fill a similar post in that cily. He went to Peking in 1868, a veteran of 29 years' service in a foreign field. His labors were invaluable to tbe mission in the care of the Treasury, and of all its secular con cerns. He established the first printing-office in Peking in which the foreign press and metallic movable type were used ; and he printed a new translation of the eni ire Bible, a version of the Prayer-book, and other valuable works, in the Mandarin dialect. Mrs. Hunt died March 29th, 1877, and he, of typhus fever, May 29th, 1878. There have been few more wholly consecrated missionaries than Mr. Hunt. A brief note from Rev. Mr. Goodrich of the North China Mission says: " Of the nearly forty years of his hard-working and useful life, none, I think, have been more important and fruitful than the past three. Through heavy trials and deep spiritual exercises his heart has been almost overcharged with love, and has overflowed in blessing upon us all. Many of his words have burned themselves into my heart, and stir me still with strange power. He had a ceaseless. and insatiable desire to proclaim the gospel." II u r (la (Harda), a town in the Central Prov inces, India, 48 miles southwest of Hoshangabad. A very thriving place, constantly improving. Population, 11,203, Hindus, Moslems, Jains, Christians, Parsis, Jews. Mission station For eign Christian Missionary Society; 1 missionaiy, 650 Sabbath-scholars, 72 day-scholars. Huta Rargot and Hutu Rimbaru, two stations on the Angkola plateau, Sumatra, East Indies. Founded in 1864 by the Java Comite. The Gospel according to Mark has been translated into Augkolage by Dammerboer. I. Iaian or Uvea Version.— Iaian belongs to the Melanesian languages, and is spoken in Uvea, a portion of the Loyalty Islands. For tbe 1 ,200 Protestants of Uvea and two tribes in New Caledonia the Rev. Samuel Ella of the London Missionary Society, who arrived there in 1864, translated, first, selections from the Gospel' of Matthew, which were published in 1867, and in 1868 the Gospel of Luke was issued from the mission press. The New Testament was printed in 1878 at Sydney. The Psalms were published at the same time at the expense of the British and Foreign Bible Society, which up to March 31st, 1889, had disposed of 1,000 portions of the- Scriptures. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Helang ibetengia anyin Khong ka ang mele- dran, e ame ham Nokon a khaca thibi, me me ca he ka mok ke at ame labageju kau, kame he ka hu moat ame ca ba balua. Iarindrano, a mission district of the Lon don Missionaiy Society (1864) in lhe Betsileo province, Madagascar; 1 missionary, 57 out- stations, 435 church-members, 14 Sunday- IARINDRANO 443 IFUMI schools, 408 scholars, 50 day-schools, 1,226 pupils. Ibadan, a town in Yoruba, West Coast of Africa, 70 miles north-northeast of Lagos. A pleasant town, with wide, straight, well-kept streets, etc. Mission station of the Church Missionary Society; 1 native pastor. It was founded in 1852, and was in the beginning very prosperous, but became in 1877 completely in sulated on account of tbe tribal wars. The native pastor, however, succeeded in keeping together the congregation, numbering 120 mem bers, with 55 communicants. Ibo Version. — The Ibo belongs to the Negro group of the languages of Africa, and is spoken by the Ibos, a West African tribe dwell ing on the banks of the Niger, who received the Gospel of Matthew in their dialect in the year 1859. In the year 1864 the Gospels of Mark and Luke, translated by the Rev. John Chris topher Taylor, were published at London by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Since 1865 other books were added. Altogether the Ibos have now eight books of the New Testa ment, the translation being the joint work of the Revs. J. F. SchSn and J. Ch. Taylor of the Church Missionary Society. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Mit ofuiXaa Tiuku tifriru Uif-wwajnajfinya, ai 'ya m/ere otu eli Qparaya, ma owyf. Qwma . iwereya* cgugi iftl, magaBtoete'n&u eiigeii. Iceland, a large island in the North Atlantic Ocean, subject, to the Danish crown, 160 miles northeast of Greenland and 600 miles west of Norway. Area, including adjacent isi-' ands, 39,758 square miles, of which 16,243 are habitable. Iceland is of volcanic origin, aud therefore all its mountains are volcanoes. It is remarkable for its numerous geysers and inter mittent hot springs. The climate is colder than when it was first settled, since great masses of ice yearly drift from Greenland to its shores and remain for months, encircling the island in a compact mass. The Gulf Stream makes tbe southern portion warmer and more rainy than the northern. The mountains are bare and destitute of herbage, but the lowlands and sheltered valleys afford excellent pastur age. Many are filled with a surprising depth of rich soil, but the ignorance of the people in regard to agriculture prevents their being util ized. Iceland is almost a treeless country, and its only vegetable production is the Iceland moss of commerce. Mineral deposits have been found, but no attempts have been made to work them. Population, 72,445, who are de scendants of the first Norwegian settlers, speak ing the purest Norse. The men are tall, fair- complexioned and blue-eyed, with frames hard ened by frequent exposure to rough weather. Though perhaps inclined to idleness and in temperance, they are strictly upright, truthful, generous, and hospitable. The women are in dustrious and chaste. Religious faith and the domestic virtues are traditional in every house hold. Education is universal, and it is hard to find an adult who is unable to read and write. Their church is exclusively Lutheran, but lately three missionary stations have been established by the Roman Catholics. Foreign ers have the same rights of residence, holding property, and trading as the natives. The fish eries would prove an exhaustless source of wealth if they were carried on with a proper degree of intelligence, but only 10 per cent of tbe people are fishermen, and the methods used are insufficient. Commerce, once flourishing, declined when Iceland lost its independence, but it is now improving. In early times Ice land was a monarchy, ruled over by Viking princes and Norwegian chieftains, some of whom first settled Reykiavik, the present cap ital; but in 928 it became a republic, and so continued for 300 years. In 1387, after the union of Denmark and Norway, the King of Denmark was acknowledged sovereign of Ice land, and ever since it has remained under Danish rule. Icelandic or IVorse Version.— The Ice landic belongs to the Teutonic branch of the Aryan language-family, and is spoken in Ice land. Odd Gottskalkson of Norway, who had attended Luther's lectures, was the first trans lator of the Bible into Icelandic. Having re turned to his native country, he entered the services of Bishop Ogmund at Skaalholt. In a stable he translated the New Testament, which was published at Rolskilde in 1540, at the ex pense of King Christian III. It was reprinted in Iceland in 1554 and 1557. In 1584 the entire Bible was published in Iceland, under the editor ship of Bishop Gudbrand Thorlakson, in Hole. In 1644 a revised edition was issued by Tborlak Skuleson. Other editions were published in 1728, 1747, 1807, 1813, and 1841. A new trans lation, made by Bishop Pjetur Pjeturson and Sigurd Melsted, was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society at London in 1866, and the New Testament at Oxford in 1864. Up to March 31st, 1889, the British Bible So ciety disposed of 30,112 portions of the Scrip tures. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) f)vi svo elskaSi GnS heiminn, ao haan gaf «inn eingetinn Son, til pess ao liver, sem a hami; tniir, ekki glatist, heldur hafi eilift Iff. Ichang, an important inland town, which lies on the left bank of the Yang-tsz River, in the province of Hupeh, 363 geographical miles up the river from Hankow. It was opened to foreign trade by treaty in 1877. Lying at the outlet of the river after it has come 350 miles through mountain passes and rocky^-avines, the town is exposed to considerable risk from floods, and in 1870 many houses were washed away. Population, 34,000. A mission station of the Established Church of Scotland (1878) ; 1 mis sionary and wife, 1 church, 26 communicants, 3 day-schools. The work that is being done at Ichang is most encouraging, not only for the interest that is excited in the city itself, but it is a centre of influence for the country around within a radius of fifty miles. Idzo, a language spoken on an estuary of the River Niger, West Africa. Through labors of missiouaries, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society, portions of the Scriptures have been translated, which are printed in Roman characters. Ifumi, a town in Southeast Natal, East Africa, south of the Illoro River, 32 miles south- TFUMI 444 INDIA east of Durban. Climate excellent; natives (Zulus) quite civilized. Mission station of tbe A. B. C. F. M. (1859) ; 1 missionary and wife, 21 native helpers, 2 out-stations, 2 churches, 100 church-nieinbeis, 3 schools, 75 scholars. Igbira Version. — The Igbira belongs to the Negro group of African languages, and is spoken on the river Niger. A translation of the New Testament was made iu 1885, but awaits revision before its final publication by tbe British and Foreign Bible Society. Igdlorpait, a small town in Greenland ; mission station of the Moravian Brethren; is on a small islaud south of Lichtenau. A separate congregation was organized here in 1864, as it was often difficult, to visit this station from Lichtenau or Fredericksdal, and there were a large number of Greenlanders residing on this and on lhe neigboriug islands. The word Igd lorpait means " many houses," and the station is so called because of the number of ruins there, evidently formerly inhabited by heathen. Ikwezi Lainaci, a town in Alfred County, Natal, South Africa, near Harding. Mission station of the Young Men's Foreign Missionary Society of Birmingham, England (q. v.). I lalangina, a mission district of the Lon don Missionaiy Society (1870), in Betsileo prov ince, Madagascar; 1 missionaiy, 62 out-stations, 1,221 church-members, 3,170 Sabbath-scholars, 44 schools, 8,756 scholars. Imandandriana, a mission district of the London Missionaiy Society (1869) in Betsi leo province, Madagascar; 25 out-stations, 54 native preachers, 250 church-members, 25 schools, 1,354 scholars. Inagua, an island of the Bahamas, West Indies ; length 50 miles, breadth 25. Popula tion, 1,575. Mission station Baptist Missionaiy Society; 1 missionaiy, 2 out-stations, 169 church-members, 158 Sabbath-scholars. S. P. G. (1853); 1 missionaiy, 82 communicants. Inanda (Lindley), a town iu Southeast Natal, Africa, southeast of Verdlam. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M.; 1 missionary and wife, 2 other ladies, 7 out-stations. There is a large Sabbath-school, and much interest is shown in the study of the Bible. A station school and three schools in the surrounding kraals are sustained; 14 members baptized in 1889; 98 girls are being educated in the se minary. India is that part of Asia between the Hi malaya Mountains on the north, the Arabian (or Indian) Ocean on tbe west and southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the east. Its extreme northern point is in latitude 35° ; on the south it stretches to within 8° of the Equator. North and south its greatest length is about 1,900 miles ; east and west, — from the mouth of tbe Indus lo the head of the Bay of Bengal — the distance is about as great. Yet the shape of the land is not four-sided, but triangular ; its northern parts are the broadest ; towards the south it narrows gradually to a point at Cape Gomorin. Politically, Burma, lying east of the Bay of Bengal, though peopled by races bear ing slight affinities with those of India proper, is now combined with India as a province of the Anglo-Indian empire. The area of the whole vast territory is nearly one and a half million square miles, and the population (ac cording to the census of 1881, the last taken, which will be the basis of reference through out this article) more than 256,000,000. Three well-marked areas, each characterized by its peculiarities of physical structure, divide India between them. These are: 1. The Himalayan strip, lying along its northern frontier, and form ing on that side a wall of protection and de marcation from the rest of Asia. Much of the Himalayan territory, however, is outside of the political limits of India. 2. The great valley of the Ganges, of which the Himalayan area forms the northern slope. 3. That part of In dia bounded on the north by the valley just mentioned, on the southwest by the Indian Ocean, on the east by the Bay of Bengal. This is for the most part a tableland, of which the western edge, buttressed by a mountain range (the western Ghats) rising in some cases to 4,000, 5.000,and even 8,000 feet above sea-level, is about 2,000 feet above the sea, and slopes gradually eastward towards the Bay of Bengal. India presents to our observation not a united and coherent nationality pervaded by the oneness of a national life, but merely a vast number of races, differing in language, in religion, often in race, and forcibly held together by the strong and external pressure of British might. Physi cally also, though India can hardly be called a continent, yet it is certainly the epitome of a continent on a very large scale. Vast mountain chains and mighty rivers, arid deserts and fer tile valleys, wild jungles, forests of tropic den sity, broad alluvial deltas, aud plains rolling in gentle undulations over wide areas of surface, are all found within its limits. Its climate em braces the Arctic cold of the Himalayas, with their perpetual snows and their glaciers which feed fertilizing and navigable rivers, hot desert winds, deluging rains, atmospheres now like a vapor-bath and now like a blast from a furnace, bracing breezes from the sea, aud the parching heat of unclouded suns falling upon treeless plains. This vast and various territory is for the most part under the rule of the British crown aud Parliament. A few small districts on the west coast constitute the feeble relics of what was once the Portuguese power in India ; and on the eastern coast a little area still in the posses sion of France is the only visible reminder that a hundred j'ears ago France contended with England for the prize of Indo-European sovereignty. Furthermore, in many scattered portions of Indian territory the original power of native rulers is still acknowledged ; these states, not yet absorbed into the Anglo-Indian empire, sometimes cover large tracts of country with their millions of inhabitants, and some times embrace but a single town with its de pendent villages, or a bit of mountain jungle where tbe authority of some half-savage abori ginal chief is owned by the handful of his tribe. But even these native slates are under the " protection " and watchful care of the para mount English power ; the authority of their ostensibly indepeudent native rulers is circum scribed within definite limits at the dictation of that power, while its actual exercise is care fully superintended, with more or less minute ness of detail, by English officials appointed for that purpose. Territorially the aggregate areas of the native rulers cover nearly 600,000 square 00 c> CO Oo to o INDIA 445 INDIA miles against about 870,000 square miles under direct British rule ; but the population is not at all in proportion to the territory, as the fol lowing table will show : Square Miles. Popula tion. Aver age to 1 sq. m. British India 868,465587,047 3,365 203 199,043,492 56,604,371 475,172 273,611 229 96 Portuguese settlements. 201 135 Total for all India 1,458,080 256,396,646 176 Political Divisions. — Such a diverse territory can be best described by treating of its separate political divisions in their proper order. With the exception of the native states, all of which come more or less directly under the supervision of the paramount power through a class of officials known as " resi dents," all of India is governed, in the name of the British sovereign, by a Viceroy and Gover nor-General, assisted by a Council, whose seat is at Calcutta. For purposes of administration the country is divided into twelve local govern ments, known as "presidencies" or "prov inces," each under the control of governor, lieutenant-governor, or commissioner, accord ing to the rank of the province. The following table, based on the last census, exhibits these twelve divisions, with particulars of area and population: missionership lies, as its name implies, at the very heart of India. Its limits of north latitude are 17° 50' and 34° 27'; of east longitude, 76° and 85° 15'. Its greatest length is 600 miles, from east to west; while its longest north and south line measures 500 miles. Large rivers flow through the province, though none of them are useful for navigation, save to a very limited extent. The Tapti and the Narmada flow west ward into the Arabian Gulf; the Godavari and the Mahanadi eastward into the Bay of Bengal. Many parts of the province are diversified by hill and mountain ranges, among which are found some of the wildest parts of the whole Indian territory, and some of its finest scenery. Only about one third of the area of the province is under cultivation. Much of the waste land is covered with low jungle, valueless as timber; and much of the original forest has been waste- fully destroyed by the careless inhabitants; here, however, as elsewhere in India, a system of forest conservancy is doing much to arrest the progress of denudation. Iron is found iu the eastern part of the province, and also coal of an inferior quality, though suitable for railway use. The population is chiefly (94 per cent) rural. Only six towns have a population exceeding 20,000. These are Nagpur, the capital, 98,299; Jabalpur, 75,705; Kampti, 50,987; Sagar, 44,416; Burhanpur, 30,017; and Raipur, 24,948. ten other towns have a population of between 10.000 and 20,000 each; and 36 others vary from 5,000 up to 10,000 each. The most interesting fact regarding the Central Provinces is that its Province. Governed by Area. Population. No. to 1 sq. m. Bengal Presidency : J Northwest Provinces -jOudh Lieutenant-GovernorLieutenant-Governor Chief Commissioner Lieutenant-Governor CommissionerChief Commissioner GovernorGovernor Chief Commissioner Commissioner CommissionerChief Commissioner 193,198 j- 106,111 106,632 2,711 46,341 134,132 141,001 84,44517,711 1,583 87,320 69,536,86144,107,869 18,850.437 460,722 4,881,426 16,454,41431.170,631 9,838.7912,672,673 178,302 3,736,771 360416 177170105133221117 151113 43 Viceroy and Gov. Gen. 911,075 201,888,897 332 Concerning this table, it should be noted that the Bengal Presidency,as a whole, has no distinct political existence, though it did have before its nominal area had been enlarged by the annexa tion of tbe Northwest Provinces, the Punjab, etc. At present it is subdivided into five distinct governments, all of them directly responsible to the supreme governmeut of India. Oudh, also, is entered separately as having its own chief commissioner, yet it is joined for administrative purposes with tbe Northwest Provinces, the lieutenant-governor of which is also the chief commissioner of Oudh. The figures for Bengal in this table include nearly 37,000 square miles, and nearly 3 millions of population belonging to native states directly under the supervision of the Bengal government, and so practically a part of tbat province. This accounts for the dis crepancy in the totals between the two tables. For accounts of Bengal, Northwest Prov inces Oudh, Punjab, Ajmere, Assam, Bombay, Madras, Berar, and Burma, see those articles. The Central Provinces. — This chief com- hill and jungle regions, especially along the northern frontier, provided the refuge to which many of the aboriginal tribes resorted when too severely pressed upon by the later Aryan im migrants. These aboriginal tribes were largely of the Gond stock, and before the present polit ical divisions came into existence a large part of what is now known as tbe Central Provinces was called, after the name of this great family of tribes, Gondwana. Yet of the entire popula tion of the Central Proviuces, these aborigines form but a comparatively small element ; in cluding both those who have embraced Hindu ism, as well as those still persisting in the old worship of their people, the last census enu merated only two millions and three quarters of this class. Hindus number 8,700,000, Moham medans only 285,687, Jains about 46,000, and Christians nearly 12,000. Within the territorial limits of the province are found many native states with a total population of about a million and three quarters, largely aborigines. Among the Hindus appear several local sects, hardly INDIA 446 INDIA known elsewhere in India. The Satnamis are drawn from one of the lowest castes of Hindu society, and are the followers of a certain Ghasi Das, who half a century ago, after a period of seclusion, appeared as the prophet of a new religion forbidding the worship of idols and inculcating the equality of all men. His followers worship in no temple aud have no regular cult, — unless a morning aud even ing prostration to the sun may be considered such. 'Ihe Kabirpanthis are the followers of Kabir, a religious teacher of North India, who flourished in the 15th century. Their tenets are very similar to those of the Sat namis. Each of these bodies numbers over 300,000 adherents.. Smaller sects, originating in very much the same way, and some of them embracing but a few hundred followers, are also found. Education in these provinces is not in a forward state. Il is said that iu 1856 a Chris- tiau colporteur iu a journey of 200 miles, during which he entered many large villages, found but two schools, with hardly forty pupils. In 1883, 1,565 schools, mostly giving only primary education, had enrolled nearly 90,000 pupils. Marathi is tbe language used by the Hindu pop ulation of the eastern part of the province; a corrupt dialect of Hindi is spoken in the east ; while each tribe of aborigines uses its own lan guage, most of them, however, speaking some form or other of a tongue known as Gondi, be longing to the Dravidiau family. Missionary work has been prosecuted less powerfully in the Cen tral Provinces than in most other parts of India. The first mission was planted at Nagpur by the Free Church of Scotland in 1844. The country was then governed by a Maratha dynasiy; and the native rajah claimed to have absolute au thority over his subjects, which in his opinion involved the right to prevent the baptism of Christian converts. The supreme government of India was appealed to by the missionaries, and declined to interfere ; but public opinion became so aroused that the Nagpur prince finally receded from his position. The Church Missionary So ciety began work at Jabalpur iu 1854, and have since occupied other stations. There is also a mission conducted by tbe Friends at Jabalpur. The American Evangelical Society (Lutheran) entered the province in 1868. A mission to the Gonds was beguu by the Free Church of Scot land in 1866. Chanda was occupied by a native clergyman connected with the Church of Eng land in 1872. In the same year the Original Secession Synod of Scotland began a mission at Seoni, and the American Methodists one at Nagpur, — largely (at least at first) confined to work among unevangelized Europeans and Eur asians. Coorg is a small native stale iu Southern India, lying chiefly among the mountains of the western Ghats. The name is derived from that of a fine, hardy race of mountaineers who once dominated the region, and whose descendants still form a noticeable element in tbe population. The dimensions of the territory are about 60 miles uorth and south, and 40 east and west- Its exact situation is in about 12° north latitude and 75 ° east longitude. The population is 178,302, composed chiefly of Hindus. There are only about 27,000 left of the original tribes of the Coorgs. Mohammedans contribute only 7 per cent of the total. The chief town is Mer- kara.witha population of between eight and nine thousand. The Basle Evangelical Missionary Society has a mission in Coorg. The family of native chiefs who once ruled Coorg was deposed by the supreme government of India in 1834, and has since become extinct. The territory is directly under the supervision of the viceroy, and is administered by the British Resident at Mysore, who is also chief commissioner of Coorg. Population. — The people of India, with whom in their religious relationships our inter est now principally lies, are divided by race, by caste, by language, and by religion into many different classes. The broadest division is that by religiou. It is found that about 145,- 000,000 of the nearly 200,000.000 of British India are classed as Hindus, 45,000,000 as Mo hammedans, 4,700,000 (nearly) belong to the aboriginal tribes — each tribe usually practising some sort of a religion peculiar to itself, nearly 3,500,000 are classed as Buddhists, more than 1,100,000 as Christians of all churches, 1,250,- 000 as Sikhs, nearly 500,000 as Jains. The Parsis, or fire-worshippers, found almost wholly in Bombay and Surat, where they constitute an important class in the commercial life of the couutry, number nearly 75,000 ; there are less than 10,000 Jews, aud only about 1,100 Brah- mas, the Tbeislic Society of which the late Keshab Chandra Sen was the most prominent exponent. The religion of nearly 40,000 of fne population is unspecified. It is probable that among the 57,000,000 inhabiting the native states, Portuguese and French India, Hindus and Mohammedans will befouud iu very nearly the same proportion as in British India ; and it is safe to say that the Hindu population of India, as a whole, is about 190,000,000, and the Mohammedan population not far from 60,- 000,000. The division of tbe people into castes obtains only among the Hindus. The ancient fourfold division is well understood by every one who has ever heard of India. The Brahmans or priests occupy the highest place; the second caste is that of the Kshattriyas, or soldiers ; merchants, or Vaisyas form the third ; while the fourth, includiug the vast body of the peo ple, is that of the laborers, or Sudras. In modern times, however, this simple division has become exceedingly complicated. The Brahmans still maintain their pre-eminence as the first and highest caste, although within the limits of Brahmanism there are many subdi visions, between some of which intermarriage is not allowed. The great mass of agriculturists also still acknowledge themselves as members of the fourth or Sudra caste. But instead of finding between the castes of first and fourth rank distinctly marked gradations indicating the limits of the second and third, we find a great multitude of castes, partly formed of ' what may be regarded as the fragments of the old soldier and merchant castes, partly the result of intermarriages between men of higher grade aud women of lower (the offspring of such marriages occupyiug a social position mid way between that of their parents), and partly due to the inevitable complication of social rela tions, as the process of social evolution went on. Among this mass of caste names the old titles still exist of Kshattriyas and Vaisyas. The Rajputs of Northwestern India are de scendants of the old second or soldier caste ; the merchants (in many places known as Wanu or Banyas) may usually be regarded as belong- INDIA 447 INDIA ing to the old third or merchant caste, though its subdivisions are exceedingly numerous. Thus while the old nomenclature still exists with reference to the Brahmans and the Su- dras, it has been for the most part superseded with reference to the soldiers and the merchants, owing to the divisions of these old castes, and the origin of new, as the development of Hindu ? society progressed. In addition to tbe castes already mentioned, the followers of every spe cies of trade and handicraft form a caste by themselves. Thus there is the caste of gold smiths, of tailors, of carpenters, of blacksmiths, of weavers, of shoemakers, and leather-workers, of potters, etc. Some of these castes occupy a position above the Sudras ; some, especially the shoemakers and potters, below them. Be low all these respectable castes of Hinduism are ranged the great body of the outcaste popula tion, who are not allowed to live within the village limits, who are sometimes debarred even from entering tbe street in which Brah mans reside, who must not draw water from the wells or streams used by those of higher rank, and whose very touch, sometimes eveu whose mere shadow, is pollution. Yet they often perform important services in the social life of an Indian village. In many parts of India the ofiice of village watchman is heredi tary in the family of some outcaste family attached to the village ; messengers, guides, porters, day-laborers, scavengers, sweepers are obtaiued from among them; and in return for their labors a certain proportion of the yield of the fields belonging to the village is set aside for their maintenance. These outcastes are often spoken of collectively as Pariahs— which is the term used to designate them in Tamil — though all the Indian vernaculars possess words by which individuals of this description are locally denominated. The origin of the caste system is lost in the dimness of remotest antiquity. It is probable that it originated in some such way as this: The Aryans, who entered India from the Northwest some fifteen centuries before the Christian Era, found the land as they advanced already in the possession of a previous popula tion. This population, the Aryans with their stronger character, higher civilization, and more cultivated language (the Sanskrit), in process of time overcame. Gradually diversity of function within their own body gave rise to a corre sponding diversity of social position, or caste; the priests, the soldiers, and the merchants segregated themselves into their own distinct classes, the distinct existence of which as such was ensured by the custom that the son should follow tbe calling of his father. The former inhabitants of the land seem for the most part to have accepted the religion and to some de gree — though in an inferior form and with many corruptions— the language of their Aryan conquerors; and to have been relegated by the latter to the lowest position in the social scale, that of laborers or agriculturists. Thus the three higher castes were of Aryan origin; while the fourth or Sudra caste, between which and the three that range above it there is a much wider gap than between any two of the higher themselves, was composed of the great body of tbe previous population. It is probable that the outcaste bodies (Pariahs, Mahars, Mangs, Dheds, etc.), represent early aboriginal tribes, brought into some degree of union with the new social organism arising after the Aryan in vasion, but too low to become actually incor porated in it, as members in good repute, as those composing the fourth Hindu caste were. Probably the tribes still existing apart from all connection with Hinduism, usually spoken of as aboriginal tribes (Santals, Gonds, etc., etc.), are descended from earlier aboriginal bodies who refused to come in any degree within tbe circle of the new influences brought in by the Aryan invaders, preferring their own wild and jungle life to that inferior form of Hinduism and that lowest position in the Hindu organism to which their brethren, from whom the outcastes of to day have descended, were consigned. Languages.— It is exceedingly probable that the tribes which were thus overrun by the Aryans had themselves overrun, in previous ages, still other and inferior races who held the soil before them. Repeated invasions and con quests must have marked the earliest history of India, as they have its later developments; and these repeated processes of invasion have left their evidences in the strata of tribes and races which to-day make up the complex population of Hindustan. Not only can the diversity of caste be in part accounted for in this way, but also the great diversity of language which characterizes India. It is stated by philologists that within the limits of both Hither and Farther India (meaning by the last term that peninsula which includes Burma and Siam, of which only a part is politically connected with the Anglo- Indian empire) three hundred distinct languages aud dialects are in actual use at the present time. The variety of the aboriginal tribes already so many times alluded to, of which each one has usually its owu distinct form of speech, accounts iu large measure for the great number. The principal languages of India, each of which is spoken by millions, and which have all received more or less literary cultiva tion and development, are much fewer in number. The Indian languages can be conveniently distributed into several groups, according to their affinities. The first division consists of the most importaut tongues used in northern and western India. These are: The Bengali, spoken in the province of Bengal by about 37,000,000 of people. It is subject to several dialectic variations, especially upon the borders of its territory, where it comes in contact with other languages, by the intermingling of which in the speech of the people the purity of all is corrupted. About half of those using the language are Mohammedans; their form of the language is knowu as Mohammedan Bengali, and forms another dialect of the language. On the northeast of Bengal, in the Brahmaputra valley, about 2,000,000 of people use the As samese, which is most probably a language allied to the Bengali. Southwest, in the prov ince of Orissa, the Uriya tongue is used by some 8,000,000 of people. The Hindi language. occupying an immense tract northwest of Bengal, covering the Northwest Provinces, and overlapping on every side into the surrounding regions, is the most widely used tongue of any of the modern languages of India. The num ber of those to whom it is vernacular is esti mated at 80,000,000. Dialectic variations are numerous, and authorities differ as to whether Nepaulese— spoken in the native state of Nepaul, Punjabi — a common language in the Punjab, and Gujarathi — used in the province of Gujarat, INDIA 448 INDIA in the Bombay Presidency, should be considered distinct languages, or simply relegated to the inferior status of dialects of Hindi. Sindhi is used by a comparatively small population along the lower course of the Indus, in the province of Sindh; a dialect of this language (Kachchhi) is spoken in the native state of Kachch on the peninsula of that name. Marathi is spoken by some 10,000,000 iu the Bombay Presideucy, the Central Provinces, and Haidara bad native state. It impinges on the Gujarati area on the north and on the Dravidian (Kanarese and Telugu) on the south and south east, and seems inclined to make inroads upon these areas. The Sinhalese, spoken in Ceylon, must be included in this class, though geo graphically so far removed. Siudhi, lying as it does upon the very western border of India, in close contact with Baluchistan, has been greatly affected by the influence of the languages used by the Baluchis. It has also felt greatly the influence of Mohammedan speech. In the celebrated vale of Kashmir still another sister tongue is found — the Kashmiri, a, language thus far but little studied by European scholars. The languages of Afghanistan and Baluchistan (Pushtu, Baluchi, Brahui) and the Kafiri and Dardui, which are spoken by tribes of moun taineers in the remote and well-nigh unknown fastnesses of the great ranges far to the north west of India are likewise related to those already described, but hardly fall within the limits of our view. Tbe whole of this group of lan guages belongs to the Aryan family: all of them, except the Pushtu and the Baluchi, which are pre-Sanskritic, have derived many of their vocables from the Sanskrit — a highly cultivated tongue spoken by the Aryans when they entered India, which, as the people them selves overran the country and absorbed the races which occupied it before them, gradually mingled with pre-existing forms of speech, and thus gave rise to the great Aryan vernaculars of India. To sum up: The Bengali, theUriya, the Assamese, the Hindi, the Sindhi, the Gujaralhi. and the Marathi with their many dialects, are sister-tongues of the Aryan family, though incorporating into their substance many elements of grammar, of idiom, and of voc ables from the non-Aryan languages with which the spoken Sanskrit of a former period gradually became corrupted. Of these Aryan vernaculars only three — the Bengali, the Hindi, and the Marathi — have received auy high degree of cultivation, or possess any important literature. It is possible that the other lan guages of this group may ere long disappear; but these three are widely prevalent and culti vated tongues, which seem destined to perma nence. The Hindu population of South India pre sents us with a second great family of languages, much farther removed than those of the north and west from the Sanskrit, and owing to it smaller — though important — obligations. These languages are usually spoken of as the Dravidian group. The term " Dravira " or " Dravida " is found in Sanskrit literature as applied to the part of the Indian peninsula where the chief languages of this group are now spoken, the general limits of which will be indicated below. The most important of them all is the Tamil, covering the area from a few miles north of Madras to the extreme south of the eastern side of the peninsula, and running more than half the distance across the peninsula towards the Indian Ocean. North of the Tamil area, on the east side of Lower India, lies the Telugu country, along the Bay of Bengal, and up into Central India, until it meets the Uriya language along its northeastern edge and the Marathi along its northwestern. West of the Tamil aud Telugu areas lies that of the Kanarese, which also meets the Marathi on the northwest. The Malayalim stretches along the western coast of India, between the western Ghats and the sea, from a point just north of Cape Comoriu for a distance of some three hundred miles. Then comes the small area of the Tulu, and close by, among the western Ghats themselves, the region of Coorg, where the Kudagu language is spoken. The two last-named languages are of small importance, and but little used; the stronger languages by which they are sur rounded, and on which they are dependent largely for their literature aud for their alpha betical characters, seem destined to crowd them out. The Tamil, the Telugu (sometimes from its abundance of vowel and liquid sounds called the Indian Italian), the Kanarese, and the Mala yalim are all cultivated languages, possessing a literature and a distinctive alphabetical charac ter. The Tamil is by far the most important and the richest of them all, and is used by the largest number of people — nearly 15,000,000 in all. Tamil is also used extensively in North ern Ceylon, and by many emigrants to Burma, the Straits settlements, Mauritius, and the West Indies. Besides the cultivated languages of the Dravi dian group just described, languages of the same family are used by some of the jungle tribes of India. The most important of these are the Gonds of Central India; the Khonds, who inhabit a tract of country lying between Orissa and the Telugu region; the Oraons, still farther north, in Chhota Nagpur; and the Rajmahalis, whose territory almost touches the Ganges. Languages of the Dravidian group are also used by several small and dwindling tribes of South India — notably the Todas and the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills, and some others. The total num ber of persons using Dravidian forms of speech must be more than fifty millions. Religions. — Regarding the religious condi tion of the people, it will be sufficient to refer the reader to the several articles in this work in which the different religions practised in India are treated of in detail; with the remark that for the most part the people cling to those re ligions with the tenacity — often an unthinking tenacity — which is to be expected of those who have been educated from their earliest years to believe that adherence to the customs of one's ancestry, and to the religious rites practised by one's forefathers, is the first and highest law of life. In them the intense conservatism of all Oriental nations is thus re-enforced by religious sanctions, and is exalted to the position of re ligious obligation. Hinduism has been inter woven with the developing life of the Hindu people for a period of more than thirty centu ries ; it has presided over the formation of their philosophies, their social customs, their intel lectual habits, and their literature ; and it lies at the very basis of their lives in all possible relations, to a degree which is hardly paralleled elsewhere. These facts account for the extreme difficulty and slowness of Christian progress among the Hindus. The Mohammedans in INDIA 449 INDIA India do not derive their religion from ages so remote as the Hindus, and on this account their momentum along the line of present religious development might be supposed to be less, yet they show fully as much determination in up holding their peculiar tenets as tbe Hindus do in upholding theirs ; they are characterized by the same intense bigotry aud fiery fanaticism which have made Mohammedau armies so often victorious in battle, which render them individ ually impervious to all assaults of argument and reason, and even lead them iu many a case to deeds of private, personal violence in support of their faith. Civilisation.— The people of India have their own civilization developed gradually through long ages of progress ; different from that of the West, yet wonderful to contemplate, and in mauy respects admirable. The main resource of the people being agriculture, the processes of tilling the soil aud making it yield its wealth have been carefully studied ; ana though their implements are clumsy, and their methods those of a bygone age, to which they still cling with that tenacious conservatism which they show in everything, yet the results of their efforts are by no means contemptible. They have especially constructed immense tanks and reservoirs for storing water, and com plicated sluiceways aud canals for distributing it in the dry season over their fields, which in size and utility are remarkable. These are found chiefly in Central and South India. The English Government has done much to extend facilities for irrigation by the construction of costly systems of canals, fed by the rivers, whose waters are diverted into them by finely con structed dams. Such works exist in all parts of India, and the canals are sometimes of suffi cient size to be available for purposes of naviga tion. But the Indian peasants will often see their crops dry up and perish with the drought rather than use the water thus brought to the very edge of their fields, and pay the tax demanded by government. In some cases government has offered the water free in order that the people might be induced to avail them selves of its advantages, and even so has found few1 takers. But the use of the water is slowly increasing, though governmental irriga tion works have not yet become remunerative. Their manufactures, — though entirely by hand, — especially of certain textile fabrics, such as muslins and silks, and also of gold and silver and brass ware, have long been famous in the markets of the world. In the development of social and political life they have wrought out a system of efficient communal government in their villages which has been the subject of careful study by European lawyers and histo rians. Its object, iu a word, was to make each village self-supporting aud independent, fur nishing it, within its own walls and by means of its own organism, with farmers, artisans, aud day-laborers, in sufficient number, variety, and proportion, to provide every article of ordinary use — both clothing and implements of every sort — which the village could need ; while the public affairs of every village were regulated, and all disputes between villages settled, by the headmen and elders of the village, to whom long usage had relegated those duties. In literature the Indian civilization has given to the world the Sanskrit language— one of the most copious and highly polished tongues with which scholars have ever become familiar ; poetry and philosophy have been especially cultivated ; to some degree also mathematical and astronomical science. In geography they have doue but little, in history nothing ; in fact tbe historic sense seems to be largely wanting from the Indian mind. Their achievements in art are confined chiefly to the department of architecture ; in paintiug they have done noth ing; in sculpture they have merely succeeded iu fashioning images of their gods aud heroes, of a character hardly rising above tlie level of caricature, aud sometimes falling to that of ab solute hideousness ; sometimes the sculptures of a cave temple (for instance that of Elephauta, in Bombay Harbor) will be found to possess a considerable degree of dignity and artistic excel lence. But such exceptions to the general character of grotesqueness are not frequent. Numerous temples — some cut from tbe solid rock; some built of stone with neither mortar nor cement; some whose towers rise to impos- iug heights, like those of Southern India: some merely stone-built shrines, a simple cube with a pyramidal roof; some built last year, and others in various stages of decay attesting their foundation centuries ago ; some covered with rudely fashioned images of gods and of animals esteemed sacred, oftentimes in various obscene attitudes; and some wholly plain, and with no attempt at ornament — are the sole creations of their architectural skill. In music the Hindus have perfected a system of their own, with no tation, time, and intervals different from those of Western music, wholly destitute of har mony, yet not without a certain plaintive beauty in its melodies. Their singing is apt to be rather nasal, and their instrumental music seems to a European nothing but a discordant clamor of drums and screeching of shrill wind-iustru- ments ; but some of the striuged instruments in use among them are more pleasing in tone. For a long time the associations of Hindu music, being almost wholly those of the Hindu temple and the Hindu festival, were considered in superable objections to its use among Christians. But of late years, in more than one part of the great Indian mission field, native poets have arisen, who have composed Christian hymns in the metres of Hindu prosody, and have adapted them to such Hindu melodies as seemed best fitted for the purpose. In many churches of Indian Christians these hymns and tunes are now used with most excellent effect. Preachers and street evangelists in the bazars and villages find many of these native tunes with Christian words most useful iu gaining the ear of the people for the proclamation of Chris tian truth. This conversion of Indian poetry and song to the uses of Indian Christianity was a decided step of progress in the work of natu ralizing Christianity among a people the essential genius of whose mind seemed in some respects ill-adapted to receive it. It is difficult to describe in a few words the intellectual coudition of the Indian people. In some respects, and among certain classes, au in tellectual cultivation has existed for centuries whose twofold result is seen to-day in a keen ness of mind and a faculty of profound specu lative thought which is remarkable, and in the philosophical treatises, tlie commentaries upon them, the hymns and the poems which com pose the body of Hindu classic literature. On the other hand, the people as a rule are unable INDIA 450 INDIA to read, and are content to live on, generation after generation, with no intellectual progress, content if they get rice or other grain enough to keep them from starvation, and careless of mental or spiritual sustenance. It is among the Brahmans that the intellectual cultivatiou of India has reached its fullest result. They have been not only the priests, the religious leaders of the people, but also the creators of its intel lectual, philosophical, and literary development, and the depositaries of its intellectual wealth. With the exception of an occasional lyric poet arising from among the lower orders of the people, whose homely verses in the vernacular of his own district would often obtain an im mense currency and exert a vast influence, es pecially over the class from which the poet himself had sprung, nearly all the thinkers, stu dents, and authors of Iudia have been Brah mans. The elaborate grammar of the Sanskrit language is due to their assiduous cultivation. Indian theology, philosophy, poetry, aud sci ence have been developed almost wholly by them. The Brahman iutellect is keen, acute, subtle, and speculative; but their logic is apt to be fallacious and their argumentation specious rather than profound and thorough. The edu cation of the merchant class consists of but little else than reading, writing, and such prac tical operations of arithmetic as will make them ready and correct accountants. The royal and soldier castes have been apt to affect a lofty contempt for all literary accomplishments, as things fit only for Brahmans; aud have paid the penalty of their folly in many a case by be ing compelled to emplo}' Brahman secretaries, prime ministers, and financiers, who, little by little, would absorb the real power of the throne, while its nominal occupant was busy with his elephants, his horses and soldiers, or else sunken in ignoble debauchery. The great masses of the people are not to-day, and never have been, able even to read their own vernacu lar; thus they have become on the one hand the dupes of a crafty priesthood, and on the other the prey of cunning money-lenders on whose advances of cash they are forced to de pend, but whose wiles and tricks they are too ignorant to detect. Such education as the children of Hindu families enjoyed before the establishment of missionary and government schools was imparted by Brahman schoolmas ters, who were wont to collect the boys want ing instruction (girls were never taught) and to teach them to repeat by rote verses from the Sanskrit poets, to read and write their own vernacular, and to perform operations in simple arithmetic. Brahman youths who wished for a thorough training in the sacred language, re ligion, and philosophy would attach themselves to some noted scholar und would be by him put through an elaborate course of instruction, ex tending to many years. In this way large numbers of young Brahmaus would sometimes be found attending upon lhe instructions of such a learned man, or guru, composing thus a sort of college. But such a course of instruc tion would be confined, in its subjects, to tlie Sanskrit language, the practice of the Hindu religion, including familiarity with tbe sacred books, or Vedas, and to skill in Hindu philoso phy: while its recipients would not extend be yond the ranks of the Brahman caste. Mer chants did not need such trainiug; soldiers did not care for it; and the Sudras were deemed unworthy of it. Morals. — The moral condition of the peo ple should be described as one of apathy or even deadness rather than as oue of violent and malignant opposition to virtue. The great body of the people are quiet, industrious, plodding laborers, seldom descending into crime or uotable immorality, and rarely mounting to conspicuous and aggressive virtue. They move along, age after age, on tbis dead level of moral life, persistently clingiug lo ancestral customs, which they consider mau's highest duty, punc tilious in their observance of caste rules, by no means destitute of tbe common graces of family affection and of neighborly kindness, patient, sometimes even torpid, in their endur ance of tbe famines and th£ pestilences which periodically decimate their villages, or of the fraudulent extortions of 1he mouey-leuder which keep them in a condition of perennial indebtedness. Their intellectual horizon em braces no larger field than is filled by daily toil for daily bread. Their lives are destitute of all stimulus and incentive. Their religion fur nishes no motive for the present and incites no aspiration for the future. The thought of bettering their own condition, or of doing aught to benefit another's, is foreign to their minds. The Oriental doctrine of fate is ever present to quench all upward endeavor. It is their destiny to be what and as they are; and who are they to contend with destiny? The chief faults of the people are lack of truthful ness — which, especially amoug traders, mer chants and money-lenders, develops rapidly and deeply into manifold forms of cheating and fraud — and licentiousness. Yet caste rules constitute some safeguard for the virtue of their women, for a female of good caste de tected in immorality is apt to be promptly dealt with and expelled by the caste authorities. In temperance is not usually a vice of the Hindu people, though in recent years the introduc tion of cheap foreigu liquors, often miserable adulterations, and the course of the government in licensing drinking-places, has stimulated the use of intoxicating liquors among all classes. The disposition of the people is mild, and crimes of violence are no more common among them thau among the people of other races. The ranks of the professional thieves and ban dits are largely recruited from certain of the wild jungle tribes, whohave been robbers from time immemorial. The more violent forms of gang robbery (dacoity) and thuggery — which consisted in inveigling innocent and unsuspect ing travellers into the socic-tjr of wandering bands of secret and professional assassins in or der to murder and rob them in unknown and convenient spots— have beeu nearly stamped out by tbe vigorous action of government. These aboriginal tribes present to the ethnol ogist, no less than to the philanthropist and mis sionary, problems of considerable difficulty. Who are they, and where did they come from ? is the question of the one. How shall they be reclaimed from their barbarism and elevated to the true standard of humanity? is the question of the other. That among them are the repre sentatives of the earliest inhabitants of India is not doubted. But probably many of the stronger and more advanced tribes, though pop ularly classed as aborigines, are not truly such, INDIA 451 INDIA but themselves displaced, centuries ago, a race of men more savage than themselves. The name of these tribes is legion. They are found all over India, though more numerous in hilly and jungle tracts and among the mountainous regions of the north than elsewhere. The num ber of each tribe is seldom large, — of ten only a few hundreds; in only a few cases does the enumeration of one mount above a million. Many of them have been gradually absorbed into the body of Hinduism, and call themselves Hindus, though still retaining the use of their original language. In other cases they main tain a strict and jealous separation, in speech, religion, and custom, from their Hindu neigh bors. A full description of them is impossible; but their religion iu most cases seems to be some form of demon- worship. Without mak ing an exhaustive enumeration of these tribes, a few general divisions may be made which em brace the ui ist important of them. In the North of India, stretching along the southern slope of tbe Himalayan range, includ ing the kingdom of Tibet, the lower part of the Brahmaputra Valley, and the northern part of Burma, are found a number of tribes — some of sufficient importance to rank as nations (the Nepaulese, for instance), and some represented only by a handful of savages in a mountain valley, — which are classed together by philolo gists under the generic name Tibeto-Burman; a term which roughly indicates the extreme geographical limits of their range, and likewise implies that the people of Tibet and Burma are ethnologically conuected with them. Among the hills of Assam is found still another family, classed as the Khasi family. In Cen tral India (see above — description of Gondwana in account of Central Provinces) is found a number of important and allied tribes, whose language shows them to be related to the Tamil aud other Dravidian races of South India. Of this group, the tribes of Khonds, Gonds, Ora- ons, and Rajrnahalis (a small tribe living in Ben gal) with their subdivisions appear as the most important northern representatives, and the Todas and Kudagus (Coorgs, see above) in the south. Still another very important group, in habiting Central India and adjacent parts of Orissa and Bengal, is known as the Kolarian family. This includes the Sauthal tribes (see Bengal and Chhota Nagpur), the Kols of Cen tral India, and other less known tribes. This Kolarian family is supposed once to have occu pied the finest portion of the Ganges valley, half a dozen centuries before Christ — and how much longer before that time no one knows. Numerous antiquities in Behar are attributed to them. But their empire fell before the advanc ing Aryans, and they were pushed up into the highlands of Central India (the Vindhya hills), where they have since made their home, main taining their own chieftainships, and still look ing on their Hindu neighbors with jealousy and dislike, as the possessors of soil which once was theirs. The Bhils, a very well-known tribe in Western India, Rajputana, and Berar, are prob ably originally of Kolarian origin, though they have not retained the language. Cust thinks that the Kolarians were first on the ground, that the Dravidians entered India from tbe northwest and occupied portions of the coun try, and that some twenty centuries before Christ the Aryans came down upon both; but that the Dravidians already had a more peace ful form of civilization, which made them more susceptible to Aryaninfluences, so that they coal esced largely with tbe Aryans, — thus giving rise to the great Hindu races of South India, — be longing to the Dravidianf amily, while the wilder Kols declined to yield, and were simply forced back upon the mountains. As to numbers, the Santals are thought to number about 1,000,000, the Gonds over 1,500,000, the Kols about 1,100,000. Many of tbe smaller tribes have a very unenviable reputation as professed thieves and bandits; and it is from these tribes that in former times the gangs of dacoits aud thugs that preyed on Indian life were recruited. Dur ing late years the Euglisb Government has sought to turn these tribes from their violent and criminal methods of life to more orderly and peaceful pursuits. These efforts have al ready met with an encouraging degree of suc cess, and promise still larger results in the fu ture. The relations of the Aryans (Hindus) to the earlier inhabitants of India have beeu already stated. The Aryans themselves, entering In dia some twenty centuries before Christ, grad ually extended themselves — first through the valley of the Ganges, then into Southern India. They have left behind them no written history. But Hindu princes of various families founded dynasties and ruled over realms of greater or less extent, until they were in turn reduced to submission by the Mohammedans. These fierce and relentless conquerors entered India through the same northwestern door as those who had preceded them. The year 1000 a.d. may be taken as marking approximately their first appearance in Hindustan. Mahmoud, King of Ghazui, a city in Afghanistan, was the first Mohammedan leader to undertake the con quest of India. He made twelve expeditions into the country — the first a few years before the approximate date above given. Moham medan power slowly grew; one dynasty after another continued the work of invasion, un til first the Punjab, then the Ganges valley, and at last all of India was reduced to Moslem sway, though the country was never long at peace. Rebellions were constantly keeping the land in turmoil, headed sometimes by an am bitious Mohammedan upstart, sometimes by a Hindu whose limbs were galled by the chains of Moslem rule. In the middle of the seven teenth century, a Maratha chieftain named Sivaji Bhonsle consolidated into a formidable power the strength of the Maratha race (see Marathas), and made great inroads upon the power of the Mohammedans. They overran all India, carried desolation wherever they went, and established' dyuasties of Maratha houses both in North and South India. But their power was broken at the battle of Pannipat, near Delhi, in 1761, when they contended un successfully against an army led by Ahmed Shah of Afghanistan . The English came to India very early in the seventeenth century, first as merchants in a small and humble way. Their mercantile op erations were conducted by the East India Company, whose original charter was signed by Queen Elizabeth, near the close of her reign. Little by little their power and the scope of their influence extended itself. Establishments, or " presidencies, " defended by forts and armies, under tbe command of this company of mer chants, were placed at Madras, at Calcutta, at INDIA 452 INDIANS, AMERICAN Bombay. From these points the authority of the Company silently but steadily grew. When the Marathas fell in 1761, the English were al ready strong enough to step into the first place of power in Hindustan ; in fact, the question of English supremacy in Bengal, and by conse quence in India, had been settled at the battle of Plassey, near Calcutta, in 1757, when Clive defeated the troops of Suraj-ud-Daula, the Mo hammedan ruler of Bengal. From these small beginnings, aud along a path providentially prepared for them by the fall of the Marathas, the only native race capable of offering an effec tual resistance, the East India Company pro ceeded to its manifest destiny of absorbing and ruling — not as merchants, but as conquerors and princes — the whole of India. When the great mutiny of 1857 burst upon India — a move ment fomented among the native troops in the employ of the Company, and used by certain dispossessed heirs of old Indian princes in the hope of destroying tbe English supremacy, and regaining the lost control of their own land — English power for a moment trembled ; but the result of the mutiny was merely the transfer of the supreme power in India from the hands of the East India Company to the direct control of the Briiish crown and Parliament. More and more have the English rulers of India realized that they have a duty and mission to perform in that land. They have governed the country with a stern and rigorous justice, with a benevolent and paternal despotism. If they have not always been conciliatory towards the natives, and have failed largely in winning the love of the subject races, they have always been respected for their justice and integrity, and their rule has been prized for the good or der, the peace, the prosperity, which they have given to tbe country. They have encouraged and fostered education ; they have established post-offices, post-roads, railroads, telegraphs ; they have developed agriculture, manufactures, and commerce ; they have provided hospitals and medical treatment for the diseased, and have fed the multitudes in time of famine. Missionary work in India is carried on under the strong protection of a government which, wholly neutral in religious matters, undertakes to assure to every one religious liberty, and to protect all in the exercise of it. The details of the missionary history of India must be sought under the titles treating of the several districts, races, missionary societies, etc., in India. Here it suffices to say, that the Danes have the honor of beginning the work of Protestant missions in this great land. Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutschau were sent out in 1705, from Denmark to Tranquebar, in South India, and were thus the pioneers of the great mission ary host in India; but it is only since the year 1800 — since the great revival of missionary en thusiasm in the Protestant churches of Europe and America, since the effectual quieting and settling of the bind by the strong hand of Eng lish power, and since by act of Parliament (1814) evangelistic operations were legalized in India — that the work of missions has been prose cuted in India with anything like vigor and success. Indians, American. — The name given to the aboriginal inhabitants of the Western Continent by Columbus and his successors, arising from the supposed fact that they had landed on the eastern shores of India. Origin. — No positive knowledge has as yet been obtained regardingthe origin of the Indian. There can no longer be any doubt that they are the aborigines of their country, and that the mound-builders were the progenitors of the ex isting races. The extensive researches of the last fifteen years prove that many of the mounds have been constructed within historic time, and used by the ancestors of the present Indian tribes. From thousands of these mounds have been taken the industrial implements and works of art of the builders. These have been care fully compared with similar implements and works of art of the modern Indians, and found to correspond exactly. Again, in other mounds, supposed to have been most ancient, are found articles of European workmanship, obtained by the mound-builder from the early explorer. Says Major Powell: " No fragment of evidence remains to support the figment of theory that there was an ancient race of mound-builders su perior in culture to the North American Indian." Similar research proves that the pueblos, the cliff-dwellings, the crater-villages of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Ari zona, together with the cavate dwellings of the Tewan Mountains, are the work of the early Indians. Many of them formerly considered very ancient are found to have been built within the last three hundred years. The study of the myths and traditions of the Indian, beyond proving him to be the original occupant of the land, gives us but little light. History proves nothing as to his origin. Says Schoolcraft: "They broke off from the human race before history had dipped her pen in ink or lifted her graver on stone. " Herodo tus also is silent. The cuneiform and Nilotic inscriptions, the oldest in tbe world, make no mention of such a people. The Indian stock is still more ancient. Their language, their relig ion, their life, — all that is peculiar to them, — de note this. Without chronology, without letters, without arts, facts regarding their origin are wanting. Their languages and dialects are more ancient than those of Rome and Greece. Their ruins date back to within five hundred years of the foundation of Babylon. They must have sepa rated themselves from the great human family before the close of the Stone Age. Beyond this, in determining the original home of the Indian, research has never goue, and probably will never go. Among the traditions retained by the Indian are those concerning the arrival of the Euro peans in the laud of their forefathers, and some even point to the localities. The Mohicans tell the story of Hudson's voyage up the river which bears his name. Algonquin legends tell us of Carrier's visit to tbe St. Lawrence in 1534. The Iroquois have the tradition of a wreck on their coast, the founding of a little colony by tbe shipwrecked people, and later its destruc tion by the Indians. Without doubt this was the first Virginia colony, in 1588. United States. Population and Statistics.— The pres ent Indian population of the United States, ex clusive of Alaska, is 250,000. They are dis tributed as follows: Paid, that missionaries In 1645 the Moha?> Warhei- Jogues, who the French, and also desired vln * **2enixg, be sent to them. In 1646 FatlrP ""l^roke had recovered from his wounds anu . ThS" returned to his work among them. War fcw~ out again, and he was a second time made cL, tive, taken back to the scene of his former sui ferings, where he was subjected, if possible, even to greater torture than before, and finally put to death. In July, 1653, peace was again restored. A missionary named Le Moyne made a journey from the mouth of the Oswego to the town of Onondaga, and thence to Quebec, where he proclaimed the reported peace to be a fact. In 1654 a chapel was built at Onondaga, and the mission fully established. No sooner had these missionaries obtained a footing at Onondaga, than they began to extend their work. In 1656 Father Menard went to the Cayugas, and Father Chaumonot to the Senecas, and later both united in work among the Oneidas. War again breaking out, they were obliged to abandon the missions and flee for their lives, but upon the proclamation of peace returned again to continue their labors. The Mohawk mission was continued until 1681; the Onondaga until 1709; the Oneida until 1694; the Seneca until 1709; the Cayuga until 1684. In 1700 tbe Earl of Belmont, then gover nor of New York, made a report to the Lords of Trade and Plantation, in London, stating the need of sending Protestant missionaries of the Church of England, to work among the Five Nations of New York. The Lords presented this report to Queen Anne; she re ferred it to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and he, in turn, to tbe Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Under this so ciety, the first Protestant mission work aniong the New York Indians was undertaken. In 1704, sixty years aflertbe French Jesuits planted their missions at Onondaga, this society sent out Rev. Mr. Moore, wbo became discouraged at the end of a year and abandoned the work. In 1709 four Iroquois chiefs visited England, and requested Queen Anue that missionaries might be sent to instruct their people in Chris tianity. The queen approving, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts again sent out two missionaries and two school masters, with the understanding that each, upon his arrival, should be furnished with an interpreter. Rev. Mr. Andrews, tbe first missionary reached Albany in 1712. Portions ol tbe Scriptures were at once translated in Mohawk, and schools opened This mission continued ouly six years, closing without having met the expectations of its founders. The Church of England mission at Albany continued -work among these Indians, and in 1735 marked progress had been made. In 1741 their missionary reported in the Mohawk country 500 Indians, settled in two towns, with 58 communicants. In 1743 be further reported that only two or three of the whole tribe remained unbaptized. King George's war, 1744-1748, seriously interfered with these mis sions. In 1749 a new missionary took up the work abandoned during the war. Rev. John Stuart, the last missionary previous to the Revolutionary war, reported that the whole nation had been brought over to Christianity, had given up the roving life, were cultivating their land and learning trades, and that they were "as regular and virtuous iu their conduct as white people." In 1740 Hemy Rauch, the first Moravian missionary to the New York Indians, began work at Shekosniko. He was bitterly opposed by the white people, as their large income in trading with the Indians was due to the ignor ance of the latter. In proportion to the success W the mission, opposition increased. Mission- Ai-ies and Christian Indians were arrested upon '¦¦bsurd and false charges, and the work of Such and his co-laborers was obstructed in ause, -ossible w^rslT, |^9. In l73o a Mr. Huv spread to the Mohi- Ra "nport in this school.-,osac]lusetts. Many everypv,,, of 5y. ^ars, ves became a re- From this mission, woi°se pic. _ cans of Connecticut and jMu. Inl7o«vr]j m. were converted, and their liv\and ]atei':ierg proach to their white neighbors, "^tion of gn In 1744 the governor of New YcH fam- fluenced by white opposition, issued orare" "tbat the several Moravian and vagrant teach ers among the Indians of New York should desist from further teaching and preaching to the Indians, and depart the province." This order was executed by the sheriff, the church and school being formally closed in December of the same year. The missionaries returned to Bethlehem, Penn., where, a year later, their converts fled from the persecution on the part of the white settlers. In 1765 Rev. Samual Kirkland, a graduate of Mr. Wheelock's " Morris Indian Charity School" and of Princeton College, opened a mission among the Senecas. He abandoned this work at the end of a year, to plant a mis sion among the Oneidas. In 1770 this mission. was placed under the care of the London Board of Correspondence in Boston. With their aid, a meeting-house, school-house, saw-mill, grist mill, and blacksmith's shop were erected. Drunkenness was almost unknown, and the people became "sober, regular, industrious, praying Indians." Between 1796 and 1799 tbe Society of Friends did some missionary work among the Oneidas; in 1807, among the Brothertons; in 1822, among the Onondagas. Pennsylvania. — The peace-policy inaugurated by William Penn, aud the lasting friendship in which it, resulted between his followers and the Indians, is well known, and consequently the suffering, torture, and death connected with the establishment of so many missions in other states were wanting in Pennsylvania. The first society to engage in work among the Indians of Pennsylvania was that of the United Brethren, or Moravian Church. In 1740 they purchased the site and began the settlement of Bethlehem, which eventually became their INDIANS, AMERICAN INDIANS, AMERICAN headquarters. It was to Bethlehem tbat the persecuted Moravian missionaries fled when expelled from New York, and later the Mohi can converts sought refuge in the same towu. These New York refugees built a town 30 miles np the Lehigh River, and called it Gnad- denhutten (Tents of Grace). There mills and shops were erected, schools opened, and in 1749 the native congregation numbered several hun dred people. From here the work was ex tended to the Delaware Nation, and a mission 20 miles east of Gnaddenhutten had only been established when the breaking out of the French and Indian war terminated all work among the Delawares. The mission at Gnaddenhutten suffered alike from French and English ; the whole village was burned, and 10 of the Chris tian Indians murdered. In 1757 a new town called Nain was built by these Christian Indians near Bethlehem. There also school-houses, chapels, and mills were erected. The Pontiac war, in 1763, so inflamed the whites against the Indians that these Chris tian Mohicans once more fled from those who should naturally have been their protectors. After many wanderings, amid much suffering and persecution, another town was built near Susquehanna, upon a larger and more attractive scale than ever before. It was called Friedens- hutten. In 1771 they found that the titles to the land they 'occupied were valueless, and again they were obliged to abandon the work of years, and moved west, into Ohio. In connection with the settlement at Susque hanna, missionary work was begun on the Alle gheny River, among the Delawares, but was given up three years later upon the removal to Ohio. Ohio. — The first missionary work in Ohio was done by the Moravian exiles from Pennsyl vania, in 1772. A town was built containing a mission house and 60 dwellings, besides huts and lodges, and was named Scnonbrunn. A second town was located eight miles from Schonbrunn, and in 1776 a third was laid out. At the close of 1776 these villages contained over 400 Christian Indians. Schools were regu larly kept up, and books in the vernacular were rapidly prepared. The British being un successful in the Revolutionary War, turned their allies against these settlements, and iu the fall of 1781 the Christian Indians were removed by force to the banks of the Sandusky River, in Northern Ohio. Famine, sickness, and suf fering drove some of them back to their old towns, where they were gathered by the whites within two slaughter-houses, the men in one and the women in the other. Here, in cold-blooded butchery, over 90 of these innocent and unre sisting Christian Indians ended their lives, and with them perished all further hope of the Moravian Missions. Discouraged by the terrible fate of their as sociates, the Christian Indians remaining on the Sandusky removed to Michigan, then to Canada, aud in 1787 attempted a new settle ment on Lake Erie. Finally a permit was granted this people to return to the site of their former home at Gnaddenhutten, where a town was built, named Goshen, with a church, which in 1800 numbered 71 members. Georgia. — The first society to do missionary work in Georgia was that of the Moravians, wbo in 1735 built a school-house for the chil dren of the Crete Indians living on an islaud in the Savannah River, 7 miles above the town. This work came to a sudden and unex pected close in 1740. The neighboring Span iards called upon the Moravians to take up arms against the English. Their refusal to do this made their Georgia home so unpleasant that apart of the settlers returned to Pennsyl vania in 1738, and the rest iu 1740. With their departure Moravian missions in Georgia came to a close. Indian Missions of the Nineteenth Century. American Boarp op Commissioners for Foreign Missions. — The oldest missionary society having its origin in the United States is the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. It was organized at Brad ford, Mass., June 29th, 1810, and held its first annual meeting at Farmington, Conn. Of the 1,600 missionaries that it has supported, 512 have been sent to tbe Indians. The Rev. Cyrus Kingsbury, their first mis sionary to the Indians, went in 1815 to the Cherokees of Georgia. Reaching his field late in the fall, he received a cordial welcome from the people, who at once expressed a wish that schools might be established. Mr. Kingsbury was at once followed by Messrs. Hall and Williams, with their wives, and soon after by others. Their first enterprise, at a point named Brain- ard, was a combination of mission, boarding- school, and agricultural college. The govern ment contractor failing to erect the building, the missionaries, with native help, did it them selves, and 26 young Cherokees began at once to attend the school. The following year a church was organized with 5 members. In 1819 Presi dent Monroe visited the school, and ordered a new and much better building erected at gov ernment expense. In 1818 this board planted their second Indian mission, which was among the Choctaws, on the Yazoo river, four hundred miles southwest of Brainard. This new mission they called Eliot. So eager were the Choctaws for instruc tion, that eight children were brought one hun dred and sixty miles to school. In the fall of that year the Choctaws gave in support of the school $700, eighty-five cows, and a pledge of $500 per year. The next year they gave $6,000- towards the school's support, saying, "One thousand children of our nation are waiting and looking up to our white brothers for in struction." This mission suffered constantly from the renegade whites, who were the sworn enemies of the missionaries. In 1825 George Guess (or Sequoyah), a half- breed Cherokee about fifty years old, invented tbe remarkable Cherokee alphabet. In three or four years half the nation could read. In 1826 the four Gospels were translated, and printing-presses added to the mission. In 1826 this Board had seven mission stations among the Cherokees of Georgia, ten among the Choctaws of Mississippi, aud oneamongthe Cherokees of Arkansas. This same year they received from the United Foreign Missionary Board their missions among the following tribes: the Osages of the Neosho or Grand river; the Osages of Missouri; the mixed tribes at Mackinaw; the Ottawas at Maumee; the Sene cas at Allegheny; Cattaraugasand Senecas, and also the Tuscaroras, in New York. This year the board also began work among the Stock- r INDIANS, AMERICAN 400 INDIANS, AMERICAN bridge tribe, at Green Bay, whose ancestors had been cared for by John Sargent, President Ed wards, and others, in Massachusetts. Through all their removals of a hundred years, they had kept alive their church and school. ' Iu 1827 the Synods of Georgia and South Carolina transferred their mission among the Chickasaws to the Board. In 1830 half the Cherokees could read, and they had eleven churches, also schools, courts, a legislature, and stringent laws against intemperance. During this same year two hundred and fifty Chicka saws had united with the church connected with the mission. One-fifth of the Stockbridges were church-members. At the close of this year three-fourths of all the church-members of the missions of this board were Indians. ln 1819 trouble, long threatening tbe Chero kees, broke out. Greedy white men wanted their land, and a great body of these people were ' ' persuaded " to go over the Mississippi. The Cherokees, the Creeks, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws were " greatly agitated and dis tressed" at the prospect of a removal from lands guaranteed to them by treaty with the United States, and the missionaries "stood be tween two fires," the Indians looking upon them as belonging to the race who made the trouble, and the United States authorities "re garding and treating them with suspicion and severity." The missionaries finally lost much of their influence over the Indians, and were looked upon by them as " treaty men." In 1831 two missionaries, Revs. Butler and Worcester, received notification of a law of Geoi'gia requiring all white men on Cherokee land to take the oath of allegiance to the state of Georgia. Remaining at their posts, they re fused to do so, claiming their rights under the Constitution, iaws, and treaties of the general government. On March 12lh the "Georgia Guard " arrested three of the missionaries and took them before the County Court, where they were released ou the ground that they were agents of the general government. The presi dent of the United States then declared them not to be agents of the general government, and the Postmaster General, to assist the Georgia people, removed Mr. Worcester from the office of postmaster. Again they were warned to leave, and, refusing to do so, were, with a Methodist minister, Mr. Trott, and a Cherokee, named Proctor, arrested. Mr. Trott and Proc tor were chaiued by the neck to a wagon and made to march iu this way for two days. After eleven days' imprisonment in a filthy log prison, Mr. Worcester and Mr. Butler were sentenced to four years' imprisonment at hard labor. The President (Andrew Jackson) was appealed to and, through the Secretary of War, replied, refusing to interfere. The case was carried to the Supreme Court, and the decision of the Georgia Court reversed and annulled, aud the discharge of the prisoners ordered. The Court of Georgia refused to obey, and Governor Lump kin refused to interfere. For fifteen months Mr. Butler and Mr. Worcester lay in the peni tentiary, and were finally liberated. Within eighteen mouths after their release there were on the Cherokee lands more white squatters than there were Indians. The general government refused to make a treaty with the Indians, and in May, 1838, the State troops began taking them from their houses and gath ering them in camps. In August the removal of 16,000 Cherokees began. "Sick and well, old men and infants, mothers and mothers to be" were forced to march on through the cold winter months. The suffering was terrible, the death-rate fearful. Fifteen deaths a day was the average, and 4,500 — more than one-fourth of the whole nation — perished before they reached their western home. Yet through all this terrible ordeal witnesses testify that " the deportment of the Cherokees was worthy of a Christian people." In 1834 the mission to the Chickasaws was given up owing to the incoming flood of whites. The Osages in 1836 made it unsafe for the mis sionaries to remain among them, and this mis sion was abandoned. In 1834 Samuel W. and Gideon H. Pond built their log-cabin on the shores of Lake Cal houn, Minn., and were soon afterward engaged by the Board as missionaries to the Dakota or Sioux nation, a powerful tribe of Indians, numbering from forty to fifty thousand persons, and occupying the country from the Mississippi to the Black Hills and from Nebraska to the British line. In 1835 Revs. T. S. Williamson and J. D. Stevens, with a fanner, Alexander Huggins, with their families, were commissioned by the Board as missionaries to the Dakotas. The Stevens family erected mission houses on the shore of Lake Harriet. Dr. Williamson organized a church in Fort Suelling garrison, but soon moved two hundred miles farther west to Lac Qui Parle. Here, in 1837, be was joined by Rev. S. R. Riggs and wife. The result of the first six years' work was forty-niue converts. Mr. Joseph Renville, a half-French Indian trader, gave the missionaries great assistance in acquir ing the language and translating the Bible. The headquarters of these missionaries being removed to Traverse des Sioux, and later back again to Lac Qui Parle, they were finally settled at Hazel- wood nntil the great Indian outbreak of 1862. The immediate causes of this great Sioux war were, a new breach of promise on the part of the United States Government, the spirit of war wafted from the Southern Rebellion, and the influence of the native sorcerers, who convinced their people that the Indian gods were superior to the white man's Deity. After most barbaric destruction of life and property, within a few weeks twelve hundred United' States troops, under Gen. Sibley, dispersed the Indians. Of the five hundred prisoners, more than three hundred were condemned to be hung after a hasty trial by military commission. But orders from President Lincoln retained three hundred and thirty in prison at Maukato. The white man's God bad triumphed over the heathen deities. A great revival followed. Among the Mankalo prisoners was organized the "Pilgrim Church," so called because of its wanderings, first to the Davenport imprisonment, then to Crow Creek on the Missouri River, then down to Niobrara, and to the final abode at Santee Agency, Neb. This church has ever since con tinued to be tbe foundation of the work among the Dakotas. In 1834 the Dutch Reformed churches, then doing their mission work through the A. B. C. F. M., requested that society to assume direc tion of a mission among the Indians west of the Rocky Mountains. In 1835 a Mr. Parker and Marcus Whitman, M.D., under protection of the American Fur Trading Co., went out as INDIANS, AMERICAN 461 INDIANS, AMERICAN far as Green River, a branch of the Colorado. After meeting the Indians and obtaining what information they could from those gathered there from west of the mountains, Dr. Whit man returned east to make arrangements for the location of a permanent mission, bringing with him two Nez Perces Indians. Mr. Parker con tinued westward, explored the valley of the Columbia River, and returned by way of the Sandwich Isles and Cape Horn. In 1836 Dr. Whitmau, with his wife, again started westward, accompanied by Rev. H. H. Spaulding and wife, Mr. W. H. Gray, and the two Nez Perces whom he had brought east with him the preceding fall, and assisted by tbe American Fur Co. Their arrival iu Oregon was anticipated by Nez Perces Indians, who journeyed several days eastward to meet them. In November, 1837, Mr. Spaulding located the first mission station among the Nez Perces at Lapwai; and in De cember Dr. Whitman began work among the Cayuses at Waiilatp, six miles west of the present city of Walla Walla and about 150 miles from Mr. Spaulding. In 1838 the mission force was increased by the arrival of Rev. E. Walker and wife, Rev. C. Eels and wife, Rev. A. B. Smith, and Mrs. Gray. Mr. Gray now located with Mr. Spaulding; Mr. Smith spent one year with Dr. Whitman at Waiilatp, and then opened a new station at Kamiah, sixty miles from Lap wai, among the Nez Perces; and Messrs. Walker and Eels began another station among the Spo- kanesat Tshimakain, six miles north of Spokane River. In 1837, upon the opening of tbe school at Lapwai, one hundred Indians at once applied for admission. In 1839 one hundred and fifty Indian children and as many more adults were in attendance at the school. Two years later over 2,000 Nez Perces confessed their sins and gave evidence of real conversion. They some times spent whole nights in repeating over what they had heard at religious services. While travelliugamongtheCayuses, Dr. Whitmanand Mr.. Spaulding were followed by hundreds of the people, who were eager to see them and hear Bible truth. They also had a strong desire for agricultural implements, and even brought their rifles to be manufactured into such articles. In 1841 a saw and grist mill were erected among the Nez Perces, and a grist-mill amoug the Cayuses. In 1838 Roman Catholic missiouaries arrived, and persuaded some of tbe Cayuses Indians to be baptized by them. Their arrival and their influence upon the Indians caused a great deal of trouble. In 1841 Mr. and Mrs. Smith, owing to ill- health, retired from the mission. At this time, as things seemed to be in a discouraging con dition at tbe mission, the Board decided to abandon its stations among the Nez Perces and Cayuses. Messrs. Spaulding and Gray returned east, and Dr. Whitman joined the Spokane mission. Iu 1842 the work again became more en couraging. The school at Lapwai increased to over 200. Interest was again awakened among the Nez Perces, and over 1,000 at tended a ten days' meetiug, while their Sabbath congregations increased to nearly 400. Agri cultural work was begun by the 50 Cayuses, and 150 Nez Perces began farming. In 1843 tbe Nez Perces organized a simple form of government, elected chiefs, and adopted a few laws; and soon after, the Cayuses followed their example. Dr. Whitman came east and presented to the Board the encouraging con dition of things among these Indians, and the Board again took up the work given up by them several years previous. In 1843 nine Nez Perces were received into the church. Two prayer-meetings were sustained among them, and the Sunday-school numbered over 200. In 1844 ten more were added to the church. In 1847 the Methodist Episcopal Church, which had previously transferred its Oregon mission to this Board, also transferred its mis sion at Dalles to the same body. The work had never seemed in a more pros perous condition, when, suddenly, upon Nov. 29th, 1847, Dr. Whitman and wife, Mr. Rogers, — his assistant, — and six others were massacred at Walla Walla. Forty-seven, with emigrant captives, were taken, who were afterwards ransomed. Mr. Spaulding, being at Umatilla, forty miles distant, escaped. Messrs. Walker and Eells remained at their station until March, 1848, when they were obliged to seek safely at Fort Colville, aud from there were brought to Oregon City by a volunteer company who had started out to rescue them. Col. Lee, military commander, then declared the country east of the Cascades closed to missionaries, owing to his inability to protect them, and all hope of their resuming missionary work there was for the time abandoned. In 1851 a large party of the Spokane Indians travelled 450 miles to Oregon City, to request the Superintendent of Indian Affairs to furnish them with teachers. Iu 1855 a treaty was made with these Indians at Walla Walla, and all re ports agree that at that time it was found that 45 of the Cayuses and at least one-third of the 3,000 Nez Percys had lived, since the departure of the missionaries, consistent Christian lives, having continued the reading of the Scriptures in their own language, aud also kept up regular family worship. In the Yakama war of 1855-6 these Indians all remained faithful to the whites, and at its close the Nez Perces returned to their reserva tion, and the Cayuses to the Umatilla reserva tion. No other Protestant work was ever undertaken among the now extinct Cayuses. In 1859 Mr. Spaulding, who for twelve years had been watching for an opportunity, returned to the Nez Perces. Upon his arrival, he found that during all his absence these Indians had retained their forms of worship. Many of them still engaged regularly in morning and even ing prayers. A school was started immedi ately, and was at once crowded by old and young alike. Old men would sometimes re main until midnight, transcribing portions of Scripture which Mr. Spaulding had translated for them. When, in 1870, the Presbyterians severed their connection with the Board and formed their own missionary societies, part of the Indian missions fell to the care of the Presby terian Board of Foreign Missions. Some of these Indian churches have come under the Guidance of the Presbyterian Home Missionary ociety. The Dakota missions that remained to the care of the Board, after the separation in 1870, were, in 1883, transferred to the American Missionary Association, in exchange for the foreign missions of the latter society. INDIANS, AMERICAN 462 INDIANS, AMERICAN In' 1878 the translation of the Scriptures into the Dakota language was completed, and in 1879 the Dakota Bible was published. The following is » general summary of the work of the American Board among tbe Indians, as given in its own reports : Cherokees. — Work begun in 1816; closed in 1860. Missionaries employed, 113; churches, 12; members, 248. This mission was given up when the Cherokees were removed to the West. Choctaws. — Work begun in 1818; closed in 1859. Missiouaries employed, 153; churches, 12; members, 1,362. This work was given up "because of complications arising from the existence of slavery." One missionary resumed work in 1872, but withdrew in 1876, leaving four churches in the care of a native pastor. Osages. — Work begun in 1826 ; closed in 1837. Missionaries employed, 26; churches, 2; members, 48; pupils instructed in schools, 354. Given up because the country of the Osages was ceded to tbe Cherokees. Maumees. — Work begun in 1826; closed in 1835. Missionaries employed, 6; churches, 1; members, 25. " Given up because of changes of population." Mackinaws. —Work begun in 1826; closed in 1836. Missionaries employed, 17; churches, 1; members. 35. Chickasaws. — Work begun in 1827; closed in 1835. Missionaries employed, 10; churches, 1; members, 100; pupils instructed in schools, 300. Stockbridges. — Work begun in 1828; closed in 1848. Missionaries employed, 8; churches, 1; members, 51. The last four missions were given up because of change of population. Creeks. — Work begun in 1832; closed in 1837. Missionaries employed, 6; church-mem bers, 80. Pawnees.— Work begun in 1834; closed in 1844. Missionaries employed, 10. " Given up because of the roving character of the Pawuees." Oregons. — Work begun in 1835; closed in 1847. Missionaries employed, 13. Broken up by the massacre of 1847. Senecas. — Work begun in 1826; closed in 1870. Missionaries employed, 48. Transferred to the Presbyterian Board. Tuscaroras. — Work begun in 1826; closed in 1860. Missionaries employed, 10. Ojibways. — Work begun in 1831; closed in 1870. Missionaries employed, 28. Transferred to Presbyterian Board in 1H70. Dakotas. — Work begun in 1 835 ; closed in part in 1870. Transferred to Presbyterian Board. The balance of their work among the Dakotas was transferred to the American Missionary Association in 1883. Between the years 1816 nnd 1883 this Board had, among lhe Indians, 15 different missions, 500 missionaries, 45 churches, 3,700 church- members, and reached 100,000 Indians. Originally this Board represented the Presby terian and Congregational Churches, but iu 1870 the Presbyterians organized their owTn board, and received from the American Board of Com missioners for Foreign Missions three missions and a number of schools. American Missionary Association.— This society was formed in 1846 by the consolidation ofthe Union Missionary Society, the West India Missionaiy Committee, and the Western Evan gelical Society. They first assumed the care of the missious at Red Lake and Leach Lake, which had been established in 1843. The aver age yearly expenditure of this society for their Indian work, from 1847 to 1875, was $64,959. In 1852 the Association had 21 missionaries stationed among the Indians of the Northwest. Various causes conspired to tbe diminution of these missions, and in 1859 they were aban doned. In 1877 the Red Lake work was trans ferred to the Protestant Episcopal Society. In 1879 the Association began a yearly payment of $1,500 towards the support of the Indian work at the Hampton, Va., Normal School. In 1880 a church was organized at Snohomish, Washington Territory, with 32 members. In 1883 tbe American Board of Commission ers for Foreign Missions transferred all their Indian Missions to the American Missionaiy Association, making it responsible thereafter for the Indian work of the Congregational Church. The missions transferred were the Fort Ber thold mission and school, among the Mandans, Gros Ventres, aud Rees, in Dakota; the Santee mission and large normal training school, at Santee Agency, Nebraska; and the Fort Sully mission, with its out-stations, on the Cheyenne River. These missious were receiving from the Board, at the time of transfer, about $12,000 a year. Under the American Missionary Associ ation this work has grown to such a degree that their yearly expenditure for Indian mis sions averages $50,000. The Association has now a mission among the Mandans, at Fort Berthold, North Dakota, 90 miles northwest of Bismarck, with a boarding- school and church. It has also a preaching station at Fort Stevenson, the reservation agency; one at Elbow Woods, among the Gros Ventres; and a station, with a native. missionaiy, at Independence, among the Mandans. This mission is under the care of Rev. C. L. Hall. The second mission of the Association in Dakota is among the Sioux, on the Standing Rock Reservation. It has here a hospital, under the care of a lady medical missionary. This has proved a great blessing to these In dians, tbe successful surgical aud medical work performed there serving to break the power of the medicine-men, whieh is always ex ercised against civilization. As many as 80 cases have reported to the hospital for treat ment within a single day. There is also at this station a church, with 25 members, recently or ganized. The missionary in charge here is the Rev. George Reed. There are also connected with this mission two stations on the Grand River, under the care of native missionaries. Miss M. C. Collins, for fifteen years a general missionary to the Cheyenne River and Standing Rock Indians, has her home on the Grand River. The third mission of the Association in Dakota is at Oahe, where it has a church and a large boarding-school. It has also, connected with this mission, one station, with native mis sionary, on the Moreau River; two stations, with native missionaries, on the Missouri River; aud seveu stations, under the care of native mis sionaries, on the Cheyenne River. This mission is Under the care of the Rev. T. L. Riggs, who is a son of Dr. S. R. Riggs and was born among these Sioux Indians, in whose service he has spent his life. INDIANS, AMERICAN INDIANS, AMERICAN The fourth mission of the Association in Dakota is on the Rosebud Reservation. It has a day-school, under the care of a native teacher, at the agency, and three stations, under the care of native workers, on the reservation. This mission is under the care of the Rev. J. F. Cross. At Santee Agency, Nebraska, the Association has a mission with a church and a large nor mal and industrial training school. It has in this school a theological department, for the training of Indian pastors; a normal depart ment, for the training of Indian teachers; and an industrial department, with blacksmith, shoe, and carpenter shops, and printing-office; also a large farm where Indian boys are trained in the arts of civilization, thus fitting them to become independent and self-supporting, Tbis mission is under the care of Dr. A. L. Riggs, the oldest son of tbe veteran missionary to the Sioux, Dr. Stephen R. Riggs. He began work here nine teen years ago, when the Sioux were moved down here from Minnesota, after the Sioux war. Among the Poncas in Dakota the Associa tion has a mission, with a school, under the care of a white missionary. At Skokomish, Washington, it has a mission, with church and school and two stations. At Santa Fe, New Mexico, il has the support of the teachers in the Ramona school. A general summaiy of the Indian work of the American Missionary Association shows: Missions 8 Stations 23 White missionaries 43 Native " 25 Schools 18 Pupils 658 Expenditures for the year 1888-1889.. . . $51,781 The Board op Home Missions op the Presbyterian Church (North). — This Board organized mission work at Laguna, New Mexico, March 25th, 1876 sending out as missionaries Rev. John Menaul, M.D., and his wife. By means of their untiring efforts, much was ac complished in the way of civilization and also of Christianization. The Indians were taught to build separate houses and to live outside of the Pueblo. In 1884 their farmhouses and their large flocks dotting the valley proved their rapid growth in " order and intelligence." In 1877 Dr. H. R. Palmer started a mission at Zuni. After laboring for a time, ill-health obliged him to give up the work, and it was carried on by Mr. J. H. Wilson and wife, who have accomplished much for the people, not withstanding the difficulties of an unwritten language. In 1884 the school numbered 70. The mission building, of stone, contained five rooms. In 1878 Rev. J. M. Shields, M.D., opened a mission among the Jemez Indians, and was succeeded in 1884 by Rev. V. Leech, M.D. In 1884 this school numbered 81. In 1880 a school was established at Albu querque, called the " Central Industrial Board ing-school for all the Pueblos," under Prof. R. W. D. Bryan, as superintendent, and a staff of 11 other teachers and workers. In 1884 there were 150 pupils in the school, who were taught not only the truths of the Bible, but general branches of education, as well as many of the industrial arts. This society of the Presbyterian Church also organized schools at the Navajo, Moqui, aud San Carlos agencies, but they were afterward put under the care of the several Indian agents. The Choctaw Orphan School, situated at the old Spencer Academy, Indian Territory, was opened in 1882, under the charge of Mr. Robe. After two years' work, the school numbered 30 pupils, who had "made rapid advance in their studies and morals." In 1882 a school was opened among the Creeks by Rev. T. A. Sanson, with an enrol ment of 70 pupils. In 1883 a day-school was started among the Cherokees at Fort Gibson, under Miss Annie Miller as teacher. In 1883 a boarding-school among the Sioux, at Sisseton Agency, came under the care of the Board Buildings costing over $4,000 were erected, and iu 1884 the school numbered 55. A mission at Fort Wrangel, Alaska, was founded in 1876 by an Indian named Philip Mackay ; and in 1877 Rev. Sheldon Jackson, with the help of Mrs. A. R. McFarland, opened another mission and school for girls in the same place. Mrs. McFarland was the first American missionary to go into that new country. The work there was peculiarly trying, but the mis sionaries stayed at their post, organizing later a place of refuge for young girls and a day-school of 60 pupils. Dr. and Mrs. J. W. McFarland and Miss Rankin were sent out to join the other workers. A loss of the mission buildings by fire interfered somewhat with the efficiency of their work. In 1878 a mission was founded at Sitka by Rev. J. G. Brady, who also opened a school in the same place. In 1880 Miss O. A. Austin arrived as teacher. In 1884 the boarding- school numbered 53 and the day-school 175. Mrs. S. Dickinson, a native, educated in Vic toria, B. O, opened a school among the Cbilcat Indians in 1880. In 1881 Rev. E. S. Willard and wife arrived and took charge of the work, establishing a school for boys and girls and a refuge for girls. Mr. and Mrs. Louie Paul, both natives, educated at Fort Wrangel, were put in charge of a branch school, 30 miles up the Chilcat River. Soon after the Chilcat mission was estab lished another was opened at Hoonyah, with Mr. and Mrs. Styles in charge. They afterward removed to Sitka, and Dr. J. W. McFarland and wife took their places. In 1881 a school was opened among the Hydahs, on the Prince of Wales Island, in the southern part of Alaska, with Mr. J. E. Chap man as teacher. In 1882 Mr. J. L. Gould was sent out as assistant, and Mr. W. D. McLeod was put in charge of the saw-mill enterprise. In 1884 Dr. F. J. Hart was sent out as mis sionary to the Papagoes in Arizona. A large boarding-school for the full-blooded Creeks was then under construction, to be presided over by Mrs. Moore and Miss A. M. Robertson. In 1884 missionary work was also iu progress among the Mission Indians of Lower California. In 1889 the Board report that the number of teachers and pupils in their Indian schools has more than doubled within two years. The school building at Albuquerque, destroyed by fire, has been rebuilt, at a cost of $7,000, and a training-school has been opened at Tucson, Arizona. A missionary has been sent to the Stockbridges of northern Wisconsin. In their Dakota mission they report 120 pupils in at tendance at the "Good Will Mission" school INDIANS, AMERICAN 464 INDIANS, AMERICAN and at Sisseton Agency, and that their 8 churches among the Sioux have a membership of 521, with 6 native pastors. In the Indian Territory they report, among the Cherokees, 433 church-members and 255 scholars in school. The school at Vinita has 80 pupils, of whom 30 are boarders. In the Park Hill school there are 60 scholars. A church has been formed at Caddo, and there have also been started board ing-schools at Old Dwight and Pleasant Hill. Among the Creeks the work has been largely increased. Miss Alice Robertson has 35 board ing scholars in ber school. The school at Tulsa has 69 scholars and 3 teachers. During tbis year the General Assembly trans ferred the Wealaka and Wewoka missions to this Board. At Wealaka there is a school with 100 pupils, and at Wewoka a school with 65 pupils. This board has among the Creeks 357 church-members and 339 pupils. Among the Choctaws tbe schools have grown from 5 to 13 during the year 1889. The church- members number 764 ; the pupils, 912. Tbe work in Arizona and New Mexico has made marked progress during the last year. The Tucson school has 75 boarding-pupils. In Washington over 300 members have been added to the church during the last year. In 1886 this Board reported, among the In dians, 30 ministers ; 8 native teachers ; 48 churches ; 2,000 church-members ; 63 teachers; 20 schools; 1,134 scholars. In 1888 they report 38 ministers; 25 native teachers; 68 churches; 2,863 church-members; 115 teachers; 29 schools; 2,441 scholars. The Board op Foreign Missions or the Presbyterian Church. — The first organized effort of this Board to establish missions among the Indians was in November, 1833. During this year two missionaries, with their wives and lady assistants, were sent to the West. In 1835 they report that "a mission and school have been established, and tbe Indians have built for themselves log houses." In 1837 a mission was established among tbe Iowas. In 1839 a work was begun, at, Mackenac, for the Chippewas and Ottawas. In 1841 a missionary was sent and a mission established among the Creeks of Arkansas. In 1845 a boarding-school was opened at this station. In 1844 the Spencer Academy, in the Choctaw nation, was transferred to this Board, and by them opened with sixty pupils. In 1846 a boarding-school was opened among the Iowas. The same year a mission was planted at the junction of the Missouri and Papion rivers, among the Otoe and Omaha In dians. A boarding-school-house was erected. In 1848 the government proposed to place a boarding-school for girls, containing from eighty to one hundred pupils, among the Chickasaw uation, under the care of this Board. In 1851 this school was accepted by the Board, and work started. In December, 1856, a mission was planted among the Kickapoos; a school, with twenty boys, was opened, and a large building erected. In the report of tbis Society for 1889 are found the following facts concerning their mis sionary work among the Indians: Seneca Mission. — A mission was established by Rev. F. Trippo, Rev. William Hall, and Rev. H. Silverheels, on the Allegheny Reserva tion, in western New York; and eight native assistants aided them in their work. There were also sub-stations on the Tonawanda, Tus carora, aud Cornplanter reservations. On all of these reservations there is now great hope for the people, who are ready and anxious to do good work. During 1888 $1,400 were raised by the Indians of these different fields; one church building was finished aud dedicated; another repaired. A Sabbath-school was or ganized, and twenty-five members received inlo the church. The total number of communi cants was one hundred and ninety-eight. Mission work was begun on the Cattaraugus Reservation in 1811. The mission was trans ferred to this Board in 1870, with Rev. Wil liam Hall as missionary. Mr. Hall was suc ceeded by Rev. George Ruciman. "Mr. Ruci- man's labors have been heartily welcomed by the Indians of the Reservation, who have shown a greatly increased faithfulness in church attendance, and the woik is more pros perous than at any time during the last two or three years." Chippewa Mission. — Odanah, on Bad River Reservation, in the northwestern part of Wis consin, was transferred to the Board in 1870. Missionary work was resumed in 1871 under Rev. Henry Blatchford, a half-breed, who has charge of the little Odanah church, the mem bership of which is forty-two. The number of Chippewas in Wisconsin is small, and those re maining there, dependent upon the sale of their lumber for support, are so discouraged at the treatment of great lumber companies that efforts on the part of missionaries and teachers are made at a great disadvantage. Within the last two years the little day-school has been suspended as a mission school, and the only work undertaken has been that of Mr. Blatch ford in the Odanah church. Mission work was begun at Lac Cour d'Oreil- les, on the reservation of the same name, in 1883, its out-stations being at Round Lake and Puhquanhwong. Rev. S. G. Wright did faith ful work at these three stations amid " the in firmities of age " aud many discouragements. When Mr. Wright was obliged to close his labors on account of age, Misses Susie and Cornelia Dougherty took his place at Round Lake, and have carried on a little school with. much faithful, self-denying labor. Dakota Mission. — Work was begun at Yank ton Agency, Dakota Territory, on the Missouri River, in 1869, by Rev. John P. Williamson and wife. This is the principal station of the mis sion. The mission church numbered in 1888 one hundred and eighteen members. The na tive pastor is Rev. Henry Selwyn, of whom Mr. Williamson speaks as " a devoted aud eloquent preacher and a very instructive Biblical teach er." The Sunday-school numbered eighty- five. There are also in connection with the mission a Woman's Missionary Society and a Young Men's Christian Association. During the year 1888 the church contributed $500 to various missionary objects. At Hill Church, eleveu miles east of Yank ton Agency, stands a small church building, where Mr. Selwyn also preaches. This church, organized about eleven years ago, had in 1888 ninety-six members. A Sunday-school and two weekly prayer-meetings are regularly maintained. Several years ago the Board as sisted this little church in enlarging their build- INDIANS, AMERICAN 465 INDIANS, AMERICAN ing, giving them about $75, while the Indians themselves raised the equivalent of $100 for the purpose. A church of twenty-four members and a school are located at Cedar, fifteen miles north west of Yankton Agency. A third out-station is located at Red School House. The proximity of a heathen dance- house has had a bad effect on the neighborhood, but the influence of Peter Iynduze, a faithful native worker, was making itself felt, when he died. The school, however, is still continued, and has been put in charge of George Black Owl, a young man whom the mission educated at the Normal Training-school for Indians at Santee, Nebraska. Mr. Selwyn was sent for, a few years ago, by the Indians of the Lower Brule Agency, 110 miles northwest of Yankton Agency, that he might open a station there. A church was or ganized, which in 1888 numbered 37 members, with a Sunday-school of 40 members. The question of opening the Sioux Reservation for two years kept this people in a state of excite ment unfavorable to missionary work, but Jos eph Rogers, a Flandreau Indian, has persevered with this work, and has attracted the attention of large numbers of the people. The Flandreau Indians live 150 miles north east of Yankton Agency, at Flandreau, South Dakota. They are a small portion of the Min nesota Sioux, and are the only members of that particular band of Indians now under the care of this Board. "The others, constituting seven churches, have been transferred to the Board of Home Missions." Rev. John Eastman, a strong, zealous worker for his people, is the pastor of the Flandreau church. The contri butions of the Indians amounted to $321 during the year 1887, while the expenditure of the Board on this field was but $150. There is in South Dakota a native missionary society, composed of 14 Presbyterian and 3 Congregational churches, who unite for mis sionary work. This society supports 3 mission aries. Its receipts for the year 1888 were $1,180. There is also a mission station at Pine Ridge Agency. The work here is comparatively new, but is most promising. The mission work at Fort Peck Agency has dwindled down to almost nothing, owing to the way in which the Indians have been scattered. The breaking up of a number of villages has made the day-school impossible. Omaha Mission. — The mission among the Omahas is in charge of Mr. Hamilton aud Mr. Copley and other workers. A new church was recently erected with a seating capacity of 150. The mission has under its charge a boarding- school for girls and small boys, which is said to have "attained a high state of perfection." Winnebago Mission. — Tbe Winnebago Mis sion is under the charge of Mr. and Mrs. Find- ley. It is not a very encouraging field, but still the missionaries report progress. Sac and Fox Mission.— Mission work was begun among these Indians in 1883. Miss Anna Skea writes of this mission in 1889: "In look ing over the work from the beginning, we can see advancement, and have great reason for being encouraged; and viewed by the eye of faith, the unseen and spiritual far exceeds the seen and temporal. The progress made by these Indians is remarkable, though others would not see it as I do. Their customs, habits, and way of living have changed very much for the better." It has been a hard field in which to labor, and there are many reasons why greater progress. could not have been made. Nez Perces Mission. — In the reassignment of missionary work by President Grant, and with the approval of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the Nez. Perces Mission was assigned to the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. Upon assuming the care of this mission the Presbyterian Board at once sent to the assist ance of tbe veteran missionary, Mr. Spaulding, Rev. H. T. Cowley and wife, and tbe following year Rev. R. N. Fee and wife. This same year, 8 active workers were added to the mis sion force. In 1874 Mr. Spaulding reported that as a result of his work among the Nez Perces, 700 of thein had been baptized by him. Late in the fall of 1873, Miss S. L. McBelh began her work among the Nez Perces, under this Board. For years Miss McBeth has con tinued as teacher, translator, and theological professor. In 1877 three of her young men were approved to preach. About this time the church at Kamiah— Miss McBeth's station — - numbered 200 members. After the war with Joseph's band, and their transfer to the Indian Territory, this Board began work among them there. Three graduates of Miss McBeth's school went there to take care of the mission, — one as preacher, one as teacher, and one as as sistant. In October, 1880, a church with 90 members was organized among these Nez Perces in the Indian Territory. In 1880 this Board had amoug the Nez Perces one church at Sapwai with 100 members, one at Kamiah with 375 members, and one among Joseph's band, in the Indian Territory, of 9S members. In 1880 these Indians raised over 48,500 bushels of grain, and owned about 13,000- horses and 3,780 cattle. Board op Missions op the Presbyterian Church (South).— The Indian Presbytery of the Southern- Presbyterian Church reports 12 missions and 24 churches. In 1857 this Board made arrangements to start a mission among the Blackfeet Indians of Montana. A missionary was sent out who looked the field over and upon returning re ported favorably, but the work was never be gun. The first Indian mission of this Board was planted in 1861 aniong the Cherokee Indians. At the present time their work is in the Indian Territory, among the Cherokee and Choctaw Nations. There are now engaged in this work 6 while missionaries, 5 native ministers, and 6 native helpers. There are 12 stations and 25 out-stations, with625church-members, 300 Sun day-school scholars, and 60 day-school pupils. The expenditure of the Board for Indian mis sions for the year 1889 was $6,550, of which the native churches gave $1,700. Mennonite Mission Board. — The first mis sion to the Indians of this board was located among the Cherokees in 1801. They have now a mission in the Indian Territory among the Cheyennes, and another among the Arapahoes. Connected with these missions are schools, that among the Cheyennes having fifty scholars, and the one among the Arapahoes having seventy-five scholars. Farms are connected with the schools, and the boys are instructed in all the branches INDIANS, AMERICAN 466 INDIANS, AMERICAN of agriculture. The girls are taught housekeep ing. This board has also a school at Halstead, Kentucky, where twenty-five pupils are in at tendance, the greater number coming from the Indian Territory. The expenditure for the last year has been $5,500. Woman's National Indian Association. — The objects of this association are: "First. To strengthen public sentiment on "behalf of justice to Indians, and to help secure their civilization and education, and the payment of debts to them under existing government compacts. " Second. To aid in securing needed new legislation, giving to Indians protection of law, lands, and citizenship. "Third. To labor for the elevation of Indian women and homes, and the Christianization of tribes now destitute of Christian instruction." The president of this association is Mrs. Amelia S. Quinton, ancl its central office is at Philadelphia. Its vice-presidents represent thirty different States, and its executive board represents the Baptist, Presbyterian, Congre- fational, Episcopal, Methodist, Friends, Re- ormed, and Unitarian churches. It has auxil iaries in most of the Eastern and many of the Western States. In 1884 this association began missionary work among the Indians, its plan being to establish missions among Indians where no missionary society was at work, and then to transfer them to such missionary boards as were able and will ing to assume the control and support of them. In this way several missions have been estab lished in Dakota, Iowa, California, and the Indian Territory, and have been transferred to the Episcopal and Presbyterian Church Mission Boards. They also engage in house-building. The plan is to help young Indians returning from schools or beginning civilized life to start homes. For this purpose the association makes the Indian a loan, which he repays as rapidly as he can in instalments without interest. Work of this kind has been done among the Sioux and Omahas. The annual expenditure of this asso ciation is about $8,000. Woman's Executive Committee op Home Missions. — The work of this board is the plant ing of Christian schools in tribes where no mis sionary work has been done. They believe that this is the best preparation that can be made for the successful carrying on of Christian missions. In 1875 they began their first work among the Indians of New Mexico and Alaska. In 1878 schools were started among the Jemez Indians. In 1880 work was begun at Albu querque for the Pueblos. In 1883 work was undertaken at Fort. Gibson for the Cherokees. This same year a school was started at Sisseton Agency, Dakota, for the Sioux. Missions op the Protestant Episcopal 'Church. — In 1815 the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Episcopal Church began a work among the Oneidas of New York. In 1825 a mission was established at Green Bay, Wis., for the Menomonees, under the su perintendence of Rev Norman Nash ; but after the expenditure of some money, and a visit of Mr. Nash to the field, it was given up. In 1828 the executive committee of the Board were instructed to take active measures, in con currence with the views of the government, for commencing and establishing a permanent mis sion for these Indians. Correspondence was opened with the Secretary of War, under whom the Indians then were, and an arrangement was effected whereby the Society were allowed to oc cupy a fine piece of land for their mission. In 1829 the mission was reopened, with one missionary, a teacher, farmer, and housekeeper. The mission included both church and school work. In 1831 the mission is reported in a flourishing condition, but in 1832 it is reported as a cause of anxiety to the Board, because of its pecuniary condition, special aid which they had expected not having been received. Soon after this, the missionary retired from the field. At this time there were 6 workers at the mission, and a school with 102 boarding-pupils and 25 day-pupils, among whom were representatives from the Menomonees, Oneidas, Chippewas, Osages, Winnebagos, Brothertons, Ottawas, Mohawks, Sioux, and Fox. During this year five children had beeu baptized. Iu September, 1834, Rev. D. E. Brown was appointed in the place of Mr. Cadle, who had resigned as superintendent of this mission. For economical reasons, the school was reduced to 50 pupils. In 1836 there were at the mission 6 workers, and in the school 61 scholars. In 1837 the Menomonees sold their land ; the Oneidas, almost all theirs ; and these tribes, with the Brothertons and Stockbridges, were moved beyond the river, and the school was gradually reduced until 1840, when only a few Menomonees remained. About two hundred and seventy children had been in attendance at the school. Some had been converted. In 1840 the Episcopal Board had no regular mission to the Indians. In the summer of 1860, Bishop H. B. Whip ple placed Rev. S. D. Hinman and wife, with a Miss West as teacher, in charge of the first Episcopal mission among the Sioux, at what was known as the Lower Agency, in Minne sota. They had just engaged in erecting a fine stone chapel when the breaking out of the Sioux war of 1861 drove out the missionaries aud checked their work. During the next wiuter Mr. Hinman spent much of his time at the Indian camp at Fort Snelling. He also visited the prisoners at Mankato and at Daven port. He located later at Santee Agency, Neb., where a church and school were erected. Mr. Hinman also translated the Prayer-book into the Dakota, and had it printed. A large boarding-school for the Sioux was erected in 1883 at Springfield, Dakota. In 1883 the St. Mary's boarding-school at Santee Agency was burned, and the scholars were temporarily transferred to the Hope School at Springfield. The mission still continues at Santee Agency. In October, 1884, a new stone building for the Hope School was completed at Springfield. A new St. Mary's School was erected this year on the Rosebud Reservation, in South Dakota, 150 miles west of the old site at Santee Agency. A boarding-school (St. Paul's) has also been started at Yankton Agency, South Dakota, the site of Mr. Hinman 's first labor in the territory. This Board had, in 1884, missions among the Sioux in the following places : First. At Santee Agency, Neb., with a church, and chapels at Bazille Creek and Wa- bashaw Village. Second. At Flandreau, Da., with a church and native pastor. Third. At Yankton Agency, Da., with a INDIANS, AMERICAN 467 INDIANS, AMERICAN church, and chapels at Choteau Creek and White Swan's Village. Fourth. At Crow Creek Reservation, with a church, and a chapel at the " Lower Camp." Fifth. At Lower Brule, with a church at the Agency. Sixth. At Cheyenne Agency, with a church at Moreau, and chapels at Mackenzie Point and ? Striped Cloud's Village. Seventh. At Upper Brule, with a church at tbe Rosebud Agency, and a chapel at Good Voice Village. Eighth. At Ogalala, with a church at the agency, and chapels at Little Wounds Village, Orphan's Camp, and Red Dog's Village. Ninth. At Sisseton, with a church at the agency, and chapels at North End and Lake Traverse. The Board had, in 1884, boarding-schools as follows : St. Paul's, at Yankton Agency, with 40 young men; St. Mary's, on Rosebud Reser vation, with 35 girls ; St. John's School, at Cheyenne River Agency, with 34 girls ; and Hope School, Springfield, Da., with 24 girls. In 1889 the Board reported among the In dians in Dakota 6 white ministers, 9 native ministers, 33 churches and chapels, 19 stations, 1445 communicants. The total expenditures for the year (1888-1889) in Indian work was $41,162. In 1889 this Board had Indian missions at Anvik, Alaska ; in Wisconsin, at Green Bay Agency ; in the Indian Territory — in the Cherokee nation, at the Cheyenne and Arapa hoe Agency, at the Kiowa and Comanche Agency ; in Minnesota— on White Earth Reser vation, at Red Lake Agency, at Wild Rice River, at Pembina Settlement, at Leech Lake Agency, at Lake Winnibigoshish, at Cass Lake, at Pine Point ; in South Dakota — at tbe Cheyenne River Agency, on Standing Rock Reservation, at Lower Brule Agency, at Pine Ridge Agency, on Rosebud Reserva tion, at Santee Agency, at Sisseton Agency, at Yankton Agency, at Crow Creek Agency; in Wyoming, at Laramie ; in Virginia, at Hampton. American Baptist Home Missionary So ciety. — The first organized effort of the Baptist Church to evangelize the Indians was made in 1807, when the Massachusetts Missionary Soci ety (organized in 1802) reported that in connec tion with the New York Baptist Missionary Society they were supporting a mission among the Tuscaroras and other Indian tribes in North western New York. They also reported a church as organized among these Indians. In 1819 the Hamilton Baptist Missionary Society " appointed a missionary to the Oneidas and opened a school for their children, the government granting $300 for the support of this school." In 1817 the Board of the Baptist General Conference appointed Rev. Isaac McCoy as itinerant missionary in Indiana and Illinois, and in 1818 assigned him to special work among the Miamies, Kickapoos, Pottawottomies.and Sha- wanoes in Indiana, and the Ottawas in Michi gan. In 1821 a church was organized at Fort Wayne. In 1818 the Baptist Board of the Convention sent Rev. Humphrey Posey to the Cherokees of North Carolina, and later Rev. Evan Jones and Rev. Thomas Roberts to the same field. The following summary gives an outline of the work done by the General Convention and its successor, the Missionary Union, as shown in their reports : Began work among the Miamies, Kickapoos, Pottawottomies, and Shawanoes in Indiana in 1817; closed in 1844. Began work among the Cherokees of North Carolina in 1818, and continued until their re moval to Indian Territory in 1838, where work was reopened and continued until the breaking out of the Civil War. Began work among the Creeks in 1823, and continued until 1839, when they were removed to Indian Territory. Began work among the Oneidas, Tuscaroras, and Tonawandas of New York in 1824; closed in 1850. Began work among the Ottawas of Michigan in 1822, and continued until the removal of the tribe beyond the Mississippi. Began work among the Choctaws in the Southwest in 1826; closed in 1844, after the removal of the tribe to Indian Territory. Began work among the Ojibwas and Chip pewas of Sault St. Marie, Mich., in 1827; closed in 1857, because of the withdrawal of government aid. Began work among the Otoes and Omahas beyond the Mississippi in 1833; closed in 1843. Began work among the Delawares and Stock- bridges in 1833; closed in 1864. Only two stations of the Missionary Union were in active operation at the breaking out of the Civil War. In addition to the missionary work above described, the General Convention and the Missionary Union also established educational and industrial schools. In 1843 Rev. Evan Jones added a printing- press, with English and Cherokee type, to the Cherokee mission; and in 1844 the "Cherokee Messenger" came out as a monthly religious paper, with a circulation of over one thousand copies. Portions of the Bible and of "Pilgrim's Progress" were translated and printed in 1846. In 1875 a hymn-book and tracts were printed in the language of the Pottawottomies. In 1833 an alphabet was invented for the Ojibwas, Shawanoes, and Delawares. In 1834 the " Sliawanoe Sun" was first published. It was continued until 1837. In 1834 nine different books, in four differeut languages, were printed by this society. In 1835, 6650 copies of books were printed in the Sliawanoe, Creek, Choctaw, Otoe.Pottawottomie, Wea,and Soway languages. In 1827 the Baptist General Conference had seven schools, fifty-seven teachers, and two hun dred and eighty-six scholars connected with its missions. In industrial education the mission aries taught the Cherokees to weave, furnishing them with a loom. The Conference also sent out blacksmiths, carpenters, and farmers to its different missions, to teach the natives the arts of civilization. In 1841 six hundred Baptist churches were reported among the Indians, and in 1858 about fifteen hundred. Previous to the breaking out of the Civil War, in 1861, sixty missionaries had been sent out by the Baptist Convention and the Missionary Union, and over two thousand converts baptized. The war of 1861-1865 interrupted all mission work in the Indian Territory, and in 1865 the entire Indian work of the Union was turned over to the American Baptist Home Missionary Society. Before receiving from the General Conven- INDIANS, AMERICAN 468 INDIANS, AMERICAN tion and Missionary Uniou its Indian missions, the Baptist Home Missionary Society had been at work among the Indians on the western frontier. In 1852 work was done by this so ciety among the Pueblos, or Village Indians, of New Mexico, and among the Navajoes. In 1865 this society resumed the work in the In dian Territory, begun by the Union, but broken off by the war, and in 1877 was at work among the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Delawares, Shawanoes, Kickapoos, and Sac and Fox tribe, with 13 missionaries. For 1869 an Indian mission school was opened at Tahlequah, and is still in operation. At the present time the society has four schools for Indians in the Indian Territory, viz.: Indian University, at Muskogee; Cherokee Academy, at Tahlequah; Seminole Academy, at Sazakwa; and the Atoka Academy, at Atoka. The reported attendance at these schools is 371. The society has now at work in the Indian Territory, among the In dians, 21 missionaries, of whom 7 are white, 2 colored, and 12 Indian. It has in the Territory 162 churches, with 5,526 members. Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. — The first missionary of this board was John Stewart, who went to the Wyandottes, of Ohio. At his first preaching appointment only one old squaw was present; at the next, an old Indian was added; the next Sunday, ten presented themselves. Soon large crowds gathered to hear him ; many were con verted and tbe work rapidly spread, until hun dreds of the Wyandottes became Christians. In 1819 the Ohio Conference appointed James B. Finley superintendent of the mission. "In 1822 the mission-house was completed, schools were prospering, and over 200 Indians demonstrated by their changed lives the power of the Gospel of Grace." In 1823 John Stewart, the "Apostle to the Wyandottes," died. In 1820 two of the native converts from this mission visited the Ojibwas (who were a portion of the Wyandotte tribe), at Fort Maiden, in Canada. Their work there resulted in many conversions. John Sunday, a native convert and preacher, was appointed leader of this work. In 1832 there were ten mission stations among these Indians of Upper Canada. "In 1828 the Methodist Episcopal Church intrusted these missions to the Canadian Conference, and in 1833 this conference placed them under the care of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. From here, this work extended among the Mo hawk, Oneida, and other tribes in Canada." In 1860 the Wesleyan Society had in that field 22 missionaries, 28 helpers, 2,000 church-mem bers, and 6,300 church-attendants. This Cana dian work was an outgrowth of the work be gun by the two native Wyandottes of Ohio. In 1821 the Methodist Episcopal Board of Missions began work among the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama. Dr. W. Capers was their first missionary, and also established, in conuection with this mission, the Asbury Man ual Training School. In 1829 the church had 71 members and the school 50 scholars. Trouble regarding the sale of their land divided the tribe into hostile parties, and in 1830 this mission was discon tinued. In 1822 Richard Neely, a circuit-rider, began preaching to the Cherokees along the Tennessee River. While on one of these journeys, he bap tized and received into the church thirty-three Cherokee converts. In 1823 two additional missionaries were engaged in this work. In 1824 the work was enlarged, and "two log meeting-houses were built, and many con verted." In this same year the Upper, Middle and Lower Cherokee Missions were established. In 1825 church-membership in these missions had increased to nearly 100, and by the close of 1827 to 675. In 1829 F. A. Owen was ap pointed superintendent, with 9 missionaries and 4 native helpers. The church-member ship had increased to 1,000. In 1830 emigra tion to the Indian Territory began, and the church-membership dropped to 850. In 1827, under this society, Alexander Talley began work among the Choctaws and Chick asaws, with great success. He was appointed missionary in Northern Mississippi, and, with a tent, travelled all through that country. Before the year closed, circuits had been formed, 2 new missionaries sent out, churches organized, and 600 members received into them. In 1830 the mission reported 3 missionaries, 3 interpre ters, 4 teachers, and over 3. 000 church-members. In the same year these Indians were obliged to sell their land and move west. "Disheartened by the ruin of their homes and embittered by their wrongs, many who had accepted the. gospel lost faith in the white man and in the white man's religion." In 1830 work was begun among the emi grant Creek and Cherokee Indians. In 1833, 2 missions, with 4 schools, had been established among these Indians in their new homes. In 1846 the report shows a church-membership among the Cherokees of 171; the Creeks. 113; the Choctaws, 1,000— total, 1,284. In 1837 a decided advance was made, and in 1843 the Creeks reported 585; the Choctaws, 980; the Cherokees, 1,487— total, 3,052. In 1804-6, when Lewis and Clark made their trip of exploration across the continent, they in terested the Indians of this region in the religion of the whites, and from them the Indians asked for missionaries. These the explorers promised to try to secure for them. After the arrival of the fur-traders upon the western coast, in 1811, further instruction was given the Indians in religious truth. In this way the Cayuses learned to meet for worship on the Sabbath. Other traders sold the Indians cards, telling them that they were parts of the Bible. Previous to 1832 all work done among the United States Indians on the western coast was of this character, but during that year five Nez Perces came to St. Louis again to ask for mis sionaries. They appealed first to Captain Clark, the old explorer and then Superintendent of In dian Affairs for the Northwest. But for some reason he did not reveal to any one their errand. Waiting until utterly discouraged, one of them at last spoke of their trouble to a Christian man, and through him reached the Methodist Episco pal Church Society, and also the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Tlie following year, Rev. Jason Lee of Canada East was ordained by the Methodist Episcopal Church, and sent out to superintend work in Oregon. In company with his nephew, Daniel Lee, and Cyrus Shepherd and P. L. Edwards, he joined Captain Wyeth's expedition, and by the advice of Dr. John McLaughlin, superinten dent of the Hudson Bay Company, settled in the Willamette Valley, in Oregon'. . INDIANS, AMERICAN 469 INDIANS, AMERICAN Their first station was located ten miles north of the present Salem. Their second station was Fort Vancouver, then the chief trading-post of the Hudson Bay Company. Here a school was established into which were gathered a number of half-breed children. Soon, at the first station, the Oregon Mission Manual Labor School was established. In 1836 seven new missionaries jjfere added to the working force. In 1838 a new station was located at Dalles, and work be gun among the Calapooias. In 1840 the work was again increased by the addition of 5 mission aries, 1 physician, 6 mechanics, 4 farmers, 4 female teachers, and 1 steward. The work was now rapidly extended, and soon 1,000 of the In dians connected with the Dalles Mission pro fessed conversion and were received into the church. Following this revival the work de clined rapidly, and within two years tbe mission board at New York sent out a new superinten dent to investigate and report if so large an ex penditure was justifiable. Upon his arrival a large reduction was made in the mission. Sev eral stations were abandoned. The Indian school was removed to where Salem now stands, and a new building, costing $10,000, erected ; but after one year of work this was also given up, and in 1847 only 5 missionaries were left in the field, and the only station occupied was Dalles. These were transferred to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions before the close of the year. In 1844 the Indian Mission Conference was organized, including the Iudian Territory and Indiaus in the Missouri Conference. In this year the Methodist Episcopal Church divided, forming the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), and the Methodist Episcopal Church (South). The Indian Conference re mained with the Southern Church, and, in con nection with that Board of Missions, reports in 1846, 22 missions, 32 missionaries, 9 churches, 3,404 church-members, 18 Sunday-schools, 7 literary institutions; expenditures, $5,926. The work included missions among the Potta wattamie, Chippewa, Peoria, Wea, Kansas, Wyandotte, Shawnee, Kickapoo, Quapaw, and Seneca tribes. In 1850 this conference reports 37 missionaries, 4,042 church-members, 25 Sunday-schools, 1,347 scholars, 8 schools, 380 pupils; expenditures for the year, $20,590. In 1855 there were 30 missions, 28 mission aries, 4,264 members, 18 churches, 38 Sunday- schools, 1,381 scholars, 9 schools, 485 pupils; expenditures, $12,176. In 1860 there were 25 missions, 30 mission aries, 4,170 members, 8 schools, 541 pupils; expenditures, $15,871. The war for several years nearly suspended mission work, so that between 1860 and 1870 no reports are preserved. In 1871 the Indian Mission Conference re ports 70 preachers, 3,833 Indian members; expenditures, $5,674. In 1880 it reports travelling preachers, 25; lo cal preachers, 108, church-members, 4,785; ex penditures, $10,000. The Conference report for 1888 shows: trav elling preachers, 45 ; local preachers, 60 ; church-members, 5,246; expenditures, $17,- 874. The report for 1889 speaks of 8 young men admitted to preach on trial, and gives the statis tics for the year as follows: local preachers, 147; Indian church-members, 4,954. In 1878 the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) reported missions in California, Cen tral New York, Northern New York, Colum bia River, Michigan, and Southern Kansas. The Central New York Conference, Onon daga Mission. — Rev. Abram Fancher, mission ary to the Onondaga Indians, reported in 1888 430 Indians on the reservation, 100 of whom attended church services, and 60 were church- members. The mission property consisted of a church-building and mission-house. Tbe peo ple were improving in every way. The Indian school was conducted by the State, and was taught by the Episcopal minister, and a native lady teacher. Oneida Mission. — Rev. B. C. Sherman, of the Oneida Mission, reported in 1888, 100 Indians under his charge. The church building, valued at $500, was in a state of decay, and must soon be rebuilt, or the work abandoned. Yet the condition of the Indians compared favorably with that of their white neighbors, and had im proved, rather than declined, during the two previous years. The two day schools were supported by the State, and were in State build ings. Columbia River Conference, Yakima Reser vation. — It was reported in 1888 that though there was an appareut declension iu the number of church-members on the Yakima Reserva tion, it was not due to "any great spiritual lapse on the part of the Indians themselves," but rather to the fact that there were no schools (except the manual labor school at the agency), for the education of Indian children, and that these are considered necessary to the civilization and salvation of the Indians as they grow up. S. Gascoigue,the missionary on the Yakima Res ervation, reported an increase of 10 full church- members and 10 probationers, in 1888, and that his congregations were large, class-meetings and prayer-meetings well attended, and that nearly all the church -members conducted family pray ers in their homes. Detroit Conference. — Rev. A. R. Bartlett, presiding elder of Marquette District, reported in 1888 that this conference had charge of 4 missions. Iroquois Point was under the care of Rev. J. S. Hemstock, who, besides carrying on his missionary work, taught the Government school. He reported his mission in good con dition, with 6 full members and 18 probationers, in 1888. Munising Mission, 100 miles northwest of Iroquois Point, had about 40 church-members and a self-sustaining district school, organized under the State school law. Kewawenon Mission, 100 miles further north west, reported 60 members. Rev. Mr. Bartlett writes in his report concerning it, that it " has been distracted in some measure by domestic feuds, but is showing signs of better life, and is, perhaps, our most promising mission." A new church was erected during the year 1888, at a cost of $1,400. The Hannahville Mission, 150 miles south of Kewawenon, near the shore of Lake Michigan, had about 40 members. The people depend so much on fishing, hunting, berrying and log- driving, that they are absent from home a great deal, and consequently poorly fitted to carry on the best school and church work. Genesee Conference. — The Tonawanda Res ervation is located in Genesee County, N. Y., aud is the largest landed reservation in the State. There are nearly 700 Indians upon it. INDIANS, AMERICAN, 470 INDIANS, AMERICAN Rev. S. S. Ballou, missionary to the Senecas of this reservation, reported in 1888, concerning these people, that "their moral and religious condition, considering that the reservation has been surrounded by Christian and civilizing in fluences for nearly 100 years, is darkness itself. There is uo sense of virtue among the masses of these Indians. They neither marry nor are given iu marriage. They retain to a large ex tent the pagan customs of their fathers, and are in a deplorable state so far as moral and Chris tian influences are concerned." The mission church had a membership of 18. The majority of these members were faithful aud devoted. A church building, in an unfinished condition, awaited funds for its completion. The small band of Christian Indians worked hard to raise the necessary amount, but were unable to do all. Mr. Ballou stated that the Methodist Church was the only one that supported a regu larly appointed missionary among these people. There were no schools except the common school. A few years before, the Stale had at tempted to build an industrial school; but when the building was only partially erected, it was blown down by a hurricane; and although it was rebuilt, the Indians, from a superstitious whim, refused to allow their children to attend it. The Slate, having built it in vain, afterward sold the property. Michigan Conference. *— Rev. J. Eagle, pre siding elder of the Grand Traverse District, re ported in 1888 that there were about 200 Indians within the bounds of the mission; 61 of these were church-members. The mission was pros pering. The children were educated in the common district schools. Rev. D. F. Barnes, presiding elder of Kala mazoo district, reported 150 Indians, whose con dition was "fair." Their children attended the district schools. An Indian preacher was employed as missionary. Rev. C. H. Theobald reported concerning the Riverton Mission, in the Big Rapids District, 120 Indians under his charge. The spiritual condition of his church-members was good. Most of these Indians do some manual labor. Northern New York Conference. — Rev. Ebenezer Arnold, missionary to the St. Regis In dians, writes: " The St. Regis Indians originated as a clan, or tribe, in the 17th century, gathered out of several Indian ' nations,' mostly Iroquois, as Jesuit mission converts, and settled on the St. Lawrence River as a Roman Catholic col ony. . . . Our territory, I judge, contains uo Indian clan east of the Mississippi Valley worthy to be compared with St. Regis in num bers and rapid increase, in ingenuity and gen eral thrift, in good bouses and neat house-keep ing, in good farming and mechanical skill, in dairying and selection and care of stock, in good clothing and equipage, and especially in general chastity and family fidelity. . . . They are illit erate, almost wholly." Their great want is a mission school — a school " eminently biblical, and of pure, pious spirit and influence." The mission property is all in the village of I-Iogans- burg, and consists of a cemetery and church site, and a parsonage site. The church is a neat building, 40x60. Puget Sound Conference. — The Nooksack Indians, on the Nooksack River, in Whatcom County, number 150. They are living on their own claims, held in severalty. At one time they were under tbe influence of the Catholic Church, but for years have been Methodists. The enrollment of church-membership in 1888 was 130. They had at that time two local preachers and one class-leader. They are be coming each year more skilful in the use of farming implements, and their temporal condi tion is good. They are abandoning all their old heathen customs and rites, and are adopting instead Christian ceremonies and modes of life. Wisconsin Conference. — Rev. J. D. Cole, presiding elder of Appleton district, reported concerning the work among the Oneidas, in 1888, that the mission was fairly prosperous. Their membership numbered 250, and they had a flourishing Sunday-school. The Oneida peo ple numbered, in that year, 1,800, and Rev. Joel Howd, with assistants, did very efficient work throughout this field. There were six schools on the reservation, one under the super vision of the Methodist missionaiy, one under the Episcopal missionary, and the others under the general government. Society of Friends (Orthodox). — This So ciety began work among the Indians in 1795, when a standing commitlee was appointed by the Yearly Meeting of Friends, of Philadel phia. This committee has remained until the present time in this work. Upon the organiza tion of the committee, funds came for the work from Friends in England and America. In 1796 three young men from the Philadel phia Yearly Meeting began work among the Stockbridges, at Oneida, New York. In 1798 three young men went to Corn- planters' Reservation, and began farming. The Indians gradually began following their ex ample. They bought land near Allegheny Reservation, erected a mill and school-house, both of which are still in existence. Less than twenty years after the close of the Revolution, Friends from Baltimore came to Ohio, and began work among the Shawnees in what is now Anglaize County. Aid was also given from other Yearly Meetings. Later, the work was transferred to the "Eastern Ohio Yearly Meeting, and in 1821 to the far-western Yearly Meeting of Indiana, and there remained until Grant's inauguration of the peace policy changed their methods of work. In 1822 land was bought of the Indians aud a school-house erected. This year, many Indians began farm ing. Soon mills were built and the Indians taught to grind. In 1826 the removal of part of the tribe west of the Mississippi retarded the work, but a successful mission was still main tained among those remaining. Trouble, how ever, was caused by designing white men, who tried to prejudice the Indians against the Friends. The Friends visited those who had been moved in their new home. Schools were re opened in 1837, and kept in operation until 1861. The forty-eight years of care given by the Ohio Yearly Meeting to this mission cost them iu cash $55,000, besides clothing, produce, and supplies. Sinee 1881 the Friends have kept up five- schools among these Indians, the average num ber of scholars being 20. At present the Society of Friends report as in operation 3 boarding-schools, with an enroll ment of 161 pupils, and 10 day-schools, with an enrollment of 372. The average attendance is seven ty-nine per cent. INDIANS, AMERICAN 471 INDIANS, AMERICAN The Tunesassa boarding-school, in Cattarau gus County, N. Y., has connected with it 500 acres of land, under a good state of culti vation, where the boys may learn agriculture and the care of stock. The girls are taught housework, sewing, etc. White's Institute, near Wabash, Indiana, has an enrollment of 51 boys and girls, and 760 acres of land are cultivated iu couuectiou with the frjhool, much of the work being done by the boys. There are also a carpenter, blacksmith, and saddler shop, in which instruction is given. The training school for the Eastern Cherokees has forty pupils. This school, with five day- schools, has been of great benefit to the people. The day-schools have an enrollment of two hun dred and sixty pupils. There are day-schools at Blue Jacket, Skia- took on the Seneca Reserve, and among the Iowas, — all in Indian Territory. These are all connected with mission stations. A boarding- school at Quapaw Agency also receives some aid from the Society of Friends. This Society of Friends has organized mis sions in tbe Indian Territory at the following places: Wyandotte, Long's, Sycamore, Aftou, Ottawa, Peoria, Seneca, Nichols, Modoc, Skia- took. Blue Jacket, Cabin Creek, Shawneetown, and Iowa. American Unitarian Association. — This association begau its work among the Indians January 1st, 1886. Rev. Henry F. Bond, who for some years had been United States Indian agent among the Ouray Utes, was their first missionary. He attempted to start a school among the Utes, but failing in this he went to the Crow Reservation in Moutana. The Montana Industrial School was started, cost ing $5,000, with 18 pupils. This is the only missionary and, excepting the government agency school, the only educational work among the Crow Indians, who have almost 700 children of school age. The total cash receipts for this school from July 1st, 1886 (tbe date of its organization), to May 1st, 1889, have been $23,522.93. Contract Schools. — A contract school is a boarding-school for Indian youth, under the care of some missionary board, tbe annual ex penses of which are partly met by the United States Government. Tbe general estimate is that it costs to educate an Indian boy or girl in a boarding-school $170 per year. The gov ernment contracts to clothe and feed a certain number of pupils in these schools, at an expense of from $95 to $108 per year per student. Congress appropriated for this work last year $506,994. Of this the Roman Catholics re ceived $356,491; the Presbyterians, $47,650; the Congregational Missionary Society, $16,- 408; the remaining $86,455 being scattered in small amounts among otlier missionary boards. These contracts have been made during the last yeaf with the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions; the Boards of Home and Foreign Mis sions of the Presbyterian Church; the American Missionary Association of the Congregational Church; also with Episcopal, Friends, Unitarian and Methodist Boards. In these contract schools there have been 2,498 scholars in attend ance. The United States Government also has a large educational work among the Indians. During the last year there have been in attend ance at the government schools (not including contract schools) 8,136 students. The Hampton Normal Training School, at Hampton, Va., has an Indian Department, in which about 130 Indian youth are edu cated, under contract with the government. It is under no single society, but receives help from the Episcopal, Unitarian, and Congre gational boards, tbe balance of its support coming from the government and from in dividual contributions. Summary (exclusive of the five civilized tribes in the Indian Territory); Missiouaries among the Indians 163- Church buildings „ 188 Church members 21,922 Contributed by religious societies for educational work $120,116- There are, at the present time, fifty-six tribes, or portions of tribes, within the United States, destitute of missionary aid. When all mis sion, contract, and government schools have been filled, there are still twenty thousand Indian children, of school age, for whom no school accommodation is provided. Canada. Population. — The total number of In dians under the control of the Canadian Gov ernment is 124,589. They are distributed as follows: Ontario 17,700- Quebec 12,465 Nova Scotia 2,145 New Brunswick 1,594 Prince Edward Island 319 Manitoba, and N. W. Territories 26,368 Peace River District 2,038 Athabasca District 8,000 McKenzie 7,000 Eastern Rupert's Land 4,016 Labrador and the Canadian Interior. . . 1,000 Arctic Coast 4,000 British Columbia 37,944 124,589- The government holds in trust for these Indians, for the sale of land, timber, stone, etc., $3,324,234. The expenditure on account of Parliamentary appropriations for these In dians for the year 1889 was $956,116. Of Indian reservation, 458,283 acres have been surrendered by them to the government, surveyed and put upon the market ; 21,344 acres of this land were sold during the year 1889 for $40,344.' During tbe year 1888, 6,127 children attended school ; 2,611 bushels of wheat were raised, 980 bushels of potatoes. Of the Indians now under the care of the Canadian Government, 20,089 are Protestants; 32,642 are Roman Catholics; 70,878 are pagans. Missions. French Jesuits. — The first re ligious body to do missionary work among the Indians of Canada was the French Jesuits. In all the early French exploration the missionary idea was as prominent as that of the extension of territority. Carrier's commissiou authorized him to ex plore " in order tbe better to do what was pleas ing to God, our Creator and Redeemer, and what may be for the increase of His holy and INDIANS, AMERICAN 472 INDIANS, AMERICAN sacred name, and of our Holy Mother, the Church." De Monts was also required to have the Indians " instructed, invited, and impelled to a knowledge of God, and the light of faith and Christianity." Iu 1608 De Monts planted his first settlement at the mouth of the St. Croix, on Bonn Island. A short time later this mission was transferred to the opposite shore, where it received the name of Port Royal. This was not only the first mission in Cauada, but the first foothold of France and the Catholic Church in the North. Potrincourt, who followed De Monts in the work of colonization, addressed a letter to the Pope, and in return received from him a bene diction upon his undertaking. In 1611 two Jesuit missionaries arrived and began work among the Micmacs of Nova Scotia, removing a little later to the coast of Maine, iu order that they might carry on their work among the Ab nakis. The Abnakis Mission. — The Indians known to the French as the Abnakis, to tbe English as the Tarantuns, were one of the most powerful of the Algonquin tribes, occupying a greater part of what is now known as the State of Maine. They were settled in villages, and passed most of their time in hunting and fish ing. In 1608 two missionaries, Fathers Peter Biard and Enemond Masse, attempted to sail from Bordeaux, in France, to Port Royal ; but, ow ing to continued opposition, it was June 12th, 1611, before they reached their destination. Upon arrival, they immediately began the study of the Micmac language, and hoped soon to convert the whole Micmac people. But their work was most seriously hampered by the con tinued opposition of Biencourt, the commander of the settlement. Finally, despairing of any success at Port Royal, they removed to Deer Island, on the coast of Maine, where a mission was established ; but it was soon attacked and destroyed by the English, under Argal, who carried Father Biard and three of the mission aries as prisoners to Virginia, leaving the others to find their way back to Port Royal as best they could. Father Biard finally reached Eng land, and from there made his escape to France. Thus the first mission to the Abnakis was crushed out almost at its start, aud that, too, not by a savage, but a Christian people. In 1619 Recollects, or Reformed Fi-aDciscans, began missionary work in Acadia, locating their principal station on the St. John's River. No authentic account of this mission is now in exist ence. In 1624 three of the missionaries aban doned the field and joined their order in Quebec. Iu 1642 there existed on the banks of the St. Lawrence a mission station, founded by Noel Brulart de Sillery, and bearing his name. Into this mission many Christian Algonquins had been gathered, who had given up their wild, roving life and settled down as farmers. In 1642 a number of Christian Abnakis were captured by pagan Algonquins. Missionaries from Sillery hastened to their relief, succeeded in rescuing them from terrible torture, and brought them to Sillery. When sufficiently recovered from their wounds, one started for his native village, accompanied by a missionary. As a result of his work only a few years elapsed before native Christians could be found in nearly every village on the Kennebec. In 1646 Father Gabriel Druilletes was sent to the. Kennebec, where he was joyfully received by the Abnakis. He soon mastered the lan guage, a chapel was constructed, and the natives entered into an agreement : "1st. To renounce intoxicating liquors ; 2d. To live at peace with their neighbors ; 3d. To give up their medicine- bags, drums, and other superstitious objects." He accompanied them on their hunting ex peditions, visited their sick, and so attached him self to the people that when ordered back to Quebec his going was the cause of great grief among them. Six months later they sent to ask for his return, and twice during the follow ing eighteen months; but so limited was the number of workers that it was not until August, 1650, that he was able to go back to his former field of labor. His arrival at Norridgewalk, the chief Abnakis village, was hailed with great rejoicing. Later in the fall he descended the Kennebec, and in November reached Boston, and paid a visit to Eliot at Roxbury, who urged him to pass the winter with him; buthe replied that his " Abnakis called him, and he must return." By February he was back among them. In 1651 he made a two weeks' visit to Quebec, and in the fall a second visit to Boston. In tbe spring of 1652 he was again recalled to Quebec, where he arrived after a journey of extreme hardship and suffering. Work in other fields detained him from his Abnakis flock un til 1657, when he again spent a winter with them, and then took a, final leave. Several missionary expeditions were made by him to the north and west, until in 1679, broken by old age and exposure, he returned to Quebec, where he died on the 8th of April, 1681, at the age of 88, the last thirty-eight years of his life having been given, with untiring devotion, to the Christianizing of the Canadian Indians. In 1658 new missionaries were sent to the Kennebec, but their stay was short, and for twenty years little mission work was attempted in Maine. By 1680 many of the Christian In dians had been drawn to the mission at Sillery. War, sickness, and the exhaustion of the soil had so reduced this mission, which for fifty years had been the refuge of the Algonquin people, that in 1683 it was abandoued and anew mission started at the Falls of the Chaudiere. In 1688 mission work was again taken up among the Abnakis Indians of Maine, and Father Bigot was sent to restore and continue the work of Father Druilletes. A mission was established at Panawaniske, on the Penobscot, and another at Medoktek, near the mouth of the St. John's River. About this time the missions began to suffer severely from the difficulties arising between the French and English. Maine was a disputed territory, claimed by each. The Fishery Com pany, which held a monopoly of the coast, op posed the missionaries in every possible way. Gov. Denonville, however, insisted upon the protection of the missionaries. At tbis time, the Indians of the Jesuit missions of Maine were equal in piety and devotion to the priests of the seminary at Quebec. In 1695 Father Rale began work at Norridge walk. Most of the Abnakis were professing Christians. A part of the year the missionary remained with his Indians in their villages, planting their crops. Then they repaired to the coast to fish. A tent was used, during all their travels, as a chapel. In 1700 the Abnakis who had joined the Al- INDIANS, AMERICAN 473 INDIANS, AMERICAN .gonquin mission at Sillery and emigrated with them to Chaudiere, removed to St. Francis de Sales. This village, owing to the troubles in Maine, rapidly increased by immigration from the Kennebec and Penobscot missions. In 1703 the French and English war broke ¦out. The Abnakis Indians, siding with the French, incurred the enmity of the English. In 1705 a party under Capt. Hilton reached •sNorridgewalk and burned the village and church ¦during the absence of the Indians. A bark ¦chapel was immediately erected in the place of their destroyed church. The peace of Utrecht, in 1713, restored quiet, but ceded Maine to the English. Some of the Abnakis emigrated to the St. Lawrence, but a larger part remained with Father Rale. A dep utation visited Boston, aud the governor offered to rebuild the church destroyed at Norridge- walk, provided they would dismiss their mis sionary. This they at once refused to do. Con stant trouble followed for the Abnakis people and their missionary. Their church was rebuilt by the French in 1721. The missions were sur rounded by the English. Constant encroach ments were being made on the Indian lands. The Indians accused the English of "offering them a Bible with one hand and stealing their land with the other." In the fall of 1722, while the people of Norridgewalk were on one of their fishing ex peditions, the English, under Col. Westbrook, were again sent against the town. Their approach was discovered, and Father Rale, now a cripple, had hardly time to escape with the altar vessels to the forest. Failing to find the missionary, they pursued him into tbe forest, but passed him while he lay under a fallen tree. After great suffering he finally reached Quebec, only to return at once to Norridgewalk, saying that God had committed this flock to his care, and he would share their lot. On the 23d of August, 1724, a force of ¦English and Mohawk Indians suddenly attacked the village, and Father Rale was killed, stand ing by the cross. Seven of the Abnakis chiefs died with him; the rest fled. On the retreat of the English, the Indians returned, and taking the body of their missionary, which the victors had backed and mangled, they buried it amidst the ruins of his church, under the altar. The Indians of Norridgewalk were so dis heartened by the death of their missionaiy that one hundred and fifty retired to the mission of St. Francis; and the rest, unwilling to leave the country, abandoned their village, and the place became desolate. In 1730 a missionaiy was again sent from -Quebec, and Norridgewalk was rebuilt. During the wars which followed, the missions in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia suffered severely. The whole country of Acadia was ¦desolated. In 1760 the only missionary left on the St. John's was located at the village of St. Anne, upon an island in the river. Shortly after this period he withdrew to the St. Francis mission, on the St. Lawrence, only to see that mission destroyed by the English soon after his arrival. By the peace of 1763 the French sur rendered Canada to the English, and the Jesuit and Recollect missions received a severe blow. The English guaranteed to the Cana dians the freedom and rights of their church, but as the old missionaries died at their posts it was found impossible to fill their places, and, one by one, the Abnakis missions were aban doned. In the war of the Revolution the Abnakis sided with the Americans, and at the close of the war asked for a French priest. The court of Massachusetts expressed a wish to furnish them with such a form of religion as they might desire, but were unable to find a mis sionary. After the close of the war a petition was sent to Bishop Carroll, of the Society of Jesus in Maryland, asking him for a missionary, and in 1784 one was sent from France, who for ten years lived at Oldtown and ministered to the Abnakis. The Huron Mission. — The nation known to the French by the name of Hurons and to the English as Wyandots occupied, when the French settled Quebec, a strip of land to the south of Georgian Bay, about 75 miles long by 25 wide. Within tbis territory lived 30,000 of these Hurons, in 18 large, well-built, and strongly-defended towns. They were naturally a trading people, and hardly had Quebec be come settled than they began to barter with the French. One of the Recollects who came out in 1615 made a visit to their towns, and on his return brought such a favorable report of the people that a mission was at once determined upon, and Father Le Caron started, in the fall of 1615, for the land of the Hurons. Welcomed by the natives, who built him a cabin near one of their villages, he at once began missionary work. The winter was spent in studying the language, baptizing the dying, and conducting services. In the spring Father Le Caron was obliged to re turn to Quebec. In 1622 the Hurons received a short visit from Father William Poulain . Seven years after his first visit Father Le Caron was able to make a second visit to the Hurons, tak ing with him two other missionaries. They found his little cabin still standing, and here they labored until the following summer, when Father Le Caron and one of the missionaries returned to Quebec, leaving Father Nicholas Viel to continue the work. Having mastered the language, Father Viel began religious in struction, first teaching the Indians to recite prayers. In 1625, while on a journey to Que bec, Father Viel was, for some unknown reason, drowned by the Indians. About this time the Jesuits had arranged to send two missionaries to work with the Recollects in the conversion of the Hurons, but the death of Father Viel postponed for one year all plans. In the fall of 1626 Fathers Brebeuf and Dill- ion, Recollects, and Father Anne de Noue, a Jesuit, returned with the Hurons from their annual trading visit to Quebec, and began again the work of Le Caron and Viel. Father de Noue finding that he could not learn the lan guage, returned to Quebec in the fall of 1627, and one year later was followed by Father de la Roche, leaving Brebeuf, who had mastered the language, to labor on alone. He became much endeared to the Hurons, and when, two years later, he was ordered back to Quebec, the Indians parted with him with great regret. Three days after Brebeuf reached Quebec it was taken by the English, and he, Le Caron, and the missionaries were taken as prisoners to England. Making their way from there to France, they continued the study of the Huron INDIANS, AMERICAN 474 INDIANS, AMERICAN language, hoping yet for an opportunity to re turn to their work in Canada. After the restoration of Canada, in 1632, the king of France offered these missions to the Franciscans, but beiug refused by them, they were given to the Jesuits. In 1633 work was resumed in the St. Lawrence Valley, Quebec being made the centre of opera! ions. About tbis time a great enthupiasm sprang up among the religious orders of France to do mis sionary work among the American Indians. The young Jesuits gladly accepted work in the new country. Young meu from all parts of France offered themselves as missionaries. A son of the Marquis of Gauiache founded the Col lege of Quebec. Even the women caught the enthusiasm, and nuns from different convents came to Quebec to engage in the work. Although the Cauadian Indians were at peace with each other, yet a continual warwas kept up between them and the Iroquois of New York, greatly to the loss of the Canadian Indians. In 1633 Father Brebeuf reached Quebec; but Father Le Caron, after pleading in vain for the privilege of returning to his beloved work, died in France, broken-hearted. Upon reaching Canada, Brebeuf was joined by Fathers Daniel and Davost, but they were prevented for one year from returning to their Huron mission by hostile Algonquins, who would not allow them to pass through their country. At last, after long delays and uuusual hardships, the fathers reached the new Huron town, lhonatiria, where they were received with great joy. As soon as they had recovered from the exhaustion of their journey, the missionaries began the erection of a log cabin, 36 feet long and 21 feet wide. Brebeuf gave his associates all possible assist ance in acquiring the language, and as soon as able the new missionaries began the work of sec ular and religious education of the young Hu rons. The following year, two new missionaries arrived and the work was rapidly extended to other villages, and in the suinmerof 1636 alluron school was founded at Quebec for the religious and industrial education of the boys. Once more the working force was increased by the arrival of three new missionaries, but hardly had they reached lhonatiria when a terrible disease broke out among the Indians. Amidst scenes of suffering and death, persecuted by tbe medi cine-men, making long journeys on snow-shoes, exposed to all the sufferings of a northern winter, the missionaries worked on, relieving the sick, telling the story of the cross, and bap tizing the dying. During the summer of 1637 the pestilence broke out again with renewed fury, and the Indians charged the missionaries with being its cause. At times their lives were in danger. At last, sentenced by the Huron council to death, Brebeuf wrote to the Superior of Que bec that they were tit tbe point of shedding their blood in the service of their blessed Mas ter, Christ. At the last moment the Huron chiefs repented, the lives of tbe missionaries were spared, and one of their accusers was killed. The following year new converts rewarded their labors, new missionaries arrived, ancl the work progressed rapidly. New missions were located, converts were constantly being made, schools and chapels were crowded, and in the spring of 1639 the missions were established beyond all danger of failure. With the return of the Hurons from their trading visit to Quebec, new missionaries ar rived, and with the returning Indians came the awful scourge of small-pox. As the scourge of death swept over village after village, again the Indians accused the missionaries of being- its cause, and again they were obliged to work ever amidst the greatest danger. This con dition of things at last induced them to build a. central mission station, separated from all the villages, to which they could go in all times of special exposure. Consequently, in the fall of 1639, upon the River Wye, was erected the mis sion-house of St. Mary, and to this the mission aries, driven from the different stations during the fall, winter, and spring of 1639-40, retired. In the fall of 1640 the missionaries scattered to new fields of labor. Two new missionaries went to the Algonquin tribes. Father Bre beuf went to the Neutral Nation. Two re mained at St. Mary's, and the rest, in pairs, took up the work at different points. Eighteen years had now elapsed since Charles Meiaskwat paid his first visit to the Huron people, and yet, out of a tribe numbering 16,000, hardly one hundred conversions could as yet be counted. But from this time the ad vance of the mission was rapid. Soon almost every village had its converts, every war-party its praying Indians. In 1644, although harassed and in constant danger from the Iroquois war-parties, which were constantly pushing their depredations fur ther and further into the Huron country, the missionaries worked on with renewed zeal. During this year three new churches — two Huron and one Algonquin — were organized. The peace of 1645 was followed by a war of even greater fury. One of the missionaries was captured and killed by the Mohawks. The Iroquois attacked the Hurons with increased power, and soon all was dismay and ruin. As starvation, suffering, torture, and death closed in around them, the Hurons fled to the mission aries as their only hope. Chapels, now built in every town, were overcrowded. In 1648 Father Daniel was killed while standing be tween his flyiug congregation and tbe advancing Iroquois. Pursuing the Hurons, hundreds of Christian Indians were killed, and the mission of St. Joseph aunihilated. The news of the destruction of St. Joseph spread terror through the Huron country. Town after town was abandoned. In vain the missionaries tried to inaugurate an organized resistance. Everywhere the terror-stricken Hurons fled from their Iroquois enemy. On the 16th of March, 1649, a thousand Iroquois at daybreak surprised the town of St. Ignatius, aud only three persons escaped the general massacre. Two days later, tbe town of St. Louis was attacked. Under the lead of the veteran missionaries, Fathers Brebeuf and Lalemant, a successful resistance was made for a while, but the overwhelming numbers of the Iroquois soon conquered. The missionaries refused to tiy, and while ministering to the wounded and dyiug were taken prisoners. They were taken back to the Iroquois towns, where the most awful tortures were heaped upon them. Their finger-nails were pulled out. While bound to the stake, Brebeuf's bands were cut off and Lalemant's flesh quivered with the iron points driven into all parts of it. Iron hatchets were heated red-hot and forced INDIANS, AMERICAN 475, INDIANS, AMERICAN under their arms. A necklace of these was hung around Brebeuf's neck. Amid all this the missionaries continued to exhort and en courage the Huron Christians Who were suffer ing about them, until their mouths were crushed in and red-hot irons thrust down their throats to stop their voices. Remembering how they had seen Brebeuf baptize Huron converts, they tore off his scalp and then poured boiling water upon his head, under which suffering his spirit passed from the hacked and crushed body. A few moments later, enduring the same tor ture- and with his body wrapped in blazing bark, Father Lalemant also died. This was a death-blow to the Huron Mission. Fifteen towns were abandoned, and the Hurons, forsaking their country, fled in all directions — some to the Seneca country, some to Tionon- tates, and others to the islands and shores of Lake Huron. A few only remained, and these the missionaries gathered at St. Mary's, deter mined to share with them their future and their fate. Finding it impossible to hold St. Mary's, the missionaries burned their mission-house and chapel to prevent their profanation by the sav ages. Tho few that remained were gathered by the missionaries on an island, giving it the name of St. Joseph. Unable to raise crops and prevented by Iroquois war-parties from hunt ing, famine and sickness soon set in. In the early winter, another large Iroquois war-party was in the field, and before Christmas Tionon- tates was attacked and destroyed, and among the killed was Father Gamier, who had refused to leave his followers and perished while ad ministering the rite of baptism to the dying. The remaining Tionontates fled with the Hurons to St. Joseph's, and as the suffering and want increased there, it was decided to abandon all, emigrate to the lower St. Lawrence, and settle again nearer the protection of Quebec. In June, 1650, this was accomplished, and then, the Huron nation being so scattered and reduced, the upper river missions were abandoned. Since Le Carou's first trip, in 1615, 29 mission aries had labored in these missions, of whom 7 had met with violent deaths. In 1651 the Hurons who had emigrated to the vicinity of Quebec settled on the Isle of Orleans, where a church and fort were erected, and the soil gave them a bountiful support. In 1656 this settlement was attacked by the Mohawks, and about one hundred Hurons killed, and large numbers carried away as captives, where for years they retained their Christian faith, and prepared the way for the successful work of the missionary of later times. The few remaining Hurons at the Isle of Orleans fled to Quebec for shelter, remaining there for several years, until the mission of Notre Dame de Foye was established about five miles from the city. Twenty years later this mission was again moved, and in 1693 the mission of Lorette was established, where for years the Christian Hurons enjoyed peace. In 1721 the mission was reported in good condition by Charlevoix. Some years later it was again moved to what is now known as Jeune Lorette, and there, in the words of Father Martin, ' ' After having lost home, language, habits, and to some extent their nationality, this portion of the Huron nation gradually disappeared. It resembled a tree which could not take root in the ground to which it had been transplanted. Deprived of quickening sap, its detached leaves fell, oue after another, and there was no hope that a new springtide would ever restore the verdure of its early years." After the destruction of St. Joseph's, some of the Huron bands wandered to the westward, making their home first at Manitouline, and after once defeating the Iroquois, joining the rest of their people at Quebec. Another band ostablished themselves on the island of Michil- imackinac. From there they moved to the Noquet Islands, in Green Bay, and thence to the headwaters of the Mississippi, but were driven back to the Noquet Islands by the Sioux. In 1661 a missiouaiy tried to reach them, but was either lost in the forests or captured by a roving band of Sioux. Upon the founding of Detroit in 1702, these Hurons settled near this new fort. Here they remained, under the care of the Roman Catholic Church, until 1751, when many of them returned to Sandusky, taking their old name of Wyandots. The last Jesuit missionary among tbem died in 1781. About 1800 the Presbyterians began work among them, and later a Methodist mission was established ; but finally this branch of the Huron nation was removed to the Indian Ter ritory, where they still reside. The Iroquois Mission. — The early history of the French Jesuits who went out from Montreal and Quebec to work among the Iroquois, is one of terrible suffering, blood-shed, and death : and yet, after all this, a foothold for mission work was finally obtained among this warlike people. From their mission in New York, many converts made pilgrimages to the Huron mission at Lorette. When, however, the dis tinct Iroquois missions were well organized, the number of Iroquois Christians at Lorette rapidly decreased. In 1669 Father Reffeix began, on a tract of land opposite Montreal, a mission for the Iro quois. Many of the converts were lost because of the conflicting influence of the whites and the liquor always to be obtained from them. It was soon found that those who wished to enjoy in peace their religion and keep their baptismal vows must, like Abraham, leave the home of their childhood and their idolatrous kindred. Until now Lorette, the Huron colony, near Quebec, had been their refuge. In 1669, on this piece of land opposite Montreal, the first Iroquois reduction was founded, and named St. Francis Xavier des Pres. The little colony received constant additions, about twenty fam ilies coming to it the first year. In 1674 the village contained representatives not only of the five Iroquois tribes, but also of the Hurons, Mohicans, Eries, Abnakis, and others. A form of government was adopted, and laws were passed excluding from the colony those who would not give up all idolatrous practices, drunkenness, and the changing of wives. Mis sionaries were constantly engaged in instructing the people in religious and secular things. Each morning all the village attended mass, and each evening assembled for prayers. Upon the visit of the bishop in May, 1075, 100 Huron and Iroquois Christians received the sacrament of confirmation and 14 adults were baptized. In 1675 the bishop of Quebec visited the mission and was received with great ceremony by the Christian Indians. In 1676 the mission, now numbering over two hundred, found that it had INDIANS, AMERICAN 476 INTERNATIONAL MED. MISS. SOC. grown beyond the capability of the land to sup port, and emigrated to Portage River, where a new start was made. Cabins were erected and a stone church, sixty feet long, was built. In 1683 this church was destroyed by a hurricane which swept through the St. Lawrence Valley. It was never rebuilt, and a year or two later the mission moved again up the river and settled in the woods. In 1676 some Iroquois Indians asked permis sion to settle upon the Isle of Montreal. Their request was granted, and under the order of the Sulpicians the mission of Montreal was es tablished. A chapel was erected, and 160 In dians, half of whom were Christians, were soon gathered in. In 1679 a boys' school was begun, and in 1680 a school for girls. These schools rapidly progressed, both boys and girls learning to speak, read, and write English. The breaking out of the border troubles and the establishment of the line giving to the Eng lish all territory south of the lakes, including New York, gradually but surely broke up the French missions to the Iroquois. Protestant Missions. — These are carried on by the Methodist Church and the Presbyterian Church of Canada, and by the Church Mission ary Society of England, and are spoken of more specifically in the accounts of those societies. Indo-Portuguese Version. — The In- do-Portuguese is a dialect of the Portuguese language, belonging to the Grseco-Latin branch of the Aryan language-family, and is used by the Portuguese settlers and their de scendants in Ceylon and various parts of the Indian seas. Between the years 1826 and 1833 the New Testament, the Pentateuch, and the Psalms, were published by the British and Foreign Bible Society at Colombo, the transla tion having been made by tbe Rev. Newstead of the Wesleyan Missionary Society. A revised edition of the New Testament was published at London in 1852. Up to March 31st, 1889, the same Bible Society disposed of 18,000 portions of the Scriptures. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Parqui assi Deos ja ama o rnundo, qui ello ja da sua s6 gerado Filho, qui quemseja lo ere ne elle nada ser perdido senao qui lo aeha vida eterno. Indore, the capital of Indore Native State, Central India, is an ill-built place, but is prosperous and growing in importance. Climate good, healthy. Population, 75,401, Hindus, Moslems, etc. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church in Canada (1877) ; 2 or dained missionaries, 5 female missionaries. A high school and a college are located there, besides a hospital. fng--oliuii(B-, a city and district in the prov ince of Fuhkien, China. The district begins 125 miles southwest of Foochow, and extends a hundred miles in a northwest direction. Its mountains are high, its hill-roads are long, its villages sparse, and the workers few. A mis sion district of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) in charge of the missionary at Hing- hwa, comprising Ing-chung city, Tai-hwa city, Tai-cheng city, and four other stations. There are in the city 2 native preachers, 24 church- members, 1 Sabbath-school, 15 scholars. International Medical missionary Society. — Training Institute, 118 E. 45th Street, New York, N. Y., U. S. A. Origin and History.— In April, 1881, a meeting was held at the house of Dr. T. A. Sa bine, a Christian physician in New York City, to consider the advisability of inaugurating a Med ical Missionary Society in New York similar to the one in Edinburgh, which had been so successful among the poor of that city, and in the training and sending forth of medical mis sionaries to heathen lands. Six persons were present: one minister (Rev. Dr. Wm. M. Tay lor), three physicians, one lawyer, and a busi ness man. Dr. Dowkontt, who came from Philadelphia to begin the work in New York, explained the character, scope, and aim of the proposed society, and the success of similar work elsewhere. It was at once decided to co operate with Dr. Dowkontt and form a society. The next step was to secure a site and to pro ceed to demonstrate to the people of New York the value of such an agency at home, and thus enable them the better to realize the importance of it abroad. Mr. Edward A. Jones was the first man who joined Dr. Dowkontt in found ing the Society, and Dr. Cornelius R. Agnew (of New York) presided at the inauguration of this movement when the first dispensary was opened in June, 1881. Each year has witnessed the extension of the work. In 1886 five dispensaries were in oper ation, twelve students were in training, and a house was rented for their accommodation. During 1887 seven missionary dispensaries ex isted, forty-seven students were in training, and a house for lady students had been added. These forty-seven students came from thirtee i countries, and belonged to nine evangelical denominations. Over 13,000 attendances had been given to the sick poor, and during the (then) six and a half years of the Society's existence over 53,000 attendances had been bestowed. These sick and suffering ones, of all creeds, colors, and na tions, had also the gospel set before them — a far greater good. Objects. — To heal the sick and to preach the gospel at home and abroad iu the following ways: _ 1. By establishing medical missions in the cities and large towns of the United States, Canada, and elsewhere, to reach the otherwise inaccessible classes with the gospel. 2. By providing residence, with practical medical and religious instruction, and pecuniary aid, where needed, to male and female medical missionaiy students and missionary nurses, to prepare them for service under the various evangelical mission boards or otherwise. 3. By providing limited medical instruction of one year's duration for missionaries and in tending missionaries of both sexes. 4. By sending medical missionaries as pio neers into the mission field direct from the Society. Methods. — 1. Patients who come to the mis sion for medical treatment are spoken to, both collectively and individually, as to their spirit ual needs. 2. Those too sick to attend the mission are ministered to at home, both medically and spiritually. 3. At these missions students are given prac tical work in the dispensary, and also gain ex- INTERNATIONAL MED. MISS. SOC. 477 INTERNATIONAL MISS. UNION perience in evangelistic methods; thus combin ing mission work with their studies. 4. At the training institute provision is made by lectures, etc., for the medical and limited theological instruction of tbe students. 5. A medical course of one year's duration is provided for missionaries and theological missionary students. The intention is for the Society itself to send out its graduates, the mission board not being able to engage more than half of those offer ing their services. Such missionaries would, as far as possible, become self-supporting, and go out on an unsectarian basis, as do the China Inland missionaries. Thus the Society does not conflict "with the regular mission boards, but aims to aid and supplement their work. Aid to Students. — Students are aided by the Society in many ways: 1. By giving them a home, where they can be mutually helpful, aud have good and ample board at $2.50 per week. 2. By providing them with didactic and prac tical instruction at the institute and dispensaries, especially during the two years they are not ac tually attending a medical college; the law re quiring three years of study, of which two sessions, of six months each, must be spent in college. The Woman's Medical College makes it compulsory for students to take three ses sions of eight months each, and to pass an ex amination in general education before entering. 3. Lectures are given iu the institute by able physicians introductory to the regular college teaching and studies, and supplementary thereto. 4. Students are made familiar with drugs and the dispensing of them at the various dis pensaries. 5. They are also admitted to the consulting rooms, and assist the attending physicians in the treatment of cases. 6. They are entrusted, as far as seems wise, with the treatment of patients, under the imme diate supervision of the attending physicians. 7. Arrangements are being made for special instruction in ophthalmology, skin diseases, microscopy, the preparation of drugs, botany, and other knowledge which will prove useful to a medical missionaiy. 8. After graduation, the students of the So ciety may be given charge of work at one of the dispensaries, and when a hospital is pro vided, which the Society hopes to possess ere long, graduates will be put iu charge of wards or cases therein. 9. Instruction in the best means of studying the Bible and imparting gospel truth has been given at the institute by some of the leading pastors of various churches in N ew York City during the past year, and a Sunday-morning class for Bible study has been held. 10. Experience in Christian effort is obtained in the most practical manner by the students engaging in the work of speaking to the pa tients individually and collectively, taking part in gospel services, Sunday-schools, etc., and each takes his or her turn in conducting the same. 11. Prayer-meetings are held every Saturday evening at the institute, where the students and other workers assemble and take part in the exercises. The instruction given to missionaries who come for one year only is, to a large extent, the same as that provided for medical missionaiy students during their first year, with the addi tion of some practical training in the treatment of cases of diseases and injury. Self-support. — By various means, accord ing to their ability, knowledge, and previous ex perience, some of the students have been able to assist themselves, and during tbe long vacation have earned money to put themselves through the course. The Cost.— 1st. It costs the Society per annum fully $100 for each student, as rent must be paid for the building. 2d. A missionary or missionary student, com ing for one year only, would need a total of $150— $100 for board, $40 for incidentals, and $10 for books. 3d. A student requires about $160 for the first year, $200 for the second, and $250 for the third, to meet all his expenses other than for clothing. 4th. Those who take a fourth year, and are put in charge of dispensary or hospital prac tice, will be aided, if needed, in meeting their board. 5th. Students who have shown a readiness to aid themselves in every possible way and are not able to meet all their expenses, may receive aid not exceeding $100 per annum from the Society, at the discretiou of the Board. Lady Students.— Lady students are pro vided for similarly to the male students, and the same plan of instruction is followed as nearly as possible. They reside in a separate building, attend the Woman's Medical College of New York City, where special advantages have been secured for the students of this Society by a reduction of two thirds of the regular fees; the total fees for the three years are less than $100. About $100 less is needed for the three years' course for lady students than is required for male students. Results. — From June, 1881, to December 31st, 1888, the total number of new cases was 24,952; dispensary attendance, 55,266; visits to the sick at home, 12,531, making the grand total of attendance for seven and a half years, 67,797. In the foreign field or under appointment there are now (June, 1889) 11 missionaries, who have received their commissions from boards in different churchec. Internationa] Missionary Union. — In the early summer of 1884 Rev. William Osborn, then projecting the International Camp Ground Association at Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, called on Rev. J. T. Gracey D.D., in Rochester, to secure his assistance for a week's missionary meetings. The latter consented to render the aid if the speakers should all be mis sionaries. Invitations were sent hurriedly to missionaries of all denominations, and they re sponded remarkably well for so short notice. Everything was done under pressure, and yet the meeting was a very powerful one in its in fluence ou the missionaries as well as on others. On his way to Niagara, Mr. Gracey, contem plating the number of returned missionaries in the several parts of this continent, their little acquaintance with each other, their compara tively limited influence in this isolated condi tion, conceived the idea of an organization through which they might be brought into closer relation, for comparison of views and ex- INTERNATIONAL MISS. UNION 478 ISABEL VERSION perience, for helpfulness to each other in many ways, and for greater compactness in their thought and actiou. He at once determined, when the missionaries should be assembled, to make the proposition of such an organization ; aud on doiug so, met with a hearty and intelli gent respouse. The whole form of the thought being new, it was deemed best to make the organization merely sufficient, at that time, to secure tbe end sought, in a general way. A simple form of constitution was drawn up and officers elected to serve for one year. Returned missionaries of all evangelical churches, whether at home temporarily or per manently, are eligible to membership, by sign ing the constitution and paying an admission fee of fifty ceuts. The object of the Union is to promote the mutual sympathy aud co-operation of mission aries in their work, and to hold annual meetings for the discussion of important questions con nected with the work, and the diffusion of mis sionary intelligence. Itis not merely inter-denominational, or rather pan-denominational, but international, embrac ing missionaries of the Dominion of Canada as well as the United States. It numbers also among its members missionaries of Great Britain and other countries, — over 230 members in all, — representing well-uigh every mission field of the world, and perhaps nearly every evangelical missionary organization of North America, and some of Europe. The annual meetings have convened at Niagara Falls (1884-5), Thousand Island Park (1886-7), Bridgeton, N. J. (1888), Binghamton, N. Y. (1889), Clifton Springs, N. Y. (1890). The international as well as inter denominational character of these meetings affords an opportunity to survey the whole field of Christian missions such as has only been pos sible in the few great Ecumenical Missionary Conferences. These were rare, and after long intervals. This Union, however, affords an annual opportunity for like discussion and com parison of views and experiences. The papers read before this Union, many of which have been published in pamphlet form and circulat ed by tens of thousands, and others which have been published in periodicals, eminently for three years past in " The Missionaiy Review of the World," would make a large volume, and are a handsome contribution to the missionaiy literature of the past decade. The social and spiritual effects of these gatherings on the mis sionaries themselves, as well as the broader view they obtain of all fields aud all work, is highly appreciated. The Union has an incipient Postal Circulat ing Library, for use by its members on appli cation to the librarian and payment of cost of transmission through the mails. Among the officers at present are the following: President, Rev. J. T. Gracey, D.D., Rochester, N. Y.; Vice-Presidents, Rev. Cyrus Hamlin, D.D., Rev. William Dean, D.D., Rev. S. L. Baldwin, D.D.; Chairman Executive Committee, Rev. S. H. Kellogg, D.D. , Toronto, Ontario; Secretary, Rev. W. H.. Belden, Bristol, Conn.; Treasurer, Rev. S. M. House, M.D., Wakeford, N. Y. Inyaki, a town in Matabeleland, South Africa. The climate is somewhat tropical, but in general healthy. It is the centre of quite a large population, composed chiefly of Zulus, with some mixture of the Maschona and Bechu ana. Zulu is the prevailing language, though it is somewhat modifled by Bechuana., The worship of ancestors and the belief in witch craft prevails. A native king governs the peo ple with despotic rule. Mission station of the London Missionary So ciety. Mission work was commenced in 1860, but had to be given up after a few years, until in 1867 a cure accomplished by a medical mis sionary was the means of permission being given him to teach, and the station was re opened in 1871. The instruction of the people was carried on under great difficulties, for any pupil who seemed at all interested was liable to suddenly disappear and not be heard of again. It has 2 missionaries and their wives; 5 preach- iug places, with an average attendance of 40. Ireland, William B., b. near Oswesty, Shropshire, England, December 21st, 1821 ; grad uated at Illinois College 1845, Andover Theo logical Seminary 1848; ordained the September following; sailed as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. for Africa October 14th, 1848. Tbe first thirteen months in Africa he was stationed at Ifumi, where he was permitted to see a com munity of Christian families gathered as the fruit of his labors. In 1855 he was appointed by the mission to take charge of the boys' seminary at Adams (Amanzimtote), and for seventeen years he devoted his heart and strength to its welfare. But his impaired health prevented his bearing the burden of so respon sible a work. He continued to aid in the work of the Seminary in various ways, more especial ly in giving Bible instruction to the students in the theological department, besides being treasurer of the mission. He occupied a large place in the mission, and in the affections of the Zulus and of all who knew him. He died in Boston October 12th, 1888. Rev. David Root says: "In the, death of Mr. Ireland the Zulu mission has lost one of its oldest, most devoted, and useful laborers." Iroquois Version. — The Iroquois, which belongs to the American languages, is spoken by about 4,000 Iroquois Indians in the province of Quebec, and about 5,000 in that of Ontario, who do not understand the Mohawk portions of Scripture published. At the urgent request of the Rev. Drs. Cornish and O'Meara and Prof. Shaw, the British and Foreign Bible Society published the four Gospels at Montreal in 1880. The translation was made by Chief Joseph Onesakeural, and revised by Jean Dion and the Rev. T. Laforte. About 1,000 portions of tbe Scriptures were disposed of up to March 31st, 1889. Irwin Hill, a town on the northern side of the island of Jamaica, West Indies, pleasantly situated on a slight ridge about 4 miles from Montego Bay. Mission station of the Moravians (1828), at present vacant. The work here was first commenced by lhe missionaries being hired by two proprietors of plantations as chaplains to instruct their negroes; but fiuding that this plan did not work, the missionaries' opened a separate station. Isabel Version.— The Isabel belongs to the Melanesian languages, and is spoken in the Solomon Islands. In 1887 the Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge published the Gospel of John. ISANDRA 479 ITALIAN VERSION Isandra, a mission district of the L. M. S. (1863) in the Betsileo province, Madagascar; 39 out-stations, 1 missionaiy, 793 church-members, 456 schools, 3,397 scholars. Islam : see Mohammedanism. Isoavina, a mission district of the L. M. S. {1868) in Madagascar, with 38 out-stations. * lsotry, a district of the L. M. S. mission in Madagascar (1867), containing 17 out-stations, .29 native ministers, 998 church-members, 18 schools, 1,040 scholars. Ispahan, a city of Persia, 226 miles south of Tehran, on the Zenderud river. The capital of the province of Ajemi and formerly of tbe Empire, and a great centre of trade, especially with Bagdad. It is still an important place, though not as well known since the present dynasty made Tehran the capital. Like mauy ¦Oriental cities, large sections of it are deserted, the people finding it cheaper and easier to remove than to rebuild. The population, estimated at 80,000, is mostly Persian, though there are about 13,000 Jews, and some Kurds and Babees. Just out of the city is the suburb of Julfa, where Shah Abbas established a large colony of Armenians whom he forced to leave the Caucasus. At Julfa there is a station of the Church Missionary Society (1856), 3 mission aries (1 married), 2 female missionaries, com municants about 100, a hospital, and 2 schools with 177 boys and 164 girls. Isubu Version. — Tbe Isubu belongs to the Bantu family of African languages, and is spoken in a small district called Bimbia, lying at the foot of the Cameroon mountains. A translation into this language was commenced by the Rev. Joseph Merriok, of African descent, in the ser vice of the Baptist Missionary Society, and the Bible Translation Society published the Gospels of Matthew and John. The two remaining Gospels were translated by his successors, and the four Gospels were published in 1852. Italian Version. — The Italian language helongs to the Grseco-Latin branch of the Aryan language family, and is spoken throughout Italy, whose population in 1888 was about 30,500,000. The earliest existing version, so far as is known, is that of Malerius or Malherbi, printed at Venice in 1471, 2 vols. It is a toler ably accurate translation of the Vulgate, and many editions were printed. Another version, by Antonio Bruccioli, was published at Venice in 1532, and often reprinted. One of the most im portant translations was the one made by Gio vanni Diodati, of Lucca, preacher and professor at Geneva. Made from the original texts, it was published at Geneva in 1607, and in a revised form in 1641. An Italian version for the use of Roman Catholics was made from the Vulgate by Antonio Martini, of Florence, towards the close of the 18th century. The New Testament was published in Turin in 1769, and the Old iu 1779; the latter appeared during the pontificate of Pius VI. , and received his sanction. Both Testaments in the original edition were encum bered with explanatory notes, chiefly taken from the fathers. The tditio princeps, which has also the Latin seal, comprises 23 vols. The version has been repeatedly reprinted ; the latest is that of Florence, in 4 vols. 1852. The necessity of furnishing supplies of the Italian Scriptures was first pressed on the atten tion of the British and Foreign Bible Society by the Rev. Terrot, chaplain at Malta, in 1808, and Diodati's version was selected by the Society for publication. The first edition appeared in 1809, and often since. With a view to an unrestricted circulation, tbe society afterwards consented to publish Martini's Roman Catholic version, and an edition appeared in 1817 at Naples. In 1854 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge published a revised edition of Dio dati's Italian Bible in 1855. This edition was throughout carefully corrected by comparison with the original texts, the orthography modern ized, and obsolete words and phrases exchanged for those in modern use. In 1875 the British Bible Society authorized their agent to compare their own edition of Diodati's version with those issued by the Christian Knowledge Society and by the Italian Bible Society respectively, with a view to tbe acceptance of the orthographical changes which are exhibited in these two editions, pro vided such changes meet with tbe approval of a referee who is one of the leading living authori ties on the Italian language. The work was commenced by Mr. Th. H. Bruce, and continued and completed by his successor, the Rev. A. Meille, in 1884. This new edition was also issued in 1884, with marginal references, in 8vo. In 1888 a revision committee was formed whose object it is to remove antiquated words, to follow a purer text than that known to Dio dati, and to render obscure passages more clearly. Up to March 31, 1889, the same British Bible Society disposed of 3,008,831 portions of the Scriptures, either as a whole or in parts, besides 2,000 diglott Old Testament portions in Italian and Latin, and 4,044 diglott New Testament por tions in Italian and English. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) PercioceKe~Iddio~ ha tanto aniato' il mondo ch'egli'ha' dato*il' suo unigenito Figliuolo acciooche chiunquejcrede.in lui^non.perisca ma^abbia vita eterna. JABALPUR 480 JAFFA MED. MISS. AND HOSPITAL* J. Jabalpur (Jubbulpore), a district and town in the Central Provinces, India, 165 miles north east of Nagpur. The town is large and flour ishing, connected with Allahabad and Bombay by railroad, and has a good trade. Mission sta tion of the C. M. S., 1854; 1 missionary, 49 com municants, 13 schools, 1,079 scholars. The work of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North) is among the Euglish as well as the natives ; the former have a church, and support a pastor, the latter are under the care of 1 missionaiy, 1 assistant, 2 female missionaries, carrying on mission work in 13 out-stations, with 14 church- members, 60 Sunday-schools, 2,092 scholars. The Wesleyan Methodist Church also conducts its work among both the English and the na tives. In the native work are 1 missionary, 15 church-members, 6 Sunday-schools, 259 scholars, 2 day-schools, 58 scholars, and 2 zenana teachers, who teach 107 pupils in 63 houses. Jaeschke, Heinrich August, b. Herrn hut, Saxony, May 17th, 1817. He was de scended in a direct line from a family of Moravian exiles, who, driven from their bome and country for their faith's sake, found refuge and freedom on the estates of Count Zinzendorf at the settle ment of Herrnhut. Heinrich was carefully trained by godly parents. At the age of twelve he entered the Paedegogium at Niesky, where he distinguished himself in nearly every branch of study, but especially in music and philology. After two years' study in the theological seminary at Gnadenfeld, he was appointed in 1837 a teacher in the boys' academy in Christiansfeld, where the Danish language chiefly was used. He ac quired the language so rapidly that in a short time he was able to compose and preach in Dan ish. Five years later he was appointed a pro fessor in the Niesky PaBdegogium, where he in structed in ancient and modern languages. He here began the study of Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit. He was a proficient in Greek. He became acquainted also with Hungarian, Bohe mian, Polish, and Swedish. His diary was kept in seven languages. In 1856 he joined Messrs. Pagell and Heyde in mission work al Kyelang, a village in the province of Labal, on the bor ders of Tibet, intending as soon as the way was open to enter with them and labor among the Chinese Mongols. Having acquired the lan guage lie compiled a German -Tibetan Lexicon, and some years later an English-Tibetan, both of which are considered standard authorities. The British Government published the English- Tibetan Lexicon for the use of English officers in Kashmir. He also wrote and translated sev eral books and tracts for the converts, for pupils in schools, aud for distribution among the peo ple. He prepared also a small Tibetan gram mar in the English language for the use of mis sionaries and others. He now began tbe trans lation of the Bible, but after ten years of almost incessant labor his health failed, and he was obliged to return to Europe. There, in great weakness, he continued the work, and completed the translation of the New Testament, which was published by the British and Foreign Bible- Society. He left materials which were used by Mr. Redslob in the translation of the Old Testa ment. He died at Herrnhut, September 24th,. 1883. Jacobite, a term applied to the Monophy- site churches of the East, especially the Syrians- residing in Northern Syria, Southern Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. Their principal headquarters are at Mosul, Diarbekir (Amida), Maadan, and Aleppo. They have also a bishop at Jerusalem. Other important centres are Oorfa, Mardin, Jezireh, and a district of Jeb- el-Tour in the mountains of Koordistan, east of Diarbekir. They have found it difficult in many places to cope with the aggressive influ ences of the Roman Catholics, who have sent large numbers ot monks, who have established themselves especially in Mesopotamia, in the cities of Mardin aud Mosul, and having enticed many of the priests, have succeeded also in forc ing the congregations to follow them by refus ing any of the sacraments except as they adopted the Roman Catholic faith. Mission work among the Jacobites has been somewhat successful, especially as . earned on, from Mardin, Diarbekir, and Mosul. The rela tions between the Jacobite leaders and the Amer ican missionaries have been often quite cordial, and the constant effort to come into pleasant re lations with them has been productive of good results. The larger part of the Protestant com munities of Mardin, Jeb-el-Tour, and tbe vil lages about Diarbekir are made up from the- Jacobite communities. Jaffa (Joppa), a city of Syria, seaport of Jerusalem. Population about 10,000, Moslems,. Christians, and Jews. Mission station of the C. M. S. ; 3 missionaries (one married), 2 female missionaries, 3 native preachers, 65 communi cants, 650 scholars. Also, the London Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Jews has 1 missionary and a dispensary. The Mild- may Mission to tbe Jews has also a medical mission there. In 1876 a colony was started there of Americans, but they found it impossi ble to live, and little by little they disappeared, some returning to America, and others going elsewhere in Palestine and the East. Mission work in Jaffa has always labored under the special difficulty of its being a seaport, and a constant resort of travellers. Jaffa Medical Mission and Hospi tal, in connection with the Mildmay Mission. Headquarters, 68 Mildmay Park, London, N. — The Jaffa Medical Mission and Hospital was founded by Miss Mangan, a Mildmay deaconess, in 1878. The work was at first carried on in a native house in Jaffa, ill- adapted to hospital needs, and very soon too small to accommodate the numbers who flocked thither for treatment. The erection of a new building was commenced JAFFA MED. MISS. AND HOSPITAL 481 JANVIER, LEVI in 1884. Difficulties arising in regard to the legality of the permission granted to a foreigner to erect a public building, Miss Mangan was ad vised to carry a petition to the Sultan. The fa tigue and excitement, attendant upon the neces sary journeys to Constantinople were too much for her strength, which failed utterly upon her return the second time, and she died in Novem ber, 1885, leaving the work in the care of her as sociates. Soon after her death the Firman was received; and in September, 1886, the new build ing was occupied by the mission. During the following year the number of out patients was 13,217, in-patients 511. In addition to the medical Work, daily relig ious services are conducted by the deaconesses. They also superintend a Sunday-school for Moslem girls', sewing-classes, and mothers' meet ings, and visit among the poor in Jaffa and somewhat in outlying villages. The working force of the mission consists of six English la dies, a native physician, educated at the Ameri can College at Beyrout, and two ward-helpers. Jaffna City, a town on an island which forms part of the Jaffna district or peninsula, Ceylon (q.v.). It is the district town, and has the administrative buildings, a college, and a public library. The fort is "the most perfect little military work in Ceylon — a pentagon built of blocks of white coral." Traces of the Dutch occupancy of the town can still be seen, and not a few of the churches date back to the time of the Portuguese. The industry of the Tamil in habitants has changed the sandy soil to a fertile district, with luxuriant tropical vegetation. Mission station of the Church Missionary So ciety (1888), who have in the district 1 mission ary, 3 native pastors, 557 communicants, 1 sem inary, 199 students, 1 girls' boarding-school, 54 girls, 1 training institute, 39 students, 62 schools, 3,096 scholars. The A. B. C. F. M. commenced its work in Ceylon in 1816, (see article Ceylon), and the mission now numbers 7 stations, 25 out-stations, 15 churches, 1,471 church-members, 4 missionaries, 6 female missionaries, 13 native pastors, 133 day schools, 8,416 pupils, 72 college students, 1 industrial school, 58 pupils, 2 girls' boarding-schools, 125 pupils. The Wesleyan Missionary Society carries on an extensive work in Jaffna district, with headquarters at Jaffna. There are 22 stations, 25 missionaries and as sistants, 19 chapels, 1,561 church-members, 116 Sabbath-schools, 6,586 scholars, 137 day-schools, 9,681 scholars. Jag-hatai-Turki (Tartar) or Tekke Turcoman. — This language, which belongs to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, is vernacular to tbe Uzbek and Turkish tribes of Turkestan and Central Asia. The Rev. James Bassett, of the American Pres byterian Mission at Tehran , prepared a translation of the Gospel of Matthew, which he carried through the press at London in 1880, at the ex pense of the British and Foreign Bible Society. A revised edition was issued from the press in 1884 by the Rev. A. Amirkhaniantz of Tiflis. About 3,535 portions of tbe gospel were disposed of up to March 31st, 1889. Jains, a religious sect in India, who are found in Upper Hindustan, in the provinces of Mewar and Marwar, along the Ganges, and in Calcutta. They are also found in some other parts of India, especially along the Malabar coast. They are considered heterodox by the Hindus, and. in their belief they adhere to some of the tenets of Buddhism and to some of the teachings of the Brahmans. Like the Buddhists, they deny the origin and authority of the Vedas, and they pay worship to some of the same saints. Like the Brahmans, they recog nize the distinctions of caste, and worship some of the deities of the Hindu Pantheon, though they reject all tbe rites which cause the sacrifice of animal life. They believe in final emancipa tion when the vital spirit is released from the bonds of action, and they define the size of such souls, their home, their qualities, their length of life, and all that pertains to them. The Jaius are divided into two orders — the priest and the layman. The former leads a life of abstinence and general self-denial. He carefully avoids the destruction of animal life, even covering his mouth to avoid inadvertently swallowing insects. The layman is supposed to practise the virtues of liberality, gentleness, piety, and penance. He also carefully strains the water which he drinks, and covers all liquids lest an insect may be drowned therein. There are other differ ences among them, which govern their dress and decorations. They worship a number of deified saints called Jina, to whom they ascribe attri butes of the most extravagant character. Two of these are now the principal objects of wor ship. The origin of the sect is lost in ob scurity, but it probably was subsequent to the rise ot the Buddhist religion. Jaipur (Jeypore), a city in Rajputana, In dia, the capital of a native state of the same name. A most beautiful Indian city, with a population of 250,000. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1866), the first in Rajputana; 1 missionary, 1 church, 6 schools. Jalandhar, a town and district in the Punjab, India, 120 miles east of Lahore. A large number of villages are within easy reach of the town. Mission station of the Presbyte rian Church (North) (1846). A dispensary is kept open for nine months of the year, and in 1889, 16,000 visits were received. It has 1 medi cal missionary and wife, 4 female missionaries, 1 native pastor, 27 church-members, 572 day- scholars. Jalna, is, with Bethel, a station of the Free Church of Scotland, in the Haidarabad stale, Deccan, India, from which an extensive evan gelistic work is carried on among the surround ing villages, 3,239 villages or places having been visited by evangelists or Bible-women in one year. There are 43 out-stations, 1 native pastor, 6 native churches, 1,035 communicants. Janvier, Levi, b. Pittsgrove, N J., U.S.A., April 25th, 1816; graduated at Princeton College 1835, Theological Seminary 1838; ordained as an evangelist by Presbytery of West Jersey, Decem ber 31st, 1840; sailed in 1841 as a missionaiy of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions for India; was stationed at Futtehgurh, Lo- ¦ diana, Ambala, and Sabathu. Having com menced the study of Urdu ou the voyage, he soon began mission work among tbe heathen in, Lodiana. For some time he taught a school of Hindu youth, making the truths of the gospel a regular portion of study. He was much occu pied in the translation of the Scriptures, and was connected with the press from the beginning to JANVIER, LEVI 482 JAPAN the close of his work. After he had mastered the Punjabi language, he, with his cousin, Dr. Newton, of the same mission, commenced the preparation of a dictionary of that language. It was completed, and published at the mission press in 1854, a quarto of 438 pages, finely printed and substantially bound, in the Gur- mukhi character. Dr. Janvier possessed great energy of character, and was full of zeal for the salvation of the heathen. He met his death March 24th, 1864, at a mela in Anandapore, where he was engaged in preaching and distrib uting tracts. Tlie meeting was about to close, the brethren had partaken of the Lord's Supper, and expected to separate on the morrow. In the evening Dr. Janvier was met by a fanatic, a Kali Sikh, and felled to the ground with a club. He lingered insensible till morning, when he passed away. The murderer was caught, tried in a criminal court, found guilty, and hanged. The remains of the missionary were laid, in the presence of a large assembly, in the burial-ground of the mission of Lodiana. Japan. — Position on the Globe. — The archipelago and empire of Dai Nippon (great dayspring), called "Japan," by foreigners, con sists of a chain of islands between Russia and China, or between Kamtschatka and Formosa. It is set in a quadrilateral nearly 9,000 miles wide and 2,000 miles long. More exactly, this quad rangular space enclosing Japan measures 8701.65 miles from east to west and 1841.95 miles from north to south. At each point of the compass, the frontier island, or extremity of the empire, is found in the smaller archipelagos of Chishima (thousand islands) or the Kuriles (smokers) and Riu Kiu (sleeping dragon) or Loo Choo. The most northern island or shima is Araito (lati tude 50° 56'), the most southern Haterma (lat itude 24° 06'), the most eastern Shimushiu (long itude east 156° 32'), the most western Yonaku (longitude east 122° 45'). Of the great quadri lateral thus drawn about Japan's extremities, the total land area is but 150,000 square miles; the remaining 17,840,000 square miles being ocean water which surrounds nearly 4,000 islands having 43,000 miles of coast line. Tbe largest island is Hondo or Hon-shiu, that is, main island, or main country, and on unrevised maps is called Niphon, which is the Dutch spell ing of the name of the whole empire, the native common name being Nippon, or Nihon. Hondo, Kiu-shiu (nine countries), Shikoku (f our provinces), and Yezo (uncivilized region) are the four largest islands. Tbe lesser groups of islands, besides Riu Kiu and Chishima, are Awaji, Tsushima, Goto, Iki, Oki, Sado, Shichi- jima (seven islands from O or Vries to Hachijo), Ogasawara (Bouin), etc. All the out lying islands from /Tsushima to Sado are ou the western side of Hondo, which is, in general, destitute of harbors; while the eastern front is well iudented and contains numerous places suitable for anchorage and commerce. The general shape of the main group of islands is that of au archer's bow recurved at each end, the cord or string bisecting the Sea of Japan, the arrow-rest being at Tokyo, the capital, which is thus almost exactly at tbe centre of the empire. Physical Feat u res. — Geologically, Japan is part of the chain of volcanoes stretching from Kamtschatka into China, the islands being the tops of otherwise submerged mountain plateaus of granite and old schists and clay slates on which late and active volcanoes have superim posed their peaks, and the islets being the fragments of the great lines of upheaval, once long causeways but now broken into fragments and fantastic shapes by ages of wave-action. The Russian name " Kurile " means "the smokers," from the open vents discharging fire and smoke, and there are, in addition to the hundreds of extinct, no fewer than eighteen act ive volcanoes. Along with these are abundant hot sulphur springs, and earthquakes occur almost continually. Yezo, as its fauna and flora show, is almost a distinct continent, the Straits of Tsugaru being a dividing line. Between the 35th and the 37th degrees of north latitude, Hondo is broadest from east to west, and here the mountains attain their greatest heights, Fuji-san (12,280 feet), Ontake (9,850 feet), Haku-san (8,920 feet), Asama Yama (8,380 feet), and the mighty Shinano range (8,200-9,840 feet), and Kim-pu Zan being in one wide belt. In Kiushiu the mountains at tain a height of 5,400, in Shikoku 4,600, and iu Yezo 8,200 feet. The geographical divi sion of ¦ the empire into nine do (circuits or roads) is made in general accordance with the physical features of the countiy, especially the great lines of mountains and islands. Thus, the Hokkaido (uorthern-sea circuit) includes Yezo and Chishima; Tosando (eastern-moun tain circuit) includes the eight provinces of Hondo, from the Straits of Tsugaru to the end of Lake Biwa, or from Ugo to Oini; Hokurokudo (northern-land circuit), lying along the west coast of Hondo from Sado Island to Wakasa, has seven provinces; Tokaido (eastern-sea road) contains fifteen provinces, fronting the Pacific Ocean from Hitachi to Iga; Gokinai, or the five Home Provinces, the classic ground of Japanese history, is situated like a keystone be tween tbe four northern and eastern and the four southern and western circuits, impinging upon all except those of Yezo and Kiushiu; Sanindo (mountain shade road) contains the eight prov inces (from Tamba to Iwami) having the Sea of Japan on their northern coast line, including Oki Island ; the. provinces of Sany5d5 (mountain sun-side road), from Harima to Nagato, front tbe beautiful island-studded Inland Sea stretch ing from Go-Kinai to the Straits of Shimouo- seki; Nankaido (south-sea circuit) comprises the four divisions of Shikoku, the island of Awaji, and Kii; Saikaido (west-sea circuit) includes the nine divisions of Kiushiu and the islands of Iki and Tsushima. Each of the eighty-four pro vinces has its uative Japanese name, usually based on its chief physical feature, and also another made up of the Chinese sound of the first syllable of the Japanese name with shiu (province) affixed; thus, Satsuma and Sasshiu, Kii and Kishiu. The whole surface of the countiy consists of mountains and valleys, large plains and great rivers being nearly unknown, while lakes, except Biwa and Inawashiro, are few aud small. The scenery is rarely wild and imposing, though in general beautiful, and iu many places exceedingly lovely. Most of the mountains are rounded and forest-covered. The country is not rich iu minerals, except sulphur, coal, iron, and copper, though nearly all the useful metals and chemical substances are found. The mining is in private hands, the government having mostly abandoned the working of the mines as unprofitable. The law" BEOUNSHIRI-SHIMAn VsM- JAPAN 483 JAPAN soil is fairly good, and in the vicinity of towns has been preserved in full power during many centuries by the use of human ordure — a habit which does not always render the atmosphere agreeable or the landscape attractive to foreign ers. Nevertheless, the toil of fifty generations has made the fertile part of the landscape a work of art. Only about ten per cent of the total area is cultivated, which, however, is nearly all that is available, since the arable land is almost wholly in the valleys and river plains. Surrounded on every side by the ocean, .fish food is cheap, abundant, and nourishing. In the tertiary age the Japanese islands were united to the continents of Asia and America, after which began the great upheavals which have both separated and made mountainous this island-chain. Not only is the climate of Japan quite similar to that of the United States between the lower Mississippi and the Atlantic Ocean in the amount and distribution of rain and the variations of temperature, but the flora of these two portions of the world are closely related both in general character and the large number •of plants common to each. Especially in the matter of rainfall and the unpleasant combina tion of heat and moisture, does the comparison hold good to an American; while one from England finds that while Japan has more fine days, it is also " far wetter, and subject to greater extremes of temperature." Extending through twenty-seven degrees of latitude, there is great difference in climate in various places and at different altitudes. The monsoon winds and the Kuro Shiwo (black stream) are the chief regulating factors. The western coasts, under the influence of the cold-water currents from the north, have lower temperatures, more fog, rain, snow, and ice, than the eastern sides of the country, which, being nearer the gulf stream, are warmer and more free from snow and ice. According to the old lunar calendar in use until 1872, the seasons began as follows: Spring February 3d, summer May 5th, autumn August 7th, winter November 7th. In April the southwest monsoon brings rain and heaf, and in May the whole archipelago is clothed in liv- iug green. About the middle of June and until well into July the heavy rains fall, and, being accompanied with heat, the weather is then most trying to the nervous system. At this time the rice is transplanted and vegetation comes forward with surprisiug rapidity; mould gathers easily on any fabric of animal origin which is not protected by air-tight coverings. This being also the time when teachers, mis sionaries, and others of sedentary habits, or given to brain-work, are often most busy in school examinations, or at close application in concluding the work of the year, the danger to one's constitution is perhaps at the maximum, and not a few cases of nervous prostration occur at this period. Then follow about six weeks of dry and hot weather, after which the second rainy reason occurs in September, when, as in June, floods are very common. The wind now blows from the west and north, a drier season begins in October, and the autumnal foliage becomes very brilliant. The finest season is the autumn, and the early winter is delightful. It often happens that December passes without storm or cloud. The average temperature from April to October is 68° F. , from June to Sep tember 74°. In many parts of Yezo the winter lasts from November to May, but the cold rarely drops to 28°.--, In Satsuma, in the ex treme south of Hondo, the mercury sometimes falls as low, though the winters are warm. In the Riu Kiu islands perpetual summer reigns. In the north and west, heavy snows fill the valleys and block the streets; in the south and east, winters with snow are rare. The rainy time of the year is between March and Novem ber, the wettest month being September and the driest January. The rainfall, though in some years reaching 145 inches, in Tokyo had an average during 1876-1888 of 58.33 inches. Taken all in all, it may be said that there are as many working days in the year as in the Caro- linas of the United States. Prom the excellent meteorological Bureau established in 1888, with its central station iu Tokyo, — one of the best equipped in the world, — and its thirty stations in the archipelago and Korea, three daily bul letins of the weather are now issued, seventy per cent of the forecasts having proved true to the facts. The greatest plagues of Japan are ty phoons and earthquakes (to which one writer adds rats), and the phenomena of these are studied, as well as those of wind, temperature, and moisture. Vessels are warned of coming typhoons from nearly fifty stations. From a study of the climatology of Japan it is evident that the conditions ofthe air, wiud, temperature and moisture are very much like those of adja cent countries, except that the extremes of sum mer beat and winter cold and dryness reached on the neighboring continent are hardly known in Japan. The frequency of earthquakes seems to be compensated for in the comparative rarity of thunderstorms and danger from light ning. Japan may be safely called one of the healthy countries of the north temperate zone, and ordinary precautions as to choice of build ing-sites and habits of life will secure the same possibilities of health as in the same latitude in Europe or America. Professor Basil Hall Chamberlain, in his invaluable little encyclo paedia of "Things Japanese," published in June, 1890, says: "One striking peculiarity of the Japanese climate is the constant prevalence of northerly winds in winter and southerly winds in summer. Rooms facing south are therefore the best all the year round, escaping as they do the icy blasts of January and Febru ary, and profiting by every summer breeze. Another peculiarity is the lateness of all the seasons, as compared with Europe. . . . On the other hand, winter is robbed of the gloom of short afternoons by the beautiful clearness of the sky down to the end of the year, and even throughout January. . . . The climate of Japan is stated by the highest medical authority to be excellent for children, less so for adults, the enormous amount of moisture rendering it depressing, especially to persons of a, nervous temperament, aud to consumptive persons. Various causes, physical aud social, contribute to make Japan a less healthy countiy for female residents of European race than for the men." The meteorological observations of Professor Knippiug in Tokyo during thirteen years show a mean temperature of 56°. 5 (Fahr.), mean maxima 65.3, mean minima 48.5, absolute maximum temperature, (July 14th, 1886) 97.9, absolute minimum temperature (Jannary 13th, 1876) 15.4, mean rainfall 58.33 inches, rainy days (over one millimetre of rain) 138.7, days with snow 8.5, mean barometer (freezing point) 29.90. Only two or three days in the }rear are JAPAN 484 JAPAN uninterruptedly snowy. The months liable to the dreaded typhoons are, in a decreasing order of severity, September, August, October, and July. Four or five typhoons pass over Japan annually, of which Tokyo receives about one. Occasionally a typhoon comes as early as April. The native houses, admirable for summer use, are not usually habitable to Europeans in winter. The numerous moun tain resorts, and the easy accessibility of Yezo where the climate is cooler, furnish Japan with sanitariums for rest, recuperation, or prolonged vacation. Flma.— " The peculiarities of the climate of Japan are reflected in its vegetation. During eight months of the year plant life is active, during four almost at a standstill," the herb age in early summer and autumn being at its best. Evergreens are the characteristic features of the landscape. Nearly all types of vegeta tion, temperate, arctic, and tropical, prevail, and the Mediterranean, Pacific, and north European coasts will be recalled by travellers. These types meet, especially in central Japan, where, at the higher elevatious, the birch and the beech are still common, while the bamboo and the camphor-laurel flourish in the milder lowlands. In Franchet and Savatier's Enumeratio, 2,750 species are catalogued (1,890 angiospenns, 43 gymnosperms, 614 monocotyledons, and 195 vascular cryptogams), distributed in 155 orders and 914 genera. Of tbe orders, 84 are British, of the genera 306, of the species 266. Accord ing to Asa Gray, 65 genera and some 250 spe cies are identical with species and genera pecu liar to the Atlantic forest region of North America. The most characteristic native flowers are the shrub-peony, magnolia, water-lily, poppy, Bury a japonica (sakaki tree), camellia, tea-plant, mallow, ilex, rose, cherry-blossom, deutzia, viburnum, aster, pyretbrum, rhodo dendron, lilies, etc. Of maples, 24 species exist, and lend an extraordinary beauty to the woods in autumn, exceeded only by American forests. Of oaks there are 21 species. Apples, peaches, pears, and plums are very poor in taste and quality, but figs and grapes are better, oranges plentiful and good, while the persimmon is the most common fruit. Tea, indigo, cotton, to bacco, rice, wheat, and millet are the principal crops. The townspeople eat rice as a staple, bread being nearly unknown; but the country folk cannot afford rice, but live chiefly on mil let, wheat, barley, and the radish dai-kon. Chestnuts ancl fungi (mushrooms), and almost every conceivable product that is edible, serves to support life. Timber trees are very numer ous, varied and abundant, aud fuel is cheap. There are 27 genera and 173 species of ferns. A large proportion of the food plants and orna mental trees and ,hrubs have been imported by man. Most of the Japanese plants which have long been flourishing in Europe and America were introduced by von Siebold. In Old Japan a severe famine was wont to occur about once in twenty years, the writer having vivid remem brance of a long, wide ash-heap in Echizen, where the remains of the victims of starvation were cremated. Railroads and steamers will probably render such events no longer possible. A picnic is called a "flower- viewing," and sev eral times a year the whole native population turns out for no other purpose than to visit places which are noted for certain kinds of blossoms. " It is around these that the national holidays of the most holiday-loving of nations revolve." The procession of the flowers in Tokyo is led by the plum-blossom from Feb ruary to March, followed in order by the cherry- blossom, peony, wistaria, iris, lotus, chrysanthe mum, and maple; for the Japanese "include bright leaves under the general designation of flowers." Association of ideas, so different in the Japanjse mind from that of tbe West, make some of our most prized flowers of little account, while they set great store on others with which we have no especially pleasant associations. Ic. their proper seasons, flower-tableaux, in which, after the accumulated toil of years and genera tions, various scenes in history, mythology, poetry, and folk-lore are represented by living flowers, display the triumphs of the gardener's. art. Fauna. —Japan is the land of the monkey and giant salamander. Except the ass, sheep, and goat, most of the commou domestic animals are met with. The chief mammals are the monkey, bat, bear, badger, marten, dog, wolf, fox, squir rel, rat, hare, wild boar, stag, antelope. Of birds, 359 species have been enumerated. There are 30 species of reptiles and batrachians. Snakes are large, but harmless, only one poison ous species being known. About 400 species of fish have been catalogued, with 1,200 species of mollusca, the seas beiug amazingly rich in life of every form able to exist in salt water. Insects are very numerous, but very few are venomous. There are 137 species of butterflies, and all the known species of moths in Japan number over 4,000, two of the latter producing silk. The common house-fly of Europe is rarely seen, except in the silk districts and at certain strata of air on the mountains. In place of the bedbug, the flea is found everywhere at all sea sons, and "the mosquito is a mighty plague during half the year, in all places lying at an altitude of less than 1,500 feet above the sea," while the gnat is troublesome in the mountain districts, and the gadfly assaults the traveller in Yezo. The fauna of Japan resemble those of Korea, whence most of the species have mi grated, or been introduced by man. In recent geological times Yezo formed no part of Japan proper, the great depth of the straits of Tsugaru and the notable difference in the fauna showing this. The average landscape of Japan is, as compared with America, almost destitute of do mestic cattle. Few birds have song, but the atmosphere is lively with moving feathered life. Buddhism has been a powerful force in inculcating kindness to animals, and in forbid ding tbe use of flesh food, nearly all classes be ing vegetarian in diet. Occasionally, by verbal tricks, compunctions of conscience are removed nnd game is eaten; as, for example, when a deer is called a "mountain whale," and the venison is sold in the shops as "fish." One re markable phase of man's relations to auimals is the common belief in the superhuman powers of the fox, badger, dog, and cat. The power of transformation into human beings is accred ited to the fox, especially, by probably a ma jority of elderly or rustic people in Japan. The form of nervous disorder or delusion iu which a woman, usually, believes herself to be pos sessed of a fox is quite common, and in phe nomena greatly resembles the demoniacal pos session of the Bible. Pojndation. — In actual numbers, the popu lation of Dai Nippon in 1890 exceeds forty JAPAN 485 JAPAN million people. Except the Ainos, in Yezo, the people are now a homogeneous race, made up of several stocks. The chief peculiarities in physical appearance, language, and customs are found in Riu Kiu and other outlying islands. The language spoken in the capital, Tokyo, is now the standard; and using this a good speaker can be understood easily all over the empire, as the variations in dialect, though numerous, are comparatively slight, and are vastly less than in China. The local peculiarities are those of provincialisms, vulgarisms, differences in pro nunciation, rather than matters of grammar. In comparison with China, India, Siam, or indeed with any Asian country, Japan is politi cally more of a unit, and her people the most homogeneous of any Asiatic nation. By census completed December 31st, 1879, the number of souls under the Mikado's sway was 35,768,584, which number in 1888 had increased to 39,607,- 234, and in 1889 to 40,072,020— a fact which speaks volumes for the general prosperity of the country under the new orders of things since the civil war of 1868. Selecting the census returns completed December 31st, 1888, and published in May, 1890, we find that of the 39,607,234 people, 20,008,445 were males and 19,598,789 were females, — figures which furnish to the Japanese nature's argument against polygamy. The distribution of population was as follows: In Hondo, 30,420,162; on the other islands, 9,187,072; or, in detail, Central Hondo 15,331,659, Northern Hondo 5,992,017, Western Hondo 8,994,962, Kiushiu 6,103,446, Shikoku 2,828,821, Hokkaido or Yezo 254,805. Six cities have over 100,000 souls, seven between 50,000 and 100,000, seventeen between 30,000 and 50.- 000, ninety-two between 10,000 and 30,000; in all 124 cities of over 10,000 souls and somewhat over 1,000 settlements having each over 2,000 souls. Tokyo is the only city having over a million people, 1,313,299; while Osaka has 442,658, Kyoto 275,780, Nagoya 154,981, Yokohama 119,783, and Kobe 115,954, Kanazawa has 96,- 752, Hiroshima 84,873, Sendai 77,515, Toku- shima 60,080. The districts most densely pop ulated, and having from a million to a million and a half of people are: Tokyo, Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Nagano, Shidzuoka, Aichi Niigata, Hiogo, Osaka, Okayama, Hiroshima, Fukuoka, Kumamoto. The density of population per square mile in these districts is: Tokyo 3,567, Osaka 1,701; Central Hondo averaging 416, Western Hondo 436, Northern Hondo 197, or average for Hondo per square mile 345 ; Shikoku 399, Kiushiu 359, Hokkaido 7; average for all Japan,266. Divided according to age, 1,060,439 were under one year, and 62 were over 100. In all, there were 9,147,565 under ten years. The excess of males over females continues until about the 55th year, when the relative numbers of the sexes are nearly equal, after which the superior longevity of the women is strikingly manifest; at 80 being as three to two, and at 90 being two to one. Ranked according to social grade, there were of nobles, gentry, and people, respectively, 3,810; 1,776,480; 37,626,943. The Kuazoku, or nobility, includes the members of the imperial family, those persons of tbe old ianded nobility formerly called daimio (great name), and others who for talent or illustrious services have been ennobled by patent. The Shizoku or gentry include the former samurai {servants of the emperor) whose ancestors served the feudal lords as retainers, or who have in various ways risen to social rank, and who, altogether, under the old order constituted the military and literati of the empire. The Hei- min or common people were formerly divided into several distinct classes, beneath which were the eta, outcasts, and hi-nin (not human); but all the people, farmers, artisans, merchants, etc., etc., are now equal before the law, and subject to the same political and social forces and liabil ities. The agricultural people comprise one half of the population, after which in order come traders and artisans. The average num ber of people in one household is 5.08, this number in Western Hondo rising to 6.07. The instability of the marriage covenant is very marked, and reveals the moral and social state in a manner that speaks volumes for Japan's need of the gospel. Iu 1888 there were 330,- 246 marriages, or 8. 34 to every 1,000 inhabitants; and 109,175 divorces, or 2.76 to every 1,000 people, or over one divorce to every three mar riages. There were in 1888, 7,419,953 couples, or 187.34 to every 1,000 people. The most common fatal diseases of the Japanese are, in their order, those of the nervous, digestive, and respiratory organs, though skin disorders are frightfully common, and epidemics are not rare. Those diseases which are nameless in good society are still, despite the appliances of science and the skill of physicians, relatively speaking, very common. Tbe old marriage customs, according to which the mates were selected by tbe parents for their children, had this advantage, that the old people took extra ordinary care to choose husbands for their daughters and wives for their sons from families known to be free from hereditary disease. The more modern and increasingly prevalent ten dency of the young men to select partners whose chief attraction is beauty, and the freedom accorded to women which is apt to manifest itself in giving consent to the handsome, fasci nating, wealthy, or intellectual suitor, without inquiring into his physical antecedents, is pro ductive of grave problems for the future. Only by the mightier spiritual forces of Christianity, reform in marriage and divorce customs, and a selective power moulded by higher ideals and education,- can these problems be properly solved. In physical stature the Japanese are an un dersized people, the average height of the men being 5.5 feet, and that of the women 4.5 feet. Further, the native is not proportionately devel oped. The inveterate habit, continued for ages, of sitting on their knees without chairs, the hams resting on the heels or ankles, has resulted in a curious malformation, or rather lack of growth, by which the upper part of the body is disproportionately longer than the lower. In the average human being the measure above and below the symphysis pubis is the same, but in twelve hundred Japanese soldiers measured by a surgeon there was found an average dif ference of over an inch between the upper and lower parts of the body. Three causes are as signed by native medical authority for this stunted stature in both males and females : (1) the want of proper food ; (2) the imperfect methods of cooking ; (3) the mode of sitting hitherto practised, so unconducive to exercise, the posture being often maintained for hours. Mountaineers, fishermen, and laborers seem to have the finest physique. The Japanese do not smoke opium or bind the feet of their JAPAN JAPAN women, but the use of tobacco in the form of smoke is almost universal ; and the custom of " drinking" or filling the lungs with the vola tilized tobacco-vapor may be one of the causes of the common lung diseases and flat breasts of the men. Deformity is rare. The average health of the people has undoubtedly been im proved by the more nourishing diet now be coming quite fashionable. In mental traits the Japanese are bright, quick, perceptive, and in general clever, maturing in intellect probably earlier than the European, and from fifteen to forty years of age being peer, probably, to any people in the world, though it appears that ar rested mental development and decay come earlier than with the Germanic races. In mor als, the types of character differ according to the standards which culture has imposed, the samurai having a high and almost painful sense of honor. The ideals of Yamato damashii (the unconquerable spirit of ancient Japan) have been illustrated in a thousand noble exemplars, and suicide has been exalted to the rank of a virtue, when synonymous with self-effacement and sacrifice for the good of others or for one's country. Hara-kiri has hitherto been the rec ognized mode of honorable self-execution, and when Fukuzawa, a native reformer, first wrote in criticism of a typical historical instance of self-immolation for honor's sake, and in advo cacy of the Christian ideas, intense excitement was created, but the institution was doomed. Tbe common people, though not ignorant of the Confucian ethics, have been instructed almost wholly in Buddhism ; while the gentry, or sam urai, hostile or indifferent to Buddhism, have been nursed in the virtues as well as in the vices of feudalism, — the Chinese system fitting ad mirably into the needs of a society framed on the feudal basis. Now that the feudal system has been abolished, the samurai, in a sense not so true of the common people, is left without a religion, — a fact which may explain why most of the Christian converts thus far made, as well as the agnostics, skeptics, and indifferents, are samurai, while the mass of the people are still Buddhist. As we have written elsewhere, " In moral character the average Japanese is frank, honest, faithful, kind, gentle, courteous, con fiding, affectionate, filial, loyal. Love of truth for its own sake, chastity, temperance, are not characteristic virtues." intemperance is com mon, and lying is a national vice, which often flourishes under the forms of politeness, since a native will often lie rather than be or seem im polite. Social impurity, as prevalent unmen tionable diseases show, is sadly common; and the record of divorces in the official statistics re veals a state of affairs that suggests the inquiry whether the social question is not the main prob lem of the missionary and Christian patriot. So long as every third marriage is ruptured by divorce, there can be little true progress in Christian civilization. The institution of con cubinage is still a fashionable one, and will continue to be as long as tbe bad example is set by the emperor and nobles, and the heirs to tbe throne are born in a herd, andnot in ahome. One of the most cheering signs of promise is the pas sage of recent laws forbidding inheritance of title or rank by any issue except children of the true wife. Prostitution is also a long-established insti tution, common in the large cities and seaports, licensed and regulated by law, and supplied by parents who practically sell their daughters to an occupation that, strange to say, is not yet sufficiently degrading in the public eye.asit will be when the moral sense of the nation is more highly educated. Young girls entered into their apprenticeship as courtesans are taught arts and accomplishments, and even after a life of public use may marry respectable men, and perhaps be received into social life as if past history had been ordinary and domestic. Such events, however, happen oftener iu popular fic tion than in real life. It is, however, true that the Japanese courtesan isa less offensive and ag gressive person than the same character in west ern lands. The male Japanese is perhaps more chivalrous and far less overbearing to women than other Asiatics, though the condition of woman is still that arising from the pagan rather than the Christian ideal. Filial obedi ence is the foundation of the domestic virtues, but, developed into fanaticism, is responsible for the slavery of prostituted women. In uni versal courtesy and politeness, the Japanese people have probably no peers, the kindly greetings and gentle manners being common to all grades of society, even the language (between equals, only) being infused with the eminently Christian idea of each esteeming the other better than himself. Religions. — In religion the Ainos are fetich- worshippers, and the superstitions of fetichism, shamanism, the worship of the reproductive powers of nature, and the veneration of ances tors are ingrained in tbe people of the Nippon archipelago. These primitive beliefs underlie the other national religions, Shinto and Buddh ism ; the former being the possibly indige nous cult based on ancestor-worship and the dei fication of heroes, and the latter having been imported from India by way of China and Korea, with remarkable development and varia tions on Japanese soil. Shinto is the state re ligion. Reserving for the paragraph on history an account of these faiths, we give the official statistics showing their numerical status. In 1887 there were 152 Shinto temples of first rank, and 192,207 shrines and temples of infe rior grade, or a total of 192,359 edifices of all sorts, many of them being merely wayside chapels ; 9 chief administrators, 54,850 priest preachers, shrine-keepers, etc., and 860 pupils. In 1887 there were 38 chief administrators of the sects, 48.537 priest preachers, 32,348 priests or monks. 19,869 pupils, 71,991 shrines and temples, over one half of the material and per sonal force of Buddhism being in central Hondo. Government. — The government is that of a monarchy, the chief ruler, the Jlikado, being hereditary emperor, who is assisted by a senate, a privy council, and a cabinet of ministers, each of whom has charge of a department. For administrative purposes the empire is divided into 46 ken or prefectures, the three large mu nicipalities. Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto, being or ganized as fu or imperial cities. These ken consist, as a rule, of two of the old geographical divisions of kuni or provinces united, there being in the empire 85 provinces, 805 kori or dis tricts, 12,185 cities and towns, and 58,456 vill ages. The sub-prefectures number 566, and the- towns and cities having mayors number 11,377. The smaller villages are under the care of a nanushior head-man, and the entire populace is arranged into responsible groups of five house holds — a system which enables the government to keep the most minute oversight of all sub- JAPAN 487 JAPAN jects of the Mikado. For further details of the government, as it will be after 1890, the reader is referred to the constitution of Japan pro claimed February 11th, 1889. This being the culminating point of Japanese history, we now turn to a survey of the origin of the people and to the condensed story of the religious and political development of the nation, which in a.d. 1889 solemnly declared its purpose to 'change its political system from an Asiatic despotism to a modern representative govern ment. Political History. — The true history of Japan is now in process of construction out of the materials obtained by a critical study of geology and cognate physical sciences, lan guages, the native legends, poetry and myth ology, and a comparison of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese historical records. As the most ancient native literature extant is not older than the eighth centuiy, since tbe Japanese did not have the means of computing and recording time until the sixth centuiy, and as the early writers, and all except a very few natives even of to-day, draw no clear line of demarcation between mythology and history, there is little to be depended upon as fact until the fourth century of our era. The popular idea and fixed date of " the. accession of Jimmu Tenno to the throne,'' as the first emperor of Japan, B.C. 660, is a pleasing fiction invented a few years ago in imitation of the Christian era, and any date a millennium before or after that time would have served equally well for a starting-point for " the line of emperors unbroken for ages eter nal," and of the evolution of the Japanese polit ical and social systems. At the dawn of history, the archipelago is found populated. The con querors from tho Asian highlands, who, by way of Korea, landed in Kiushiu and by gradual con quest northward established themselves in cen tral Hondo near Lake Biwa, atNara and Kyoto, found on their arrival inhabitants who were hunters and fishermen. These "aborigines" may have been an earlier migration from the Asian mainland, possibly from Korea, but were probably mixed, or separate races made up of tbe great drift of humanity from the south brought by the Kuro Shiwo from the Malay archipelago, the Philippines and Formosa, be sides Koreans, Ainos and possibly a race of pit men, the "ground-spiders" of legend. The con querors were a superior (kami) race of men, agriculturists, warriors armed with iron wea pons, and above all keenly possessing the knowl edge of conquest by means of dogma. Intro ducing a rude system of feudalism, they par celled out the arable land among themselves as owners, and compelled the aborigines lobe their serfs. The clan or house of Yamato in time became paramount, though the complete sub mission of the natives was effected only after many rebellions had been crushed, and exten sive intermarriage had conciliated and fused together the conquerors and the conquered. To this day, at least two types of countenance are easily distinguishable, and the characteristics of a mixed race appear iu the people. The round, flat, " pudding face" of the lower classes and the more oval countenance ofthe aristocrats with its more delicate features and profile are in noticeable contrast, being, according to some writers, the Aino and the Yamato type, respec tively. Others argue that Japan was peopled by two different streams of immigration from Korea, which supplied these types; and that, as neither recorded history, nor tradition, nor mythology shows any traces of migration from the southward, we are to look upon the Koreans as the nearest congeners of the Japanese. Though historically the Ainos occupied the soil of Hondo, it is claimed by some able writers that the Japanese and Ainos are as distinct in race as the whites and Indians in North America. They point to the fact that even iu northern Japan the traces of Aino blood are very scanty, and that the mixed breed produced by intermarriage becomes unfruitful in the third or fourth gener ation. This subject has been ably discussed by Dr. E. Baelz in the Transactions of the German Asiatic Society of Japan, Parts 28 and 32. Almost as a matter of course there is a litera ture by Europeans educated almost exclusively in the English Bible, in which the claims of the Japanese to be " the lost ten tribes of Israel" are seriously discussed. Ancestor-worship was tbe religion of tbe invaders, and out of their method of deifying their famous patriarchs and heroes grew up the Kami-no-Michi, or, in later Chinese phrase, Shinto (theos-logos), the way or doctrine of the gods, which is a compound of the worship of nature and of deified human beings. Until about 400 a.d., according to tbe Kojiki, the old est extant native record, there had been seven teen mikados, all of whose ages at death, ex cept four, exceeded one hundred years, the high est age being one hundred and forty-three years and the average length of reign exceeding sixty- two years. After that time (400 A. D, ) n o emperor attains the age of 100, and the average reign/ down to 1886 is that of the rulers of other nations. Of thefour different systems of count ing the years now in vogue in Japan, (1) by the reigns of the emperors, (2) by year periods (nen-go), (3) by the sexagenary circle or cycle of sixty years, and (4) by a continuous era from Jimmu TennO, the third came into use possibly in the fifth centuiy, the second in a.d. 645, and the fourth, a.d. 1874. From the era of the in troduction of calendars, writing, and the Chinese ethics and appliances of civilization Japanese history becomes clear, and its distinc tive features are manifest. At the centre of all, and the cardinal feature, is the imperial throne filled by a line of Mikados " unbroken from ages eternal. " By the superiority of their in tellect as well as of their weapons, and by the vigor of teaching and applying their dogmatics, the Yamato clansmen or people early made the divine origin and right of the head of their house, the Mikado, to rule over all Japan, the central doctrine of Shinto, the national religion, and on this religion government was built. What this blended religious aud political system might have developed into, we have no means of knowing; but immediately upon the impor tation of foreign influences from China, the germs were planted for mighty growths in poli tics, social, religious, and intellectual life, which were to profoundly affect and notably modify the nation and its development. From the sixth to the twelfth centuiy the history of Japan includes on its political side the abolition of the rude feudalism of the conquerors, aud the gradual centralization of the government in Kyoto, with the adoption of codes of law, boards or ministries, the division of the empire into provinces, governed by officers sent out by, and directly responsible to, the central govern- JAPAN 488 JAPAN ment, and the gradual unification of the whole body of tribes and outlying portions of the population into one homogeneous people. Such a result was not accomplished without much military energy and many bloody victories of the disciplined imperial troops over the brave but poorly armed mountaineers and distant tribes. The frontiers of the empire were gradually pushed to the edges of " the four seas," the Mikado's brocade banner waved on every hill from Satsuniato the islands of "Yezo, and " all under heaven" was peace. Neverthe less, this centralizing process aud long-con tinued military operations in the open field led to startling aud uuforeseen results. To the genius and valor of the military chieftains was added the power of popularity, and when war was over these men, jealous of each other, be came dangerous as leaders. Another far-reach ing effect on society was the gradual separation of the military from the agricultural class, the physically strong and intellectually gifted be coming permanent soldiers, continually in camp and clothed constantly in armor and helmet. Such a body, or bodies, of men on the distant frontiers were far more likely to know, respect, believe in, obey, and follow their favorite com mander than to heed the mandates of the distant and shadowy court at Kyoto. The foundations of a new feudal system were thus laid. Further, as the weak and less intelligent men were left to tend the fields, there was gradually formed, and unchangeably widened, that gulf between the soldier and the laboring classes which has ever since been one of the marked features of the social state in Japan. Out of the military class, or buke, has been evolved the samurai, the sol dier-scholar, the most picturesque and interest ing figure in the national history. From this class, which now constitutes over one twentieth of the populace, have arisen nearly all the great warriors, statesmen, scholars, reformers, Chris tians, thinkers, and philanthropists of modem times, while the man of the agricultural class is still the typical ultra-conservative. The buke or samurai were the military, the kuge or civil court nobles and officers were the civil, servants of the Mikado, who was in theory the owner of all the land. When relieved from the pressure of military duty by the subjugation of the "barbarians" or rebels, the military families turned their ambition to civil matters, and the winning of the prizes of rank aud office at the court and near the imperial person. Tlie men of the Taira or Heike leaders, by marrying their daughters to the Mikados, and securing control of offices, and of all approaches to the throne, by means of the appointment of their own nominees, became practically rulers of the empire. When their rivals, the men of the Minamoto or Genji family attempted resistance to their claims, a war of extermination began, which after mutual reprisal and brilliant and bloody campaigns ended in the slaughter and extirpation of the Heike or Taira clan. Of the Minamoto victors Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, the latter, persecuted by his brother, lied to Tartary, and became, as some Japanese and Chinese scholars believe, the world-renowned Genghis Khan. Yoritomo estab lished his military seat at Kamakura, twelve miles from the modern Yokohama. He gradu ally and craftily obtained the control of the civil as well as military functions of government, and thus, " the Throne and the Camp" being sepa rated, there began that curious dual system which, with interruptions, lasted until 1868, and which led foreigners to imagine that there were two emperors in Japan, one spiritual and the other secular. When in 1219 the Minamoto line ceased, other rulers succeeded at Kamakura, who gradually made the magistracies and governorships hereditary in the families of their own nominees, and thus the feudal system was fastened in the nation. From the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuiy these petty rulers or daimio were at nearly continual war with each other, and the dark ages of ignorance and an archy brooded over Japan. Then followed three men of marked genius, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Iyeyasu. The first two of this trio fought to unify the nation and restore the Mikado's su premacy; tbe third followed up their work, but restored and still further developed feudalism. By a most elaborate system of checks, he kept profound peace for over two hundred and fifty years. It is with the Japan at peace and se cluded from all the world, according to the plan of Iyeyasu, that the modern world is most familiar. Buddhism. — In the formation of the total product, Buddhism has been a most potent fac tor. Introduced in 552 a.d. from Korea, with its elaborate systems of ethics, ritual, dogma, and scriptures, it soon completely overshadowed the bald and impoverished cult of Shinto. Its complete victory was heralded when Kobo, the reputed inventor of the Japanese syllabary, the profound scholar of mighty intellect, who had visited China and mastered the Sanskrit, pro claimed in the beginning of the ninth century his scheme of reconstruction and of reconcilia tion, by which the older and indigenous faith was swallowed by the foreign religion. This man, the Philo aud Euhemerus of Japan, de clared, after revelation from the gods, that all the Shinto deities were avatars or incarnations of Buddha. He therefore baptized them with Buddhist names, and in place of the Shinto festivals appointed others to be celebrated ac cording to the Buddhist liturgies. Having al ready obtained a foothold in the palace, and by its influence turned the emperors into cloistered monks and empresses into nuus — thus dealing a blow at Shinto in its vitals, aud by weakening government prepared the way for the decay of the imperial authority and tbe supremacy of the military classes — tbe victory of Kobo's system was easy. Further, the Buddhist monks were explorers, road-makers, bridge-builders, im provers of diet and living, chaplains of the army, almost the only scholars and learned men apart from the court, the benefactors of the people, tbe exponents of civilization, aud tbe foster- fathers of art, of literature, and of material de velopment. From the sixth to the twelfth century is the missionaiy era of Japanese Buddhism, after which for two centuries the development of doctrine followed, in which emerged those new and startling forms of the faith of Shakamuni which have made Japan the land of dreadful heresies to the co-religion ists of Siam aud China. In Shin-sniu, or "reformed" Buddhism, we see the circle of development complete, and the beginning and the end meeting in what seems a caricature of Christianity. Of the six great sects in Japan, one originated in India, one in China, and four in Japan, viz., tbe Shin-gon, J5-do, Shin, and Nicbiren. These sects of purely native origin are mainly developments of the pantheistic prin- JAPAN 489 JAPAN ¦ciple initiated by K0b5, reinforced by local and patriotic considerations ; the Nichiren sect in cluding in its pantheon all possible Buddhas and nearly all the canonized saints and right eous men known to Japan. The doctrines of the Shin-gon and Ten-dai sects are full of meta physics and mysticism ; those of the Shin and Nichiren have a more practical cast, the aim •f the priests beiug to reach the masses. Rec ognizing eight sects and thirty-eight sub-sects, we find that of these tbe Shin sect, or " re formed" Buddhism, has 18,783 temples, Zen 21,102, Shin-gon 13,358, Jo-do, 8,478, Ten-dai and Nichiren each 5,085 temples. Roman Christianity. — It will thus be seen that tbe religion of Japan is Buddhism, and that when in 1549, ten years after its first sight by a European, Roman Christianity reached Japan iu the person of its pioneer and then ablest exponent, Francis Xavier, ¦ the only serious obstacle to propaganda and conversion was the cultus imported originally from India. Shinto was out of sight, and buried iu mythol ogy, and the first missionary efforts were aided rather than hindered by tbe contemporary po litical condition of Japan, which was that of •civil war, during which Nobunaga humbled the pride and mightily diminished the power of the Buddhists by his military persecution of them. At Kagoshima in Satsuma, Xavier made one hundred converts in a year, and labored for short periods at Hirado, and Yamaguchi in Nagato, having also fruitlessly visited Kyoto. Leaving Torres and Fernandez, his fellow- missionaries, Xavier left for China, dying on his way thither at Sancian. In 1553 reinforce ments arrived, and though driven out of Yama guchi by civil outbreaks, the Portuguese friars assembled at Bungo, Vilela, visiting also Kyoto and Sakai and gaining converts. Mori, lord of Choshiu and ruler of ten provinces, was from the first hostile to Christianity and drove out both the missionaries and the reinforcements arriving in 1560. With success at Sakai and other places, and notwithstanding that native men of influence had declared for Christ, the troubles incident Upon the civil war compelled the brethren to locate at Nagasaki. Considera ble success was enjoyed at the Goto and Seki islands, and at Shimabara, while Organ tin, who iiad won the favor of Nobunaga, built a church in Kyoto. Ten years of prosperity followed, during which the daimio of Bungo and other nobles were converted, and in 1582 a mission was despatched to the Papal See, headed by three noblemen, the barons of Bungo and Omura and one Arima-no-Kami,-and accompanied by Valignani, all reaching Rome safely and return ing to Japan after an absence of five years. Nobunaga having been assassinated, Hideyoshi became virtual ruler of the empire, at first showing, like his predecessor, a friendly toler ance to the foreigners and Christians, whose schools now flourished at Osaka and Sakai, and whose bishop, Martinez, later made costly pres ents to the Taiko, Hideyoshi. The Pagan Reaction. — When, however, in 1587, he had subdued the southern daimiOs and provinces, in which were most of the Christian converts of rank, including the famous generals Kuroda and Konishi, Hideyoshi unmasked his Teal purpose, and issued an edict ordering the foreign missionaries to Hirado, in order to send them out of the country. He hoped they would •depart peacefully, and not compel him to deport them by force. They, however, finding that the edict was not pushed by force, scattered again, and finding asylum in the provinces of the daimiOs professing Christianit3r,began propa gating the faith more vigorously than ever, even in Kyoto, despite the official ban. Further, all the missionaries thus far engaged in Japan were Jesuits ; but iu 1590, in the train of tbe Spanish envoy from the Philippine Islands, four Fran ciscans arrived, who, despite the protests of the Jesuits, who laid before them the Papal bulls excluding all but Jesuits from Japan, and, still more, despite their solemn promise to Hide yoshi not to preach their doctrines, went vigor ously to work at the propaganda. Hideyoshi, now at leisure, thoroughly alarmed at what he considered the treacherous disobedience of the Portuguese friars, and at the growing Christian party, which threatened not only his own future, but that of the empire, determined to root up the foreign faith, and to do this he laid two plans. In the first place, he declared war against Korea, and sent armies of invasion thither, in which were many Christian officers and soldiers, among them Generals Konishi and Kuroda. No sooner were the leaders of the Christians immersed in war duties in a foreign land than Hideyoshi the next year, 1593, seized niue missionaries, six Franciscans aud three Jesuits, in Osaka and Kyoto, and sent them to Nagasaki, where they were publicly burned to death. For the next few years the open propaganda was less active, though work was secretly carried on and con verts multiplied. The Jesuit friars established a printing-press, and using type from Europe, published a number of interesting works, some of which had already circulated in manuscript. Mr. Ernest Satow, in his " privately printed " work, "The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan," Trlibner & Co., London 1880, enumerates, de scribes, and in some instances gives fac-similes of the title-pages of such relics as he has been able to find, see, or hear of, in Europe and Japan. While no trace of any translation of the Holy Scriptures has been discovered, it is known that grammars, dictionaries, confessions, catechisms, epitomes of the faith, manuals, lives and acts of the saints, Conlemptus Mundi (ei Kempis's Imitation of Christ), and Esop's Fables, were published, besides, probably, many minor religious works. It is evident that before Hideyoshi's death in 1598 the flourish ing stage of Christianity had passed. Exactly what were the causes of the failure of an enter prise by which Japan was left in heathenism and cut off from Christendom for nearly three centuries, cannot be as yet stated even by the critical student ; for while we know that side of the story given by the missionaries and in terpreted according to the prejudices of tbe foreign reader, the Japanese, and the most im portant, side of the story hasj never been told. After Hideyoshi's death the whole countiy was excited by civil troubles between the adherents of Iyeyasu and of Hideyori, the son of Hide yoshi, but missionary work went on until the Christians numbered over a million and a half. While Iyeyasu was busy in subduing his ene mies, he ignored Christianity, an example which the lesser political lights followed ; but on gaining the victory over the southern army, in which were many of the Christian leaders, at the battle of Sekigahara in October, 1600, he, like Hideyoshi, threw off the mask and issued a decree of expulsion of the foreigners. Busy, JAPAN 490 JAPAN however, with reorganizing the empire from his seat of government in the distant east at Yedo and Fuchiu (Shidzuoka), Iyeyasu could not, or did not, press his policy of expulsion, and large numbers of Spanish and Portuguese priests continued to secure entrance into Japan. In 1608, by the Papal bull, priests of all orders were allowed to reside in Japan. In 1610 the Dutch, and in 1613 the English, secured a foot hold at Hirado. At this time there were two hundred missionaries, with "two million con verts ;" but the strength was apparently in num bers only, for without leaders or men of influ ence in the slate its weakness was made appar ent when in Kiushiu, between 1600 and 1614, the daimios changed, adopted, or annihilated popular Christiauity at their pleasure, using it simply as the tool of their ambition. What ever may have been the motive, in 1614, of the sudden and fiercely energetic action of Iyeyasu in issuing that decree, which was at once execu ted with blood aud iron, — the inherent Japanese jealousy of foreign influence, the pressure of the Buddhist priesthood, the intrigues of the Protestant, Dutch and English, or his own despotic purpose to secure peace, and even national independence, by isolating Japan from all the world, — it is certain that his purpose suc ceeded. From Sendai to Satsuma, the Christians were compelled to renounce their faith, and, failing to do so, were imprisoned, exiled, tor tured, or beheaded, while the foreign religieux were deported. Thousands of natives fled to China and Formosa, or, outwardly recanting, kept alive their faith even until their teachers from Europe returned in 1858. With that min gling of religion, trade, and political intrigue that characterized so much of the missionary work of Roman Christianity in Japan, father Sotelo had prevailed on Date Masamune, daimio of Mutsu (Sendai), to open commercial relations with Mexico, and also send his retainer Hashi- kura as envoy to the Pope. Reaching Acapulco in Mexico in 1613, and Madrid and Rome in 1614, Sotelo was nominated by the Pope Bishop of Northern Japan and papal legate for the whole empire, while the Japanese officer was made a Roman senator, and otherwise highly honored. Ou his arrival home, however, all had changed. The Japanese officer recanted, and the friar arriving in Japan later, iu 1624, was put to death. The last great tragic act of extirpation was the suppression of the insurrec tion at Shimabara in 1637, when thousands of Christians and others, having seized and re paired an old castle in Kiushiu, withstood tbe siege of the armies sent by the Yedo authori ties during two mouths. Of the reported "twenty-seven thousand" prisoners who sur rendered, most were sent into exile, but mauy hundreds were executed by decapitation and drowning. So rigid became the inquisition and persecution, that at the opening of the eighteenth century the "evil sect " and the "Jesus relig ion" bad no representatives apparently left alive, except possibly au aged prisoner here and there. In 1709 Jean Baptiste Sidotti, an Italian priest who had hired the captain of a vessel sailing from Manila to land him in Japan, was seized and sent to the inquisition at Yedo, and imprisoned uutil death. The Tokugawa Regime. — The successors of Iyeyasu, the Tokugawa family of "Tycoons" in Yedo, gradually tightened the reins of au thority, perfected feudalism, and made the au thority of the emperor at Kyoto a shadow. By compelling the owners of all seaworthy vessels to burn them, and by enforcing the most rigid laws of seclusion, pronouncing death alike to- the Christian aud the returned castaway, they kept Japan insulated from the world, having- communication only with the Chinese and their own reputed vassals, the Koreans. Ordering the Dutch to leave Hirado and to live on the little island of Deshima, fronting Nagasaki, the limit of commerce and communication with Europe was fixed at one vessel annually, while the company of Hollanders at the factory rarely numbered over a dozen persons. During two- centuries and a quarter the Dutch and Japanese lived in harmony, though the former were pro hibited alike from importing Bibles or books. treating of the Christian religion, or from buy ing or receiving maps or books which might expose the modern history of Japan. These Hollanders have been diligently held up to the execration of Christendom, because they en joyed a monopoly of trade and were the favor ites of the Japanese; but as most if not all of their hostile critics have been Roman Catholic writers, or of nations commercially or relig iously jealous of Holland, it seems best here to give some facts on lhe other side. It is certain that for two centuries this commerce, with the Dutch language and literature, and the inter course of the surgeons and learned men with inquiring natives, constituted a fertile source of culture and intellectual stimulus which saved the Japanese mind from stagnation. Further, the Dutch were merchants, and did not profess- to be saints or missionaries; though long after tbe trade ceased to be profitable, the govern ment of the Netherlands still maintained it for the sentiment and honor of the flag. The- Dutch were among the first to urge the gov ernment of Yedo tf> open Japan to foreign inter course, a fact which paved the way for the diplomatic victory of Perry, whose interpreters were Hollanders, and whose means of communi cation was the Dutch language. Still further, the medical sciences, in which the Japanese- now so excel, were cultivated, hospitals estab lished, and hundreds of cultivated native doc tors practised according to the Dutch method, each becoming a centre of light, diffusing in telligence which made steady meutal prepara tion for that easy acceptance of foreign civiliza tion which has so surprised the world, and all this before the beginning of the nineteenth centuiy. Causes of the Renascence. — Indeed, it will be found on examination of the antecedents of nearly every reformer and leader in the modern progress of Japan, that his first enlightenment, or motive to renovation of mind, came from his own or his father's contact with tbe Dutch or Dutch learning. Further, the abundant facts- now coming to the light in these days, when New Japan of the Meiji era is so busily engaged in building the monuments of the martyrs she once imprisoned, drove to suicide, and be headed, show beyond doubt that the beginnings of modern Protestant, though uuorganized, Christianity were prior to the coming of the mis sionaries, and began with tbe Dutch. Some of the sons and grandsons of these inquirers oi- martyrs are now pastors of Christian churches, and this wide area of propaedeutics for modern civilization and Christiauity gives strongest hope of its reality and permanence in the hearts- JAPAN 491 JAPAN of the people. Looking outwardly, we discern certain disconnected events which belong to the story of the renascence of the faith in Japan. The native sailors and travellers, no longer allowed to do even their fishing and coasting in the larger seaworthy vessels of for mer time, were frequently driven out to sea and into the Kuro Shiwo. For two centuries *aud a half a steady stream of junks and boats, ladeu with men, and often with women and children, doomed to hopeless starvation, or choked with corpses and waterlogged, might be traced in the currents of the lonely Pacific. The survivors found new homes on the shores of the Aleutians, Alaska, and British America, or the Sandwich Islands. With the opening of the Russian Pacific to American commerce and the development of tbe fur trade and whale- fishery, the number of rescues of Japanese waifs became every year increasingly numer ous. To return these involuntary exiles to the land they loved was the dictate of humanity, and many and interestiug are the narratives of the ships of Christendom, especially those of the United States of America, seeking the ports of Dai Nippon to return her sons; while equally disgraceful is tbe story of brutal refusal by the minions of Yedo's despots to receive them. One notable attempt was that made by the owners of the ship "Morrison," who, in 1837, sent seven Japanese, with Dr. S. Wells Williams, and Dr. Gutzlaff as interpreters. The ship was fired on at Uraga, July 30th, in Yedo Bay, and also repulsed at Kagoshima, in Satsuma. From these waifs Messrs. Gutzlaff and Williams in China learned the language, and translated into it portions of the Bible. In the gradual evolution of a complete version of the Holy Scriptures in Japanese, an event which was celebrated in Tokyo February 3d, 1888, this work of Gutzlaff and Williams, and that of the natives who translated from Dutch Bibles ob tained at Deshima, with that of Dr. B. J. Bet- telheim, a missionary supported by a British Naval Society at Napha in Riu Kiu, from 1846 to 1854, may be considered historical links. The settlement of California and the discovery of gold there again called the attention of the American Government to Japan, though indi vidual Christians had for years kept it in their faith and prayers. By a coincidence that sug gests the hand of Providence, the present Em peror of Japan was born in Kyoto November 3d, 1852, on the very day that Perry was ready to sail in the United States steamer "Missis sippi " to Yedo Bay. The success of this naval diplomatist is matter of history, but it was not until Townsend Harris had penetrated to Yedo, and made a second American treaty, that Japan was opened, at Yokohama and Nagasaki, to trade, commerce, and residence. The Roman Catholics since 1859.— The mis sionaries of Greek, Roman, and Reformed Chris tianity at once entered the empire, the French Catholics to discover their brethren and con tinue the old methods of propaganda, and the Russians or Greek Catholics and the Protestant missionaries to break new ground. As early as 1846 the Pope had nominated a bishop and sev eral missionaries, who in the Riu Kiu islands awaited the opening of the country. At Ura- kami and other places near Nagasaki there were found in 1865 thousands of people who possessed some prayers and books, with many of the old sacramental words of Latin origin, and practised some of the minor rites of the faith, besides abstaining from acts significant to Buddhist, and especially Shinto, worship pers. Until toleration became the fact, which was even before it became the law, in 1872, many of these people were imprisoned, exiled, and otherwise persecuted, as indeed were occa sionally even the converts of Protestant mis sionaries. One band of native converts, torn from their homes in 1867, were kept in. exile until 1873. Many interesting relics and survi vals of Roman Christianity of tbe seventeenth century have been discovered by the priests, aud here and there small bodies of descendants of former believers have been more easily con verted, because of the sentiment of historic con tinuity. In the thirty-one years of their re vived work, making diligent use of the methods peculiar to Roman Catholic missionary opera tions, they have again established themselves widely over the empire, but most thickly in Kiushiu, and in August, 1889, numbered 40,538 souls. The missionaries are all French, includ ing three bishops, of northern, central, and southern Japan, and living at Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagasaki, respectively; 49 priests or abbots of native parochial clergy, 19 French and Japanese, 16 ordinary priests, 56 French and 3 native sisters of charity, with 5 mothers su perior. The nuns and some of the priests do much teaching in 4 schools and 18 orphanages. The missionaries are assisted by 309 catechists. The congregations number 217. The stations are, besides the three imperial cities and all the treatyports, Sendai, Morioka, Akita, Kochi, Oka- yama, Hiroshima, Ise, Matsuyama, Kesen, Ebisu Machi (Sado), Nagoya, Matsumoto, Wakamatsu, and Tsurungaoka. The rank and file of the converts are almost wholly from the humbler classes, and the professors, journalists, lawyers, and educated men, so numerous in the churches of Reformed Christianity, are conspicuously absent. The small number of native priests also is probably explained by the fact that the hand of the foreigner is kept vigilantly and heavily upon the natives in order to hold them closely to the type of French-Roman Chris tianity. One religious newspaper is published, and the literature of the Roman Church is. abundantly circulated. The zeal and consecra tion of the French missionaries are beyond all praise. The Greek Catholics. — The missionaries of the Holy Orthodox Catholic aud Apostolic Church of Russia began operations at Hako date in 1870, and have steadily continued their labors. A large native ministry has been trained, the Bible has been read, used, and taught, and in tbe freedom allowed their con verts the Russian priests are much like the Protestants. Among the most magnificent buildings in the capital of Japan are those of the Russo-Greek church, the indefatigable head being the archimandrite Nicolai, who is assisted by three other Russian clergy, and having about 1,700 baptized converts and 17,000 adherents. In a recent informal conference of native Christian workers without reference to the branches of the Church universal, the Greek Catholics were well represented. In some parts of Japan where the Russo-Greek churches have been planted they have not held their own, the weak converts lapsing into heathenism and the earnest Bible-readers passing into Protestant churches. JAPAN 492 JAPAN Protestant Christian Missions. — Turning now to the story of the beginnings and marvellous success of Reformed Christianity in Japan, we shall be able only to outline the facts. By the Townsend Harris treaty July 29th, 1858, certain ports were opened, July 4th, 1859, to trade and residence, and tbe first to avail them selves of the new opportunity were the Ameri can Reformed, Episcopal, and Presbyterian so cieties. Two members ofthe China Mission of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States, after three years' life in China, Revs. John Liggins and C. M. Williams, were ap pointed to go to Japan. They arrived at Na gasaki, the former May 2d, and the latter, Rev. (afterwards Bishop) C. M. Williams, late iu Juue. At Kauagawa, near Yokohama, J. C. Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. (afterward the famous lexicographer) aud his wife, Presbyterian, ar rived October 18th; followed November 1st by Rev. S. R. Brown, D.D., and D. B. Simmons, M.D., who settled at Kanagawa, and November 7th by Rev. Guido F. Verbeck, at Nagasaki; these three brethren being of the Reformed Church in America, their wives rejoining them from Shanghai, December 29th. Three mis sions were thus established before January 1st, 1860. On April 1st, 1860, arrived Rev. J. Goble and wife, and lhe Japanese Sentaro, the former a marine and the latter a waif in Com modore Perry's squadron, sent out by the American Baptist Free Mission Society. For ten years these four American missions occu pied the field, and with few reinforcements, but with many discouragements and vicissi tudes, engaged in the work of preparation and promise. At this point of survey, it is fitting, now in 1890, to glance at the personnel, events, and work accomplished. Of those who on ac count of failure of health or otherwise were obliged to transfer their services or relinquish their labors in Japan may be named, of the Episcopalians, Rev. John Liggins, who after compiling his serviceable -'One Thousand Phrases in English and Romanized Japanese," returned home February 24th, 1860; E. Schmidt, M.D., who labored from April, 1860 to November 25th, 1861; and Miss Jeannette R. Conover (Mrs. Elliot H. Thomson of the China Mission). Rev. C. M. Williams was con secrated Missionaiy Bishop of China and Japan October 3d, 1866; visiting both countries and living in Japan from 1869 to 1889. Rev. A. C. Morris arrived in Japan in May, 1871. Of the Presbyterian brethren, Dr. Hepburn located December 29th, 1862, at Yokohama, doing dis pensary and lexicographic work daily, except Sunday, when teaching intervened. Barring the winters of 1866-67 and '71-72, for the printing of his dictionary in Shanghai, and a few visits to America, medical work, translation of the Bible, teaching, and dictionary -making have been continuous for over thirty years, and the doc tor's name is known all over the empire as that of the chief translator of Holy Scripture, and as a synonym with philanthropy. Rev. David Thompson D.D. joined the mission in May, 1863, and is still active as a missionary in Tokyo. In 1868 Rev. E. Cornes and wife reached Yoko hama, but with their child two years old per ished in the explosion of a little steamer at To kyo, their infant son of three months being the only survivor of the family. Of the brethren of the Reformed Church, Dr. and Mrs. Sim mons resigned in 1860, the doctor remaining in Japan until his death in Tokyo in 1888. Rev. S. R. Brown, D.D., after writing an excellent Grammar of Colloquial Japanese, and valuable articles on Japan, translating part of the Bible and teaching it constantly, besides training in the vernacular tbe most profound scholar in Japanese, Ernest M. Satow, Esq., now British Consul-general in Siam, returned to America and died al Monson, Mass., June 20th, 1880. Dr. Guido F. Verbeck, a fluent speaker of sev eral languages, and eminently fitted by his tem perament, versatile powers, and scholarship to be the adviser of the new men who found them selves at the helm of the ship of state after the successful revolution of 1868, remained at Na gasaki until 1869, when at the invitation of the Mikado's government he came to Tokyo to or ganize a national scheme of education, and to be at the head of the Imperial University. Already at Nagasaki he had taught large classes of native young men, and from 1864 to 1878 was in government educational service at his own charges. When, in 1872, an embassy was or ganized to go round the world to study western civilization and ask of the treaty powers justice to Japan, Mr. Verbeck found that one-half of its members had been his pupils. In 1879 he rejoined the mission at Tokyo, and has since been abundant in labors as preacher, Bible translator, touring evangelist, theological pro fessor, and helper of tbe churches. Rev. Henry Stout and wife reached Nagasaki March 10th, 1869, and are still laboring there. In August, 1869, Miss Mary Kidder (now Mrs. E. R. Miller of Morioka) arrived, locating in Yokohama, and being the first unmarried lady missionary com ing to Japan direct from America. Miss S. K. M. Hequemborg and Rev. C. H. H. Wolff and wife were also temporarily connected with the Reformed Mission. Before the first decade of Protestant missionary work had closed it was notably enlarged by the establishment of two new enterprises — that of the (English) Church Mission and that of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions: in the for mer were Rev. G. Ensor and wife, January, 1869, and in 1871 Rev. H. Burnside and wife, at Nagasaki; in the latter were Rev. D. C. Greene and wife, who, arriving November 29th, 1869, at Yokohama, settled in March, 1870, at Kobe. Later missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M., who came before the epochal year of 1872, when the period of harvest began by the organization of the first Christian church at Yokohama March 10th, were Rev. Messrs. O. H. Gulick and J. B. Davis, M. L. Gordon and their wives, with J. L. Berry.M.D., and wife. The Woman's Union Missionary Society also established a Home at Yokohama in October, 1872. The planting of the first Protestant Christian church was fol lowed within a little over a year by the govern mental abolition of the lunar and the adoption of the solar calendar of Christendom, the re moval of the anti-Christian edicts which fore shadowed general liberty of conscience, the re turn of the embassy from their tour of the world, the organization of a New Testament Translation Committee and the serious com mencement of their work, and the arrival of a large force of missionaries, exceeding by one the whole force then in the field. Until the spring of 1872 only ten natives had been baptized, some of whom we name as follows: by Rev. James Ballagh, Yano Riu, October, 1864; by Rev. G. F. Verbeck, May 20th, 1866, Wakasa, minister JAPAN 493 JAPAN (karo) of the daimio of Hizen, and Ayabe, his younger brother; about the same rime, by Bishop Williams, ShiSmura of Higo; in De cember of 1868, by Mr. Verbeck, a young Bud dhist priest, Shimidzu; in May, 1868, Awadzu KOmli, by Mr. Ballagh; in February, 1869, by Mr. Thompson, Ogawa Yoshiyasu, Suzuki Ko- jiro, and an old lady; by Mr. Ensor, Nimura. " The First Church of Christ in Japan," orgau- ' ized chiefly through the instrumentality of Rev. J. H. Ballagh, March 10th, 1872, was composed on the day of its formation of nine young men then and there baptized, and of Ogawa and Nimura, the former being chosen elder and the latter a deacon. The constitution, drawn up for the church by its own members, placed tbe government in the hands of the pastor and el ders, with the consent of the members, the creed being a simple evangelical one. This church was the direct outgrowth of the earnest observance of the week of prayer, the meetings of which had been prolonged until the end of February. The Book of Acts had been daily studied by Japauese and missionaries, the na tives not only largely attending, but a half- dozen or more engaging in prayers for Japan that melted the hearts of their teachers, as the writer, who was present, well remembers. Be fore entering into the second period of Protes tant missionary work, which began in 1872, and will terminate, we hope, at the end of the year 1890, when, under her new constitution and representative government, granting all reason able liberty to the people, Japanese Christianity will enter upon its third stage of progress, and begin its mastery of the whole empire, let us glance at the historical situation, characteristics of the country and people, and at missionary principles and results. The Revolution of 1868. — Unknown at first to either the political or religious envoys of Chris tian nations in Japan, but none the less surely and steadily, the seeds of revolution, planted long before Perry's arrival, were bearing a har vest soon to be reaped by the sickle of civil war. The revival by native scholars of pure Shinto, and the study of ancieut Japanese history and literature, had revealed to earnest men the fact that the military "Tycoon" of Yedo was a usurper, that " the Camp" had too long over awed " the Throne," and that national safety and progress and loyalty to ancient ideals demanded the restoration of the Mikado to supremacy, and the subordination of the Tokugawa family and Yedo system. When the hated foreigners land ed in " the Land of the Gods, " "the Holy Coun try" of Japan, and the authorities in Yedo signed treaties with them, without consulting the emperor at Kyoto, then from one end of the land to the other arose the cry, "Honor the Mikado and expel the barbarian. " By many, however, this cry was raised for the purpose of concealing their real intent to overthrow the Yedo government and open the country to mod ern ideas and intercourse. Gradually the cen tre of political gravity shifted from Yedo to Kyoto, and after a long and picturesquely-de tailed diplomatic duel between the authorities of camp and court, reverencers of the Mikado and loyal retainers of the Shogun (" Tycoon"), the flames of war broke out at the decisive bat tle of Fushimi, near Kyoto, January 27th and 28th. The field of war was then shifted to the east and north, but after nearly two years of fighting the Mikado's army was everywhere successful. A new generation of men, mostly from the southern clans of Satsuma, Cho-shiu, Tosa, Hizen, and Higo, and many of them ac quainted with modern ideas through the study of Dutch and English, were at the head of af fairs. Through their influence the Mikado's envoys signed the treaties, the government was removed to Tokyo, the feudal system abolished, an embassy sent round the world, foreign dress adopted, a national army, navy, revenue, edu cational, postal, and other modern systems adopted, and the path of western civilization entered upon with a vigor and earnestness that even yet seems amazing. At first persecutors of the Christians, even to renewing the old edicts, they became enlightened; and, as soon as it became safe to do so, granted toleration, re ligious liberty, and the Magna Charta and con stitution of February llth, 1889. Many of the younger reformers and statesmen were pupils of missionaries or students in Europe, while the elder ones were disciples of Dutch culture, and from the first success of 1888, their faces, long turned towards the ideals of Christendom, were now firmly set for new light and leading. They sought in Europe and America for intellect and learning to establish the foundations of the new empire, inviting experts in science, law, litera ture, and statecraft to assist them. At first the motive of many was to possess the weapons of foreigners iu order to expel them, and their de sire was only for the material advantages of western civilization. Society and Morals. — While this is still in a measure true, it is certainly manifest that a noble minority of Japan's truest patriots and ablest men realize that moral soundness and high ideals are absolutely necessary for perma nent progress. Hence they have endeavored to make education the basis of their advance, and after their first grip of power they began to cleanse the face of society of those revolting eye-sores with which the old missionaries are so familiar in memory, and of which later comers, -and even young Japanese born since 1868, scarcely dream. The writer, who set foot in Japan, January 29th, 1870, saw many things which to-day seem not only incredible but absurd. The grossness of the immorality was astounding. The most elegant architecture and most attractive portions of the large cities and sea-ports were in the Yoshiwara (flowery- meadows) or licensed prostitutes' quarters, into which girls were sold as slaves, and when past sixteen were daily and nightly ranged to pub lic view in rows, exactly like dress-goods in show-windows, for selection and rent. Phallic shrines were not only numerous along the roads in many provinces, but enormous figures were exposed for sale by hundreds in the shops, the same indecent models of male phys ical organs being made of sugar and various confectionery as well as into porcelain and faience. At the matsuri or Temple festivals and at picnics these emblems were carried in their arms or on their shoulders by strumpets in the public parades, or by respectable people taken home, openly displayed among other symbols of luck. In the frenzy of the idola trous processions the most unspeakably inde cent performances were gone through with. Much of the popular literature which the writer studied he found to be simply putrid, and even yet the daily newspapers, popular stories, and song-books are utterly unfit for translation JAPAN 494 JAPAN into English, though the phallic symbols were in 1872 abolished by edict. The complete ex posure of the body by the men's walking to and from the bath naked, and the women and girls taking their tubbing in the street in absolute nudity, as well as the promiscuous interming ling in the public bath-houses of tbe sexes, in all conditions of skin and other diseases, ought not perhaps to be judged by our standards. It may possibly be, also, that the universal habit of lyiug, often so startlingly useless, needless, and unprovoked, may have beeu fos tered by the despotism and espionage of the feudalism, which made every native feel like a helpless fly in a web. The disregard for human life, tlie uuquarantined small-pox pa tients roaming freely about, the beggars and eta liable at any time to be cut down by the swords of the swaggering aud sword-weariug samurai, made the sight of dead men lying in the public highways not uncommon; though such a sight was not more unwelcome than that of the horribly diseased outcasts who lived in wayside huts, or of the gamblers who, in midwinter, with the last shred of clothing lost in gaming, shivered in absolute nakedness while water froze in tbe shade. To help a man who was drowning, if that man were an eta or hinin, was not tbe rule with Japanese humanity, as the writer has witnessed. Divorce was not only too shamefully frequent, but concubinage was practised in every province. Tbe open and visible results of such a social condition were seen hot only in abundant adult diseases, and in the physical condition of the children, but also in their language and familiarity with a knowl edge and a vocabulary which is only that of adults in most countries of Christendom. Idolatry and revolting superstition were every where rampant. " Looking at idolatry and im morality in the light of obstacles to the reception and spread of Christianity in Japan," says Dr. Verbeck in his "History of Protestant Missions in Japan," "it is probably quite safe to say that the latter will prove to be the more tena cious and formidable of the two." Difficulties of the Missionaries. — The mission aries who came in 1859 and later were objects of intense suspicion and closest espionage, so that all persons communicating with them were within a cordon almost as impregnable as that with which in the old days foreign ships were promptly and permanently surrounded. Their first teachers were, of necessity, official spies, and they were regarded as emissaries of foreign governments who had come to corrupt both the loyalty and the morals of the people of "the Holy Country." The most abominable stories were industriously circulated among the people as to the purpose, diet, morals, and general character of these envoys of Christ. The writer has beard many of these reports, once sincerely believed and later rejected, told by shamefaced and laughing lads from many provinces; and on once asking his servant what his idea of Christianity was, received from his terrified and almost blanched face the answer, " Mu-julsu, dimna san" (Sorcery, master). The missionaries were not, only .closely confined to the treaty ports, but even there, or on their short walks within the seven-n' limit, were in danger of incendiarism and assassination. During the rampancy of the patriotic ronin and barbarian-expeller, a number of foreigners, Europeans, were murdered, often in a cruel and cowardly manner; for the infuriated ruffians, though belonging to the samurai class, with its unquestionably high soldierly ideals, did not scruple to cut from behind and kill by dishonor able surprise, like foot-pads and highwaymen. The motive of these acts of bloodshed, and even the attacks in force upon the legations, was patriotic; the Mikado-reverencers desiring above .all things to embroil the Tycoon and Yedo government, by which the treaties were signed, with foreign governments and thus weaken the object of their hatred, so tbat the Mikado might come into his ancient supremacy. In other words, many far-seeing liberals veiled their larger and nobler purpose under the cry of "Expel the foreigner," and sought thus to precipitate tbe revolution of 1868, and to hasten the good time which now they behold, though it has come in very different phase from the images in their dreams. Neither the mission aries nor the foreign diplomats could then see what is now so clear; and to the puzzled envoys of the Treaty Powers it was like playing an intricate game with a hand behind which was a curtain. True to their consecrated purpose, the missionaries toiled on in the kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ, dispelling suspicion, conciliating hatred, and enlightening ignorance. They mastered the language with a heroic dili gence which those who live in these days of grammars, dictionaries, and nearly a full appa ratus of linguistic acquisition can but faintly realize. To learn Japauese then from teachers who could not teach except as they were slowly taught to impart, was rather like the muscular labor expended upon a pump than the measure- able intellectual work of to-day. Summary of Results , 1859-1872. — When, bow- ever, tbe new era bad been ushered in by the formation of a native Christian church, and the old order had changed, these were the results to be summarized : A most remarkable modification of temper among official and influential men to wards the missionaries, which reminded one of a change of climate. Instead of hostility, suspicion, or contempt, there grew up a spirit of respect for the missionaries, and of inquiry concerning the truth which they so nobly adorned by their labors aud character. The public confidence had been gained, and thus the first great preparation made for final suc cess; while on the part of the envoys of Christ the vernacular language had ( been mastered, and a notable quantity of influential literary work bad been done. Besides the linguistic manuals of Mr. Liggins and Dr. Brown, the magnificent dictionary of Dr. Hepburn had been made and widely used. Even more important had been the importatiou, sale, and eager read ing of the Bible in the Chinese version, which the Japanese gentry could easily peruse. A number of volumes of Christian literature, not ably Dr. W. A. P. Martin's Evidences of Chris tianity, so found favor among the Japanese, that depositories for the sale of books were opened in Tokyo and at Yokohama. Portions of the Bible had been translated into Japanese, the writer making use of Dr. Hepburn's and Brown's translations of tlie Gospels in Ecbizen early in 1871. On September 20th, 1872, alarge convention of missionaries and others met at Yokohama, to arrange for co-operation in the rendering of the whole Bible into the vernacu lar, a work which after many vicissitudes was completed in 1887. The education of the ¦JAPAN 495 JAPAN young had been carried on by Mrs. Hepburn, -Miss Kidder at the Ferris Seminary, Mr. and Mrs. Can-others in Tokyo, Mrs. Pruyn and the Ladies of the American Mission Home, and by -other missionaries; and many of those who are now among the most active and zealous Chris tian men and women in the Japanese churches received their first enlightenment in these schools, which have since become noble institu tions, wielding a wide and deep influence. Med ical mission work especially, under Dr. Hep burn, bad been steadily disarming prejudice, and making seed-plots for the gospel. To the foreign population had been given church, sabbath-school, and educational privileges by the missionaries, who largely aided to keep pure the social life of people professiug Christianity, but living in contact with a heathenism that was especially disastrous to the morals of both single and married men. Last, but not least, were the winning of souls and tlie baptism of the brave pioneers of the Christianity that now promises to spread over all Japan. The writer, who was not a missionary, but an organizer of •education in the employ of the Japanese Gov ernment, and who from 1870 to 1874 saw the lights and shadows of missionary life, believes that nothing of greater importance to the king dom of Christ in Dai Nippon has been done since the epochal year of 1872 than was done nobly, unselfishly, and thoroughly by the first missionaries, who toiled like workmen in a •caisson, unable to see, except in faith, the splendid superstructure that has since arisen to gladden all Christendom. The Second Period, 1872-1890.— Turning now to survey the second period, between 1873 and 1890, we are struck with the interest awakened in Japan among many countries and •societies. The stations already named were reinforced, and tbe history of the veteran mis sionaries is one of steady progress, at which our space will permit us only to glance. In the oldest mission, the American Episcopal, new work was established in other cities, the Prayer Book and other Christian literature were fur nished the Japanese in their own tongue, and educational work carried on despite the losses in personnel and material by death, removal, and fire. In 1869 the Church Missionary Society, in 1873 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, in 1877 the Society for Promoting Female Education in the East, and in 1888 tbe Wycliffe College Mission of Canada, entered Japan to join in the good work, under the forms of the Episcopal polity and methods, in which they have mutually aided each other, the great oities of the empire being especially occupied. These organizations are united under the name of the Nippon Sei Kokwai, or the Holy Church of Japan, having 49 organized churches, with 3,422 communicant members. In 1889, on the resignation of Bishop Williams, the Rev. Edward Abbott, D.D., of Cambridge, Mass., was appointed Bishop of Japan, but declined the position. While 41 out-stations are occupied, the American Episcopal Church have their headquarters in Tokyo, with twenty mission aries, and excellent schools, with varied appli ances aud facilities, now being enlarged. Osaka is occupied with fourteen missionaries, and a beginning has been made at Nara, the ancient capital of Japan, between 709 and 794 a.d., and ¦one of the sixty capital cities known in history. The Church of England Missionaiy Society, more widespread in its operations, has planted its presbyters or teachers in Tokyo, Osaka, Tokushima, Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Kushiro, Hakodate, and Matsuye, its largest station being Osaka, with fourteen missionaries. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel have stations in Tokyo and Kobe, the Wycliffe College Mission of Toronto having chosen Nagoya for its basis of operations. The Church of Englaud Zenana Society, whose work isamong the Japanese women at their homes, has a lady worker at Nagasaki, Osaka, and Matsuye, respectively. The ladies of Saint Paul's Asso ciated Mission, who are deaconesses, who nurse, teach, and perform various Christian service, live in Tokyo. The Society for Promoting Female Education have two lady teachers at Osaka. The first bishop of the English Church in Japan, Rev. Dr. Poole, was appointed in 1883. The present incumbent, Right Rev. E. Bickersteth, lives in Tokyo, and with him are associated three clergymen, two of whom are bishop's chaplains. TheEnglish bishop has over sight over 2 archdeacons, over 20 European and 8 Japanese clergy, and a number of lay workers. There are now English churches more or less directly connected with tbe Established Church in most of the cities and ports open to foreigners. The work of the churches and societies of the Episcopal order has given most gratifying signs of promise and increase, especially during the past five years, and enlargement seems now the desire of those at home and in the field. The Book of Common Prayer has for some years been in the bands of the Japanese in their native tongue, and in an easy flowing transla tion is now published in both the native script and Roman letter. In the translation of the Bible into the union or standard version, the Episcopal missionaries, especially the Rev. P. K. Fyson, have taken honorable part. They publish two periodicals, one of which represents the "high" and the other the "low" theory of the Church, as held by Christians who use the Book of Common Prayer. The churches and societies laboring according to the Presbyterial polity have been united, since 1877, in one general organization in con nection with the native United Church of Christ in Japan. Of these the American Pres byterian Church, the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America, and the United Church of Christ in Japan (native) were at work before. 1873. Since that yearthe United Presbyterian Church of Scot land in 1874, the Reformed (German )-Church in the United States in 1879, the (Southern) Pres byterian Church in the United States since 1 885, have joined forces to the missionaiy army. With tbis large union organization the lady missionaries of the Woman's Union Missionaiy Society of America are affiliated. The Cumber land Presbyterian Church, which began work in Japan in 1877, maintained an independent organization until 1889, but is now part of the union of churches laboring in connection with the United Church of Japan. The American Presby terian Mission has stations at Yokohama, Tokyo, Osaka, Kanazawa, Hiroshima, Sapporo, and Kyoto, the largest force, 29 missionaries, being in Tokyo, where also is located their preparatory school, college, and theological seminary, form ing their superb educational institution, the Meiji Gakuin, or College of the Era of Enlight ened Peace. At Kanazawa, in Kaga, on the west coast, are 16, and at Osaka, 9 missionaries, JAPAN 496 JAPAN the total force numbering 68 Americans. The Reformed (Dutch) Church in America have at Yokohama 9 missionaries, 7 of whom are in the Ferris Seminary for girls. There are also schools at Tokyo and Nagasaki, with 8 mission aries at each place, aud 2 at Morioka. The 6 missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland are in Tokyo. The (German) Reformed Church in the United States has hitherto confined its operations to the large city of Sendai, in the north, and now reached by railway from Tokyo. There are eight mission aries of this church in the field. The American Presbyterian Mission (South) have 6 missionaries at Kochi, 7 at Nagoya, and 3 at Tokushima. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church has four stations, the chief one being at Osaka, where are 9 missionaries, 3 being at Wakayama, 1 at Nagoya, and one at Yokkaishi, in Ise. The five lady missionaries of the Woman's Union Mis sionary Society of America live at Yokohama, where since 1871 the American Mission Home has been doing a noble work in the active train ing of girls, to make, fill, and adorn native Christian homes. In a number of instances American Christian women have singly and alone gone to live and teach among the Japanese in tbe interior, and sow the first seeds of Chris tianity. In more numerous instances, various parts of the cities already entered by male missionaries are cultivated by Christian lady teachers, who soon gather in and assemble around themselves households of native girls, whom they train in the ideas of Christian purity and consecration. Probably in no other countiy have the results of woman's work for women been more manifest and wide-reaching. Of tbe 71 churches under the Presbyterian polity, 3 are native self-supporting, and 68 are under missionary auspices, the latter having a member ship of 5,154 men, 3,800 women, 1,240 children, or a total of 10,194. The day-schools have 2,547 and the Sunday-schools 5, 000 scholars, the 2 theological schools have 56 students while 39 native ministers and 47 unordained preachers or helpers labor with the missionaries. All the denominations encourage the desire, which originates with the Japanese themselves, to be self-supporting; and in general the success of all bodies has been most gratifying, the affiliated Presbyterial churches reporting the native Christian contributions for all purposes, in 1889, at 18,071.44 yen, or 1 yen=76 cents U. S. gold, at $12,834. In those churches which we may group under the great family of Baptists, the largest mis sionary force is employed by the American Baptist Missionary Union. Rev. Jonathan Goble began work at Yokohama in 1860. He was followed, about eleven years later, by Rev. NathanBrown, D.D., who bad labored inAssam. Both these brethren became translators of the Holy Scriptures, Mr. Goble issuing the Gospel of St. Matthew in the native script in 1870, this being the first publication in Japan of the Scriptures in Japanese. Dr. Brown's version of the entire New Testament was elegantly printed and published in 1880, the Baptist principle of complete translation into the vernacular of every word except proper names being strictly followed. The American Baptists now have stations at Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe, Shimo- nos&d, Sendai, Fukushima, and Morioka, besides preaching at numerous smaller places, 39 in all, where missionaries do not reside. Their total force of missionaries is 39, and their organized churches number 11, with a member ship of 953. The apparatus of day, boarding, and Sunday schools, theological seminary and school for Bible- women, is well employed. The- English Baptists began operations in 1879, the Rev. W. J. White and wife in Tokyo being still the only foreign force employed; but 19 out-stations are served, and there are 2 organized churches with 200 members, besides a theologi cal, day, and Sabbath school. The Disciples of Christ, who have stations in Tokyo, Shonai, and Akita, have now a force of 9 missionaries, and began their work in 1883. Their one church thus far organized has 151 members, and their 9 Sunday-schools have 500 pupils. The Christian Church of America have 4 mission aries. Beginning in 1887, they have 3 organized churches with 93 members, and their 7 Sunday- schools 135 scholars. The Baptist Southern Convention sent their four missionaries to Japan in 1889. It will be seen that among the five missions above described, whose work is com paratively new, even the majority of the mission aries of the American Baptist Missionaiy Union having but recently arrived in the countiy, that the methods of organizing converts and of building churches vary. With some the aim is to gather very small bodies of believers quickly into congregations and to form churches, while in other cases it is thought best to begin with teaching, and especially Sunday-school work, and wait until the churches, when formed, shall be comparatively strong and numerically large." Self-support is encouraged, and l,066yen were contributed by the natives of this group of churches during 1889, and the number of con verts baptized during the same year was 287. The first Baptist church was organized at. Yokohama March 2d, 1873, and the first in Tokyo May 14th, 1876. _ The churches organized according to the Congregational polity are independent native churches, served by 2 missionaries, and those which are under the care of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. The 82 missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. live in 10 cities, serving out 160 out-stations, and with the native brethren attend to 52 organized churches, of which 88 are wholly self-supporting. In 1889 1,617 adult converts were baptized, and the- membership consists of 5,263 men, 4,052 wom en, total 9,315. Five boj's' boarding-schools have 1,580 pupils, and 9 schools for girls 1,522, total 3,002; the 68 Sunday-schools having 7,000 scholars. Tbe theological school in Kyoto has. 80 students. Thirty native ministers and 66. preachers and helpers assist in the work. Be ginning in 1869 at Kobe with Rev. D. C. Greene and wife, the force of the American Congre gationalists in 1879 numbered 46, of whom 14 were ordained missionaries and 13 unmarried women. In 1875, through the enterprise of Rev. Joseph Neesima, a Japanese converted through the reading of the Bible in Chinese, and at the expense and through the per sonal encouragement of Hon. Alpheus Hardy, thoroughly educated at school, college, and seminary in the United States, the Do-shi-sha or One Endeavor Society was organized in Kyoto with three members. This school has become a great Christian University, having a thousand students, and from it have been graduated scores of native preachers of the gospel. After attaining the most extraordinary influence over- JAPAN 497 JAPAN his countrymen, and having been long active in labors manifold, Joseph Hardy Neesima died January 23d, 1890. The missions supported by the Congregational churches of the United States are now being extended into all parts of the empire, includiug Okayama, Niigata, Sendai, Kumamoto, Nagaoka, Matsuyama, Tottori, and Tokyo ; while tbe native churches organized according to their polity are found in all the •large islands, churches having been gathered even in Yezo from colonists who have gone from the older churches in Central Japan. The native Christiaus of the Congregational body organized several years ago a Home Missionaiy Society, under whose agency a number of churches have beeu planted in Tokyo and else where. One of these, situated near the Imperial University, is being erected with the aid of funds ($10,000) collected in the United States, by the Rev. John T. Yokoi, formerly known as Rev. J. T. Ise, and the son of Yokoi Heishiro, a counsellor of the Mikado, assassinated in Kyoto in 1869 because suspected of entertaining " evil opinions," i.e., believing in Christianity. Iu this church is a considerable number of journalists, literary men, writers, and men of intellectual influence. The native Christians of this polity give especial attention to the Chris tianizing of Japan through the press aud by per sonal effort, no fewer than six periodicals being sustained by tbem, two of these being in Tokyo. The idea of self-support is also strongly insisted on, and during the year 1889, 16,099 yen, or $12,235, were contributed by the native Chris tians, and already nearly three fourths of the churches organized are wholly self-supporting. Of the American Congregatioual missionaries, 27 are located in Kyoto, 24 of these being either directly or indirectly connected with the Doshi- sha University in the academic, collegiate, or theological departments; 14 are at Osaka, 12 at Kobe, 7 at Okayama, 7 at Niigata, 9 at Sendai, 2 at Nagaoka, 8 at Kumamoto, 1 at Matsuyama, 4 at Tottori, and 2 in Tokyo. At Matsuyama Rev. W. H. Noyes and wife labor under the auspices of the Berkeley Temple, Bos ton. Thus far, notwithstanding the entire willingness of the Congregational, in common with most of the Protestant, missionaries to turn the active work of Christianization over to the natives, there have been but few independent churches organized, the native pastors and people preferring to keep in close affiliation and fellowship with the missionaries and the churches organized by them. Though earnest efforts have thus far been made to bring about practical union between the Presbyterian and Congregational ecclesiastical organisations, they have thus far failed, though well-grounded hopes are still entertained that such a union will at no very distaut date be attained. Though native terms, coined from the Sinico-Japanese (which is Chinese which a Chinaman might understand in the written character, but not when spoken), are used to designate the various local, federated, and national church judica tories or assemblies in the Presbyterial and Congregational bodies of Christiaus, yet these are substantially copies of the same forms of government at home. The Christian missionaries who labor accord ing to the Methodist polity may be divided into five groups, of which the largest is that of the American Methodist Episcopal, which began work in 1872 with an earnest band of young missionaries led by Rev. R. S. Maclay, a veteran from Foo Chow, China. They have occupied both the extremities and the centre of the em pire, their circuits including no fewer than 36 out-stations, and having headquarters at Aomori, Hakodate, Nagasaki, Nagoya, Tokyo, and Yoko hama. They are especially active in traiuing lay workers and Bible-women, and employ the same varied agencies as at home, having two theological schools, with 80 pupils. Their force of 60 missionaries is distributed in Yokohama, Tokyo, Yonezawa, Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Hako date, Nagoya, Hirosaki, the chief concentrations being at Tokyo and Nagasaki, at which places are large, well-equipped, and excellent schools for both sexes. Of their 53 churches, 7 are wholly self-supporting. In 1889 590 converts were baptized, and the church-membership is 4,121. In their day, boarding, and Sabbath schools are 6,878 pupils. The force of native ministers is 26, and of unordained preachers and helpers 40. The Canada Methodist Church began missionary work the same year, 1873, and with the majority of their force in Tokyo, have stations at Tokyo, Kanazawa, Kofu, and Sbidzuoka, with a total of 24 missionaries, 18 organized churches with a membership of 1,538, and with 1,391 pupils under week-day or Sabbath instruction. The Evangelical Association of North America, which began work in Japan iu 1876, employs lO missionaries located in Tokyo, who have organ ized 5 churches, with 371 members. The Methodist Protestant Church began work in 1880, locating their 14 missionaries at Yoko hama and Nagoya. In Iheir 2 churches are 192 members. The American Methodist Episcopal Church (South) coming to Japan in 1886 have already i9 missionaries at work located at Kobe, Hiroshima, Oita, and Matsuyama, and 5 organ ized churches, with 241 members. Each of the Methodist bodies has a theological seminary, the total number of students being 66. The total amount contributed by the natives in one year was 11,564 yen. Two evangelical Method ist newspapers are published. The Society of Friends have a mission in Tokyo, begun in 1885, with 5 workers, a church with 33 members, a religious newspaper, and schools in which are 166 pupils. The Christian Alliance is represented by 3 workers at Yoho- hama. "Liberal" theology is represented by German pastors at Yokohama and in Tokyo, whose work began in 1885, and who have two small churches. In 1888 the American Unita rians sent out the Rev. Arthur Knapp to Tokyo, who with teachers from Harvard College who are connected with the University, presided over by Fukuzawa, an able and brilliant writer and educator, issues a magazine. In 1890 the Ameri can Universalists sent out the Rev. George Perrin with three others who labor in Tokyo, and who with the Unitarians began "liberal" worship and preaching in Tokyo in May, 1890. So great has been the interest in Japan among European and American Christians, that even those denominations not usually engaging in missionary work have sent envoys to this invit ing field. In addition to the larger societies named above are several private, independent or self-supporting agencies at work, all of which in various ways are co-operating to make Japan a Christian nation. The Bible Societies of the United States, Great Britain, and Scot land have their active agents and deposi tories in Japan, and these have done a far-reach- JAPAN 498 JAPAN ing work in circulating the Holy Scriptures. Even before a version in Japanese was made, their work began, for the translations of tbe Bible made in China could be easily read by educated Japanese, and were so read by many earnest inquirers. It is of highest interest to note the spirit of unity that has been manifested by these Chris tians of many names, but who in devotion to one Master, even Christ, have forgotten as far as possible their dividing lines. Since the various groups of American and Scotch Presby terians are gathered together in one body, and the American and English Episcopalians unite in harmony, the question has often arisen, " Why may not the Congregational and Presby terian missions combine in harmony ?" At tempts have been made to secure this desirable result, but thus far without success. The hin drances to union, however, have been almost wholly in the line of discipline and government. The inbred Japanese desire for independence, the time-spirit of intense love of democracy, the preponderance in the churches of an abnormally large number of young men, and the absence in the councils of the churches of elderly natives presents a problem of highest hope and interest, though of possible danger. By tbe very neces sities of the case, the young men must be the leaders, for the membership of the Japanese churches consists in large majority of males, and these are mostly young men under twenty-five. While time and the further spread of the gospel will equalize the disproportion of sex and age in the churches, yet the fact of such an unusual array of church- members, officers, and pastors being so youthful, suggests peculiar problems in consideration of the future development of doctrine, as well as of the possibility of union. It is evident to all who are familiar with the history of the native intellect, or with the workings of the Japanese mind past or present, that subtle doctrinal theories have no charm, but are only a weariness to the flesh. They refuse to believe that the hereditary quarrels of Euro pean Christians need be perpetuated in their country, or that in view of the gospel's supreme good news, and the necessities of their country men, either the denominational differences in doctrine or peculiarities of government are at all needful. While there are many missionaries who will agree in giving such testimony, it is well to have an opinion from one of the very foremost lay authorities. Professor Basil Hall Chamberlain says in "Things Japanese" (p. 241): "Our. . . . prophecy is, that the Chris tians of Japan will be occupied with questions of morals and practice — the temperance ques tion, for instance, and Sunday observance — rather than with subtle doctrinal theories, the Japanese mind being essentially loo unspecula- tive for Lhe fine distinctions of the theologians to have any charm for it, much less lor it to seek to .split new hairs for itself. Tbe failure of Buddhist metaphysical abstractions to take any hold of thcnationalsympalhiesis a finger-post, in history pointing to what may be expected in the future." The history of the last twenty years not only proves the truth of the negative side of the statement made by Professor Chamber lain as to tho inertness of the Japanese mind toward metaphysical doctrine, but also illus trates forcibly the tendency to active reform, and the vigor with which questions of morals and practice are debated and settled. Indeed, of all the changes that have come over the modern life of the Japanese; the most striking are those which relate to their social condition. Even the right of the hoary institution of licensed prostitution to exist is now being challenged; and in several of the local prefectures motions have been made to abolish it, which have been debated with intense interest and marked abil ity. Several measures tending to circumscribe the power and influence of the Yoshiwaia sys tem have already been carried out by the gov ernment; and it is not at all impossible that with the incoming of a more healthful public sentiment this one of the chief curses of Japan may be improved off the face of the earth, even despite the opposition which ' 'science, " so called, offers to the proposed reformation. Though Sunday is now a national day of cessation from public labors, and its status fixed by govern ment example aud edict, yet it is by no means a holy day to the people at large, who buy and sell, work or play, as usual ; yet nevertheless it is an enormous advantage to the Christians to have the preparation for the hoped-for ultimate observance of the Lord's Day thus made for them. As a rule, the missionaries and native believers are strenuous in keeping Sunday as the Lord's Day. A good beginning has also oeen made in temperance work, in an endeavor to purify the theatre and popular literature of their bloody, revengeful, and licentious elements, and in various ways to do away with what is heathenish and abominable while preserving what is good and innocent in the national cus toms. There are various native clubs and as sociations organized for moral, religious, and re formatory purposes, and in several of the large cities are flourishing Young Men's Christian Associations. Methods and Results, 1872-1890. — It re mains now to give as far as it is possible an imperfect, but it is hoped an impartial, sketch of the lines of work planned, and the results at tained during the period from 1873 to 1890, and to glance at the condition and prospects of the Kingdom of Christ in Japan. Probably the most striking of the phenomena of missionaiy success in Japan are the ability and earnestness of the native pastorate, and after that are the spirit of self-support developed aniong the na tives, the fact that for several years male members by far outnumbered the female mem bers, the growth and activity of native mission ary societies, the ability and consecrated activity of the native Christian women, and the zeal and devotedness of the church-members, whose laudable desire is to have the missionaries as speedily in the future as possible to act only as teachers aud advisers, while they them selves do the work of preaching, evangeliz ing and organization in the Kingdom of Cnrist. in Japan. In a word, in this, as in everything, the Japanese manifest their strong characteristics of patriotism and independence in the spirit of direct responsibility to God. Unconquercd in all their history, and perhaps unconquerable, they are loyally willing to bow to Jesus as their Supreme Lord. Very remark able have been the manifest ability and elo quence of the native preachers, a fact propheti cally foreshadowed to the writer, who in 1872 heard one of the very first sermons by a native pastor, Rev. Okuno Masatsuna. The first native pastor duly installed over a native church was the Rev. Mr. Sawayama, who, like several of his JAPAN 499 JAPAN cri prominent fellow-pastors, had been educated in America. The union of natural and acquired abil ity in such preachers as Nakashima, Kanamori, Ibuka, Matsuyama, Segawa, Ozaka, Kimura, Ogimi, Yokoi, Inagaki, Uyemura, Miyaki, and others, is probably only a foreshadowing of the glorious ministry to be raised up all over Japan. While all glory to God for His own bestowed ifts of mind and heart be given, the honor and redit to be awarded to the missionary instruc tors and educators is great. When the Doshi- sha was established in Kyoto by Mr. Neesima in 1875, the first notable accession to the theo logical department was the famous class of fif teen young men graduated in 1879, who had been converted to Christ in Kumamoto at tbe government school, taught by an American, Cap tain Janes. Through his influence and that of his wife nearly forty young men were led to Christ, and came in a body to Kyoto. In the Doshisha, during 1889, 172 young men professed faith in Christ, and scores of native pastors, -evangelists, teachers, editors, aud other Chris tian leaders have been graduated from the Christian University, which under Japanese ownership and direction , i n co-operation with the missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. , has a corps of able American and native instructors, Rev. Messrs. Davis, Learned, Gordon, Stanford, and others. In Tokyo, where the first native church was established September 20th, 1873, schools for instruction in theology have, been established by the American and English Episcopalians, the Methodists, and by the various Presbyterial bodies united. The Episcopal Divinity Train ing-school was begun in 1878, and has done noble work in equipping a native ministry. The beginnings of a Presbyterial theological class were in the school of Mr. and Mrs. Carrothers in Tokyo, in 1874. At the consummation of the union of the Presbyterial bodies at Yokohama, in 1877, it was decided to have "The Union Theological School," with a preparatory insti tution. Three natives, Okuno, Ogawa, and Toda, were ordained to the ministry October 3d, 1887, and every year since a class has been graduated. The faculty is composed of Scotch and American missionary clergymen and Japa nese professors mostly educated abroad. The American Baptists have a theological school at Yokohama, and the English Baptists two schools for training native preachers. In all there are in Japan 17 theological schools, with 275 stu dents, 135 native ministers, and 409 unordained preachers and helpers; 3 schools for Bible- women, with 46 students, and 125 at active work. Three missionary hospitals, which treated 437 in-patients, and 9 dispensaries ministering to 14,057 cases, with 1 school of nurses with 22 pupils, represent that phase of the work which deals at once with both body and soul. In the matter of the higher education of the native pastors and of Christian Japanese generally, it seems to be the settled opinion of the mission aries that post-graduate courses only should be taken in Europe or America. In tbe schools of theology now established in Japan the native student can get as good a training, and, all things considered, probably one better suited to his special needs, than he can abroad. After graduation, and some years' experience as a pas tor or lay worker, it is well for the preacher or specialist to seek further intellectual discipline in the older schools across the ocean. In this laudable desire of the native clergy for wider views and profouuder experience in Christian civilization a number of pastors have been en couraged by tbe missionaries and assisted by Christians at home. In some instances the native churches have given their pastors fur loughs, and paid the whole or part of their ex penses while studying abroad. It seems highly desirable that young Christian Japanese should be especially invited into the homes of Christians in America and Europe in order that they may see for themselves the springs of power, and thus be enabled to counteract the adverse com ment and scoffing views of their globe-travers ing countrymen who see Christian countries only through railway-car and hotel windows, and in the street life of the great cities. In a word, the native ministry must be given the very highest intellectual and social as well as spiritual training in order to save Japan from the incoming tide of agnosticism and infidelity, as well as from native paganism. Speaking broadly, it may be said all the agen cies employed at home are made use of by na tive and foreign Christian workers in Japan. This is true not only of the various denomina tions in their separate capacity, but of them all collectively. Union meetin gs for prayer, praise, and the promotion of good-fellowship in Christ; exchange of fraternal greetings by letter or tel egraph; continuous preaching services in thea tres rented as public halls; missionary conven tions of all denominations; temperance work and the formation of total-abstinence societies; the organization of women for the promotion of morals and the reform of abuses as well as for active evangelical work; summer schools for Bible study and for following out the Chautau qua idea and methods; the formation of Young Men's Christian Associations, and the employ ment of their multifarious agencies; evangelis tic labors of revivalists and of eminent special ists in religious work from Europe and Amer ica, wbo through excellent interpreters have reached vast masses of the Japanese, — are among those we may specify. It would be difficult to find any phase of Christian work proved effec tive at home which has not been tried in Japan; but space does not permit us to name either the famous workers or the obscure toilers. Beneath all these forms of activity, by which quick re sults are made manifest, are the slower but surer methods and forces which give perma nency to the work of the Kingdom of Christ. Whatever makes Christianity less of an exotic and importation, and more truly acclimated or indigenous, does indeed make it less missionary in the literal sense, but more national, and im parts to it a vitality which will enable it to live independent of foreign assistance or control. Herein the genius of Protestantism is strongly manifest. "The Roman Catholic missionaries keep everything in their own hands, the' Prot estants pass everything over to the Japanese. The Catholics are principals, the Protestants are assistants." The Japanese repudiate the idea that the quarrels and separations of European Christianity or American sectarianism need be reproduced on their own soil. They want a pure Christianity and a church history of their own, and a church government that accords with the spirit and customs of Japan. Most of the missionaries of Reformed Christianity are not only in hearty sympathy with this longing of the natives, but welcome it as one of the best prophecies of success. There are churches, JAPAN 500 JAPAN schools, newspapers and magazines, missionary societies and other agencies, conducted, and in many cases originated, wholly by natives, in which the foreigner is absent, or only advisory. Instead of limiting, the foreign missionary thus enlarges his work by being helper and friend, and developing new springs of power. In the mighty seminal work of the daily education of the young are based rich hopes for the fu ture. The missionaries have 135 boarding and day schools, with 10,297 scholars, under direct Christian influences; aud here the 171 unmar ried female missionaries are grandly influen tial. The training of native girls in the proced ure of a Christian home means the pre-emption of a large portion of the generations to come to Christian nurture. These schools are making it possible for the Japanese of the twentieth century to be born in a Christian land. As yet the home is still the citadel pf heathenism, and many a Christian man is unable, because of the influence of wife or female relatives, to gain or hold his children to Christ. The statistics of church-membership show that meu outnumber women in the proportion of about 4 to 3, tbe exact figures being — men, 12,621; women, 9.415; children, 2,204. Sunday-school work is vigorously prosecuted by all the missionary so cieties, and the 350 schools have 21,597 pupils, a gain of nearly 5,000 over the number in 1888. In most of the Sunday-schools the Interna tional Lessons are used. Literature and Publications. — Next in power to the living teacher is the printed Word, and it behooves us now to speak of the Bible and Christian literature in the vernacular. In probably no other mission field are the agencies which depend for their visible expression on ink, types, and paper, so widely and steadily employed. The tract societies early began hearty-co-operation, and the distribution of their brief missives and compendious presentations of doctrine was especially active before the publication of the complete Bible in Japanese. The London Religious Tract Society have an agency in Tokyo, and though the number of colporteurs, so named, employed by all the societies fell from 8 in 1887 to 1 in 1889, tract- distributing is still prosecuted as one of the minor methods of spreading the truth. In hymnology an encouraging beginning has been made, the four great organic groups of Bap tist, Methodist, Episcopal, and Presbyterial and Congregational having prepared small hymn-books. In these volumes, some with notes and some with words only, the standard holy songs and tunes of Christendom pre dominate, though there are not lacking original stanzas and music by both foreign and native versifiers and composers. Some very sweet and characteristic airs have been introduced. It will be difficult, in this generation, to eradicate the tendency to revert to the old nasal quavers of native unisonances, while harmony is nearly unknown in Japanese music. Nevertheless the converts sing vigorously, and like the new music; and with a new generation, taught both in the Christian and the public schools iu west ern notation, there is here a most rich and promising field, white to the harvest. In literature tho various denominations which are more or less rich in confessional symbolism and liturgies have, as a rule, already translated their standards of doctrine, directories of wor ship, and mauuals of discipline. The Book of Common Prayer is now published in both the native script and the Romaji, or Roman letter. Various works on theology, apologetics, church history, and in other branches of Christian learning have been written and translated by the authors into Japanese ; while translations of all sorts and of various degrees of merit, of commentaries, and of standard books for adults and children, are multiplying, some of the most able and promising work being done by the natives at their own suggestion. There are editors, authors, and literary men in the churches from whom much may be reason ably expected toward the formation of that com ing Christian literature which is to displace the filthy and licentious, the bloody and revengeful, elements which have dominated Japanese litera ture in the past. Already the Bible has had a perceptible influence upon the style and the color of the thought of native writers, and it is our belief tbat in no one department of uational endeavor will Christianity fertilize the Japanese intellect more than in literary production. The religion of Jesus has given the Japanese a new world of thought, and into its rich lands and oceans they are entering as explorers, bringing back to their countrymen richest spoil. One of tbe most striking of contemporaneous phe nomena is native Christian journalism. Of the seventeen newspapers or magazines now pub lished in the vernacular, fifteen are exponents of Bible or Reformed Christianity, six being Congregational, two Episcopal, two Rational istic or Unitarian, one Friends, two Methodist, two Presbyterial. The subscription lists are not large, but the work, like that of leaven, is steady and thorough. Copies of some of these papers are usually found at the railway-stations in tbe large cities. Most of them are well edited, and a few illustrated. These all help powerfully to influence the public taste, and to create an appetite for that which lies at the foundation of all Christian literature — the Bible. The Bible in Japanese. — A veteran mis sionary ascribes one half of all the results of Christian missions in Japan to the work of the Bible Societies. Of these, the American, the British and Foreign, and the National Bible Society of Scotland have agencies in Japan, and have diligently prosecuted the work of publication and distribution, besides making generous contributions for the support of the translators aud the expenses incident to their labors. The work of giviug the written Word of God to this nation was begun in China by Rev. Karl Gutzlaff and Dr. S. Wells Wil liams, who learned tbe language from casta way sailors before 1840, and was continued by Rev. B. J. Bettelheim, at Napa in the Riu Kiu (Loochoo) Islands, between 1846 and 1853, and vigorously entered upon by nearly- all of the missionaries, but especially by Rev. J. Goble, S. R. Brown, D.D., and Dr. J. C. Hep burn on the opening of the country by treaty. In 1871 Mr. Goble's version of St. Matthew, the first complete book of the Bible published in Japan was issued. In 1872 all the Protestant missionaries were invited to meet in Yokohama to form a Translation Committee, which iu June, 1874, began its sittings. Beginning with the Gospel of Luke in August, 1875, various books of the New Testament were issued, until on the 3d of November, 1879, the committee finished their work of translation and revision, and in April, 1880, the complete New Testament was ¦JAPAN 501 JAPANESE VERSION in the hands of the native Christians. A few months previously Rev. Nathan Brown, D.D., published a version of the New Testament , in which tbe words relating to baptism were translated, and not, as in the union version, transliterated, from the Greek. Plans for trans lating the Old Testament were not made until 1876, nor perfected until 1882. Portions were published between 1882 and 1887, and on the 3d of February, 1888, at a large meeting held in Tokyo, the completion of the entire Bible in Japanese was celebrated. Besides the mission aries Hepburn, Verbeck, S. Brown, Greene, Thompson, Ballagh, Maclay, Piper, Wright, N. Brown, Fyson, Cochran, Waddell, Knecker, Shaw, Blanchet, and others, there were in hearty and able co-operation the native schol ars Matsuyama, Takahashi, Iyemura, Ibuka, and others. These brethren have enabled their foreign teachers to present to the Japanese peo ple a version at once scholarly, idiomatic, read able, rhythmic, and destined in all probability to be the standard for generations to come, and one of the great successful missionary transla tions of the world. It was especially appropri ate to invite native help, because it satisfied the yearnings of the converts to share the honors as well as the labors of the work. It also did his toric justice to those brave seekers after God who, before foreigners came to Japan, trans lated from, the Dutch and the Chinese the story of Christ's life, and became martyrs in search ing for the truth. In this union version of the Holy Scriptures special prominence is given to the pure native element, as against the Chinese-Japanese so fashionable during the last half -century or more. Already the signs are numerous that this version will endure until the native Christians themselves, becoming masters of the Greek and Shemitic tongues, will erect on the foundations laid by the mission aries a still more stately edifice of sacred scholar ship to enshrine that Word of God which liveth and abideth forever. It has not been possible in this article to do justice to all the workers for the Master in Japan, owing to lack of space. In Appendix E will be found a table giving a list of the societies at work in Japan and their latest statistics. Japanese Version. — The Japanese be longs to the languages of the extreme Orient, and is spoken in the islands of Japan. The first in the field to make the Japanese acquainted with the Word of God in their vernacular was the late Dr. Chas. Gutzlaff, whose translation of the Gospel and Epistles of John was printed at Sing apore in 1839. In 1846 Dr. Bettelheim, a medi cal missionary and convert from Judaism, was sent to the Loochoo Islands. Having made him self acquainted with the Japanese, Dr. Bettel heim translated the Gospels of Luke and John, together with the Acts, which he revised after he had left Japan in 1854, at Chicago, with the assistance of a Japanese, bringing it more into conformity with the pure Japanese. This ver sion was written in the Katagana character. After being transcribed into the Hiragana char acter, which is more generally understood in Japan, Prof. Pflzmayer of Vienna issued from the press at Vienna Bettelheim 's Gospel of John in 1872, and in 1873 the Gospel of Luke and the Acts. The printing of this version was regarded by the British and Foreign Bible Society only as a temporary measure, until something better could be prepared. This was done by a Trans lation Committee, which in June, 1874, com menced its sittings. The committee, consisting chiefly, if not entirely, of American mission aries, finished their work of translation in five years and a half, and the revision of the manu script by the revising committee appointed in 1878 by the Translation Committee, was finished on March 30th, 1880. The first edition of the New Testament was published in the same year, and has since been published in different forms. A reference edition of the standard New Testament was prepared by the Rev. John Piper of the Church Missionary Society, and published by the British and Foreign Bible Society and the National Bible Society of Scotland in 1881. The American, British, and National Societies published in 1886 a reference pocket edition. In the same year a second edition of the Roman ized New Testament was published by the same Societies, the transliteration having been done by Dr. Hepburn, the chairman of the Translation Committee. The first edition was published in 1880 by the American Bible Society alone. The same Society also published in 1889 a Testament edition with maps. (Specimen verses Japanese. «> % 3., 3 *< 5& "K* ft £5 \ AS s> t£ * <& % 9 art s. 5 John 3 : 16.) Chino-Japanese. .if lis Ms m «* *}¦* * Roman. Sore, Kami no ^eken wo itsukushimi-tamao koto wa, subete kare wo shindzuru mono wa horobidzu shite,' kagiri naki inochi wo uken tame ni, sono hitori umareshi ko.wo.tamayeru hodo nari. Besides the edition in Roman type, there were published editions in (1) tbe Kunien. This name is given to the small Japanese phonetic characters written on the right of the Chinese ideographs to give tbe termination of Japan ese verbs and particles not found in Chinese. This edition is made from the classical version of Bridgman and Culbertson; (2) the Kalakana, JAPANESE VERSION 502 JAVA for the use of scholars, but not familiar to fe male readers; (3) the Ilirakana, intended for those more dependent on phonetic helps. The Old Testament, which was translated by representatives of the different Protestant mis sions in Japan, and of which parts had been published from time to time, was at last com pleted in 1882, and in 1888, February 3d, a pub lic meeting was held to celebrate this event. Iu the same year the first complete edition of the Bible was issued at Yokohama, the expenses of which were shared alike by the three great Bible Societies of America, England, and Scot- laud. In 1889 an edition of the Bible with references was published. Besides a diglott edition of the Psalms in Jap anese and English, pubhshed in 1888, there was also published in the same year an edition of the Gospels of Mark and John in raised type for the blind. Japara, a town on the west coast of Java, 30 miles northeast of Samarang. Mission station of the Mennonite Missionaiy Society of Hol land, with 100 members, under the charge of the famous linguist Janss. Jatki or Multani Version. — The Jatki belongs to the Indie branch of the Aryan lau- guage-family, and is spoken by 2,500,000 people. "The language," says the latest translator, Dr. Jukes, ' ' is called Jatki or Jagdalli by the people themselves, Multani or Derwal by their neigh bors, because it is spoken in the Multan or Der wal districts. It is also spoken throughout Muzaffargarh district, and tbe state of Bahawal- pur, south of the Sutlej and east of the Indus, and also by the Khetrans, a tribe to the west of the first Sulirnani range of mountains. The language is allied to Punjabi and Sindhi, but differs from both." A translation of tbe New Testament in Multani was published by the Baptist Translation Society, and printed at Serampore 1812. It has never been reprinted, and copies are therefore very rare. Since 1883 Dr. A. Jukes of the Church Missionaiy So ciety, missionary at Dera Ghazi Khan, has been engaged, assisted by a Munshi, on a translation of the New Testament. Of this the Gospel of Mark was edited by the Rev. A. Lewis, of the Church Missionary Society, for the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1887. Up to March 31st, 1889, one thousand copies have been dis posed of. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) iv/a-i+ i^tfio «bjn .tfs si^Mwa^afr »tsj»<\ •rtlJl S-a. ***. 1*1" S3 a« &«» susa.'iK-'i.'nS "Hi - oiii^jiaCTiatraflmaiii^iJna^iiStui ,°- tum a w ci ofl\ DJOuiiuuiMrifiajw "5a idjt™ \ dy uj ana am Kh ui (asn tajuin n tun i n im hcumhuoj] «i mum *ui r w in \ oomco'Sbo-r ^..pooocxK. 810091^100^. -SbopoofocoV ooooioSocoi • (Bghai-Karen. 1 John 1:3.) OOTCOIODO S Cd S DO9 GO ! TOsS^f DD^^CO §bo:D£o33 oocrxilcoo coocoos obsoos 'CO% cos 00s ODOoa5o'353sooD^c55oosSsa\3a\oS\^ssa os^saTOs^oS'JoosSsof, sssswsIcq^so^s oS\. (Pwo Karen. Matt. 5 : 16.) 001§J3s8q?>3j33303u\5j, OS3U/\awaiQV coaoj|T3sx£t,cov ooissosjod^) ojo^aoaox SsSgOOQ, UOC^JroJSSQSpJSsJl^O'tCOSUQ 5J33«S)^§J3dg. Karens, a race of people living in Burma: (See Burma and American Baptist Missionary Union.) Karib, or Karif, the aboriginal in habitants of Dutch Guiana on the north coast of South America. Portions of tbe Scriptures printed in Edin burgh have been circulating among them to a limited extent for half a century. KARS 523 KAZAN-TURKI VERSION Kars, a strongly fortified city of southern Caucasus, conquered from Turkey in the war of 1876-77. It was also the site of a great struggle between the Turks and Russians in the Armenian War. Its population (12,000) is largely Armenian, and it was successfully worked as an out-station of Erzroom (A. B. C. F. M.). Since it has become Russian territory r missionary work is much more circumscribed. Karur, a town in Madras, India, on the Arivari River, near its junction with the Keveri. The climate is hot and dry. Population 9,205. Tamil is the prevailing tongue. Mission sta tion of the Wesleyan Methodist Mission Society (1863); 1 missionary and wife, 7 local preachers, 10 out-stations, 1 church, 140 church-mem bers, 10 schools, 370 scholars. Kathiawar, a peninsula, nearly square in shape, which forms the western part of Gujarat, a province of the Bombay presidency. The waters of the Arabian sea (or Indian ocean) wash it upon the southern and western sides; the Sabarmati River and the Gulf of Cambay on the east, and on the north the Rann and Gulf of Kachchh. It is some 220 miles in extreme length and 165 miles wide. It covers an area of 23,300 square miles, and contains a population of about 2,500,000. The surface is generally undulating, though the southern part is broken by lofty hills, ris ing in one instance to 3,500 feet in height. The soil is fairly good, the water-supply abundant, and the region generally wealthy. One sixth of the cotton shipped from Bombay to foreign ports is grown in Kathiawar. The political re lations of this region are exceedingly com plicated. Diu, a town at the extreme southern point of the peninsula, with 7 square miles of territory and about 13,000 people, belongs to the Portuguese, and is under the jurisdiction of the governor-general of Goa. A small territory in the eastern part, embracing 1,100 square miles and a population of 160, 000, is British territory. The Gaiakwar of Baroda rules over another tract about as large as the British, with a population a trifle smaller. All the remainder of the territory is divided up among 187 petty native states, each with its own ruler or chief. The area thus covered by native chief ships amounts to 20,559 square miles, with a population of 2,343,399 souls. These states are all feudatory to the British Government through the medium of the Gov ernment of Bombay. An English official, styled the political agent of Kathiawar, con nected with the Bombay establishment, resides at Rajkot, a town of some 15,000 people, situated at about the centre of the peninsula. He is assisted by a corps of subordinates, and very much of the civil and criminal jurisdic tion of these native states is in his hands; the more important chiefs only are entrusted by the British Government with plenary jurisdic tion in their respective states. Under the care ful inspection of the British Government, the administration of their internal affairs is on the whole well attended to by the chiefs; life and property are safe, education is progressing, the means of public communication, both by or- dinai*y road and by rail, are increasing, other public improvements are in progress, and the general condition of the peninsula is one of prosperity. Lions formerly abounded in the mountainous parts of the peninsula; a few are still left, — the authorities say not more than a dozen, — and these are strictly preserved. The peninsula is quite rich in archaeological re mains, chiefly connected with the Buddhist and Jain religions. Among the Buddhist remains is one of the famous inscriptions of Asoka, the great Buddhist king of Magadha, who flour ished two and a half centuries before Christ, and under whose reign Buddhism became the state religion of a great part of India. The edict in question is found upon a huge granite bowlder between Junagarh and Girnar in the southwestern part of the peninsula. The lan guage chiefly spoken is Gujarathi, though in a dialectic variation known as Kathiawari. The Irish Presbyterian Mission is carrying on work at several points in the peninsula. More than 2,000,000 of the population are Hindus (83 per cent); Mohammedans number about 13 per cent, Jains 4 per cent, Christians, Parsis, Jews, and "others" a few hundred each. Kausali Version. — The Kausali, which belongs to the Indo branch of the Aryan family of languages, is used in the western part of Oude. The Gospel of Matthew translated into this dialect was published at Serampore in 1820, but not being found of permanent value, it was never reprinted. Kavala Island, in Lake Tanganyika, east Central Africa, was for a time a station of the L. M. S., but on account of threatened at tack by the Arabs at Ujiji, it was thought best for the missionaries to remove to the mainland, where there was more possibility of escape to Lake Nyassa. (See Fwambo.) Kawa-kawa, a town in northeast New Zealand, near East Cape, on a beautiful little river emptying into the Bay of Islands. Mis sion station of the C. M. S. ; 1 native mis sionary, 8 other helpers, 4 churches, 93 church- members. Kaying-chau (Kiaying), a town in the province of Kwangtung, China, with a popula tion of 30,000. A station of the Basle Mis sionary Society (1883). In the province they have a large work in 7 stations with 2,425 bap tized members, 1,504 communicants. Kazan-Turki. — The Kazani belongs to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, and is vernacular to remains of the mighty Tartar kingdom, which once had its seat at Kazan on the Volga. They inhabit the Governments of Kazan, Orenburg, Samara, and tavropol, and are said to number about 1,000,000 souls. They are looked on as a sub division of the Nogai. In 1873 the British and Foreign Bible Society printed a tentative edi tion of the Gospels, translated by Professor Ilminski, and examined by Dr. Radzloff. As the work was favorably received, the trans lator was engaged to translate the Gospels, to be printed in the Arabic and Cyrillic charac ters, for the benefit of the Mohammedans of Kazan, who would not read them in the Russ character. The work, however, pro gressed very slowly, and Mr. Saleman, of the University Library, was sent to Kazan to make arrangements for a New Testament edition in the Kazan-Tartar, adopted from some of the sister dialects. The work was to be prepared KAZAN-TURKI VERSION 524 KHASIA HILLS by Mr. Saleman at St. Petersburg, and revised at Kazan. Under his arrangement the Gospel of Matthew was printed under the care of Professor Gottwald at the " Kazan University Press " in 1884. In 1887 the Gospel of Mark wa3 issued, and in 1888 the Gospel of Luke. Kazak Turki, or Orenburg Tartar. — This language, which also belongs to the Turki branch, is used by the Tartars in the vicinity of Orenburg. For them the Rev. Charles Frazer, a Scotch missionary at Astra khan made a version of the New Testament on the basis of the Karasi version, which he ac commodated to the linguistical peculiarities of the Tartars of Orenburg. This translation or rather accommodation was published by the Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg in 1820. Parts of the Old Testament were also published by that society. Keetmannshoop, a station of the Rhen ish Missionary Society in Namaqualand, South Africa (1866), with 360 members. In 1878 the last Nama chief entered the congregation; 1 missionaiy, 1 female missionary, 40 pupils. Keith-Falconer mission: see Presby terian Church of Scotland. Kclakarai, a town in Madras, India. Mis sion station of the S. P. G.; centre of work for 32 villages. Keppel Island, one of the Falkland group, lying off the coast of the Argentine Republic, South America. Mission-field of the South American Mission (See Cranmer). Kerbela, a town of Mesopotamia, Turkey, west of Baghdad, famous as the shrine of the Shiah Moslems. It is here that the two Shiah Martyrs, Hassan and Hossein, are buried, and their tomb is as much a place of pilgrimage for the Shiahs as Mecca. Keti, a station of the Basle Mission Society, in the Nilgiri Hills district, Madras, India, among the Badagas. Commenced in 1847, it now has a church of 76 members. Khalatlolu, a town of Transvaal, east South Africa, northeast of Leydensburg, south of Mphome. Mission station of the Berlin Evan gelical Lutherans (1861-1880); 1 missionary, 9 native helpers, 4 out-stations, 131 church-mem bers. Khandwa, a town in Ajmere, Bengal, India. The headquarters of the British district in the Central Provinces called Nimar, which contains an area of 3,340 square miies and a population of 211,176. In the district are 648 villages. Khandwa gives its name to a circuit of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), which covers a distance of 120 miles in which English, Urdu, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarathi, and a little of Tamil and Telugu are spoken. The- population of Khandwa is 14,119. The climate of Nimar district is on 1he whole good, though the jungle parts inhabited by the hill tribes are extremely malarious. Preaching tours, open-air preaching, and open-air Sabbath-schools are the different methods of work. Quite recently the Ballahis, a low caste of Hindus, have petitioned for instruction. "Hurda, sixty miles from Khandwa, population 13,000, is included in this station, and in the following statistics: 2 mis sionaries, 17 church-members, 1 day-school, 22 scholars, 32 Sabbath-schools, 759 scholars. Khasi Version.— The Khasi belongs to the Khasi family of non-Aryan languages, and is vernacular to the scattered inhabitants of the Khasi or Khossiah hills on the northeastern boundary of India. Dr. Carey translated the New Testament with the aid of an intelligent lady, the widow of one of the chieftains, which was published at Serampore in 1827. A New Testament in Bengali character was also issued at Serampore in 1831. An edition of the New Testament in Roman characters was undertaken by the Rev. Thomas Jones, of the Welsh Calvin istic Methodists, and in 1846 his translation of Matthew was published at Calcutta for the British and Foreign Bible Society. Other parts followed, and the New Testament prepared and printed under the care of the Rev. W. Lewis, with the aid of the Rev. T. W. Meller, was published at London in 1870. A second edition was issued in 1878, and a pocket edition was published in 1882. In 1884 a revised edition of the New Testament (4,000 copies) was published under the care of Mr. Lewis, as well as the Testament, translated by the Rev. H. Roberts, of tbe Calvinistic Methodist Foreign Missionary Society. Up to March 31st, 1889, 32,246 por tions of the Scriptures were disposed of. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Naba kumta U Blei u la leit ia ka pyrthei, katba u la aitl-noh ia la U Khun ia u ba-la- thft-marwei, ba uei-uei-ruh u bangeit ha u, u'n 'nu'm jot shuh, hinrei u'n ioh ka jingim b'ymjiukut. Khadsawphra, a territory in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India, under the government of the rajah of Nougklow. Mis sion-field of the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Mission Society; 1 missionary, 5 churches, 13 preaching-stations, 814 church-members, 1,262 Sunday scholars, 680 day scholars. Khandesh (British India), the district in the northeastern corner of the Deccan table land. Its western boundary is the range of western Ghats, by which it is separated from Gujarat. On the north it borders upon the Indore native state, often spoken of as Holkar's dominions. It covers an area of nearly 10,000 square miles, and has a population of over 1,200,000. Itnow forms one district, or collec- torship, of the Bombay presidency. The popu lation includes nearly 1,000,000 Hindus, over 90,000 Mohammedans, and more than 175,000 Bhils, an aboriginal tribe inhabiting the jun gles and hills in the northwestern part of the district; these Bhils once led a very disorderly and savage life, but are now gradually settling down to peaceable industry. With other tribes of a similar character, these form a large section of the population. Marathi is the principal language, and is displacing Gujarathi, which is spoken by some of the mercantile castes, espe cially in the north of the district. The Church Missionary Society has missions in Khandesh, with headquarters at Malegaon. Khasia Hills, a range of mountains form- ing, with the Jaintia Hills, the border between Assam and India. These mountains are in habited by various hill-tribes, — the Garos, the KHASIA HILLS 525 KINCAID, EUGENIO Khasis, the Jaintias, Nagas, etc., — who were very degraded, without books or a written lan guage, and engaged mainly in hunting, and at times in robbery. In 1834 the British Govern ment, made a treaty with the kings of Khasia, providing for the establishment of a military post at Cherra and the construction of a road to Assam. In 1840 the Welsh Calvinistic Meth odist Missionaiy Society sent out their first mis sionary to the Hills, where now 60 churches have been formed, with 1,576 communicants, 7,364 Sunday-scholars, divided up among the seven districts. (See Jiwai, Khadsawphrah.) Kherwari, a town in Rajputana, India, near the native state territory of Marwar and Irdar. Mission of the Church Missionary So ciety. The work of the mission is carried on entirely among the Bhils, a wild and turbulent race, who prefer to get their living by plunder rather than hard work. The pacification and civilization of these people has proved a difficult problem to the British Government. Evangel istic work was commenced in 1880, and for two years it was extremely difficult to get the confi dence of these hill-men. Now there is a small Christian church with 2 missionaries and wives, 2 native communicants, 10 schools, 244 scholars. Khorassan, a province of Persia, south of Afghanistan. Area, 124,400 square miles. Sur face mountainous, a large portion a great salt desert; the northwest and northeast districts are fertile, with numerous oases, mostly of small extent, but containing several populous towns. Population, 850,000, two thirds of whom are Persians resident in the towns, the remainder being nomadic Turkomans and Kurds. The prevalent religion is Mohammedauism, of the Shiah sect. Khorassan once formed part of the empire of Alexander the Great, and passed through many hands until 1383, when Tamer lane gained possession of it. Under his son it attained great prosperity. After the inroads of the Uzbecks it was seized by the Persians, and has formed a province of Persia since 1510, with the exception of Herat. Khulna (Koolna, Culna), a town in Ben gal, India, 78 miles east-northeast of Calcutta. It is a place of considerable importance, with a thriving trade. Mission station of the Baptist Missionaiy Society; 1 missionary, 241 church- members, 170 day-scholars, 70 Sabbath-schol ars. A printing establishment is a great aid to the work. Khuzistan, a province of Persia, north of the Persian Gulf. Area, 39,000 square miles. Surface hilly; rivers good-sized. Khuzistan contains extensive grazing lands, on which vast herds art pastured, and produces many kinds of grain and fruits. Population, 400,000, Ta jiks, Sabian Christians, Lurs, Ardilans, and Arabs, all of whom, except the Sabians, are Mo hammedans. Its principal towns are Shustu, Dizful, Ahwaz, and Mobammerah ; and the province also contaius the ruins of Susa, one of the ancient capitals of Persia. Kidiri, a town on the south coast of the island of Java, is the capital of the province, and is situated on a river of the same name. Population, 6,000. The governor's residence and a mosque are the principal public buildings. Mis sion station of the Dutch Missionaiy Society. Kim her ly, a town in West Griqualand; since the discovery of diamonds in 1869 incor porated with Cape Colony, South Africa. Popu lation, 28,663 (1887). Mission station of Berlin Evangelical Lutheran Society (1875); 2 mis sionaries, 8 native helpers, 8 out-stations, 176 church-members, who contributed about $1,000 the first year. S. P. G. ; 1 missionary. Kiinbimdu Version.— The Kimbundu belongs to tbe Bantu family of African lan guages, aud is spoken in Angola country, West Africa, from Loanda to Melange. A transla tion of the Gospel of John into Kimbundu was made by the Rev. Heli Chatelain, of Bishop Taylor's self-supporting mission. The translator, formerly a Swiss teacher of languages, studied at the Presbyterian Seminary in Bloomfield, N. J, He then spent two years at Loanda and one year at Melange, where he also made his version, which was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1887. The translator, the author of a grammar and vocabulary of the Kimbundu language, also carried through the press the Gospel of Luke in 1889. Kincaid, Engenio, b. Wethersfield, Conn., U. S. A., 1797, graduated at Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution 1822, in the same class with Rev. Jonathan Wade. Appointed a missionaiy of the Baptist Triennial Convention for Burmah; sailed May 24th, 1830. Ou his arrival iu Burmah hepreached for awhile to the English congregation at Moulmein, but soon entered upon work among the natives. Bold, ardent, brave, he determined to establish a mission at the capital, and in 1833 he went to Ava. There he baptized bis first converts. In 1837 he under took to reach Assam by crossing the mountains between Burmah and that countiy, but was forced to turn back, and having been repeatedly taken prisoner and robbed, he reached Ava in extreme destitution, after a journey of thirteen days. In 1840 he was obliged to leave Upper Burmah, aud went to Akyab, Arracan, where he continued to labor till 1842 when, Mrs. Kin- caid's health having failed, he returned to the United States. On account of the continued Ill-health of his wife his connection with the Society ceased. In July, 1849, he was reap pointed by the Missionaiy Union, and sailed in 1850. He was requested b}r the committee to make another attempt to establish a permanent mission at Ava. Finding this impracticable, he made his headquarters at Prome, on the Irra- wady, near the southern border of the Burman Empire, making occasional journeys from this station to the Burman capital. He resided also at Rangoon and Amarapura. In 1856 he re visited Ava with his family, was received in a, friendly manner by the king, who offered him a lot, and proposed to build him a house. The king also accepted a Burman Bible, and con ferred upon him royal gifts. Dr. Kincaid re turned home in 1857 at the king's expense, bear ing despatches from the king to the Government of the United States. Returning to Burmah the same year, he labored principally at Prome until 1865, when he took his final departure from the mission field, reaching home March 17th, 1866. He was an energetic missionaiy, and especially noted for his long journeys into unexplored regions of heathen territory. After his return he resided at Girard, Kansas, where he died April 3d, 1883. KINOHAU 526 KING, JONAS Kinchau (Jin-jou, Chin-chau), a city on the north shore of the Gulf of Liao-tung, 120 miles west of the port of Newehwang. Cli mate much the same as the State of New York; extremes of temperature, 16° below zero to 90° Fahr. Population over 1,000,000. Language, Mandarin, sometimes Manchu. Social con dition of the masses poor and degraded, but the people are quiet, peaceable, and kindly disposed to foreigners. Mission station of the Irish Presbyterian Church; 1 ordained mis sionary and wife, 1 physician, 1 single lady, 8 native helpers, 4 theological students, 1 school, 60 scholars. King, Jonas, b. July 29th, 1792,atHawley, Mass., U.S.A. His father was a farmer, noted for his love of the sacred Scriptures and rigid ad herence to its teachings. Under his instruction Jonas read the Bible through once between the ages of four and six, and then once yearly to , the age of sixteen. His conversion occurred at ' the age of fifteen. Without funds or aid he de termined on an education, learned the English grammar while hoeing corn, read the twelve books of the JEneid of Virgil in fifty-eight days, and the New Testament in Greek in six weeks. He graduated at Williams College 1816, and An dover Seminary 1819. After leaving the Semi nary he engaged in home missions in Massachu setts, and as a city missionary in Charleston, S. C. where he was ordained as an evangelist. While in Andover his mind was strongly drawn toward foreign-mission work, especially in the East, and he desired to go to Europe to study Arabic, and then enter whatever field of labor should be cpen — perhaps among the Ara bians or Persians. He decided to go to Paris to study with the celebrated De Sacy. On the eve of embarkatiou he was appointed Professor of Oriental Languages in Amherst College. Advised to accept the appointment, and the trustees approving his plan to study abroad, he sailed for Paris August 18th, 1821. While engaged in this study he received a pressing invitation from Pliny Fisk — Mr. Parsons having died — to join him in mission work in the Holy Land. Mr. S. V. S. Wilder agreeing to pay $100 a year for three years, and others guaran teeing his support, he accepted the invitation. Having completed his three years in Syria and Egypt, he left Beirut for America in 1827, going overland to Smyrna, where he spent several months in the study of Modern Greek. At home he travelled extensively North and South in be half of the A. B. C. F. M. While engaged in this work Providence opened the way for him to go to Greece. The Ladies' Greek Committee of New York, being greatly stirred by his recital of the sufferings of the people from Turkish despot ism, had prepared a shipload of food and cloth ing, and invited him to be their almoner, also their missionaiy to Greece. He accepted the invitation, resigning the professorship at Am herst, declining a similar one at Yale, and em barked for Greece, reaching Poros July 28th, 1828. His distribution of food and clothing opened the way to preach Christ. People came in large numbers, begging for Testaments and listening with eagerness to the gospel. Even the priests approved what was said. The President of Greece favored his work. He visited many important places, everywhere preaching, establishing schools, and relieving want. In 1829 he married a Greek lady of in fluence, who provedan efficient helper in the mis sion work. In 1830 the mission was transferred to the American Board. Having previously visited Athens, and arranged to reside there after the Turks had vacated the place in 1831, it became his permanent home. Here he soon built a school-house, in which he had service in Greek every Sabbath till 1860. The establish ment of schools was a prominent object with Dr. King, and he made it a condition that in them the Scriptures should be studied. At the "Evangelical Gymnasium," which he estab lished, he gave religious instruction several times a week, to about seventy pupils varying in age from ten lo thirty-five years. He also formed a theological class composed of Greeks and Italians, to whom he gave regular and frequent instruction. Some of these have occupied important positions as teachers or in • the employment of government. But the hierarchy became alarmed at the influence of his preaching, his schools, and the circulation of the Scriptures. A bishop denounced the schools, and threatened with excommunication all who sent their children to them. At the instigation of the Greek Synod he was brought before the Areopagus, lhe highest court in Athens, charged with reviling the "mother of God " aud the "holy images." After reading his accusation, the judge asked him if he had any defence to make. He replied: "Those things in my book with regard to Mary, tran- substantiation, and images 2 did not say; but the most brilliant luminaries of the Eastern Church— St. Epiphanius, St. Chiysostom, the great St. Basil, St. Irenseus, Clemens, and Euse bius Pamphyli — say them." He was condemned to be tried before the felons' court in Syra. An inflammatory pamphlet having been circulated in advance, his life was threatened, but through the influence of some lawyers aud government officials the trial did not take place. At one time there was a conspiracy of fifty men against his life. In 1847 an accusation against him, though proved false, caused such excitement that tbe king advised him to leave the country for a time. He went to Geneva, visiting also several important European cities. In 1848 he returned to his usual work at Athens. In March, 1851, he was appointed United States consular agent. On March 22d he opened a box which had beeu sent from Washington, and found in it an American flag for the use of the consulate. That very eveniug a mob assembled at his house, threatening violence, when he unfurled the flag and they dispersed. In 1852 he was again brought to trial on the charge of blaspheming God and the Greek religion, and under pressure of great popular excitement he was condemned, against law and justice, to fifteen days' imprisonment in a loathsome prison, and after that, expulsion from the kingdom. March 9th he went to the prison in Athens, but was removed the next day to the police-office, and was kindly treated. March 13th he became ill, and was taken home, but guarded. Having protested against the sentence in the name of the United States Gov ernment, the Hon. Geo. P. Marsh, minister resident at Constantinople, investigated the matter in 1852 by order of the government, and Dr. King, by order of the King of Greece, was iu 1854 freed from the penalty of exile. He continued his work in Greece till 1857, when he attended a meeting of the Evangelical KING, JONAS 527 KIRGHIZ-TURKI VERSION Alliance in Berlin. He was never free from petty persecution. He was anathematized in 1863 by the Holy Synod of Athens, but his liberty was not taken away. His health being impaired, he visited the United States in 1864, and returned to Athens in 1867. He employed part of his time in revising plans he had drawn up for the organization of a distinctively Prot- ostant Greek Church. Such a church has been established since his death. In 1874 a "neat and beautiful church building " was erected in Athens. After sending messages to his son, to the little band of Greek converts, and giving directions as to hisburial, the faithful missionaiy passed away, May 22d, 1869, in bis 77th year. He was a thorough linguist, having studied eleven languages, and speaking fluently five. His original works in Arabic, Greek, and French were ten in number, some of them being widely Tead, and translated into other tongues. He Tevised and carried through the press eleven others. He distributed 400,000 copies of Scrip ture portions, religious tracts, and school-books in Greece and Turkey, besides what he scattered during his travels in other parts of Europe, and in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. "Dr. King," says Dr. Anderson, "has left his impress on the Greek nation. To him pre eminently is it owing that the Scriptures since 1831 have been so extensively used in the schools, and that in Greece the Word of God is not bound; also under God the visible decline there of prejudice against evangelical truth and religious liberty." Kingsbury, Cyrus, b. Alstead, N. H., November 22d, 1786; graduated at Brown Uni versity 1812, Andover Theological Seminary 1815 ; ordained as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. to the Choctaws, and went to the Cherokee countiy in 1816, commencing a station at Brain erd. In June, 1818, he left Brainerd with Mr. and Mrs. Williams, to commeuce the mission among the Choctaws. They travelled in a wagon four hundred miles through the wilderness, to the place afterward called Elliot. In May, 1820, a new station called Mayhew was established, and in November Mr. and Mrs. Kingsbury made it their permanent home. Mr. Kingsbury was much encouraged by the friendship of the Choctaws, and zeal for the education of their children. Mrs. Kingsbury died September 15th, 1822. Mr. Kingsbury continued in the service of the A. B. C. F. M. in the Choctaw Mission, with zeal and success, until it was discontinued in 1859 ; laboring after this in the same fleld in connection with the Presbyterian and Southern Presbyterian Boards till his death, June 27th, 1870. Kingston, a town in Jamaica, West Indies, on a magnificent bay, defended by two forts. Population, 40,000. Mission station of the Baptist Missionary Society. Headquarters for their mission, with stations on Haiti, San Domingo, the Caymans, Turk's Islauds, Cuba, and Central America; 3 missionaries, 1 resident minister, 2 chapels. Headquarters of the Jamaica Baptist Union; 161 churches, 33,000 members. Near Kingston is the Calabar College for the training of ministers supported by the English Baptist Missionary Society. United Methodist Free Church; 1 preacher, 405 church-members, 2 Sabbath-schools, 260 scholars. United Pres byterian Church of Scotland ; 2 missionaries, 2 churches, 446 church-members, 3 Sabbath- schools, 260 scholars. King William's Town, a town in Cape Colony, South Africa. Climate sub-tropical, very dry and healthy. Population (1889), 5,386, chief ly Kafirs and Hottentots. Languages, Kafir and Dutch. Natives are very degraded, practising polygamy, circumcision, and various savage customs. Mission station of the London Mis sionary Society (1826); 1 missionary and wife, 60 native helpers, 10 out-stations, 2 churches, 605 church-members, 9 schools, 457 scholars. S. P. G. (1862); 1 missionary. It mh wa, a prefectural city in Chehkiang, China. Climate tropical, 25°-95°. Population, 50,000. Language, Mandarin. Natives out wardly very prosperous; morally low, given to gambling, opium, drinking, etc. Mission station of the AmericanBaptist Missionaiy Union (1883) ; 1 missionary and wife, 2 other ladies, 4 native helpers, 5 out-stations, 3 churches, 70 members. China Inland Mission (1875); 1 missionary and wife, 4 native helpers, 1 out-station, 1 chapel, 22 members, 1 school, 6 scholars. Kinika or Bfyika Version. — Into this language, which belongs to the Bantu family of African languages, and which is the vernacular of the Wanika tribes in the region of Mombasa, East Africa, the late Dr. Krapf translated the Gospels of Luke and John, and the Epistles to the Romans and Ephesians, of which the Gospel of St. Luke was printed at Bombay in 1848. In 1882 the British and Foreign Bible Society, at the request of the Rev. R. Bushell of the Foreign Missionary Committee of tbe United Methodist Free Church, printed at London the translation ofthe Gospel of St. Matthew, which the Rev. Thomas Wakefield, a missionary at Ribe since 1861, had prepared by the assistance of an educated Arab. (Specimen verse. Luke 22 : 70.) Nao ossi agomba, hikara uwe ni mana wa Mulungu? aka gomba,. muimui munaamba, ni mimi endimi. Kircherer, John, b., educated, and or dained in Holland; sailed in 1798 as missionary of the L. M. S. to South Africa; opened a mis sion in Bushmen's Land; visited Europe in 1803 with three Hottentot converts; died September, 1825. Kirghiz-Turki Version. — The Kirghiz belongs to the Turki branch of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, and is spoken by the Kir- ghese hordes — Great, Little, aud Middle, as they are called — occupying various regions in South ern Siberia, Central Asia, and west of the Cas pian Sea. The numbers of these hordes are variously estimated as high as 2,000,000 and as low as 1,450,000, the lower number being prob ably the more correct. The first New Testa ment in this vernacular was printed at Astra khan in 1820. The edition consisted of 5,000 copies, and the version was an adaptation by the Rev. Chas. Fraser, of the Scottish Mission, of the version made by the Rev. H. Brunton, and printed at Karass. The version was revised by Prof. Gottwald,and an edition of 3,000 copies was printed at the Kazan University Press for the British and Foreign Bible Society, under the care of Mr. Saleman, in 1880. A third edition, KIRGHIZ-TURKI VERSION 528 KLEINSCHMHJT, J. C. consisting of 4,800 copies, was published in 1887 under the editorship of Mr. Saleman, after having been revised again by Dr. Gottwald. About 7,800 copies of the New Testament have thus far been disposed of. Kishinew,the capital of Bessarabia, Russia, is on the Buik River, 85 miles northwest of Odessa. Population, 120,074. Mission station of the L. S. P. G. among the Jews; 1 missionary. Also the residence of Joseph Rabinowitch, who has gathered a large congregation of Jews to whom he preaches. (See Jews.) Kiuehau, a city in Chehkiang, China, on the left bank of the Yang-tsz River. It isa large and prosperous place, and considered one of the keys to the empire. Mission station of the China Inland Mission (1872); 1 missionary and wife, 1 single lady, 1 out-station. Kiu-kiang, a prefectural city in Kiangsi, China, lies on the south bank of the Yang-tsz, not far from the outlet of Lake Po-yang. It is the great centre of the tea traffic, and controls the carrying-trade of the river and on the lake. The climate is fairly good; hot in the summer, but bracing and cold in tbe winter. Opened to foreign trade in 1861. Mission station of the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), 1868; 2 missionaries and wives, 111 members, 5 schools, 169 scholars. An institute has recently been opened for higher education, and all the day- schools have been brought into systematized affiliation. The Protestant Episcopal Church have here a sanitarium. C. I. M. (1889); 2 mis sionaries. Kiung-chau, a town on the island of Hainan, off the coast of China, 250 miles south west of Hong Kong. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North), 1885; 3 mission aries, 2 missionaries' wives, 2 out-stations, 1 hos pital. Kiungani, Africa; a town on the central part of the east coast of the island of Zanzibar. Mission station of the Scottish Universities Mission to Central Africa. The work of the mission was prospering finely under the rule of the beneficent Mohammedan king, Seyid Burghash bin Said, who was tolerant, and im bued with English ideas of liberty and justice. At his death in 1888 German aggression com menced, and the work of the mission has been seriously hiudered by the disturbed condition of affairs. There are at Kiungani a theological college, school and home for 98 boys, a large chapel and a printing-office, 2 clergy, 7 laity. Kjihi, a town in Ashanti, Gold Coast, Africa, northwest of Akropony. Population, 2,000. Basle missionaries first brought Chris tianity to these regions in 1828, when the land was a Danish possession, but 63 Gorman and Danish missionaries sacrificed their lives in the attempt. In 1843 the Danes transferred some negro families from lhe West Indies, educated by the Moravian Brethren , and in this form, still under the direction of the Basle Society, the mission has succeeded very well, both among the Ga and the Tschi tribes. Kjihi, among the Tschi, was founded in 1861, and has 925 church-members. The whole New Testa ment has been translated into Tschi. Kleinsehmidt, J. C, one of the first missionaries of the United Brethren to Green land. He went to Lichtenau about 1777. This was the third station founded in Greenland, 1774, and situated on the Fjiord Agluilsok, 400 miles south of Lichtenfels and about 40 miles from the Danish colony Juliannehaapt. After Kleinsehmidt had worked in Greenland nineteen years his wife died, and he returned to' Europe to place his children in the school of the United Brethren in Fulneck, in Yorkshire. While here he married again, and soon returned in a Danish vessel to his old mission in Greenland, arriviug at Godhaven in Disko Bay. The captain for some unexplained reason would not land the missionaries at Lichtenfels nor New Herrnhut. Mr. and Mrs. Kleinsehmidt, after goiDg back 600 miles to New Herrnhut, bad still to go 500 miles before they arrived at Lich tenau. The mission here was very promising, and in a letter written June 25th, 1819, Mr. Kleinsehmidt writes of the readiness of the Greenlanders to receive the gospel. He says: " Often have we shed tears of joy and thank fulness for this singular proof of God's goodness to us." He completed the translation of the New Testament in June, 1821. All the mis sionaries joined in revising it, and it was sent to the British and Foreign Bible Society. At this time the congregation at Lichtenau con sisted of 588 persons. For some time the missionaries had wished to form a fourth station in the neighborhood of Staatenhook or Cape Farewell, and Mr. Klein sehmidt was sent by the Moravian Society to reconnoitre in the summer of 1821, and ascer tain whether there were insurmountable obstacles to beginning a mission, and to preach the gospel whenever and wherever an oppor tunity offered itself. He left July 3d, with three native assistants, two of them with their families. The company consisted of thirteen adults and four children in two boats. For three days they battled with the ice and waves at the peril of their lives. They passed on the sixth day a high promontory, where Kleinsehmidt heard there had landed some scattering heathen, and hoping to do them good, he approached their camp and was invited to come forward, and promised to go with them to the south, where more of their people were. To his sur prise he found great numbers of people, who came joyfully to meet him, telling him be fore he could speak to them: " We are quite in earnest: we all wish to be converted." He found also some who had spent a few months at Lichtenfels and retained the religious impres sions received there. The people flocked to him from both sides of the river, so much so that he had hardly time to eat or to sleep. The native assistants were invaluable to him, giving coustant testimony to their faith and love for Jesus. After talking with the people all day, he held a public meeting in the open field, which was attended by all the people, who listened with the closest attention. On the 7th he turned southward to Lichtenau, accompanied by the whole party of Greenlanders. The en tire voyage home was full of interest and some dangers; hehad many times preached to wander ing parties, and made some explorations, and at length arrived in safety at Lichtenau. In 1824 Mr. Kleinsehmidt set about forming a new station at Fredericksdall. The materials for a dwelling and a church had been prepared, and were to come from Copenhagen. Meanwhile Kleinsehmidt had been living in a sod house KLEINSOHMIDT, J. O. 529 KOLHAPUR 24 feet long and 12 wide. One third was used for a dwelling and the rest for a church. On the 27th of July, 1824, 104 heathen were bap tized. "To describe what God has done for us during this first year of our abode in this place, is beyond the power of words." In 1829 the little church from Copenhagen was landed at Juliannehaapt. Klerksdorp, a town in the Transvaal, Africa, northwest of Potschefstroom, ona north ern branch of the Vaal River. Mission station of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society; 1 native pastor, 3 native helpers, 100 church- members, 1 school, 22 scholars. Knight, Joseph, b. Stroud, Gloucester shire, England ; educated by Rev. Dr. Williams at Stroud ; ordained deacon September 21st, 1817, and priest 1818 by Bishop of Gloucester shire; embarked as a missionary of the C. M. S. December 15th, 1817, for Jaffna, North Ceylon; was stationed at Nellore. His health failing, he sailed for England July, 1838, and also made a visit to the United States. He re-embarked for Ceylon from England January 17th, 1840, and died on his way, at Colombo, October 11th, having been twenty-three years in the service. Mr. Knight was probably unsurpassed, if not unequalled, by any in India in his critical and extensive knowledge of the Tamil language. He was for several years engaged in the prepa ration of a Tamil and English dictionaiy, and had made great progress in it, when failure of health required him to leave for England. Af ter his death tbe work was committed to others and completed. Mr. Knight was a man of lively Christian spirit, aud, though attached to the Episcopal Church, cordially fraternized with all disciples of Christ, uniting with them in religious meetings and at the Lord's Table. He was greatly beloved by his brethren of other missionary societies, and his death much la mented. Kobe, a city of Japan, on the bay, and near the city of Hiogo; connected by rail with Osaka. Kobe and Hiogo together have a pop ulation of 103,969 (1887). A neat place, regu larly built ; the centre of a large tea-trade. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1879); 1 missionary and wife, 7 other ladies, 159 church- members. American Baptist Missionary Union (1881); 2 missionaries, 1 missionaiy's wife. 3 out- stations, 2 native keepers, 2 schools, 42 scholars. Methodist Episcopal Church South; 1 mission ary and wife. S. P. G. ; 2 missionaries. Kochannes, a town of Eastern Turkey, near the border of Persia, in the most inacessi- ble part of the mountains of Koordislan. The seat of the Patriarch of the Nestorians. Mis sionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. and the Presby terian Board (North) have frequently visited the place, but the only attempt to establish a station there was in 1882, when Mr. Wahl, sent out by the Archbishop of Canterbury, endeav ored to set up a printing-press and form a school. The plan failed.' (See Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian Christiaus.) Koehi, a city in Southeast Japan, southwest of Tokushima; population, 32,860 (1887). Mis sion station of the Presbyterian Church (South); 3 missionaries (one married), 2 female mission aries, 1 church. 1 native minister, 150 Sabbath scholars, a Y. M. C. A. Kohima, a town in the Naga hills, Assam, India, aud the headquarters of the British Gov ernment amoug the Angami Nagas. It is at am elevation of 5,000 feet, and has a healthy cli mate. Population, 4,000 ; language, Angami Naga. Mission station of the A. B. M. U. (1878); 1 missionary and wife, 3 church -members. Matthew's and John's Gospels have been trans lated by the missionary. Kol Version. — The Kol, which is a dia lect of the Gond, belongs to the Dravidian family of the non-Aryan languages, and is spoken by 100,000 Kols of Central India. It is only re cently that the British and Foreign Bible Soci ety has published, at the request of the Church Missionary Society, a tentative edition of 500 copies of the Gospel of Luke and the First. Epistle of St. John. The translation was made by General Haig, assisted by three Kols who understood the Telugu Bible, and issued at London in 1882. Kokand, a country of Central Asia, one of the three great Khanates of West Turkistan, or Independent Tartary. It is inclosed by lofty mountains, and is for the most part a well- watered, fertile valley. Climate severe in the mountainous regions, but mild in the main val ley. In summer the heat is excessive during the day, but tbe nights are cool. Population, 3,000,000. including Uzbecks, who are the mil itary and dominant class, Tajiks, Kirghiz, aud Keptchaks. Kokand is noted for the excel lence and variety of its fruits and for its manu facture of a fine quality of silk. A commercial treaty between Kokand and Russia was negoti ated in 1868, and the country is virtually under Russian protection and control. The town has a population of 54,043 (1885). Koskstad, a town of East Griqualand, Africa, south of Pietermaritzburg, north of Marburg. It was built in 1863 by the eastern division of tbe wandering Griquas, under the leadership of Adam Koh, in what was at that time called No-man's-land. In 1870 came the London missionary, Dower, to them, and they loved him so much that they would not let him go. In 1877 the S. P. G. established a station here, which is uow under the charge of 1 mis sionary. Kolar mission, at Mysore, India. The Kolar Mission has grown out of the Kolar Or phanage, which was founded by Miss Louisa H. Anstey during the great Indian famine in 1877. The mission at present consists of a boys' orphanage, a girls' orphanage, the Anglo- Canarese School for boys and girls, a large Christian church and dispensary at Kolar, and four Christian villages, three of which contain chapels Christianity is proclaimed by native preachers in the market-place of Kolar aud in the large Gospel Hall, also in towns and vil lages of the Kolar district. Workshops for carpentry, blacksmiths' works, and tailoring, together with farms and wood-cutting in the jungles, give employment to tbe majority of the Christians. The entire work of the mission is carried ou by Miss Anstey and her uative assistauts. Kolhapur, the capital of the native state of that name, Bombay, India, is a picturesque town, aud quite a flourishing trading-place. The people, who are mainly high-caste Hindus, KOLHAPUR 530 KOORDISTAN together with the aborigines and low-caste, speak the Marathi and Hindustani languages. The number in the city is estimated at 35,000. Mission statiou of the Presbyterian Church (North). The work was commenced iu 1853 by .an independent American missionary, Royal G. Wilder (q. v.), and was taken under the care of the Board in 1870; 2 missionaries and wives, 4 female missionaries, 2 out-stations, 1 church, 60 commuuicants, 4 Sabbath-schools, 280 scholars, 1 high school, 120 scholars, 1 Christian girls' school, 25 scholars, 3 boys' day-schools, 112 scholars. S. P. G. (1870; 1 missionary, 2 female missionaries, 22 church-members, 7 schools, 400 scholars. Kominaggas, a town in Little Namaqua- land, Africa, situated on the coast south of Steinkopf, southeast of Concordia. Mission sta tion of the Rhenish Missiouary Society; 1 mis sionary, 1 female missionary, 96 school children. Konkani Version. — The Konkani, also Kiunkani, is a dialect of the Marathi, and be longs to the Iudic branch of the Aryan family of languages. The greater part of the people, who number about 100,000, are Hindus; a, part be long to the Church of Rome, and speak the Konkani with a mixture of Portuguese words. As early as 1818 a New Testament was published at Serampore, to which was added in 1821 the Pentateuch. Towards the close of the year 1883 the Madras auxiliary issued an edition of the Gospels of Mark and John , taken from Ca rey's version, printed in 1818 in the Devana gari character, but somewhat altered, so as to be better understood by all classes. Steps are now being taken for the formation of a com mittee to revise the New Testament for the press. Koordistan. — Koordistan, generally speak ing, includes those sections of Turkey and Per sia in which Koords form a large part of the population. They abound in the regions ex tending from the Russian border at Erivan on the north to the fig-producing hills of the Sin- jar in Upper Mesopotamia and the flower- gardens of Shiraz on the south, and from the plains of Oroomiah and Ispahan on the east to the Tigris, the Euphrates at Samosata, the Tau rus at Marash, and the Anti-Taurus in Cappa- docia and Pontus on the west. In the Koordish sense the historical Koordis tan of the " Shereef Na'ameh" (a collection of Koordish historical traditions) lay within boun daries somewhat more contracted. Beginning at Kara, in the northeast, the eastern boundary extended to the Araxes, near Mount Ararat, to the western shore of Lake Oroomiah, and the eastern slopes of the Zagros to the boundary of Old Persia, a little southwest of Ispahan. The southern boundary ran west through Dizful to the Choaspes Mountains, along these to the Hamreen Hills, by these to the Tigris, up tbe Tigris to the Sinjar Hills, along the south side of these to the Khaboor River, up the Khaboor River to Ras el 'Ain, thence northwest lo Birijik on the Euphrates. The western boundary ran north from Birijik to Albistan in the Auti- Taurus, and up to the edge of the Sivas plain •on the river Halys. The northern boundary ran thence directly east to Erzingau, Erzroom, and thence to Kars by the Passin plain. Geographically, the Koordistan of to-day in cludes the Turkish provinces of Erzroom, Van, Bashkallah, Mosul (eastern portion), Bitlis, Di arbekir, and Mamooriet el Aziz (Harpoot, eastern portion), and iu Persia the western portion of Azerbijan, Ardilan, and Luristan. In short, Koordistan is situated between lat. 32° and 40° north, aud long. 36° and 48° east. The mass of the Koords dwell to this day within these limits. Physical Features. — Any map will re veal within these limits mountain chains run ning in all directions; and, indeed, the region may properly be regarded as the Switzerland of Western Asia. 'I he body of this spider-like system of mountains is in lhe region south of Lake Van aud north of Nineveh, west of Lake Oroomiah and east of the Tigris. About the size of Palestine in its palmiest days, it is a per fect sea of mountains, with mountain peaks that vie with oue another in their efforts to pierce lhe regions of the upper air, and rise from 10,000 feet to 15,000 feet above the level- of the sea. The antiquity of the region as the abode of man is atlested by the absence of forests. Out from this system flow the Araxes and the Halys on the north, the one to the Caspian and the other to the Black Sea; aud to the south the Euphrates, and the Tigris, with its ten trib utaries, into the Persian Gulf. Such endless combinations of mountains and valleys, lakes and gorges, rivers and plateaus, snow-clad peaks and grassy plains, render the scenery beautiful, grand, weird, and wijd by turns. Population. — To say, with Xenophon, that the Koords are the Caiduchi, does not answer the question of their origin. The following may contribute something to this interesting ethnological question : (a) The region described above was inhabited, in the times of the Assyrian Empire, by a war rior race named -'Gutu,'' i.e., warrior. The Assyrians called them Gardu and Kardu; the Greeks later called them Kaidokas (Kix/jSaKei). They were Scythians or Turanians. (b) After the subjugation of Assyria the Gardu were absorbed by a still more energetic tribal race, the southern Koormauj, of whom Keffee Effendi, in his brochure upon the Koords. says: "They are reckoned as the origin of the Koor- manj (Koord), and are lineal descendants of Madai, tbe son of Japbeth." This absorption transferred the Gardu from the Turanian to the Aryan family. These occupied Northern Koor distan. (c) In Southern Koordistan there dwelt, ac cording to tradition, one Gudarz, son of Gio, aud chief of the "Gutu." Of him came the tribe named Kalhur, as well as a son named Roham, who was sent by Bahman Keiani to destroy Jerusalem and lead the Jews into cap tivity. Roham, then, was Bokht-i-nasser (Neb uchadnezzar of Scripture), who succeeded to the tliroue of Babylon. His descendauts are lhe Kooraus or Gurans (Gorans). They were Semitic. (See "Encyclopaedia Britannica," ar ticle "Koordistan.") (d) The next step in the racial process seems to be furnished by Keffee Effendi, who inti mates that the southern Koormanj coalesced with a part of the Koorans, and thus formed not only the powerful Jaff tribe, but, by a uuion of their speech, a new dialect also, which is still called the Jaff. Thus a prominent branch of the Semitic family, by its union with the KOORDISTAN 531 KOORDISTAN vigorous southern Koormanj, was transferred into the Aryan. (e) Later, the Aryan element is strengthened by an infusion of Iranian stock, which, crowded out of Persia by a great ethnic movement from the banks of the Indus, brings in the Lurs, wbo are welcomed by the Jaffs and given settlement along the Karun River and its affluents. Two results followed from this contact also: ' Jaff blood coursed through the Lur tribe and made it Koordish, and tbe Iranic element of the Lur language percolated through the ag glutinated and coarser fibre of the Jaff tongue, and shaped it to Iranian moulds; much as the Saxon element prevailed in our English tongue, while the racial preponderance remained to the Angles. (f) Still another Indo-Persian ethnic move ment occurred, and from its centre of rest in Afghanistan a Wend migration was projected westward across Persia and up into Luristan and Ardilan. It fused with what it touched, and out of the new admixture was evolved a more compact union of the nomad portion of the Kooran Jaffs and of the Lurs with the Wend element, under the tribal name of Wend. These steps of ethnologic evolution may best be indicated by the accompanying table. (b) Those partly pastoral and partly agricul tural occupy fixed abodes in winter, but in sum mer dwell in tents among pastures not remote from their harvest fields. (c) Those purely agricultural remain through out the year in fixed abodes. Some Koords dwell iu towns and cities as merchants and mechanics. Generally speaking, one half, perhaps more, belong to class a, while tbe remainder are dis tributed between classes b and c in the propor tion of 2 to 1. General Characteristics. — The Koords are of two distinct types — the northern and the south ern. The northern Koord is bold but not cour ageous, hospitable but full of theft and treach ery, loud-voiced and brutal, lazy and ignorant, fond of iutrigue, feudatory. He is thriftless and likewise shiftless in regard to his person, dress, and manners. He has black eyes and hair, is of fine physique and athletic, is tem perate, and of sturdier morals than his Turkish ruler. As a rule he is monogamous, and treats his wife more after the manner of Europeans than of the Turk. He is intellectually dull, and dogged in his commercial dealings; ready to owe and acknowledge a debt, but slow to can cel it. and constitutes the Jaff (Ar- I.— The Constitution of the Jaff Tribe. (a) Gutu or Gardu (Turanian), 1 absorbed by the ' V and forming the Koormanj (Aryan) (&) Koormanj — southern — (Aryan) J which later absorbs a part of the (c) Koorans (Gurans), who are Semitic, j yan) ; and this also receives the (d) Lurs who yet retain their tribal unity and name. II. — The Constitution of the Wend Tribe — the Guelhore of the Shereef Naameh. Still later the Wends (Iranian) draw off 1 (a) The Kocher Kooran, or Nomadic Jaffs, and also >- thus forming the Wend Tribe (Iranian). (6) The Jaff Lurs. I Tribal Division and Dispersion, as they are to-day. This is briefly and best presented in a tabulated form. I. Jaff Tribe. I Koormanj-Northern. Koorm anj -Southern Koorans. Ashair (sub-tribes) of Northern Turkey and Persia. Turkey and Persia. Koordistan in Turkey— in Ashair of Ashair of Bashkaloh — Rowan diz, Mikn, Kerkook, Zohan— east, Van, Arbeel, Shenoo, Suleimanieh, Kermanshah, Bitlis, Khoi Sanjak, Serdesht, Jaff: Shehr Zore, Hamadan, Diarbekir, Ranieh, Kelo, Dersim Mts., Ardilan. Erzroom, Bilbas, Koordek, Anatolia. Mamooriet el Aziz. Suleimanieh. Bookan, Toff J Nomads, Jarrl Settled, Baba Meeva, Baba Umri. II. Wend Tribe. 1 Wend. Afghanistan. Kocher (Nomadic) Kooran. Turkey aud Persia. Ashair of Bakhtiar Wend, 1 Hama Wend. Jaff Jowazood. | Lur. Luristan — Persia. Numb&r. — For various reasons exactness is simply impossible; the following tabulation gives only approximate estimates: 1 Northern— Turkey 2,000,000 Koormanj \ on„fh„n_ i Turkey 150,000 | boutnern 1 Persia 200,000 Kooran, Wend, Turkish Provinces 200,000 (Persian " 150,000 (Turkish " 110,000 {Persian " 90,000 ( Afghanistan (southwest portion), 500,000 Total, 3,400,000 Mode of Life. — (a) Those purely pastoral are nomadic (called Kochers), and oscillate between the mountains and the plains, occupying the former in summer and the latter in winter. The southern Koord is not less athletic, but of finer grain, more polite in his bearing, more quiet in bis manners, and more careful of his person and dress. He has a more intellectual cast of features, and is brighter looking. This applies to the fixed southern Koord: his nomadic brother is more like the northern Koord. The organization of the southern Koords is more compact than that of the northern tribes, aud there is among tbem the quiet consciousness of power. They obey Abd ul Hamid more as Caliph than as Sultan. In general they are the highlanders of Turkey and Persia — fond of freedom, but lawless in their use of it, thereby occasioning great un easiness to both those powers. Claunishness KOORDISTAN 532 KOREA and tribal feuds are powerful preventives of their racial homogeneity and political power. They hold in solution the elements of a state, but a gospel precipitate will crystallize them into a bulwark of freedom better than Switzer land. Language. — It is still disputed whether Koor dish is a distinct language. That it is Iranian is clear; that it is a dialect of the Persian is not so clear. Of the five stages through which the Persian has passed, the Koordish most resembles the last, or Neo-Persian. The Koordish, how ever, is enough of a language to have its own dialects, of which the following are the chief: (1) The Koormanj, mainly used in northern Koordistan. (2) The Jaff, mainly used in southern Koor- distau, and of which Keffee Effendi says that recently very many of the Koorans forsook the Kooran dialect, and now speak " the original and beautiful Jaff language." (3) The Kooran, or Goran, and called also Zaza, used by the Kocher Jaffs, the Koorans of the Dersim, around Harpoot, and in various parts of Anatolia. (4) The Lur, used in Luristan, but affecting, as well as connecting, the Kooran and Wend. Of these dialects the Jaff is probably the purest and superior, and tjie Koormanj the harshest and least developed. Generally speaking, the Koordish, in all its dialects, is simple, sententious, terse, direct, forceful; better adapted to express the feelings and the will than the more discursive and logi cal efforts of the intellect. As the language of an unlettered race, its development has been in the direction of appeals to the emotions and passions of a people at once and chiefly pastoral and predatory. Its intellectual development will advance, pari passu, with tbat of the Koor dish race, and the capabilities of each are of no mean order. Religion. — All Koords are Moslems, but the Sunuis, or followers of Mohammed, and the Shiahs, or followers of Ali, share them about equally. Again, the Sunnis are divided into the Shafai, Hanafi, and Hanbali sects. The southern Koormanj and the Jaffs, the Bakhliari Wend aud the Jaff Jowazood, are Shafais; the north ern Koormanj of Jebel Toor, of the plain north of the Sinjar Hills and to the west of Sert, are Hanafls ; but the Hanbali sect has little hold upon the Koords. The Sbiahs comprise the Lur and Wend tribes of Persia and Afghanistan, the Koormanj of Bohtan, Sert, and Bitlis, and the Koorans of the Dersim Mountains and Anatolia in Turkey. All Koords are bigoted, and are fanatically at tached to their Sheikhs, if not to their religion. Comparatively few of them have an intelligent grasp of Islam, which indeed is a foreign reli gion iu a foreign tongue. Relation to Missionary Work. — At preseut they sustain uoue, because neither Turkey nor Persia would tolerate organized work in their behalf ; and their contact with the evangelistic efforts of the Eastern Turkey and West Persia missions for the nominal Christians residing in their midst is of lhe slightest. The evangelical churches of Turkey support a " Koordish Mission," which is conducted from Harpoot; but it is for Koordish-speaking Ar menians in Koordistan, and not for the Koords. In connection with this work a translation of the New Testament and also a small hymn-book have been published in Koormanji Koordish. Some effort for Koordish-speaking Syrians is now prosecuted by the Mardin station of the Eastern Turkey Mission. It would seem the intention of Providence to use these evan gelized Koordish-speaking Christians as an en tering wedge for work among the Moslem Koords when " all things are ready" for such a movement. The Persian Mission of tbe Pres byterian Board (North) is also making efforts to reach them. All who know them believe in the Koords as a race, in their capabilities, and in their future religious and political progress, and not a few feel that in tbem may be found the solution of the "Eastern Question." Koordish Version. — The Koordish be longs to the Iranic branch of the Aryan family, and is spoken in Koordistan, Turke}'. For the Koords using the Armenian character, Bishop Schevris.at Tabriz, translated the Gospels, which were printed at Shusha in 1832 by the British and Foreign Bible Society. A translation of the New Testament was also prepared by an Armeni an student at Bebek for and published by the American Bible Society. Another translation into Armeno-Koordish, of which the Gospel of Matthew was published by the Br. and For. Bible Soc. in 1856 and other parts since by the Am. Bible Soc. was undertaken by Pastor Stepan of Heine, not far from Diarbekir. " But " (says the ' ' American Bible Society Record, " March, 1880) " in his desire to make it intelligible to the in habitants of different sections, the translator so combined idioms as to make it unintelligible to almost all. The use of the Armenian character proved a hindrance rather than a help. It is perhaps better adapted to the language, which has no character of its own; but being Christian, it was repugnant to Moslem pride. The fact also that any Koords who learn to read learn Arabic, Turkish, or Persian, increased the prej udice against the Armenian letter." An en tirely new translation is in course of prepara tion. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) QpiTui ^po \\touil; Jnt-UtA •^rn ufufhin uinlit;y ^ui/3 ui oo kfcpqui l\*nt.nJ; juo mw, K\\ p ^4"/» ^f> Jl° rial, i ra ( fa (abbot ainat dbtjot eteircn elemeb. Larangeiras, a town in Brazil, 10 miles south of the Equator. Climate tropical. Lan guage, Portuguese. Religion, Roman Catholic. Social condition low. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (North), 1884; 1 missionary and wife, 4 native helpers, 3 out-stations, 1 church, 70 church-members, 2 schools. Latakiyeh, a city on the coast of Syria, 120 miles north of Beyrout. A seaport of Aleppo, and an important centre of trade. Population largely Nusairiyeh (q.v.). Prin cipal mission station of the Reformed Pres byterian (Covenanter) Church, U. S. A. (1859), among the Nusairiyeh; 3 out-stations, 9 ordained missionaries (4 married), 6 unordaiued (2 medi cal), 5 female missionaries, 6 native preachers, 58 teachers and helpers, 2 churches, 230 com municants, 843 Sabbath-scholars, 975 day and boarding scholars. LATIN VERSION 642 LEGGE, JAMES Latin Version. — The Latin belongs to the Groeco-Latin branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is classed with the so-called dead languages, being only used for liturgical pur poses iu the Church of Rome. As so much has already been written on this version, we confine ourselves to the briefest statement. At a very early period a Latin version already existed. In the fourth century one was especially current, the so-called "Itala." A revision of the Latin text of the New Testament was undertaken about the year 383 by Jerome. In the same year he corrected tbe Psalter (the Roman); in 387 he corrected it again, and it became known as the Gallican, because first introduced into Gaul by Gregory of Tours. Between the years 385 aud 405 Jerome translated the Old Testa ment from the Hebrew, and two centuries later his version was adopted pretty generally. In the following centuries revisions were under taken, but only to the detriment of Jerome's version. When the art of printing was invented, the Latin Vulgate, as Jerome's version was called, was the first book sent out. The earliest edition which is dated is that of Mayence, 1462. In 1546 the Council of Trent decreed the Latin Vulgate to be "authentic," and it was con sidered to be the prerogative of the Pope 1o issue an authoritative edition. This was done in 1590 by Sixtus V., and the printing of any other text was forbidden under penalty of excom munication. Nevertheless Clement VIII. issued in 1592 a very different text, and in 1593 an other edition with some alterations was pub lished, which became the standard Vulgate of the whole Romish Church. Although no ver sion but the Vulgate has ever been received as "authentic" by the Church of Rome, yet on account of the many errors and corruptions by which that text is disfigured, several attempts have been made by Catholics as well as by Protestants to produce more correct Latin versions. (Specimen verse. John 3: 16.) Sic~enim Deus dilexit mundum," ut Filium suum unigenitum daret, ut omnia vqui credit In, eum non pereat,_eed_habeat vitam eternam. Lawrence, John B., b. Geneseo, N.Y., U.S. A , July 12th, 1807; graduated at Union Col lege 1829, Andover Theological Seminary 1834; sailed as a missionary of the American Board May 16th, 1835, reaching Madura October 13th. He was on the way to Madras to embark for the United States when be was attacked with dysentery at Trichinopoly. After taking medi cine and medical advice he proceeded on his journey to Tanjore. Urged to go to tbe sea shore, he went to Tranquebar, where be died December 20th, 1847, expressing his contideuce in that Saviour whom he had so long preached in India. Il was gratifying to him that bis body would rest with the early and devoted missionaries of Tranquebar. His remains were deposited iu the mission burying-grouiul. Mr. Lawrence was stationed most of the lime that he was connected with the Madura mission at Diudigal. He was a laborious missiouaiy and a genial companion. Mr. Winslow writes: " He has left a good name behind him, not only among the natives, but among Europeans." Lebanon, a large village on the island of Antigua, West Indies, about 4 miles from St. John's, between that station and Gracehill. The population consists chiefly of emancipated slaves, who offered special opportunities for mission work. In 1838 the Moravians opened a station there and soon gathered a good-sized congregation, now in charge of a married mis sionary. Baptist Missionary Society; 1 chapel, 1 minister. Lebanon, a district of Syria comprising the range of mountains of the same name. (See Syria.) Lebanon §chools Mission. Supported by the Free Church of Scotland. Headquarters, 2 York Buildings, Edinburgh, Scotland. The first efforts made by Christians in Scot land to evangelize the people of Syria were put forth in 1839, when Drs. Black, Keith, A. Bonar, and McCheyne were sent on a missionaiy expedition to tbe Holy Land. In 1860 a catholic agency, called the Lebanon Schools Society, was established in Scotland for the Christian education of the people of the Leba non, among whom direct missionary effort is generally impracticable, but education, coming even through Christian schools is warmly re ceived; accordingly this method of work was adopted, and village schools were opened in the Meten district ofthe Lebanon. In 1872 Rev. John Rae was sent out as an ordained mis sionary, and in 1876 the medical work of the mission was commenced by tbe appointment of Dr. Carslaw as medical missionary. The central station is El Shweir, about 20 miles from Beyrout, where are the two high- schools, the dispensary, and the new church, lately completed, funds for which were con tributed by the Sabbath-schools of the Free Church of Scotland. In addition the mission supports 7 village schools, with an average attendance of 387, and two preaching stations. The work of the mis sion is carried on by two missionaries from Scotland, assisted by native preachers and teachers. Twenty one of the fifty-four students who have graduated from high-schools are now teaching, some in this mission, some in the schools of the American Mission, and others at the Syrian College at Beyrout. The annual income of the mission is about £750. Legge, James, b. Huntly, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, 1815; graduated King's College and University, 1835. After studying at Highbury Theological College, Loudou, he was appointed in 1839 by the London Missionary Society a mis sionary to China, and reached Malacca in De cember of tin- same year. In 1 840 he took charge of the Anglo-Chinese college founded by Dr. Morrison. In 1 S43 1 he Society decided to change the college iuto a theological seminary for the training of native ministers for China, selected Hong Kong for tbe seat of the institution, and appointed Mr. Legge as its president. He re moved with his family to Hong Kong August 10th, of the same year, accompanied by three promising native Christians from Malacca. Chin Seen, who had long enjoyed the instruc tions of Mr. Legge, was ordained to the gospel ministry in 1846. Besides performing mission work, Mr. Legge officiated as minister of the English Union Church until 1846, when his health having failed he returned to England, ac companied by three intelligent Chinese youths, LEGGE, JAMES 543 LEIPSIC EVAN. LUTH. MISS. SOO who were by him baptized in the presence of a great congregation. These youths were na tives of Malacca, and were baptized in the church in which Dr. Milne, president of the Malacca College, had been wont to worship. In 1850, having returned to Hong Kong, he reported the reception into the church of an aged Chinaman and three young men of much "¦promise, four candidates for the ministry under instruction, besides tbe oversight of a male boarding-school of thirty pupils, and the stated preaching in the Union Church. In 1852 Mrs. Legge died. In 1867 he visited England, and while there was presented by the government ofthe colony with a service of plate "in ac knowledgment of the many valuable services freely and gratuitously rendered." A number of the Chinese inhabitants presented him with a •costly and beautiful silver tablet, made after the Chinese fashion. In 1870 he received from the University of Aberdeen the degree of doctor of laws. In this year he returned to Hong Kong. In 1875 some gentlemen engaged in the -China trade offered to establish a chair of the Chinese language and literature at Oxford; the University accepted the offer, and constituted the chair in March, 1876, Dr. Legge being ¦elected professor. Dr. Legge took a prominent part in 1847 in the discussions concerning the proper rendering in Chinese of the words God .and Spirit, and published a volume in 1852 un der the title of "The Notions of the Chinese ¦concerning God and Spirits." His chief work is an edition of the Chinese classics, with the Chinese text, a translation in English, notes critical and exegetical, and copious prolegom ena. For these and translations of other im portant ancient Chinese works he received, on occasion of its first award, the Julien prize from the Academie des Belles Lettres et Inscriptions of the Institute of France in 1875. He attended the Congress of Orientalists in Florence in 1878. Leli, a town, the capital of the Ladakh prov ince, Lesser Tibet. The highest mission sta tion yet occupied; situated in the valley of the Indus River, 11,500 ft. above the sea, between mountains 21,000 ft. high. It is a great mart for traffic between Punjab and Chinese Tartary. Mission station of the Moravians (1885); 2 mis sionaries and their wives (one of these a trained medical missionary in charge of the government hospital and dispensary). This is the most promising of the three stations in the Hima layas, although the condition of the people is still very bad. Here the missionaries wait for an opportunity to enter Tibet proper. Leliendal, a station of the Moravian Breth ren, Surinam, South America (1848), on the northern bank of the Comewyne River, about five miles from its junction with the Surinam. It is a centre for an itinerating missionaiy, there being some thirteen plantations within the dis trict. The slaves residing on these estates were much addicted to sorcery and idolatry, but within a couple of years the missionary could report: " The negroes are one after another ridding themselves of their gods. Some of them lately took a whole basketful to the river by night, and threw them in." Leipsic Evangelical Lutheran Mis- sion Society. Headquarters Leipsic, Ger many. — The present Leipsic Society was founded at Dresden in 1836, and removed to Leipsic in 1846. There had existed since 1819 a missiouaiy association in Dresden, which labored in close connection with the Basle So ciety ; it sent its money and its missionaries to Basle. Like the latter institution, and in deed like all the earliest beginnings of mission ary activity in Germany, the Dresden associa tion spruug from and was supported by the pietistic circles. But in the third decade of the present centuiy various circumstances contributed very much to increase denomina tional feeling in Germany, or at least to define more sharply confessional differences. In 1832 the Dresden Association established its own mission school, which in 1836 developed into a complete missionaiy seminary, and in the lat ter year it also constituted itself an independent mission society. In 1844 Dr. Karl Graul became president of the Society and director of its seminary; and it is worth noticing that his principal work in the field of theology is "The Differences be tween the Various Christian Confessions," a book which ran through 11 editions. He made a journey over Palestine and Egypt to the East Indies, 1849-53, the literary results of which were: "Journey to the East Indies," 1854-56, 5 vols., and "Bibliotheca Tamulica," 1854-65, 4 vols. But the practical result was the com plete dissolution of the connection between the Leipsic and the Basle societies. The Basle So ciety, in accordance with all pietistic missionary labor, aimed simply at individual conversions. Dr. Graul, on the contrary, looked for a na tional conversion, and he consequently de manded something else aud something more from the missionaries he sent out, namely, an intimate acquaintance with the whole state of civilization, — religious, scientific, literary, polit ical, and social — among the people to whom they were sent. He also wished to make the Leip sic Society the centre of the entire missionaiy activity of the Lutheran Church, and he gave its labor a strictly Lutheran character, which imposed upon the laborers a certain reserve to wards their colaborers of other denominations. The first field occupied by the Society came to it, so to speak, by inheritance. Denmark, from the introduction of the Reformation in 1536 till the establishment of religious liberty in 1849, maintained a Lutheran state church of the sternest exclusiveness, forbidding the Re formed to enter the countiy, expelling tbe na tives when they became Roman Catholic, and was the first Protestant power of Continental Europe which undertook active missionary work among tbe pagans. From the beginning of the 18th centuiy it founded and supported flourish ing missions in all its outlying possessions: Greenland, the West Indian Islands, the west ern coast of Africa, and Tranquebar in the East Indies. In the beginning of the present cen tury there were in the last-mentioned place several well-informed and well-disciplined Ta mil congregations in charge of a Danish pastor, with a staff of active missiouaries (mostly from Halle), and a good Tamil translation of the Bi ble. But in 1845 Tranquebar was sold to Eng land, and in 1847 all the property of the Danish mission was legally transferred to the Society of Leipsic. Its labor there has been eminently successful, while its independent attempts in Australia and among the Red Indians of North America had to be given up. New and impor tant stations have risen year after year among LEIPSIC EVAN. LUTH. MISS. SOO. 544 LEPERS, MORAVIAN MISS. TO the Tamils in Majaweram, Madras, Pudukotta, and recently also in Rangoon, Burma. A the ological seminary has been established at Po- reiar, near the city of Tranquebar, in which the native pupils are instructed also in German; and at the first Tamil synod held at Tanjore, June, 1887, delegates were present from 13 con gregations, and the foundation was laid of an independent Tamil Lutheran Church. At one time the question of caste threatened to cause very grave difficulties. The Danish mis sion paid no attention to it, partly because the missiouaries really aimed only at individual con versions, partly because the mission was a state institution, and the Danish Government, an ab solute monarchy, probably never doubted that, within its own dominion, it had the right to decide the question just as it saw fit. Dr. Graul seems to have looked upon the matter in a similar way. But when Christianity ceases to be a mere element in tbe life of a people, and becomes its very foundation, caste must go as slavery went. Christianity, however, is itself freedom, aud very much can be left to its own inborn power of reconstruction and organiza tion. At all events the Society has with great success inaugurated the policy of forming in dependent and self-governing congregations. Perhaps a much greater difficulty will arise from the natural jealousy and despair with which paganism sees itself melt away before a power it does not understand. In his last an nual report the present director of the Soci ety, Dr. Hardiland, tells us that in conversa tion with one of the missionaries a Brahman suddenly cried out: "Paganism is dissolving, and if we don't bestir ourselves swiftly and en ergetically, we are lost;" and as a commentary on this confession he adds tbat pamphlet after pamphlet is issued by the pagan priests bearing titles like these: " One hundred and fifty Self- contradictions in the Bible," "Jesus was only a Man," etc. But it is not altogether impossi ble, as Dr. Hardiland intimates, that all such pamphlets are really European inspirations, and in that case they will not amount to much. Tbe Society draws its resources from the Luth eran churches in Germany and the Scandinavian kingdoms. Its revenue for the year 1889-90 amounted to 313,862 marks, with a balance of 49,315 marks from tbe preceding year, and a grant of 3,933 rupees for its schools from the English Government. It maintains 23 stations, with 141 meeting-places, 24 foreign and 223 na tive workers, 14,014 church-members, 149 schools, and 3,653 scholars. The native contri butions amount to 4,527 rupees. Lemberg, a city in Galicia, Austro-Hun- gary. Population, 87,105, one third of whom are Jews. Mission station of the British So ciety for Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews; 2 ladies. London Society for Propaga tion of Gospel among the Jews; 1 missionary. Lcogane, a town on the island of Haiti, West Indies, on the west coast, 20 miles west of Port-au-Prince. Mission station of the Prot estant Episcopal Church, U. S. A., with Port- au-Prince (q.v.). Leopoldville, a town on the Congo, Africa, at tbe head of Livingstone Falls, Stan ley Pool, is likely to become a centre of civili zation and commerce for the Congo Valley. Mission station of the A. B. M. U.; 4 mis sionaries, 1 physician, 1 church, 1 Sunday-school, 7 scholars, 1 day-school. Reformed Presbyte rian General Synod has also occupied this sta tion. Lepcha Version.— The Lepcha belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of non-Aryan lan guages, and is used in Sikhim, North India. The first attempts at a Bible translation into this. language were made by the Rev. W. Stark in 1855 or 1856. The work has since been carried on by the late Rev. Niebel, whose version was placed with the Calcutta Auxiliary Bible Society by the Baptist Missions. The Gospels of Mat thew and John, Genesis, and the first twenty chapters of Exodus were published by the Brit ish and Foreign Bible Society in 1870 at Cal cutta. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) 63 fo (£ 40 n /5j tfj (* *eiu(Hto ^pfnulipirjteliS^ra^toinrcl} fnitm pafcbu mcnnperbfiiimufd)u ©ehlu irr " bcrnis] fa toiffmii^ teem, fa8 ti« ceffd) miiina ne but;8 MuftceS. bet to mur;fch.lguibfli;toofd)ami babbufit. Leydensbnrg (Leidensburg, Lijdensburg), a town in Southeast Transvaal, Africa, south of the Limpopo River; northeast of Pretoria. Missior station of lhe Berlin Evangelical Society (1866); 1 missionaiy, 11 native helpers, 1 out station, 2 other preaching-places, 699 church-members. Liberia, a republic on the coast of Upper Guinea, Africa, extending from longitude 5° 54' to 12" 22' west, including 500 miles along the coast, with an average breadth of 100 miles. A colony of negroes from America was planted here in 1816 by an American Colonization So ciety, with the object of giving the negro a chance for self-improvement. An unfortunate selection of locality caused the failure of the attempt, as the climate was fatal. A treaty made with the native princes in 1821 secured a more healthful locality. The land was por- LIBERIA 547 LINDLEY, DANIEL tioned out; settlements sprang' up, and were named Monrovia, Caldwell, Edina; new lands were acquired; neighboring chiefs were re ceived into the colony, and hostile chiefs were ¦conquered, until in 1847 Liberia was declared an independent government, with a president, senate, and house of representatives. A prop erty qualification restricts the right of suffrage, •and for the time, whites are not allowed citizen ship. Great Britain aud other European pow ers recognized the republic, and its career has been one of steady growth in numbers, in wealth, and in civilization. The original plan of the colony has uot been fully carried out, since it draws its people more from the surrounding dis tricts aud native tribes than from the emanci pated negroes in North America, ln 1880 the kingdom of Medina, a rich and populous coun try, was annexed. The people are estimated at 1,400,000, of whom 50,000 speak the English language. Sugar is the principal product of agriculture, though farming of all kinds is conducted with increasing results in crops of cocoa, coffee, cot ton, and rice. Trade in gold-dust, ivory, palm- oil, coffee, and otlier products is rapidly increas ing in value and extent. Mission work is carried on by the Protestant Episcopal Church, the Methodist Episcopal Church (North), Presbyterian Church (North), besides some unattached missions. Lichtenau (i.e., Meadow of Light), a town on the southeast extremity of Greenland, 400 miles south of Lichtenfels, and 40 miles from the Danish colony of Julianenhaab. Mission station of the Moravians (1774); 3 missionaries. This station was opened at the earnest request of the heathen inhabitants of the district, whose attention had been called to the gospel by a visit some years previous of Dr. Matthew Stack. Lichtenfels (i.e., Rock of Light), a town in Greenland, on an island 3 miles from the mainland, 90 miles south of New Herrnhut, 40 miles north of the enormous glacier called the Ice Bluik. Mission station of the Moravians <1758). It was originally a cluster of huts built by Moravian missionaries, which grew into a good-sized settlement. It has 1 missionary. Lifu, one of the Loyalty Islands, Polynesia, 60 miles east of New Caledonia. Ctimate salu brious. Population, 6,604. Race, Papuan. Lan guage, Lifuan. Religions, Protestant, Roman Catholic. Natives peaceable, lazy, dirty, ex tremely honest, generally improving. Mission station of L. M. S (1854); 1 missiouaiy and wife, 25 native helpers, 9 churches, 2,000 members, 1 theological seminary, 15 students, 5 schools. Lifu Version. — The Lifu belongs to the Melanesian languages, and is spoken in the Loyalty Islands. The first part of the Scriptures translated into this language was the first chap ter of the Gospel of John, prepared by the Rev. William Nihil, and printed in 1855 at the mis sion press on Mare. The first Gospel printed was that of Mark, translated by Bishop Patte- son, and printed in New Zealand in 1859. In the same year the Rev. Samuel M'Farlane of the London Missionary Society settled on the island, and toward the close of that year the Gospel of Matthew was printed on Mare. The complete New Testament was issued in 1868. In 1869 the Book of Psalms, translated by the Rev. James Sleigh, was printed, the edition consisting of 5,000 copies. In 1873 a revised edition of the New Testament, together with the Psalms, was printed at London under the care of Mr. M'Farlane. In 1877 the Testament, translated by Messrs. Sleigh and Creagh, was also printed at London by the British and For eign Bible Society. The translation of the en tire Bible was completed on August 29th, 1884, and a revision of tbe work was undertaken with a view to having it printed in England in one volume. The revised edition of the Bible, with marginal references, was printed at London in 1888, under the care of the Rev. J. Sleigh, the edition consisting of 4,000 copies. Thus far 8,075 portions of the Scriptures have been dis posed of by the British Bible Society. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) Hna tune la hnimi Cahaze kowe la fene' hnengodrai, mate nyidati a hamane la Neko i nyidati ka casi, mate tha tro ko a meci la kete i angete lapaune koi nyida, ngo tro ha hetenyi la mele ka tha ase palua ko. Lilong, a town in Kwangtung, China, on the estuary of the Canton River, between Can ton and Hong Kong. Mission station of the Basle Missiouaiy Society; 3 missionaries (2 married), 1 out-station, 1 training-school. Linares, Northeast Mexico, southwest of Matamoras, on the railway to Saltillo. Climate hot, but healthy. Language, Spanish. Relig ion, Roman Catholic. Natives civilized, but morally degraded. Mission station of the Presbyterian Church (South), 1874; 1 mission ary, 15 communicants, 1 Sabbath-school, 12 scholars. Lin-ching, a city in Shantung, China, near the junction of the Grand Canal with the Wei River. Climate dry, healthy. Popula tion, from 40,000 to 50,000. Mission station of the A. B. C. F. M. (1886); 3 missionaries aud wives, 4 native helpers. The medical depart ment of the work is of great and growing im portance. Lindley, Daniel, b. August 24th, 1801, Washington County, Penn., U. S.A. ; graduated at Ohio University; taught school, and gradu ated at Union Theological Seminary, Va., in 1829. He preached three years in Charlotte, N. C. , where he had a very successful ministry, several hundred being added to his church. The American Board having made an appeal for settled pastors to become missionaries, he offered his services, married Miss Allen of Richmoud, Va., and sailed in 1834 for Africa. From Cape Town the}' travelled in wagons 500 miles to Griqua Towu, the next year 500 miles further to Mosika, the country of Mosilikatse. The Dutch aud Mosilikatse being at war, they encountered great peril and suffering, being reduced almost to starvation. Reaching Port Natal, they were driven thence by the war be tween the Dutch aud Dingaan, the great-uncle of Cetywayo. Returning to Port Natal in June, 1839, he labored among the Zulus for thirty- five years. He not only preached to them the gos pel of Christ, but, though not a mechanic-, he showed the native Christians, who wished to improve their modes of life, bow to make brick, build houses, construct implements and pieces of furniture. He often defended the people with his rifle from the attacks of wild LINDLEY, DANIEL 548 LIQUOR TRAFFIC AND MISS. beasts, and in sickness ministered to them. The unsettled state of the country was so harm ful to the labors of the mission that for a time the missionaries were recalled. Mr. Lindley refused to leave, and took service as pastor of a Reformed Dutch church (1844), until the mission was resumed in 1845. In 1846 five commissioners were appointed by the Colonial Government to allot lands to the natives and to encourage them to industry. Mr. Lindley was one of these commissioners. He was al ways greatly honored aud loved by the Zulus. The Dutch Boers, among whom he bad taken refuge when driven by war from his home and work among the natives, said: "If there be a human name that warms the heart of a Natal Teck Boer, it is the ever-to-be-remembered name of Daniel Lindley." He returned home in ill-health in 1874, and died at Morristown, N. J., September 3d, 1880. Liquor Traffic and Missions.— Il is an axiom in physics that without the applica tion of force water will not rise higher than its source. In the light of this truth a glance at the use of ardent spirits in some Christian lands may show us what to expect in their commerce with heathen tribes. Belgium is a fair speci men of a papal countiy, and there 70,000,000 litres — a litre = 2.113 pints — are consumed an nually. Every year her 6,000,000 of popula tion spend 135,000,000 francs for liquor and only 15,000,000 for public instruction, and the amount that is drunk continually increases. During the last fifteen years the inhabitants have increased 14 per cent, but the alcohol used 37 per cent, so that we are not surprised to find the insane increase 45 per cent, crimes 74, and suicides 80 per cent. (" Missionary Re view of the World," 1889, 878.) With such a state of things at home Belgian commerce could not be very profitable to heathen lands. And it is to be feared that some Protestant countries would not appear so much better in this respect as the free circulation of the Word of God in them would lead us to expect. The net reve nue from the excise in Great Britain in 1887 was £27,681,523, all but £731,660of it from the manufacture and sale of liquor. The official returns of duty on spirits in 1876 were for England 13,368,096 gallons, Scotland 9,193,608, aud Ireland 8,156,743 gallons ("Encyclopaedia Britannica," 9th edition, art. " Excise"): the same work (xxi. 533) states that the number of gallons made in Scotland rose from 5,108,373 gallons in 1824 to 20,164,962 in 1884, and no one can travel through Scotland with out being impressed with the number of places where spirits are sold and the abounding drunk enness which follows. The misery and poverty resulting- from this cause are fearfully manifest in those portions of her large cities where the poorei classes have their homes. Such figures prepare us for dark pages in the records of commerce with heathen, and we are not disappointed; the reality even exceeds the expectation. Boston is the headquarters of the A. B. C. F. M., and yet the authorities at the custom house in tbat city on application fur nished the following to one of its officers: " Ex ports of rum to Africa for five years ending June 30th, 1887, 3,359,224 gallons, valued at $1,126,197, besides 141,572 gallons of other spirits, value $40,627." (" Missionary Herald, " 1888, 246.) In 1887, 180,000 gallons were imported from Christian lands into Sierra Leone alone, and into the neighboring district of Lagos 1,231,302 gallons were sent annually (Report of London Missionary Conference, 1888, i. 126.) Rev. W. Allan states that the Niger Company imported 220,000 gallons in two years, and 500,000 gallons went with him in the ship Caliban from Liverpool. The Hon. and Rev. James Johnson, a native member of the government, who has labored there for eighteen years, states that packages of gin and rum were found «ve*ywhere. Large steamers loaded with liquor lay at anchor; ware houses were crammed with the article to the very doors; canoes were heavily laden with it; streets and lanes, highways and byways, the river banks, and even the bush were littered with demijohns. The very soil of Abeokuta seemed composed of broken bottles; and at Afarjupa, forty miles inland, the seats in the church were empty gin-boxes. The traders at Bonny complain that cotton goods remain on the shelf, and the only demand is for ram and gin, which is sold for four and even three pence per bottle. Such prices seem fabulously cheap, but the following incident may explain its cheapness. A gorilla from the Gaboon River died on board a steamer, and to preserve the body it was placed in a cask of this trade rum; but when it was opened at Liverpool, the hair and skin were found burned off as by vitriol, and the flesh in a state of horrible putrefaction. And this is the kind of liquor sold to be drunk by the natives! (L. M. C. , i. 127.) In 1885 more than 10,000,000 gallons of such liquor was sent to Western Africa. Of this flood of ruin England furnished 311,384 gallons, Germany 7,823,042, Netherlands 1,096,146, the United States 737,650, Portugal 91,525, and France, of alcohol, 405,944. (L. M. C. ii. 550.) Germany here enjoys a pre-eminence that is by no means to be envied. The motive for such intense activity in evil is found in the enormous profits of this trade, amounting in some cases to 700 per cent, and to those greedy for filthy lucre 700 per cent profit is a tremen dous motive. Rev. H. Grattan Guinness is authority for this measure of profit. (L. M. O, 1. 480.) These lists of figures are full of mourning, lamentation, and woe, for while among us some can use intoxicating drinks for a long period with rare self-control, it is not so with savage races. They seem to lack the power to resist, and give themselves up at once and without reserve to the destroyer. The one thing they seek is to get drunk, to feel the thrill of intoxi cation; and soon property, health, and Ufe itself are engulfed in the abyss. The red men of our own land are sad examples of this tendency; aud though in bondage the lack of money and the strong hand of the master intent on his own gaius held back the black man from this swift decline, in Africa his tendencies are uncontrolled. Missionaries give some very sad glimpses of the work of ruin, but neither pen nor pencil can do it justice. Rev. H. Waller, F. R. G. S., does not confine himself to vague generalities, but sets the con crete ruin before our eyes when he testifies to seeing hundreds of young women lying beastly drunk round the wagons of the rumsellers. If there were women, there were also men, and here we have all the elements for a very pan demonium of abominations; and if any think LIQUOR TRAFFIC AND MISS. 549 LIQUOR TRAFFIC AND MISS. Mr. Waller's experience exceptional, that comfort is wrenched away from us when Dr. Clarke uses precisely the same words concerning young women in South Africa, only where Mr. Waller says hundreds Dr. Clarke says thousands. What hope is there for a people in such a vortex of destruction ? It corroborates tbis testimony of two witnesses in different fields when Mr. Moir, of the African Lakes Trading Company, says, »" I have seen boys and girls of fifteen years of age getting their wages in rum," — and such rumas has already been described. Rev. H. G. Guinness describes it as "infamously bad gin, scarcely fit to make paint with." (L. M. C, i. 482.) It may be said this is the testimony of mis sionaries; yes, and in it they are unanimous. Christ-like love for men neither disqualifies to see nor to describe the truth; but we are not confined to missionaiy testimony. Sir Richard Burton states: "It is my sincere belief that if the slave trade were revived with all its horrors and Africa could get rid of the white man with his powder and rum, she would be a gainer by the exchange." This is strong testimony from one who had himself seen the state of things which he thus describes. One of these rum- sellers, without intending it or perhaps even being aware of his damaging concessions, has turned State's evidence. Mr. Betts, a leading merchant of Sierra Leone, thus tells his story (L. M. O, i. 125; see also ii. 551): "The liquor traffic destroys body and soul. It is a greater evil than the slave trade.* I am my self a large dealer in spirits. I have on the road now thousands of gallons of rum, and several thousand demijohns of gin. I am by no means insensible to the evil this traffic does to these lands and to commerce itself, f And I re gret it much. They have become slaves to fhe white man's rum. Rum and gin is their incessant cry."± The Rev. J. Johnson, already quoted, styles this "a criminal trade," and calls upon his people to " protest with all their (our) might against this deadly traffic of Europe with Af rica. Let the guilt of ruining our land for gain be the guilt of strangers only, if they per sist in their unchristian course," and all good people in Christian lands say Amen. Again he says: " There has been no peace in Africa for centuries, but this drink traffic makes it worse. Negroes have survived the evils of the slave trade, cruel as they were, but they cannot with- * A member ot the Legislature of Lagos said in that assembly: " The slave trade was a great evil to Africa, but the'rum trade is far worse. I would rather that my countrymen were in slavery, worked hard, and kept away from the drink, than that the drink should be let loose upon them." t The Niger Trading Company has prohibited the trade in liquors for financial reasons, for it has been found that rum ruins trade, and this fact is so manifest that the company urges the Congo Free State to take the same stand, so that commerce shall not be de stroyed for the lack of consumers to purchase its com modities. How can such a result be avoided if Chris tian nations continue to send 70,000 barrels of rum, and only one missionary to counteract the destruction? M. R. 1888, 131; see also L. M. C, i. 477, for words of Rev. W. M. Taylor, D.D. X That was the cry that met Stanley on his arrival at the western coast. ("Through the Dark Continent," ii. 444, 445, and L. M. C, i. 478.) The traffic has so de based them that thoughts of the morrow and their families are buried in the demijohn till it is empty. The liquor traffic is ruinous to commerce, for it has pauperized the people; to stop it would be again to ommerce and a blessing to Africa. stand the terrible evils of tbe drink. If they go on the extinction of the Negro is simply a question of time." ' (L. M. C, i. 483, 125.) Malike, King of Nupe, writes thus to Bishop Crowther: " Barasa (liquor) has ruined our countiy. It has made our people insane. I favor all trade, except in barasa. We implore Crowther, the great Christian minister, to beg the great Priests (the Church Missionaiy Society Committee) to beseech the Queen of England to keep barasa out of this land. Let him help us in this for God's sake. He must not let our countiy be destroyed." (L. M. C, i. 125, 126.) This evil is not confined to Western Africa, nor is the native opposition to it limited to that region. The Sultan of Zanzibar has forbidden the traffic, but he has no power to control Eu ropeans, who are the leaders in this wrong, and so his own people are becoming demoralized in spite of all his efforts. (L. M. C. , i. 481.) Not long since a Christian nation sent 900 barrels of liquor to Madagascar, and the gov ernment purchased the entire cargo, and poured it out upon the sand. (M. R. 1888, 474.) Rum made in Mauritius is sent to Madagascar, and when the government of that island seeks to prevent it, because it increases crime at so fearful a rate, English officials hinder the en deavor, and the cruel wrong goes on, liquor flows freely, and even the young king himself has become a drunkard. (L. M. C, i. 481.) The natives of the diamond-fields in South Africa implored the Cape parliament to have the saloons removed from among them, but their petition was refused. The market for British spirits could not be interfered with, whatever misery it brought to the natives. Mr. W. S. Came, M, P., while travelling in Egypt, found more than 400 saloons in Cairo with English names and English placards, setting forth the excellence of their wares, and heard an Egyptian speaker denounce in a large meeting the foreigners who introduced the traffic into his country (M. H. 1887, 256.) Rev. W. Allan conversed with some of the owners of two lines of steamships to Western Africa, aud they not only did not deny his statements, but informed him that the whole of their cargoes which they took out from Hamburg and Rotterdam consisted of nothing but rum and gin. He had heard this on the coast, and now it was confirmed at head quarters. The Secretary of the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, in reply to a letter from Rev. Mr. Lang of the Church Missionary Society, says: "Merchants here interested in the African trade are of opinion that measures for limiting this traffic (in liquors) are injurious to the development of trade with those countries, and that the importation of liquors as carried on at present has no injurious effect upon the natives." We can understand the first part of this, but how to reconcile the closing sentence with truth, in the light of the testimony of Mr. Betts, through whose hands a part of these same liquors passed in Africa, is beyond our power. Khame, the chief of Bechuana land, voices the sentiments of the Africans themselves when he says: "I fear Lo Bengula less than I fear brandy. I fought with Lo Bengula, and drove him back, and he never came again, and God, who helped me then, would help me again. Lo Bengula never gives me a sleepless night, but to fight against drink is to fight against LIQUOR TRAFFIC AND MISS. 550 LIVINGSTONE, DAVD> demons and not men. I dread the white man's drink more than all the assegais of the Matabele, which kill men's bodies, and it is quickly over ; but drink puts devils into men and destroys both their souls and bodies forever; its wounds never heal. (M. H. i. 1889, 91.) So far our view has been confined to Africa, but the deadly fruits of this traffic are not peculiar to Africa. India also suffers, and that too at the hands of Christian England. The government sells the monopoly of distilling and selling liquor iu its several districts, and the purchaser urges his sales regardless of conse quences to the natives, and iu spite of the re monstrances of the belter classes, so that though tbe people were almost entirely total abstainers before the British rule began, the whole land is now becoming demoralized. Even the con verted natives suffer with the rest, for while in 1880 there were 41 habitual and 163 occasioual drunkards out of 29,000 church-members, in 1883 there were 250 habitual and 274 occasional drunkards in the churches, and the increase since then has been greater, and still larger in proportion among the heathen population. This must exert a fearful power to hinder the Chris- tianization of India (M. R., 1889, 398). Mr. W. S. Caine, M.P., gives some striking instances of this policy of tbe government. The collector at Darjeeling compelled a tea-planter, ignorant of the law, to open a saloon on his farm, and at Burrisal tbe collector tried to com pel a zemindar to reopen a saloon which he bad closed on his estate. The native refused, and defeated the collector when the case came iuto court. Still there remains the unspeakable shame of an English official in heathen India using his authority to compel a native to re open the saloon whjch his sense of duty had led him to close. Mr. Caine quotes the following from Mr. Westland, a member of the vice-regal council: " We look hopefully for an increase in the excise system in Northern India." In other words, he hopes that the revenue will be increased by increasing drunkenness among the people. In connection with tbis it should be added, that the revenue from native spirits was then increasing at the rate of ten per cent an nually (M. R., 1889, 368). The "Bombay Guardian" states tbat the re sult of this governmental stimulating of the sale of liquor in order to increase its revenue is tbat the number of consumers has doubled in ten years (M. H., 1889, 344). But what else could be expected from a government which delib erately inflicts tbe curse of opium on Chiua, and then justifies the wrong by its own need of revenue. Is not that the same plea by which the robber, the burglar, and the prostitute seek to justify their nefarious courses? We might trace the same influences operating in other heathen lands, but it would only be repeating the same things with a change of name. Africa has been selected, because that continent at present bears the brunt of this attack on the welfare of heathen nations. India has been re ferred to, because there a Christian nation has a glorious opportunity to bless the population which the Providence of God has entrusted to its care; but in other lands we would only see the same causes operating only under circum stances less favorable to success, Ibough, alasl heathen countries can raise few barriers against national ruin which Christian nations cannot trample down when so disposed. Surely we have need to press the petition which the Mas ter has taught usto urge before the mercy-seat: " Thy will be done on earth, as it is done in heaven." When that prayer is answered, hu man governments will be as holy and benevo lent in all their procedure as the angels who are before the throne. jLirang-, the westernmost of the Talaut Islands, East Indies. A station of the Ermelo Missionary Society with 70 members. Lithuanian Version.— The Lithuanian belongs to the Lithuanian branch of the Aryan family of languages, and is spoken in the Prov ince of Lithuania. The first translator of the Bible into this language was John Bretkius, pastor of the Lithuanian church at Konigsberg. He completed his translation in 1590, and de posited the manuscript in the royal iibrary at Konigsberg. Rhoza, his successor, revised the Psalms, which were published in 1625. An edition of the New Testament was published from Bretkius' manuscript by order of Fred erick I. of Prussia at Strassburg in 1700. An other translation of the Bible into this lan guage, made by Chylinski, a native of Lithu ania, was printed at London in 1660. A new translation, made by the Rev. John Jacob Quandi at the order of King Frederick William of Prussia, was printed in 1735, and a second edition issued in 1755. The British and For eign Bible Society published an edition in 1816, which was followed by other issues, and in 1864 the Prussian Bible Society also published an edition at Halle. In 1883 the British Bible Society issued an edition of the four Gospels for 1,400,000 Lithuanians in Russia under the care of Prof. Juskovitsch. (Specimen verse. John 3 : 16.) $o 35ieiu8 mtjlejo fhrieta.^atTjiwo tolengimmuft rinur&iW.Jel&.tolfjH ft flTft HrjraDuItu,'6Framjiiw flDmata furrftir. Liititz, a town in Jamaica, West Indies, in the Savannah. It is built on an eminence 700 feet high, but is one of the warmest and least comfortable of all the towns in Jamaica. Mis sion station of the Moravians (1804); church or ganized 1839. Little-Popo, a town in Dahomey, slave coast, West Africa. Mission station of the Wesleyan Missionaiy Society; 1 missionaiy and wife, 8 native helpers, 122 church-mem bers, 5 schools, 263 scholars. Liv or Livon Version. — The Liv belongs to the Finn branch of the Ural-Altaic family of languages, and is used by the Livs who inhabit West Courland, Russia, to the number of 4,000- or 5,000. In 1879 the British and Foreign Bible Society published the Gospel of Matthew. This Gospel, formerly published by Prince L. L. Bonaparte and generously placed at the disposal of the Bible Society, was translated into the Lettish character by the academician Wiede mann. Livingstone, David, b. Blantyre, Scot land, March 19th, 1813. His parents were re ligious, and he was early impressed with the noble life of Jesus spent in healing the body and instructing the ignorant. At ten, part of his first week's wages as ' ' piecer boy " at a loom LIVINGSTONE, DAVID 551 LIVINGSTONE, DAVID bought a Latin grammar. His evening hours, often from 8 o'clock till midnight, were spent in the study of Latin, Greek, botany, and geol ogy. At nineteen he resolved to be a medical missionary. By "plain liviug" and "high thinking," workiug as a " spinner" in the sum mer, and studying in Glasgow in the winter, meanwhile " picking up as much of carpentry and other useful trades as possible," he prepared bjjpself for his future life. After his accept ance by the London Missionaiy Society in 1838, he studied theology, medicine, and science for two years in Londou, took his medical degree in the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow, sailed December 8th, 1840, for Cape Town ; thence proceeded to Kurumau , the station of Moffat and Hamilton. For two years he traversed the Bechuana country, visiting the Bakwains, and other tribes. In 1843 he se lected Mabotsa for a mission station. Here a lion crushed his arm, and nearly put an end to his life. In 1844 he took to the mission-house he had built, his wife, Mary Moffat, daughter of the missionaiy. This station he relinquished to his colleague, and removed to Chonuane, capital of the Bakwains. Sechele, their chief, after three years of instruction, was baptized. A fearful drought compelled Livingstone to seek a more favored region, aud the whole tribe followed him to Kolobeng. While here he visited the Boers. They regarded with hos tility any who treated as men the natives, whom they looked upon as "black property," and re sisted every attempt to found a mission near their settlements. The riverat Kolobeng, which had yielded him water for irrigation, gradually failed, and in the fourth year disappeared. Livingstone had heard of "a great lake," sur rounded by a manly tribe, ruled by Sebituane, a powerful chief, friendly to strangers. There he hoped to find a place for future labors. Ac companied by Oswell and Murray, English trav ellers, he crossed the Kalihari Desert, almost impassable from drought, dangerous serpents, and the deadly tsetse-fly. On August 1st, 1849, he sighted Lake Ngami, but failed to reach Sebituane through the jealousy of a chief wbo refused to transport him across the Zouga River. A second attempt failed owing to the illness of his children. A third, with his family and Sechele, was successful. Sebituane welcomed them warmly, but died from pneumonia within a month after their arrival. In June, 1851, Liv ingstone reached the Zambesi River at Sesh eke, in the heart of Africa, an important geo graphical discovery, as it had been supposed to rise much further east. His family having suf fered greatly from illness, he decided to send them to England for two years, himself explore the country in search of a healthy centre for mission work, also to trace the Zambesi to its source and to the coast, thus opening up a path to the interior. While he was returning to Kolobeng from Cape Town, after seeing his family embark, the Boers slew many of his Bakwain people, carried away many more cap tive, sacked his house, and destroyed his books. On May 23d, 1853, he reached Linyanti on the Chobe, capital of the Makololo, was cordially received by Sekeletu. Sebituane's son and suc cessor, and remained for some months "preach ing the gospel and healing diseases." fie pro ceeded, November 11th, tracing the course of the Zambesi and its affluent, the Leeba, to its source in Lake Dilolo, On this hazardous ex. pedition he took twenty-seven men provided by Sekeltu, partly with a view lo open up a trade- route between their own country and the coast. They suffered from extreme hunger aud thirst, fever and dysentery, attacks of wild beasts, robbers, and hostile tribes. Proceeding from Lake Dilolo, be arrived, May 31st, 1854, at St. Paul de Loanda, capital of Angola, on the west coast. From this place he sent his astronomical observations to Maclear, royal astronomer at tbe Cape, and an account of his journey to the Royal Geographical Society of Englaud, which awarded him its highest honor, the gold medal. Maclear, speaking of the number and accuracy of his astronomical and geographical observa tions, says: "You could go to any point across the entire continent, along Livingstone's track, and feel certain of your position." In great physical prostration and mental de pression by disease, hunger, and care, he was kindly received by the British Commissioner. The Portuguese merchants aud officials also were most hospitable and courteous. But Liv ingstone was painfully convinced that they had at heart the prosperity of the slave-trade. On recovery, he began his return journey, reaching Linyanti September, 1855. His wants for the journey thence to the east coast were supplied by Sekeletu, who also accompanied him for some distance with 200 of his people. Leaving Linyanti November 8th, he soon discovered the famous Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. "The people all," he says, "expressed great satisfac tion on hearing my message, as I directed their attention to Jesus as their Saviour." He arrived March 2d, 1856, at Tete, the furthest outpost of the Portuguese, in an emaciated condition, and was kindly entertained by the governor for six weeks. Leaving his Makololo friends well cared for, he started for Quilimane on the Indian Ocean, reaching it May 20th, four years from the last departure from Cape Town, having traversed the continent from ocean to ocean and travelled on foot over 11,000 miles. He then embarked for England, December 12th, 1856. He was received with great honor by tbe London Missionary Society, the Royal Geographical Society, the universities of Cam bridge and Oxford, and by all classes of society. At Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, Ox ford, and Cambridge his addresses were heard witli great interest by learned and unlearned, old and young.- While at home he published his "Missionaiy Travels and Researches in South Africa." In his travels the atrocities of the internal slave-traffic had so revealed them selves to him, and the obstacles it presented to mission-work in Central Africa had so im pressed him, that the question of its suppres sion became "the uppermost idea in his mind." Hitherto his explorations had aimed solely at opening fields for mission work ; thenceforth they sought to open up the country to legiti mate and productive commerce as a means of superseding tbe destructive and inhuman traf fic in flesh and blood. His motive appears in these words: "The opening of the new cen tral countiy is a matter for congratulation only so far as it opens up a prospect for the elevation of the inhabitants. I view the geographical exploration as the beginning of the missionary enterprise. I include in the latter term every thing in the way of effort for the amelioration of our race." Having severed his connection with the LIVINGSTONE, DAVID 552 LIVINGSTONE, DAVID L. M. S., he returned in 1858, appointed Brit ish consul for Eastern Africa and the districts of the interior, and also leader of an expedition for exploring Eastern and Central Africa. He was accompanied by his brother Charles, Dr. John Kirk, and others. At Cape Town he was accorded a reception by the people and author ities of the Colony, the Governor presenting him with 800 guineas in a silver casket, as a testimonial to tbe value of his services. Most of the year was spent by the party in exploring the Shire River and making the discovery of Lake Shirwa, April 18th, and Lake Nyassa, September 16th, 1859. Around the latter the missionaiy found the slave - trade rampant, "desolating the country and paralyzing all ef fort." Returning to Tete in 1860, be fulfilled his pledge made three years before to his Mako lolo friends by taking them to their homes at Linyanti. In 1861, accompanied by his brother and Dr. Kirk, he made another trip to Lake Nyassa, and remained exploring for several weeks. His wife, whom he had welcomed only three months before, died April 27th, 1862, at ¦Shapunga ou the Zambesi. The Universities' Mission to Central Africa, proposed by Livingstone in 1857, was estab lished in 1859, Archdeacon MacKenzie of Natal consecrated bishop for the mission in 1861, and the mission was settled at Magomero. In Juiy, 1862, the bishop died from exposure and fatigue. In the new iron steamer, the "Lady Nyassa," the explorers steamed up the Shire; but before it could be carried over the cataracts, his brother and Dr. Kirk were obliged by sickness to return home. He resolved to continue the ¦explorations alone. An order from home re calling the expedition, he set sail for Zanzibar in 1864 in the ' ' Lady Nyassa." Needing funds and desiring to sell the vessel built with the avails of his book, he manned the little craft with nine natives and four Europeans, himself navigating her to Bombay, which he reached after au adventurous voyage of a month. Thence he embarked for England. He pub lished "The Zambesi and its Tributaries." When urged by Sir Roderick Murchison to re linquish the missionary work and attend only to discovery, he wrote : "I would not consent to go simply as a geographer but as a mission ary, and to do geography by the way." In this spirit he accepted the commission of the Geographical Society to ascertain "the water shed of South Central Africa," to "determine whether the ultimate sources of the Nile "were "among the hills or lakes" south of the point where Speke and Grant saw that river flowing from the Victoria Nyanza, and also to " settle the relation of the Nyassa with the Tanganyika." He had also the appointment of British consul in Central Africa, but without pay. From -Zanzibar he reached the continent March 24th, proceeded up the Rovuma River as far as he could, and August 8th reached Laice Nyassa. A well-watered, fertile region, but largely de populated by slave-huuters, the tokeus of whose barbarities lay all along their inarch. Thence, baffled by inundations, hostile slave - dealers, treacherous attendants, want of supplies, and severe sickness, he proceeded northward to ward Tanganyika, which he sighted April, 1867. Two of the men who deserted took with tbem his medicine-chest, and he was without means to control the attacks of fever and dysentery which prostrated him. When sufficiently re covered he passed westward, and in November discovered Lake Mcero, and July 28th, 1868, Lake Bangueolo or Bemba, 150 miles long, 75 wide. ' ' Constant wettings and wadings " pros trated him, and for the first time in nearly thirty years he was carried on the march. Returning to the Tanganyika, he reached Ujiji March, 1869. On July 12th he started westward, and September 21st reached Banbarre, a town in Manyuema. He struggled forward, accom panied by three faithfuls, Susi, Chuma, and Gardner, but was driven back to Banbarre by sickness. Disabled for three mouths by ulcers on the feet, and further delayed by the treach ery of natives sent from Zanzibar with supplies, and by slave-hunters, it was only by indomi table persistence that he reached the town of Nyangwe, an Arab settlement, the western limit of his explorations of the Lualaba. He had now traced the great river which, rising as the Chambeze in the uplands between Nyassa and Tanganyika, traverses a chain of lakes, issu ing successively from Bangueolo as the Lua- pala.from Mcero as the Luvwa.from Kamolondo as the Lualaba.and had also suggested what later investigations proved true, that it enters the Atlantic Ocean as the Congo. He had ascer tained also that the Tanganyika does not belong to the same drainage system as the Nyassa. Racked by disease, and tortured in spirit by the horrors perpetrated by the slave-hunters, he was forced back by his affrighted attendants from Nyangwe, "a ruckle df bones," as he said, to Ujiji, 600 miles, which he reached, October 23rd, only to find that the rascal who had charge of his stores had stolen and used them all. While Livingstone was making this journey under compulsion to Ujiji from the western ex tremity of his, explorations, Henry M. Stanley, the travelling correspondent of the " New York Herald," sent from America by Mr. Gordon Ben nett to find and relieve him, was urging his way from the east coast in search of him, and reached Ujiji five days later than Livingstone. Not in vain had the missionary in his extremity re corded: " I commit myself to the Almighty Disposer of events." He and Stanley together visited the north end of the lake, and settled in the negative the long disputed question whether the Tanganyika was connected with either the VictoriaNyanza or the Albert Nyanza. At the end of the year 1871 they journeyed together to Unyamyembe, where Stanley had left stores brought for Livingstone. Here they parted March 15th, 1872, Stanley bearing with him the precious journal of six years, which " contained a wealth of information about countries and peoples hitherto unexplored and unknown," and Livingstone, with renewed health and spirits, ready to pursue his work on the arrival of reli able meu from Stanley. He started, August 25th, 1872, to make another exploration of the Chambeze System. To Mr. Moffat he writes: " I set out on this journey with a strong presenti ment that I shall never finish it." He was most of the time wading through "sponges" and wet with torrents of rain. Dysentery in aggravated form renewed its exhausting attacks, and his constitution could no longer withstand it. He had to be carried in a litter, by turns suffering excruciating paiu and for hours insensible or fainting from loss of blood. Still he would at times ask regarding distant hills, or of the rivers crossed, whence they came and whither they LIVINGSTONE, DAVID 553 LOEWENTHAL, ISIDOR flowed. Approaching Ilala on the south shore of Lake Bangueolo, men were sent in advance to build a hut for him, and he was laid upon his bed of sticks and grass. Next morning Chief Chitambo called, but he was too ill to talk. At about 1 a.m , May 1st, he asked Susi for his medicine-chest. Selecting the calomel, and ask ing for water, he added: " All right, you may gp out now." Before dawn the boy who slept within the hut to be ready at his call, found him kneeling by the bed, his head buried in his hands upon the pillow. The spirit had departed. His faithful men, after embalming the body as well as they could, wrapped it in calico and bark, and carried it with all his papers, instru ments, etc., a year's journey, to Zanzibar. On April 15th, 1874, accompanied by Susi and* Chuma, it arrived in England, and was deposited in Westminster Abbey, the arm which had been crushed by the lion being a means of his identi fication. His journals kept during these last seven years' explorations were published in 1874 under the title of " The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa." (2 vols.) Lobdell, Henry, b. Danbury, Conn., U.S.A., January 25th, 1827. His early life was spent on a farm, working for six years in sum mer, aud attending school in winter. At the age of sixteen he commenced teaching in tbe outer districts of his native town. Determined to become a physician, he studied with Dr. Ben nett, who lived three miles from where he was teaching. While teaching school and studying medicine, he lectured on temperance iu the neighboring towns, was active in the village lyceum and debating society. He early showed a marked taste for mathematics, and without any oral instruction, acquired at this time the elements of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and surveying. In 1845 he entered Amherst College, where he was converted. His mind while in college was strongly drawn to the heathen as a personal matter by a discourse from Mr. Burgess, of the Marathi Mission, and from Dr. Scudder, of Ceylon. He graduated in 1849, aud was solicited to take charge of a high school with a large salary, and also to become a tutor in Willistou Seminary. He declined both, and after a few weeks commenced attend ing the medical lectures in New Haven, and studying theology with Dr. Taylor. He was examined January 17th, 1850, and received his diploma as Doctor of Medicine. From New Haven he went to Auburn Theological Semi nary, and on leaving that he took charge ofthe Danbury Institute. While there he translated a large volume from the French—" History of the Protestants of France" — which was well re ceived. He also took a prominent part in estab lishing the Second Congregational Church in Danbury. Having heard that the A. B. C. F. M was in pressing need of three missionary physicians, he offered himself and was accepted. After spending a few weeks at Andover Semi nary, attending the hospitals in New York and the lectures at the Union Seminary, he was or dained to the missionaiy work October 12th, 1851; embarked for Smyrna November 29th; reached Beyrout January 31st, 1852; remained there three weeks, and started for Mosul, a long journey by land, where he arrived April 23d. Scarcely had he entered the city when he was besieged by patients of every description. He opened a dispensary, and soon had a hundred patients — high and low, rich and poor, Moslem, Jew, and Christian, the majority often Moham medans. In 1852 he made an excursion to Sheikh Adi, the seat of the Yezidees or devil- worshippers, and wrote a narrative of his jour ney and observations for the Mission House, and in 1853 a journal of the excursion was pub lished in the " New York Tribune." In all his intercourse with the people he refused to give medicine unless he was permitted to preach the gospel. On the arrival of Mr. Marsh, May 13th, 1853, Dr. Lobdell, by a vote of tbe Mis sion, visited Oroomiah for his health and for promoting the objects of the mission. He made an excursion also to Tabriz, to explore an in teresting province of the Persian empire. On February 27th, 1855, he had fever all day, but prepared a sermon, talked with a crowd of papists, prescribed and preached to 85 patients, and delivered his sermon to the church in the evening. For twenty-five days his sickness con tinued. Mr. Marsh and Mr. Williams were absent at the annual meeting, and no physician was present. Mr. Marsh returned on the 21st, and on entering the room, Dr. Lobdell raised his thin arms, saying, " Praise to God! Praise to God!" and threw them about his neck and wept. He died Sunday, March 25th. He was buried by the side of Dr. Grant in the new cem etery without the walls. Professor Tyler says: "By constitution, by education, by profession, in every way he was admirably fitted for his work. He removed prejudices, he commanded respect, he won the admiration and affection of those who knew him. His medicine opened the ears and hearts of the people. His logic tore up error by the roots; his preaching was with power; the number of regular hearers was trebled those three years. His letters and jour nals attest his great love of literature, science, and antiquities, and his earnest desire to con tribute to their advancement, yet his determi nation to subordinate these and every other ob ject of iuterest to the salvation of men and the Redeemer's kingdom." Lobetlial, a town in the Transvaal, East South Africa, northwest of. Leydensburg. Mis sion station of the Berlin Evan. Luth. Society (1877); 1 missionaiy, 8 native helpers, 1 out- station, 168 church-members. Lodiana, a city in the Punjab, India, 115 miles southeastof Lahore. Climate semi-tropical. Population, 44,000. Mission station of the Pres byterian Church (North), 1835; 3 missionaries and wives, 1 single lady, 6 other helpers, 3 out- stations, 1 church, 114 church-members, 4 girls' schools, 56 scholars, 10 schools, 1.080 students. The station was opened in 1834, but was com pletely broken up by the Indian Mutiny in 1857. It is now in a most flourishing condition. The printing-press publishes works in four differen*! languages. Loewenthal, Isidor, b. Posen, Prussian Poland, 1829, of Jewish parents. At an early age he showed great aptitude for language and philology. Without entering college he had at the age of seventeen more than mastered the studies of a college course. Intending now to devote himself to a business life, he ac cepted a mercantile clerkship. He was a radi cal in politics, member of a liberal club, and published a poem which so displeased the gov ernment that he fled to America, reaching New LOEWENTHAL, ISIDOR 554 LONDON MISS. SOC. York in 1846. There he was so destitute that he became a street peddler in order to earn his bread. Through the influence of Rev. Mr. Gayley of Delaware he obtained a situation as teacher of German and French in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. He joined the senior class, and graduated in 1848. He then became teacher of languages in the collegiate school at Mount Holly, N. J. (1848-50). ln 1851 he be came a Christian, and in 1852 entered the Theo logical Seminary at Princeton, taking high rank in philology, and writing important articles for the "Biblical Repertory." He was tutor in Princeton College in 1855 ; ordained by the Pres bytery of New York as an evangelist, and sailed in 1856 as a missionary of the Presbyterian Board for Northern India. He acquired a knowl- < edge of Persian, Arabic, Kashmiri, Hindustani, and the Pushto, the language of the Afghans. He could speak Persian fluently. He completed a translation of the New Testament into the Pushto, which is now in circulation among the Afghans. He was shot in his own garden by his watchman, a Sikh, who alleged that he mis took Dr. Loewenthal for a robber. He had nearly completed a dictionary of the Pushto language, and left a collection of Pushto works in manuscript. His death, which oc curred at Peshawur in 1864, was a great loss to the mission. Loftcha, a town in Bulgaria, 20 miles south of Plevna, 80 miles northeast of Sofia. Cli mate foggy, damp, 100° to 10°. Population, 7,020, Bulgarians, Turks, Gypsies. Religion, Eastern Orthodox. Mission station Methodist Episcopal Church (North) 1881 ; 1 missionary, 2 female missionaries, 2 schools, 45 scholars. Logan, Robert William, b. York, Ohio, U.S. A., May 4th, 1843; served as asoldier in the Union army 1862; graduated at Oberlin Col lege and Theological Seminary 1872; preached one year during his course at Brunswick, Ohio; sailed for Micronesia as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. June 20th, 1874. He resided for a time on Ponape, and in 1879 went to the Mort- lock Islands to take charge of the work in that group. On these coral islands he remained with his wife for two, years, when, on account of the scarcity and poor quality of the pro visions, their health became greatly impaired, and his life was despaired of. They embarked for New Zealand and thence for San Francisco. There Mr. Logan's health was so much im proved that they returned to Micronesia. In 1884 he took up his residence within the Ruk archipelago, where he enjoyed good heallb, and accomplished a wonderful work on many islets. He resided on the island of Wola, on the Ruk lagoon. While rejoicing over the arrival of reinforcements, and the anticipations of more extended operations in the Western Caroline Islands, he was attacked with fever, and after seven weeks' illness, died December 27th, 1887. Mr. Tieiber, writing on the day of his death, styles him " a mighty man of God." Dr. Pease of Kusaie writes of him: " He was very dear to us all who knew him, and by every one he was held in the highest estimation. He was our best missionary, As a worker, he was zealous, methodical, indefatigable. In his care of the mission he was cautious and prudent, making no false moves, yet withal enthusiastic and full of courage — just tlie man for a pioneer, or for any other place in our work. As a man he was kind, patient, and sympathetic towards every one, intolerant of nothing but sin, always long- suffering towards the sinner." Lokoja, a town on the Upper Niger, Africa, northwest of Gbebe, at the junction of the Binue River with the Niger. Mission station of the Church Missionary Society; 7 native workers, 37 church- members, 2 schools, 58 scholars, and a printing establishment, which issues works both in the Iybira and in the Hausa languages. The New Testament and parts of the Old Testament have been translated into the Hausa, the language used by a large and powerful Mohammedan tribe. Lombok, one of the Bali Islands (q.v.), at the east end of Java, East Indies. The Utrecht Mission opened a station at Buleling in 1866. London Association in Aid of Moravian missions. Headquarters, 29 Ely Place, Holborn, London, W. O, England. — This association was established in 1817, for the purpose of collecting funds in England in aid of the missions of the United Brethren or Mora vians. Membership is open to all persons sub scribing annually one guinea, or collecting six pence a week. "Benefactors of ten guineas and upwards, and ministers making congregational collections to the amount of twenty guineas, and executors paying bequests of fifty pounds, shall be life- members. "The Committee shall consist of all ministers who are members, and of about twenty others to be chosen out of the lay-members of the Association, annually, at the public meeting, in the month of May, who shall hold their meet ings on the first Thursday of every month, which shall be open to the attendance of any member of the association. The Secretary of the missions shall be (ex-officio) a member of the Committee." The whole of the funds obtained (after deduct ing incidental expenses) are remitted to the conductors of the missions of the United Breth ren or Moravians, and appear in the Annual Reports of the Society, as well as in a report issued annualty by the Association. This is of especial advantage to English readers, as it brings the great work of the Moravians more clearly before them than the reports of the parent Society. London Missionary Society. — Head quarters, Mission House, 14 Bloomfield Street, London Wall, London, E. C. History. — The London Missionary Society, or, as it was first called, "The Missionary So ciety," was the second of the great societies formed near the close of the 18th and in the opening of the 19th centuries, and was the im mediate result of the Bengal Mission of William Carey. Dr. Ryland, of Bristol College, a mem ber of the Committee of the Baptist Missionary Society, invited his friends, the Rev. Dr. David Bogue, a Presbyterian minister of Gosport, and Mr. Stephen, to listen to the first letters received from Carey and Thomas. After hearing them, Dr. Bogue and Mr. Stephen called upon Mr. Hey, a leading minister of Bristol, and from him obtained a promise of support if they should organize a society for non-Baptists. Dr. Bogue then sent to the "Evangelical Magazine " an " address to prof essors of the gospel," urging them to "pray, converse, and consult with one LONDON MISS. SOO. 555 LONDON MISS. SOO. another," and to subscribe annually a sum of money sufficient to send "twenty or thirty" missionaries among the heathen. The paper was published in September, 1794, and its effect upon Christians in Eugland and Scotland was in stantaneous. So much interest was excited, that a meeting, with a view to the formation of a society, was appointed for the 4th of November. "Jbe ministers who attended it were of various conuections and denominations, but "glowing and harmonious" in their missionaiy zeal. These ministers sent out, in January, 1795, a circular to various persons in whieh it was pro posed that a meeting should be held in Loudon the ensuing summer for the purpose of organ izing a missionaiy society. On the 15th of Jan uary a number of ministers convened in the city of London, and appointed a committee to ascer tain the sentiments of ministers throughout the countiy in regard to the great plan under con sideration. Accordingly, a circular letter ad dressed to ministers was drawn up, acquainting them with tbe plan and object of the pro posed society; they were requested to make the matter known to their congregations, and to send delegates to the Convention, which was ap pointed for the 22d, 23d, and 24th days of Sep tember. On the evening preceding the meeting a con sultation of ministers was held. Interesting letters from ministers and "private Christians " were read, and an address delivered by the Rev. Dr. Haweis of Aldwinkle. Dr. Rowland Hill closed the meeting with prayer, and the assem bly broke up with feelings of delight, " which the highest gratification of sensuality, avarice, ambition, or party zeal could never have in spired." The following day, September 21st, a large congregation assembled at Spa Fields Chapel. Dr. Haweis preached an animating sermon from Mark 16 : 15, 16, and after the meeting a large number of ministers and lay men adjourned to the " Castle and Falcon," Al- dersgate Street, and formed " The Missionary So ciety." In the evening a sermon was preached by the Rev. G. Burder, and on the three fol lowing days successive meetings were held in different parts of the city. The cause of mis sions was pleaded with solemnity and earnest ness, and the Christian world seemed to awake as from a dream, wondering that it could have slept so long while the heathen were waiting for the Gospel of Jesus Christ. For the first time Christians of ail denominations, forgetting their party prejudices aud partialities, assembled in the same place, sang the same hymns, united in the same prayers, and felt themselves one in Christ. This unanimity of spirit, which time has only served to strengthen, is found em bodied in the constitution of the Society, which has remained unchanged. For greater facility and expedition in the conduct of business, the directors are empowered to subdivide into com mittees, but no proceedings of tbe committees are valid until ratified by the Board. All moneys exceeding the sum required for the current use of the Society and its various missious are invested by the directors in such securities as they may approve, in the names of not less than three trustees, who are appointed by them from among the members of the Board, and act under the instructions of the directors, and call in, sell, convert into money, and vary the investments in their names at such times and in such manner as the directors require. The directors appoint the salaries of the sec retaries, but themselves transact the business of the Society without emolument. Constitution and Organisation. — "The Missionary Society" was largely as sisted, in its early years, by Presbyterians and Episcopalians, but is now supported mainly by the Independents or Congregatioualists, the other denominations directing their gifts in large measure to the societies since formed in their own communions. But the fundamental prin ciple of the Society remains the same as at the outset, namely: "That its design is not to send Presbyterianism, Independency, Episcopacy, or any other form of church order and gov ernment (about which there may be difference of opinion among serious persons), but the glo rious gospel of the blessed God, to the heathen, and that it shall be left (as it ought to be left) to the minds of the persons whom God may call into the fellowship of His Son from among them, to assume for themselves such form of church government as to them shall appear most agree able to the Word of God." The sole object of the Society is to spread the knowledge of Christ among heathen and other unenlightened nations. The condition of membership in the Society is an annual payment of one guinea. A general meeting of members is held annually in London during the month of May, for the purpose of appointing a treasurer, secretaries, and directors ; to receive reports and to audit accounts ; and to deliberate on any measures which may promote the object of the Society. All matters proposed are determined by a major ity vote of the members present. The management of the Society is in the hands of a Board of Directors, annually chosen out of the members of the Society, not more than one third of whom reside in or near London. The directors are empowered to collect and re ceive all moneys contributed to the Society, and to expend the same in its behalf; to select and manage mission stations; to appoint, send forth, and fittingly maintain missionaries, to make, alter, and amend by-laws for the general conduct of business, and otherwise to carry out in a suitable manner the object of the Society. Development of Foreign Work. — Soon after the formation of the Society, its members were called upon to decide in what part of the world its work should begin. Like Carey, Dr. Haweis had become much interested in the South Sea Islanders from Captain Cook's ' ' Narrative of his Voyages in the Pacific Ocean, " and in an address delivered at Surrey Chapel drew such a picture of these " dark places of the earth " that intense interest was excited, and the directors decided to establish a mission at Tahiti. They began immediately to solicit subscriptions, to examine and select mission aries, and to make preparations for their voyage. Much hard work had to be accomplished, "but every difficulty vanished before the energy and zeal of the Missionaiy Society," and in August, 1796, the " Duff ," purchased by the Society and commanded by Captain James Wilson, "a worthy gentleman who had retired in affluence and ease from the Bast India service," but voluntered his services for this voyage, sailed down the Thames, having on board thirty mis sionaries who thus inaugurated a work that for vivid interest and great results has had no su perior in the history of missions, LONDON MISS. SOC. 556 LONDON MISS. SOO. At the same time attention was specially called to Africa, where the Baptist Missionary Society had during the previous year made an attempt to establish a mission. The London Missionary Society joined with the Glasgow and Scottish Missionaiy Societies, in 1796, in send ing an expedition to Sierra Leone. This, how ever, not proving a success, aud the recent con quest of Cape Colony directing public notice to South Africa, in December, 1796, Dr. Vander- kemp and his associates set sail for Cape Town. Iu 1798 a missionary was sent to Calcutta, but there was no definite mission organized in India uutil 1804, when Messrs. Ringeltaube, Cran, and Des Granges were stationed at Vizagapatam and Travancore, and Mr. Voss at Colomba, Ceylon. Another attempt was made in 1811 at Chinsurah, near Calcutta, but it was not uutil 1816 that the North India Mission was definitely inaugurated. Iu 1800 the Rev. William Moseley, an Indepen dent minister at Loug Buckby, Northampton shire, published a valuable "Memoir on the Importance and Practicability of Translating and Publishing tbe Holy Scriptures in the Chinese Language." He had discovered in the British Museum a manuscript containing a Harmony of the Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Paul, and the first chapter of the Hebrews in Chinese. It was a folio volume, and was lettered by mistake "Evangelica Quatuor Sinice." On a blank leaf, at the beginning of the volume, is the fol lowing note: "This transcript was made at Canton in 1737 and 1738, by order of Mr. Hodg son, who says it has been collated with care and found very correct. Given by him to Sir Hans Sloane, Bart., in 1739." (Moseley's Memoir, 2d edition, p. 20 ; Evan. Mag., vol. ix. p. 445.) It was this Memoir by Mr. Moseley which first turned the attention of the friends of missions to China, and in 1804 the Rev. Robert Morrison was engaged by tbe L. M. S. to study the Chinese language. In January, 1807, he sailed from England, by way of America, for Canton, with a particular view to the translation of the Holy Scriptures into Chinese, inaugurating thus the work of Protestant missions in China proper. At the same time (1807) an urgent call from a West India planter gave the impulse for the founding of a mission at Demerara which after wards extended to British Guiana and Jamaica. Then followed the mission to Mauritius (1814), consequent on the occupation of that island by the British Government, and in 1818 was com menced in Madagascar a work that has been oue of tbe marvels of the Christian Church. The Levant was not without its interest for England, and in 1816 a missionary was stationed at Malta with a view to work in Greece, and a few years later the Ionian Islands were occupied. This effort, however, was not continued, and the missionaries entered other departments of labor, one of them becoming an efficient ageut of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 1818 saw the commencement of a mission to Siberia and Tartary, afterwards closed by Russian edict in 1840, aud of one to Malacca and the East Indies, since given over to the Netherlands Society. Then followed a long period during which existing work was strengthened. The first new mission was really the resuscitation of an old one, when in 1869 the mission to Mongolia endeavored to reach Tartary from the West. In 1879 the L. M. S. responded again to the call from the Dark Continent, and established its mission in Central Africa, tak ing as its district Lake Tanganyika, made sacred by the memories of Livingstone. This closed the long story of effort with which the society sought to girdle the earth, Single ven tures there were beside, such as one to Buenos Ayres and another to Prince Edward's Island, but they did not result in permanent work, and are of interest chiefly as indicating the breadth of view of the founders and promoters of the Society, who were resolved that if pos sible no nation should remain without the gospel. Missions of the Society. 1. To the South Seas. — The first party of missionaries, which left London September 1796, did not reach Tahiti until March, 1797, being obliged by violent gales to change their course and round the Cape of Good Hope in stead of Cape Horn. They were warmly wel comed by the natives, and Captain Wilson, leaving twenty-five of the party at Tahiti and establishing the rest at Tongatabu and St. Christian in the Friendly Islands, returned to England. His report so increased tbe en thusiasm for the mission that in three months the Duff sailed again with twenty-eight missionaries. When near Brazil the vessel was seized by a French privateer, and after many adventures the party succeeded in returning to England. A little later tidings were received from Tahiti that on account of persecution most of the missionaries had been obliged to leave the island. In May, 1800, an other party sailed for Tahiti, finding upon their arrival that one of those who had re mained had been murdered, and another had given up the work. After eight years of labor, seemingly with out result, six of tbe missionaries left Tahiti and sailed to Huahine. A rebellion of the na tives occurring soon after, which resulted in the defeat of their king, Pomare, all the rest, except Mr. Nott, joined their associates in Huahine. In the following year all but one, Mr. Hayward, deciding to give up Huahine also, sailed for New South Wales, and thus apparently terminated the mission to Tahiti, from which the Society had at first hoped so much, but which they had long regarded as a sort of forlorn hope. In the twelve years of its existence supplies had been received only twice and letters not much oftener, although English vessels frequently touched at the islands, aud the missionaries never failed to send intelligence to England. The missionaries, who had left the islands, while sedulously endeavoring to do all the good possible in New South Wales, felt an unconquerable desire. notwithstanding the trials and perils to which they had been exposed, to resume the im portant work they had so reluctantly quitted. Upon receiving intelligence from Pomare that tranquillity was restored between him and his subjects, together with most urgent invita tions to return, five of them (Messrs. Bicknell, Davies, Henry, Scott, and Wilson) rejoined Mr. Nott, who was with the king at Eimeo Now began the reaping from the long sowing. Pomare gave evidence of conversion, as did many others among the principal chiefs. Large numbers publicly i enounced idolatry and met to worship the true God; these were called "praying people." Soon idolatry was LONDON MISS. SOC. 557 LONDON MISS. SOC. completely abolished in Tahiti and Eimeo, the gods were destroyed, human sacrifices aud the murder of infants ceased. Their chief god, a shapeless block of wood, and other idols were forwarded to London and deposited in the museum of the society, as trophies of the triumph of Christianity in the Georgian Islands. In 1817 the Rev. Mr. Ellis, who at the request of the Society had learned the art of printing, #as sent to Tahiti with a printing-press and types. Curiosity to see the printing-press brought persons from different parts of the isl and, as well as from Tahiti, to look at this won derful machine. Hundreds who had learned to read were still destitute of a book. Some, had written out the whole spelling-book on sheets of writing-paper, while others had writ ten the alphabet on pieces of cloth made from the bark of a tree. Pomare manifested a strong interest in the press aud rendered much assist ance in the erection of the building for its ac commodation. He was allowed the privilege of setting the types for the first alphabet, and of making the impression of the first sheet that issued from the press, greatly to his own satis faction. The curiosity of the natives in regard to the press was not easily satisfied. Pomare visited the ofiice almost every day, the chiefs requested to be admitted inside, and the win dows, doors, and every crevice through which they could peep were filled with people ex claiming, ' Beritainef fenua paari" — "O, Britain, land of skill" (or knowledge). Na tives from Eimeo and from many other islands came to procure books and to see the machine which performed such wonders. For several weeks before the first portion of Scripture was finished, the district of Afareaitu, in which the printing-office was situated, resembled a public fair. The beach was lined with canoes, the houses of the natives were full to overflowing, and temporary encampments were everywhere erected. Tbe printing-office was visited by such numbers of the strangers that they often climbed upon one another's backs, or on the sides of the windows, so as to darken the room. So anxious were they to obtain books, that they would come from other islands, and many waited five or six weeks rather than return without them. The books were read carefully and regularly by many, and became the source of great enjoyment. In 1818, a very large num ber of tbe inhabitants of the Georgian Islands having embraced Christianity, the missionaries proposed to the king and some of the leading chiefs the formation of a missionary society, to be auxiliary to the London Missionary Soci ety ; the plan was at once approved by them, and the 13th of May, the anniversary of the London Society, was appointed for its organi zation. At sunrise the missionaries attended a meeting for prayer, the natives also holding one among themselves at the same hour. At the morning service a sermon in English was preached by one of the missionaries; the after noon services were entirely in tbe native lan guage, and long before the appointed hour the chapel was crowded, and it was decided to hold the services in a beautiful grove near by. Af ter singing and prayer, Mr. Nott delivered an address ; at its conclusion Pomare arose and addressed the multitude, referring to the won derful change which the gospel had made in their condition, and showing their obligation to extend to others, still in heathen darkness, the blessings they enjoyed. In conclusion, he pro posed the formation of a Tahitian Missionary Society, to aid the London Missionaiy Society, asking all who approved tbe project to hold up their right hands. The whole assembly having thus signified approval, the constitution of the society, which had been previously prepared by the missionaries, was read: a treasurer and sec retaries were chosen, and the people returned to their homes excited and happy. In 1819 the Royal Mission Chapel, planned by Pomare and built by the united efforts of the chiefs and people of Tahiti and Eimeo, was opened for di vine service. Pomare and many others were baptized here June 6, 1819, in the presence of about 5,000 people. Messrs. Bicknell and Henry, who had arrived in the "Duff "more than twenty-two years before, conducted the services. At the request of Pomare, the missionaries assisted him and his chiefs in framing a code of laws in accordance with the principles of the Christian religion, and at the first anniversary of tbe Missionary Society these laws were pre sented by Pomare to the chiefs and people, who heartily agreed to observe them. They were printed on large sheets of paper, were sent to every chief and magistrate throughout the islands, and posted up in public places. Sub sequently two or three -slight insurrections occurred, which were easily quelled, and the authority of the new laws was firmly established. When the missionaries arrived at Tahiti in 1797 they found the moral habits of the islanders such that they should be forever hidden from view by tbe veil of oblivion; human depravity developed itself among them in revolting forms which will not bear the light; their savage wars gave them a ferocious character; they were addicted to thievish habits, to robbery and plunder. Their dances and other amusements were conducted with shocking indecency, their conversation was low and vile, and chastity was unknown among them. Some of them were cannibals. Infanticide prevailed to an incred ible extent. "Awfully dark indeed," says Mr. Ellis, "was their moral character, and not withstanding the apparent mildness of their dis positions, no portion of the human race was ever, perhaps, sunk lower in brutal licentious ness and moral degradation than this isolated people." Long and patient seed-sowing at length brought the harvest; and when the fruit appeared it was rich and abundant, the reports for 1820 showing a wonderful change, that attracted the notice even ofthe officers of passing vessels. In 1821 two laymen were sent out by the London Society to teach the natives useful arts; among them the manufacture of cotton cloth, and how to make lathes, looms, and spinning- wheels. Near the close of 1821, Pomare, the steady friend and the first convert of the missionaries, died, and was succeeded by bis son, Pomare III., who was crowned with Christian cere monies; he lived only a year and a half, when he was succeeded by his sister, who afterwards married the young chief Tahaa, to whom her father had given his own name. In 1824 the South Sea Academy, the primary object of which was to provide education for the children of missionaries, was established at Eimeo by a deputation from the Loudon Society. The Institution was intended also to be prepar- LONDON MISS. SOC. 558 LONDON MISS. SOC. atory to a seminary for training native pastors, and native children who showed qualities which would fit them for such a work had access to it. In 1835 tbe Tahitian translation of the Scrip tures was completed, and Mr. Nott went to England to superinteud the work of printing, and to recover his health. In 1836 the Reports show tbat there were in Tahiti nearly 2,000 church-members; two thirds of the people could read, a great number were able to write, and the schools and chapels were well attended. Such was the condition of things in the Georg ian Islands when the introduction of the French protectorate opened the flood-gates of iniquity, and embarrassed and finally broke up the mis sion. In 1843 the French and American con sulates determined to break through all restric tions, and, in spite of law, openly forced the sale of spirits. Insults and outrages were con tinued, until in 1844 Queen Pomare took refuge on board a British vessel, where she remained for six months, and afterwards sailed in the " Carysford " to Raiatea. On the 2d of May, 1844, Rev. Henry Nott died, having almost completed a half-century of glorious work on Tahiti. June 30th Rev. T. S. McKeau was accidentally shot by a native soldier. Many of the stations were at this time broken up, others reduced to a very low condition, and several of the missionaries returned to England. Among man}' arbitrary regulations introduced by the French was one which changed the Sabbath from Sunday to Monday; and another forbid ding tbe missionaries to travel without a pass port. In December, 1846, the patriot forces, seeing the impossibility of resistance, surren dered to the French; the queen returned, and an attempt was made to revive the mission. In 1849 lhe new French governor arrived, who at first seemed friendly to the missionaries, but afterwards used his authority and influence to prevent the natives from going to church or from making contributions for the diffusion of the gospel. But amid all the troubles the Tahitian Church received numerous accessions and exhibited increasingly strong Christian character ; especially was the Christian charac ter of Queen Pomare maintained through the most trying circumstances. In 1852 a law was enacted removing the choice of pastors from the members of the churches to the principal chiefs, and the missionaries of the London Mis sionary Society were denied even the privilege of preaching the gospel in their own houses. Regarding this as a violation of treaty stipula tions with Great Britain, as well a.s of every principle of religious liberty, the missionaries retired from the island, leaving Mr. Howe in charge of the mission property and of the Theo logical Seminary at Papeiti. A number of native pastors, educated at this seminary, had previously been ordained, aud were now in some instances pastors of churches. The French rule in the Georgian Islands subverted morals and strengthened every evil influence, but the good work of the London Missionaiy Society has not been been destroyed. Trans ferred to the Paris Evangelical Society, the missions have flourished, and the stations now show most encouraging progress. Society Islands. — It will be remembered that when the missionaries on Tahiti were obliged to flee, they spent some time at Huahine, one of the Society Islands, before going to New South Wales. Mr. Hay ward, however, re mained for some time on Huahine, and then re turned to Eimeo. In 1814 he and Mr. Nott sailed again to Huahine, were warmly welcomed, and their instructions listened to with serious atten tion. Afterwards Mr. Wilsou and Pomare, while sailing from Eimeo, were driven to Hua hine, where they spent three months in preach ing the gospel and persuading the natives to abandon their idols. In June, 1818, Messrs. Davies, Williams, Orsmond, and Ellis, accom panied by a number of the principal chiefs of Eimeo, sailed from that island to Huahine for the purpose of establishing a mission there, and found that, with one or two exceptions, the natives had renounced idolatry and, in profes sion at, least, had become Christians. All this was owing to the example and efforts of Taraa- toa, the king of Raiatea, and some of the chiefs who had been with him at Tahiti and Eimeo. Soon after bis return to Raiatea, Tamaloa had publicly renounced his idols, and had declared himself a believer in Jehovah and iu Jesus Christ. Several of the chiefs and many of the people followed his example; but here, as in Tahiti, tbe idolatrous chiefs and people resorted to arms in defence of their gods. Exasperated at the destruction, of Oro, their great national idol, they determined to put all the Christians to death, and made an attack upon them, which however, resulted in victor}- to the Christians; and the assailants were so much impressed with the mercy shown them, and the feast prepared for them by tbe victors, that they declared their intention of giving up the gods who could not protect them in the hour of danger. They joined with the Christians in demolishing the idols and burning the maraes (altars), and three days after the battle there was not a vestige of idolatry left. The example set by lhe Raiateans was soon followed by the people of Tahaa, Bora- bora, and Huahine. Mauran was visited by chiefs and people from Borabora and Raiatea, who persuaded the natives to burn their temples and gods. Thus ended the reign of idolatry in the Society Islands, most of the people adopting the outward f onus of Christianity, although they were of course not yet full}* acquainted with its nature. In 1820 a house of worship was opened on Huahine; it was one hundred feet long and sixty feet wide, was plastered within and with out, and the windows were closed with sliding shutters. By the ingenuity of the missionaries, rustic chandeliers were formed of light wood and cocoa-nut shells. Schools were established ou this and other islands of the group, and the improvement of the pupils was very rapid. The same eagerness to obtain books was mani fested here as in the Windward Islands (Georg ian), aud nothing could exceed the delight with which they were received. Great improvement was manifested in adopting the dress and habits of civilization, and in no respect was there a greater change than in the manner of keeping the Sabbath. It was customary for those who resided at a distance lo come to the missionaiy island on Saturday afternoons, and parties from every direction might be seen approaching; the shore was lined with canoes, and the encamp ment presented a scene of bustling activity. On the Sabbath no visits were made and no company entertained; tires were not kindled except in case of sickness, the food having been prepared on Saturday. This strict observance LONDON MISS. SOC. 559 LONDON MISS. SOC. of the Sabbath was never directly enjoined by the missionaries, but was, no doubt, largely at tributed to their example, aud partly perhaps to superstition in the natives. Large congregations assembled at the religious services. A sea-cap tain, who was present at one of these meetings, says: "The most perfect order reigned the whole time of service. The devout attention which these poor people paid to what was going forward and the earnestness with which they listened to their teacher would shame an Eug lisb congregation." The baptism of tbe first converts in the Society Islands took place in September, 1819, and Ma- hine. the principal chief, was among the number. The name of every individual was formerly de scriptive of some event or quality, and was gen erally significant of something blasphemous, idolatrous, or impure. These the missionaries advised the people to renounce, and to select those by which they wished to be called in future. Scriptural names were in general chosen by the adults for themselves and their children. The first religious awakening in the Society Islands occurred in 1819 and 1820. Early in May, 1820, the first Christian church iu this group was organized at Huahine, and on the following Sabbath 16 persons united with the missionaries in partaking of the communion. The annual meeting of the Missionaiy Society was held soon after, and the subscriptions amounted to more than 3,000 gallons of oil, be sides cotton and other articles. In February of the following year four of the converts who had long beeu consistent Christians were set apart to the office of deacon, and proved valu able assistants of tbe missionaries. A great change had taken place by this time in these once degraded islanders. The aged and the sick, who had formerly been treated with the greatest cruelty and neglect, were now nursed with care by relatives and children. Benevo lent societies were formed among the natives in some of the islands for tbe purpose of buildiug houses for the poor, and supplying with food and clothing the sick who had no friends to take care of them. Parental restraint and discipline began also to receive attention. The mothers endeavored to influence their children and gain their affec tion by kindness; the fathers sometimes resorted to harsher measures. There were, however, some young men who did not relish the re straints which Christianity put upon them, and who formed a conspiracy to murder the mis siouaries and overturn the government. Their plans were detected, and the chiefs determined to put the ringleaders to death. The mission aries, however, interceded for them, and after a whole day's discussion the chiefs yielded, in quiring what would be done in England in such a case; when told that in England there were established laws, by which all offenders were tried before judges appointed for the purpose, they appointed a temporary judge, by whom the criminals were tried, and the ringleaders sen tenced to four years' banishment on an uninhab ited island. A code of laws was soon prepared by the missionaries and recognized by the chiefs and people of Raiatea. It was publicly pro claimed in May, 1820. At a national assembly held iu Huahine in May, 1821, a similar code was proclaimed in that island under the author ity of the queen, the governor, and the chiefs. Slight insurrections which occurred in Huahine, Sahaa, and in some of the other islands, were suppressed without bloodshed, and the suprem acy of the laws was firmly established, ln the year 1837 considerable additions were made to the church; in 1838 more than a hundred mem bers were admitted to church-fellowship in Borabora. Since that time the mission to these islands has been subject to many vicissitudes of decline and progress. The French outrages in the Georgian Islands and the attempts to estab lish a Protectorate in this group have causeil much excitement. The Austral Islands, included in the Soci ety's Mission to the Society Islands, first received the knowledge of the gospel in 1821. ln that year a fatal epidemic prevailed at Rurutu, and a young chief, Anura, with some companions, left it for Tubuai, about 100 miles distant. On their return, after drifting about for three weeks, they landed at Maurua. Here they were shown the demolished temples, prostrate altars, and broken idols, and were told that the people on these islands had become worshippers of Jehovah, the one living and true God. They immediately proceeded to Borabora (now called Porapora) to see the missionaries. From this place they went to Raiatea, and were filled with wonder at what they saw. On the Sabbath they were conducted to the chapel, where songs of praise in which tbe people joined, aud the sermon from one of the missionaries, excited in them the deepest interest. They were at once convinced of the superiority of the Christian religion, and desired to be instructed in the knowledge of the true God, became pupils in the school, and soon learned to read and spell correctly. Having publicly renounced their idols and professed themselves worshippers of Jehovah, they became anxious to return to their own island, to carry thither the knowledge they had obtained. An opportunity occurred for them to go in a vessel bound for England, and the chiefs earnestly begged the missionaries to send instructors with them. Two of the native deacons volunteered to go, and were supplied with elementary books, and a few copies of the gospel in the Tahitian language, which is very similar to that of the Austral Islands. After their arrival at Rurutu, the chiefs were advised to prepare an entertainment the next day, of a number of kinds of food which were consid ered sacred, and of which it was thought a woman could not partake without instant death. The feast was accordingly made ready, and Anura, his wife and friends, with the Raia- teau Christiaus, unitedly partook of the sacred food. The chiefs and people stood around, ex pecting to see those who had thus violated the law of the gods fall into convulsions or expire in agony. But when they saw no harm befall them, they exclaimed. "The priests have de ceived us," and hastening to their temples they hurled the idols from the places so long occu pied, burnt to the ground their sacred build ings, and desiroyed every marae in the island. In 1823 Mr. Williams visited Rurutu, aud again in 1829. Teachers had been sent from Pora pora to teach them reading, writing, and the elements of religion. Mr. Williams found that the people had improved and made progress in many ways. Rimatara and other islands fol lowed the example of Rurutu, and the inhabi tants of Tubuai, hearing of this, sent to Tahiti, requesting teachers and books. Mr. Nott, with LONDON MISS. SOC. 560 LONDON MISS. SOC. two native teachers, sailed to this island in June, 1822. The people were iuduced to attend public worship, where Mr. Nott preached. In 1826, when Mr. Davies visited the island, the profession of Christiauity had become general throughout the island, aud the chiefs and peo ple were assisting the teachers in putting up comfortable dwellings and a substantial house for public worship. The work in the islands continued to be carried on by native agency alone, except the occasional visits of missiou aries. Peakl Islands. — In the early part of the reign of Pomare II. many of the inhabitants of the Pearl Islands fled to Tahiti for security dur ing a war. They were protected by Pomare, and when the Tahitians cast away their idols they also renounced idolatry, and placed them selves under tbe instruction of the missionaries. In 1827 they returned to their own island, and before long war, cannibalism, and idolatry ceased, and a place of worship was built. Marquesas Islands. — In 1797 Captain Wil son, after landing the missionaries at Ton- gatalu and Tahiti, sailed for the Marquesas. At Santa Christina he left Mr. Crook, who, after residing on the island about a year, be came discouraged and returned to Tahiti. In 1825 he went back with two native teachers from Huahine and one from Tahiti. The people at first seemed friendly, and Mr. Crook left the native teachers and returned to Tahiti ; but soon after the people threatened to kill and devour the teachers, who were obliged to leave. Several other attempts were made by the So ciety to Christianize these islands, but in 1841 the field was abandoned, and the missionaries returned to Tahiti. Hervey Islands. — In 1821 two natives were set apart with appropriate religious services at the Society Islands, and sent to Aitutaki. Mr. Williams went with them, and found among the natives every feature of savage life, but the teachers were kindly received with promises of protection. Notwithstanding these promises, they labored in great discouragement, suffering much from the persecution of the na tives. At length, however, the daughter of the old chief was taken ill ; offerings were made to the gods, and to induce them to restore the child to health their favor was invoked from morning to night. But the disease increased, and the girl died. The chief, incensed that the gods should not have regarded his offerings, determined at once to abandon them, and the next morning sent his son to set fire to his marae. Two other maraes near it took fire and were consumed. The people brought their idols to the teachers, and professed themselves followers of Jehovah. Fifteen months after the arrival of the teachers a general meeting of all the people was held, and the teachers pro posed that all the maraes on the island should he burned, and a house of worship for Jehovah built. The multitude consented to both these propositions, and at lhe close of the meeting a general conflagration of maraes took place. The whole population then came iu proces sion, the chief and priest leading the way, aud laid their idols at the teachers' feet, receiving in return copies of the gospel aud elementary books. The missionaries at Raiatea, hearing . of tbe success of the native teachers at Aitu taki, resolved lo visit them and to attempt the introduction of the gospel into every island of that group. In July, 1823, Messrs. Bourne and Williams, with six native teachers, after a five days' sail, reached Aitutaki. They found the Sabbath regarded as a sacred day, all the people attending divine service, and family prayer general throughout the island. Five islands were visited, but Rarotonga, the largest of the group, long searched for, remained undis covered. Mr. Williams, however, determined to make one more effort to find it, and at length, after almost giving up in despair, was delighted with the sight of the lofty mountains and beau tiful valleys of the charming island. He met with a favorable reception, and crowds of people gathered round him. Of the progress of Christianity in this island much is already known. Mr. Bourne's account is given: "Much has been said of the progress of the gospel in Tahiti and in the Society Islands, but it is not to be compared with its success in Rarotonga. In Tahiti the missionaries labored for fifteen years before the least fruit appeared. Two years ago the Rarotongans did not know of the gospel, but their advancement in religion equals that of the Tahitians. . . . And when we look at the means used it becomes much more astonishing. . . . Two native teachers have been the instruments of effecting all this wonderful change, before a single missionary has set foot upon the island." Mr. Williams visited the island soon after this report was written, and again in 1834. He says: "When I found them in 1823 they were ignorant of the nature of Christian worship ; and when I left them in 1834 I am not aware that there was a house in the island where family prayer was not observed every morning and evening." Samoan Islands (Navigators). — In 1787 these islands were visited by a French vessel, and several of the crew were treacherously mur dered, which act created such an impression of their treachery and ferocity, that for many years they were not visited by any vessels from the civilized world. Mr. Williams was probably the first to entertain the idea of introducing the gospel in these islands. Having no suitable vessel in which to make the voyage of 2,000 miles, he, with the assistance of the natives, at tempted to build one. His utmost ingenuity was needed for this task, and a description of some of the ways by which he accomplished his purpose may be interesting. A pair of smith's bellows, as well as certain tools for work ing in iron, which were not to be found in Rar otonga, were indispensable. He therefore killed, for the sake of their skins, three of the four goats on the island, and constructed with much difficulty a tolerable bellows. But the rats ate all tbe leather, leaving nolhiug of his apparatus but the naked boards, and all hope of working in the ordinary way was gone. Mr. Williams, however, persevered in his efforts, and at last " hit upon a novel way to ' raise the wind.' " It occurred to him that air might be thrown by a pump as water is. Accordingly, by means of two boxes 18 inches square and 4 ft. high, with valves and levers, and worked by 8 or 10 na tives, he contrived to procure such a succession of blasts as answered all his purposes in the building of the vessel. A stone was used for an anvil, and a pair of carpenter's pincers for tongs. With scarcely any iron, without saw, oakum, cordage, or sail-cloth, he at length suc ceeded in launching a vessel 60 feet long and 18 in breadth, and of 70 or 80 tons burden. It was LONDON MISS, SOC. 561 LONDON MISS. SOC. named " The Messenger of Peace." The trees used for it had been split with wedges, the ropes were of the twisted bark of the hibiscus, the sails made of native mats quilted, aud the rudder was formed of a piece of a pick-axe, a cooper's adze, and a laTge hoe. In this vessel Messrs. Williams and Barff, with 7 native teach ers, sailed from Raiatea May 24th, 1830. They ru-oceeded first to Tongatabu, whence they sailed for Samoa, taking with them a chief of one of these islands, whom they found at Ton gatabu. After a protracted voyage they reached Savaii, whose king, Malietoa, received them kindly. Leaving the teachers, Mr. Williams re turned to Raiatea. Two years later he again visited Samoa, and found that on some of the islands Christianity had been embraced through the teaching of the natives from Raiatea. At one place a congregation of 50 Christians, dis tinguished from the heathen natives by a baud of white cloth upon the arm, had been gathered by one whose only instruction had been gained from one of the teachers who was laboring on an island many miles away. A long canoe voyage was necessary for each lesson he received. This man and many others, calling themselves ' ' Sons of the Word," begged Mr. Williams to send them teachers. This great desire for instruc tion was communicated by Mr. Williams to the L. M. S., and in 1835 a party of missionaries, accompanied by their wives, set sail for Samoa. In 1830, in these beautiful islands, rapine, mur der, cannibalism and most sickening crimes and horrors prevailed; through the work of the L. M. S. all this was changed, and within ten years' time Christianity reigned in the hearts and lives of the people. New Hebrides. — The illness of both Mr. and Mrs. Williams necessitated their return to England in 1834. Recovering their health dur ing a four years residence in England, they be came anxious to return to their former work, and Mr. Williams proposed to the Society to undertake an exploring voyage among the groups of islands situated between Samoa and New Guinea, and to place on them native teachers. Accordingly an appeal was made to Christians in England for money to purchase a ship, which should be devoted exclusively to missionary purposes. Mr. Williams's narrative and his personal representations excited so much interest throughout England, that a sum more than sufficient for the purchase of a ship, the " Camden," was soon raised. On the 4th of April, 1838, a farewell meeting of intense in terest was held in London, and a few days later the " Camden " sailed, having on board a party of 13 missionaries, including Mr. and Mrs. Wil liams and their son. Mr. Williams visited the Navigator's, Georgian, and Society Islands, and Ihen proceeded to the New Hebrides, accom panied by Captain Morgan, Mr. Cunningham, vice-consul for the South Sea Islands, and Mr. Harris, who was intending to go as a missionary to the Marquesas. On the 19th November, 1839, the "Apostle of the Pacific" landed at Tanna, where he was kindly treated by the people. The three Samoan teachers set apart for this island were gladly received, and Mr. Williams set sail again for Erromanga, which he reached the next day. The natives here were more rude and barbarous than those of the other islands, and would not at first hold any intercourse with the strangers; but having received presents of fish-hooks and beads, they brought some cocoanuts to the missionaries, *" who, thinking that they had gained their confi dence, all went on shore. While Captain Mor gan waited to see the boat safely anchored, Mr. Williams, Mr. Harris, and Mr. Cunningham. walked up the beach. The captain then start ed to follow, but the boat's crew called to him to come back. Looking round, he saw Mr. Williams and Mr. Cunningham running to wards the sea, Mr. Williams closely pursued by a native. Captain Morgan immediately re turned to the boat, from which he saw a native strike Mr. Williams, who fell backward lo the ground. Another native struck him with a. club while others pierced his body with arrows. Mr. Harris shared the same fate. Captain Mor gan tried in vain to obtain the bodies, but every attempt was foiled by the natives, by whom they were afterward cooked and devoured. The news of this calamity was received in England a few days before the annual meeting of the- Society. In February, 1840, the British ship "Favorite" sailed from Sydney to search for the lemains of Messrs. Williams and Harris. Mr. Cunningham. and a Samoan chief to act as interpreter, accom panied the expedition. At Erromanga, by means of presents and threats, they obtained from the natives part of the bones of the two missionaries. The vessel then sailed for the Samoas, where the bones were interred, the ser vices being attended by the officers of the "Favor ite," the missionaries, and hundreds of Samoans, who remembered Mr. Williams as the first mes senger of salvation to their shores. Soon after this, Mr. Heath, of the Samoan Mission, was re quested by his brother-missionaries to make an ex ploring voyage in the " Camden." He visited the New Hebrides, and left native teachers at four of the Islands, one of them being Erromanga. In 1842 Messrs. Turner and Nisbet arrived at Tanna. They assembled the principal chiefs, made known their object, and were kindly re ceived with promises of protection. On the fol lowing Sabbath they held religious services, which were attended by more than 200 people. The missionaries soon found, however, that the people were depraved and cruel in the extreme. A few manifested some attachment to tbem, but by all others they were regarded with distrust and hatred, and more than once their destruc tion was secretly attempted. A fatal disease at tacked the island, and the chiefs in the interior, attributing it to the arts of the missionaries, de manded their expulsion. To this those who- were friendly to the missionaries would not con sent, and a savage war was the result. The missionaries left the island in their small open boat, but were driven back, and death iu its most horrid form seemed inevitable, when, just as tbey were entering the harbor, an American vessel appeared off Tanna, in which they were taken to the Navigator's Islands. The attempt to place native teachers on the Isle of Pines, in 1840, had a still more tragical result. In 1842 the crew of the brig "Star," having been treated with ap parent friendship, went on shore to cut timber, and were treacherously killed and devoured, af- * This shyness anrl distrust on the part of the natives- was owing- To the fact that a short time previous a party of white traders had landed on the island and had killed tlie son of the chief; the murders perpe trated afterward wei-e simply acts of vengeance, and were in strict, accordance with native law. (See New Hebkidbs Mission ) LONDON MISS. SOO. 562 LONDON MISS. SOC. ier which the Samoan teachers were murdered at the command of tbe chief, not from opposition to them or to what they taught, but in revenge for outrages previously committed by English and American traders. The visits of these trad ing-vessels have been marked by robbery and murder, and the acts of vengeance committed by the natives in this case, in the murder of Messrs. Williams and Harris, and at other times, do not equal in barbarity the actions of many of these traders. The natives, upon one occasion having offered some resistance to their outrages, were attacked with deadly weapons, many of them slain, and others, having taken refuge in a cave, were suffocated by a fire built at its mouth. The immediate cause of the death of the teachers on the Isle of Pines was the fact that they had Jbeen presented by the traders with forged letters from the missionaries, in which they were directed to assist them in the promo tion of their objects. The jealousy of the peo ple was thus excited against them. Notwith standing all the discouragement, the mission to the New Hebrides was renewed in 1845, when Messrs Turner and Murray landed at Tanna with 15 native teachers. They left four of the teachers and two native evangelists at Niue, after which they proceeded to Erromanga, but from tbe appearance of the natives, they con cluded that they were still unfriendly to the gospel, and so did not land. From Erromanga they proceeded to Sandwich Island, about 50 miles distant, where they found a population of noble aspect and gentle manners. Here they placed four native evangelists, who were received with hearty good-will by chiefs and people. Teachers were also left at two islands of tbe New Caledonia group, but on the large island of New Caledonia they found that Matuku, the chief of the Isle of Pines, had so influenced the people that they thought best to withdraw the teachers already there. In 1852 the Rev. Messrs. Murray and Sunderland, of the Samoan mission, visited these islands, and found an ex traordinary change in the sentiments and habits of the people since the previous visit of the mis sionary ship. Large numbers had renounced idolatry and put themselves under Christian in struction. Commodious places of worship and •dwellings for teachers bad been erected, con gregations aud schools gathered, and a few were hopeful candidates for church fellowship. Many unsuccessful attempts were made to land missionaries on Niue (Savage Island); but in 1849 a teacher from Sauwar succeeded in establishing himself there. In 1857 mission aries visited the island, and fouud that remark able progress had been made. In 1861 the Rev. Mr. Lawes was sent to this post, where he met with great success. In addition to evan gelistic, pastoral, and school work, he trained many students who have become efficient pio neers in other islands in Polynesia aud in New Guinea. There are now in the training institu tion fifteen young men, who, it is hoped, will. make good teachers either at home or in New Guinea. New Guinea. — The mission to New Guinea was commenced iu 1871, by the placing of eight teachers from the Loyalty Islands at Darnley, Saibai, and Duan islands in Torres Strait. In 1872 Mr. Murray, accompanied by Mrs. Murray and fourteen teachers from the Loyalty and Hervey Islands, settled at Cape York, locating the teachers in various places. In 1873 he placed teachers at Port Moresby, which is now the central station of the work east of Torres Strait. Murray Island (1877) has become the centre for the western branch of the mission. From the iudustrial school and teachers' seminary at this place many teach ers have gone forth to work in the islands aud on the coast of Torres Strait. Port Moresby has also a training institution,, from which many students have been sent to evangelize their countrymen. This mission has suffered much from the fever, and from the hostility of the natives, but remarkable results have beeu attained, especially in the eastern branch of the mission. Year by year these islands of the South Pacific are becoming of greater value to European powers. In some cases the direct trade with the islands and the extent of the plautations owned upon them have been sufficient to in duce Great Britain, France, and Germany to assert a claim to their posssesion. In other cases the strategic position of groups of islands on the line of communication between Europe and the colonial possessions of some power has been the motive for annexation. Serious changes have occurred, and the Society's mission work has been contracted both at its eastern and wes tern extremities. The resolve to withdraw en tirely as soon as possible from the' mission in the Society Islands, and also from the Loyalty Islands, will soon limit the work to the Samoan Island groups, with the out-stations in the north west, and the island of Nine. The lonsr-threat- ened annexation of the Society Islands by the French took place during 1889, the immediate result being most disastrous to mission work. The natives had no wish to come under the French flag, aud they reseuted with great spirit, though without avail, the attack upon their lib erties. In Raiatea a large section of the popu lation went to the mountains and the bush, re fusing to submit to French jurisdiction. In Huahine the excitement aud opposition were equally intense; and only the great forbearance displayed by the commander of the French war-vessel prevented bloodshed. Such a state of things could not but paralyze all mission operations. On Raiatea the schools were closed, and the Lord's Supper had not been celebrated for months, because the people were scattered. The contributions to tbe Society from Raiatea and Tahaa, which have often amounted to several hundred pounds, dropped to a few dollars privately giveu. The Rev. W. E. Richards had the pain of finding that his earnest efforts (as a neutral, yet a friend) to prevent bloodshed caused him to be viewed with suspicion aud anger by his own people and also by tbe French authorities. Mr. Cooper found himself in the same position on Huahine, and for some time it seemed doubtful if the people would ever again listen to his voice. The}- seemed to have begun to understand his position better before the end of the year; but their hostility to every attempt of the French to establish their authority con tinues unabated; and it is greatly to be feared that before long there will be a serious conflict on both islands. The death of Mr. Richards has already been referred to in the earlier portion of the report. After this sad event it became the duty of the directors to consider the situation with a view to future arrangements; and after mature delibera- LONDON MISS. SOC. 563 LONDON MISS. SOC. tion it was decided that it would not be expedi ent to fill up the vacant place by a fresh ap pointment, and that as soon as arrangements could be made for the transfer of the mission as a whole, it would be for lhe advantage of the churches if it were handed over to the Paris Evangelical Missionaiy Society. It scarcely needs to be said that this decision is not due lo any unwillingness on the part of English mis sionaries to work under the French flag. The directors are glad also to acknowledge that it is not due to any oppressive measures instituted by the Freuch Government against Protestants. It is, however, part of the settled policy of the French administration that all education shall be in the hands of the government, and shall be conducted in the French language. By this means one of the most important parts of the in fluence the missionaries have hitherto possessed has been entirely removed from them; and it is also doubtful if the training of the native pas tors will be permitted. Moreover, it appears to be part of the French colonial law that no con tributions shall be made by the churches to the funds of any foreign organization. Conse quently, the prospect in these islands appears to be the restriction of the missionaries' work within the narrowest limits, accompanied by an enor mous increase of the cost of the work to the Society. Very unwilling as they are to retire from fields which have been so richly blessed, there appeared, under the circumstances, to be no alternative left. The Hervey Islands were visited in the be ginning of the (1889) year by a terrific hurricane, which did great damage to chapels, schools, and dwelling-houses, and wrecked the planta tions of the people. The hurricane was fol lowed on Rarotonga by a prolonged drought, in which many of the springs entirely dried up. As a consequence of this the people have suf fered very serious losses. Another memorable event of the year is the proclamation of the British Protectorate over the islands. This step was taken after repeated requests from the people and with their enthusiastic approval, and is in accordance with a common under standing arrived at by England, France, and Germany, by which the principal groups of islands in the South Seas are coming under the influence of one or other of these powers. It is significant at once of the progress of civilization and of the character of too much of the trade with the South Seas, that the principal request made by the queen and chiefs to her Majesty the Queen of England, in connection with the protectorate, was that a law should be passed forbidding the introduction into the islands, or the sale to the natives, of intoxicating liquor. In the autumn, six native teachers with their wives, having completed their course of train ing at the institution at Rarotonga, were sent to join the number already at work in New Guinea. Within the past six years 26 teachers with their wives have been sent out from this institution. The Samoan Mission now includes the islands of Tutuila, Manua, Upolu, and Savaii, with the Tokelati, Ellice, and Gilbert groups. The po litical troubles in Samoa and the civil war which has raged fiercely have occasioned great anxiety to the missionaiy societies at work there; but their neutrality has been respected, and the work has gone on at the various stations, subject to the evils which are inseparable from a time of war. These troubles having, by the agree ment between Eugland, Germany, and the United States, come to an end, it is hoped that the work may continue without further inter ruption from political sources. British Guiana and the West Indies. — In 1807 Mr. Post, the owner of a large plantation called " Le Resouvenir," iu Demerara, sent to the Directors of the Missionary Society an urgent re quest that a missionary might be sent to instruct his slaves. Accordingly, in February of the following year the Rev. J. Wray was settled at Le Resouvenir. The expenses of the mission were almost entirely borne by Mr. Post, who secured to the Society the chapel and dwelling- house, together with a small endowment. In 1809 Mr. Post died, and in 1813 Mr. Wray re moved to Berbice, to take the religious charge of the crown negroes there. In 1817 Rev. J. Smith succeeded Mr. Wray, and labored suc cessfully until 1823. On a charge of complicity with a revolt amoug the negroes he was tried by court-martial, and died in prison on the 6th February, 1824. With his death the work of the Society at Le Resouvenir came to a close. After the " Emancipation Act " of 1834 the Society attempted further work among fie. negro races, and a mission was commenced in Jamaica. The object of this mission was to found Christian churches, and gradually lead them ou to self -management and self-support; and to aid in accomplishing this, institutions were founded in Demerara, Berbice, and Ja maica. Every effort was made to encourage the negroes to moral and spiritual improvement and self-help. At one time there were 19 mis sionaries in Guiana and Jamaica; now there is but one in Guiana, and in Jamaica the Society has no representative. Mauritius.— The work of the L. M. S. in Mauritius was commenced in 1814, with the opening of a school for French children at Port Louis, and the circulation of Scriptures and tracts. A Sunday-school was formed, and in the face of much opposition a small congrega tion was gathered. By degrees Mr. Le Brun, the missionary, succeeded in inducing the free colored people to attend upon his instructions, and in 1818 he organized a church, which in 18 1 9 had 20 members. An auxiliary Mission ary Society was formed, the proceeds of which were to be devoted to tbe support of the Mada gascar mission. In 1820 a, missionary under appointment to Madagascar undertook the in struction of the slaves upon a plantation called Belombre, with such good result that the di rectors continued the school for many years. In 1832 Mr. Le Bran's health failed, and he was obliged to visit England. Owing to the state of affairs on the island, the directors thought it unwise to resume the mission, but Mr. Le Brun returned and carried on the work at his own charges. Under his care and that of his wife and son, the evangelistic, educa tional, and pastoral work were prosecuted with vigor. Madagascar. — (See article on Madagascar.) Present missionary force 32 English mission aries and 670 native pastors. India. — The mission work of the L. M. S. in India is divided into three sections, North In dia, South India, and Travancore, which are again subdivided, the different stations not be ing always dependent upon or orgauically con nected with each other, but for geographical LONDON MISS. SOC. 564 LONDON MISS. SOC. reasons the wider distinction will be pre served. 1. North India, containing the stations of Calcutta (1817), Berhampur (1819), Benares (1820), Mirzapur (1837), Almora (1850), Sin- growli (1862), Ranee Khet (1869). 2. South India, containing Madras (1805), Vizagapatam (1806), Bellary (1810), Belgaum (1820), Bangalore (1820), Cuddapah (1824), Sa lem (1824), Coimbatoor (1830), Vizianagram (1852), Gooty (1855), Tripatoor (1861). 3. Travancore, containing Nagercoil (1809), Quilou (1821), Neyoor (1828), Trevandrum (1838), Pareychaley (1845), Tittuvilei (1866). North India. — Calcutta. The Society com menced its work in Calcutta in 1816. The Rev. Messrs. Towuley aud Keith, the first mis sionaries, began at an early period to preach the gospel iu Bengali, to establish schools and distribute the Scriptures. In 1818 the Uuion Chapel was erected, the funds for which were chiefly subscribed in Calcutta. A printing- press was established in 1820. The " Christian School Society," the object of which was to in troduce Christian instruction into the native schools, under the entire management of native schoolmasters, was also formed at Calcutta. In the same year a "Bethel Society," in connec tion with the Baptist Brethren at Calcutta and Serampore was established. Bengali preach ing was undertaken at Mirzapore, and a chapel was opened on the main road of Bhowauipur. In 1830 the number of schools was diminished for tlie purpose of giving increased attention to the spread of lhe gospel. A year or two later there was a manifestation of open and decided hostility to Christiauity, which was, however, regarded as a much more encouraging sign than the apathy hitherto shown. Notwith standing many adverse circumstances, the work of the mission proceeded with encour aging signs of progress. Unceasing attention has been given to preaching, schools, transla tion of the Scriptures, the publication and dis tribution of tracts, and itinerant preaching in large villages. For many years the educational agencies have been a very prominent feature in the work. The Bhowanipur Institution had upon its roll in 1888, 617 students; and there are, in the 25 schools of the central and out-stations, 2,083 scholars. The mission to women in Calcutta is exceptionally strong, and the openings for work iu the girls' schools and in the homes of the people increase year by year. The preach ing station in the Bow Bazaar, Calcutta, the encouraging work in the Isamatti district, aud the growth of a native Christian community in the flourishing stations of the south villages, show the purely evangelistic side of the mis sion . Berhampur. — The mission at Berhampur, be gun in 1824, was an extension of the work at Calcutta. Rev. Mr. Hill, the missionary, met with much opposition for a time, but at length succeeded in establishing schools for the chil dren of Hindus and Mohammedans. In 1828 a. chapel and mission-house were erected, and a girls' school, under the care of Mrs. Hill and another lady, was in a prosperous conditiou. An orphan asylum was also established. The force of prejudice, the apathy of parents, and other causes have at this station continued to place great difficulties in the way of tbe educa tion of girls; notwithstanding 3 girls' schools have been established. There are also 5 boys' schools, with 301 scholars. Iu November, 1888, the first convert from the zenanas was baptized. Benares. — The work of the Society was com menced in Benares in 1820, with the opening of native schools. A chapel was opened in 1824. Some years later the work of translating the Bible was begun, and as this work progressed vast numbers of tracts and copies of the Scrip tures were put in circulation by the mission aries. A serious obstacle to the success of such labors was the inability of the people to read, the pupils in the mission schools being almost the only readers. They therefore considered the education of the native youth of the first importance, and devoted the more time to tbis branch of work. The missionaries now at work in this field find tbe same great obstacles confronting them which opposed the progress of those who first undertook the work. Benares is tbe great cen tral citadel of Hinduism, where learning, de- voutness, royalty, wealth, superstition, the ven eration which has been instilled in the mind from infancy, combine to make missionary work most difficult. The London Society car ries on evangelistic and educational labors in many forms, and this spreading of Christian light has already wrought such tangible results as greatly to encourage the belief that what is yet wanting to complete the great object in view will, by God's blessing, surely follow. Large numbers of the inhabitants of Benares, who are still outwardly attached either to Hinduism or to one of the other heathen systems of the city, have had their thoughts about God and duty so transformed, purified, and elevated, as to savor far more of Christian than of heathen teaching. A much higher tone of morality is perceptibly pervading those sections of the dif ferent classes of society that come most into contact with Christian infiuence, and a growiug readiness is ever manifested by all ranks in the city to throw open to Christian instruction their homes, which were formerly so strongly closed against it. Mirzapur and Singrowli. — Mirzapur was oc cupied by the London Society in 1838. Super stition and sin still rule in the district, but the missionaries have continued their varied work with earnestness. This work consists of street and bazaar preaching, evangelistic tours, Sun day-schools, zenana work, high-school work, etc. In Singrowli the native preacher and bis little flock have completed, with much labor and sac rifice, a place of worship, which was opened, free of debt, in 1888. Almora. — The Almora Mission was com menced in 1850, at the earnest solicitation of Captain (now Sir Henry) Ramsay and other Christian gentlemeu resident in the province of Kumaon. Withiu the past ten years the mis sion has developed in many directions; the at tendance at the boys' schools has increased from 312 to 750; at the girls' schools from 20 to 295. A new chapel and a boarding- school for Christian boys have been erected; the high-school has been promoted to tbe rank of a college, and a public library started, which is now able to stand aloue without help from the mission. Three stations outside of Almora have beeu opened, and a small church has been formed. A leper asylum has been opened at this station. The average number of inmates is 107, exclusive of those in the branch asylums LONDON MISS. SOC. 565 LONDON MISS. SOC. at Chandag and Pitoragarh. The principal out- station of Almora is Bageshwar, a celebrated place of pilgrimage for the Hindus of Ku- maon. Fairs, great and small, are held — some times seven in a year. The gospel has been preached here for many years, especially in January, the time of the principal fair; but the first attempt at a settled mission was made in J887, when a boys' school was established, and a small dispensary opened; at the latter, within three months, 1,320 patients, many of them poor women, were treated. Rhanee Khet. — In addition to direct work for the heathen, the L. M. S. carries on vigor ous and unremitting labor for the benefit of the soldiers stationed at Ranee Khet, special services, evening classes, etc., being held. South India. — Madras. Work in Madras was commenced by the L. M. S. in 1805. The first missionaiy, Rev. Mr. Loveless, for a long time labored alone, preaching and establishing schools. In 1816, aud subsequently from time to time, other laborers arrived, and the work steadily increased in energy and success. At this station educational work has always been an important feature, and there are now at the central and two out-stations 6 boys' and 8 girls' schools, in addition to Sunday-schools. Bellary. — This station was opened in 1810, and has been continued with great encour agement. In conuection with this station the Scriptures have been translated into the Canava and Tamil languages. Education has always been largely carried on. With its 10 out-sta tions, Bellary has 9 schools with 700 scholars. Vizagapatam. — In 1804 the Missionary So ciety sent to India three missionaries, the Rev. Messrs. Ringletaube, Cran, and Les Granges. Their intention was to begin a mission on the Coromandel coast, but upon their arrival in the country their plans were changed. Messrs. Cran and Des Granges proceeded to Vizaga patam, while Mr. Ringletaube established him self at Travancore. These first missionaiy laborers in this field were warmly received by the commander-in- chief of the forces, and also by the judge, who up to this time had been conducting public worship in the fort, for the soldiers of the garrison and such others as wished to attend. This duty was now committed to the mission aries, the government making an allowance for their labors. In 1806 a charity school was in successful operation, with suitable buildings, and with 30 or 40 persons under instruction, including Hindus of all castes, some of them coming from long distances — ten, twenty, and thirty miles. Soon after the opening of the mission the plan of translating the entire Scriptures in the Telinga language, which is spoken by all the Hindus in the five northern Circars, was formed, and the churches at home were ap pealed to for aid. In January, 1809, Mr. Cran died, and in 1810 Mr. Les Granges, having, how ever, translated three ofthe Gospels, which were printed at Serampore by the Baptist brethren. In 1819 the translation of the New Testament into Telinga was completed, and was published at Madras, at the expense of the Calcutta Bible Society. Mr. Pritchett, who had joined the mission in 1819, had completed this work, and hoped also to sive the whole Bible to the heathen around him, but died before this hope was realized. In 1824, 20 years after the establishment of the mission, there were five native schools in operation, with 250 boys uuder instruction. In 1827 there were 12 schools and over 500 scholars. In 1832 "Pilgrim's Progress" was translated into the language of the Telugus, and was read with extreme interest and delight by intelligent natives who understood the Scriptures. Reports for 1852 show continued success in the work of the mission. A mis sionary association had been formed, for the twofold purpose of adding to the funds of the Society and of sustaining an interest in the cause of Christ, and au orphanage for girls established. The mission to Vizagapatam at present (1889) consists of the central stations at Vizagapatam and out-stations at Chiltavalsa, Anakapalli, and Ellamanchilli. In addition to the English missionaries there are 6 native preachers; the boys' and girls' schools are prosperous. Bangalore. — The mission at Bangalore was commenced by the Rev. Messrs. Forbes and Wilder in 1820. Its position renders it an important mission, and it has always been a successful aud useful one, and the work has gone steadily on. The many schools, in which Tamil, Canarese, and English are taught, have well rewarded the pains bestowed upon thein. Preaching, at the stations and throughout the surrounding countiy, and the distribution of Bibles, tracts, etc. , are vigorously prosecuted. Bangalore has now 9 out-stations, and the total number of schools is 18, with about 1800 scholars. Belgaum. — Throughout its whole history this has been a well-conducted and successful mission, in connection with which there are 8 schools with more than 700 scholars; 3 Eng lish missionaries and 6 native preachers carry ou the evaugelical work. Cuddapah. — A deep interest has attached to the Cuddapah Mission during recent years, in consequence of the wide-spread movement among the low-caste Mala population of the dis trict towards Christianity. The first converts were mainly Sudra, and when the Mala move ment began, the Sudra, fearing lest his heredi tary serf should pass from under his hand, and attain to a culture superior to his own, not only withdrew himself from missionary influence, but also for years persecuted the Mala people, who are a despised and degraded race, upon whom centuries of serfdom have left marks which cannot be obliterated in one or two gen erations. This persecution has almost entirely ceased, and the Sudras have again become ready and attentive hearers of the gospel. Be ing a free, robust, and self-reliant people, they will add to the church a strength and inde pendence of charactei- which could not be ex pected from the Mala villagers. To meet tbe great, demands for education, the training-class for native workers, established some years ago, has assumed the proportions of a training-school, with three divisions — one for boys, a second for men too old to read in a school class, and a third for young men taking a full course with the ministry in view. Salem. — This mission has at times met with much opposition from the natives; but the pres ent attitude of the non-Christian population LONDON MISS. SOC. 566 LONDON MISS. SOC. bears important testimony to the influence of the work done. Instead of the fierce, bigoted opposition, or the indifference of former times, there appears in many instances a spirit of ear nest inquiry. The Industrial school, established in 1848, is a valuable feature of the mission. Coimbatoor. — Of the six institutions for higher education, established by the Loudon Mission ary Society iu South India, one is at Coimba toor, aud is in a flourishing condition, the work of the station having exteuded to 11 out- stations. Tripatoor, Vizianagram, and Gooty.— At these stations very extensive and important work is carried on, but being of the same general char acter as that already described, details are omitted. Preaching, withiu doors and without, in town aud country, is vigorously prosecuted; and zeuana visiting, together wiih the educa tional work, which is a distinguishing feature of the Society's work everywhere, is actively car ried on. Travancore. —Large numbers of persons were baptized early in the history of this mis sion, but lhe motive with many of them was worldly advantage. Crowds of Hindus and Mohammedans expressed a willingness to em brace Christiauity if their debts were paid. Mr. Ringletaube says: "For two hundred rupees I could have bought them all, but as I declined to pay their debts they never called on me again." In 1816 Mr. Ringletaube's health failed, and he was obliged to relinquish his work, aud for a year the London Society had no representative at Travancore; but in 1817 Rev. Charles Meade arrived, and in 1818 was joined by Mr. Knill. During the years 1819 and 1820 nearly 3,000 of tbe natives of Travan core asked for religious instruction, in addition to the 900 previously connected with the mis sion. In 1828 the Travancore mission was di vided, the eastern division comprising Nager- coil and its out-stations; the western, Trevan drum, Neyoor, and Quilon, with their numer ous out-stations. The growth of all these sta tions was most remarkable. In 1854 there were in tbe eastern division 25 congregations, comprising 867 families. Neyoor, in the west ern division, had 42 out-stations, with 953 Christian families. Pareychaley, a branch of the Neyoor station, comprised, with its 7 out- stations, 1,197 Christian families. There were in the schools 1,372 boys and 2(i0 girls. Quilon and Trevandrum were also branch missions, with printing-press, schools, elc. The Travan core mission at present comprises the central stations of Nagercoil, Neyoor, Pareychaley, Trevandrum, Quilon, and Tittuvilei, with an aggregate of 195 out-stations. Tartary and Siberia. — The Mission to Selin- ginsk in Siberia was undertaken iu 1819. The first printed edition of the translation of Mat thew was sent the Governor of Irkutsk, for distribution aniong the Tartars near Lake Bai kal. The character in which the book was written (Kalmuc Tartan was not generally un derstood by the Burial tribes, but two of their nobles were found who could decipher the charactei-, and read and explain the book; the chiefs thereupon made a collection of £550, whieh was sent to the Russian Bible Society, to defray the expense of a translation into their own language, in a character which they could understand. The nobles who hail read ihe first edition were chosen to undertake the work, in which they became so much interested that be fore the translation of the first Gospel was com pleted they expressed their resolve to renounce their former superstitions and embrace the Christian faith. Meanwliile tbe work of the mission progressed. Schools for boys and girls were established, and the whole Bible had been translated into Mongolian, when, in 1841, the mission was suppressed by the Russian Sy nod. In 1869 the work was recommenced, the missionaries proceeding to Pekin aud entering Mongolia from the east. Some access to the people was gained by means of medical work, the Chinese residents being found more respon sive than the Mongols. The central station of the mission is at Chao-yang. China. — The Society undertook work in China iu 1807. The biographical sketches of Drs. Morrison and Milne contain the history of this mission until the death of the former in 1834. By his death it was left without any one to care for lhe few Chinamen who had been brought under Christian instruction, and who were dispersed by the persecution which broke out shortly after his death. In 1835 the Rev. W. H. Medhurst and the Rev. Edwin Stevens arrived in China, but no permanent work was done by the Society in Canton until 14 years af ter Dr. Morrison's death. By tlie trealy of 1842, between the British and Chinese Governments, certain ports were opened for commerce and the residence of foreigners, and several mission aries removed from the stations iu the Malay Archipelago lo Chiua. In February, 1848, Ben jamin Hobson, M.D., a missionary sent out by the London Missiouaiy Society, secured an eligible position for a hospilai at Canton. Joined with Dr. Hobson iu this work was Leang Afa, a Chinese convert who had been baptized by Dr. Milne and ordained by Dr. Morrison. A kind reception was given them by the neigh boring Chinamen, many of whom availed them selves of Dr. Hobsou's medical skill, and were attentive to tbe preaching of Leang Afa. On the Sabbath were held special religious services. This mission showed a steady and encouraging growth year after year. In 1853 the number of patients who received medical and surgical aid was 44,366. Four weekly services were held with the patients. Between 70 and 80 per sons usually attended lhe public services, which were conducted alternately by Dr. Hobson and Leaug Afa. Opposition to the truths of the gospel gradually diminished, aud its teachers were treated with greater respect. Soon after the couclusiou of the war between England and China the directors decided to give up the mis sions iu the Malayan Archipelago and to con centrate their efforts for the Chinese upou China itself, lustructious were accordingly given to their Chinese missionaries to meet in Hong Koug, where plans of future work would be considered. The meeting was held in August, 1843. Eight missiouaries were present: Messrs. Medhurst, Legge, Milne, Hobson, J. aud J. Slronach, S. Dyer, and the Hon. J. R. Morri son. This committee decided to convert the Anglo-Chinese college in Malacca into a theo logical seminary for the training of a native ministry for China, selecting Hong Kong as the most appropriate place. The Rev. AV. H. Medhurst, leaving Batavia, went with Dr. Lockhart to Shanghai, and established an evangelical and medical mission. In 1847 the Rev. W. Muirhead was added to the force at this station, which now comprises LONDON MISS. SOC. 567 LONDON MISS. SOC. Shanghai, several out-stations, and the surround ing country, where evangelistic work is carried on by Mr. Muirhead with native assistants, the medical work having been, several years after its foundation, taken up by the foreign com munity. Two missionaiy ladies were sent to this station in 1887. The Amoy Mission was founded in 1844, and now contains several self- supporting churches; one of its out-stations, cniang-chiu, has become a head station, with two resident missionaries (one of them a physician); many students have been trained for evangelistic, pastoral, and school work. Work for the Chinese women is carried on by two ladies sent out in 1885. In 1861 a station was opened at Hankow, and six years later one at Woo-chang, on the opposite side of the Yangtz River. A medical branch was added some years ago to this mis sion, which is doing splendid work. A daily morning meeting is held with the patients, many of whom have become Christians. In 1861 stations were also opened in Ching- king in Sze Chuan province, and at Tien tsin a medical mission has become a very important work, having been, pecuniarily and otherwise, aided by Li Hung Chang. Female missionaries were sent to this station in 1885, to engage in work for women. There are many out-stations in the Tientsin Mission, some of which have become, within the last year, cen tral stations. Medical work was commenced in Peking in 1861. In 1863 evangelical work was undertaken. There are now two principal stations. The "East City" and " West City" mission work for Chinese women and girls, conducted by ladies, was commenced in 1884. South Africa. — In 1798 the mission to South Africa was commenced by Dr. Vanderkemp and Messrs. Kircherer, Edmonds, and Edwards. Two of the party proceeded, through many dan gers, to the land of the Kafirs, where for a sliort period they were allowed to remain. In spite of obstacles some seed must have been sown; for thirty years later an aged woman was admitted to the Church, who had received the gospel from Dr. Vanderkemp's lips. Being compelled to leave this locality, Dr. Vanderkemp and Mr. Read, who had joined him, after much opposi tion from the colonists, and many attacks from the natives, succeeded in establishing a mission at Kooboo, a spot granted them by the Dutch. This station, called Bethelsdorp, prospered, notwithstanding many hardships and discour agements, which were increased by the scarcity of water and the sterility of the soil. The progress of the scholars, and especially their facility in acquiring religious knowledge, was astonishing. A printing-press was sent out in 1822, large and flourishing schools were established, and the mission was extended to Pacaltsdorp. A second mission to Kafirs was attempted at Kat River iu 1816, but was after two years suspended. A mission was opened by Messrs. Kircherer, Kramer, and Edwards on Zak River, about 400 miles above Cape Town; by means of which the tribes of the Namaquas, Coraunas, Griquas, and Bechuanas became known to the Christian world; the post itself, however, had to be relinquished in 1806. In 1814 another mission was commenced among the Bushmen, at Colesberg, by Messrs. Smith and Corner. It was not long before the light and power of the gospel reached their hearts; a church arose, aud with it the usual results of Christianity appeared in the improved condition of the people. Extensive gardens. were cultivated by hands that used to handle only the bow and the spear. Other hopeful statious among the Bushmen had to be broken up in consequence of the missionaries being ordered by the government to retire within the colony. The last mission to these people attempted by tbe Society was iu the neighborhood of the Caledon River, and was afterwards transferred by Dr. Philip to the Paris Society. In 1806 the first attempt was. made to carry the gospel to the destitute and miserable regions of Great Namaqualand. After a long journey of great hardships the mission aries reached the Orange River, where they tried to open a mission. Their difficulties and anxieties were mcreased by the close proximity of Africaner, a mau, who having been driven to desperation by the oppression of the Dutch Boers, had placed himself at the head of his- tribe and bad become the terror of the whole countiy. He professed himself friendly to the English, and upon the removal of the mission aries to Warm Bath, occasionally attended, with some of his people, upon their instructions^ but in consequence of the imprudence of some of the people at Warm Bath in joining in an expedition against him, he became enraged against the mission. The missionaries were- kept in the greatest terror, and were at length obliged to flee to the colony. Their flight proved to have been just in time, for Africaner and his. men arrived at the mission premises soon after, took what booty they could find, set fire to the premises, and left them in ruins. In December, 1811, the missionaries set out to return to their work. During this most distressing journey Mrs. Albrecht, tlie wife of one of them, died. The Namaqua Mission was resumed at Pella, south of the Orange River. Mr. Albrecht had the great joy of making peace with Africaner before starting on a journey to the Cape for medical advice. On this journey he died, " leaving behind him a bright testimony of zeal, love, and self-denial." In January, 1818, Robert Moffat arrived to take charge of the mission. The story of this half-century of work among the Bechuanas is- already so familiar that a slight sketch only will be given. In 1820 the station was removed to the Kuruman River, and continued through almost- incredible hardships and difficulties; the mis sionaries, in addition to suspicion and hostilities from the natives, had to encounter tbe perils. and privations of a long drought, which was ascribed by the natives to their influence. After this danger had passed the country was plunged into war. Quiet was at length restored, and a time of great encouragement followed. Stolid indifference gave way to deep concern, the chapel was filled, prayer-meetings were held from house to house, and the converts gave every indication of a change of heart. The European dress was assumed, the women and girls were taught how to make their own cloth ing, and a great change passed over the people- iu their persons, their social customs, their do mestic arrangements, and their public behavior. They learned to read, and their increase of knowledge kept pace with their outward refor mation. In the cultivation of the soil, and in the increase and variety of its produce, great progress was made. In 1830 the foundations of a church were laid. Mr. Moffat's first trans- XONDON MISS. SOC. 568 LONDON MISS. SOC. lation, the Gospel of Luke, was printed at the Cape, a printing-press being soon sent to the mission. Great prosperity was enjoyed until 1846, when the Kafir war broke out. The long and desolating wars, for which the colonists and governors were mainly responsible, and the liquor traffic introduced by them, which made worse havoc than the sword, were very great obstacles in the way of the missionaries; but the stations at Griquatown, Long Kloof, Kuru mau, Lekatlong, and other places made better progress thau would have seemed possible. In 1853 Dutch emigrants attacked the tribes amoug whom Messrs. Livingstoue, Edwards, .and Inglis were laboring, killed or captured men, women, and children, and breaking into Dr. Livingstone's house stole his property and tore bis books to pieces. The missionaries after a mock trial were sentenced to be banished from the country. Dr. Liviugstone was thus led to undertake bis travels into the heart of Africa,* where he found an interesting population far more numerous than the tribes of the south, who, though speaking different languages, gen erally understood the Sechuana, in which he preached to them the gospel, aud with the sanction of the L. M. S. established a mission there. Between 1798 and 1855 28 stations had been established: of these 7 — Kat River, Knapp's Hope, Peeton, Mamusa, Mabotsa, Kolobeng and Malebe — were broken up by the Kafir war and the Dutch Boers. When this work of mercy was begun iu South Africa by the missiouaries the natives possessed no symbol or visible form of thought; Dr. Moffat aud others had to ac quire the knowledge of their rude speech, not by the eye, but by the ear; to make the hut of the savages their study; and by a nice compari son of utterances aud sounds, to learn by slow degrees the thoughts and feelings of the na tives. But over all these difficulties ardor and perseverance triumphed, aud thfey gave back to the natives iu their own tongue various works on education and useful knowledge, to gether with the whole Bible. At present the work in South Africa is pass ing through a painful crisis, which seems to the superficial and ignorant spectator to indicate the failure of Christianity, but which will undoubt edly result in the removal of the corrupt and the cleansing of the true. One great cause of the present low state of the missions is tbe fact that education of any kind stands very low in the estimation of the Bechuanas. Some years ago such a thing was never thought of as a person being a member of the church who could not read the New Testament fairly well. But the village churches have been so long without proper supervision, that the ignorant and iu many cases ill-living headmen of the villages have been the only guides and helpers whom the people have had. These men, acting as deacons and teachers, have procured admission into the church for people who in many cases were known to be living immoral lives, and in -most cases unable to read. It has consequently been necessary to deal very severely with the churches in country villages, and the reports for 1889 show improvement in many ways: new * Dr. Livingstone said of this occurrence: "The Boers resolved to shut up the interior, andl determined •to open the country: we shall see who has succeeded — they or I." chapels have been erected iu place of the mis erable hovels in which some of the congrega tions worshipped, the schools have been better attended, aud the contributions towards mission funds have beeu large. Out of 150 candidates for church-membership at Kuruman, 70 were admitted to the church. The labors of the mis sionaries have not been diminished by the influx of white settlers to the regions of the diamond and gold mines. To the heathen practices with which they have had always to contend — for it must be remembered the mission churches of Bechuanaland are still in the midst of a heathen community — have been added the worst vices of civilization. The contact of the natives with white meu, whose one object in life appears to be to search for gold, and who in many cases use their gains only to gratify their animal appetites, renders the task of the missionaiy exceedingly difficult. Now, as in the early days of the mission, the greatest obstacles to the success of mission work are those raised by civilized, not savage, people. Within tbe past year (1889) the stations cf tbe Society in Kaffraria have been entirely given up to the Congregational Union of South Africa, and its direct work is at present limited to the region beyond the Vaal River. The stations now included in the South African Mission are: Barkley, Kuruman, Taung, Kanye, Molepolole, aud Shoshong. Tlie Maiebele Mis sion includes Inyati and Hope Fountain. The chief of Matebeleland has been beset by one party after another, who seek to induce him, for various bribes, to hand over to them the privilege of mining for gold in the valuable country over which he rules. In addition to these parties hundreds of white men are said to be waiting on the borders of Matebeleland for an opportunity to enter in, and, as a result, there is in the minds of the natives a great unrest, aud suspicion of all white men. The missionaries are, however, trusted by them more than any others, and their advice and help are sought, with the confidence that they will act fairly. The natives appear now to distinguish very clearly between those who have settled amongst them evidently for their good, and the other white men whose interest in them is as evidently a question of selfish gain. It is earnestly hoped that nothing may occur to fan the agitatiou aud suspicion of the natives into a fierce flame of hostility. Tbe station at Inyati was opened iu 1860. The two English missiouaries at present in this field had hoped much from the services of a Christian Zulu, who with his wife had been trained for mission work by the missionaries of the American Board at Natal. He gave himself with great and unsparing zeal to his work, but his health broke down, and he died in March, 1889. The station at Hope Fountain was also opened in 1860; there are two mis sionaries iu charge, who have gained the con fidence of the chief, and are frequently in requisition to interpret for him when he wishes to communicate with Europeans. The evil life of the people is most depressing to these faith ful missionaries, who have waited long to see the harvest of their patient sowing. Tlie Central African Mission was under taken in 1877. A party of six missiouaries ax- rived at Zanzibar in April, and started for the interior with wagons and oxen. Finding this mode of travelling a failure, they remained LONDON MISS. SOC. 569 LOVEDALE among the hills of Kirasa during the rainy sea son, and in May, 1878, proceeded on their jour ney in two parties. The first went by way of the Unamwesi country, and by invitation of the chief coinmeuced, in 1879, a station at Urainbo. The second party reached Ujiji in August, 1878. The mission has passed through ten years of almost unprecedented trials, owing to the fail ure of health and deaths in the mission circle. Wie problem of maintaining continuously a sufficient and effective staff for carrying on work is still unsolved, the directors having had a fresh disappointment in their efforts to rein force the mission in the failure of the health of the young missionaries sent out in 1887, who, completely prostrated, were compelled to return to England, and the mission was again deprived of medical and clerical aid. During 1889 much anxiety has been felt in regard to the missionaries, on account of the troubles which have arisen between the African Lakes Company and the Arab traders. This anxiety was increased by the tidings that Mr. Arthur Brooks, who was on his way to Eng land from Urambo, had been murdered, with several of his men, at the last stage of the jour ney, near Saadani. The prospects of the mis sion seemed to be dark indeed, but before long news arrived that the disturbances had not ex tended into the interior. At Urambo there was no rumor of danger, and at the other stations, Kavala Island and Fwambo, all was quiet, Kavala Island being under the protection of the most powerful Arab on the lake. The latest station, Fwambo, at the south end of the lake, is more than 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and has proved to be exceptionally healthy; the natives are said to be a manly, independent race, and great things are hoped for the mission. Communication between the stations and with other points on the lake has been made possible by the completion of the steamer " Good News," which has been six years in process of making, and is now at work on the lake. New missionaries have arrived. The natives are friendly and trustful, and actual missionary work at length seems to be progressing. While from tbe South Seas, Africa, India, and other missions come notes of trouble and indi cations of difficulty, which cause much anxiety, yet the directors rejoice to receive from every part of the field evidences of steady progress, indicating the presence and power of One whose interest in sinful and sorrowing men is deeper than theirs. Success has attended the training of young men in mission schools. Zenana workers have seen the light come into dull eyes -and the life into crushed hearts. Medical mis sionaries have probed the sores of sinful hearts while they treated the physical diseases of those who came to them for healing; the voice of tbe preacher and evangelist has carried a con viction which has made men own that God spoke to them ; and many a laborer who has not been permitted to reap has followed the gospel plough, and has been permitted to see the signs of the coming spring. Half-hearted Christians far away from the strife, hearing exaggerated and distorted ru mors, may imagine failure because they do not yet hear the shout of victory; but the mission ary band go forward in the strength of a re newed faith, knowing from experience that greater is He that is with them than all those that be against them. Lo-lVguong, a district of the Church Mis sionary Society's mission in Fuhkien, China; 1 native pastor, 384 communicants, 8 schools, 67 scholars. Loo Clioo Islands (Liu Kiu or Riu Kiu), a chain of 36 islands in the North Pacific, be tween Japan and Formosa. Their surface is very rugged and tbe soil variable, but the islands abound in grass and trees, and are very pictur esque and beautiful. The climate is hot, but the heat is never excessive, though there are frequent injurious droughts and typhoons. Population, 166,789, consisting of two races, the Japanese and the Loo Chooans proper, who are of the same stock and greatly resemble each other, though the Loo Chooans are more effeminate and less intelligent, and, unlike most other Mongolian tribes, wear a full black beard. Their book learning and religion are for the most part Chinese, and' the higher classes are well educated. Their principal occupation is agriculture, but the mode of cultivation is primitive, the implements are rude, and the soil is generally tilled by hand. The land all belougs to the government, which lets it to large tenants, who sublet it to small farmers. The govern ment is administered in the name of a king, and is in the hands of an aristocracy consisting (as in China) of the literary class, who appear to live in idleness, while the poor are greatly op pressed. About 400 years ago the principal island was divided into three kingdoms, which were subsequently united, and became subject first to Chiua and then to Japan. Missionary Society at work in the Loo Choo Islands, British aud Foreign Bible Society. Scriptures, Luke, John, and Acts in Japanese for the blind. Luke to Romans in Loo Choo (Luchu). Loo Choo (Luchu) Version.— This be lougs to the extreme Oriental languages, and is spoken in the islands of Loo Choo, which lie nearly midway between Japan and Formosa. The inhabitants are of the same race as tbe Japanese, and speak a dialect of that language. A mission called the "Loo Choo Naval Mis- sion,"having forits object the con version of the people to Christianity, was commenced about the year 1843. In 1846 Dr. Bettelheim, a medical missionary, was sent by tbis Society to Loo Choo, and for the benefit of the people he translated the Gospels of Luke and John, the Acts, and the Epistle to the Romans, which were published in 1855 at Hong Kong by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and under the superintendence of the Bishop of Victoria. The same parts were also issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Lota, a town on the southern part of the coast of Chili, South America. The first sta tion of the South American Missionaiy Society in Chili; opened by Captain Allen Gardiner in 1861. The work is principally among the Eng lish community of miners. There is a church and a school-house, and Sunday-school and ser vices are well attended. Loventhal's Mission: see Danish Mis sions. Lovedale, a town in Cape Colony, Africa, 700 miles northeast of Cape Town, is the site of a missionary institution, which is of absorbing interest, since its methods of work when it was commenced were novel, and have been proved LOVEDALE 570 LOVEDALE to be successful — the Lovedale Mission. In 1841 Rev. William Govan opened here a mis sionary institute, and tbe place was called Lovedale, after Dr. Love, the first secretary of tbe Glasgow Missionary Society. The aims of the institution were these: 1st. To take young men of intellectual and spiritual qualifications and educate them to be preachers. 2d. To train young men and women as teachers for native mission schools. 3d. Industrial educa tion in various arts, such as wagon-building, blacksmithing, printing, bookbinding, teleg raphy, and agricultural work of various kinds, was carefully to be given to the natives in or der that they might be industrious and useful citizens. 4th. To give an education of a gen eral character to all whose course in life had not yet been definitely determined. The two departments, industrial aud educational, are carried on in two buildings, one for the males and the other for the females. Each depart ment has its own special aim, but the grand purpose of each and both is to Christianize, not merely to civilize; ancl the conversion of the individual is the great aim and the desired end of all the work that is conducted. The solution of the problem how to develop Christian char acter and energy amid the existing conditions surrounding barbarous and iudolent races is fraught with many difficulties; and in order to Christianize successfully, it has been proved of great assistance to civilize at the same time. The principles which govern the management of the Lovedale Institution are: (1) It is non- sectarian and undenominational. The Free Church of Scotlaud supports it financially, but all denominations in the country are repre sented, or have been represented at one time or another. At Lovedale among the pupils all colors and nearly all tribes in South Africa are represented, and some few have come from near the Zambesi and Shire rivers in Central Africa. No influence is brought to bear upon lhe stu dents to leave their own denomination or to join the Free Church of Scotland in preference to the church with which they are connected. Even in the theological course those who are trained as agents for other bodies are not weak ened in their denominational ties. (2) Broad Christianity does not mean lax Christianity. Instruction in the Bible and in practical relig ion is the first work of the day in all the classes. Morning aud evening worship is held in the dining-halls. At noon every Wednesday a prayer-meeting is held, and each workman drops his tools and takes part in the meeting, although it involves a pecuniary loss by reason of the time taken from the week's work. (3) Self-support is the theory, though in practice the Institution has not yet become fully self- supporting. In the trades' departments espe cially this principle is carried out. How soon it will become fully self-supporting can be prophesied from the fact that only 25 per cent of the annual expenditure is drawn from home sources. In addition to these general principles other lesser ones are: The education is practical: hab its of industry and activity are urged and en couraged, and promotion in the classes depends first upon the moral character, then upon the intelligence and activity. The curriculum in the educational depart ments includes three courses, each of which occupies three years. These are: The element ary school, the literary course, and the theo logical course. The subjects studied are those usually taught in like institutious. In regard to the teaching of Latin and Greek to theological students, there has been some dis cussion, but the tendency now is to drop these studies from the course as not being essential to the equipment of the native pastor. The train ing of native teachers for elementary native schools is second in importance. Teachers who hold a certificate from the educational depart ments have a higher status, and can secure good salaries. A general education is given to all who are able to take it, and any part of the course may be chosen. By this means clerks, interpreters, and men in all the walks of life re ceive as much education as may be necessary or expedient for them to undertake. In the Industrial Department the various arts already spoken of are carefully taught. The native apprentices, after a trial of three or six months, are indentured for five or six years, if satisfac tory. In the evening they are given a part of tbe general education. In addition to their board and lodging they receive pay at rates varying from two to five dollars a month, of which a small part is retained each month in trust for them, which is paid to them at the end of their apprenticeship. No one is allowed to be idle. Those who are not appreutices or en gaged in other work are employed in manual labor about the fields and gardens. So attrac tive is the education provided at this institution, that many Europeans have availed themselves of its advantages, and mingle freely with the natives in the classes. The results of the work carried on may be summed up under three heads: (1) Numerical. From an attendance of twelve or thirteen when the school was first opened, it grew during the first twenty years until at one time the numbers reached one hundred and twenty. Within the last twenty years it has grown considerably, and developed in various directions. In 1880 the number in all the classes reached as high as 512. In 1889 there were 165 native boarders, 49 apprentices, 34 day-pupils, — a total of 248 natives, — and 21 European boarders, 26 day-pupils; making a total, both native and foreign, of 295 in attend ance on the institution. The staff of instruc tors numbers 2 ordained missionaries (one a physician!, a Congregational minister at the head of the theological department, 6 foreign masters in the educational department, and 6 superintendents of the various branches in the industrial department. (2) Educational. At this place 16 ordained native pastors, 412 teachers, 49 interpreters and clerks, 585 in various industrial vocations, besides several hundreds of whom no infor mation has been received, have been trained. The spiritual and religious results are very en couraging, and there is a great deal of spon taneous intellectual and evangelistic activity among the students. An institution church for native students, pupils, and other residents in the place was organized in 1886, and the total number admitted from among the students up to 1889 was 71. The average number of com municants during the four years was 90. There is also a Kafir church and a native pastor. (3) Financial. A comparison of the numbers of the pupils and the fees received for the last twenty years, since the system of payment was LOVEDALE 571 LOWRIE, WALTER MACON first adopted, shows that the institution is rap idly becoming self-supporting. Its resources are native fees, government grants, and the produce of the farm and gardens. It is not endowed. There is a farm of 2,800 acres, 400 of which are cultivated. In the words of Sir Langham Dale, Superin tendent-General of Education in Cape Colony, "Undoubtedly that institution (Lovedale) is one dr*the noblest and most successful missionary agencies founded and supported in the Cape ' Colony by British philanthropy." The ultimate aim of Lovedale is to develop gradually into a native university. Lowrie, Reuben Post, b. Butler, Pa., U.S.A., November24th,1827; graduated Univer sity of New York 1846; was tutor there in 1849, attending also a course of lectures at Union Theological Seminary; finished his theological course at Princeton; was principal of an acad emy at Wyoming, Pa., 1849-51; was a mission ary a few months among the Choctaw Indians. Through his early education he had looked for ward to the mission work with bis brother, and after the death of the latter offered to go out and take his place. He was ordained 1853, ap pointed to China as a missionaiy of the Presby terian Board of Foreign Missions, and sailed April 22d, 1854. He was stationed at Shanghai 1854-60. He made rapid progress in the acqui sition of the language, and within a year was able to conduct public exercises in Chinese. He also devoted much time to the completion of a dictionaiy of the "Four Books," commenced by his brother Walter. He translated also the ' ' Shorter Catechism" and a catechism on the O. T. history. When, enfeebled by constant work and the enervatiug climate, he was ad vised to visit his native laud, he replied that he would not leave China "until he had looked death in the face." He had nearly finished a commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, when he died at Shanghai of chronic diarrhoea, April 26th, 1860. Dr. Culbertson. with whom he was for years associated, says: "He had a long and very trying struggle for life, and was anxious to live. It was the giving up of his chosen work as a missionary of Christ that distressed him. He had no fear as to the future; but the agony of leaving undone the task he had marked out for himself, of leaving the heathen for whose salvation he had so earnestly labored, without seeing them brought to Christ — this seemed like piercing his vitals with a sword." The following is a part of a minute passed by the Shanghai Missionary Conference, prepared by Rev. J. S. Burdon of the English Church Missionary Society: "His deep, earnest piety; his sound scholarship, his experience of mission ary work among the Choctaw Indians, and his unwavering devotedness to the early formed purpose of his life, even amidst the ravages of disease, peculiarly fitted him for the work of a Chinese missionary." Liowrie, Walter Macon, b. Butler, Pa., U. S. A. , February 18th, 1819; graduated at Jef ferson College 1837, with the first honor; decided while in college to prepare for the ministry, and be a missionary to tbe heathen; graduated at Princeton Theological Seminary 1840; ordained November 9th, 1841; sailed January, 1842, for China as a missionary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. The empire being then closed, Singapore was selected as a suitable place where the Chinese language could be learned, translations made, schools es tablished, and other mission work done. Land ing at Macao, he left, June 18th, 1842, for Sing apore. On the way he was shipwrecked; the vessel was abandoned at sea; he with twenty-two others, 400 miles from land, put out in a small leaky boat, with only one oar, and having a scanty supply of provisions and water. Ex posed for five days to a rough sea, and encoun tering a severe gale, they landed with great difficulty at Luban, a small island near Manila. Mr. Lowrie returned to Macao. In August, 1843, he began a voyage up the coast to ascer tain the relative advantages for missionary labor of all the newly-opened cities. In the mean time the Executive Committee had re solved to occupy three stations in China — Can ton, Amoy, ancl Ningpo or Shanghai. During this year he published in the " Chinese Reposi tory" a series of articles on the history of mission work in China, with a brief account of the Jews and Christians in China, which were afterwards published in the United States, un der the title of "The Land of Sinim." In re moving to Ningpo he found the language en- tirelydifferent from the Mandarin which he had learned, and therefore bad to begin anew. He, however, made such progress, that in eighteen months he. commenced preaching in Chinese. Much of his time was taken up with tbe busi ness of the Ningpo Mission, and correcting proof-sheets of works from the press. In August, 1846, he published several essays in the " Chinese Repository" on the proper Chi nese words to be used in translating the name of God into Chinese. His views agreed with those of Drs. Boone and Bridgman, but dif fered from those of Medhurst and others. He commenced also the preparation of a dictionaiy of the "Four Books," and decided to include also the "Five Classics." These books contain the body of the Chinese language. This work, he thought, would require two or three years without interfering with more direct and im portant missionary labors. His plan would in clude biographical and historical notices of China from B.C. 2,100 to b.c 300, in a large quarto volume. But he did not live to com plete the work. In 1847 he was appointed one of the delegation for the revision of the Chi nese translations of the Bible that met at Shang hai in June. Tbe life of tbis talented and use ful missionary was brought to an early and sudden close by the bands of Chinese pirates. While attending the meeting of the revision committee at Shanghai he received a message requesting his immediate return to Ningpo. He set out August 16th, with his two attendants, by canal for Cbapoo, and there embarked on the 19th for Ningpo. Having sailed about twelve miles they were attacked by pirates armed with swords and spears. One of the boatmen who was near him states that while the pirates were maiming the sailors and ransacking the boat, he was sitting at the bow reading his pocket Bible; and as they were in the act of seizing him, he turned himself partly round, and threw his Bible on the deck. Three men seized him, and threw him into the sea. The Bible was a copy of Bagster's 12mo edition in Hebrew, Greek, and English, the same copy he had preserved with great difficulty in the ship wreck of the "Harmony." The death of Mr. Lowrie was a great loss to the missionary cause. LOWRIE, WALTER MACON 572 LYMAN, DAVID B. Bishop Boone of tbe Episcopal Church says: "No one iu China, I believe, mourns his loss as I do. We were together daily for two mouths and a half, laboring together in what we both believed to be the most important mat ter connected with our Master's cause in Chiua." " No one in China promised to do more for the cause of our Divine Master than he." "With respect to the proper word to render Tlieos (God) he took a prominent part in the discussions, and wrote on this subject one of tbe ablest articles that appeared in the ' Chinese Repository.' " " He was daily grow ing iu power, and the field of usefulness was continually opening wider and wider before him. " ' ' We had promised each other that we would labor much together to set the -plain doctriues of the cross, by means of tracts, be fore this people." Mr. Lloyd says: "We needed him to oversee the press, to prepare tracts, to assist in revising the Scriptures. God had endowed him with a noble intellect, a sound judgment; had bestowed upon him much grace, aud had eminently fitted him for a high station in this great harvest field." Loyalty Islands, a group in the South Pacific, consisting of Uvea, Lifu, Toka, and Mare. Lifu, the largest, is about 50 miles long and 25 broad, and contains a population of about 6,000. The island is of coral formation, and the thin layer of soil is productive of vege tables and fruit. Fresh water is easily ob tained. Mare has about 6,000 people. Uvea is a circle of 20 islets enclosing a lagoon 20 miles wide, and has 2,500 inhabitants. The islanders belong to the Melanesian race, and each island has its own tongue. Christianity was early introduced into the islands by natives from Rarotonga and Samoa. In 1841 the L. M. S. sent their first missionaries to this field. The French Government instituted a comman dant in the islands in 1864, considering it a dependency of New Caledonia. Under their rule the English missionaries were interfered with, but remonstrances from the British Gov ernment have secured free liberty of worship. The stations of the L. M. S. are: Mare (1841), 688 church-members; Lifu (1843), 1 missionaiy, 26 native ministers, 2,000 church-members: Uvea (1856), 210 church-members. Lucea, a town on the northwest coast, 17 miles west-southwest of Montego Bay, Jamaica, West Indies. Mission station of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland; 1 missionaiy, 2 out-stations, 430 church-members, 3 Sunday- schools, 453 scholars. Also, 1 resident Baptist minister, and a church. I.iiikiiifii, a city iu Oudh, Northwest Provinces, India, on the Gumli River, 43 miles from Cawnpur, 199 from Benares, 610 from Calcutta, Viewed from a distance, Lucknow presents a picture of unusual maguificeuce aud architectural splendor, whieh fades ou nearer view into the ordinary aspect of an Oriental town. Nevertheless it is one of the most impor tant cities in India, and many of its streets are broader and finer than in most Iudian towns, and the sanitary condition of the city is con stantly being improved. Population, 239,773. Mission station of the Church Missionary Society (1858) ; 3 missionaries, 2 missionaries' wives, 4 schools, 463 scholars; very active zeuana mission, 84 communicants. Methodist Episcopal Church (North) ; 2 missionaries, 1 missionary's wife, 1 other lady, printing-establishment, high-school, etc. Wesleyan Methodist Missionaiy Society; 2 missionaries, 20 native helpers, 8 schools, 662 scholars. Lu-gan, a prefectural city in the south central part of Shansi, China, southwest of Tai-yuen and southeast of Tung-chau. Mission station of the C. I. M. (1887); 2 missionaries and wives, 1 female missionary, 1 church, 6 church- members. I .it k;i ii or, the largest island in the Mortlock Group, Micronesia. The Hawaiian Evangelical Association formed a station here in 1874 by preachers from Ponape, and 7 small but steadily growing congregations have been gathered, comprising 600 church-members. The trans lation of the New Testament into Mortlock was finished in 1884, and sells very well; a copy costs 150 cocoa-nuts. Lukolela (Liverpool), atown on the Congo, West Africa, between Stanley Pool and Equator station; is one of the ten stations which have been established along the Upper Congo by the Baptist Missionary Society. The climate proves favorable to Europeans. There are 2 mission aries. Lukunga, a town in the Congo Free State, Africa, on tbe Congo River, about midway, between the mouth aud Stanley Pool. Mission station of the American Baptist Missionaiy Union ; 2 missionaries (1 married), 2 female missionaries, 1 church, 110 church-members. One of the ten Congo stations of the Baptist Missionaiy Society (1887) for transport work only; 1 missionary. I.u iwlu. a station of the S. P. G. among the Dyaks of Borneo, East Indies (1853); 1 mission ary, 160 communicants. Luxor, a town on the right bank of the Nile, Upper Egypt. 1\ miles south of Karnak. Mission station of tbe TJ. P. Ch., U. S. A. (1873); 1 missiouaiy and wife, 1 school, 70 scholars, 1 church, 21 communicants, 33 Sunday-scholars, 70 day-scholars. Lyman, David B., b. New Hartford, Conn., U. S. A., July 29th, 1803; was hopefully converted to Christ in childhood, and united with the church at the age of eighteen; graduated at Williams College 1828, and Andover Theologi cal Seminary 1831; sailed November 26th, the same year, as a missionary of the A. B. C. F. M. with the fourth missionaiy company for the Sandwich Islands, reaching Honolulu May 17th, 1833, after a passage of 172 days. He was statioued at Hilo on Hawaii, where he remained during his whole missionaiy life. For four years he was associate pastor with Mr. Green. In 1836 he commenced the Hilo Boarding- school for boys, designed to train teachers for the common schools. It was also a manual-labor school. Mr. Lyman had the charge of this till 1873, when because of his advanced age he re linquished it. The average number of pupils has been 54, and the whole number educated during the 28 years euding with 1863, 600. Its graduates are found scattered over the Hawaiian group, and a large number have become school masters. The institution has a charter, and the missionaries on the island of Hawaii are the trustees. Mr. Lyman was very active in the LYMAN, DAVID B. 573 LYONS, LORENZO great revival in preaching, in addition to teach ing. He was highly honored iu his old age by the people. He died 1884, aged 81, having^spent fifty-two years in the mission field, without once visiting bis native land. His funeral was attended in the large Hilo church by a great assembly of natives and foreigners, in remem brance of him whom they .loved to call " Father Lyman." Lyman, Henry, b. 1810, in Massachu- setts.U. S. A. ; graduated at Amherst College 1829, Andover Seminary 1832; studied medicine, and sailed with Rev. Samuel Munson, 1833, under the A. B. C. F. M., with instructions to explore the Indian Archipelago. Landing at Batavia, April, 1834, they visited Padang, the Battoo group of 122 islands, spending there a month, and collecting much valuable information. Thence they went to Sumatra, intending if practicable to visit the Battas of the interior. They were advised, on account of rumors of war, dangers from wild beasts, and the difficulty of the journey, not to attempt it. But as others had visited the interior, and that lately, with safety, they ventured to proceed, and June 23d set out on foot with a few native assistants, among them an interpreter. Scaling dangerous precipices and penetrating dense jungles, they reached in five days the village of Sacca, which was at war with another village. They were soon surrounded by two hundred armed men, and though they had given up the arms which they had taken to defend them against wild beasts, Mr. Lyman was shot and Mr. Munson pierced with a spear. A terrible punishment was iuflicted on the murderers. The people of the neighboring villages having learned that the strangers were good men, who had come to benefit the Batta people, leagued together, burnt the village of Sacca, killing many of the inhabitants, and destroyed their gardens and fields. The death of these men produced a deep sensation throughout the Christian world. Mr. Lyman published " Condition of Females in Pagan Countries." The Rhenish Missionaiy Society in 1851 established a mission among the Battas, which now has 11 stations and 1,500 converts. Lyons, Lorenzo, b. Coleraine, Mass., U.S.A., April 18th,1807; graduated at Union Col lege 1827, and Auburn Theological Seminary 1831 ; sailed for Sandwich Islands, as a mission ary of the A.B.C.F.M., November 26th, 1831; was stationed at Waimea, Hawaii. He resided there continuously from his arrival at the sta tion, July 16th, 1832, till his death, 54 years. He never visited bome, and for the last twenty- three years of his life never left his station. After the luternatioual Sunday-school Lesson System was commenced, Mr. Lyons prepared the Lesson Helps, Notes, and Questions, pub lished in advance in a weekly newspaper. At the close of the seven years' series of lessons the Hawaiian Sunday-schools testified their grate ful appreciation by a present of $1,200. He invested the money in publishing, for the use of schools, a large and choice selection of Sunday- school hymns in Hawaiian. Of the 112 hymns in the book used by the Hawaiian churches, the large majority are of his composition or translation. " Of a cheery, genial nature, he has always been greatly beloved by his mission ary associates, and revered by the Hawaiians for his amiable, guileless character, and for his warm personal interest in them individually, and in their national prosperity." The last seven months he suffered greatly. He died October 6th, 1886. END OF VOL. I. APPENDIX A, A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FOREIGN MISSIONS; BEING A LIST OF BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS UPON MISSIONARY WORK AND WORKERS, AND UPON THE RELIGIONS, ETHNOLOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY OF MISSIONARY LANDS DOWN TO THE CLOSE OF 1890. Compiled by the Rev. Samuel Macauley Jackson, Editor of the Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge, N. Y., 1891. Assisted by the Rev. George William Gilmore. Note.— The sources of the following list are principally these: In general the British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books, London, 1882 sqq. For books in English: the English Catalogue, London, 1800 sqq.; and the American Catalogue, N. Y., 1820 sqq. (several series*. For German books: Zuchold, Bibliotheca Theologica^ Gottingen, 1864-66, 2 vols.; Baldamus, Protestant ische u. Kaiholische Theologie, Leipzig, 1870-84; and Hinrich,,s semi-annual parts, Leipzig, 1885 sqq. For French books: Lorenz, Catalogue general de la Libraire Frangaise depuis 1840, Paris. 1867 sqq., and A Subject Index of the Modern Works added to the Library of the British Museum in the years 1880-85, compiled by G-. K. Fortescue, London, 1886. Besides these general catalogues, the special one on missions, by Dean J. Vahl, Copenhagen, 1884, with supplements 1886 and 1888, and the Catalogue of the Books in the Fleming-Stevenson Memorial Library of the General Assembly's College, Belfast, Belfast, 1887 (the last two kindly supplied by Rev. James Johnston, Secretary of the London Missionary Conference of 1888); the Bibliotheca OHentalis of Charles Freiderici, London, 1876-83; the Foreign Missionary Manual of Franks. Dobbins, Phila. [1881]; and other sources, have been utilized. All the above mentioned are in the undersigned's possession, and their use has been made in his library. The result is a larger collection than has ever been made of titles in missionary bibliography. It will be noticed that the prices of the books, the number of volumes, and the size have been given wherever known. This catalogue was begun by the undersigned in the fall of 1887. It grew upon his hands until he had collected some five thousand titles. By request of its secretary, the Rev. James Johnston, an abstract of it was printed in the report of the Conference (see Report, vol i., pp. 489-538). Mr. Johnston kindly sent interleaved copies of those oages to various friends of missions, who made some additions to the list, which have been incorporated. Stimu lated, by the offer of the publishers of the " Encyclopaedia of Missi ons" to print it without cost to the undersigned, he was happy in securing Mr. G-ilmore's co-operation in getting it ready for the press. Then when it appeared in type he read the proof and made numerous additions, until, when two thirds through what turned out to be an unexpectedly long labor, and one, too, of an exceptionally trying kind, and carried on amid many distractions, the condition of his eyes obliged him to ask Mr. Gilmore to complete the proof readiDg. Notwithstanding the great pains taken there are doubtless errors of various sorts in these lists, and omissions, some serious and pass ing strange. For all such lapses the compiler begs forgiveness, and will be grateful to those who point them out. To Rev. C. R. Gillett, librarian of Union Theological Seminary, and to the librarians of the libraries of the American Board and of the Presbyterian Board, the three libraries which he has examined for titles, and to all who have encouraged him in his labors, the undersigned returns his thanks; but chiefly to Mr. Gilmore. Samuel Macauley Jackson. I COMMON CONTRACTIONS. h. = London J Berl. = Berlin j Bresl. = Breslau I Chra. — _ Christiania N. Y. = New York | Ps. = Paris | Lpz. = Leipzig | Kbhn. = Copenhagen Stolm. = Stockholm. I. MISSLONARY ATLASES AND MAPS. Anker. Missionskort over Zululander (Missionary Slaps of Missions in Asia of Am. Baptist Mis- map of Zululand). Bergen, 1878. sionary Union. Phila., Am. Bapt. Un., 1881. Anker. Kort over Madagaskar (Map of Madagas- $1.50. car). Bergen, 1875. Map of Missions of the A. B. C. F. M. Bost., Cong. Atlas der Rheinischen Missions-Gesellscliaft. Pub. Co., 1884. Lpz., 2d e., 1854. Fo. 2 Mk. Moravian Atlas. Bethlehem, Pa., 1854. $1.00. Beskrivelse til Missionskortet (Missionary map Keichel, Ij. T. Missions-Atlas der Briider Unitat. with accompanying description). 3d ed. Kbhn. Herrnhut, 1860. Fo. 4.50 Mk. 1862. With map. n. e., 1873. Rheinischer Missions-Atlas. Barmen, 1878. Church Missionary Atlas. L., Ch. Miss. House, Smith, Geo. The student's geography of British 1859. 7th e., 1887. 8vo. 3s. 6d. India. L., Murray, 18—. 7s. 6d. Colorirte Missions- Weltkarte. Basel, 1857. Sutl-Afrika zur Darstellung des Gebiets der Colton & Co. Missionary map of the world. N. Y. Berliner Missions-Gesellschaft. Berl. 1862. 4to. Fo. $20. l.SOMk. Duncan, G. Geography of India. Madras, 1864-65. Vahl, J. Missionsatlas med Forklaring (Missionary 2 parts, 10th ed. L„ Triibner, 1880. 18mo. ls. 6d. map, with explanation). 1-4. [Atlas, and 4 vols. E. C. L. Carte des Missions del'Indo Chine. Ps. 1879. of explanatory matter in Danish.] Kbhn. Grundemann, P. R. Allgemeiner Missions-Atlas. 1883-6. Gotha, 1867-71. 4to. 30 Mk.— Kleiner Missions-At- Wangemann. Ubersichtskarte iiber die Evangel- las. Calw. und Stuttg. 1883. 2d e., 1885. 95c. ische Mission in Siid Afrifca. Berl. 1881. Jessup, H. S. Map of the Syrian Mission. 1873. Welt-Karte der Mission, etc. Berlin, 1871. Josenhaus, J. Atlas der Evangelischen Missions- Werner, O. (S. J.). Katholischer Missions-Atlas. Gesellschaftzu Basel. Fo. Basel, 1857. 3d e., 1859. Freiburg, 1884. 2d e.. 1885. 4to. 5 Mk. Fo. 6.50 Mk. TVyld's Missionary Atlas. L. 1839. 8vo. 14s. 575 ETHNOLOGY 576 ETHNOLOGY II. ETHNOLOGY OF MISSIONARY LANDS. Amerika's Nordwest-Kuste. Neueste Ergebnisse ethnologischer Eeisen. Berlin (Konigliche Mu- seen), 1883. Fo. Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Reisen in Einzel-Abhandlungen verfasst (Ethnologie von A. Bastian. Anthropologic von R. Virchow). Herausgegeben von G. Neumayer. Berl., 2 aufl. Berl., 1888. 2 v. Anthropological Society of Washington. Tran sactions. V. 2. Wash., Smilhs. Inst., 1883. $1.00. Baer, C. K. v. Types principaux des differents races humaines dans les 5 parties du monde. St. Petersb., 1809. Fol. Bagehot, W. Physics and politics, or. thoughts on the application of the principles of " Natural Selection'1 and '"Inheritance" to political society, L. and N. Y., 1872. 12mo. $1.50. Ger. trans. Die Ursprung der Nationen. Lpz., 1874. 8vo. 4 mk. French rrans. Lois scientiflques du developpement des nations. Paris, 2d ed , 1875. Bancroft, H. H. Native Races of the Pacific States of N. America. San Fr., Bancroft, 1875 sqq. Sq. 8vo. $4.50. Ban-as, J. On the Natives of India. L., Simpkin, 1889. 8vo. ls. 6d. Bastian, A. Ethnologisches Bilderbuch, mit erklar- endemText. Berlin, Diimniler, 1877. Fo. ]2mks. — Volkerstiimme am Brahmaputra. Berl., Diimmler, 1883. 8vo. 6 mk. — Die AVelt in ihren Spiegeluugen auf dem Wandel des Volkergedaokens. Berlin, Diimmler, 1887. 8vo. 9 mks.— Die Volker des ostlichen Asien. Lpz., 1866. Ff. 5 v. 8vo.— Die heilige Sage der Polynesier, Kosmogonie und Theo- gonie. Lpz., 1881. 8vo. 6 mk. Baumgarten, Joh. Die aussereuropaisehen Volker. Cassel, Kay, 1885. 8vo. 4.50 mk. — Ein Spaziergang durch die Muhamedanische Welt. Stuttgart, Rieger, 1882. 8vo. 5 mk.— Amerika. Eine ethno- graphische Rundreise durch den Kontinent und die Antillen. Stuttgart, Rieger, 1882. 8vo. 5 mk. Bellew, H. "IV. J. The Races of Afghanistan. L., Trubner, 1880. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Bertillon, A. Les race sauvages. Ps. 1882. 8vo. Biddulph, J. Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh. L., Trilb- ner, 1880. 8vo. 15s. Blum en tritt, F. Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippine!!. Berl., Petermann, 1882. Bon wick, J. Our nationalities; or, who are the Irish, Scotch, Welsh, and English 1 N. Y., Scrib- ner & W., 1881. 12mo. $2.00. Brace, C. L. Races of the Old World: A Manual of Ethnology. L., Murray. 1863. 2 e„ 1869. 8vo. 6s. Bray, Chas. Manual of Anthropology. L., Long mans, 1871. 8vo. 6s. Brown, Rob. The Peoples of the World. L. & N. Y., Cassell, 1882-6. 6v. 8vo. ea. 7s. 6d. The Races of Mankind. L., Cassell, 1873-6. 4 v. in 2, 4to. 21s. Buchner, L. Man in the past, present, and future. L.,1872. 8vo. Burgess, E. What is truth ? Inquiry into the antiq uity and unity of the human race. N. Y., Crowell, 1879. 12mo. $1.50. Burton, R. F. Sindh, and the races of the valley of the Indus. L., Allen, 1851. 8vo. 12s. Cabell, J. I.. Testimony of modern science to the unity of mankind. N. Y. 1859. 12mo. Caspari, O. Die Urgeschichte der Menscheit. Lpz. 1873. 2 v. 8vo. 14 mk. Cauvin, Ch. Memoire sur les races de TOce'anie. Ps. 1882. 5 fr. Christlieb, T. The Indo-British opium trade and its effects. Engl, trans. L,, Nisbet, 1879. 12mo. 2s. Christmann, Fr. Australien. Geschichte der Ent- deckungsreisen und der Kolonisation. Lpz. 1870. 2d ed. 1880. Church, R. "VV. Civilization before and after Christi anity. L., Maemillan, 1872. 12mo. Is. Clark, E. E. Races of European Turkey. N. Y., Dodd. 1878. 8vo. $3.00. Clarke H. Earlv history of the Mediterranean pop ulations. L. 1882. 8vo. Contributions to North American Ethnology, (Ucogr. and Geolog. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region). Washington, 1877 sqq. 4to. Crozals, J. de. Les Peulhs; etude d'ethnologie afri- caine, Ps. 1RR3. 8vo. fi fr. Curr, E. M. The Australian race; its origin, lan guage, customs, places of landing in Australia, and the routes by which it spread itself over that con tinent. L. 1888. 3 v. 8vo. Vol. iv.,4to. Oust, R. N. Sketch of the modern languages of Africa, with language map. L., Trubner, 1884. 2 v. 8vo. 2Bs.— The Races and Languages of Ocean- ica. Fr., transl. Ps. 1888. 12mo. 2.50 f r. Dalton, Edwd. T. Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. L., Trubner, 1882. 4to. 120s. Brake, S. G. Aboriginal races of North America. Phila., Desilver. 8?o. $4.00. Earl, G. ~\V. Native races of the Indian Archipelago. Papuans. L. 1853. 12mo. Ellis, A. B. The Tshi-speaking peoples of tlie Gold Coast of West Africa: their religion, manners, cus toms, laws, language, etc. L. 1887. 8vo. Erdmann, Fr. V. Uebersicht der altesten tiirkis- chen, tatarischen, und mogholischen Volkerstamme nach Raschid-Ud-DhTs Vorgange, Kasan, 1841. 8vo. [4 mk.] Ethnographic Atlas: maps, with explanations. N Y., Wiley. 4to. $3.25. Ethnographische FragebSgen (Vienna Anthropo- lng. Gesellschaft). Wien, 1884 sqq. 8vo. Featherman, A. Social history of the races of man kind. L., Trubner, 1881 sqq. 8vo. ea. 21s. Figuier, Louis. The human race N. Y. 1873. Fligier. Beitrage zur Ethnographie Kleinasiens und die Balkanhalbinsel. Breslau, 1875. 8vo. 1 mk. — Ethnologische Forschungen und Studien. Wien, 1882. 4to. 1.20 mk. Flower, AV. H. Races of men. (Science lectures.> [1880.] 8vo. Force, M. F. Early notices of the Indians of Ohio. To what race did the mound-builders belong ? Cincinnati, Clarke, 1379. 8vo. 50c. Friedmann. Die Ost-Asiatische Inselwelt. Lpz. 1868, Fritsch, G. Die Eingeborenen Siid-Afrikas. Ethno- grapiiisch und anatomisch bescbrieben. Bresl. 1873. 4to. 75 mk. Gunthorpe, E. J. Notes on criminal tribes residing in or frequenting the Bombay Presidency, Berar, and the Central Provinces. Bombay, 1883. 8vo. 3r. Hartmann, R. Die Volker Afrikas. Berl. 1879. 8vo. Fr. trans. 1880, Ps. Hartvig. Naturen ag Menneskelivet i det h6ie Norden (Nature and human life in the far North). Transl. byT Jensen. Kbhn. 1860. Heckewelder, John. History, manners, and cus toms of the Indian nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania, etc. Phila., Lippincott, 1876. 8vo. $3.50. Hellwald, F. v. Die Erde und ihre Volker. Stutt gart, 1876, 3 e., 1883-4. 8vo. 15 mk. Hiekisch, C. Die Tungusen. Dorpat, 1880. 8vo. 2mk. Hodson, Brian H. On the aborigines of India. Essay 1st, on the Kocch, B6d6, and Dhimal Tribes, in 3 parts. Calcutta, 1847. 8vo. Houghton, R. C. Women of the Orient. Cincinnati, Hitchcock, 1878. 12mo. 82.00. Hovelacque, A. Les Races humaines. Ps. 1882. 8vo. Howorth, H. H. Some notes on the Huns. Leid. 1885. 8vo. [1.25 mk.] Jessup, H. H. Women of the Arabs. N, Y., Dodd, 1873. 12mo. $2.00.— Children of the East. Boston, Cong. Pub. Co. 16mo. 90c. Johnes, A. J. Proofs of the unity and recent origin. of the human race. L. 1843. 8vo. 6s. Johnston, W. & A. K. Handbook to Johnston's il lustrations of types of nations. Edinb. & L. 1881. 8vo. Keane, A. H. Central America, the West Indies, and South America. With ethnological appendix. (In Stanford's compendium of geography and travel.) N. Y., Scribner & W„ 1878. 2 v. 8vo. $21.00. Eu rope, with ethnological appendix. (In Stanford's compendium of geography and travel.) L. & N. Y., Scribner & W., 1885. 21s. King, W. R. The Aboriginal Tribes of the Nilgiri Hills. L. 1870. 8vo. (A paper before the Anthrop ological Society.) Klem, G. Allgemeine Culturgeschichte der Mensch eit. Lpz. 1852. 10 v, 8vo. 27 Th. 7^ gr. L.eland, C. Godfrey. Gypsies. Bost., Houghton, Mif., 1882. 12mo. $2.00. Lesson. Les Polynesiens, leur origine, leurs migra tions. Etude . . des races de la Polynesie au point de vue de Pethnologie, de l'anthropologie. . . Ps. 1879. Vol. I. , 8vo, 15 fr. Vol. III., 1882., 15 f r. Letoumeau, C. Sociology, based upon ethnography. Trans, by H. M. Trollope. L., Chapman, 1881. 8vo. 10s. Lewin T. H. Wild races of So. Eastern India. L., Allen, 1870. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Eiggins. Oriental Picture Gallery. N. Y. 1869. 4to. $1.00. Eubbock, J., Sir. Prehistoric times, illustrated by ancient remains and the manners and customs of ETHNOLOGY 577 TRAVELS, GENERAL modern savages. L. 1872, 4th ed.. 1S78. 18s. rep. N. Y., Appleton. 1879. 8vo. $5.00. tucy-Fossarieu, P. de. Ethnographie de 1'Ame- rique antaretique. Patagons, Araucaniens, Fu6- giens. Ps. 1884. 4to. 5 fr. Maclear, G. F. The Celts.— The English— The North men.— The Slavs. N. Y„ Pott. 1879. Each 16mo. 75 c. Marselli, N. Le grandi razze del umanita. Rome, 1880. 8vo. Matthews, 'Washington. Ethnology and philology of the Hidatsa Indians. L., Triibner, 1882. 8vo. 3s.6d. Missionary Picture Gallery: Illustrations from British America, Mohammedan countries, Africa, and New Zealand. Boston, Houghton, Osgood & Co. 4 to. 50c. Meinicke, C. E. Die Siidvdlker und das Christen- lhum, — Eine ethnographische Untersuchung. Prenzlau, 1844. 8vo. 1 Th. 10 Sgr. Moreno, F. P. El estudio del hombre Sud-Ameri- cano. Buenos Ayres, 1878. 8vo. Morgan, E. H. Ancient society: researches in the lines of human progress from savagery to civiliza tion. NY., Holt, 1877. 8vo. $4.00. Miiller, Fr. Allgemeine Ethnographie. Vienna, 1879. 8vo. — Ethnographie: Reisen der Fregatte Novara. Anthropologischer Thiel. Vienna, 1868. Oberlander, Rich. Fremde Volker. Ethnograph ische Schilderungen aus der alten und neuen Welt. Lpz. Klinkhardt, 1881, sqq. Fo. ea. 1.50 mk. , Ollivier-Beauregard. Kachmir et Tibet. Etude - d'ethnographie ancienne et moderne. Ps. 1883. Svo. 5 fr. Painter, J. T. Ethnology: a history and genealogy of the human race. L., Bailliere, 1880. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Pattison, S. R. Gospel Ethnology. L., Rei. Tr., 1887. 2d ed. 1888. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Paulitzschke, P. Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Anthropologie der Somali, Galla, und Harrari. Lpz. 1886. Fol. 40 mk. Peschel, Oscar. Vblkerkunde. Lpz., 6. e., 1885. 8vo. 32 mk. Pickering, Chas. Races of Mankind. L., Bohn, 1849. 4to. n. e., 1850. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Poesche, T. Die Arier. Jena, 1878. 8vo. 5 mk. Prichard, J. C. The natural history of man. L. 4 e. ia55. 2 v. 8vo. 38s. Prunol de Rossny, E. Les populations Danubi- ennes. Ps. 1882. 4to. Gjuatrefages, A. de. Rapport sur les progres de l'anthropologie. Ps. 1867. Races of Man and their geographical distribution. N. Y., Appleton, 1876. 12mo. $2.25. Ran, C. Articles on anthropological subjects contrib uted to the annual reports of the Smithsonian In- stit., 1863-77. Wash., Smiths. Inst., 1882. 8vo. pap. Raverty, H. On the Turks, Tartars, and Mughafs. St. Petersb., 1879. 8vo, [3.50 mk.] Ritt ich, A. F. Die Ethnographie Russland's. Ber lin, Petermann, 1878. 4to. Saint-Denys, Hervey. Collection ethnographique photographiee. Ps. 1864 sqq. Scheube, B. Die Ainos. Yokohama, 1882. Fol. [Yen 1.] Schmeltz, J. D. E., und Krause. Die ethnograph- isch-anthropologische Abtheilung des Museum Godeffroy. Ein Beitrag zur Kunde der Siidsee- Volker. Hamburg, 1881. 25 mk. Schneider, W. Die Naturvolker, Missverstandnisse, Missdeutungen und Misshandlungen. Paderborn, 1885-6. 2 prts., 8vo. 10 mk. Schrader, O. Die alteste Zeiteintheilung des indoger- lnanischen Volkes. Berl. 1878 8vo. 1 mk. Schweiger-Lerchenfeld, A. v. Quiiinan bland skildafolk. Fri oversattning of Egerius. Stockhlm. 1881. 8vo. [4.50 mk.] Semper. Die Pbilippinen und ihre Beiwohner. Wurz- burg, 1868. Simson, Wa. History of thegypsies; with specimens of the gypsy language. N. Y., Miller. 2 e., 1878. 12mo. $2.00. Smith, W. R. Kinship aud marriage in early Arabia. Cambr., L. & N. Y., 1885. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Ethnology, Publications, and Reports. Washington, D. C., 1880 sq. 4to. Specht, F. A. K. v. Das Festland Asien-Europa und seine Volker-Stamme. Berl. 1879. Svo. 6 mk. Spencer, Herbert. Descriptive sociology. L., Wil liams & N., 1874 sqq. 8 prts., Svo. 5s. to 21s. ea. Stoll, O. Zur Ethnographie der Republik Guatemala. Zurich, 1884. 8vo. Temple, R., Sir. Asia. With ethnological appen dix. (In Stanford's compendium of geography and travel.) L. & N. Y., Scribner & W„ 1882. 21s. Tomaschek, "W. Ethnologische Forscliungen iiber Nord-Asien. Wien, Holder, 1881. 8vo. 2 mk.— Ethnologische Forschungen iiber Ost-Europa. Wien, Holder, 1881. 8vo. 2 mk. Topinard, Paul. Anthropology. Preface by P. Broca. Transl. by R. T. H. Bartley. Phila., Lip- pincott, 1878. 8vo. $2.00. Trumbull, H. C. The blood covenant. N. Y., 1885. Svo. $2.00. Ujfalvy de Mezo-K6vesd, C. E. Les "Bachkirs, les Vepses, les antiquitgs rinno-ougriennes et alal- ques, prec6d6s des resultats anthropologiques d'un voyage en Asie Centrale. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 15 fr. — Atlas anthropologique des peuples de Forghanat. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 40 fr. — Expedition scientifique fran chise en Russie, en Siberie et dans le Turkestan. Resultats anthropologiques. . . Ps. 1880. 8vo. 3.50 fr. Vambery, H. Sittenbilder an dem Morgenlande. Berl. 1876. 8vo. 6 mk. Vanderkindere.E. Recherches sur 1'ethnologie de la Belgique. Bruxelles, 1879-1890. Veth, F. J. Java, geographisch, ethnologisch, his- torisch. Haarlem, 1875-82, 3 parts, 8vo. Vogt, Carl. Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen, seine Stellung in der schopfung und in der natur. Giessen, 1864. 2 vol. Waitz, T. Anthropologie der Natur-volker. Lpz. 1859-65. 5 v. 8vo. 14 Th. 7J£ gr. Watson, J. F., and Kay, J. W. Races and tribes of Hindoostan. L., Allen, 1868-70. 4 v. 4to. 180s. Whitmee, S. J. Ethnology of the Pacific. L., 1879. 8vo. Wietersheim, E. von. Geschichte der Volkerwan- derung. Lpz. 1880. 8vo. 15 mk. Williams, G. W. History of the Negro Race in America, 1619-1880. N. Y., Putnam, 1882. 3 v. 8vo. $7.00. Wilson, J. Tribes and Languages of the Bombay Presidency. Bomb. 1874. 4to. Wood, J. G. Uncivilized races; or, natural history of man. Hartford, 1870. 8vo. $6.00. "Woods, J. D. Native tribes of South Australia. Adelaide. [L. Woods.] 1879. 8vo. 16s. Yeatman, J. P. Shemitic origin of the nations ot Western Europe. L., Burns, 1879. 8vo. 5s. III. TRAVELS IN MISSIONARY LANDS. I. General. Almindelig Historic over Reiser til Lands og Lands eller Samling of Reisebeskrivelser (General his tory of travels by land and by sea; a collection of travels). 1-12. Transl. from Engl. Kbhn. 1748-58. Ainsworth, W. F. All round the world: record of voyages, travels, and adventures. N. Y., Putnam, 1870. 4to. $13.50.— Earth delineated with pen and pencil: record of voyages, travels, and adventures. N. Y, Routledge, 1875. 4to. $10.00.— Wanderings in everv clime; or, voyages, travels, and adventures all round the world. N. Y., Routledge, 1875. 4to. $10.00. Andersson, N. J. !En Verldomsegling (A voyage around the world). 1851-3. Stolm. 1853-4. Anson, George, Eord. A voyage round the world in the years 1740-44. London, many eds., e.g. Nimmo, 1878. 8vo. 2s. Bainbridge, Lucy E. Round the world letters. Bos ton. Lothrop, 1882. 12mo. $1.50. Bainbridge, W. F. Around the world tour of Christian missions. N. Y. 1881. 3 e., Boston, 1882. 12mo. $-2 00. Bates, H. W. Illustrated travels; record of discov ery, geography, and adventure. N. Y., Cassell. 4to, 6 vols. $45.00. Beaiivoir. Pekin, Yeddo, etc. ; autour de monde. Ps. 1874. Benjamin, J. J. Eight years in Asia and Africa. 1846-55. L., Williams & N, 1805. Svo. 5s. Berton, Chas., l'Abbe. Quatre annees en Orient et en Italie, on Constantinople, Jerusalem, et Rome en 1848-51. Ps. 1854. 8vo. 5 fr. Bligh, W. A Voyage to the South Sea. L. 1792. Danish transl., Kbhn. 1800. Bois-Robert, J. D. de. Nil et Danube. Souvenirs d'un touriste. Egypte, Turquie, Crim£e. Ps. 1855. 8vo. 7 fr. Bougainville, Eouis Antoine de. Voyage autour de monde pendant les annees 1766-69. Ps. 1771. n. e., 1841 sqq. 8vo. TRAVELS, GENERAL 578 TRAVELS, GENERAL Branda. Paul. Autour du monde. Ps. 1884. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Srassey, Anne, Eady. Around the world in the yacht "Sunbeam." N. Y., Holt, 1878. Svo. $3.50. Briggs, J. P. Heathen and holy lands. L., Smith <£ E. 8vo. 12s. Brown, Robt. Countries of the world. L. & N. Y., Cassell, 1877-80. 5 vols. 8vo. ea. 7s. 6d. Buckingham, J. S. Travels in Assyria, Media, and Persia. L., Jackson. 2d ed., 1830. 2 v. 8vo. Hurl . N. C. The Far East: letters from Egypt, Pal estine, and other lands of the Orient. Cincinnati, Clarke, 1869. 12mo. $1.75. Byron. Reise oinkring Jorden (Voyage around the earth) in 1764-66. (Coll. of travels, 9.) Kbhn. 1798. Carteret, P. Reiee omkring Jorden (Voyage around the earth) in 1766-9. (Coll. of travels, 9.) Kbhn. 1798. Charlie Douglas's Visit to a mission station. L., S. P. C. K, 1870. 12mo. ls. 6d. Cook, J. Reise omkring Jorden (Voyage around the earth) in 1768-71. (Coll. of travels, 9.) Kbhn. Cook, Jas. A Journal of a voyage round the world in his Majesty's ship Endeavor, in 1768-71. L. 1771, 4io, and frequent eds. Transl. into Fr. Ps. 1804, n. e., 1879; and into Germ. 1831, etc. — A [second] voy age towards the South Pole and around the world, . . . in 1772-75. L. 1777. 2v. 4to and frequent eds. Trans, into Fr., Ps. 1778, etc., and into Germ., Lpz. 1865, etc. — A [third] voyage to the Pacific Ocean, ... in 1776-80. L. 1784. 3 v. 4to; frequent eds. Transl. into Fr., Ps. 1785, 4 v., etc.. and into Germ., Lpz. 1865, etc.— Voyages and Life of. By Young. L. Whittaker, 1836. 12mo. 6s.— The Voy ages of. With an appendix, giving an account of the present condition of the South Sea Islands. L., Smith, 1842. 2 v. 8vo. 36s. n. e., L. and N. Y. 1853^1.— The Orient. Bost., Houghton, 1886. 12mo. $1.50. Curzon, Robt. Visit to the ancient monasteries in the Levant. L., Murray, 1849. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Dampier, G. Nouvelle voyage autour du monde. Kouen, 1723.— Reise om Verden (Travels round the world). (Coll. of Travels 5.) Kbhn. 1791. Davis, R. C. Reminiscences of a voyage round the world. Ann Arbor, Mich., Beal, 1869. 8vo. $1.00. Delessert, Eugene. Voyage dans les deux oceans Atlantique et Pacifique, 1844-47. Ps. 1848. 8vo. 15 fr. Domenecli, E. Souvenirs d'Outre-Mer. Ps. 1884. 3.50 fr. I>urbiii, John P. Observations in the East, chiefly in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. N. Y., Harpers, 1845. 2 v. 12mo. $3.00. Dumont d'Urville. Malerisk Reise omkring Jorden. En pppulasr og kortfattet Fremstilling af Magellans. o. s. 'v. Opdagelsesreiser. Redig. af Overs (Pic turesque voyage around the earth. A popular and brief presentation of the voyages of discovery of Magellan, a. o. Ed. by the transl.). 1-8. Kbhn. 1817-51. Eield, Henry M. From Egypt to Japan. N. Y., Scribners, 1871. 12mo. $2.00 —On the [Sinai] desert. N. Y., Scribners, 1883. 8vo. $2.00.— Among the holy hills [Palestine] . N. Y., Scribners, 1884. 12mo. $1.50.— The Greek Islands after the war. N. Y., Scribners, 1885. 12mo. $1.50.— From the Lakes of Killarney to the Golden Horn. N. Y., Scribners, 1876. 12mo. $2.00. Footprints of Travellers in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. L., Cassell, 1850. lrsmo. ls. 6d. Gerstacker, F. Reisen um die Welt. Lpz. 1847. 2 e. 1858. 6 v. 8vo. 4 Thlr. 24 sqr. Engl, trans., N. Y„ Harper. 12mo. $1.50. Gortz, C. Graf. Reise um die Welt, 1841-47. Stuttg. 1H54. 8vo. 6 Thlr. Harris, John. Navigantinm atque Itinerantium Bib liotheca: oi', a complete collection of voyages and travels. L., 1705. 2 v. fo. n. e., 1764. Hatin, Eugene. Histoire pittoresque des voyages dans les cinq parties du monde. Ps. 1843. 5 v". Svo. 35 fr. Hawkesworth, J. Relation des Voyages par Byron, Carteret, Wallis, and Cook. Ps. 1774. Hendrix, E. R. Around the World. Nashville, Tenn., 1878. 16mo. Hofstetter, J. B. Galerie des voyages pittoresques dans l'Asie, l'Afrique, l'Anierique, etles terres Aus- trales. Ps. 1810. Svo. li f r. Bomiiiaiiv de Hell, Mine. A travers le monde. La vie orientale. La vie Creole. Ps. 1870. 12mo. 3,50 fr. Hubner, Jos. Alex. v. Through the British empire. L., Murray, 1886. 2 v. 8vo. 24s.— Promenade au tour du monde. Ps. 1S73. 2 v., Svo. Ger. trans. Lpz. 1874. n. e., 1880-82. Eng. trans, by Lady Her bert. L. 1874. n. e., 187R. 8vo. 6s. Joanne, Ad. Voyage illustre dans les cinqs parties du monde. 1846-49. Ps. 1850. Fo. 16 fr. Klngslev, Calv., Bp. Round the world. Cincin nati, Meth. Bk. Cone, 1868. 2 v., 16mo. $2.50. Kingston, W. H. G. A voyage round the world. N. Y„ Routledge. 8vo. $2.50. Kotzebue. Ny Reise om Jorden (New voyage around the earth). Trans, by F. achaldemose. Kbhn. 1840. Kreitner. Langi mod Ost. Reiseskildringer fra In dian, Kina. Japan, Thibet, and Birma. (Far to wards the East, Travels in ). Kbhn. 1882. Eamartine, Alph. Travels in the East. L., Cham bers, 185U. 12 v., 12mo. 5s. Eaiigsdorfif, G. J. Bemerkungen auf einer Reise um die Welt. Frankf. 1812. Earsen, N. A. Erindringer fra en Reise rundt Jor den (Reminiscences from a voyage around the earth). Chra. 1871. Eavollee, Ch. Voyage en Chine, Tene'rilfe, Rio Janeiro, Le Cap, Ile-Bourbon, Malacca, Singapore, Manille, Macao, Canton, Ports cbinois, Cochinchine, Java. Ps. 1852. 8vo. 6 fr. Eisiansky, M. Vovage round the world, 1803-6. L. 1814. Lorne, Marquis of.. Trip to the tropics and home through America. L., Hurst & B., 1877. 8vo. 15s. Eiittle. voyage autour de la monde. Ps. 1835. Macgillivray, "W. Travels and researches of A. von Humboldt. N. Y. 1838. 12mo. Marmier, Xavier. Du Rhin au Nil. Tyrol, Hongrie. Provinces danubiennes, Syrie, Palestine, Egypte. Ps. 1816. 2 v., 12mo. 7 fr. — Impressions et souve nirs d'un voyageur Chretien. Ps. 1873. 8vo. 1.30 fr. Many Eands and Many People. Sketches of travel in all parts of the world. N. Y., Lippincott, 1875. 8vo. S2 50. i Mereweather, Hen. A. By sea and by land. A trip all round the world. L., Macmillan, 1874. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Missionary Scenes. L., Tresidder, 1863. 18mb. Is. Montgomery. J. Journal of Voyages and Travels by Rev. D. Tyerman and G. Bennet. L. 1831. Peeps at Foreign Countries. L , Daldy, 1877. 8vo. 5s. Pfeiffer, Ida. Round the world. L., Nelson, 1868. 12mo. 2s. Picken, A. Travels and researches of eminent Eng lish missionaries. L. 1881. Pitman, E. R., Mrs. Central Africa, Japan, and Fiji. L., Blackie, 1882. 8vo. 5s. Polo, Marco. Kingdoms and marvels of the East. Translated by Col. Yule. L., Thimm, 1875. 2v., 8vo. 5s. — Reise igjennem en stor Deel af Asien, Tar- tariet og Ostindien ved 1269 (Travel through a large part of Asia, Tartary, and East India, aoout 1269). (Coll. of travels, 5.) Kbhn. 1791. Prime, E. D. G. Around the world. N. Y., Carter, 1872. 8vo. S3. Pumpelly, R. Across America and Asia. L. & N. Y., Low, 1869. 3 e., 1870. 8vo. $2.50. Reise der fiinf Welttheile. Hildburgh, 1857-58. 4 v., 8vo. 10 Thlr. 22 Sgr. Roger. Reise amkring Verden (Voyage around the world). Courtney , Reise. (Voyage.) (Coll. of travels, 5). Kbhn. 1791. Russell-Killough, le Cointe. Seize mille lieues a travers l'Asie et l'Oceanic. Sibei-ie, Desert de Gabi, Peking, Fleuve Amour, Japon, Australie, Nouvelle Zelande, Inde, Himalaya. Ps. 1864. 2 v. 12mo. 7 fr. Sachot, Octave. Pays d'extreme Orient. Siam.Indo- Chine centrale, Chine, Corec. Voyages, histoire, geographic, mceurs, ressources naturelles. Ps. 1874. 8vo. 2 fr. Scenes and Incidents of Foreign Travel. L., Orr, 1845-6. 2 v. S\o. I6s. Scenes and Incidents of Missionary Eabor. L., Seeley, 1859; n. e., 1862. Svo. 3s. 6d. Scenes in Foreign Eands, from the Portfolio of a Traveller. L., Griffith & L<\, 1850. 12mo. 7s. 6d. Simpson, W. Meeting the sun; a journey all round the world. L., Longmans, 1874. 8vo. 24s.— Pic turesque People of the World, with descriptive let ter-press. L. [& N. Y.], Thompson, 1875. Fo. 50s. Smiles, S. Boy's tour around the world. N. Y., Harper. 12mo. $1.50. Smith, J. Reiser og Begivenheder (Travels and events). (Coll. of travels, 5.) Kbhn. 1791. Smith, S. F. Rambles in missionary fields. Bost., Corthell. 1884. 16mo. $1.25. Stories of Foreign Countries. Phila., Perkinpine. 16mo. 50c. Strong, J. D. Child life in many lands. Boston, Lothrop. 1870. 24mo. $1.00. Taylor, Bayard. Central Africa. Life and land scape from Cairo to the White Nile. N. Y., Put nam, 1854; n. e., 1869. 12mo. $1.50. Northern Travel. Putnam, 1858.— Central Asia. N Y., Scribner, 1874. 12mo. $1.50.— Egypt and Iceland in 1874. N. Y., Putnam, 1875. 12mo. $1.50.— Greece and Russia, TRAVELS, GENERAL 579 TRAVELS, GENERAL with an excursion" to Crete. Putnam, 1869. 12mo. $1.50.— India, China, and Japan, N. Y., Putnam, 1855; n. e., 1869. 12mo. $1.50. — Japan in our day. N. Y., Scribner, 1871; n. e., 1874. 12mo. $1.50.— Lake regions of Central Africa. N. Y., Scribner, 1875. 12mo. $1.50.— Land of the Saracen; or, pic tures of Palestine, Asia Minor, Sicily, and Spain. N. Y., Putnam, 1854; n. e., 1869. 12mo. $1.50.— Travels in Arabia. N. Y., Scribner, 1872; n. e., 1874. 12mo. $1 50.— Travels in South Africa. N. Y., Scribner, 1872; n. e., 1875. 12mo. $1.50. Illus- — trated library of travel, exploration, and adven- ture. [Containing Japan in our day.by B. Taylor; Wild men and -wild beasts, by G. Cumming; Travels in Arabia, by B. Taylor; Travels in South Africa, by B. Taylor; Wonders of the Yellowstone, by J. Richardson; Lake Regions of Central Africa, by B. Taylor; Central Asia, by B. Taylor; Siam, by G. B. Bacon.] N. Y., Scribner, 1872-74. 8 v. 12mo. ea. $1.50. — Cyclopaedia of modern travel. Cincinnati, Wilstach, 1869. 8vo. $3.50. Thnnberg, C. P. Resa uit Europa, Africa, Asia (Travel in E., A., A.), 1770-79. Upsala. 1788-9. Tissot, V., et Amero, C. Les contrees mysterieuses et les peuples inconnus. Ps. 1884. 8vo. 15 fr. Tnrnbull, J. Reise um die Welt. Berl. 1806. Tyerman, D., and Bennet, G. A Missionary Voy age round the world. L., Snow, 1831; 3 e., 1861. 8vo. ' 3s. 6d. Yincent, F. R., Jr. Through and through the tropics; 30,000 miles of travel in Oceanica, Aus tralasia, and India. N. Y., Harper. 12mo. $1.50. Voyage de la Perouse au Tour de Monde. Ps. 1798. Voyages and Travaux des missionaires de la Comp. de Jesus, publies par les peres. Ps. 4 v. Wallis. Reise omkring Jorden (Voyage around the earth) in 1766-8. (Coll. of travels, 9.) Wood, E. J. The wedding day in all ages and countries. N. Y., Harper, 1869. 12mo. $1.25. Young, J. Russell. Around the world with Gen. Grant. N. Y., Am. News Co., 1879. 8vo. $10. 2. Special Countries. abyssinia and nubia. Abyssinian "War from an Abyssinian point of view. L., Ward, 1868. 12mo. ls. Baker, S. W., Sir. Nile tributaries of Abyssinia. L., Macmillan, 1867. 4th e., 1871. 8vo. 6s. Beke, C. J. British captives in Abyssinia. L., Long mans, 1865. n. e„ 8vo. 1866. 12s. Bianchi, G. Alia terra dei Galla. Milan, 1884. 8vo. Blanc, Henry. A narrative of captivity in Abys sinia. L.,Smith and Elder, 1868. The story of the captives [in Abyssinia]. L., Longmans, 1868. Bye. Afrika, Slavehandelen og David Livingstone (Africa, the slave trade, and D. L.). Stavanger, 1878 Chandler, B. Abyssinia, mythical and historical. L., Skeet, 1868. 8vo. 2s. De Cosson, E. A. The cradle of the Blue Nile. A visit to the court of King John of Abyssinia. L., Murray, 1877. 2 v. Svo. 21s. Dye, W. McE. Moslem Egypt and Christian Abys sinia. N. Y, Atkin, 1880. 8vo. $3.00. Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia Illustrated. L., Smith & E., 1862. 4to. 63s. Elad, F. M. Notes from journals. L., Nisbet, 1859. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Flad, J. M. Falashes (Jews) of Abyssinia. L., Macintosh, 1869. 12mo. ls. 6d. Gay, J. Les Abyssiniennes et les femmes du Soudan oriental, d'apres les relations de Bruce, Browne, Cailliaud, Gobat, D'Enny. Lejean, Baker, etc., suivi d'une postface ethnologique. Turin, 1876. 16mo. 5fr. Gobat, Bp. S. Three years' residence in Abyssinia. L., Seeley, 1834. 2d e., 1847. 8vo. 7s. 6d. N. Y., 1850. 12mo. Harris, W. C. Highlands of Ethiopia. L., Longman, 1844. 3 v. 8vo. 42s.— Illustrations of Ethiopia. L., Dickinson, 1845. 4to. 42s. Hartmann, R. Abyssinien und die Ubrigen Gebiete der Ostkiiste Afrikas. Prag., Tempsky, 1883. 8vo. 1 Mk. Hauszniann, C. F. Bericht iiber die neuesten Vor- gange in Abessinien. Basel, 1864. Heuglin, M. T. von. Reise nach Abyssinien, etc. Jena, 1868. 8vo. Hotten, J. C. [Ed.] Abyssinia and its people. L., Hotten, 1867. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Hutchinson, T. J. Ten years' wanderings among the Ethiopians. L„ Hurst & B., 1861. 8vo. 14s. Isenberg, C. W. Abessinien und die Evangelische Mission. Bonn, 1844. 2 v. 12mo. 1 Th. 15 Sgr. Isenberg, C. W., and Krapf, I. E. Missionary Journals in Abyssinia (1839-42). L., Seeley, 1843. 8vo. 12s. Johnston, Chas. Travels in Southern Abvssinia. L., Bohn, 1844. n. e., 1842-3. 2 v. Svo. 10s." 6d. Eobo, J. (Jesuit)i Voyage d'Abessinie. Amst. 1728. 2 vols. Eng. transl. by Samuel Johnson. Voyage to Abyssinia. L. 1735. n. e., Cassell, 1887. 18mo. 3d. Matteucci, P. In Abissina. Milan, 1880. 8vo. Mission in Abessinien. Basel, 1870. Plowden, W. C. Travels in Abyssinia. Edited by his brother. L., Longmans, 1868. Svo. 18s. Raffray, A. Afrique Orientale, Abyssinie. Ps. 1876. 18mo. 4 fr. — Les eglises monolithe de la ville de Lalibela (Abyssinie). Ps. 1882. Fo. 30 fr. Rassam, Hormuzd. British mission to Theodore, King of Abyssinia. L., Murray, 1869. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. Rivoyre, D. de. Mer rouge et Abyssinie. Paris, 1880. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Rohlfs, Gei\ Im Auftrage seiner Maj. des Konigs von Preussen mit dem Englischen Expeditionseorps in Abessinien. Bremen, 1869. 2d e., 1882. Svo. 4.50 Mk. Meine Mission nach Abyssinien. Lpz. 1883. 8vo. 12 Mk. Riippel, E. Reise i Abyssinien (Travel in Abys sinia). Transl. by F. Schaldemose. 1-2. Kbhn. 1840. Russel, M. History of Nubia and Abyssinia. N. Y., Harpers, 1851. 18mo. 75c. Russele, S. Count. Une mission en Abyssinie et dans le mer rouge. Paris, 1884. 8vo. 3.50 fr. Salt, H. Neue Reise nach Abyssinien. Weimar, 1815. Stanley, H. M. Coomassie and Magdala. N. Y., 1874. 8vo. $3.50. Thiersch, Sarah M. S. Abyssinia. Trans, by Sarah M. S. Pereira. L., Nisbet, 1885. 12mo. ls. 6d. Views in Central Abyssinia, with descriptions by S. F. Veitch. L., Hotten, 1868. 4to. 12s. Vignoni, P. Abissinia. Milan, 1881. 8vo. Waldmeier, Th. Erlebnisse in Abessinien 1858-68. Basel, 1869. 8vo. Transl. into Engl. Autobi ography of T. W. L., Partridge, 1887. 8vo. 5s. Winstanley, W. Visit to Abyssinia: travel in mod ern Ethiopia. L., Hurst, 1881. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Zwei Schreiben, zu Dambia in Ethiopia und zu Goa in Indien verfasst, etc. Augsb. 1622. AFFGHANISTAN, BELOOCHISTAN, AND TURKESTAN. Ali, Shah. History of the Sikhs and Afghans. L., Murray, 1846. 8vo. 12s.— History of Bahawalpur, etc. L., Madden, 1848. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Atkinson, Jas. Expedition into Affghanistan, 1841. L., Allen, 1842. 8vo. 10s. 6d.— Sketches in Affghan istan. L., Graves, 1842. 2 v. fo. 2 10s. Bellew, H. W. The Races of Afghanistan. Calcutta and L., Thacker, 1880. 8vo. 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L., Bentley. 2 v. 8vo. n. e., 12mo, 3 v. 15s. Ker, D. On the road to Khiva. L., King, 1874. 8vo. 12s. Khiva and Turkestan. Trans, from the Russian, by Capt. H. Spalding. L., Chapman, 1874. 8vo. 9s. Eudwig, E. Afghanistan una sein Emir Shir Ali. New Ulm, [1878]. 8vo. Malleson, G..I5. History of Afghanistan to the war of 1878. L., Allen, 1879. (1st and 2d e.) 8vo. 18s. Masson.C. Reisen in Beludschistan. etc. Stuttg. 1844. Mezhov, V. I. Recueil du Turkestan Central. St. Petersb. 1878. 8vo. Nash, Chas. History of the war in Afghanistan. L., Brookes, 1843. 8vo. 12s. Persia and Afghanistan, Analytical Narrative upon. L., Ridgway, 1839. 8vo. 5s. 6d. Raverty, H. G. Notes on Afghanistan and part of Baluchistan. L. [18791. Fo. TRAVELS, GENERAL D80 TRAVELS, GENERAL Rattray, J. Afghanistan costumes and views. L., Herring, 1848. 210s. Roero, O. Ricordi dei viaggi al Cachemire Turkestan. Torino, 1881. 3 v. 8vo. Sale, Eady. Journal of the disasters in Afghanistan, 1841-2. Tegg, n. e. L. 1843.— n. e., by Gleig. Mur ray, 1861. 12mo. 2s. Sandreczki, C. Reise nach Mosul und durch Kurdis tan nach Urumia, im Auftrage der " Church Miss. Soc," Loudon. Stuttg. 1857. 8vo,4v. 3 Th. 18 Sgr. Savile, B. W. How India was won, with a chapter on Afghanistan. L., Hodder, 1881. 8vo. 5s. Scharling, C. E. De nestorianske Christne in Kurdis- tans Bjergegne (The Nestorian Christians in the mountains of Kurdistan). Kpn. 187 — Schuyler, E. Turkestan. N. Y. 1876. 2v. 8vo. $5.00. Se Yu Foo Che. Description orographique du Turke stan Chinois. Ps. 1881. Svo. Thorburn, S. s. Bannu; or, our Afghan frontier. L., Trubner, 1876. Svo. 18s. TTjfalvy, C. E. von. Expedition scientifiquefrangaise dans le Turkestan. Ps. 1880. Svo. Vyse, G. W. Southern Afghanistan and the north west, frontier. L. 1881. Svo. Wagner, M. Reise nach Persien und Kurdistan. Lpz. 1852, 2 v. 8vo. 10 Mk. Walker, P. F. Afghanistan : its history and our dealings with it. L., Griffith, 1881. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Wheeler, J. T. Short history of India and Afghanis tan, Nipal and Burma. L., Macmillan, 1880. 8vo. 12s. Wolflf, Jos. Narrative of a mission to Bokhara. L., Blackwoods, 1845. n. e., 1848. 8vo. 10s.— Re searches and Missionary Labors. L., Nisbet, 1836. 8vo. 12s. — Travels and Adventures. L., Saunders, 1861. 2 v. 8vo. 18s. n. e„ 1 v. 12s. Yate, C. E. Northern Afghanistan. L. 1888. 8vo. 18s. AFRICA, IN GENERAL. Africa and its Explorers. Hartford, Conn., Col. Bk. Co. 8vo. $3.50. African Orphan Boy. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1853. 32m o. 30 cts. Africaner ; or, Missionary Trials. Phila., Pres. Bd. 18mo. 25c Andersson, C. J. Notes of travel in Africa. N. Y., Putnam, 1875. 12mo. $2.00. Baron, A. Voyages en Afrique de Levaillant. Limo ges, 1876. 12mo. Beltrame, Giovanni. II Fiume Bianco e i Denka (Afra). Verona, 1881. 8vo. Bickersteth, E. H. The good news in Africa. L. 1883. 8vo. Bonivick, J. Africa L., Low. 1887. 8vo. ls. Borheck, A. C. Erde Beschreibung von Africa. Frankf. 1791. 8vo. Boteler, T. 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Charmetant. Les Peuplades kbayles et les tribus nomadesdu Sahara. Montreal, 1873. Svo. 1 fr. 25c Etudes et souvenirs d'Afrique. I. D'Alger a Zanzibar. Paris, 1882. 12rno. 1 fr. Chavanne,| J. Af rika im Lichte unseren Tage. Wien, 1881. 8vo. 3 Mk. Cooley, W. D. Inner Africa laid open. L., Longman, 1852. Svo. 7s. Cooper, Jos. The lost continent ; or, slavery and the slave-trade in Africa. L., Longmans, 1875. 6s. — Turkey and Egypt in relation to Africa. L., Harris, 1876. 8vo. 6d. Cruyssen, A. C. van der. Afrika, naar de beste bronnen. Kortrijk, 1877. 8vo. Day, G. T. African adventure and adventurers. Boston, Lothrop. 1874. 8vo. $1.50. Eden, C. H. Africa, as seen through its explorers. L„ S. P. C. K„ 1880. 8vo. 5s. Forbes, A. G. Africa : geographical exploration and Christian enterprise. L., Low, 1874. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Hartmann, R. Die Volker Afrikas. Lpz., 1879. Helming, Mrs. History of African missions. N. Y., Stanford and Swords, 1S50. 12mo. 75cts. Hesse, J. Morgenroth flirJAfrika. Basel. 1878. Historical Sketch of the African Missions of the Prot. Ep. Ch. of the U. S. N. Y. 1884. Historical Sketch of the Missions ofthe Ameri can Board in Africa. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1886. 12mo. 6c Home Life in Africa. Bost., A. Williams, 1866. 16mo. $1.00. Hutchinson, E. The lost continent; or, Africa and the Church Missionary Society. L. 1879. 8vo. — Victoria Nyanza : a field for missionary enterprise. L, Murray, 1876. 8vo. 2s. 6d. The slave trade of East Africa. L., Low, 1874. Svo. 3s. 6d. Jacolliot, E. L'Afrique mysterieuse. Ps. 1877. 4to. Sfr. Johnston, Keith. Africa. L., Stanford, 1879. 3d e., by E. G. Ravenstein, 1884. 8vo. 21s. Jones, C. H. African history of exploration from Herodotus to Livingstone. N. Y., 1875. 8vo. $3.25. Junker, Wm., Dr. Travels in Africa. Transl. from the German by Prof. Keane. L., Chapman, 1890. 8vo. 21s. Klarck, O. Besynderlige Avantures, som have til- draget sig med ham isser til Constantine og paa andre Steder i Africa (Strange adventures which happened to the author near C. and other places in A.). Kbhn. 1747. Krapf, J. E. Afrika von SUd nach West, und von West nach Ost durchkreuzt, oderUebersetzung der missionsreisen . . . des Dr. Livingstone. Basel, 1857. 8vo. 80 Pf. Eedderhose, K. F. Galla Btichlein. Basel, 1867. Macdonald, D. Africana : heathen Africa. L. 1882. 2 v. 8vo. Marion-Bresillac. Notice sur la Societ6 des Mis sions Africaines. Ps. 1858. 8vo. 2 fr. Meroke ; or, Missionary life in Africa. Phila., Am. S. S., 1859 (?). 18mo. 05c Moister, W. Africa, past and present. N. Y-, Am. Tr. Soc, 1880. 12mo. $1.50. Murray, Henry [and others]. Discovery and ad ventures in Africa. N. Y., Harper, 1831. 45c Neville, W. E. Journal of a residence at Fallangia, and of two voyages on the Rio Pongas, etc L. 1859. Officer, M. African Bible pictures : Scripture scenes and customs in Africa. Phila., Luth. Pub. Co. 1859(f). 18mo. 35c Pares, E. Les Explorateurs francais en Afrique. Limoges, [1879.] 8vo. Pauli, J. Die evangel ischen Missionen in Afrika. Erlangen, 1868-9. Svo. 2.80 Mk. Paulitschke, P. Die Geographische Erforschungdes Africanischen Continents. Wien, 2. e., 1880. 8vo. 6Mk. How I crossed Africa. Phila., 2 v. 8vo. $7.00. Africa, a missionary poem. L., 12mo. 2s. 6d. Wien, 1883. Pinto, A. de S. Lippincott, 1881. Ridgeway, John. Hateliard, 1842. Robert, F. Afrika als Handelgebiet. Svo. 5 Mk. Rohlfs, Gerh. Neue Beitrage zur Entdeckung, etc, Afrikas. Kassel, 1881.— Land und Volk in Afrika. Berichte aus den Jahren 1865-70. Brem., 2. e., 1881. 8vo. 4 Mk. Rowley, H. Africa unveiled. N. Y., Pott. 8vo. $2.00.— The Religion of the Africans. L., Gardner, 1877. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Schiaparelli, L. Sulla circumnavigazione dell' Af rica. Torino, 1881. 8vo. Scott, Anna M., Mrs. Day dawn in Africa. N. Y. 1858. 12mo.— Glimpses of life in Africa. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1857. 18mo. 25c. Southworth, A. S. Four thousand miles of African travel. A personal record of a journey up the Nile; through the Soudan, to the confines of Central Af rica, an examination of the slave-trade, etc. N. Y & L. 1876. Svo. 18s. Speckmnnn, J. Die Hermannsburger Mission in Af rika. Hermannsburg, 1876. Svo. 3.60 Mk. Taylor, Bayard. A journey to Central Africa, or life and landscapes from Egypt to the Negro King doms of the Nile. N. Y. & L., 1854. 2d e., 1855. 8vo. $1.50. Thunberg, K. P. Reisen in Asien und Afrika. Berl. 1792. Trentlein, P. Die Durchquerungen Afrikas. Berlin, 1884. 8vo. 50 Pf. Tucker, Ctte., Mrs. Wanderer in Africa. N. Y., Carter. 18mo. 50c. TRAVELS, GENERAL 581 TRAVELS, GENERAL Werne, Ferd. African wanderings. Trans, by John ston. L., Longman, 1852. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Williams, C. Narratives and adventures of travel lers in Africa. N. Y., Porter. 12mo. $1.25. Woman's Work in India and Africa. Paisley, 1882. CENTRAL AFRICA. Actstykker til Belsyn, etc., Biskop Schreuder (C. m Afr.). Stavanger, 1876. ^.frican Scenery from Zanzibar to the Victoria Nyanza, Sketches of. L., Ch. Miss. Soc, 1878. 4to. ls. 6d. Arnot, F. S. Garenganze; or, seven years' pioneer missionary work in Central Africa. N. Y. and Chic, Reveil, 1889. 8vo. $1.25. From Natal to the Upper Zambesi. Glasg. 1883. Baker, S. W., Sir. Ismailia: expedition to Central Africa. L., Macmillan, 1874. 2d e., 1878. 8vo. 6s. —Albert Nyanza. L., Macmillan, 1866. 2 v. Svo. 2d e., 1871.— In the heart of Africa [condensation of above.and Nile tributaries]. N.Y. Funk, 1884. 12mo. $1.00.— Albert Nyanza, Nile sources. L., Mac millan, 1868. 2 v. n. e., 1871. 8vo. 6s.— Germ. trans. Jena, 1878. Bartli, Hy. Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa. L., Longmans. 1st and 2d e., 1857-58. 5 v. 8vo. 105s Beltrame (Giovanni). Di un viaggio sui Fiume Bianco nell' Africa Centrale, lettera. Verona, 1861. 8vo. — II Fiume Bianco I Denka. Memorie. Verona, 1881. 8vo. pp. 323. Bowen, T. J. Central Africa. Adventures and mis sionary labors in several countries in the interior of Africa, 1849-5C. Charleston, S. C, So. Bap. Pub. Soc. 1857. 12mo. $1.00. Bruce, Jas. Travels to discover the source of the Nile in the years 1768-73. Edinb. 1790. 8 vols. 4to. Ger. trans. Lpz. 1792. Burton, R. F. The lake region of Central Africa. L., Longmans, 1860. 2 v. 8vo. 36s. Cavazzi, G. A., e Alamandini. Istorica descri- zione, etc. Bologna, 1687. Ger. trans. — Historische Beschreibung von Congo, Matamba, und Angola, etc. Miinchen, 1694. Chaille-Long. See Long. Col. Chaille. Chambliss, J. E. Livingstone and his African ex plorations. Phila., Hubbard, 1875. 8vo. $3.00.— Lives and travels of Livingstone and Stanley, cover ing their entire career in Southern and Central Africa. Phila., Crawford, 1881. 8vo. $2.50. Chapman, I. Travels iu the interior of South Africa. 1868. 8vo. 36s. Chavanne, J. Die mittlere Hbhe Afrika's. Wien, 1881. 8vo. 1 Mk. 80 pf. Clapperton, H. Journal of a second expedition into the interior of Africa. Murray, 1829. 4to. 42s. Ger. Trans., Jena, 1829. Coillard et Appia. La mission au Zambeze. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 50 ctm. Drummond, H. Tropical Africa. L., Hodder, and N. Y„ Scribner, 1888. 8vo. 6s. Duben, G. W. von. Forskningarna i Central Afrika. Stockholm, 1878. 8vo. Dubois, E. Le pole et l'equateur. L' Afrique cen trale; desert, Soudan, region des lacs, leNiletses sources, races et langues. Lyon, 1862. 2d ed., 1877. 12mo. 2 fr. Du Chaillu, P. B. Explorations in equatorial Africa. N Y., Harper, 1861. 8vo. $5.00.— Lost in the jun gle. N. Y., Harper, 1870. 12mo. $1.50.— Journey to Ashangoland. N. Y., Harper, 1867. 8vo. $5.00.— Country of the Dwarfs. N. Y., Harper, 1872. 12mo. $1.50.— My Apingi kingdom, with life in the Great Sahara. N.Y. Harper, 1871. 12mo. $1.50.— Stories of the gorilla country. N. Y., Harper, 1868. 12mo. $1.50. — Wild life under the equator. N. Y., Harper, 1869. 12mo. $1.50. Elton, J. F. Travels and researches among the lakes and mountains of Eastern and Central Africa. Ed. by H. B. Cotterill. L., Murray. 1879. 8vo. 21s. F. G. Francesco Romano breve relation della mission all regna del Congo. Trento, 1650. Franco, J. J. Les jumelles Africaines, ou description exacte du centre de l'Afrique. [Trans, from the Italian.] Paris, 1831. 2 v. 12mo. 5 fr. Geddie, J. Lake regions of Central Africa. N. Y., Nelson, 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Grundemann, R. Die Erschliessung inner Afrikas. Giitersl. 1878. Hannington, Bp. Last journals. L„ Seeley, 1888. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Hill Geo. B. Colonel Gordon in Central Africa. L., De la Rue, 1881. 8vo. 21s. 2d e., 1884. Hore, A. B., Mrs. To Lake Tanganyika in a bath chair. L , Low, 1886. 8vo. 37s. 6d. Hotz, R. Die Erschliessung Central Afrika's. Basel, 1881. Svo. Pp. 52. 1 Mk. Hutchinson, E. The Victoria Nyanza: a field for missionary enterprise. L., Murray, 18^6. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Jarrett. Livingstone in Africa. $1.25. Katholische Mission in inner Afrika. Innsbruck, 1853. TCranz, M. Natur und-kulturleben der Zulus. Wies baden, 1879. 8vo. 3 Mk. Eacerda e Almeida, F. J. Journey to Cazembe in 1798. L., Royal Geog. Soc, 1873. 8vo. Eander, R. J. Reise in Afrika zur Erforschung des Mgers biszu seiner Miindung. Lpz. 1833. — Adven tures on the Niger. L., Tegg, 1856. 3 v. 18mo. 15s. n. e., 2v. 7s. Eanoye, F. Le Niger et les explorations de l'Afrique Centrale, etc. Ps. 1858. 12mo. 3 fr. 50c. Eavayssiere, P. Voyages dans l'interieur de l'Afri que. Relations du Capt. Mauduit, naufragfi dans le canal de Mozambique. Limoges, 3d e., 1877. 8vo. Eaveleye, E. de. L'Afrique Centrale et la Conference geographique de Bruxelles. Paris, 1878. 8vo. 3 fr. Livingstone, David. Cambridge lectures. Ed. by W. Monk. L., Bell. 2d ed., 1860. Svo. 6s. 6d.— His life, adventures, and labors. By Adams. L., Houlston, 1857. 8vo. 5s. L., Bell & D. 2d e., 1858. 8vo. 6s. 6d.— Last journals in Central Africa. L., Murray, 1880. 8vo. 15s. N. Y. 1880. 8vo. $2.50. (See also Africa, South and Biographies.) Eong, Col. Chaille. Central Africa: naked truths of naked people. L. and N. Y., Low, 1876. 8vo. 18s. $2.50. Macdonald, D. Africana: heart of heathen Africa. L., Simpkin, 1883. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. MacQueen, J. Geographical and commercial view of Northern and Central Africa. L., Cadell, 1831. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Macwilliam, M. Medical history of the Niger expe dition. L., Churchill, 1843. 8vo. 10s. Merz, J. Ein neger Gehiilf e im Missionswerk. Bremen. 18—. Svo. Mission of the American Board to "West Central Africa. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1882. 12mo. 6c. Missions to Central Africa. L. 1865-67. Mohr, E. To the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. Trans, from the German by D'Anvers. L., Low, 1876. Svo. 24s. Olivien, Aime. De l'Atlantique au Niger par le Foutah-Djahon. Carnet de voyage. Ps. 1882. 8vo. 7fr. Park, Mungo. Travels in the interior of Africa. L., many ed., e.g. Longmans, 1861. 16mo. 3s. 6d. Numerous transl. Germ., e.g. Berl. 1799, etc Also French transl., etc. Petermann, A. Progress of the expedition to Cen tral Africa L., Stanford, 1854. Fo. 30s. Petherick, Mr. and Mrs. Travels in Central Africa. L., 1869. 2 v. 8vo. 25s. Pitman, E. R., Mrs. Central Africa, Japan, and Fiji: missionary enterprise, trial, etc. L., Hodder, 1882. 8vo. 5s. Rise and Progress of the Work on the Congo River. L. 1884. Ritter, C. Ein Blick in das Nil-Quelland. Berl. 1844. 8vo. Rowley, H. Twenty years in Central Africa: story of the Universities' mission. L., Gardner, 1881. 2d e., 1885. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Schauenburg, E. Reisen in Central Afrika, von M. Park bis H. Barth und C. Vogel. Lalir, 1859-61. 8vo. 75 Pf. Schon, J. E, and Crowther. Journal of the expe dition up the Niger in 1841. L., Hatchard, 1842. 6s. Schweinfurth, G. The heart of Africa. N. Y., Har per, 1874. 2 v. 8vo. $8.00. 2d e., L., 1878. 15s. Silver, S. W., & Co. Handbook to South Africa, in cluding the Cape Colony, Natal, the diamond fields, the Transvaal, Orange Free State, etc. L., Silver, 1879. 8vo. 5s. Skertchly, J. A. Dahomey as it is: eight months' residence. L., Chapman, 1874. 8vo. 21s. — Melinda the caboceer; or, sports in Ashanti. L., Chap man, 1875. 8vo. 8s. Speke, J. H. Journal of the discovery of the source of the Nile. L., Blackwoods, 1863. 8vo. 21s.— What led to the discovery of the source of the Nile. L.. Blackwoods, 1864. 8vo. 14s. Stanley, H. M. How I found Livingstone. N. Y., Scribners. 1873. 8vo. 2d e., 1887. $3.50.— My Kalulu, prince, king, and slave. N. Y., Scribners, 1873. n.e.,1874. 12mo. $2.00.— Through the dark continent. N. Y„ Harper, 1878. 2 v. 8vo. $10.00.— In darkest Africa. The quest, rescue, and retreat ofEmin. L., Low and N. Y., Scribners, 1890. 2vols. $10.00. Stevenson, J. Civilization of Southeastern Africa. Notes on the country between Kilwa and Tangan- TRAVELS, GENERAL 582 TRAVELS, GENERAL yika. Glasgow, Maclehose, 1877. 3d ed., 1877. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Taylor, Bayard. Life and landscapes from Egypt to the Negro kingdoms of the White Nile. L. and N. Y.. Low, 1854. 2d e„ 1855. 8vo. 7s. 6d.— Lake re gions of Central Africa. N. Y., Scribners, 1875. n.e.,1881. 12mo. $1.50. Thomson, Jas. To the Central African lakes and back. L., Low, 1881. 2 v. 8vo. 24s— Through Masai land. L., Low, 1-3 e. 1885. 8vo. 21s. Three Years in Central Africa. L., Bell & D., 1863. 8vo. ls. 6d. Trltton. Rise and progress of mission life on the Cougo River. [35c] Victoria Nyanza Mission. A brief account of the Church Missionary Society's mission to Central Africa, with copious extracts from the mission aries' letters. L, 1878. Kimo. 6d. Vinco, A. Reisebericht einer Reise in den Gebieten der versch. Aequaiorische StiLmme am Weissen Flusse(Nile). Wien, 1853. Werne, Ferd. Expedition to the source of the White Nile. L„ Bentley, 1849. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Young, E. D. Nyassa. A journal of adventure whilst establishing Livingstouia. L. 1887. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Young, S. A. Missionary narration of the triumphs of grace as seen in the conversion of Kafirs, Hot tentots, Fingoe, and other natives of S. Africa. L., Mason, 1855. 18mo. ls. 9d. Zuchelli, A. Merkiv. Missions und Reise Beschrei bung nach Congo. Frankf. 1715. Zweifel, J., et M^ Moustier. Expedition C. A. Ver- minck. Voyage aux sources du Niger. Marseilles, 1880. 8vo. 10 fr. AFRICA (EASTERN). narrative of a residence in Mozambique. L. , Hurst & B., 1860. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Merensky, A. Erinnerungen aus dem Missionsleben in Siidostafrika [Transvaal], 1859-1882. Bielef. 1888. 8vo. 7 Mk. Mes Souvenirs. Pr. 1883. 12mo. 3 fr. 50c. Danish trans. Mine minnen. Stalm. 1886. Mohr, E. Victoria falls of the Zambesi, from the German of D'Anvers. L., Low, 1876. 8vo. 24s. Munzinger, W. Ostafrikanische Studien. Basel, 2. e., 1883. 8vo. 6 Mk. New, Charles. Life, wanderings, and labors in East Africa. L., Hodder, 1874. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Paulitzschke, P. Die geographische Erforschung der Odal-Lander in Ost Afrika. Lpz. 1884. 8vo. 4 Mk. Pringle, M. A. Towards the mountains of the Moon: Journey in East Africa. L., Blackwoods, 1884. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Revoil, G. La Vallee du Darror. Voyage au pays des Somalis, Afrique orientale. . . . Ps. 1882. 8vo. 15 fr. Ricklin. Mission Catholique du Zanguebar. Ps. 1880. Riddel, A. A reply to "The Blantyre Missionaries." Edin. 1880. pp. 15. Rodger, E. The story of Blantyre. Mission life in East Africa. Lond. 1884. "8vo'. pp. 47. Schneider, G. Die katholische Mission in Zangue bar. Thatigkeit und Reisen des P. Horner. Regensb. 1877. 8vo. 4 Mk. Schultheiss. Die Bewohner der Ostkiiste Siid-Af- rikas. Berl. 1854. 8vo. 4 Sgr. Steere, Edward. Swahili tales, as told by natives of Zanzibar. L , Bell & D., 1869. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Wakefield, T. Footprints in Eastern Africa. L. 1866. Yates, W. Dado; Stories of native fife in East Africa. L. 1887. 8vo. ls. Baines, T. The gold regions of South-eastern Af rica; with a biographical sketch of the author. L., Stanford, 1878. 8vo. 13s. 6d. Bory de St. Vincent. J. B. M. G., Voyage to and travels through the four principal Islands of the African Seas. Eng. trans. London. 1805. Ger. trans., Weimar, 1805. Boyle, C. J. Far-away sketches of scenery and so ciety in Mauritius. L., Chapman & H., 1867. 8vo. 9s. Buchanan, J. East African letters. Edin. and Lon don, 1880. 8vo. pp.48. Burkhardt's Missions-Bibliothek, ii. 3 : Die Evan gelische Mission auf dem Festlande unci den Inseln von Ostafrika. Bielefeld, 1877. 8vo. 1.60 Mk. Burton, R. F. First footsteps in E. Africa. L., Longmans, 1856. 8vo. 18s. Chirnside, A. The Blantyre missionaries. L., 1880. 8vo. pp. 24. Christie, J. Cholera epidemics in East Africa : an account of the severe diffusions of the disease in that country 1821-72; with an outline of the geog raphy, ethnology, and trade connections of the regions through which the epidemics passed. L., Macmillan, 1876. 8vo. 15s. Deutsche Expedition in Ost Afrika, 1861-2. Gotha, 1864. E. R y. Kort Skildring af Ost-Afrikas folk og lander (Short essay on the people and countries of East Africa). 1, 2, 4. Stolm. 1872. England's E. African policy, and her relations to Zanzibar. L., Simpkin, 1875. 8vo. ls. 6d. Felkin, R. W., and Wilson, C. T. Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan: an account of travel in Eastern and Equatorial Africa ... L. , Low, 1882. 8vo. 28s. Frere, Bartle. Eastern Africa as a field for mission' ary labor. L., Murray, 1874. 8vo. 5s Gordon, der Held am Khartum. Frankf. 1885. 8vo 6Mk. Horner. Voyage a la cote orientale d'Afrique. Paris, 1872. 12mo. 8 fr. Ger. trans, Regensburg, 1873. Jonveaux, Emile. Two years in East Africa. Ad' ventures in Abyssinia and Nubia, with journey to the sources of the Nile. N. Y., Nelson, 1875. 12mo. $1.25. Kersten. Vander JDecken's Reisen in Ost-Afrika, Lpz. 1868. Kolmedin. Galla och Evangelium. En missions studie (The Gallas and the gospel. A study in missions). Stolm. 1885. Krapf, J. E. Reisen in Ost-Afrika. Hornthal, 1858. 2 v. 8vo. 2Th. 22^ Sgr. — Travels and missions in Eastern Africa. Ed. by E. J. Ravensden. L., Trubner, 1860. 8vo. 21s. Eivingstone, David and Charles. Expedition to the Zambesi. L., Murray, 1865. 8vo. 21s.— N. Y. 1866. 8vo. $5.00. MacLeod, Eyons. Travels in Eastern Africa, and AFRICA (NORTH) IN GENERAL. See also Egypt, Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco, and Tunis. Beke, C. J. Who discovered the sources of the Nile? L., Williams &N., 1863. 8vo. ls. Bell, N. R. E. Heroes of N. African discovery. L. &N. Y., Scribner & W. 2d e., 1880. 8vo. $2.50. Beltrame, Giovanni. H Sennaar e lo Sciangallah. Verona, 1879, rep. 1882. Brunalti, A. Algeria, Tunisia, eTripolitania. Milan, 1881. Cooley, W. D. Negroland of the Arabs explained. L., Arrowsmith, 1841. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Dauinas, E., et Chancel. Le grand desert, Sahara. Ps. 1856. 2d ed., 1861. 12mo. 2fr. Denham, D. 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L., Low, 1877. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Melly, Geo. Khartoum and the Blue and White Niles. L., Colburn, 1851. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Nachtigal, G. Sahara und Sudan. Ergebnisse sechs jiihriger Reisen. Berl. 1881. 2 v. Svo. 40 Mk. Pearse. Mission to the Kabyles. L. Piesse, E. Itineraire de l'Algerie, de Tunis et de Tanger. Ps. 1879. 18mo. 12 fr. K<> bits. Gerh. Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra. Lpz. 1881. 8vo. J6 Mk.— Von. Tripolis nach Alexandrien. Lpz. 1871, 2 e., 1882. 2 v. 8vo. 10.50 Mk. Riickert, K. Th. Nach Nord Afrika. Wurzburg. 1884. 8vo. 5 Mk. Russell, M. History of the Barbary States. N. Y., Harper, 1851. , 18mo. 75c. TRAVELS, GENERAL 583 TRAVELS, GENERAL Seelen. Hist. Jaoobitarum seu Coptorum. Lilbeck, 1683. Viviani, D. Viaggio da Tripoli di Barbaria alle frontiere occidentale dell' Egitto fatto nel 1817. Genova, 1819. AFRICA (.SOUTH). Albert!, C. L. Description, physique et histoire des Cafres. Ams. 1883. Anderson, A. A. Twenty-five years in a waggon in •the gold regions of Africa. L., Chapman, 1887. 2 v. 2d e., 1888. 1 v. 8vo. 12s. Andersson, C. J. Notes of travel in South Africa. Ed. by L. Lloyd. L., Hurst & B„ 1876. Svo. 15s. Sj6n Ngami. Forskningar och upptackter (The Lake ;Ngami. Studies and notes). 1-2. Stolm. 1856.— Sj6n Ngami. I. Del. The Lake Ngami. 1st Part. From the English by G. Thors6. Stolm. 1856. Angas, G. F. Illustrations of the Kaffirs. L., Ho garth, 1849. Fo. 130s. Arbousset, T. Exploratory tour in South Africa. Transl. by Brown. L., Bisbop, 1852. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Aylward, A. The Transvaal of to-day: war, witch craft, sports, and spoils in South Africa. L., Black- woods. 1878. 8vo. 15s. Ballantyne, R. M. Six months at the Cape. L., Nisbet, 1879. 8vo. 6s. Barker, Eady [Mrs. F. N. Broome], A year's housekeeping in South Africa. L., Macmillan, and Phila., 1877. n. e., 1878. 8vo. $1.00. [6s.] 3d e. Macmillan, illus. 16mo. $1.25. Barrow, J. Account of travels into the interior of So. Africa in 1797-98. L., Cadell, 1801-04. 2v. 4to. Ger. trans. Lpz., 1801. Bell, N. R. E. Heroes of South African discovery. L. and N. Y„ Ward, 1878. 2d e., 1880. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Bleek, W. H. J. Brief account of Bushman folk lore and other texts. Capetown, 1875. [L., Trub ner.] Fo. 2s. 6d. Brewin, R. Among the palms; or, stories about Sierra Leone and its missions. L., A. Grombit, 1887. 8vo. ls. Brink, C. F., see H. Hop. Broadbent, S. Introduction of Christianity among the Baroloup. L., 1864. Brooks, H. Natal: a history and description of the colony, including its natural features, productions, etc. L„ Reeve. 1876. 8vo. 21s. Bouchemoder, F. von. Reize in de Binnenlanden van Zuid Afrika. Amst. 1806. 8vo. Biichlein, Das, von den Hottentotten und Georg Schmidt. Cincini. 1857. 16mo. 10 Sgr. Burchell, W. J. Travels in the interiorof So. Africa. L., Longman, 1822-24. 8v. 4to. 189s. Ger. trans. Weimar, 1822. Burckhardt's (G. E.) Kleine Missions-Bibliothek. Bd. H. Afrika. Die Evangelische Mission unter den Volkerstammen Siidafrikas. Bielefeld, 1877. 8vo. 3 Mk. Calloway, H., Canon. Nursery tales, traditions, and histories of the Zulus. L , Trubner, 1868. 8vo. 16s.— Usitemba's tale. L., 1861. Campbell, John. Voyage to and from the Cape of Good Hope. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1839. 18mo. ls. 6d. — Life and missionary enterprise in South Africa. L., Snow, 1841. 8vo. 10s. — Journey to Lattakoo in South Africa. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1835. 12mo. ls. 6d. Campbell, J. A. R. South Africa: its difficulties and present state. L., Wilson, 1877. ls. Carlyle, J. E. South Africa and its mission fields. L., Nisbet, 1878. 8vo. 5s. Casalis, E. The Bassutos; or 23 yrs. in South Africa. L., Nisbet, 1861. 8vo. 6s. French orig. Les Bas- soutos, Paris 8vo, 1859. Etudes sur la langue Sechuona . . . precedees d'une introduction sur l'origine et les propes de la mission chez les Bas sutos. Ps. 1841. 8vo. Chalmers, J. A. Tiyo Soga, a page of South African mission work. L. and Edin., Hodder. 2d e., 1878. 8vo 6s. Church in the Colonies, No. 22 (South Africa). L., 1852. Clark, G. B. The Transvaal and Bechuanaland. L., Juta, 1883. 8vo. Is. Cole, A. W. The Cape and the Kafirs; or, notes of five years, residence in So. Africa. L.. Bentley, 1852. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Ger. trans. Lpz., 1852. Colenso, J. W. Ten weeks in Natal. Journal of a first tour of visitation among the colonists and Zulu Kaffirs of Natal. Cambridge, Macmillan, 1855. 12mo. 5s.— First steps of the Zulu mission. L., Macmillan, 1860. Cotterill, H. Three months visitation. L. 1856. Journal of a visitation to Grahamstown. L. 1858. Journal of the Bp. of Grahamstown in a visitation to Kaffrarian Missions. L. 1863. Cumming, R. G. Five years' adventures in South Africa. N. Y. 1870. 2 v. 12mo. $3.00. Cunynghame, A. Th., Sir. My command in South Africa, 1874-8. L., Macmillan, 1879. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Damberger, C. T. Landreise in das Iunere von S. Afrika, etc. Lpz.., 1801. Eng. trans. Travels- through the interior of Africa. L., 1801. 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Hambg. 1840. 12mo. 7f4 Sgr. Geschichte der Ausbreitung des Christen tliu ins unter den Heidenvolkern S. Afrikas. Berl. 1832. 8vo. 15 Sgr. Gillmore, Parker. The great thirst land [Natal], L., Cassell, 1.-2. e., 1878. 8vo. 21s. n. e., 7s. 6d.— Days and nights by the desert [South Africa]. L., Kegan Paul, 1888. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Glanville, E. Among the Cape Kaffirs. L., Son- nenschein, 1888. 8vo. ls. — South African gold fields. L., Sonnenschein, 1888. 8vo. ls. Gospel among the Bechuanas and other Tribes. of Southern Africa. Phila., Am. S. S. [1846]. 18mo. 75c Gospel among the Caffres: story of Dr. Moffatt and his missionary labors. Bost., Am. Tr. Soc. $1.00. Grahamstown, Bp. of, see Cotterill. Gray, R. Journal of a visitation to the diocese of Natal in 1864. L., Bell & D., 1864. 12mo. ls. 6d.— Visitation of E. portion of Capetown. L., Bell & D., 1866. 12mo. ls. Greswell, W. Our South African empire. L., Chap man, 1885. 2 v. 8vo. 2s. Gui 1 let, R. P. Afrique: excursion dans la colonie du Cap. Ps 1876. Gundert, H. Vier Jahre in Asante. Tagebiicher der Miss. Ramseyer und Kiibne aus der Zeit ihren Ge- fangenschaft. Basel, 1875. Hall, H. Southern Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Dutch Republics. L., Spon, 1876, 8vo. 3s. 6d. Hallbeck, H. C. Narrative of a visit to the new mis sionary settlement of the United Brethren. . . . South Africa. Trans, by C. J. Latrobe. L., 1820. 8vo. 14s. History of Civilization and Christianization of South Africa. Phil. 1833. 8vo. Hobirk, F. Slid Afrika. Detmold, Meyer, 1876. 1 Mk. Holden, W. C. History of Methodism and its missions in South Africa. L., Wesl. Conf. Off., 1S77. 8vo. 10s. 6d. — The past and future of the Kafir races. L., Jobson, 1866. 8vo. 10s. Holub, Emil. Seven years in South Africa. [Trans. from the German.] Bost., Houghton, 1881. 2 v. 8vo. $10.00. Eine Culturskizze des Maruste-Mam- bunda Reiches in Siid-Central Afrika. Wien, 1879. Svo. 3 Mk. Hop, H. (or rather C. F. Brink). Nouvelle descrip tion du Cap de Bonne Esperance. Amst. 1778. 2' pts. 8vo. Hubbe-Schleiden, Ethiopien. Studien iiber West- Afrika. Hamburg, 1879. 8vo. 10 Mk. Ireland, W. Historical sketches of the Zulu and Gaboon missions. Btn. 1865. Janicke, E. Die Berliner Missions Station Zoar- Amalienstein in Cap Lande. Berl. 1857. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Jenkinson, Th. B. Amazulu: the Zulus, theirftpast history, manners, customs, and language. L., Allen,' 1882. 8vo. 6s. Jong, C. de. Reisen nach dem Vorgebirge der guteir Hoffnung, etc Hamb. 1803. 2 pts. 8vo. (From the Dutch, Haarlem, 1802-3. 3 pts.) Kay, Stephen. The Kaffir's ease. L.— Travels and. researches in Caffraria. L. 1833. 12mo. 6s. Kermode, W. Natal: its early history, rise, progress, and future prospects as a field for emigration. L., Trubner. 1882. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Kerr, W. M. The far interior; from the Cape of Good Hope to the lake regions of Central Africa. L., Low, 1886. 2 v. 8vo. 32s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 584 TRAVELS, GENERAL Korner, F. Slid Afrika. Natur- und Kulturbilder. Lpz., 2d e., 1876. 8vo. 6 Mk. Krapf, J. E. Afrika von Slid nach West. Ludwigs- burg, 1857. 8vo. 8 Sgr. Eatrobe, C. J. Visit to South Africa. See Hallbeck. Eetters from South Africa. Paisley. 1884. Ee Vaillant, I'. Voyage dans l'interieurde l'Afrique par le Cap de Bonne Esperance. 1780-85. Paris, 1790. 2 vols. 8vo. Eng. trans. Travels into the in terior parts of Africa. L. 1790. 2 vols. 8vo. Eiou-Cachet, F. Tiyo Soga, de Eerste Kaffer Zeudel- ing. (Trans, of Chalmers, above.) Amst. 1888. 8vo. [3s.].— Wortelstryd der Transvalers. Amst. 1883. Svo. 7s. 6d. Eittle, J. S. South Africa. L. 1884. 2 v. 8vo. 2d e., 1887. 21s. Eivingstone, D. Missionary travels and researches in South Africa. L., Murray, 1857. 8vo, 21s. Later ed„ 6s. Repr. N. Y., Harper, 1858. 8vo. $4.00. Phila. 1876. 12mo. $1.75. Eloyd, K. C, Mrs. Seed and sheaves: Christian work in Zululand. N. Y., 1868. 12mo. 2d e., 1870. 75c Eorimer. Woman's work in South Africa. Paisley, 1882. Eovedale. Past and present (S. Africa). Lovedale, 1887. Mackenzie, J. Ten years north of Orange River (S, Africa). Edinb. 1871. 8vo. 7s. 6d. — Daydawn in dark places: wandering and work in Bechuana- land. L. and N. Y., Cassell, 1884. 8vo. 3s. 6d.— Austral Africa [Bechuanaland and Cape Colony]. L., Low, 1887. 2 v. Svo. 32s. Mai ki ii. J. South African tracts. Edinb., Simp- kin, 1887. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Magyar, E. Reisen in Sud Afrika. 1849-57. Aus d. Ung. Pest. 1 Bd. 1859. 3 thaler. Malan. Mission Francaise du Sud de l'Afrique. Ps. 1878. Malan, C. H. Rides in the mission fields of South Africa. L., Morgan, 1873. 12mo. ls. 6d.— South African missions. L., Nisbet, 1876. 12mo. 3s. 6d. —South Africa, a handbook. L., Silver, 2d e., 1876. 8vo. 10s. Mai tin, R. M. History of South Africa. L., 2d e., 1843. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Mason, G. H. Zululand: a mission tour in So. Africa. L. 1888. 8vo. 14s. Matthews, J. W. Incwadi Yami; or, twenty years in South Africa. L., Low, 1888. 8vo. 14s. Meidinger, H. Die Siid-afrikanische Colonien Eng- lands. Frankf. 1861. 8vo. 21 gr. Merensky. Beitrage zur Kenntniss Sud Afrikas. Berl. 1875. MeiTimaii, N. J. Kafir, Hottentot, and frontier farmer: passages of missionary life. L., Bell & D., 1853. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Missions in South Africa. Dubl. 1832. Missions-Bilder. Sudost Afrika. Heft 12, 1874. 8vo. 75 Pf.— Kapland. Heft 11, 1873. 8vo. 75 Pf. Mission Vaudoise au Sud de l'Afrique. Lausanne, 1H72. Mitford, B. Through the Zulu country: its battle fields and its people. L., Paul, 1883. 8vo. 14s. Moffat, Robert. A life's labor in S. Africa. L., Snow, 1871. 8vo. 3s. 6d.— Missionary scenes and labors in South Africa. L. and N. Y-, Snow, 1842. 8vo. 3s. Cincinnati. Wilstach, 1856. 12mo. $1.00. —Scenes and adventures in Africa. Phila., Pres. Bd.Pub. 18mo. 35c— Stories about Africa. Phila., Pres. Bd. Pub. 18mo. 35c. Napier, E. Excursions iu Southern Africa. L., Shoberl, 1849. 2 v. 8vo. 21s.— The book of the Cape. Ed. by Mrs. Ward. L., Newby, 1851. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Nieuwe Allgem.-Besclirijving van de Kap de (jloede Hoop. Amst. 1777. Noble, John. South Africa, past and present. L., Longmans, 1877. Svo. 7s. 6(1.— Official handbook to the Cape and South Africa. L., Longmans, 1K7H. 12ino. 3s. 6d. Oates, Fr. Matabele Land and I lie Victoria Falls. A naturalist's wanderings in the interior of South Africa. Ed. by C. G. Oates. L., Kegan Paul, 1881. Svo. 21s. Oprettede danske afrikaiiske Kompagnies His- torie (History ol' the Danish African Company es tablished under Frederick the Fiflh). Kbhn. 1818. Orangi- Free State and Basuto Mission. L., 1864 Patterson, W. Travels in the land of the Hottentots and Caffres. L. 1790. 8vo. Ger. trans. Berl. 1790. Philip. K..bl. The Elijah of South Africa. L., Snow, 1S52. 8vo. ls. Pringle, H. Narrative of a residence in South Africa. L. 1886, 3d e., 1848, 8vo. 2s. 6d. Ger. trans. Stuttg. 1836, Puaux, Frank. Les Bnssoutos. Une mission fran caise au Sud de l'Afrique. Paris, 1881. Svo. 1 fr. Reichelt. Geschichte der Bruder Missions Station Silo in Siid Afrika. Gnadau, 1878. Richards, J. D. The Catholic Church and the Kafir. L. [1880]. Ridsdale. Scenes and adventures in Great Namaqua- land (S. Africa.). L. 1883. Rivers of Water in a Dry Place [Mr. Moffat's mis sionary labours]. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1863. n. e., 1875. 8vo. 3s. Robertson, H., Mrs. Mission land among the Zulu Kaffirs. L.,Bemrose. 1866. 2d e., 1875. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Roche, H. A., Mrs. On trek in the Transvaal; or, over berg and veldt in South Africa. L., Low, 1-4 e., 1878. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Schreuder, Bp. Breve til Missions Comiteen (S. Africa). Christa. 1874. Schrumpf, Christian. Siid-afrikanische Reise- Bilder. Nancy, 1859. 12mo. 75 Pf. Sud Afrikan- ische Missions-Bilder, fiir Jung und Alt. Strass burg. 1859. 12mo. 6 Sgr. Shaw, Wm. Narrative of missionary labors in South Africa. L. 1860. 8vo. 6s. Story of my mission among tbe British settlers in South Africa. L. 1872. Sibree, j. South Africa: country and Christian mis sions. L. 1883. 8vo. 6s. South Africa, Poetry of. Ed. A. Wilmot. Cape Town, 1888. 8vo. [6s.] Sparrman, A. Voyage au Cap de Bonne Esperance. Ps. 1787. Spoerlin, Marguerite, Mile. Drakenstein. Scenes de la vie au Sud de l'Afrique. Ps. 1876. 12mo. 1 f r. State and Prospects of the Diocese of Capetown. L. 1855. Stavorinns, J. S. Reise nach dem Vorgebirge der Guten Hoffnung, etc. Berl. 1796. Stevenson, J. Civilization in S. E. Africa. Glasgow, 1st to 3d ed., 1877. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Tarns, G. Die Portugiesische Besitzungen in S. W. Afrika. Hamb. 1845. Taylor, W. Christian adventures in South Africa. L. and N. Y, Jackson & W., 1867. 8vo. 6s. 6d.— Christian adventures in South Africa. L., Jackson & W., 1868. 8vo. 6s. 6d. Theal, G. McC. Basuto land records. Cape Town, 1883. 3 vols.— Kafir folk lore. Traditional tales of Cape Colony. L., Sonnenschein, 1882. Svo. 7s. 6d. — Compendium of S. African history and geogra phy. Lovedale, 1877. 3d e., 1878. 8vo. 10s. 6d.— History of the Boers in South Africa. L., Sonnen schein, 1887. 8vo. 15s. Thomas, Th. M. Eleven years in Central South Africa. L., Snow. 1873. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Trollope, A. South Africa. L., Chapman, 4th e., 1878. 2 v. 8vo. 30s. Victorin, J. F. Resa i Kaplandet. Stm. 1856. Wangemann, H. Th. Die Berliner Mission im Zulu Lande. Berl. 1875. 4 al k. — Die Berliner Mission im Kaffer Lande. Berl. 18; 3. 8vo. 4 Mk.— Die Berliner Mission im Koranna Lande. Berl. 1873. 8vo. 3 Mk. — Die Berliner Mission im Kap Lande. Berl. 1875. 8vo. 3 Mk. — Lebensbilder aus Siid Afrika. Berl., 3d e., 1876. 2.50 Mk. Watermeyer. 3 Voorlezingen over de Kaap de Goede Hoop. Capet. 1S5S. Waters, H. T. A brief journal of a missionary tour to the Bashee River Independency, Kaffraria, Jan uary, 1859. L. 1859. Wendland. Bethanien in Namaland. Berl. 1885. Wilkinson, Mrs. Life and travels in Zululand during Cetewayo's reign. L., Hayes, 1882. 2d e., 1883. 8vo. 5s. Yates, H. S. B. Adventures in Southern Africa. Edinb., W. Oliphant, 1879. 8vo. ls. 6d. Young, Sam']. Stories relating to Kafir land. Dubl. 1854. — Narratives of the triumphs of grace (So. Africa). L., Mason, 1S40. ISmo. ls. 9d. Ziegler, Carl. Kurze Geschichte der Berliner Missions Gesellschaft nebst ihrer Stationen in S. Afrika. Eckartsberga, 1857. 8vo. 6 Sgr. Zulu Izaga, that is, proverbs; or out-of-the-way say ings of the Zulus: collected, translated, and inter preted by a Zulu missionary. Durban, 1881. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Zulus, and Missionary Work among them. Glasg. AFRICA (WESTERN). Abraham und seine Trommel (W. Africa). Basel, 1873. Africa Redeemed, illustrated by the growth and prospects of Liberia. L., Nisbet, 1851. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Allen , W. Picturesque views of the Niger. L., Mur ray. 1840. 4to. 25s. Andersson, C. J. Lake Ngami: explorations and discoveries during four years' wanderings in the wilds of Southwestern Africa. N. Y., Harper. 12mo. $1.75 — Okavango River: narrative of travel, exploration, and adventure. N. Y., Harper. 8vo. $3.25. TRAVELS, GENERAL 585 TRAVELS, GENERAL Aus den Briefen eines Missions Kaufmann's auf der Gold-Kiiste. Basel, 1882. Banbury, G. A. E. Sierra Leone; or, the white man's grave. L., Sonnenschein, 1888. Svo. 10s. 6d. Baudet. Beschrijving van den Azorischen Eilanden. Antw. 1880. Beecham, John. Missionary work in Western Africa. L. 1842.— Account of Ashantee and the Gold Coast. L., Mason, 1841. 12mo. 5s. 6d. Bentley, W. H. Life on the Congo. By G. Grenfell. L„ Rei. Tr. Soc, 1SS7. 12mo. ls. 6d. Berenger-Ferand, E. J. B. Les peuplades de la «rfSenegambie. Histoire, ethnographie, mceurs et coutumes, legendes. Ps. 1879. 8vo. Besuch in Herero Land. Barmen, 1880. Blyden, Edwd. W. Liberia's offering. N. Y. (?) 1862.— From West Africa to Palestine. Free Town, Sierre Leone, 1873. 8vo. Bory de St. Vincent. Beschreibung und Geschichte der Canarien Inseln. Weimar, 1804. Brewin, R. Among the palms: Sierra Leone and its missions. L. 1888. ls. Euchholz, R. Land und Leute in Westafrika. Berl. 1876. Svo. 1 Mk. Buttikofer. Mededel over Liberia. Amst. 1884. Buhl, C. Die Basler Mission auf der Goldkiiste. Basel, 1882. Burdoe, A. The Niger and the Benneh, from the French by Mrs. G. Sturge. L., Bentley, 1880. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Burkhardt's (E. G.) Mission Bibliothek. Bd. II. Die evangelische Mission unter den befreiten und freien Negern in West-Afrika. Bielefeld, 1877. 8vo. 2 Mk. Burton, R. F. Wit and wisdom from W. Africa. L., Tiusley, 1865. 8vo. 12s. 6d.— Abeokuta and the Cameroons Mountains. L.. Tinsley, 1863. 2 v. Svo. 25s.— My wanderings in W. Africa. L., Tins- ley, 1863. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Burton, R. F., and Cameron, V. E. To the Gold Coast for gold: a personal narrative. L., Chatto, 1882. 8vo. 21s. Charlesworth, M. L., Miss. Africa's mountain valley: the church in Regent's Town, W. Africa. L., Seeley, 1856. 8th 1,000, 1863. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Ger. trans. Hamb. 1862. Crowther, S. Expedition up the Niger and Tshadda rivers. L., Seeley, 1856. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Crowther, S., and Taylor, J. C. The gospel on the banks of the Niger. L., Seeley, 1859. 8vo. 7s. ¦Cruikshank, Brod. Eighteen years on the Gold Coast. L., Hurst & B., 1853. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Dasalu, John B. Ein Lebensbild aus W. Africa. Basel. 1858 8vo. 4^ Sgr. Davies, E. The Bishop of Africa, Wm. Taylor, D.D.; with an account of the Congo country and mission. Reading, Mass., Holiness Bk. Cone, 1885. 12mo. 75c. Dennett, R. E. Seven years among the Fjort. L., Low, 1887. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Depelchin, H., et Croonenberghs. Trois ans dans Afrique australe. Bruxelles, 1883. Desribes, E. L'evangile au Dahomey, et a la cote des esclaves. Ps. 1877. 8vo. 7 fr. Duncau, John. Travels in Western Africa in 1845-6. A journey through Dahomey, etc. L., Bentley, 1847. 12mo. 21s. East, D. J. West Africa and the Baptist mission. L., Odell & Ives, 1844. 13mo. ls. 6d. Ein Gebirgsthal Afrikas, oder die Kirche in Regentstown, \V. Afrika. Hamb. 1862. Ellis, A. B. West African islands. L., Chapman, 1885. 8vo. 14s.— The Tshi-speaking peoples on the Gold Coast of West Africa. L., Chapman, 1887. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Flicklnger, D. K. Ethiopia; or, twenty years of missionary life in Western Africa. Dayton, O., U. B. Pub. Co., 1877. 3d e., 18S5. 12mo. 90c. Forbes, F. E. Dahomey and the Dahomeans. L., Longman, 1851. — Missions to Dahomey, 1849-50. L., Longmans. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Fox, Wm. History of Wesleyan missions in West Africa. L., Aylott, 1851. 8vo. 10s. 6d.— Slave trade on the western coast of Africa. L., Aylott, 1854. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Freeman, T. B. Journal of visits to Aku, Ashanti, and Dahomey. L., Mason, 1844. 12mo. 3s.— Tour in South Africa. L., Snow, 1857. 12mo. 7s. Goldberry, M. X. Fragmens d'un voyage en Afrique Occidentale. Ps. 1802. Guinness, H. Grattan. The first Christian mission on the Congo. L. 1880. 4th e., 1882. 8vo. Hay, J. D., Sir. Ashantee and the Gold Coast. L., Stanford, 1873. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Heck, J. Zebn Jahre auf der Gold-Kiiste Basel, 1869. Hecquard, H. Reise an der Kiiste und in das Innere von West Afrika. Lpz. 1854. 8vo. 8.70 Mk. Hesse, J. Der Asante Kiieg und die Mission auf der Gold Kiiste. Basel. 1874. Hoffmann, W. Abeokuta. Berlin, 1859. Hubbe-Schleiden. Ethiopien. Studien uber West- Africa. Hamburg, 1879. 8vo. 10 Mk. Hunter, R. History of missions of Free Church of Scotland in India and Africa. L., Nelsons, 1873. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Huppenbauer, W. Von Kgebi nach Kumase. Basel, 1888. Hutchinson, T. J. Narrative of the Niger, Tschadda, and Binui expedition. L., Longmans, 1855. 16mo. 2s. 6d. — Impressions of West Africa and its climate. L., Longmans, 1858. Svo. 8s. 6d. Irminger, C. Erindringer fra Kysten Guinea (Recol lections of the coast of Guinea). Kbhn. 1868. Isert, P. E. Reise til Guinea og de caribasiske Oer (Journey to G. and the Caribbean Islands). (Coll. of travels, 5.) Kbhn. 1191. Jacolliot, E. Voyages aux rives du Niger, le Benin, le Borgon. Ps. 1878. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Johnson, H. A journey up the Niger in 1877. L. [1878], 12mo. Johnston, H. H. The river Congo, from its mouth to Bolobo. L., Low, 1884. 8vo. 21s. Jones, "Wm. Extract of journal, etc., in Sierra Leone. L. 1885. Laihte, PAbbe. Le pays des negres et la cote des esclaves. Tours, 1876. 8vo. Eenz, O. Skizzen aus Westafrika. Berl. 1879. 8vo. 6Mk. Eux, A. E. Von Loanda nach Kimbundu. Ergeb nisse der Forschungensreise im aquatorialen West- Afrika, 1875-76. Wien, 1879. 8vo. 7 Mk. McKee, W. History of Sherbro Mission, West Africa. Dayton, O., U. B. Pub. Co. 16mo. 75c Maltzan, H. Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika. Lpz. 1863. Mission im Joruba Eaud. Basel, 1857. Missionary Records : West Africa. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1841. 18mo. ls. 6d. Missions-Bilder. Heft 8. Sierra Leone und Yoruba. Calw. 1869. 8vo. 75 Pf.— Heft 9. West Afrika. Calw. 1870. 8vo. 75 Pf. Moister, Wm. Memorials of missionary labours in West Africa and West Indies. L., Mason, 1850. 12mo. 4s. Mourad, H. E. Bidrag til en Skildring af Guinea Kysten og dens Indbyggere (Contributions to a description of the coast of Guinea and its inhabi tants). Kbhn. 1822. Morgan, John. Reminiscences of the founding of a mission on the Gambia River. L. 1854. Munter, F. Rede bei der Einweibung von 4 nach Guinea bestimmten Missionaren. Cpu. 1828. Nassau, R. H. Gaboon and Corisco Mission (In "Histl. Sketches of Presbyterian Blissions"). Phil., Presby. Bd. Pub., 1881. Nassau, R. R. Crowned in palm land; story of African mission life. Phila., Lippincott. 12mo. $1.75. Norton, C. E. S. Residence in Sierra Leone. Ed. by Mrs. Norton. L., Murray, 1849. 12mo. 6s. Olivier, A. De l'Atlantique au Niger. Paris, 1882. 8vo. Olpp, T. Erlebnisse im Hinterlande von Angra- Paquena. Barmen, 2d e., 1886. 8vo. 1 50 Mk. Pego and Odier, E. The Fortunate Isles, or the Archipelago of the Canaries. L. 1841. Pogge, Dr. Im Reicbe des Muata Jamno. Tagebuch ineiner Reise in die Lunda Staaten. Berl. 1880. 8vo. 6 Mk. Preston, Mrs. I. S. Gaboon stories. N. Y., Am. Tr. Roc. 11-72. 16rao. 80c. Raffend, A. Reise in Senegambien. Stuttg. 1846. Ramseyer and Kuhne. Four years in Ashantee. N.Y., Carter, 1865. 4th e., 1877. 12mo. $1.75. Rask, J. En kort og sandfasrdig Reisebeskrivelse til og fra Guinea. Udg. med Fortale af Biskop Naum- stad (A short and truthful description of a journey to and from G. Ed. with preface by Bishop N.). Trondjhem, 1754. Reade, W. Western Africa. N. Y. Harpers. 1864. 8vo. $4.00. Rise and Progress of the Work at the Congo River. L., Bapt. Miss. Soc, 1884. Robert, Abbe. Du Senegal au Niger. Ps. 1878. 8vo. 1.50 fr. Roe, H. Fernando Po Mission. L. 1882. Svo. Romer, Chrn. Kamerun; Land, Leute, und Mission aren (W. Africa). Basel, 1888. R6mer, E. F. Tilforladelig Efterretining om Kysten Guinea (Reliable information about the coast of G.). Kbhn. 1760. Schon, J. F. Tagebuch von einer Reise im Niger Strom in West Afrika (" M. Mag"). Basel, 1845. Schutt, O. H. Reisen im Siidwestlichen Becken des Congo. Nach den Tagebiichern und Aufzeich- nungen der Reisenden bearbeitet von Paul Lin- denberg. Berlin, 1881. Svo. 6 Mk. Scott, Anna M., Mrs. Day dawn in West Africa, etc. N. Y., Am, Tr. Soc, 1858.- Glimpses of life in Africa. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1857. 18mo. 25c Seddall, H. Missionary history of Sierra Leone. L., Hatchards, 1874. 2d e., 1875. 12mo. 3s. 6d. TRAVELS, GENERAL 586 TRAVELS, GENERAL Smith, C. Dagbog paa en Reise til Congo i Africa (Diary of a journey to Congo in Africa). Chra. 1829. Stanley, H. M. The Congo and the founding of its Free State. L. and N. Y., Low, 1385. L., 2 v. 8vo, 42s. N. Y., $10 00. Steiner, P. Missions Reisebilder in W. Afrika. Basel, 1882. — Ein Missions-Versuch auf der Gold Kiiste. Basel, 1887. Stockwell, G. S. Republic of Liberia, its geography, soil, climate, history, etc. N. Y., barnes, 1868. 12mo. $1.25. Tracy, J. State of society in Western Africa. Btn. 1844. Svo. Tucker, C, Miss [nom deplume A. E. O. E.]. Ab- beokuta: origin and progress of the Yoruba Mission. L., Nisbet, 1858. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Wadstrom, C. B. An essay on colonization in Africa [particularly W. Africa, including Sierra Leone and Boulamal. L. 1794-95. Fr. trans. Ps. 1798. Whiton, S. J. Glimpses of West Africa, with sketches of missionary labor. Bost.. Am. Tr. Soc lOmo. 85c. Wilson, J. L. Western Africa; history, condition, aud prospects. N. Y., Harper, 1857. 12mo. $1.50. Wilson, E. West Afrika geographisch und historisch geschildert. Lpz. 1865. Winterbottoin, Th. Nachrichten von der Sierra Leone Kiiste und ihren Bewohnern. Weimar, 1805. Yates, H. S. B. Adventures in Western Africa. Edinb., Oliphant, 1879. 8vo. ls. 6d. Zweifel, J., and Moustier, M. Voyage aux sources de. Niger. Marseilles, 1880. 8vo. 10 fr. ALASKA AND NORTH POLAR REGIONS. Alaska: sketch of the country and people. N. Y. 1833. Back, Capt. Narrative of the Arctic land expedition to the mouth of Great Fish River, 1833-35. L., Murray, 1836. Svo. 30s. Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Alaska, 1730- 1885 (Works, v. 33). San Fr., Cal., Bancroft, 1886. 8vo. $4 50. Beechey, F. W. Narrative of a voyage to the Pacific and Bering's Strait. Phil., Carey & L., 1832. 8vo. Bell, W. H. Quiddities of an Alaskan trip. Phil., Lippincott. 4to. $3.50. Dal 1, W. H. Alaska and its resources. Bost., Lee & S., 1870. 8vo. $7.50. De Sniet. Oregon (R. C.) missions. 1847. Elliott, H. W. Our Arctic province. Alaska and the Seal Islands. N. Y.. Scribners, 1886. 8vo. $4.50. — A monograph of the Pribylov group. Washing ton, 10th census, section IX. 1881. 4to. Filaret. Historija Russ., etc. Tschering. Franklin, J. Narrative of the second expedition to the shores of the Polar Sea. Phil., Carey & L., 1828. Svo. Half-Hours in the Far North. N. Y., Dodd, 1875. 16mo. $1 50. Holmberg, H. J. Etbnograpbische Skizzen iiber die Volker des Russischen Amerika. Lpz. 1854. 8vo. 1.20 Mk. Jackson, Sheldon. Report on education in Alaska. Waslm. 1886. — Alaska and missions on the North Pacific coast. N. Y., Dodd, 1880. 12mo. $1.50. Kane, E. K. Arctic explorations, 1853-5. Phil., Col. Bk. Co., 1856. Svo. $4.50. Kai i', H. W. Seton. Shores and alps of Alaska. Chicago, McClurg, 1887. Svo. $3.50. McCormick. Expedition up Wellington Channel. L. 1854. Miertsching, M. Journal, etc., sur voyage au Pole Nord. Geneve, 1857. Mudge, Z. A. Fur-clad adventures in Alaska. N. Y., Phillips, 1880. 12mo. $1.25. Parry, W. E. Tagebuch einer Entdeckungs Reise nach N. Polar Gegeuden. Hamb. 1819. Transl. from Eng. ed. L. 1819. — Three voyages for the dis covery of a N. W. passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. N. Y., Harper. 2"v. 18mo. $1 50— Journal of a second voyage for the disco very of a N. W. passage 1821-3. N. Y. 1824. Germ, transl. Hamb. 1824. Schwatka, F. Along Alaska's great river. N. Y., Cassell, 1885. Svo. $3.00. Scidmore, E., Miss. Ruhamali, Alaska; its southern coast and the Sitkan Archipelago. Bost., Lothrop, IMS.",. 12nio. $1.50. n. e., 1889. 50c. Wardman, G. A trip to Alaska: a narrative of what was seen and heard during a snmnipr cruise in Alaska waters. Bost., Lee & S., 1884, 12mo. $3.25. Whvinper, F. Travel and adventure in the Territory of Alaska. L., Murray, 1868. 8vo. 16s. Fr. transl. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 1.50 fr. Willaril, K. S., Mrs. Life in Alaska. Phila., Pres. H.I. Publ.,.1884. 16mo. $1.25. Wrangell. Statistische und Ethnographische Nach- rich en iiber Russische Besitzungen an der N. W. Kiiste von Amerika. St. Pbg. 1839. Wright, J. M., Mrs. Among the Alaskans. Phila., Pres. Bd. Pub,, 1883. 16mo. $1.25. ALGIERS. Ardoin du Mazet, V. E. Etudes algeriennes. l'Al gerie politique et economique. A travers la province d'Oran. Lettres sur l'insurrection dans le sud Oranais. Ps. 1882. 8vo. 6 fr. Barclay, E. Mountain life iu Algeria. L., Kegan Paul, 1881. 8vo. 16s. Baruch, J. Le pays des Kroumirs. Alger, 1881. 8vo. 1 50 f r. Batault, J. Lettres du R. P , missionaire apos- tolique a Alger. Chalons s. S., 1880. 8vo. Bridgman, F. A. Winters in Algeria. N. Y., Harp er, 1889. Svo. $2 50. Chikhachev, P. Espagne, Algerie, et Tunisie. Ps. 1880. Svo. Germ, trans. Lpz. 1882. Claniageran, Jean J. L'Algerie; impressions de voyage, suivies d'une etude sur les institutions Kabyles et la colonisation. Ps. 1883. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Diirr, T. J. Vier Mouate in Algerien. Strassburg, , 1815 12mo. 5 Sgr. Etat actuel de l'Algerie. Alger, 1879. 8vo. Flatters, P. F. X. Documents relatifs a la mission dirigee au sud de I'Algeile. Ps. 1884. 4to. Flower, C. E. Algerian hints for tourists. L., Stan ford, 1889. Svo. 2s. Gaftarel, Paul. L'Alg6rie. Histoire, conquete et colonisation. Ps. 1882. 4to. 30 fr. Gaskell, Geo. Algeria as it is. L. 1875. 8vo. 16s. Gastu, F. Jos. Le peuple Algerien. Ps. 1883. 8vo. 2.50 fr. Heuglin, T. Reisen in Nord Ost Afrika. Gotha, 1857. 8vo. 1.50 Mk. Jourdan, C. Croquis Algeriens. Ps. 1880. 12mo. 3fr. Knox, A. A. New playground; or, wanderings in Algeria. L., Kegan Paul, 1881. 16mo. 3s. 6d. 2d e , 1882. 61I. Lambert, Ed. A travers l'Algerie. Histoire, mceurs et legendes des Arabes. Ps. 1883. 12mo. Eelu, Paul. En Algerie, souvenirs d'un colon. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Mercier, Ernest. L'Alge'rie et les questions alge riennes. Etude historique, statistique, et econo mique. Ps. 1883. 8vo. 5 fr. — Le cinquanteuaire d'une colonic; l'Algerie en 1880. Ps. 1880. Svo. 5fr. Naphegyi, Gabor. 90 days among the Arabs: advent ures in Algeria. Phila., Lippincott, 1868, n. e. 1871. 12nio. $1.75. Noellat, Vincent. L'Algerie en 1882. Ps. 1882. Svo. $2.50 fr. Piesse, Eouis. Les monuments historiques de l'Al gerie. Ps. 1877. 8vo. 1.25 fr. — Le meme. Deu- xieme etude. Le Routier arche'ologique de r Al gerie. Ps. 1879. 8vo. 1.25 fr. Pinn, E. Malabout a Khonan; etude sur l'lslam Algerie. Algier, 1884. 18mo. 15 fr. Playfair, R. L-, Sir. Scourge of Christendom: an nals of Britain's relations with Algiers. L., Smith & E., 1884. 8vo. 14s.— Murray's handbook for Algeria and Tunis, etc. L., Murray, 3d e., 1S87. 12nio. 10s. Reclns, Onesime. France, Algerie, et colonies. Ps. 1880. 12mo. 5.50 fr. Seguin, E. G. Walks in Algiers and its surroundings. L , Chatto, 1886. 2d e., 18^8. 8vo. 6s. Vernes d'Arlandes, Th. En Algerie, a travers TEs- pagne et le Maroc. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Wahl, Maurice. L'Algerie. Ps. 1882. 8vo. 5 fr. Wrigley, M. Algiers, illustrated. L., Low, 1889. 4to. 45s. AMERICA. North : see C.-VNAnA; Indians; Mexico. Central : see Central America. South : see South America. Annam : see Cochin China. ARABIA. Arab, The, and his Countiy. Phila., Am. S. S. Soc. lSino. 60c. Bachelet, T. Les Arabes, origine, moeurs, religion, conqnetes. Ps. 1882, Svo. I •.ike. Chas., Mrs. A narrative of the late Dr. Beke's discovery of Mount Sinai in Arabia, and of Midian. L., Trubner, 1878. 8vo. 38s. Blunt, A. I. W., Eadv. A pilgrimage to Nejd. L., Murray, 1881. 2d e„ 2 v. 8vo. 24s. Burton, R. F. Pilgrimage to El Medina and Mecca. L., Longmans, 1855-6. 3 v. 8vo. 2d e., 1857. 24s.— The land of Midian revisited. L., Paul, 1878. 2 v. 8vo. 32s.— Gold mines and ruined cities of Midian. L„ Paul, 1st and 2d e.. 1878. 8vo. 18s. Clark, E. E. The Arabs and Turks. Their origin and history, their religion, their imperial greatness in the past, and their condition at the present time. Bost., Cong. Pub. Soc, 1876. 12ino. $1.75. TRAVELS, GENERAL 587 TRAVELS, GENERAL Crichton, Andr. History of Arabia, ancient and modern. L., Nelson, 1852. 2 v. 12mo. 5s. N. Y., Harper. 2 v. ISmo. $1.50. Customs and Manners of Beduin Arabs. Phila., Am. S. S. Soc 18mo. 50c Didier, C. Sejour chez le Grand-Cherif de la Mekka. Ps. 1857. Dugat, G. Histoire des philosophes et des Musul- mans. Scenes de la vie religieuse en Orient. Ps. 1878. 8vo. 7.50 fr. Fogg, W. Perry. Land of the Arabian nights: travels through Egypt, Arabia, and Persia to •Bagdad. N. Y., Scribners, 1875, n. e., 1882. 12mo. $2.00. Freeman, E. A. 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Beitrage zur Geschichte der west- lichen Araber. Miinchen, 1878. 8vo. 2 v. 9 Mk. Niebuhr, C. R^ise fra Kbhn. til Arabien og til- grasndsende Lande (Journey from Copenhagen to Arabia and neighboring countries), 1762-66. (In coll. of travels, vol. 2.) Kbhn. 1794. — Beschreibung von Arabien. Cpu. 1772. — Voyage in Arabia. Transl. from the Germ. Edinb. 1792. Osborn, R. D. Islam under the Arabs. L., Long mans, 1876. 8vo. 12s. Palgrave, W. G. Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. L., Macmillan, 1865. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. n. e., 1869. 6s. Palmer, E. H. Desert of the Exodus. L., Bell & D., 1871. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. N. Y., 1871. 1 vol. 8vo. $3.00. Germ, transl. Gotha, 1876. 8vo. 12 Mk. Phillips, J. Scott. Paper on discoveries concerning resettlement of the seed of Abraham in Syria and Arabia. Chicago, Wilson, 1879. 12mo. 15c Playfair, R. E. West of Arabia Felix. Bombay, 1859. Ray. Voyage dans le Kouran et la mer rouge. Ps. 1851-8. Richard, Ch. Scenes et mceurs Arabes. Ps. 1850, 3d e„ 1876. 18mo. 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Wien, 1876. 8vo. 1.20 Mk. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Alberdi, J. B. La Republica Argentina. Buenos Aires, 1881. Svo. Beck-Bernard, Mdme. Le Rio Parana (Buenos Ayres). Ps. 1864. 12mo. 3 fr. Beck-Bernard, Charles. La Republique Argentine. Paris, 1865. 12mo. 3 fr. Bossi, B. Voy. pittoresco par les Rios Parana, Para guay, etc. Ps. 1863. . „ „ it Clemens, E. J. M. La Plata countries of South America. Phila., Lippincott, 1886. 12uio. $1.50. Corona, G. B. Storia Argentina. Rome, 1881. 8vo. Dominguez, E. E. Hist. Argentine Republic Vol. I., 1492-1807. Transl. by J. W. Williams. Buenos Ayres, 1865. 4to. Jordan, W. E. The Argentine Republic, a descriptive and histoi'ical sketch. Edinb., Longmans, 1878. 8vo. ls. Latzina, F. The Argentine Republic as a field for emigration. Buenos Aires, 1883. 8vo. Ee Long, J. Les pampas de la R6publique Argentine. Ps. 1878. 8vo. Mulhall, M., Mrs. Between the Amazon and Andes. Ten years of a lady's travels. L., Stan ford, 1881. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Olascoaga, M. J. 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Y., Cassell, 1878. Svo. $4.00. Parinelee, Moses Pavson. Life scenes in the moun tains of Ararat. Bost., Mass., S. S. Soc, 1868. 16mo. $1.25. Schweizer-Lerchenfeld, A. v. Armenien. Ein Bild seiner Natur und seiner Bewohner. Im An- hang: Anatotische Fragmente. Jena, 1878. 8vo. 4.50 Mk. Smith, Eli, and Dwight. Researches in Armenia. N. Y. 1833. 2 v. I2mo. Southgate, Hor., Bp. Tour through Armenia, Kur, distan, etc. Phila., Appleton, 1840. 2 v. 8vo. $1.50. Tozer, H. F. Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor. L., Longmans, 1881. 8vo. 16s. West, Maria A. Romance of missions; or, inside view of life and labour in the land of Ararat. N. Y., Randolph, 1875. 12mo. $2.00. L., Nisbet, 1876. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Wheeler, C. H. Ten years on the Euphrates. Bost. 1868. 16mo. $1 25.— Letters from Eden. Bost. 1868. 16nio. $1.25.— Little children in Eden. Port land, 1876. 18mo. 75c Wheeler, S. A., Mrs. Daughters of Armenia. N. Y., Am, Tract Soc, 1877. 16mo. 90c. ASIA, IN GENERAL. Abel, E. 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Y„ Dodd. $0 00.— Seventh Oriental monarchy. L.. Murray, 1876, and N. Y., Dodd, 1882. 2 v. 8vo. $6 00. Rion, A. Missions le plus celebres, Asie, Chine, Japon, Armenie, etc. Ps. 1856. 95c. Schlagiiitweit-Sakuiiliinski, Herin. v. Reisen in IndienundHochasien. Eine Darstellung derLand- schaft, der Cultur und Sitten der Bewohner. . . . Vol. 3, Ost Turkistan und Umgebungen. Jena, 1880. 8vo. 17 Mk. Varthema, E. di, Travels of in Syria, Arabia, Persia. India, etc, in the Sixteentn century. Orig. in Italian. Rome, 1510. Eng. trans. L. Hakluyt Soc, 1863. Svo. Wheeler, C. H. Ten years on the Euphrates; or, primitive missionary policy illustrated, with intro duction by N. G. Clark. Bost,, Am. Tr. Soc, 1868. 16mo. $1.25. — Letters from Eden. Reminiscences of missionary life in the East. Bost., Am. Tr. Soc, 1868. 16mo. $1.25. Wilson, H. H, Ariana antiqua: antiquities of Afghanistan. L., Williams & N., 1841. 4to. 42s. n. e., 1861. 22s. 6d. Wrede, Adolph v. Reise in Hadramaut, etc. (Cent. Asia). 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Aus Japan nach Deutschland durch Sibe rian. Koln, 1882. Svo. 8.50 Mk. Kuropatkin, A. N. Kashgaria: historical and geo graphical sketch of the country; its military strength, industries, and trade. Transl. from the Russian by Walter E. Gowan. Calcutta, 1882. 8vo. [10s. lid.J Lansdell, H. Russian Central Asia. Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva, etc. L., Low, 1885. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. Macgahan, J. A. Campaigning in the Oxus and the fall of Khiva. L., Low, 1874, 2 vols. 4th e., 1876, 1 vol. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Markham, C. R. Narratives of the mission of George Bogle to the Teshu Lama, and of the journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa. With notes . . . lives of Mr. Bogle and Mr. Manning. . . . L. 1876. 8vo. 21s. Marvin, C. Merv, the queen of the world, and the scourge of the man-stealing Turcomans. With an exposition of the Khorassan question. L., Allen, 1881. 8vo. 18s. Meignan, V. De Paris a Pekin par terre. Ps. 1876. 18mo. 4 fr. Muller, Ferd. Unter Tungusen und Jakuten. Er- lebnisse und Ergebnisse der Olenek Expedition. Lpz. 1882. 8vo. 8 Mk. O'Donovan, E. The Merv oasis: travels and adven tures east of the Caspian, 1879-81. L., Smith & E., 1882 2 v. 8vo. 36s. Prejevalsky, N. From Kulja, across the Tian Shan, to Lobnor. Translated by E. D. Morgan. Includ ing notices of the lakes of Central Asia. . . . L., Low, 1878. 8vo. 15s.— Mongolia, the Tangut coun try, and the solitudes of Northern Thibet. A nar rative of three years' travel in Eastern High Asia. From the Russian by E. D. Morgan. L., Low, 1876. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. Schiefner, F. A. Tibetan tales derived from Indian sources. Translated from the Tibetan of the Kah- Gyur. Trans, into Eng. from the Germ. By W. R. S. Ralston. L., Triibner, 1882. 8vo. 14s. Schott, W. Kitai und Karakitai. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte Ost- und Innerasiens. Berl. 1879. 4to. ¦ lMk. Schrenk, Eeop. v. Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande, 1854-56. St. Petersb. 1881. 8vo. [15.30 Mk.] Schuyler, E. Turkistan: notes of a journey in Rus sian Turkestan. Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja. L., Low, 1876. 8vo. 2 v. 42s. Serena, Carla. Seule dans les steppes, episodes de mon voyage aux pays des Kalmoucks et des Kir ghiz. Ps. 1883. 18mo. 3.50 fr. Cjfalvy de Merzo-Kovesd, C. E. de. Expedition scientifique franeaise en Russie, en Siberie et dans le Turkestan. Vol. II. Le Syr-Daria. le Zeraf- chane, le pays des sept Rivieres et la Sib6rie occi- dentale. Ps. 1879. 8vo. 15 fr. Vambery, A. Travels in Central Asia. L.. Murray, 1864. 8vo. 21s. Danish trans., Stolm. 1866. Villeroi, B. de. A trip through Central Asia. Cal cutta, 1878. 8vo. [2s.] Weil. La Tourkmenie et les Tourkmenes. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 3 fr. Wood, H. The shores of Lake Aral. L., Smith & E., 1876. Svo. 14s. ASIA MINOR. Ainsworth, W. F. Travels in Asia Minor. L., Parker & Son, 1842. 2 v. 8vo. 24s. Barrows, J. O. On horseback in Cappadocia. Bost., Cong. Pub Co. $1.25. Belgio.joso, Princesse de. Asie-Mineure et Syrie; souvenirs de voyages. Ps. 1858. 2d e., 1869. 12mo. lfr. Bliss, Isaac G. Twenty-live years in the Levant. N. Y., Am. Bible Soc, 1S83. Burnabv, Fred. On horseback through Asia Minor. L„ Low, 1877. 2v. 6th e., 187S. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Cassel, P. Tom Nil zum Ganges. Berl. 1880. Svo. 6 Mk. Cochran. W. Pen and pencil in Asia Minor. L., Low, 1S87. 8vo. 21s. Creasy, E., Sir. The history of the Ottoman Turks, 1250-1878. L , Bentley, 1854-56, 2 vols. 8vo. 5th e., 1883, 1 vol. Svo. 6s. Dalton, H. Reisebilder aus Klein Asien. Brem. 1884. Svo. 4.50 Mk. Davis, E. .'. Y.. Seeley,. 1st and 3d e., 1847. 8vo. 14s. — Jews at K'aefung Foo. Shanghai, 1851. Smith, G. China, her future and her past. L. 1854. Smith, AV. L. G. Observations on China and the Chinese. N. Y., Carleton, 1863. 12mo. $1 50. Stent, G. C. Chinesische Eunuchen. Lpz. 1879. 8vo. 50 Pf. Stern, Simon A. Jottings of travel in China and Japan. Phila., Porter, 1888. 12mo. $1.25. Stock, Eugene. Story of the Full Kien Mission of the Church Missionary Society. L., Seeley, 1877. 2d e., 1882. 16mo. 4s. 6d. Stories from China. L. and N. Y., Nelson, 1875. 16mo. 3s. 6d. 51.50. Talmage, J. V. N. History and ecclesiastical rela tions of the churches of the Presbyterial order at Amoy. China. N. Y. 1863. 8vo. 25c. Tcheng Ki Long. The Chinese painted by them selves. L., Field & T., 1883. Svo. 6s. Danish trans. Kbhn. 1880. — Les Plaisirs en Chine. Paris, 1890. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Terrien de Lacouperie, A. E. J. B. Early history of the Chinese civilization. L., Vaton, 1880. 16mo. 2s. Thomson, J. Illustrations of China and its people. L., Low, 1S73 sqq. 4 v. 252s.— The land and the people of China: a sliort account of the geogra phy, history, religion, social arts . . . of China and its people. L , S. P. C. K„ 1876. 8vo. 5s. Tlionison, J. T. Some glimpses of life in the far East. L., Richardson, 2d e., 1865. Svo. 10s. 6d — Sequel [to above]. L., Richardson, 1865. Svo. 10s. 6d. Tiffany, C. 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Y., Low, 1880. 8vo. 21s. Ross, John. Corea, its history, manners, and cus toms. Paisley and London, Houlston, 1880. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Three severall Testimonies concerning the mighty kingdom of Coray. . . . L., Hakluyt Col lection, 1600. Tournaford, Paul. La Coree. Ps. 1885. 18mo. 1 fr. EGYPT, NUBIA. AND THE SOUDAN (NOT ARCHMOLOGICAL). Abney, W. de AV. Thebes and its greater temples, L., Low, 1876. 4to. 63s. Adams, G. M,, Mrs. Threemonths in Egypt. N. Y, Hoyt, 1877. 16mo. $1.25. Adams, W. H. D. Land of the Nile; or, Egypt past and present. L , Nelson, 1871. Svo. 2s. 6d.— Valley of the Nile. Its tombs, temples, etc. L., Nelson, n. e., 1871. 12mo.^ 2s. 6d. Ampere, J. J. Voj'age en Egypte et en Nubie. Ps., 1868. 2d e., 1881. 12mo. 3.50 f r. Appleton, T, G. A Nile journal. Bost., Roberts, 1876. 8vo. $2.25. Arnold, J. T. B. Palms and temples: four months' voyage upon the Nile. L., Tinsley, 1882. 8vo. 13s. Baedeker, K. Lower Egypt. Lpz. and L. 1878. 2d e., 1885. 16mo. 16s. Barker, John. (Ed.) 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L., Murray, and N. Y., Dodd, 1883. 3d e., 1887. 8vo. 21s. $5.00. Kayser, F. Egypten einst und jetzt. Freib. 1884. Svo. 5 Mk. Klunzinger, C. B. Upper Egypt. L. and N. Y., Blackie. 1877. 8vo. 14s. Lane, E. W. Manners and customs of the modern Egyptians. L., Murray, 1836. 3 v. 6th e., 1883. Svo. 13s. Lansing, Julian. Egypt's princes: a narrative of mis sionary labour. N. Y., Carters, 1865. 12mo. $1.00. Lepic, Ludovic, Comte. La derniere Egypte. Ps. 1883. 8vo. 10 fr. Lieblein, J. D. C. Aegyptologiske Studier. Christ iania, 1870. 8vo. Loftie, XV. J. Ride in Egypt, Sioot to Luxor, in 1879. L., Macmillan, 1879. Svo. 10s. 6d. Loving, XV. XV. A Confederate soldier in Egypt. N. Y., Dodd, 1881. Svo. $3.50. Lott, Emmeline. Harem life in Egypt and Constan tinople. L„ Bentley, I860. 3d e., 1867. 8vo. 6s.— The English governess in Egypt. L , Bentley, 1865. 2 v. Svo. 21s. — The grand pacha's cruise on the Nile. L., Newby, 1869. 2 v. Svo. 21s. MacBrair, R. M. Missionary travels in Egypt. . . . L., Simpkin, 1846. Svo. 6s. McCoan. J. C. Egypt as it is. L. and N. Y., Cassell, 1877. 8vo. 21s McGregor, J. The "Rob Roy" on the Nile, etc. L., Murray, 1874. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Madden, R. R. Egypt and Mohammed Ali. L , Hamilton, 1839. 2d e., 1811. Svo. 6*. Manning, S. The land of the Pharaohs: Egypt and Sinai. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1878. 8vo. 8s. Morgenluft aus Aegypten. Basel, 1865, Murray, J. Handbook of Egypt. L., Murray, 1880. 15s (By J. G. Wilkinson, q.v.) Norden, F. L. Beskrivelse over Egypten og Nubien (Description of Egypt and Nubia) Kbhn. 1755. Oliphant, L. Land of Khemi: up and down the middle Nile. L., Blackwoods, 1882. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Ottley, H. B. Modern Egypt, its Wituess to Christ. L., S. P. C. K., 1884. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Oxley, W. Egypt and the wonders of the land of the Pharaohs. L , Triibner, 1884. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Poole, Mrs. Englishwoman in Egypt. L., Cox, 1S44-48. 3 v. 18mo. 4s. 6d. Poole, R. S. The cities of Egypt. L., Smith & E., 1882. 8vo. 5s. Poole, Stanley Lane. Egypt. L., Low, 1881. 12mo. 3s. 6d.— Social life in Egypt. L., Virtue, 1884. 4to. 21s. Potter, H. C. Gates of the East; a winter in Egypt and Syria. N. Y., Dutton, 1876. 18mo. $1.25. Prime, W. C. Boat life in Egypt and Nubia. N. Y, Harper, 1857. 12mo. $3.00. Regaldi, G. L'Egitto antico e moderno. Firenze, 1883. 8vo. . Rhone, A. L'Egypte it petites journeys. Etudes et souvenirs. Le Kaire et ses environs. Ps. 1877. 8vo. 15 fr. Schurer, Juan Maria. Reisen im oberem Nilgebiet. Gotha, 1883. 4to. 4.40 Mk. Sharpe, S. History of Egypt. L., Bell, 1846, 6th e., 1876. 2 v. 12mo. 10s. Sonnini, C. S. Voyage dans la haute et basse Egypte. Paris, 1799. 3 v. 8vo. Eng. transl. Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt. L., 1799. 3 v. 8vo. 3de., 1807. Ger. transl. Leipzig, 1800. Stangen, C. Egypten. Lpz. 1882. 8vo. 1 Mk. Stephens, J. L. Notes of travel in Egypt and Nubia. N. Y., Harper, 1837. 2 v. 12mo. $1.75. Reprint L., Ward, 1876. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Stoddard, C. Warren. Mashallah! A flight into Egypt. N. Y., Appleton, 1881. 16mo. 60c. Stuart, V. Egypt after the war. L., Hurra}-, 1883. 8vo. 31s. 6d. Vaujany, H. de. Description de l'Egypte. Le Caire et ses environs. Characteres, mceurs, coutumes des Egyptiens modernes. Ps. 1883. 12mo. 4 fr. Warner, C. Dudley. My winter on the Nile among the mummies and Moslems. N. Y., Am. Pub. Co., 1876. 8vo. $2.50. Warren, W. W. Life on the Nile in a dahabe'tih. and excursions on shore between Cairo and Assouan. L., Triibner, 1883. 16mo. 5s. Whately, Mary L., Miss. Ragged life in Egypt. L., Seeley, 1802. 3d e., 1863. More about ragged life in Egypt. 1863. 2d e., 1864. Both in 1 vol. 1870. 12mo. 3s. 0d.— Peasant life on the Nile. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1888. 12mo. Is.— Letters from Egypt. L., Seeley, 1879. 8vo. 3s. 6d.— Story of a diamond. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1867. 8vo. 3s. 6d— Among the huts in Egypt. L.. Seeley, 1st to3d e., 1S71. 8vo. 5s Wilkinson, J. G. Modern Egypt and Thebes. L., Murray, 1844. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. 2d ed. under title Handbook for travellers in Egypt. 6th ed., 1S80. 15s. Zincke, F. B. Egypt of the Pharaohs and of the khedive. L., Smith&E., 1871. 2d e., 1873.. 8vo. 16s. FIJI ISLANDS. Anderson, J. W. Fiji and New Caledonia. Notes of travel, etc. L., Ellissen, 1880. Svo. 10s. 6d. Britten, H. Fiji in 1S70. L., Macmillan, 1st and 2d e., 1871. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Britton, H. Loloma; or, two years in cannibal land. L., Mullen, 1884. 8vo. 4s. 6d. Cooper, H. S. Our new colony, Fiji. L., Mortgage Agency Co. of Australasia, 1882. 8vo. — Coral lands of the Pacific. L., Bentley, 1882. Svo. 7s. 6d. Cumming, C. F. G. At home in Fiji. L., Black wood. 1st and 2d e., 1881. 3 v. 8vo. 25s. Forbes, L. Two years in Fiji. L., Longmans, 1875. 8vo. Ss 6d. Geschichte der Christlichen Missionen auf den Fidschilnseln. Bremen,'1860 8vo. 3 Mk. Home, J. A year in Fiji. L.. Stanford. 1881. 8vo. Island of Naitarnba, in the Fiji Group. L. 1877. 4to. Lawry, W. Missions iu Tonga and Feejee. L. 1850-2. 2 v. 12mo. Ch. e. 2s. Repr. Cincinnati, Meth. Bk. Cone, 1852 12mo. $1.50.— Friendly and Feejee Islands; first visit 1847. L., Mason. 1S50. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Ch. ed. Is.— Second missionary visit to the Friendlv and Feejee Islands in 1850. L., Mason, 1853. ISmo. 3s. 6d. Cheap ed., ls. Life in Feejee ; or, five years among cannibals. By a lady. Bost., Heath, 1851. 12mo. $1.00. Pitman, E. R. Africa . . . and Fiji; missionary enterprise and trials, etc. L., Hodder, 1883. 8vo. 5s. Rowe, G. Stringer. Missionary among cannibals. Life of John Hunt. N. Y., Meth. Bk. Cone, 1860. 12mo. $1.00. Scholes, S. E. Fiji and the Friendly Islands. L., Woolmer. 1882. 16mo. Is. Seemaiiii, B. Viti: a mission to the Vitian or Fijian groups, 1860-61. Cambridge, Macmillan, 1862. Svo. 14s. Smvthe, Mrs. Ten months in the Fiji Islands. L., Parker, 1804. 8vo. 15s. Waterhouse, Jos. King aud people of Fiji. L.; Jobsoii, 1866. 8vo. 5s. AVilliams. Thomas. Fiji and the Fijians. Vol. I. The Islands and their Inhabitants. (By T. W.) Vol. II. Mission History. (By J. Calvert.) L., Heylin, 1858. 3d e., 1870. 8vo. 6s. FORTUNATE, OR CANARY ISLANDS. Hello y Espinosa, D. Uu jardin Canario. Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 1880. 8vo. Berthelot, S. Antiquites canariennes. annotations sur l'origine des peuples qui cccuperent les lies Fortunees. Ps. 1S79. 4to. 25 fr. Bethencourt, Jean de. Le Canarien, livre de la conquete et conversions des Canaries. Ps. 1874. Svo. Ellis, A. B. West African islands. L., Chapman, 1885. 8vo. 14s. Leclercq, J. Voyages aux iles Fortunees: le Pic de Teneriffe et les Canaries. Ps. 1880. 12mo. 3 fr. TRAVELS, GENERAL TRAVELS, GENERAL Millares, A. Historia de las Canarias. Las Palmas, 1881. 8vo. Pegot-Ogier, Eugene. Fortunate Islands: archi pelago of the Canaries. L., Bentley, 1871. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. FRIENDLY ISLANDS. See Tonga. GILBERT ISLANDS. See Marshall Islanhs. GREECE. About, Edmond. La GrSce contemporaine. Ps. 1S54. Sih e„ 1883. 12mo. 4 fr. Anderson, R. Peloponnesus and Greek Islands. Bost., Crocker, 1830. 12mo. $1.00. BRdeker, K. Griechenland. Lpz. 1883. 8vo. 7.50 Mk. Baird, H. M. Modern Greece: a narrative of resi dence aud travels. N. Y., Harper, 1856. 12mo. $1.50. Baldwin, Mary Brisco. Mission life in Greece. See Pitman. E. E.. Mrs. Belle, Henri. Trois annees en Grece. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 4 fr. Behrmann.Geo. Ein Maienfahrt durch Griechenland. Hamburg, 1800. Svo. 4 80 Mk. Bowen, G. F., Sir. Handbook for travellers in Greece. L., John Murray, 1852 ( ?) 5th e., 1884. Svo. Cabrol, E. Voyage en Grece (18»9). K otes et impres sions. Ps. 1890. 4to. 30 fr. Chirol, M. V. 'Twixt Greek and Turk: thro' Thes- saly, etc., in 1860. L., Blackwoods, 1881. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Farrer, R. R. Tour in Greece, 1880. L., Black- woods, 1882. 8vo. 21s. Field, H. M. Greek Islands, and Turkey after the war. N. Y., Scribners, 1885. Svo. $1.50. Griechenland, Ein Winter in. Lpz. 1881. 8vo. 2 Mk. Hanson, C. H. The laud of Greece. N. Y., Nelsons, 18S6. Svo. $4.00. Hoskirer, V. O. von. Et Besog i Graekenland, ^Egypten og Tyrkist. Kbhn. 1879. 8vo. Hugonuet, Leon. La Grece nouvelle; l'Hell6nisme, son evolution et son avenir. Ps.1883. 12mo. 3.50fr. Jebh, R. C. Modern Greece, two lectures. L., Mac millan, 1880. 8vo. 5s. Metaxas, C. Memorie storiche sulla rivoluzioue Ellenica. Lucca, 1882. 8vo. Missionary Letters relating to the Greeks and Armenians. Phila., Am. S. S. Soc. 18—. 18mo. 25c. Moreno de la Tejera, V. Diario de un viaje a Orieute. Madrin [ISS0] Svo. Murray's Handbook tor Greece. See Bowen, G. F. Orient, Der. Hauptrouteu durch Griechenland. Lpz. ]-<«l-2. 2 v. Svo. Pervano^lu, J. Culturbilder aus Griechenland. Lpz. 1880. 8vo. 4 Mk. Pitman, E. R., Mrs. Mary Briscoe Baldwin's mis sion lite in Greede and Palestine. L., Cassell, 1881. 8vo. 5s. Rangahe, A. R. Greece: her progress and present position. N. Y.. Putnam, 1867. 12mo. 75 cts. Sathas, C. N. Documents iuedits relatifs al'histoire de la Grece au nioyen age. [Venice], 1880-84. 6 v. 120 fr. Schweiger-Lerchenfeld. Griechenland (in Woerl's Reisebibliothek), Wurzburg, 1890. 16mo. 5 Mk. Sergeant, L. Greece. L., Low, 1880. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Smith, Agnes. Glimpses of Greek life and scenery. L., Hurst. 1884. Svo. 15s. Snider, I>. J. Walk in Hellas on foot through cities, villages, aud rural districts. Bost., Roeslein, 1883. 8vo. $3.00. Stanley, A. P., Bean. History of the Eastern church. L„ Muiray, 1861, 2d e., 1862. 8vo. 16s. Stephens, J. L. Travels in Greece, etc. N. Y., Harper, 1849. 2 v. 12iuo. $3.00. Thomas, J. L. Undergraduate's trip to Italy and Attica. 1880-81. L., Simpkin, 1881. 8vo. 5s. Tuckerman, C. K. The Greeks of to-day. N. Y., Putnam. 1872. 12mo. $1.50. Ussing, J. L. Fra Hellas og lilleasien. Kbhn. 1883. 8vo. Van Lennep, H. J. Ten days among Greek brigands. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co. 1874, 16mo. $1.25. Wilson, John. Independent Eastern churches. Edinb. 1845. 8vo. 4s. Wilson, S. S. Greek mission; or, sixteen years in Malta and Greece. L., Snow, 1839. 8vo. 12s. Wordsworth, Chr. Greece. L., Murray, 1844. 2d e., 1858. 8vo. 38s. GREENLAND AND LABRADOR. (Not intended to include scientific explorations to the North Pole.) Andersen. Efterretn. om Island og om Gronland og Strat Davis (Information about Iceland, Greenland, and Davis Strait.) Kbhn. 1748. Beauvois, E. Origines et fondation du diocese de garahs en Greenland. Ps. 1878. 8vo. 2.75 fr. Beses, J. Gronlands Beskrivelse med et Kort og Forerindring af A. Aschlund (Description of Green land, with a map and preface). Kbhn., 18—, 2d e., 1832. Behrens, W. Ethnografisk Beskrivelse over Nord- gronland (Ethnographic notes on North Greenland). Kbhn. 1860. Betfenkning oiu den Gronlandske Handel. (Fra Poutoppidan's Magazin for ulmennytti^e Bidrag til KundskabomlndretningerogForfatnmgeride.Kgl. danske Stater. 1. Del.) (Observations ou the Green land trade. From P.'s magazine for useful knowl edge about Danish affairs, I.) Kbhn. 1792. Brodbeck, J. Untersuchuugsfahrt nach der Ost- kiiste Gronlands. Niesky, Mission Department der Briider Gemeinde, 1882. 8vo. Cartensen, A. R. Two summers in Greenland. L., Chapman, Phila., Lippincott, 1890. 8vo. 14s. $2.50. Cranz, D. The history of Greenland, . . its inhabi tants and the mission . . of the Unitas Fra- trum. (From the German.) L. 1767. 2 v. Svo. n. e., 1820, with continuation to 1820, and a sketch of the mission in Labrador. Dalager. Gronlandske Relationer (Memoirs on Green- laud). Kbhn. 1752. De la Roche Gallichon, F. C. Sendschreiben, etc., betreffend die Wiederfindung des Alten Gronlands. Cpn. 1787. Domestic Scenes in Greenland and Iceland. L., Relig. Tract Soc, 1841. 2d ed., Van Voorst, 1851. 18mo. 2s. Efterretninger om Rudera eller Levninger af de gamle Nordmaends og lslaauderes Bygiunger paa Gronlands VesterSide (Notes ou Rudera or the architectural remains of the old Norsemen and Icelanders on Greenland's West coast). Kbhn. 1776. Egede, Hans. A description of Greenland. [From the Danish.] L. 1745. Svo. 3d e., L., Allmau, 1845. 8vo. 12s. — Reisebeskrivelse tilOstgronlandsOpda- gelse (Description of the discovery of East Green land). 1786-7. Kbhn. 1789. Egede, P. Efterretninger om Gronland, uddragne af en Journal, holden fra 1721-17S8 (Information con cerning Greenland, extracted from a journal kept from 1721 to H88). Kbhn. 1788 8vo. Etzel, A. von. Grduland geographisch und statistisch beschrieben. Stuttg. 1860. 8vo. 3 Thaler, 15 gr. Fasting. Sendebrev til alle Gronlasndere i Norden (Open letter to all Greenlanders). Kbhn. 1838. Fenger, H. M. Bidrag til Hans Egede's og den Gronlandske Missions Historie. Kbhn. 1879. 8vo. Funch, J. C. V. Syv Aar i Nordgronland (Seven years in North Greenland). Viborg, 1840. Glahn. Anmserkninger til de tre firste Boger af Hr. D. Crantz' Historie om Gronland (Notes on the three first books of Mr. D. C.'s "History of Greenland.") Kbhn 1771. Graah, V. A. Reise til Gronland (Journey to Green land), 1828-31. Kbhn. 1832. Greenland Missions. Dubl. 1831. (See Kolbing.) Gronlands historiske Mindesmaerker, udg. af det Kgl. nord. Oldskrifts Selskab (Historical monu ments of Greenland. Ed. by the Royal Northern Antiquarian Soc). 1-3. Kbbn. 1838-45. Gronlandske Chronica,Den (The Greenland Chron icle). Kbhn. 1608. Hayes, I. I. The Land of desolation : narrative of adventure in Greenland. N. Y., Harper, L., Low, 1871. 8vo. $1.75. 14s. Hind, H. Y. Explorations in interior of Labrador Peninsula. L., LongmaDS, 1867. 2 v. 8vo. 32s. Holm. Konebaads Expeditionen til Gronlands Ost- kyst (The K. expedition to the Eastern coast of Greenland, 1883-5.) (From Geogr. Mag.) Jacobsen, F. Et Aar i Gronland (One year in Green land). Kbhn. 1862. Kolbing, F. W. Mission der Evangelischen Briider Gemeinde in Gronland und Labrador. Gnadau, 1831. 2 v. 8vo. 2% Thaler. Eng. Trans., Greenland Missions. Dublin. 1831. Rep. Missionary Records Phila. Bd. Publ , 1854 (?) 18mo. 75c. Kort Beskrivelse over Gronland (Short description of Greenland.) Viberg, 1775. Lund's Indheretni.ig, Udtog af C. . . . angaa. ende de 1652 og 1653 . . . foranstaltede Sotoge til GrBnland. ... Med nogle An in. og Dokumeuter ved Erichsen (Extracts from C. Lund's report . . . on the contemplated expeditions to Greenland in TRAVELS. GENERAL 600 TRAVELS, GENERAL 1652 and 1653. . . . Also some annotations and documents by E.). Kbhn. 1737. Lundt, J. H. Nogle factiske Oplysninger i Aul. af Plauen til Bjergvasrksdrift i Gronland (Some facts to throw light on the proposed mining in Green land). Kbhn. Manby, G. AV. Journal of a Voyoge to Greenland in 1821. L., 1821. 4to. 3d e., 1823. Ger. trans. Lpz. 1823. Mathiesen, G. Den Gronlandske Handel (The Green land trade). Kbhn. 1840.— Gronland, dets Indbyg- gere, Producter og Handel (Greenland, its inhabi tants, products, and trade). Kbhn. 1853. Meddelelser vedk. Forstandersk. i N. -Gronland. Godthaab, 1803. Missionary Records : Northern Countries [Green land and Labrador]. Phila., Pres. Bd. Publ., 1854. 18mo. 75c. (See Kolbing.) Missionen, Die, der Evangelischen Briider in Gron land und Labrador. (See Kolbing.) Missionerne i Nord Polarlandene. Kbhn. 1869. Missions Anfange in Labrador. Basel, 1857. Missions in Labrador. L., Groombridge, 18 — . 18mo. 3s, (See Kolbing.) Moravians in Greenland. L., Hamilton, 1854. 18mo. 3s. 6d. (See Kolbing.) Moravians in Labrador. L.. Hamilton, 1854. 18mo. 2s. 6d. N. Y. 50e. (See Kolbing.) 3Iuhle. Om Emancipationen af Faerderne og Gron land (On the emancipation of the Faroe Islands and Greenlandi. Kbhn. 1835. — Om Grdnlsenderne (About the Greenlanders). With two app. (Kbhn.) 1882-4. — Om Gronlaenderne, deres Fremtid og de til deres Bedste sigtende Foranstaltninger (About the Green landers, their future and means to their improve ment). Kbhn. 1882. Nansen, F. The first crosing of Greenland (From the Norwegian). L. and N. Y., Longmans, 1891. .. St. 8vo. 36s. $10.50. Ost, N. C. Samlinger til Kundskab om Gronland (Collections relating to Greenland). 1-2. Kbhn. 1830. JPayer, J. Oesterr-Ungarische Nordpolische Expedi tion. Wien, 1876. 8vo. 12)^ gulden. .Eng. trans. New Lands within the Arctic Circle. L. , Macmillan, 1876. 8vo. 2v. 32s. Relation du Gronland. Ps. 1647. Rink, H. Gronland, geogr. og stat. beskr. (Green land, geographically and statistically.) 1-2. Kbhn, 1853-7.— Om Gronlands Opdagelse og Colonization (Ssertsyk) (On the discovery and colonization of Greenland). (Separate print.)— Samling af Betsen- kninger og Forslag vedk. den Kgl. Gronlandske Handel (Collection of observations and proposals in regard to the Greenland trade). Kbhn. 1856.— Om Aarsagen til Gronla3ndernes og lignende af jagt levende Nationers materielle Filbagegang ved Besdringen med Europseerne (On the cause of the deterioration of the Greenlanders and other nations living by the chase.) (Kbhn. 1863.)— Danish Green land, its' people and products. L., King, 1877. 8vo. 10s. 6d. — Tales and traditions of the Eskimo. L., Blackwoods, 1875. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Rink, S. Om de nodv. Foranstaltninger til at bevare Gronland som et dansk Biland (On the necessary means for the preservation of Greenland as a Danish colony). Kbhn. — Grdnlsendere (Green landers). Chra. 1886. Ross, J. Voyage of discovery for the purpose of ex ploring Baffin's Bay. L., Longmans, 1819. 3 v. Svn. 21s. Danish trans. Kbhn. 1820. — Resideuce in the Arctic regions, 1829-33. L., Webster, 1835. 2 v. 4to. £3 12s. Saabye. Brndstykker af en Dagbog i Gronland (Fragments of a diary in Greenland, 1770-78.) Odense, 1810. ScIioIch, S. E. Peeps into the far North, Iceland, Lapland, Greenland. L., Wesl. Conf. Off., 1875. IGmo. ls. Stearns, W. A. Labrador. Bost., Whidden, 1885. 2d e., 1887. 12mo. $1.75. Toi-faeus, T. Groenlandia Antigua. Hawn. 1706. Ulrici, E. Die Ansiedlung der Normanen in Gron land. 1879. 8vo. Vallo, V. Gronland, skildret (Greenland depicted.) Haderslev, 1861. Zeilan. Foxexpeditionen i Aaret 1860 over Fa?rderne, Island og Gninland (The Fox expedition in the year 1860 to the Faroe Isi., Iceland, and Greenland). Kbhn. 1861. Zoegdrager Bliiijende Opkomst der Alonde en Hedendag. Groenl. Visschery. Amst. 1728. GUIANA. Beaumont, J. New slavery in British Guiana. L. 1871. 8vo. 2s. Benoits, P. J. Voyage a Surinam, description des possessions neerlandaises dans la Guyane. Ps. 1858. 4to. 20 fr. Bernau, T. H. Missionary labour among Indians of British Guiana. L., J. F. Shaw, 1847. Svo. 7s. Blood, XV. Mission to the Indians of Orialla [Guiana], L., Partridge, 1853. 12mo. 5s. Bouyer, Fred. La Guyane f raneaise. Ps. 1867. 4to. 20 fr. Brandhof, N. van den. De toekomst der Kolonie Suriname. Gravenhage, 1878. 8vo. Brett, W. H. Indian missions in Guiana. L. , Bell & D., 1851. 8vo. 5s.— Indian tribes of Guiana. N.Y., Carter, 1852. 16mo. 75c. 3d e., L., Bell & D., 1868. 8vo. 18s. — Legends and myths of the aboriginal In dians of British Guiana. L., Gardner, 1880. 8vo. 12s. 6d.— Mission work among the Indian tribes in the forests of Guiana. L., S.P. C. K. [1881]. 8vo. 3s. Bronkhurst, H. V. P. The colony of British Guyana and the laboring population. L., Woolmer, 1883. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Carrey, Emile. Les aventures de Robin Jouet dans la Guyane frangaise. Tours, 1864, 2d ed., 1883. 8vo. 5 fr. Ger. Trans, by J. Baumgarten. Sti-uttgart, 1877. Caulin, A. Historia corographica y de Cumana Guyana y Nert" del Rio Orinoco. Madr. 1779. Denis. Guyana. Entdeckung und Colonisirung. Lpz. 1829. Gilii, Ph. Salv. Nachricht vom Lande Guiana (S. A.). (From the Italian.) Hamb. 1785. 8vo. 1 Thaler, 4gr. Hillis, J. D. Leprosy in British Guiana. L., Churchill, 1881. 8vo. 31s. 6d. Jusselaine, Armand. Un deporte a Cayenne, sou venirs de la Guyane. Ps. 1865. 12mo. 3 fr. Kappler, A, Hollandiseh-Guiana. Stuttgart, 1881. Svo. 6 Mk. Ledderhose, C. F. Die Mission unter den freien Buschnegern in Surinam. Heidelberg, 1852. 2d ed. 1854. 8vo. 75 Pf. — Die Mission unter den Arawak- ken (Guiana). Basel, 1857. Ludwig, J. F. Neueste Nachrichten von Surinam. Jena, 1789. 2d ed. 1798. 8vo. 18 gr. Marratt, J. In the tropics; or, scenes ... of W. Indian life. L., Wesl. Conf. Off., 1876. 2d e., 1881. 8vo. ls. 6d. Medelsheim, C. de. La Guyane. Civilisation et barbarie, coutumes et paysages. Ps. 1854. 12mo. 3 50 f r. Meissner. Bericht von dem Entstehen der Briider Mission unterden Buschnegern zu Bambey(Guiana), etc. 7 gr. Schreiberschau, 1S50. Montezon, A. de. Mission de Cayenne et de la Guyane frangaise. Ps. 1857. Svo. 3.75 fr. Nibaut, E. Guyane franeaise. Ps. 1882. 12mo. 1.25 fr. Palgrave, W. G. Dutch Guiana. L., Macmillan, 1876. 8vo. 9s. Polidore, F. Les mines d'or de l'Awa (Guyane fran gaise). Ps. 1890. 32mo. 75 c Reise nach Guiana und Cayenne, nebst einer Uebersicht der alteru dalnn gemachten Reisen. Hamb. 1799. Riko, A. J. Ons Rijk Suriname. Rotterd. 1883. Svo. Schomburg, K. Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoko. Lpz. 1841. Svo. 6j Thaler. Stedman, C. Nachrichten von Surinam und von seiner Expedition gegen die Rebellischeu Neger. From the Eng. Hamb. 1797. Svo. 2 Thaler, 12 gr. Teenstra, M. D. Bijdrage tot de ware Beschouwing, etc., in de Kolonie Suriname. Amst. 1844. Ternaux-Compans, H. Notice historique sur la Guyane frangaise. Ps. 1843. 8vo. 3.50 fr. Thunii, E. F. im. Among the Indians [of Guiana]. L., Paul, 1883. Svo. 18s. Veness, XV. T. El Dorado; or, British Guiana as a field for colonization. L., Cassell, 1867. Svo. 10s. 6d. —Ten years of mission life. in British Guyana: being a memoir of T. Youd. L., S. P. C. K. [1875]. 12mo. ls. Vidal [E. L. ?] Voyage d'exploration dans le haut- Maroni, Septembre a Novembre, 1861. Ps. 1862. Svo. 1.50 fr. Whethain J. XV. B. Roraima and British. Guiana. L., Hurst, 1879. Svo. 15s. Youd, T. See Veness. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Anderson, Mary E. Scenes in the Hawaiian Islands aud California, Bost., Am. Tr. Soc [1865]. 16mo. $1.15. Anderson, R. The Hawaiian Islands. Bost., Gould & L., 1864. 3d e., 1865. 12mo. $2.25.— Sandwich Islands Mission. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1870. 12mo. $1.50. Anrep-Elmt, R. Die Sandwich Inseln. Lpz. 1885. Svo. 8 Mk. TRAVELS, GENERAL G01 TRAVELS, GENERAL Bartlett, J. C. Historical sketch of missions of A. B. C. F. M. in Sandwich Is. Bost. 1876. 12mo. 6 cts. (?>. Bastian, A. Zur Kenntniss Hawaiis, NachtrSge und Erganzungen zu den Inselgruppen in Oceanien, Berl. 1883. 8vo. 4 Mk. Biber, G. E. Hawaii and its church. L., Rivingtons, 1865. Svo. ls. Bingham, Hiram. The Sandwich Islands. Hart ford, 1817. 3d e., Canandaigua, N. Y„ 1855. Bird, I. L„ Miss [now Mrs. Bishop], The ^Hawaiian archipelago: six months among ihe . . •Sandwich Islands. L., Murray, and N. Y., Putnam, 1875. 4th ed., 1881. 8vo. 7s.6d. $3.50. Bliss, W. R. Paradise in the Pacific. N. Y., Sheldon, 1873. 16mo. $1.25. Bowser, G. The Hawaiian kingdom, statistical and commercial directory and tourists' guide, 1880-81. San Franc 1881. 8vo. $3.75. [15s.] Chaney, G. L. Aloha ! a Hawaiian salutation. Bost. 1880. 12mo. $1.50. Cheever, H. T. Life in the Sandwich Islands. N. Y., Barnes, 1851. 12mo. $1.50. Coan, T. Life in Hawaii: autobiographic sketch of mission life and labours. N. Y., Randolph, 1882. 12nio. $1.75. dumming, C. F. G. Fire fountains : kingdom of Hawaii. L., Blackwoods, 1883. 2 v. 8vo. 35s. Dibble, S. Sandwich Islands Mission. N. Y., Dodd, 1839. 12mo. 75 cts. Doane, M. A. Sandwich Islands and people. L., 1866. 2d e., 1870. Ellis, XV. Tour through Owhyhee. L., Fisher, 1826. 4th e.. 1827. 8vo. 12s.— The American Mission in the Sandwich Islands. L., Jackson & W., 1866. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Forlander, A. Origin and migrations of the Poly nesian race. . . . Ancient history of the Hawaian people to the time of Kamehameha I. L., Trubner, 1880. 2v.8vo. Vol.1. 7s. 6d. Vol.11. 10s. 6d. Geschichte der Christlichen Mission auf den Sandwich Inseln. Basel, 1872. 8vo. 1.20 Mk. Hawaiian Church Mission. L., Rivingtons, 1865. Svo. 6d. History of the Sandwich Islands. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc [1857 ?]. 18mo. 65c Hopkins, Manley. Hawaii, the past, present, and future. L. and N. Y., Longman, 1862. 2d e., 1866. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Huimewell, J. Journal of the voyage of the "Mis sionary Packet" to Honolulu, 1826. Charlestown, Mass., 1880. 4to. Hunnewell, J. F., and others. Bibliography of the Hawaiian Islands. Bost. 1869. JTarves, J. J. History of the Hawaiian Islands. Bost., Munroe & Co., and L., Bohn, 1843. 13mo. $2.25 and 3s. 6d. — Scenes and scenery of the Sandwich Islands. Bost., Munroe & Co., and L., Moxon, 1844. 12mo. $1.35 and 8s. .Judd, L. F. Honolulu: sketches of life, social, polit ical, and religious, in the Hawaiian Islands from 1828 to. 1861. . . . N. Y., Randolph, 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Kalakaua, King, and Daggett, R. M. Myths and mots of the Hawaiian Islands. N. Y., Webster, 1889. 8vo. $3.00. Kingdom and Church of Hawaii (reprinted from Col. Ch. Chr., a periodical.) L., 1865. Kirchoff, Thdr. Eine Reise nach Hawaii. Altona, 1890. 8vo. 4.50 Mk. Missionary Records : Sandwich Islands. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1857. 18mo. ls. 6d. Nicholson, H. From sword to share; or, a fortune in five years at Hawaii. L., Allen, 1881. 8vo. 12s. 6d. Orme, W. Defence of the missions in the South Sea and Sandwich Islands. L., [Jackson & W. ?], 1827. 12mo. (5s. ?) Peabody, A. P. Hawaiian Islands developed by missionary labors. Bost. 1865. Svo. Sandwich Island Notes ; by a Haole. N. Y., Harper, 1854 12mo. $1.50. Staley, Bp. (Honolulu). Five years' church work in Hawaii. L., Rivingtons, 1868. 8vo. 5s. Thmm'8 Hawaiian Almanac. (Annual.) Hono lulu. 50c. Tournafond, P. Havai, histoire de l'etablissement du Catholicisme dans cet arehipel. Ps. 1877. 12mo. 2fr. HAYTI AND SAN DOMINGO. Ardouin, B. fitude sur l'histoire d'Haiti. Ps. 1853- 61. 11 v. 8vo. 66 fr. Boismond-Tonnere. Memoires pour servir a l'his toire d'Haiti. Ps. 1851. 12mo. 2fr. Bonneau, Alex. Haiti, ses progres, son avenir. Ps. 1862. Svo. 3fr. Cocchia, R., Archbp. Los restos de Cristobal Colon en la catedral de Santo Domingo. Diridurjoly. Manuel des habitans de S. Domingue. Ps. 1803. Eldin, F. Haiti. Toulouse, 1879. ISmo. 1.10 fr. Hanna, W. Notes of a visit to parts of Hayti. L., Seeley, 1836. 12mo. 5s. 6d. Herivel, J. IV. Hayti and the Gospel. L., Stock, 1891. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Hazard, S. Santo Domingo, past and present, with Hayti. With bibliography. L., Low, 1873. 8vo. 18s. Janvier, L. J. La republique d'Haiti et ses visiteurs (1840-82); unpeuplenoir. . . . Ps. 1882. 8vo. 7.50fr. Kimball, R. B. Life in San Domingo. N. Y., Carle- ton, 1873. 12mo. $1.50. Laroche, Leon. Haiti, une page d'histoire. Ps. 1885. 8vo. 7 f r. La Selve, E. Le pays des negres: voyage a Haiti. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 4 fr. Los Restos de Colon. Madrid, 1879. 8vo. Mackenzie, C. Notes on Hayti and San Domingo. L., Colburn, 1830. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Parmentier, J. and R. Description de I'Isle de Sainct Domingo en 1529. Publie par Ch. Schefer. Ps. 18S3. 8vo. 16 fr. St. John, Spenser, Sir. Hayti; or, the black re public L., Smith & E„ N, Y., Scribner, 1884. 3d ed., 1890. 8vo. 7s. 6d. and $2.50. Saint-Mery, Moreau de. Description . . . de la partie frangaise de 1'ile Saint-Domingue. Ps. 1797- 1798. 2 v. 4to. 2d ed. 1875-76 (pub. by the editor). 2 v. ' Schoelcher, Victor. Colonies etrangeres et Haiti, resultats de l'emancipatiou anglaise. Ps. 1843. 2 v. 8vo. 12 fr. Thevet, A. Le grand insulaire. L'isle de Haity. n. e. Ps. 1883. 8vo. HONDURAS. See Central America. INDIA— HISTOR Y, Adams, W. H. D. Episodes of Anglo-Indian history. L., Marlborough, 1879, 2d ed., 1891. 10s. 6d. Allen, D. O. India, ancient and modern. Bost., Jewett, 1856. 2d ed., 1858. 8vo. $2.00. Andrew, W. P. India and her neighbours. L., Allen, 1877. 8vo. 15s. Aberigh-Mackay, S. R. The times of India. Hand book of Hindustan. L., Trubner, 1876. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Baierlein, E. R. The land of the Tamulians and its missions. Trans, from the Germ, by J. D. B. Gribble. Madras, 1876. (See next section.) Beveridge, H. History of India. L. 1862. 3 v. 63s. — Thirty years' residence in India. L., Richard- sons, 1839. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Carlos, E. S. Short history of British India. Cam bridge Warehouse, 1890. 12mo. 7s. 6d. Christlieb, T. The Indo-British opium trade and its effects. Eng. trans. L., Nisbet, 1879. 2d e., 1881. 12mo. 2s. Ger. orig. Giitersloh, 1878. French trans. Paris, 1879. Cox, G. W., Sir. History of the establishment of British rule in India. L., Longmans, 1881. 12mo. 2s. Cunningham, H. S. British India and its rulers. L., Allen, 1881. 8vo. 10s. 6d. De la Croze. Histoire du Christianisme des Indes. Haye, 1724, Dutt, R. C. A history of civilization in ancient India, based on Sanscrit literature. L., Trubner, 1889-90. 3 v. 8vo. 24s. Dutt, Th. Ancient ballads and legends of Hindustan. L., Paul, 1882. 12mo. 5s. Eastwick, E. B. Handbook of the Bengal Presi dency, with an account of Calcutta city. L., Mur ray, 1883 12mo. 20s. Eden, C. H. India; historical and descriptive. L., Ward. 1876. Svo. 3s. 6d. Elliot, H. M. History of India, told by its own his torians. L., Trubner, 1867-77. 8 v. 8vo. 24s. ea. Sequel by E. C. Bayley. L. 1886. Elphinstone, M. History of India. L. 1811. 2 v. 5th e. by Cowell. Murray, 1866. 1 v. 8vo. 18s.— The rise of the British power in the East. Ed. by Sir E. Colebrooke, Bart. L., Murray, 1887. 8vo. 16s. Feudge, Fannie R., Mrs. History of India. Boston, Lothrop, 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Grant. Jas. Cassell's illustrated history of India. L., Cassell, 1876-77. 2v. 4to. 18s. 3de„ 1887. 8vo. Hector, J. Parker and Payn. Statistical tables of Protestant missions in India, Ceylon, and Burmah. L., Thaeker, 1883. 8vo. 6s. Histoire de I'Etablissement du Christianisme dans les Indes Orientale. Ps. 1803. Historical Sketch of the Princes of India, etc. L., Smith & E., 1833. Svo. 7s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 602 TRAVELS, GENERAL Hodgson, B. H. Aborigines of India. L., Williams, & N., 1860. Svo. 9s. Hunter, \V. W., Sir. 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History of the French in India, 1674- 1761. L., Longmans, 1868. 8vo. 16s.— Essays and lectures on Indian historical subjects. L. , Triibner, 187-. 2d e., 1876. 8vo. 5s— Sketch of the native states of India. L., Longmans, 1875. 8vo. 15s. — Final French struggles in India and Indian Seas. L., Allen, 1878. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 2d e., 1884. 8vo. 6s.— The Indian mutiny of 1857-59. L., Allen, 1878- 80, 3 vols. 8vo. 60s. 2d e., vol. i, ii, 1870. 3d e., vol. i, 1890. L., Seeley. 5s. N. Y., Scribner & W. $1.75.— The decisive battles of India, 1764-1849. L., Allen, 1883. 8vo. 18s. 3de., 1888. 8vo. 7s. 6d.— The founders of the Indian Empire: Clive, Hastings, Wellesley. L„ Allen, 1882. 8vo. 20s.— The rulers of India. Akbar, Dupleix. L. and N. Y., Macmil lan, 1890. 2v. 12mo. 60c. each. Manning, Mrs. Ancient and mediaeval India. L., Allen, 1869. 3 v. 8vo. 30s. Marshman, J. C. History of India. . L., Blackwood, 1867. 3 v. 8vo. 22s. 6d.— Abridgment of the his tory of India. 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L., Allen, 1884. 8vo. 5s. Burnes, Alex. Journey to and residence in Cabool. L„ .Murray, 1843. 8vo. 18s. Burnes, Jas. Visit to the court of Sinde, and history of Cutch. L., Longman, 1839. 12mo. 6s. Burton, R. F. Scinde; or, the unhappy valley. L., Bentley, 1851. 2 v. 8vo. 21s.— Sindh and the races that inhabit the valley of the Indus. L., Bentley, 1851. Svo. 13s.— Sind revisited. L., Bentley, 1877. 2 v. 8vo. 24s. Butler, W. The land of the Veda. Personal remi niscences of India. Bost ,Estes, 1871. Svo. $4.00 — From Boston to Bareilly and back. N. Y. 1885. 12nio. $1.50. Butterworth, H. Zigzag journeys in India: zenana tales. Bust., Estes & L., 1887. 8vo. $2.25. Buyers, Wm. Letters on India, with special refer ence to the spread of Christianity. L., Snow, 1840. 12mo. 5s. — Christianity in the East. L. 1842. 12mo. — Recollections of Northern India. L., Snow, 1818. Svo. 10s. 6d. Caine, W. S. Picturesque India. L. and N. Y,, Routledge. Svo. 1890. 10s. 6d. $3.50. Caird, J. 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L., Longman, 1823. 8vo. 7s. Duff, Alex. The Church of Scotland's India Mission. Edin. 1S35. 2d e., 1836. 8vo.— Vindication of the Church of Scotland's India Mission. Edin. 1837. 5th 1,000. 1837.— Female education in India. Edin. 1839. 8vo. — Farewell address on Scotland's India mission. Edin. 1839. 8vo. — India and the Indian mis sions. Edinb., Groombridge, 1839. 8vo. 12s.— Ex planatory statement . . . India mission. Edin. 1844. Svo. — A voice from the Ganges. L. 1844. — India and its evangelization, twelve lectures. L. 1851. — Letters on the Indian rebellion: its causes and results. L., Nisbet, 1858. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Duff, Jas. Grant. A history of the Mahrattas. L., Longman, 1836. 3 v. 8vo. 3d e., 1873. 55s. Duff, M. E. G. Notes on an Indian journey. L., Macmillan, 1876. Svo. 10s. 6d. Duft'erin,Lady. Our viceregal life. L., Murray, 1890. 3d e. 1890. 3 v. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Dulles, J. XV. Life in India; or, Madras, the Neil- gherries, and Calcutta. Phila., Pres. Bd. Pub., 1856. 8vo. 80c. 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Halle, 1874-87. 2 v. 8vo. 8 Mk. Noyes, E. History of the Orissa Mission. Phila. 1835. 60c. Nugee, G. Necessity for Christian education in India. L„ Riving! on, 1846. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Occasional Papers on India. [Church Missionary ^ociety.] L. 1858-60. Nos. 1-9. 8vo. Ochs, C. Die Kaste in Ostindien und die Geschichte derselbeu in der alten Lutlierischeu Mission. Ros tock, 1860. 8vo. 8 Sgr.— Nothgedrungeue Entgeg- nung, etc, der erneuerten Anklagen. Rendsburg, I860.— Zeugnisse zur Ostindischen Kasten-Frage. Dresd. 1863 Oliphant, Laurence. Journey to Nepaul. L., Mur ray, 1853. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Olivier, G. A. Reise durch das Indische Reich, etc. Lpz. 1808. Oman, C. P. Eastwards: realities of Indian life. L., Simpkiu, 1804. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Oman, J. Campbell. Indian life, religious and social. Phila.. Gebbie, 1889. 8vo. $1.75. Osborne, Dennis. India and its millions. Phil. 1884. 12mo. Ost-indischen Kasten Frage, Stellung der evangel- isch-lutherischen Mission in Leipzig zur. Lpz. 1861. 10 Sgr. 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Histoire du peuple americain et de ses rapports avec les Indiens depuis la fondation des colonies anglaises jusqu'a 1776. Ps. 1863. 8vo. 13 fr. Carver, Jonathan. Three years' travels through the interior parts of N. America. L. 1778. Svo. Phila. 1796. Svo. Catlin, G. Manners, customs, and conditions of the No. American Indians. L., Bohn, 1841. 3 v. 6th e., 1876. 8vo. 63s. — North American Indian Port folio. L., Bohn, 1844. fol. 105s. — Life among the In dians. L., Low, 1861. 3d e„ 1874. 12mo. 3s. 6d.— O-kee-pa. A religious ceremony ... of the Man- daris. L., Trubner, 1867. 8vo. 14s. — Last rambles amongst Indians, Rocky Mountains, and Andes. L., Low, 1867. 8vo. 5s. Caverly, R. B. History of the Indian wars of New England. Bost., Earle, 1882. 13mo. $3.00. Cox, Ross. Adventures on the Columbia River. N. Y., Harper, 1832. 8vo. Customs of the Micmac Indians (British North America). L. 1788. Dairy de Thiersant, P. De l'origine des Indiens de Nouveau Monde. Ps. 1883. 8vo. Dodge, R. J. Plains of the great West, and their inhabitants. N. Y., Putnam, 1S77. Svo. $4.00.— Our wild Indians. N. Y., Worthington, 1882. 8vo. $2.75. Domenech, E. Missionary adventures in Texas and Mexico. (From the French.) L., Longman, 1858. 8vo. 10s. 6d.— Seven years' residence in the great deserts of North America. (From the French.) L., Longman, 1860. 2 v. 8vo. 36s. Dorman, R. M. Origin of primitive superstitions and the worship of spirits among the aborigines of America. Phila., Lippincott, 1881. 8vo. $3.00. Drake, S. G. Book of the Indians of North America. Bost., Mussey, 1833. lithe., 1851. n. e., with addi tions, by J.W. O'Neill. Phila., Desilver, 18— . (Later edd. under title, Biography and history of the In dians of North America.) Svo. $4.00.— Indian captivities. Boston, Mussey, 1839. 3d ed.. Auburn, N. Y„ 1851. 12mo. (Under title. Tragedies of the wilderness. Boston, Mussey, 1841. 2d ed., 1846. 12rao. $1.00.)— History of the French and Indian war. Albany, N. Y., Munsell. 1870. 8vo. $4.00. Duflot de Mofras. Exploration del'Oregon, Ps. 1844. 2 v. 8vo. 80 fr. Eastman, M. H., Mrs. Dahcotah; or, life and legends of the Sioux. N. Y., Wiley, 1849. 12mo. $1.00. Eells, Myron. History of Indian missions on the Pacific coast. Phila'., Am. S. S. U, 1882. 12mo. §1.25.— Ten years' missionary work among the Indians at Skokomish. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1886. 12mo. $1.25. Eggleston, E. See Eggleston, G. Cary. Famous American Indians. Eggleston, G. Cary, and others. Famous Ameri can Indians. N. Y., Dodd, 1878-80. 5 v. 12mo. Ea. $1.25. li.e., Tecumseh and the Shawnee prophet. By E. Eggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. Red Eagle, by G. C. Eggleston. Pocahontas, by E. Eggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. Brant and Red Jacket, by the same. Moutezuma, by the same.] Eliot, John. Brief narrative of the progress of the gospel among the Indians in New England. L. 1671. 4to, n. e. Boston (only 170 copies), 1868. 4to.— A further account of the progress of the gospel in New England. . . . L. 1660. (In collections of Mass. Hist. Soc, 3d series, Vol. 4. Bost. 1825. 8vo.) Ellis, G. E. Red man aud white man in North America from its discovery to the present. Bost., Little & Br., 1883. 8vo. $3.50. Emerson, E. R. Indian myths; or, legends, etc., of the aborigines of America. Bost., Osgood, 1884. 8vo. $5.00. Everhard, P. History of Indian Baptist missions in North America. Bost. 1831. 24mo. Eyma, L. X. Les Peaux Rouges. Ps. 1854. 12mo. 3 f r. 50 c. Fales, E. L. Songs and song legends of Dahkotah land. St. Paul, Minn., Highland, 1882. 12mo, 25c Faraud, Hy. Dix-huit ans chez les sauvages, etc., dans Brit. N. Amerique. Ps. 1866. 2d e., 1870. 8vo. 7.50 fr. Finley, J. B. Life among the Indians. Cincin. [M. E. Bk. Cone] 1837. 2de.,lS68. 12mo. $1.75.— His tory of [M. E.l Wyandott Mission at Upper San dusky, Ohio. Cincinnati, [M. E. Bk. Cone] 1840. 12mo. 75c. Force, M. T. Some early notices of the Indians of Ohio, the mound-builders, etc. Cine, Clarke, 1679. 8vo. 50c. Garrett, J. B. LEd.] Historical sketches of mis sions among the North American Indians. Phila. 1881. Godard-Lange. La congregation, ou une mission chez des Iroquois, poeme ascetique. Ps. 1845. 13mo (?). 90c. Goode, W. H. Outposts of Zion (missions to the Indians). Cincin., Meth. Bk. Cone, 1863. 13mo. $1.75. Hale, E. E. Origin and early progress of Indian missions in New England. (In Am. Antiq. Soc. Proceedings.) Worcester, Mass., 1873. 8vo. $1.00. Hathaway, B. The league of the Iroquois, and other legends from the Indian muse. Chicago, Griggs, 1882. Svo. $1.50. Hawley, C. Early chapters in Cayuga history: Jesuit missions in Goi-o-gouen, 1656-84; also Sus- pitian Mission among Cayugas about Quinte Bay, 1668. Auburn, N. Y., Ivison, 1879. Svo. $1.00. Heckewelder, J. G. E. History, manners, etc., of the Indian nations ... of Pennsylvania, etc. Phila., 1818. 8vo, rev. ed., Lippincott, 1876. 8vo. $3.50. Ger. trans. Gottingen, 1821. 8vo.— Mission of United Brethren among the Indians. Phila., 1822. Helleberg. Beskr. 6fver N. Am. Tristaternes Indi- aner (Description of the Indians of the U. S.). Gdteborg, 1848. Hines, G. A. History of the Oregon Mission. Buf falo, N. Y., Derby, 1850. 12mo. $1.25. Hopkins, S. AV. Life among the Piutes: their wrongs and claims. Bost., Cupples, 1883. 12mo. $1.00. Hopley, C. C. Stories of red men. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1880. 8vo. ls. Hornius, G. De originibus Americanis. Hagse, 1652. Svo. 2d ed. Hemipoli, 1669. 12mo. Hunter, John D. Manners and customs of several Indian tribes located west of the Mississippi. To which is prefixed the history of the author's life during a residence of several years among them. Phila. , Marshall, 1 823. 8vo.— Memoirs of a ca ptivity among the Indians of No. America, from childhood to the age of nineteen. . . . L., Longman, 1833. Svo. 3d e., 1824. 12s. Indians of North America Described. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1843. n. e.. 1853. 16mo. 3s. Information respecting the Aborigines (Brit. N. A.). L. 1838. Irving, J. Treat. Indian sketches during a U. S. expedition . . . with the Pawnee and other Indians ... in 1833. N. Y., Putnams, 1888. 12mo. $1.50. Irving, AA'ashn. Tour on the prairies. L., Murray, 1835. n. e , 1859. 8vo. ls. 6d.— Astoria; or, enter prise beyond the Rocky Mountains. Phila. 1836. 2 v. Svo.— Adventures of Captain Bonneville; or, scenes beyond the Rocky Mountains of the Far West. Phila. 1837. 8vo. Jackson, H. H., Mrs. A century of dishonor: a sketch of the U. S. Government's dealing with some of the Indian tribes. N. Y*.. Harper, 1881. n. e., Bost., Roberts, 1885. 12mo. $1.50. Jones, Peter. History of the Ojebway Indians. L., Bennett, 1801. 8vo. 5s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 610 TRAVELS, GENERAL Journal de la Femme d'un Missionaire dans les prairies aux EiatsUnis. Geneve, 1H57. Kane, Paul. The wanderings of an artist among the Indians of North America from Canada to Van couver's Island and Oregon. L., Longman, 1859. Svo. 21s. Kip, VV. 1. Early Jesuit missions in North America. N. Y., Wiiey, 1847. 5th e., Albany, Munsell, 1873. 12mo. $1.50. — Historical scenes from the old Jesuit missions. N. Y.. Kandolph, 1875 Urno. $1.75. Knortz, C. Mythologie und Civilisation der Nord- amenkanisclieu ludianer. Lpz 1KK2. Svo. 1.50 Mk. Han man, C. Adventures iu the wilds of N. America. L., Longman, 1854. ltinio. 2s. Od. Lap 1mm, I. A. uu the Indians of Wisconsin. Mil waukee. lb*U. Le Beau, C. Avantures du Sr. C. Le Beau, on voyage curieux et nonveau panni les Sauvages de l'Amer- ique Septentrionale. Amsterdam, 1738. 2 pt. Svo. Ger. trans. Erfurt, 1740 Cf). Lelaml, C. G. Algonquin legends of New Eugland. L., Low, 1884. Svo. 8s. Lohe, Wilhelm. Die Heiden Mission in Nord Amer ika. Number^, 1840. 8vo. 13 Ff. Long;, S. H. Account of an expedition from Pitts burg to the Rocky Mountains. Phil,, Carey, 1823. 2 v. Svo. $4.50. — Expedition to source <>f St. Peter ''s river. Phila., Carey, 1824. 2 v. 8vo. $3.00. M. E. J. Day spring in the far West: mission work in North America. L., Seeley, 1875. lUmo. 4s, 6d. M. P. V. Histoire de la tribe des Osages. Ps. 1827. M acaulay, J. Grey Hawk: lifeandadventuresamong the red Indians. Phila., Lippincott, 1883. $1.50. McCoy, I. History of Baptist Indian missions. Washn., D C, Morrison, 18-10. 8vo. McKinney, Thos. L. Memoirs, official and personal, with sketches of travels among: the Northern and Southern Indians. N. Y.. Cady & B., 1846. 2 v. 8vo. $3.00. Many penny, G. W. Our Indiau wards. Cincinnati, Clarke, 1880. 8v0. $3.00. Mathews, C. Enchanted moccasins and other legends of the American Indians. N. Y., Putnam, 1877. Svo. $1,50.- Hiawatha and other legends of the wigwams. L., Sonnenschein, 1882. 8vo. 5s. Maurault, J. A. Histoire des Abenakes depuis 1605 jusqu'a nos jours. Ps. 1866. 8vo. 15 fr. Michaux, F. A. Voyage a l'ouest des Monts Alle- ghanis. Ps. 1804. 2d e., 1808. 8vo. Miller, W. Notes concerning the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, with account of a rock picture, Mt. Hope Bay, R.I. Providence, R I., Rider, 1880. 12mo. $1.00. Missionary Records: North America. L., Am. Tr, Soc. 1840. 18mo. Is. 6d. Missions-Bilder. Hft. 4. Nordamericanische Indi- aner. Calw. 1866. 8vo. 7y2 gr. Mollhauseu, B. Wanderungen durch den Prairien u. Wiisten des west lichen Nordamerika von Mississippi nach die Kiisten des Siidsee. Leipzig, 1858. 2de., 1860. Bvo. 12 Mk. Moncrieff, K. H. Men of the backwoods: Indians and Indian fighters. N.Y., Dutton, 1880. 8vo. $2.25. Mondot, A. Histoire des Indiens des Etats-Unis. Ps. 1S5S. 8vo. 5 fr Origin ancl History of the New England Com pany for the conversion of the N. Am. Indians. L. 1884. Otis, K. S. The Indian question. N. Y., Sheldon, 1N7K. 12mu. $1.50. Parker, S. [A. 13. C. F. M]. Exploring tour beyond the Rooky Mountains in 1835-37. Ithaca, Derby, 1838. 8vo. $1.25. Parkman, F. The Oregon trail. N. Y. Putnam, 184;). 8vo. [Many eds.] $1.25.— History of the con spiracy of Pontiac, and the war of the No. Am. tribes against the Engl colonies. Bost., Little & Br. 1851. Svo, $2 50. (Later edd.) Perrot, N. Memoire sur les moeurs, con tu mes et re ligion des sauvages de l'Amerique septentrionale. Ps. 1804. Svo. 14 fr. Pike, Z. M". Account of an expedition to the sources of the Mississippi, ete. Phil. 1810. Poole, D. C. Among the Sioux of Dakota; eighteen months' experience as an Indian agent. N. Y., Van Nostrand, 1881. 12mo. $1 25. Portlock, A. Voyage around the world: particularly to the N. W. coast of America. L. 1789. Powers, S. Tribes of California. Washington [U. S. Geogniph. Survey, etc.], 1877. 4to. Iiiggs, S. It. Tahkoo Wakkan; or, the gospel among the Dakotahs. Bust., Cong. Pub. Co., I860. 16mo. 81.50.— Mn ry and I: forty years with the Sioux. Chicago, Holmes, 1880. l'2mo. $1.50. Sagen der N.-Amerikanisrhen Iiulianer. Alten- hurg. 1837. Svo. 20 gr. Sanborn, J. W. Legends, customs, etc., of the Sen eca Indians of Western New York. N. Y., Horton, 1878. 8vo. 30c. Schoolcraft, H. R. Indian tales and legends; or, . . . inquiries into the mental characteristics of the N. Am. Indians. N. Y., Harpers, 1S34. $1.25. — Oneonta; or. characteristics of the red race of America. N. Y., Wiley, 1844. 8vo. $1.50.— The Indian in his wigwam. Buffalo, Dewitt, 1848. 8vo, 50c. — Personal memoirs of a residence of thirty years with the Indian tribes on the frontiers, 1812- 42. Phila., LippincotD, 1851. 8vo. $3.00.— Notes on the Iroqunis. Albany, Pease, 1851. 8vo. $3.00 — Myth or Hiawatha. Phila., Lippincott, 1856. 8vo. $1.25. — History, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes, U. S. A. Phila., Lippincott, 1851-6. 6 v, 4to. $00.00. Seelye, L. E., Mrs. See Eggleston, G. Cary. Fa mous American Indians. Shea, J. G. History of Catholic missions among Indian tribes of U. S., 1592-1854. N. Y., Strong, 1857. 12mo. $1.50. Short, J. T. The North Americans of antiquity. N. Y., Harpers, 1880. Svo. $3.00. Sim on in, L. Une excursion chez les Peaux Rouges. Ps 1968. Svo. 1 fr. 25 C.-—L1 hora ine American. Notes sur les Indiens des Etats-Unis. Sn.i'i. Paul J. de. Letters and sketches, with a nar rative of a year's residence among the Indian tribes of the Rocky Mountains. Phila., Filhian, 1843. 12mo. $ .—History of (R. C.) Western missions. N. Y , Strong. 12mo. $2.00. — New Indian sketches. N. Y., Sadlier. 16mo. 60c.— Missions de POregon, etc. Ps. 1848. Smith, J. General history of Virginia. L. 1627. Sonde rinaiin, J. s. Die Mission der kirchlichen Missionsgesellschaft in England unter den heid- nischen Indianern des N. W. Amerikas. Nurnberg, 1847. 8vo. 1.60 Mk. Strong, VV. T. Appeal to the Christian community on the conditions and prospects of tbe New York Indians. N. Y 1841. Tanner, John, Narrative of the captivity and adven tures of, during 30 years' residence among the Indians. N. Y., G. & 0. Carvill, 1830. Svo. $1.50. Thatcher, B. Bussey. Biography of North Amer ican Indians. N. Y.. Harper, 1832. n. e. 1842. Indian traits: manners, customs, etc., of the North American natives. N. Y., Harper, 1835. 2 v. ISmo. 70 cts. Tibbies, T. H. Hidden power. (History of Indian rising.) N. Y.. Carleton, 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Torrey, K. S. Sketches of the old Santa Barbara mission, where are gathered the Franciscan friars. Troy. N. Y., Nims & K.. lsss. 8vo. $1.00. Two Attempts toward the Christianization of some Indian nations in North America. L. 1806. "Wege Gottes, die. unter den Indianern. Basel. 1856. "Wilson, E. F. Missionary work among the Ojib way- Indians. L , S. P. C. K., 18S6. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Zylyff. [Pseud.]. The Ponca chiefs. An Indian's attempt to appeal from the tomahawk to the courts. Bost, Lockwood & Br., 1880. 16mo. 50c. * JAMAICA AND BRITISH WEST INDIES. Account of Jamaica and its Inhabitants. L. , 1808. Svo < ?). s. Baeot, Surgeon. The Bahamas: a sketch. L., Long mans, isoy. 2d e.. 1871. Svo. ls. 6d. Bigelow, J. Jamaica in 1<\5U; or, the effects of 16 years freedom on a slave colony. N. Y., Putnam, 1851. l2mo. $1.00. Bridges, G. W. Annals of Jamaica. L., Murray, 1*28. 2 v. Svo. 30s. Buclmer, J. H. History of the mission of the United Brethren to the negroes in Jamaica, 1754-1854. Bethlehem, Pa., Clauder, aud L., Longman, 1854. 24mo. 50c. Svo. 3s, 6d. Captain's Story; or, Jamaica, with an account of the emancipation. L., Ilelig. Tract Soc, 1883. 16mo. 5s. Carlile, W. Thirty-eight years' mission life in Ja maica. L.. Nisbet. 1884. Svo. 3s. 6d. Clark. J., Bendy, W., and Phillips, J. M. The voice of jubilee: a narrative of the Baptist Mission in Jamaica from its commencement, with biographical notices of its fathers and founders. L., Snow. 1865. Svo. 6s. Comfort!, P. H. Missionary reminiscences; Jamaica. L., Houlston. 1856. 12mo. 2s. Dallas, Kobt. C. The history of the Maroons from their origin to the establishment of their chief tribe at Sierra Leone; the expedition to Cuba; and the state of . . . Jamaica for the last ten years, with a history of the island previous to that period. L. ,1803. 2v. Svo Duncan, P. Narrative of the Wesleyan Mission to Jamaica. L., Partridge, 1849. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Foster, H. B. Wesleyan Methodism in Jamaica. L. , 1881. 8vo. TRAVELS, GENERAL 611 TRAVELS. GENERAL Foulks, Theod. Eighteen months in Jamaica. L., Whittaker. 18—. 12mo. 3s. Gardner, W. J. History of Jamaica and narrative of the progress of religion. L. 1873. 8vo. Gcdet, T. L. Bermuda; its history, etc. L., Smith &E., 1860. 8vo. 9s. Jamaica as it was, as it is, and as it may be. L., Hurst, 1335. Bmo, 5s. Jamaica, enslaved and free. L., , and Cincinnati, Meth. Bk. Cone, 1846. 16mo. 50 c. Jamaica, its state and prospects; with an exposure of the Freedman 's Aid Society and the Baptist Mis sionary Society. L. 1867. ISmo. Long, E. History of Jamaica. L. 1774. 8 v. 4to. Missions-Bilder. Hft. 7. Jamaica und die Bochon- na's. Calw. 1867. Svo. Narrative of liecent Events connected with tlie Baptist Mission, . . . compiising also a sketch of the mission from 1814 to 1831. Kingston, Jamaica, 1833. 8vo. Philippo, J. M. Jamaica. L., Snow, 1843. 8vo. 8s. 6d. [Rampini, C. J. G.] Letters from Jamaica, the land of streams and woods. Edinb., Edmonston, 1873. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Retrospect of the history of the mission of the Brethren's Church iu Jamaica for the past hundred years. L. 1854. Svo. Rowe, G. Colonial empire of Great Britain: Atlantic group. L., S. P. C. K., 1865. 18mo. 2s.> Samuel, Pet. Wesleyan missions in Jamaica and Honduras. L., Partridge. 1850. 8vo. 10s. Sargeant, Richd. Letters from Jamaica on subjects historical, national, and religious. L. Scott, Sibbald I>. Jamaica and back. L., Chapman, 1876. Svo. 10s. 6d. Simins, \V. Class book of the geography and history of Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, 1883. Svo. Sinclair, A. C, and Fyfe, L. R. The Handbook of Jamaica. L., Stanford, 1882 sqq. (Issued an nually.) 8vo. 8s. Sloane, Hans, Sir. History of Jamaica. L. 1751. 8vo. French trans, by Rauliu. L. 1751. 2 pt. Stewart, J. View of the Island of Jamaica. L., Whittaker, 1823. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Tour in Jamaica. L., Hurst, 18—. 8vo. 12s. Williams, C. R. A tour through Jamaica in 1823. L. , Simpkin, 1626. 8vo. 15s. JAPAN. Adams, F. O. History of Japan from earliest times to the present. L., King, 1874. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. Alcock, R., Sir. The capital of the Tycoon: a nar rative of three years1 residence in Japan. L., Longmans, 1863. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. — Art and art indus tries in Japan. L., Virtue, and N. Y., Scribner & W., 1878. 8vo. 15s. $6.00. Annates des empereurs de Japon. L., Oriental Tran. Fund, n. d. 4to. 30s. Audouin, Leon. Apercu sur l'histoire de la medicine au Japon. Ps. 1884. 8vo. 2 fr. Arvoir, Gab. Vatandono, ou les premiers Chretiens au Japon. Ps. 1875. 12mo. 1 f r. 50 c. Audsley, G. A. The ornamental arts of Japan. L., Low, 1883 sqq. 4 prts. Ea. 73s. 6d. Ayrton, M. C. Child life in Japan and Japanese stories. L., Griffith, 1879. 2d e., 1888. Svo. 6s. Bacon, Alice j>l. Japanese Girls and Women. Bos ton, Houghton, 1891. 12mo. $1.25. Backstrom. Ett besok i Japan og Kina, jemte bilder fran Uodo Huppsudden, Bourbon, N. Kaled., Mar seille, och Kochinkina (A visit to Japan and China, together with pictures from. . . . ) Stoim. 1871. Bickerstafte, B., Mrs. Araki the Daimeo, a Japan ese story. L., Jackson & W.. 1805. Svo. 5s. Bird, I. I.., Miss (now Mrs. Bishop). Unbeaten tracks in Japan. L , Murray, and N. Y., Putnam, 1880. 2 v. 8vo. 4th e., 1881. 24s. $5 00. 1 v. abr. 1885. 8vo. 7s. 6d. $2.50. Black, J. R. Young Japan, Yokohama, and Yedo during 21 years. Yokohama, 1880. 2 v. L., Triib ner, 1881. Svo. 42s. Bouix, D. Histoire de vingt-six martyrs du Japon, crucifies . . . Fev. 5, 1597, avec un apercu historique sur les Chretiens du Japon . . . jusqu'a jours. Ps. 1862. 8vo. 5 fr. Bousquet, G. Le Japon de nos jours et les echelles de l'extreme Orient. Ps. 1877. 2 v. Svo. 15 fr. Brauns, C. XV. E. Japanische Marehen, gesammelt u.derKinderwelterziihlt. Glogau. 1889. 8vo. 3Mk. Burnout, K. La mythologie des Japonaise. Traduite Busk, W., Mrs. See Manners. sur le texte Japonaise. Ps. 1875. 8vo. 1 fr. 25 c. Caddell, Celia M. History of R. C. missions in Japan and Paraguay. L., Burns, and N. Y., Sadlier, 1856. 12mo. 2s. 6d. 75 cts. Carrothers, J. D., Mrs. Sunrise kingdom: life and scenes in Japan and woman's work for woman there. Phila., Pres. Bd. Pub., 1879. 12mo. $2.00 — Kesa anil Saijiro; or, lights and shades of life iu Japan. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1888. 12mo. $1.50. Carstensen, XV. Japans Hovedstad og Japaneserne. En rusfisk Reiseskitze ved W. Carstensen (The cap ital of Japan and the Japanese. A Russian sketch of travel hy VV. C). Kbhn. 1863. Chamberlain, B. H. The classical poetry of the Japanese. L., Trubner, 1880. 8vo. 7s. 6d.— Things Japanese: being notes on various subjects con nected with Japan. L„ Paul, 18-. 2d ed, 1891. Svo. 7s. 6d. Chapin, J. H. Japan to Granada. N. Y., Putnam, 1889. 16mo. $1.50. Charlevoix, P. F. X. de. Histoire de l'etablissement, des progres, et de la decadence du Christianisme dans l'Empire du Japon. Rouen, 1715. 8vo. Claparede, A. de. Au Japon. Geneva, 1890. 12mo. 4fr. Clark, E. W. Life and adventure in Japan. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1878. 161110. $1.25 L., Nisbet, 1878. 12mo. 5s. Convention of Missionaries of Japan. Tokio, 1878. —At Osaka. Yokohama, 1883. Cook, M. B. Japau: a sailor's visit to the Island Empire. N. Y., Alden, 1891. 12mo. 50c Cooper. Lecture on the manners and customs of the Japanese, and progress of Christian missious. N. Y. 1880. Cornwallis, K. Two journeys to Japan, 1856-57. L., Newby, 1859. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Cotteau, E. De Paris au Japon a travers la Siberie. Ps. 1883. 12mo. 4 fr. Crowe, A. H. Highways and byways in Japan. L., Low, 1883. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Cutler, T. XV. Grammar of Japanese ornament and design. N. Y., Lindemann, 1879. 2 pts. 4to. $8.00. Dalmas, R. de. Le Japonais, leur pays, leur mceurs. Ps. 1885. 12mo. 5 fr. Dalton, W. Will Adams, the first Englishman in Japan. L., J. Blackwood, 1875. 12mo. 3s. 6d. De Fonblaiique, E. B. Niphon and Pe-che-li; or, two years in Japan and North China. L., Saunders, 1862. 8vo. 21s. Depping, G. Le Japon. Ps. 1883. 13mo. 3 fr. Dickins, F. V. Hyak nin is 'shin; or, stanzas of a century of poets, being Japanese lyrical odes trans lated into English, with explanatory notes. L., Smith & E., 1866. Svo. 10s. 6d.— Chiushingura; or, the loyal league. A Japanese romance translated. N. Y., Putnam, 1876. 4to. $3.00.— Fugaku Hiyaku- Kei; or, a hundred views of Fuji, with . . . prefaces, and translations. L, Batsford, 1881. Dickson, Walter. Japan : being a sketch of the his tory, government, and officers of the army. Edinb., Blackwoods, 1869. 8vo. 15s. Dickson, XV. G. Gleanings from Japan. L., Black- woods, 1889. 8vo. 16s. Dixon, W. G. Land of the morning: Japan and its people. Edinb., Gemmell, 1869. 3d e., 1882. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Doenitz, Martha. Aus fremder Welt. Japanische Erzahlungen. Berlin, 1889. 8vo. 2Mk. Dresser, C. Japan: its architecture, art, and art manufactures. L., Longmans, N.Y., Scribner, 1882. 4to. 31s. 6d. $10.00. Dubard, M. Le Japon pittoresque. Ps. 1878. 12mo. 4 fr. Eng. trans. Japan life, love, etc. L., Ward, 1886. 8vo. 7s. 6d. — La vie en Chine et au Japon. Ps 1881. 4 fr. Du Pin. Le Japon, moeurs, coutumes, description, geographic rapports avec les Europeens. Ps. 1868. Svo. 3 fr. 50 o. Durand-Fardel, jLaura, Mdme. De Marseille a Shanghai et Yedo; r6cits d'une Parisienne. Ps. 1879. 12mo. 3 fr. 50 c. Eden, C. H. The empire of Japan: brief sketch of the geography, history, and constitution. Phila. 1876. 8vo. — Japan. Historical and descriptive. L., Ward. 1877. Svo. 3s. 6d. Education in Japan : letters by prominent Amer icans to A. Mori. N. Y., Appleton, 1873. 12mo. $1.50. Eggermont, I. Le Japon, histoire et religion. Ps. 1885. 12mo. 2 fr. Expedition ofthe U. S. Navy in 1853-54. Wash ington, 1856-8. Vols. I. II. III. 4to. (Not priced.) Expedition, d. preuss. nach Ost- Asien. Ansichten aus Japan, China, und Siam. Berlin, 1872-73. 72Mk. Faulds, N. Nine years in Nipon. L., Gardner, 1884. 2d e , 1887. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Field, H. M. From Egypt to Japan. N. Y., Scribner, 1877 Svo. $2 00. Fontpertuis, Ad. F. de. Le Japon civilise. Ps. 1883. 16mo. 75 ctm. Fortune, R. Yedo and Peking: narrative of a jour ney. L., Murray, 1863. 8vo. 16s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 612 TRAVELS, GENERAL Fowler, R. N. Visit to Japan, China, and India. L., Low, 1877. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Fraissinet, Ed. Le Japon; histoire et description, moeurs, . . . etc. Ps. 1857. n. e., 1864. 2 v. 12mo. 6fr. Furet, P. Manuel de philosophie.Japonaise. Trans. from the Japanese, by P. Furet. Ps. 1858. 8vo. 1 f r. 25 c— Lettres a M. Leon de Rosny sur l'archipel Japonais et la Tartaric orientale. Ps. 1860. 12iuo. 3fr. Genji Monogatari, the most celebrated of the classi cal Japanese romances. Transl. by Suyematz Kin- ehio I. L., Trubner, 1882. 810. 7s. 6d. Giusto Okundono, Kronprinz von Japan, Oder die grosse Versammlung von Theologen aller Religions- parteien zur Entscheidung des wahren Glaubens, Lpz. 1854. 8vo. 3.50 Mk. Godet, G. Les Japonais chez eux. fitude hygiene. Ps. 1881. Svo. 2 fr. 50 c. Golownin [Golovnin], V. M., Capt. Narrative of my captivity in Japan, 1811-13. Eng. trans, fr. the Russian. L., Colburn, 1818. 3 v. Svo. 31s. 6d. — Recollections of Japan. Eng. trans. L., Colburn (?); 1819. 8vo. — Begebenheit in der Gefangenschaft bei den Japanern. Lpz. 1817-18. Gond on, Jules. L'empire du Japon ouvert au Chris- lianisme et a la civilisation europeenne. Ps. 1873. Svo. Goudareau, G. Excursion au Japon. Ps. 1889. 4to. 7fr. Greey, E. The loyal Ronins. N. Y., Putnam, 1880. n. e., 1884. 8vo. $1.75.— Wonderful city of Tokio, adventures of the Jewett family and their friend Oto Nambo. Bost., Lee & S., 1882. 8vo. $1.50.— Young Americans in Japan. Bost., Lee & S., 1882. 8vo. $2.50. — The golden lotus and other legends of Japan, Bost., Lee & S., 1883. 12mo. $1.50.— Bear worship pers of Yezo, and the Island Karafuto: adventures of the Jewett family and their friend Oto Nambo. Bost., Lee & S., 1884. 8vo. $1.75.— Bakin's Japanese romance: a captive of love. Bost., Lee & S., 1886. 4th e., 1887. 12mo. $1.50. Griffis, W. E. The mikado's empire. N. Y., Harper, 1876. 5th e., 1890. Svo. $4.00.— Japanese fairy world. Schenectady, N. Y., Barhyte, 1880. $1.50. L. 1890. 16mo. 3s. 6d.— Honda the Samurai: a story of modern Japan. Bost., Cong. S. S. and Pub. Soc, 1890. 12mo. $1.50. Guimet, E. Promenades japonaises.— Tokio a Nikko. Ps. 1880. 4to. 25 fr. Habersham, A. W. My last cruise: visits to the Malay and Luo-Choo Islands. Phila., Lippincott, 18— 8vo. $2.50. Halloran, J. L. Visits to Japan, Loo-choo? and Portoo. L., Longman, 1857. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Handy Guide Book to the Japanese Islands. L , Low, 1890. 8vo. 6s. 6d. Hawks, F. !L. Expedition under . . . Perry to . . . Japan. N. Y., Appleton, 1856. 8vo. $5.00. Heine, AV. Graphic scenes in the Japan expedition. N. Y., Putnam. 1856. 8vo. $6.00.— Japan. Dresden, 1873-80. 5Abth. 8vo 25Mk. Hendschel, T. Relation von der Freudenreichen Bekehrung des Konigreichs Voxu in Japon. In- gollstadt, 1617. Hildreth, R. Japan as it was and is. Bost., Phillips, S. & Co., 1855. 2d e , 1856. 12mo. $1.25. Historical Sketch of the Japan Mission of the Prot. Episc. Ch. of the U. S. N. Y. 1883. Hodgson, C. P. Residence at Nagasaki and Hakodate in 1859-00. L., Bentley, 1801. Svo. 10s. 6d. Holtham, E. G. Eight years in Japan. L., Paul, 1883. 8vo. 9s. Houette, A. Chine et Japon: notes politiques, com- merciales, maritimes, et militaires. Ps. 1881. 8vo. 3 f r. House, E, H. Japanese episodes. Bost., Osgood, 1881. 24mo. $1.00. Humbert, A. Japan and the Japanese. Trans, from the Fr. by Mrs. Cashel Hoey. L., Bentley, N. Y.„ Appleton, 1873. 2d e., 1870. ito. 21s. $12.00. Inagaki, M. Japan and the Pacific. L., Uuwin, 1890. Svo. 2s. 6d. Inde, Ohine, et Japon, ou nouveau tableau anec- dotique de la religion, des moeurs, usages et con tinues des peuples et des contrives lointaines. Ps, 1855. ISmo. 3 fr. Japan. Nach den besten Quellen geschildert, Carlsr. 1860. Japan in days of yore. [A collection of tales tr. by B. H. Chamberlain and others.] L., Griffith, F. & Co.. 1887. 8vo. 16 pts. 8s. Japan opened. L., Relig. Tr. Soc, 1858. 12mo. 3s. Japon, I.e. ar.tistiquei'tlitlrraire. Ps. 1879. 18mo. 2fr. Japanese Boy, A. Bv Himself [Shiukichi Shigemil. N. Y., Holt, 1890. 12mo. $1.00. Jarves, Jas. J. Glimpse at the art of Japan. Bost., Hurd & H., 1875. 8vo. $2.50. J ami Tschuibei. " Bemmo," eine Abhandlung gegen den Christenglauben. Lpz. 1876. Svo. Jephson, R. M., and Elmhirst, E. P. Our life in Japan. L., Chapman, 1869. Svo. 18s. Joest, W. Aus Japan nach Deutschland durch Sibirien. Koln, 1883. 2d e., 1887. 8vo. 4.50 Mk. Johnston, Jas. D. China and Japan ; cruise of the U. S. frigate Powhatau, 1857-60, and account of the Japanese embassy to the U. S. Phila., Desilver. IS—. 12mo. $1.50. Kampfer, E. Histoire, etc.. de l'empire du Japon. Amst. 1732. (Danish transl. Cbhn. 1791.) Keniisch, S. B. The Japanese empire. L., Partridge, 1860. Svo. 3s. 6d. King, C. W., and Lay, G. T. The claims of Japan and Malaysia upon Christendom, exhibited in notes of voyages made in 1837 from Canton, in the ship Morrison and brig Himmaleh, under direction of the owners. N. Y., French, and L., Wiley, 1839. 2 v. 12mo. $2.00. 14s. Kleist, H. Bilder aus Japan. Leipzig, 1890. 8vo. 6Mk. Knollys, H. Sketches of life in Japan. L., Chapman, 1887. 8vo. 12s. Kudriaffsky, E. v. Japan. 'Wien, 1874. 8vo. 5 Mk. Lady's, A, visit to Manilla and japan. L., Hurst, 1863. Svo. 14s. Laln-oiie, E. Le Japon. Ps. 1881. 8vo. 1.50 fr. Lambel, Le Comte de. Christianisme au Japon. Ps. 1868. 8vo. 8.50 fr. Lamnan, C. Japanese in America. N. Y., University Pub. Co., 1872. 12mo. $1.50.— Leading men of Japan. Bost., Lothrop, 1883. 12mo. $2.00. Lapeyrere, P. de. Le Japon militaire. Ps. 1883. 12mo. 3 fr. — Souvenirs et episodes: Chine, Japon, fitats-Unis. Ps. 1885. 12mo. 3 fr. Lawlace, W. M. The Japanese wedding: a repre sentation of the wedding ceremony in Japanese high life. [Arranged for pantomime exhibitions.] N. Y., Harold Roorbach. 1889. 12mo. 25 cts. Le Gendre, Gen. Progressive Japan: a study of the political and social needs of the empire. San Francisco, Bancroft, 1879. 8vo. $3.00. Liebscher, G. Japan'slandwirthschaftl. u. allgemein- wirthschaftl. Verhaltnisse. Jena, 1882. 8vo. 5 Mk. Lindau, R. Voyage autour du Japon. Ps. 1864. 12mo. 3 fr. 50 c. Lowell, P. Noto, an unexplored corner of Japan. Boston, Houghton, 1891. 16mo. $1.25. Lyndon, Comte de. Souvenir de Japon, vues d'apres nature avec texte. Ps. 1862-63. Fol. 6 pts. Each 32 fr. M. D. L. C. Histoire du Chretianisme au Japon d'apres Charlevoix. Ps. 1836. MacFarlane, Chas. An account of Japan, geograph ical and historical, to the present time. N. Y., Put nam,- 1882. 12mo. $1.25. Maclay, A. C. A budget of letters from Japan. N. Y., Armstrong, 1886. 2d e., 1889. 12mo. $2.00. — Mito Yashiki. N. Y., Putnam, 1S89. 2d e., 1890. 12mo. $1.50. McLean, M. Echoes from Japan. L., Passmore, 1889. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Manners and Customs of tlie Japanese in the 19th century ; from recent Dutch visitors of Japan, and the German of Dr. P. F. von Siebold. [Edited by Mrs. W. Busk.] L., Murray, 1811. 2d e., 1852. 8vo. 6s. N. Y., Harpers. 1841. 18mo. 75 cts. Mason, Clara Arthur, Mrs. Etchings from two lands [Maine and Japan]. Bost., Lothrop, 1886. 12mo. $1.00. Memorials of the Empire of Japan in the XVI. and XVII. centuries. Ed. by T. Rundall. L., Hak luyt Soc. 1S50. 8vo. (Not priced.) Metclmikoft', L. L'empire Japonais. Le pays, le peuple, histoire, actualites. Geneva, 1878. Sqq. 42 parts at ] ier prt. 2.50 fr. Missions of the A. B. C. F. M. in Japan. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1880. 16mo. 6c. Mitford, A. B. Tales of old Japan. L. and N. Y., Macmillan, 1871. 2v. 2d e., 1874. 1 v. Svo. 6s. $1.75. Montblanc, C. de. Japon tel qu'il est. Ps. 1867. Svo. 2 f r. Morse, E. XV. S. Traces of an early race in Japan. N. Y., Appleton. 1879. 8vo. — Japanese homes. Bost., Ticknor, 1885. 2d e., 1887. 8vo. $3.00. Mossimin, S. Japan. L., Low, 1881. 12mo. 3s. 6d. —New Japan, the land of the setting sun. L., Murray, 1S74. Svo. 15s. Mounsey, A. H. The Satsuma rebellion: an episode of modern Japanese history. L., Murray, 1879. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Murdock. Religious Tract Society in Japan. Glas gow. 1882. 8vo. Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Central and Northern Japan. By E. M. Satow and Lieut. A. G. S. Hawes. Yokohama, 1881. 2d e., L., Mur ray, 1884. 12mo. 21s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 613 TRAVELS, GENERAL Netto, C. von. Papier-Schmetterlinge aus Japan. Lpz. 1887. 4to. 75 Mk. Nippon Fahrer, oder das wieder-entschlossene Japan, Lpz. 1861. Norman, Henry. The real Japan: studies of con temporary Japanese manners, morals, administra tion, and politics. L., Unwin, 1891. 8vo. Oliphant, Laurence. Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, 1857-59. L., Blackwoods, 1862. 2 v. Svo. 21s. Osborne, Sherard. Japanese fragments. L., Brad bury, 1868. 16mo. 5s.— Quedah: cruise in Japan ese waters. Ed., Blackwoods, 1865. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Pages, Leon. Bibliographic Japonaise, . . . ouvrages publies depuis le XV siecle. Ps. 1859. 4to. 6 fr. — Histoire de la religion chr6tienne au Japon, 1598- 1651* Ps. 1869. 2 v. 8vo. 12 fr.— La persecution des Chretiens au Japon et l'ambassade Japonais en Europe. Ps. 1873. Svo. Pearson, G. 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Japan : its history, traditions, and re ligions. L., Murray, 1880. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. Report of the Twenty-fifth Observance of the week of prayer in Yokohama. Yokoh. 1884. Rein, J. J. Japan, nach Reisen und Studien darge- stellt. Lpz. 1881-86. 2v. 8vo. 44 Mk. Eng. trans. Vol. I. Japan, travels and researches. L., Hodder, N. Y., Armstrong, 1883. 2d e., 1884. 8vo. 25s. $7.50. Vol. II. The industries of Japan. L., Hod der, N.Y., Armstrong, 1889. 8vo. 30s. $10.00. Reynolds, E. J., Sir. Japan : its history, traditions, and religion. L., Murray, 1st and 2d e., 1880. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. Ritter, P. Dreissig Jahre protestantischer Mission in Japan. DerUn, 1890. 8vo. 2 Mk. Rosny, L. de. La religion des Japonais: quelques renseignements sur le Saintauisme. Ps. 1881. 8vo. 2 fr.— La civilisation japonaise. Ps. 1861. 8vo. 2fr. 2d e., 1883. 16mo. 5 fr. Roussin, A. Une campagne sur les cotes du Japon. Ps. 1865. 12mo. 3 fr. 50c. Rundall, T. See Mkmoeials, etc. Russell. Japan (Sunday-school exercise). 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Quinze ans de sejour a Java et dans les principales lies de la Sonde. . . . Ps. 1861. 8vo. 3fr. TRAVELS, GENERAL 614 TRAVELS, GENERAL Schuh, Benjamin. Die Mission auf der Insel Java. Strasshg. 1863. 12mo. 80 Pf. Thorn, Major. Memoir of the conquest of Java. L., Egerton, 18- 4to. 63s. True Report of the gainefull . . . Voyage to Java by a neete of eight ships of Amsterdam, . . . 159S, eic. L., Hakluyt Soc, 1809. 4to. Verslag von de Staat, etc., tot Bevorderiug der Evang. Verbr. in den Nederl. Bezittingen. Amst. 1855. Voorhooeve. Evangeliske Zending op Oost Java. 'S Gravenhage, 1864. Walbauin, . 2 v. 12mo. Each $1.25. Pyne, Alexr. Reminiscences of colonial life and missionary adventures in both hemispheres. L. 1875. Rasmussscn, Grove. Idlandet und Idliinderne [So. Am.]. Cpn. 1886. Rocha Pitta, s. da. Historia da America Portu- gueza. Lisboa, 1880. Svo. Scenes and Adventures in Foreign Lands— In South America. L, Nelson, 186S. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Schultz, W. Einige Andeutungen, etc, iiber die Urbewohner des Centralen und Slid Amerika. Berl. 1865. Svo.— Natur-und culturstudien iiber Siidamerika u. s. Bewohner. Dresden, 1868. 8vo. 25 pf. Suiu-ez de Peralta, .J. Noticias historicas de la Nueva Espaiin. Madrid, 1S7S. 4to. Stevenson, W. B. Account of South America. L, Longman, IS— . 3 v. 8vo. 36s. Taylor, W. Our South American cousins. N. Y, Nelson & P., 1878. 12mo. $1.00. Treutler, P. Fiinfzehn Jahre in Siidamerika. Lpz. 1882. 8vo. Ursel, C. de. Sud-Amerique. Sejours et voyages au Bresil. a la Plata, au Chili, en Bolivie, et au Perou. Ps. 1879. 12mo. 4to. Ger. trans. Siidamerika. Wttrzb. 1882. 12mo. 2.50 Mk. Verbrugghe, L. and G. Forets vierges. Ps. 1880. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Viollet-le-Duc, E. M. Cites et ruines americaines. Mitla, Palenque, etc. Ps. 3863. Svo. 500 fr. Watson, R. G. Spanish and Portuguese South Amer ica during the colonial period. L, Triibner, 1884. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. TRAVELS, GENERAL 625 TRAVELS, GENERAL Waterton, C. Wanderings in South America. N.Y, Cassell, 1887. 16mo 10c. Wyse, Lucien N. B. De Valparaiso k Buenos-Ayres, a travers les Andes et les Pampas. Ps. 1879. 8vo. 3 fr. Zoeller, H. Pampas und Anden. Berlin, 1884. 8vo. SUMATRA. Bradley, W. The wreck of the " Nisero" and captiv ity iu Sumatra. L, Low, 1884. 16mo. 7s. 6d. Brf*n de Saint-Pol Lias, X. He de Sumatra, chez les Atches. Ps. 1884. 12mo. 4 fr. Eschels-Kroon, A. Beschreibung von Sumatra. Hamb. 1781. Marsdcn, W. History of the Island of Sumatra. L. 17rf. 3d e, 1811. 4to. 31s. 6d. Fr. transl. Ps. 1788 Parmentier, J. and R. Voyage a Sumatra en 1529. Ps. 1S83. Svo. 16 fr. Schreiber, A. Besuch auf Sumatra. Barmen, 1877. — Zweiter Besuch auf Sumatra. Barmen, 1882. Svo. 40 pf. Schirach, G. B. Beschreibung von Sumatra. Hamb. 1781. Seelhorst, G. Australien. Nebst e. Anhang. Eine Reise in's Innere von- Sumatra. Augsb. 1882. 2d e, Australien und Sumatra. 1886. 8vo. 3 Mk. Verbeek, R. D. SI. Beschrijving van een gedeelte van Sumatra's Westkust. Amsterdam, 1883 sqq. Svo. Warneck, G. Nacht und Morgen auf Sumatra. Bar men, 1872. 2d e, 1873. 8vo. 1 Mk. SYRIA, PALESTINE, ETC. Baedeker [by Sociu]. Palestine and Syria. Lpz. and L. 1876. 16mo. 20s. Bart, F. Scenes et tableaux de la vie actuelle en Ori ent. Mont-Liban. Ps. 1884. 8vo. Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine, through Sinai, the wilderness, and the South country. N. Y, Harper, 1879. 8vo. $3.50. Bericht uber Plan und Unternehmen einer Deutsche Missions-Kolonie in Palestina zu Griinden. Frankf. 1849. Svo. 30 Pf. Bericht uber Diakonissen Stationen in Beirut, am Libanon, 1862-3. Kaiserswerth, 186-1. Binnie, A. J. His native land. L, Griffith, 1881. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Bird, Isaac. Bible work in Bible lands; or, events in the history of the Syrian Mission. Phila, Pres. Bd. Pub, 1872. 12mo. $1.50. Bovet, Felix. Egypt, Palestine, and Phoenicia. Trans, by W. H.' Lyttelton. N. Y, Dutton, 1883. 12mo. $2.50. British Syrian Schools and the Bible Mission. L. 1882. Burckhardt, -J. L. Travels in Syria and the Holy Land. L, Murrav, 1822. 4to. 48s. Burton, Isabel. Inner life of Syria, Palestine, and the Holy Land. L, King, 1875. 2 v. 8vo. 3d e, Paul, 1884. 1 v. 6s. Burton, R. T., and Drake, C. F. T. Unexplored Syria. L, Tinsley. 1872. 2 v. Svo. 32s. Campbell, J. K. Through Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. L, Partridge, 1884. Svo. 4s. Charmes, G. Voyage en Palestine. Ps. 18S4. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Churchill, C. H. Mount Lebanon: ten years' resi dence, 1842-52. L. 1853. 3 v. 2d e, 1862. 4 v. 8vo. 25s [Vol. 4 is The Druzes and Maronites under the Turkish rule, 1810-1S60. 10s.] Clermont-Ganneau, Ch. Premiers rapports sur une mission en Palestine et en Phenicie entreprise en 1881. Ps. 1883. 8vo. 2.50 fr. Conder, C. R. Tent work in Palestine. L, Bentley, 1878. 2 v. 3d e, 1867. 8vo. 10s. 6d.— Heth and Moab: explorations in Syria in 1881-2. L, Bentley, 1883. 2d e, 38=5. 8vo. 6s. Curtis, G. W. Howadji in Syria. N. Y, Harper, 1852. 12mo. $1.50. . Dapper, O. Asia, oder Beschreibung von Syria und Palestina. Amst. 1681. Dennis, J. S. Sketch of Syrian missions [Presbyt.]. N. Y. 1872. 8vo. Dixon, W. H. The Holy Land. L, Chapman & H, 1865. 2v. 3d e, 1867. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Duff, A., and Lumsden. Report of a mission of enquiry to Lebanon. Edinb. 1870. Dulles, J. W. Ride through Palestine. Phila, Presb. Bd. Publ, 1880. 12mo. $2.00. Ellis, T. J. On a raft and through the desert: nour- ney through Syria and Kurdistan. L, Field & T, 1881. 2v. 8vo. 52s. 6d ,,„,,„ Ewald, F. C. Missionary labours in Jerusalem, 1842- 44 L Wertheim, 1845. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Farley, J. I" T«'° years' travel in Syria. L, Saun ders & 0,1358. Svo. 12s.— The massacres in Syria L, Bradbury, 1861. Svo. 5s. Farnham, J. SI. W. Travels in the Holy Land, China- India, Egypt, etc. Schenectady, 1879. 12mo. Field, H. SI. Among the holy hills. N. Y, Scribners. 1SS4. 12mo. $1.50. Flasch, F. SI. Ferienausflug nach Palestina. Wurzb. 1883. 16mo. Fletcher, J. P. Notes from Nineveh, and travels in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Syria. Phila, Lea, 1850. 12mo. 75 c. Gage, XV. L. Palestine, historic and descriptive. L, Warne, 1887. Svo. 7s. 6d. Gay, T. La terra del Cristo. Firenze, 1881. 8vo. Geikie, C. Tlie Holy Land and the Bible. L, Cassell, 18S7. 2 v. Svo. 24s. Geschichte des Syriscben Waisenhauses in Jerusalem. Basel. 1862. Guerin, Victor. Rapport sur une mission en Pales tine. Ps. 1879. 8vo. 2.50 fr.— La terre sainte, son histoire, ses souvenirs, ses sites, etc. Ps. 1882-3. 2 v. fo. 100 fr. Hahn, Heinrich. Reise des heiligen Willibald nach Palestina. Berl. 1856. 4to. 75 Pf. Hale, E. E., and S. Family flight over Egypt and S.yria. Bost, Lothrop, 1881. 2d e, 1882. 8vo. $2.50. Harper, H. A. Illustrated letters to my children from the Holy Land. L, Rei. Tr. Soc, 2d e, 1884. 4to. 3s. Hechler, W. H. The Jerusalem bishopric. L, Trubner, 18S3. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Henderson, Archd. Historical geography of Syria. Edinb. 1885. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Herbelot, M. d'. Bibliotheque orientale. Ps. 1697. Herbert, M. E., Lady. Cradle-lands. Egypt. Syria, etc. L, Bentley, 1867, N. Y, Cath. Pub. Soc, 1867. 4th e, 1S69. 8vo. 21s. 12mo. $2 00. Hill, S. S. Travels in Egypt and Syria. L, Long mans, 1865. 8vo. 14s. Historical Sketch of Beirut Female Seminary. Beirut, 1879. Holliday, W. A. Historical sketch of missions in Syria [Preshytn.]. Phil. 1881. 12mo. See His torical Sketches, etc, in Section V. Hyndman, F. A. Tour through . . . the Holy Land. L, Cassell, 2d e, 1881. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Humann, K., u. Puchstein, O. Reisen in Klein- asien u. Nordsyrien. Berlin, 1890. Fol. 60 Mk. Jessup, H. H. "Women of the Arabs. N. Y, Dodd, 1873. 12mo. $2.00. L, Low, 1874. 8vo. 10s.— Syrian home life. N. Y, Dodd, 1874. 12mo. $1.50. — The Mohammedan missionary problem. Phila, Pres. Bd. Pub, 1879. 16mo. 75c— Outlook in Syria. N. Y. 1879. 8vo. Jowett, W. Christian researches in Syria and the Holy Land in furtherance of the objects of the Church Missionary Society. L, Seeley, and Bost, Crocker & Brewer, 1826. 8vo. 10s. 12mo. 75 c. Laurie, T. Historical sketch of the Syria Mission. N. Y. 1862. Le Camus, E. Notre voyage aux pays bibliques. Ps. 1890. 3 v. 12mo. 10 fr. 50 c. Lortet, L. La Syrie d'aujourd'hui. Ps. 1884. 8vo. 50 fr. Lynch, AV. F., Com. Narrative of the U. S. explor ing expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. Phila, Lea & B, 1849. 9th e, 1853. 12mo. $1.00. Manning, Saml. Those holv fields: Palestine illus trated. L, Rei. Tr. Soc, 1874. 8vo. 8s. Martin. E. M. A visit to Syria [in "Round the World"]. L, Remington, 1883. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Martin, W. Y. The East: a tour in Egypt, Palestine, etc. L, Tinsley, 1876. Svo. 7s. 6d. Massacre in Syria ; account of the outrages suffered by the Christians of Mt. Lebanon. N. Y, De Witt. 8vo. 25c. Mendenhall, J. XV. Echoes from Palestine. N. Y, Phillips & H, 1S83. 8vo. $3.00. Merrill, S. East of the Jordan. Record of travel . . . in . . . Moab, Gilead, and Bashan, 1875-77. N.Y. 1881. 2d e, Scribners, 1883. 8vo. $2.50. Sliller, Ellen 1-'.., Siiss. Alone through Syria. L, Paul, 1891. 8vo. 6s. STissions Blad fran Palestina. Falun, 1885. Monasticus Irenaeus. Von Jerusalem nach Beth lehem. Berl. 1851. Svo. 1.50 Mk. Neil, J. Palestine explored. L, Nisbet, and N. Y, Randolph, 1882. 8vo. 6s. $1.50. Olipliant, L. The Land of Gilead. L., Blackwoods, and N. Y, Appleton, 1881. 8vo. 21s. $2.00. Orelli, C. v. Durch's Heilige Land. Basel, 1878. 4th e, 1890. 3 Mk. 20 Pf . Orient, Der. Hauptrouten durch Agypten, Palas- tina, Syrien. Griechenland. Lpz. 1881-82. 2 v. 8vo. Palmer, E. H. Desert of the exodus; forty years' wanderings, etc. L, Bell & D, 1871. 2v.8vo. 28s. N. Y. 1 v. 8vo. $3.00. TRAVELS, GENERA" 626 TRAVELS, GENERAL Picturesque Palestine. L, Virtue, and N. Y, Appleton, 1881-4. 4 v. 4to. Ea. 31s. 6d. 3 v. 4to. $32.00. Pitman, E. R., Mrs. Mission life in Greece and Palestine. L. and N. Y, Cassell, 1881. 8vo. 5s. $1.50. Porter, J. L. Five years in Damascus, travels to Palmyra, etc. L, Murray, 1855. 2 v. 2d e, 1870. 8vo. 7s. 6d.— [Murray's] handbook for Syria and Palestine. L, Murray, 1858. 2 v. Sd e, 1875. 1 v. 8vo. 20s.— The giant cities of Bashan and Syria's holy places. L, Nelson, 1865. 2d e, 1869. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Poujade, E. Le Liban et la Syrie. Ps. 1860. Prime, W. C. Tent life in the Holy Land. N. Y., Harper. 1857. 12mo. $2.00. Rattray, Harriet. Country life in Syria. L, Seeley, 1S76. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Robinson, E., and Smith, Eli. Biblical researches in Palestine, etc. Bost, Crocker. 1841. L , Murray, 3856. 8vo. 15s. 3 v. 3d e, 1867. 8vo. $10.00.— Later Biblical researches. Bost, Crocker, 1856. 2d e, 1867. 8vo. $3.00.— Physical geography of Palestine. Bost, Crocker, 1865. 8vo. $8.50. Kohricht, R. Bibliotheca Geographica Palsestinse (333-1878 ) Berlin, 1890. 8vo. 24 Mk. Rogers, Mary IS. Domestic life in Palestine. L, Bell & D, 1861. 3d e, 1803. 8vo. 10s 6d. Cin cinnati, Meth. Bk. Cone, 1865. 12mo. $1.75. Roller, Theophile. Le tour d'Orient. Lausanne, 1891. Svo. 5 fr. Sachau, C. -E. Reise in Syrien und Mesopotamien. Lpz. 1S83. Svo. 20 Mk. Samuel, Jacob. Missionary tour through Arabia to Bagdad. L, Simpkin, 1844. 12mo. 8s. 6d. Schiiff, P. Through Bible lauds. N. Y., Am Tr. Soc, L, Nisbet, 1878. 2d e, enlarged, 1888. 12mo. $2.25. 6s. Schule und Erziehungs-Anstalt in Jerusalem. 1878. Smith, Henry. Origin, etc, of the Protestant bish opric in Jerusalem L, Wertheim. 1846. 8vo. 5s. Stanley, A. P. History of S.yria and Palestine. L, Murray, 1853. Rev. e, 1883. Svo. 32s. Statuten des Syrischen Waisenhauses in Jeru salem. Basel, 1869. . Stewart, R. "VV. The tent and"the khan (with notices of missionary labour). Edinb. 1857. 2d e, 1862. 8vo. 5s. 6d. Sumner, G., Mrs. Our holiday in the East. L, Hurst, 1st and 2d e, 1881. 8vo. 6s. Thompson, B., Mrs. Daughters of Syria. L, See ley, 1869. 3d e, 1874. 8vo. 5s. Thomson, W. M. The land and the book. N. Y, Harper, 3857. 2 v. 12mo. $5.00. Rev. and eni. e, 1880-86. 3 v. $18.00. Ch. e, $9 00. Tobler, T. Bibliographia Geographica Palsestinse ab a, ccexxxiii. Dresden, 1875 1 Mk. Tristram, H. B. The land of Israel. L, S. P. C. K, 1805. 3d e, 1882. Svo. 10s. 6d.— Scenes in the East. L, S. P. C. K, 1870. 4to. Ts. 6d.— Narra tive of Mrs. B. Thompson's efforts in Syria. L, Seeley, 1871. 8vo. 5s. — Pathways of Palestine. L, Low, 1S82. 2d series, 4to. 31s. 6d. Trumbull, H. C. Kadesh-Barnea. N. Y, Scribners, ami L, Hodder. 1884. Svo. $5.00. 21s. Van Lenncp, H. J. Bible lands, their modern cus toms, etc. N. Y, Harper, 1875 Svo. $5.00. Wallace, Alexr. The desert and the Holy Land. Glasg . Simpkin, 1868. 2d <-., 1882. Svo. 2s. 6d. Wandelboiirg, A. H. de. Etudes sur 1'orient et ses missions. Ps. 1883. 2 v. 8vo. Webb-Peploe, J. B., Mrs. Julamerk: a tale of the Nestorians. L, Simpkin, 1848. 3 v. 8vo. 31s. 6d. n. e, 1852. 12mo. 2s. Weld, A. G. Sacred palm lands. L, Longmans, 1881. 8vo. 7s. fid. Wilson, A. XV., Sirs. Letters from the Orient to her daughters at home. Nashville, T'enn, Pub. House M. E. Church South, 1890. 12mo. $1.00. Wilson, E. L. In Scripture lands N. Y, Scribner, L„ Relig. Tr. Soc, 1890. Svo. $3.50. 15s. Wilson, J. Lands of the Bible. Edinb. and L„ Longmans, 1817. 2 v. 8vo 3fis Wilson, Wm. Rae. Travels in the Holy Land, Egypt, etc. L, Longman, 18I7. 2 v. 8vo. 25s. Wortahct, G. M. Syria, and the Syrians. L, Madden, 1856. 2 v. Svo, 21s Wortabct, J. The denominations of Syria. L, Nisbet, 1860. Svo. 7s. Od. TAHITI. See Society Isles. TASMANIA. See Australia. TIBET. (See also China and India.) Aynsley, Mrs. Our visit to Hindoostan, Kashmir, and Ladakh. L, Allen, 1879. 8vo. 14s. Desgodins, Ch. Le Thibet d'apres la correspondance des missionaires. Ps, 2d e, 1885. 8vo. 7 fr. Dutreuil de Rhins, J. L. L'Asie centrale (Thibet et regions limitrophes). Ps. 1890. 4to. 60 fr. Ganzenmuller, K. Tibet. Stuttgart, 1878. 8vo. 3Mk. Gamier, F. De Paris au Tibet. Ps. 1882. ISmo. 4fr. Geddie, J. Beyond the Himalayas. Travel and ad venture in Thibet. L, Nelson, 1882. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Gill, W. The river of golden sand; China and East ern Thibet to Burmah. L, Murray. 1880. 2 v. 8vo. 30s.— The same, condensed by E. B. Baber. 1833. Svo_ 7s. 6d. Hue, Evariste Regis, Abbe. Christianity in China, Tai-tary, and Thibet. Eng. transl. L, Longman, 1857-8. 3v. 8vo. 31s. 6d. (From French original. Ps. 1857-58. 4 v. 8vo )— Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China, during the years 1844-5-6. Engl, trans. L, Longman, 1852. 2 v. 8vo. 24s. (From French original. Ps. 1850. 2 v. Svo.) Condensed hy Mrs. P. Sinnett, 1852. 1 v. 16mo. 2s. 6d. Cf. "Life and travel in Tartary, Thibet, and China, being a narra tive of the Abb6 Hue's travels in the far East." Ed. by SI. Jones. L, and Edinb., and N. Y, Nelson, 1867. 12mo. ls. 75c. Hue und Gabet. Wanderungen durch die Mongolei nach Thibet. Lpz. 1855. 2d e, 1865. 8vo. 1 Thaler. Johnstone, D. L. The mountain kingdom: adven tures in Thibet. L, Loiv, 1S88. 8vo. 5s. Krick, Abbe. Relation d'un voyage au Thibet en 1852, et d'un voyage chez les abors en 1853. Suivie de quelques documents sur la meme mission, par Renou et Latry. Ps. 1854. 12mo. 1 fr. Markham, C. R. Mission of Bogle to Thibet and of T. Manuing to Lhasa. L, Trubner, 1876. Svo. 21s. Montibus. Mission ap Thibetano seraphica. Munich, 1740. Ollivier-Beauregard, G. SI. En Asie, Kachmir et Tibet. Ps. 1883. Svo. 5 fr. Piejevalsky, N. Mongolia, X. Thibet. By E. D. Slorgan. L, Low. 1876. 2 v. 8vo. 42s. Prshevalski, N. [Prejevalsky]. Reisen in Tibet. Jena, 1884. Svo. Prin.sep, H. T. Thibet, Tartary, and Mongolia. L, Allen, 1852. 8vo. 5s. Prochnow, J. D. Himalaya Mission of the Ch. Miss. Soc. Calc. 1847. Proveze, Abbe. De France en Chine et au Thibet. Ps. 3885. 2 v. 12mo. 8 fr Roero, O. Ricordi dei viaggi al Cashemire medio Tibet. Torino. 1881. 3 v. 8vo. Schlagintweit, E. Buddhism in Thibet. L, Trub ner. 1860. Fo. 42s. Schlagintweit-Sakuenluenski, H. v. Das Kaiser- reich Ostindien und die angrenzendeu Gebirgs- lander. Jena, 1884. 8vo. — Ueber die Salzseen im Westlichen Tibet und in Turkistan. Schneider. En Missions Bild fran "Westra Himalaja. Sthlm. 1879. Tibetan Tales derived from Indian Sources. (Trans, from the German of F. A. Schiefner hy Ralston.) L, Trubner. 1882. Svo. 14s. Turner, S. Gesandsehafts-Reise am Hof des Teshoo Lama. Hamb. 1801. Wilson, A. The abode of snow. Tour of Chinese Tibet to the valleys of the Himalaya. L. , Black- woods, 1874. 2d e, 1S75. 8vo. 10s,6d. N. Y, Put- nams. ISmo. $2.25. TONGA AND FRIENDLY ISLANDS. Farmer, Sarah. History of Tonga and the Friendly - Islands. L , Hamilton. 1855. Svo. 5s. Geschichte der Christlichen Missionen auf den Freundschafts oder Tonga Inseln. Bremen, 1857. 8vo. 2.25 Mk. Lawry, AV. .Missions in Tonga and Feejee. Cincin nati, Meth. Bk. Cone, 18—. 12mo. $1.50. Mariner, Wm. [Ed by J. Martin.] Account of the natives of the Tonga Islands. L, Murray, 1817 (»). 2 v. Svo. 24s. 3d e. 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Ffanck, L. Tunis. Ps. 1856. 8vo. 6 fr. Graham, A., and Ashbee, H. S. Tunisia, glossary, map, bibliography. L, Dulan, 1887. Svo. 25s. Hesse-Wartegg, E. v. Tunis. Land und Leute geschildert. Wien, 1882. 8vo. Eng. transl. Tunis, the land and people. L, Chatto, 1st and 2d e, 1882. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Kohn-Abrest, F. La Tripolitaine et l'Egypte. (Based on Schweiger-Lerchenfeld.) Ps. 1884. Svo. 20 fr. Lux, J. Trois mois en Tunisie. Ps. 1882. 18mo. Michel, Leon. Tunis, l'Orient Africain, Arabes, Maures, Kabyles, Juifs, scenes de moeurs, etc. Ps., 2d e., 1883. 12mo. 3 f r. Portmans, Fr., Pere. En Tunisie et au Maroc. Ps, 1885. 8vo. 1.50 fr. Reid, T. XV. The land of the Bey: being impressions of Tunis under the French. L, Low, 1882. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Rohlfs, G. Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra. Lpz. 1881. 8vo. 16 Mk. Rousseau, A., Baron. History of the conquest of Tunis by the Ottomans. L. 18S3. Svo. Ste. Marie, E. de. La Tunisie Chretienne. Lyon, 1878. Svo. 4fr. Viviani, D. Viaggio da Tricoli di Barbaria alle fron- tiere Occident dell Egitto, etc. Genova, 1819. Wartegg. See Hesse- Wartegg. TURKESTAN. See Afghanistan, Central Asia, ete. TURKEY. Amicis, E. de. Constantinople. (Trans, by Caroline Tilton.) L, Low, and N. Y., Putnam, 1878. 8vo. 10s. 6d. $1.75. Anderson, Ruf. Oriental missions. Bost, Cong. Pub. Co, 1872. 2 v. 12mo. $3.00. Andreassy. Constantinople und der Bosphorus. Lpz. 1828, Andouard, O., Mme. Les mysteres du serail et des harems turcs. Lois, moeurs, etc. Ps. 1863. 12mo. 3.50 f r. Armeniens, Les, en Turquie. Ps. 1880. 8vo. 1 fr. Baker, J. Turkey in Europe. L. and N. Y, Cassell, 1877. 8vo. 21s. ... Bartlett, S. C. Historical sketch of missions of A. B. C. F. M. in Turkey. Bost, Cong. Pub. Co, 1886. 16mo. 6c. ,. . ... . ,, Basinaiian, K. H. Social and religious life in the Orient N. Y, Am. Tr. Soc, 1890. 12mo. $1.00. Belgioioso, la Princesse de. Scenes de la vie Turque. Ps. 3858. Svo. 8 fr. _,..„, Benjamin, S. G. W. The Turk and the Greek. N Y, Hurd & H, 1868. 16mo. $2.00. Boue, Ami. La Turquie d'Europe. Ps. 1840. 4 v. 8vo. 32 fr Ger. trans. Die Europaische Turkei. \Vien, 1889. 2 v. 8vo. 19 Mk. Brassey, Lady. Sunshine and storm in the East. Cyprus and Constantinople. L, Longmans, N. Y, Holt, 1879. 8vo. 21s. $3.50. n. e, 3881. 7s. 6d. Braun-Wiesbaden, K. v. Eine tiirkische Reise. Berlin, 1876-77. 3 v. 8vo. 15 Mk. Bruyn, C. Reizen door Deelen van Klein Asia, de Eylanden, etc. Delft, 1698. Busch, M. Die Turkei. Reise Handbuch. Triest, 1857. 3d e, 1881. 8vo. 4 Mk ,,,,„„„„ Cameron, V. L. Among the Turks. L, iSelsons, 1 ftfift Suo !£^ Campbell, Dudley. Turks and Greeks: notes on a recent excursion. L. and N. Y, Macmillan, 18,7. 12mo. 3s. 6d. $1.00. . „ Charikles. Tiirkische Skizzen in Briefen an eine Freundin. Berlin, 1877. 8vo. 1 Mk. Clark, Edson L. Arabs and Turks. Bost, Cong Pub Co, 1876. $1.50. -The races of European Turkey N Y„ Dodd, 1878. 8vo. $3.00.-Turkey. N. Y, Dodd, 1883. 8vo. $2.00. . c.nt S S. 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Svo. 15s. . , . Nergararian, G. Brief history of mission work in Nicomedia. Waynesboro', Pa, 1885. Noyes, J. C. Roumania. N. Y. 1857. 12mo. $1.50. Nuredin Aga. Tiirkische Interna. Dresden, 1884. 8vo. 3.50 Mk. Osman-Bey. Les femmes en Turquie. Ps. 1S.8. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Germ, trans, Die Frauen in der Turkei. Berl. 1886. Svo. 3 Mk Parmentier, E. Voyage dans la Turquie d'Europe. Ps. 1890. 12mo. 3 fr. TRAVELS, GENERAL 328 TRAVELS, GENERAL People of Turkey, twenty years' residence By a consul's daughter and wife. L, Murray, 1878. 2v. 8vo. 21s. N.Y. 1 v. 4to. 15c. Poole, S. Lane; Gibb, E. J. W.; and Gilman, A. The storv of Turkey. L, Unwin, N, Y, Putuams, 1888. 8vb. 5s. $1.50. Poujade. Chretiens et Turcs. Ps. 1867. Banke, L. v. History of the Ottoman and Spanish empires. L, Routledge, Phila, Lea, 1854. 8vo. 2s. 25c. Regla, Paul de. La Turquie offlcielle. Constanti nople, sou gouvernement, ses inhabitants, son pre sent, et son avenir. Ps. 1890. 12mo. 3 fr. 50c. Renouard, A. 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De danske vestindiske ders Tils- Tand i hens, til Population, Cultur og Finansforfat- ning (On the condition of the Danish West India Islands in regard to population, culture, and finances). Kbhn. 1797. Paton, W. A. Down the islands; a voyage to the Caribbees. N. Y, Scribners, 1887. 2d e, 1890. 8vb. $2.50. Quatrelles [Pseud.]. Un Parisien dans les Antilles. Ps. 1883. Svo. 5 fr. Richter, T. F. M. Reise von Nantes nach den An- tillen. Dresd. 1831. Rochefort. Histoire naturelle et morale des Iles Autilles de l'Amerique. Rdam. 1665. Talboys, W. P. West India pickles: journal of a winter yacht cruise. N. Y, Carleton, 18 — . 16mo. $1.50. Trollope, A. West Indies and the Spanish Main. L, Chapman & H, N. Y, Harper, 1859. 7th e, 1869. 12mo. 2s. 6d. $1.50. Underhill, E. B. Emancipation in the West Indies. L, , 1861. 8vo . — West Indies, social and religious. L, Jackson & W, 1862. 8vo. Ss. 6d. Waddell, H. M. Twenty-nine years in the West Indies aud Central Africa. L, Nelson, 1863. 8vo. 10s. 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Norse mythology; or, the religion of our forefathers. Chicago, Griggs, 1st and 2d e, 1875. 8vo. $2.50.— Viking tales of the North: Sagas of Thorstein, etc, from the Ice landic. Tr" by G. Stephens. Chicago, Griggs, 1876. 12mo. $2.00.— The Tonn_-er Edda: also called Snorre's Edda, or the prose Edda. with introduc tion, notes, etc. Chicago, Griggs, 1880. 8vo. $2.50. Arundell, Lord. Tradition, mythology, and the law of nations. L, Burns: 1872. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Baring-Gould, S. Origin and development of relig ious belief. L, Rivingtons, 1870-1. 2 v. n. e, 1882. 8vo. 12s. — Curious myths of Middle Ages. L, Riv ingtons, 1867. n. e, 1869. 8vo. 6s. Bastian, Ad. Zur ethnischen Ethik. Berl. 1890. 3 Mk. — Der Fetisch an der Kiiste Guineas auf den deutschen Forschung naher geriickten Stationen der Beobachtung. Berl. 1884. Svo. 2.40 Mk Beal, Saml. Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king. See Sacred Books op the East, vol. xix. Benedict, D. History of all religions. Providence, 1821. 12mo. 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L, Trubner, 1882. 8vo. Is. Clarke, J. F. Ten great religions. Vol. 1. Bost, Osgood, 1870. 22d e, 1886. Vol. 2, 1883. 5th e, 1886. 8vo. Ea. $2.00. Clodd, E. Childhood of religions, embracing myths and legends. L, Kegan Paul, 187'5. 12mo. 5s. — Childhood of the world. L. and N. Y., Macmillan, 1873. n. e, 1879. 32mo. 3s. Coates, D. Christianity the means of civilization. L, Seeley, 1837. 12mo. 6s. Collins, M. Das Lied von der weissen Lotos. Lpz, Grieben, 1890. 8vo. 1.80 Mk. Conway, M. D. Sacred anthology; a book of ethical Scriptures. L, Trubner, N. Y, Holt, 1874. 8vo. 5th e, 1877. 12s. $2.00. Cook, F. C. Origins of religion and language. L, Murray, 1884. 8vo. 15s. Cox, G. XV. Manual of mythology, in form of ques tion and answer. L, Longmans, 1868. n. e„ 1878. 12mo. 3s. — Mythology of Aryan nations. L, Longmans, 1870. n. e, 1878. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. Crabb, Geo. Mythology of all nations. L, South- gate. 1S10. 18mo. 3s! Dahn, F. und Th. Wallhallisch-germanische Gotter- und Heldensagen. Kreuznaeh, 188-. 6th e , 1885. 8vo. 9 Mk. Darmesteter, Jas. Zend Avesta. Prts. 1 and 2. See " Sacred Books of the East." vols. 4 and 23. Dass, F. Omstasndelig, sandfasrdig Beskr. over de norske Finlappers Sander, Skikke, Levemaade, Klffidedragt, Boliger, Gudsdyrkelse, tillagte Trold- domskonster m. v. (Particular and truthful account of the manners, customs, morals, costumes, dwell ings, religion, and supposed magic of the Norwegian Kinos). 2rl (much improved) ed. Kbhn. n. d. Deane, J. B. The worship of the serpent traced through the world. L, Rivington, 1830. 8vo. 12*. De Gobineau, J. Arthur. Les religions et les philo sophies dans l'Asie Centrale. Ps. 1865. 2d e, 1S66. 8vo. De Gubernatis, Angelo. Zoological mythology. L, Triibner, 1872. 2 v. 8vo. 28s. RELIGIONS: 680 RELIGIONS Dobbins, F. 8., and Williams, S. W. False gods; or, id . I worship. Phila , Stringer, 1881. 8vo. $3.75. Dods, Marcus. Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ. Kdinb.andL, Hodder, 1874. 4th e, 1886. Svo. 2s. 6d. 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Fradenburgh, J. N. Living religions; or, the great religions of the Orient. N. Y, Phillips, 1890. 12mo. $1.50. Frazer, J. G. The golden bough: a study in com parative religion. L. and N. Y., Macmillan, 1890, 2 v. 8vo. 28s. $6.50. Frere, Mary. Old Deccan days; or, Hindoo fairy legends current in Southern India. L, Murray, 1868. 3d e, 1881. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Phila, Lippincott, 1868. 12mo. $1.25. Friis, J. A. Lappisk Mythologi, Eventyr og Folke- sagn (Lapp mythology, fairy tales, and folk-lore). Chra. 1871. Gardner, Jas. Faiths of the world. L, Fullarton, 1858-60. 2 v. 8vo. 48s. Gill, W. W. Myths and songs of the South Pacific. L, King, 1876. 8vo. 9s. Gliickselig, Anton T. Alkuna. Nordische und nord- slawische mythologie. Lpz. 1831. 8vo. Grey and Bleek. Handbook of African. Australian, and Polynesian theology. Cape City, 1858. 3 v. Grey, G. Polynesian mythology, and traditions of New Zealand. L, Murray, 1855. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Grimm, J. Teutonic mythology. Transl. with notes by J. S. 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Ps. 1887. 8vo. 6 fr. Heathen Mythology Illustrated. L, WTilloughby, 1842. 8vo. 6s. Howitt, "Wm. Priestcraft in all ages and nations. L, Chapman, 1833. 12mo. 6s. Ingeman, B. S. Grundtreek til en nordslavisk og vendisk gudelsere (Outlines of the mythology of the Northern Slavs and Vends). Kbhn. 1824. Inman, Thos. Ancient faiths embodied in ancient names. L, Trubner, 1868-9. 2 v. 8vo. 60s, 2d e , 1872-3. — Ancient pagan and modern Christian sym bolism. N. Y, Bouton, 1869. 2d e, 1875. 8vo. $3.00. —Ancient faiths and modern: dissertation upon worships, legends, and divinities. N. Y, Bouton, 1876. 8vo. $5.00. Ireland, J. Paganism and Christianity compared. L, Murray, 1825. 8vo. 12s. Jacobi, Herm, The Gama Sutras. See Sacred Books of the East. vol. 22. Johnson, S. Oriental religions: (1) India; (21 China; (3) Persia. Bost, Osgood, 1872, '77, and '85. 3 v. Svo. Ea. $5.00. Jolly, Julius. Institutes of Vishnu. See Sacred Books of the East, vol. 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Fairy tales of all nations. Transl. by M. L. Booth. N. Y, Harper, 1867. 12mo. $2.00. Ijaistner, X.. Das Rathsel der Sphinx. Grundziige einer Mythengeschichte. Berl, Hertz, 3890, 2 v. 8vo. 20 Mk. Lang, A. Myth, ritual, and religion. L, Longmans, 1887. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Legge, Jas. Texts of Confucianism. See Sacred Books of the East. vols. 3, 16, 27, and 28. Leigh, H. S. The religious of the world. L, Triib ner, 1869. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Lenormant, F. Manual of Oriental history. L, Asher, 1870. Svo. 12s. — Chaldasan magic: its origin and development. L, Bagster, 1877. 8vo. 12s. Levesque de Burigny, J. Histoire de la philosophic payenne, ou sentimens . . . sur Dieu, l'ame. . . . La Haye, 1724. 2 v. 12mo. Lindemaan, Joh. G. Geschichte der Meinungen alterer und neurerer Volker im Stande der Rohheit und Cultur von Gott. . . . Stendal, 1784-95. 7v.8vo. Lippard, G. Legends of Mexico. Phila, Peterson, 1847. 8vo. 25c. iLippert, Jul. Aligemeine Geschichte des Priester- thums. Berl. 1885. 2 v. 8vo. — Die Religionen der Europiiischen Culturvolker. Berl. 1881. 8vo. 8 Mk. jLobschrid. Religion of the Dyaks. Hong Kong, 1806. Lubbock, John, Sir. Origin of civilization. L, Longmans, 1870. 5th e, 1890. 8vo. 18s. Luki-n. Heinr. Die Traditionen des Menschenge- schlechts oder die Uroffenbarung Gottes unter den Heiden. Munster, 1856. 8vo. 1 Thaler 10 Gr. Lyde, Samuel. Visit to the secret sects of Northern Syria. L, Hurst & B, 1853. 8vo. 10s. 6d— Asian mystery in the history nf the Ansaireeh. L, Hurst & B, I860. Svo. 10s. 6d. Magnuson, Finn. Eddalaeren og dens Oprindelse eller nojagtig FremstilUng af de gamle Nordboers Digtninger og Meninger om Verdens, Gudernes, Aanderries, og Menneskernes Tildblivelse, Aan- dernes. . . . Kbhn. 1824-26. 4 v. 8vo.— Priscse Ve- terum Borealium Mythologies Lexicon. Haunise, 1828. 4to. Malan, Caesar. Les grands traits de l'histoire re ligieuse de l'humanite. Ps. 1881. 8vo. 7 fr. Mallet, Paul H. Northern antiquities. Translated by Bp. 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Maori religion and mythology. Illus trated by translations of tradition, etc. L, Long mans, 1832. 8vo. 3s. Simon, M, l'Abbe. Le culte des morts chez les priucipaux peuples anciens et modernes. Limoges, 38-i3. 12mo. Smith, Geo. Religion of ancient Britons. L, Long mans. 1846. 2d e. 8vo. 7s. 6d. — (Sacred annals, v. 3.) Gentile nations. L, Longmans, 1853. 8vo. 12s. Smith, J. F. From dawn to sunrise. Review of the religious ideas of mankind. Rouse's Pt. 1876. 16mo. — Studies in religion under German masters. L , Williams & N, 1880. 16mo. 5s. Spazier, M. See Buchon, Jean A, vol. 4. Squier, E. G. The serpent symbol worship of re ciprocal principles. N. Y, Putnam, 1851. 8vo. $2.25. Steiner, H. Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker in Islam. Ein Beitrag zur allgemeiner Culturge- schichte. Lpz, Hirzel, 1865. 8vo. Stuhr, Pet. F. Geschichte der Religionsformen der heidnischen Volker. Berl. 1836. 2 v. 8vo.— Alige meine Geschichte der Religionsformeu der heid nischen Volker. Berl. 1836-38. 2 v. 8vo. Student's Manual of Oriental History. L, , and N. Y, . 2 v. Svo. $5.50. Thibaut, G. Vedantra Sutras1. See Sacred Books of the East, vol. 34. Thorpe, B. Northern mythology, popular traditions, etc. L, Quaritch, 1805. 3 v. Bvo. 18s. Tiele, C. P. Outlines of the history of religion, to the spread of the universal religions. L, Triib ner, Bost, Osgood, 1877. 2d e, 1880. Svo. 7s. 6d. $2 50. Toland, Jno. Letters to Serena. (History of the soul's immortality among the heathens.) L. 1704. Svo. Trumelet, C. Les saints de l'lslam, legendes hagio- logiques et croyances alge-rienues. Les saints du Tell. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 4 fr. Veckenstedt, Edm. Die Mythen, Sagen, und Le- genden der Zamarten. Heidelh. 1883. 8vo. 8 Mk. Vernes, Maurice. L'histoire des religions, son esprit, sa methode, et ses divisions. Ps. 1886. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Vinson, J. Les religions aciuelles, leurs doctrines, leur evolution, leur histoire. Ps. 1888. Svo. 9 f r. Yiollet-le-Duc, Eugene E. 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Early Jesuit missions in North America. Albany, Munsell, 1873. 12mo. $1.50.— Historical scenes from old Jesuit missions. N. Y., Randolph. 1875. 12mo. $1.75. Kircher, Ath. (S. J.). China Monumentis. Amstd. 1667. Lacroix. Dictionnaire des missions Catholiques. Ps. 1864. 2 v. Bvo. 14 fr. Lambel, le Comte de. Le Christianisme au Japon. Ps. 1868. 8vo. 2.50 fr. !Launay, A. Nos missionaires, precedes d^une etude historique sur la soci6t6 des missions etrangeres, Ps. 1886 Initio. 3 fr. Le Blant, E. Les martyrs de PextrSme Orient et les persecutions antiques. Arras, 1877. 8vo. L.ebon, Hubert. Manuel des associfis a la propaga tion de la foi. Paris, 1848. 32mo. — Souvenirs curi- eux des missions etrangeres. Ps. 1865. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Lenfant, Camille. Missions de l'extreme Orient, ou cnip d'eed sur les persecutions de la Chine, de la Cochin-Chine, du Tong-King, et de la Coree. Ps. 1865. 12mo. 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Ps. 1858. 12mo. 2 fr. Marshall, T. \V. M. Christianity in China. L-, Longman, 1859. Svo. 5s. 6d. — Christian missions: agents, methods, and results. L., Burns, 1862. 3 v. 8vo. n. e„ Longmans, 1863. 2 v. 24s. N. Y., Sadliers, 1864. 2 v. ISmo. $4.00. Maurer, K. Die Bekehrung des Norwegischen Stammes zum Christenthume. Munich, 1855-6. 2 v. Svo. 7 Thlr. 18 Sgr. Meier, Otto. De titula missionis apud Catholicus. Regiomonti, 1S4S. Svo. 8 Sgr, — Die Propaganda, ihre Provinzen und im* Rech. Gottingen, 1S52-3. 2 v 8vo. 5 Th. 10 S^r.— Ueber Rdmisch- Katho lische Missionen. Berl. 1857. 8vo. 4 Sgr. Meignan, Mgr. Un pretre d6porte en 1792; episode de l'histoire de la revolution et de l'histoire des missions. Ps. 1862. 12mo. 3.50 fr. Meylan, A. Histoire de Pevangelisation des Lapons, suivie de I'6vangile au Labrador. Ps. 1868. l2mo. 1.25 Jr. Michelis., Eduard. Die Volker der Siidsee und die Geschichte der Protestantise hen und Katholischen Missionen unter denselben. Munster, 1847. 8vo. 1 Thlr. 15 Sgr. Migne, Jacques P. Dictionnaire des missions Catho liques. Ps. 1863-4. 2 v. Missiones Catholica* Ritus I ;it i ni. Rome, 1887. Missions Geschichte Spaterer Zeiten. Augsb. 1796-8. Missions-Unfug der Jesuiten. Predigten. Bern, 1843. 8vo. 25 Sgr. Missions-Verein, der, oder die Jesuiten in Hessen. Lpz. 1 S3 4 . Svo. 2}^ Sgr. Mitterutzner, «X. C. Geographische Notizen aus dein Apostel Vikariate in Central Afrika. Schaffh. 1W5-. Montigny, M. de, Saint-Cosine, M. de, et Thau- uuir oV la Source, M. de. Relation de la mission du Mississippi du seminaire de Quebec en 1700. Ps. 1861. Svo. 18 fr. Montrond, Maxime de. Missions d'Amerique, d'Oc6anie, et dAfrique. Paris, 1846. 12nio. 1 fr. —Missions du Levant, d'Asie, et de la Chine. Paris, 1846. 12rno. 1 fr.— Les missions en Oceanie au XIX1* siecle. Paris, 1869. Svo. —Les missions Catho liques dans toutes les parties du monde. Ps. 1876. 8vo. Moussy, Martin. M6moire historique sur la deca dence et la mine des missions Jesuites dans le Bassin de la Plata, leur etat actuel. Paris, 1865. ..8vo. 5 fr. Mullbauer, M. Geschichte der Katholischen Mis- HISTORIES 639 HISTORIES sionen in Ostindien bis zur Mitte des achtzehn Jahr- hunderts. Freiburg, 1352. Svo. 1 Thlr. 4 Sgr. Norbert. Memoires historiques sur les missions des Peres Jesuites mix Indes. Besanpon, 174T. Pachtler, G. M. Das Ciiristenthum in Tonkin und Cochin China. Paderborn, 1SG1. Svo. 1 Thlr. 6 Sgr. Pages, Leon. Histoire de la religion chretienue au Japon, 1598-11)51, eomprenant les faits relatifs aux deux cent cinq martyrs. . . . Ps. 1869. 2 v. Svo 12 fr. Parkman, Francis. Jesuits in North America. See vol. 5 of Ins works. Bost., Brown & L., 18T4-5. 7 v. Svo. Ea. S3. 50. Germ, transl., Stuttg. 1878. '. Histoire des missions eele,bres dans tons ies pavs Ps. 1862. 25 ctm. Arnold, Muhleisen. The Moslem mission field. L. 1860 Bacheler, O. R. Hinduism ancl Christianity in Orissa: account of Am. Freewill Bapt. Mission in Northern Orissa. Hover. N. H.. 1854. 24mo. 50c. Badley, B. H. Indian missionary directory and memorial volume. Lncknow. 1876 Svo. [10s. 6d.] Bagster, Samuel. Bible of every land. Descriptive history of the Scriptures in all the languages of the earth. L.. Bagster, 1868. 4to. 31s. 6d. Baierlein, E. R. Von den Heiden. Vier Missions- Stunden. Dresden, Naumann, 1888. Svo. 75 Pf. Bainbridge, XV. F. Along the lines at the front: a general survey of Bapt. Home and Foreign Mis- HISTORIES 640 HISTORIES sions. Phila., Am. Bapt. Pub., 1882. 12mo. 81.50. —Self-giving; story of Christian Missious. Bost., Lothrop, 1883. 12mo. $1.50. Bainbridge, W. F., Mrs. Round the world letters. Bost., Lothrop, 1882. 12mo. $1.50. Bangs, Nathan. History of the missions of the M. E. Church. N. Y., Meth. Bk. Cone, 1832. Baptist Missions. Northern. See Smith, S. F. Southern. See Tuppkr, H. A. Barber, M. A. S. History of missionary societies. L. 1839. 2 v.— Sunshine; or. home and foreign mis sionary sketches. L., Nisbet, 1853. 18mo. 2s.— Missionary tales. L., Nisbet, 1860. n. e. 18mo. 2s.— Sweet childhood ; or, church missionary work among the young. L., Nisbet, 1863. 12mo, 3s. 6d. Barker, J. H. Apostolic missions; or, sacred history amplified. L., Groombridge, 1858. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Bartlett, s. C. Missions of A. B. C. F. M. in Turkey. Bost. 1880. 12mo.— Missions of A. B. C. F. M. in Africa and China. Bost. 1880. 2 v. 12mo,— Missions of A. B. C. F. M. in India and Ceylon. Bost. 1886. 18mo. Bauerfeind, G. Missionsstunden. Halle, Fricke, 1882. Svo. 2 Mk. Berattelse om Gud den Heliga Andes Nade- arbete paa tvenna Kalmuckiska Adlingare fjedan (Report on the work of the Holy Ghost on the souls of two Kalnuilcsi. Stolm. 1818. Bernau, J. H. Missionary labours in British Guiana, with remarks on the manners, customs, and super stitious rites of the aborigines. L. , Shaw, 1847. 8vo. 7s.— Missionary labors among the aboriginal Indians of Guiana. L., Shaw, 1847. Svo. 7s. Bilder aus der Hermannsburger Mission. Her mannsburg, 1880. Bingham, Hiram. Story of the Morning Star. Bost. A. B. C. F. M., 1886. 12mo. Bird, I. Bible work in Bible lands. Events in the history of the Syria Mission. Phila., Pres. Bd., 1872. 12mo. $1.50. Blackstone. General directory of missionary socie ties. Chicago, 1881. Bleedel, N. G. Missionsbestyrelsens Ledelse af deu danske Missionsvirksombed. Et Foredrag (The conduct of the directors of the Danish missionary work. A lecture). Kbhn. 1870. Blumhardt, C. G. Versuch einer allgemeinen Mis- sions-Geschichte der Kirche Christi. Basel, J 828-37. 3 v. in 5 parts. 20 Sgr. — Christian missions. (Ed. C. Barth.) L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1846. 18mo. 2s. 6d.— Handbuch der Missionsgeschichte und Missions- geographie. Stuttg., Steinkopf, 1863. 3. Ausg. 2 v. 12mo. Bock, F. S. Kurze Misssionsgeschichte. Konigsb. 1743. Borrow, Geo. 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Briggs, C. A. American Presbyterianism: its origin and early history. N. Y., Scribners, 1885. 12mo. $3.00. Briggs, F. XV. Missions, apostolic aud modern. L., Hamilton, 1864. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Brightwell, C. L., Miss. Romance of modern mis sions. [India.] L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1870. Svo. 2s. 6d, —So great love: sketches of missionary life and labor. L., Snow, 1874. Svo. 3s. Cd. British and Foreign Bible Society, jubilee at Bombay, 1853. Bomb. 1854. Brodhead, A. Historical sketches of missions in India (Presbyt ). Phil. 1881. 12mo. Brown, G. History of the British and Foreign Bible Society. L. 1859. Brown, William. History of the propagation of Christianity among the heathen since the Refor mation. L. 1814. 2 v. 3d e , Blackwoods, 1854. 3 v. 8vo. 36s. Am. ed.. Phila., Clarke, 1816. 2 v. Briiderkirche, Uebersicht der Missionsgeschichte der Evangelischen, in ihrem ersten Jahrhunderte. Gnadau, 1833. 3 parts. Buchner, J. H. The Moravians in Jamaica. His tory of the missions of the United Brethren's Church to the negroes in the Island of Jamaica, 1754-1854. L., Longman, 1854. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Burkhardt. G. E. Kleine Missions Bibliothek. Bielefeld, Velhagen, 1857-62. 4 v. 8vo. 2d e. by P. R. Grundemann, 1876-81. 4 v. 8vo. 31.60 Mk. Burns, J. Missionary enterprise in many lands. L., Tegg, 3d e., Knight, 1854. 32mo. ls. 6d. Burton, Bella F., Mrs. A year in the country; or, Keilei's missionary work. Bost., Lothrop, 1871. 16mo. $1.25. Busch, R. Altes und Neues aus der Mission unter den Heiden. Eckartsberga, 1887 sqq. Butler, W. Compendium of missions. Bost. 1852. Caldwell, Robt. Lectures on the Tinnevelly mis sions. L., Bell & D., 1857. 8vo. 3s. 6d.— Records of the early history of the Tinnevelly Mission, Madras, 1881. 8vo. Calvert, Jas. Fiji and the Fijians. (Vol. 1 by Thos. Williams.) Vol. 2, Mission history. L. 1858. 8vo. Campbell, J. R. Mission in Hindostan. L. 1852.— Missions in Upper India. L. 1858. Campbell, John. 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Contributions toward a History of Biblical translations in India. L., Daltou, 1854. 8vo. 2s. Cooper. A lecture ou the manners and customs of the Japanese and the progress of Christian missions in Japan. N. Y. 1880. Cox, F. A. History of the Baptist Missionary Society. L., Houlston, 1842. 2 v. 12mo. 7s. 6d. Bost., Tompkins. Craandijk, J. Historie nederlandske zendding- genootschap in zijn willen en warken. Rotterd. 1869. 2v. Cran/., David. Ancient and modern history of the Brethren. Barby, 1772. Engl, transl., L. 1780.— Weitere Fortsetzung von seine Briider Historie. Gnadau, 1860. Croger, E. W. Geschichte der Erneuerten Briider Kirche. Gnadau, 1852-4. 3 v. 8vo. 6.50 Mk— Ge schichte der Alter Briider Kirche, 1457-1778. Beth lehem, Pa". 8vo. $2.25. HISTORIES 641 HISTORIES Croil, James. The missionary problem. [Concise history of Protestant missions.] Toronto, 1883 Curiosities of Christian Missions. Phila., Am. Baj ,. Publ 181110. 40c. Cust, K. N. Sketch of modern missions in the East Indies L 1878.— Pictures of Indian life, with the pen, 18a2-81. L., Trubner, 1881. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Cutts, E. L. Christians under the crescent in Asia. L. H. P. C. K., 1877. 8vo. 5s. Daggett, 1. H., Mrs. Historical sketches of woman's missionary societies in America and England. Bost., Daggett, 1879. n. e., 1883. 16mo 75c. Daflas, A. Story of the Irish church missions L Macintosh, 1868. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Danske Mission i Ostindien, Den , i de senrj b Aar. En Samling af Breve. Udg. med eu Indl. af C. H. Kalkar (The Danish mission in East India of late years. A collection of letters, ed. with an in troduction by C. H. K.). Kbhn. 1870. Denison, S. D. A history of the foreign missionary work of the Prot. Episc. Ch., U. S. A. N. Y. 1871. Descombaz, S. Histoire des missions evangelioues Ps., 2d e., I860. 12mo. 4 fr. H ' Desribes, E. L'evangile au Dahomey et a la cote des esclaves, ou histoire des missions africaines de Lyon. Lyon, 1877. 8vo. 7fr. Dibble, Sheldon. The Sandwich Islands Mission. X. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1839. 12mo. 75c. Diestelkainpf, jL. Vortrag uber Mission in Deutseh- Ostafrika. Bed. 1887. Svo. 40 Pf. Dietel, K. XV. Missionsstunden. Lpz. 1885 sqq. 5 v. Svo. Ea. 1.20 Mk. Dol in. Den evangeliske Mission i Aaret 1843 (The evangelical mission in 1843.) Kbhn. 1843. Dobbins, F. S. A foreign missionary manual. Phila. 1881. Douglas, H. A. (Bp.). Missions in India. Seven letters. L., Gardner, 1877. 8vo, 2s. 6d. Duncan, Peter. Narrative of the Wesleyan Mission to Jamaica. L., Partridge, 1849. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Dwight, H. G. O. Christianity revived in the East. The work of God among the Armenians of Turkey. N. Y., C. Scribner, 1850. 12mo. $1.00. Edgar, J. H. Christendom from Constantine to Reformation. N. Y. 18S7. Edwards, B. B. The missionary gazetteer. Bost., Crocker & B., 1832, Andover, 1833. 8vo. $1.20. Eels, Myron. History of Indian missions on the Pacific coast, in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. Phila., Am. S. S., 1882. 12mo. SI. 25. Egede, Hans. OmstaBndelig og udforlig Relation angaaende den gronlandske Missions Begyndelse og Fortsasttelse o. s. v. (Circumstantial and ex haustive explanation of the origin and further history of the Greenland Mission, etc.) Kbhn. 1738. — Episode af min Virksomhed i Nordgronland (Epi sode of my work in North Greenland), 1818-28. Haderslev, 1874. — Third continuation of the expla nations of the condition and real nature of the Greenland Mission, 1739-43. Kbhn. Ellis, Harriet XV. Toils and triumphs: missionary work in the world's dark places. L., Seeley, 1862. 8vo. 3s. 6d. — Denmark and her missions. L., Seeley, 1863. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Ellis, Wm. The Christian keepsake and missionary annual. L. 1837. — History of Madagascar. Progress of Christian missions, persecution and martyrdom of Christians, etc. L., Tallis, 1838. 2 v. 8vo. 25s. — History of the London Missionary Society. L., Snow, 1844. Svo. 10s. 6d.— The American Mission in the Sandwich Islands. 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L., Wertheim, 1845. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Fabricius, J. A. Salutarisluxevangelii. Hamburg, 1731. Fenger, J. F. Den trankebarske Missions Historie (The history of the mission in Tranquebar). Kbhn 1843 —Bidrag til Hans Egedes og den gronlandske Missions Historie (Contributions to the history of Hans Egede and the Greenland Mission), 1721-60 Kbhn. 1879. Ferris, J. Jubilee memorial of the American Bible Society. N. Y. 1867. Flad, J. M. Zwo'lf Jabxe in Abessyrrien oder Ge schichte des Konigs Theodores II. und der Mission unter seiner Regierung. Basel, 1869. 8vo. 9 Gr llickmger, D. K. Ethiopia; or, twenty years' of missionary life in Western Africa. Dayton, O Un. B. Pub. Co., 1877. 12mo. 90c. Flood, J. Gronland; Missionshistorie i Forteellinger (Greenland. Missionary history in stories) Chra '^•—Ltesning > Kvindeforeninger for Heuninge- og Jode-Missioneu. Krsta. 1881. Florey, R. Ziige am Missionsnetze. 6 Hefte. Lnz 2d e., 1858. 8vo. Ea. 9 Gr. ' Foss, R. Die Anfange der Nordischen Mission Ber.1 Gaertner, 1882-3. 2 v. 4to. 2 Mk. Fox, H. W. Chapters on missions in South India. L., Seeley. 1848. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Fox, W. Brief survey of the Wesleyan missions on the western coast of Africa. L., Aylott, 1851 8vo 10s. 6d. Freeman, J. J., and Johns, D. Persecutions of the Christians in Madagascar; ... the escape of six refugees. L., Snow, 1840. 12mo. 6s. Frere, Bartle, Sir. Indian missions. L., King, 1873 8vo. 5s. Frick, O. Geschichten und Bilder aus der Mission. Halle, 1881-6. 6 parts. Fritschel, Gfrd. Geschichte der Christlichen Mis sionen unter den Indianern Nordamerika's im siebenzehnten und achtzehnten Jahrhundert Nurnh. 1870. Svo. 2.40 Mk. Gammell, W. History of American Baptist missions Bost., Gould, K.&L., 1849. 6th e., 1850. 12mo. 75c. Gardner, T. C. Sources of power in missionary en terprise. N. Y., Carlton & P., 1862. 12mo Geddes, M. History of the church of Malabar L 1694. 8vo. Gedenkbuch der Rheinischen Mission. Barmen, 1878. Gerhard, P. Geschichte der Mission unter den Kolbs. Berl. 1883. 8vo. 1.50 Mk. Geschichte der Ausbreitung des Christenthums unter den Heiden. Colberg, 1844. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Geschichte der Ausbreitung des Christenthums unter den Heidenvolkern Sudafrikas. Berl. 1832. 8vo. 15 Sgr. Geschichte, Kurze, der Auswanderung der Zillerthaler Protestanten und Hires Durchzugs durch Oberb'sterrichs Evangelische Gemeinden. Numb. 1838. 8vo. 3% Sgr. Geschichte der Christlichen Missionen auf den Freundschafts- oder Tonga-Inseln, nebst einer Kurzen Geschichte der Weslevanischen Missions- Gesellschaft. Bremen, 1857. Svo. 22j^ Sgr. Gillies, J. Success of the gospel. Glasgow, 1754. 2 v. n. e. Edinb., Bonar, 1845. 1 v. Svo. 10s. 6d. Gold and the Gospel ; or. the Scriptural duty of giving. L., Nisbet, 1855. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Goode, "W. H. Outposts of Zion. Cincinnati, Meth. Bk. Con., 1863. 12mo. $1.75. Gordon, A. Our India Mission: thirty years' history of the Indian Mission. Phil. 1886. 8vo. $3.00. Gospel among the Bechuanas and other Tribes of South Africa. Phila., Am. S. S. Un., 1846. 12mo. 40c. Gospel in Santhalistan. By an old Indian. Pref ace by Horatius Bonar. L., Nisbet, 1875. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Gossner, .Johannes. Geschichten aus der Heiden Welt. Berl. 1S36-7. 6 v. 8vo. 13^ Sgr. Gossnerscher Mission. Fiinfzig Jahre. Berl. 1886. Gracey, J. T., Mrs. Woman's medical work in foreign lands. Dansville, N. Y.. 1881. Grant, Ant. Missions to the heathen. Bampton lectures for 1843. L., Rivington, 1845. Svo. 9s. Graul, K. Evangelische Lutherische Mission zu Dres den an Evangelische-Lutherische Kirche aller Lander. Lpz. 1845. 8vo. 4 Sgr.— Die Christlichen Missionsplatze auf der ganzen Erde. Lpz., Dorf- fling, 1847. 6 Sgr. Green, Ashbel. Historical sketch of Presbyterian foreign and domestic missions. Phila., Presby. Bd., 1838. 12mo. 63c. Gronning, O. V. Om Missionen i Ostindien (On the mission to East India). Kbhn. 1860. Grundemann, P. R. Missions-Bibliothek. 4 v. See Burkhardt, G. E.— Zur Statistik der Evan gelischen Mission. Giitersloh, 1886. 8vo. 1.50Mk. Guenot, C. Conquetes du Christianisme en Asie, Afrique. Amerique, etc. Ps. 1866. 1.50 fr. Guinness, H. Grattan. Mrs. New world of Central HISTORIES 642 HISTORIES Africi, wirh a history of the first Christian mission on the Congo. L., Hodder, 1890. 8vo. 6s. Gutzlatt", Carl. En kort Beretning om , og den chiuesiske Mission (A short account of C. G. and the Chinese Mission). Kbhn. 1850. Gundert, H. Missionsbilder. Calw. 1861.— Die Evangelische Mission, ihre Lander, Volker, und Arbeiten. Calw. 1S81 (?) 2d e., 1886. 8vo. 2 Mk. Hammond, H. Den nordiske Missions Historie i Nordlandene, Fimnarken, og Trundhjems Amt til Lappers og Finners Omvendelse fra firste Be- gydelse til lien udi Aaret 1727 (History of the North ern missions in Northland. Finmark, and the county of Trundhjem, from the beginning to 1727). Kblin 1787. Handbook of Foreign Missions. L., Tr. Soc, 1888. Svo. Is. 4d. Hardwick, C. Missions of the Middle Ages. (See his Christian Church of the Middle Ages. L., Macinillau, 2d e., 1861. 8vo. 10s. Od.) Hassell, J. From pole to pole A handbook of Christian missions. L., Nisbet, 186C. 12mo. 5s. Hawaii, the Kingdom and Church of. L. 1868. Hawaiian Church Mission. Occasional paper. No. 2. L„ Rivingtons, 1865. 8vo. 6d. Hawkins, Era. Missions of the Church of England in N. American colonies. L., Fellowes, 1845. 8vo. 9s. Hazelias, H. Evang. fosterlandsst. tjugofem-ariga verksamhet (Twenty -five years' work of the Evan gel. National Soc). Stolm. 1881. Hebich, Saml. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Indi schen Mission. Basel, 1872. 8vo. 1.40 Mk. Heckewelder, J. G. E. Narrative of the mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mo- hegan Indians, 1740-1808. Phila., McCarty & D., 1820. 8to. Hector, Parker,' and Payn. Statistical tables of Protestant missions in India, Cevlou, etc. L., Thacker, 1881. 8vo. 5s. Hening, E. F., Mrs. History of Ihe African Mission of the Prot. Ep. Church. N. Y., Stanford & S., 1850. 12mo- 75c. Hertel, t. Missionasr BSrresen og Santalmissionen (Missionary B. and the S. M.) Kolding, 1876. Hervey, G. W. Baptist missions in foreign lands, from Carey to the present date. St. Louis, 1884 (?). Hesse, J. Der Asantekrie und die Mission auf der Gold-Kliste in einem kurzen Geschichtlichen Ueber- blick dargestellt. Basel. 1874. — Eine neue Mission am Ngami See. Basel, 1883. 15 Pf . Hill. Mission work in Central China. L. 1882. Historical Collections, relating to Remarkable periods of success of the gospel. Glasgow, 1854. 2 v. 8vo. Historical Sketch of the African Missions of the Prot. Ep. Ch. of U. S. N. Y. 1881. Historical Sketch of the Missions of the Ameri can Board. N. Y. 18(52 Historical Sketch of the China Mission of tlie Prot. Episc. Ch. of the U. S. N. Y. 1885. Historical Sketches of the Missions of the S. P. G. L. 1879. 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History of Madagascar, embracing the Progress ot the Christian mission iu that island. N. Y., Am. S. S. 18mo. 80c History of the Moravian Missions among the Indians in No. America. Bel hlehem, Pa. [and L.], Clauiler, 1838. 12mo. 90c. History of the Missions of the Church of the United Brethren. 1871. 3d. Hoffmann, Friedr. Missionsgeschichten. Potsdam, Stein, 1857-61. 6 v. Svo. 1.15 Mk. Hoffmann, W. Die Evangelische Missionsgesell- schaft zu Basel in 1842. Basel, 1842.— Missious- stunden. stuttg., Steinkopf, 1847. Neue Sanim- lung, 1S51. Hvo. 1 Mk. — Missionsgeschichten. Stuttg. 1849. 2d e., 1851. n. e., 1857-61. C v. 8vo. 4 Thlr. 10 Sgr.— Elf Jahre in der Mission. Stuttg., Steinkopf, 1853. ' 8vo. 1 Mk. HiigiT. Folkene bg Missionen (The people and the missions). Bergen, 1882. Hole, C. Early missions to and within the British Islands. L., S. P. C. K., 1888. 12mo. 2s.— Home missions in the early mediaeval period. L., S, P. C. K., 1889. 12mo. ls. 6d. Holm. Udsigt over de med det danske M. S. forb. Kreds- og Kvindeforeningers Arbeide (View of the work done by the Circuit and Women's Associa tions connectetfewith tlie Danish M. S.). Kbhn. 1880. Holmes, J. Historical sketches of the missions of the United Brethreu to the heathen. Dublin. Mal- lalieu, 1818. 7s. 6d. Repr. Bethlehem, Pa., Clauder, 1827. 2de., 8vo. $1.00.— History of the church of the United Brethren. Dublin, Mallalieu, 1825. % v. 8vo. 12s. Holt, E. Anecdotes of Christian missions. Bost., Crocker & B., 1837. 12mo. 50c. Hood, G. Historical sketch of missions in South America. Phila. 1881. 12mo. Hoole, E. The year-book of missions. L., Long man, 1847. 8vo. 2s Horring. Bemserkn. til Dr. Rinks Skrift " Om Gron land" m. in. (Notes to Dr. Rink's work " About the Greenlanders," etc.) Kbhn. 1882. Hough, James. The missionary Vade Mecum. L., Hatchard, 1832. 12mo. 2s.— History of Christianity in India. L., Seeley, 1839. 4 v. 8vo. 48s. House, Edwin. Missionary in many lands. L., Hogg. N. Y„ Carlton & Porter, 1861. 8vo. 3s. 6d. 80c Howard, XV. D. Origin of the Board of Foreign Missions of Presbyterian Church, U. S. A. [in "Sketches of Missions"]. N. Y. 1879. 8vo. Huie, J. A. Histoiy of Christian missions. Edinb. and L., Simpkin, 1842. 12mo. 5s. Humphreys, Dav. Historical account of S. P. G, L. 1730. Hunter, R. History of the missions of the Free Church of Scotland. (By C. J. Brown.) Edinb., Nelsons, 1873. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Ipsen, O. C. Kort Udsigt over den danske Mission i Sydindien (Short .view of the Danish Mission in Southern India). Kbhn. 1887. Ireland, W. Historical sketch of the Zulu Mission and also of the Gaboon Mission. Boston, Cong. Pub. Co., 1865. 12mo. Isenberg, C. AV., and Krapp, 1. 1.. Church mission to Abyssinia and Egypt, 1839-18 42. L., Seeley, 1843. 8vo. 12s. Jackson, Sheldon. Alaska, and missions on the North Pacific coast. N. Y., Dodd, 1880. 12mo. $1.50. Jacobsen. Santhalmissionen (The Santhal Mission). Kbhn. 1885. Jessup, Henry H. 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Kbhn. 1869.— Det danske Missions- selskabs Historie i de forste fyrgetyve Aar t,His- tory of the Danish Missionary Society during its first forty years). Kbhn. 1871. — Den kristelige Mis sion blandt Hedningerne (The Christian mission to the heathen). 1-2. Kbhn. 1879.— Geschichte der Christlichen Mission unter den Heiden. Giitersloh, 1879. — Kirkens Virksomhed blandt Muhamedanerne indhil Oonstantinopels Erobring af Tyrkerne (The church's activity among the Mohammedans until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks). Kbhn. 1884. Kay, Wm. Is the Church of England fulfilling her office as a missionary church ? Oxf. 1865. Kaye, J. XV. History of Christianity in India. L,, "Smith & E., 1859. 8vo. 16s. Kegel, T. Missionsstunden. Lpz., Dorffliug, 1884. Svo. 2.25 Mk. Klngsley, Calv. Round the world. A series of let ters. (Meth. Ep. missions.) Cincinnati, Meth. Bk. Cone. 2 v. 16mo. $2.50. Kingsmill, Jos. Missions and missionaries histori- HISTORIES 643 HISTORIES E? Ily TLe.Yed f rom thei'' commencement. L„ Long- man, lttaa. n. e.. 1854. 8vo. 10s. 6d. nuto,?' f- »- AIem?ir of Mrs- A' H- Judson, and histoiy of the Am. Bant. Mission in the Burman empire. Bost.. 3d e , 1829. 12mo. Kopke. Missionshistoria for Folket (History of mis- sions for the people). KSping, 1882. Kort Beretning om den her i Trankebar an- rettedeKgl danske Missions udvortes Tilstand den 5 Oct. 1726, 29-34, 36 (Short account of the external condition of the royal Danish Mission at Tranquebar), Oct. 5, 1726. Kort Beskribning over Indostan efter Roe, Holwell o. fl (Short, description of Hindustan after Roe, Holwell a. o.). (Coll. of travels, 5.) Kbhn. Kragh, P. Udtog af Dagbog (Extracts from diary). 1-2. Haderslev, 1875. Kratzenstein, Ed. Kurze Geschichte der Berliner Mission in Siid Afrika. Berl. 1879. 3d e„ 1888 8vo. 2 Mk. Landgren. Ofversigt af de protestantiska Missio- ners uppkomst och niirvarende tilstand (Review of the rise of the Protestant missions and their pres ent condition). 1-2. Hudikswall, 1871-2. Lectures on Medical Missions. L., Simpkin 1849 12mo. 4s. 6d. Lectures to Young Men on Missions. Preface by Raikes. L., Shaw, 1846. 8vo. 6s. Ledderhose, C. F. See Mission unter den Freien Buschnegern in Surinam. Heidelb. 1852. 8vo. 18 Sgr.— Die Mission unter den Arawakken. Basel, 1857. Leonhardi, G. Naeht und Morgen. Erzahlungen aus der Christlichen Missionsgeschichte. Lpz. 1859-73. 2 v. 3 prts. 8vo. 7.80 Mk. [2d enlarged ed. of Die Missionsgeschichte u. s. w. Quedlin- burg, 1843.] Liverpool Missionary Conference. L., Nisbet, 1860. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Lobley, J. A. The church in Southern India. L., Bell &D., 1871. 8vo. 4s. Lockhart, "Wm. The medical missionary in China. L., Hurst &B.,n. e., 1861. 8vo. 15s. Lorcher, J. Die Basler Mission in China. Basel, 1882. 8vo. 30 Pf. Logan, Robt. "VV. 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Bost., Nelson, 1865. 18mo. 50c Memorial Volume of the First Fifty Tears of the A. B. C. F. M. Bost. 1862. Merivale, C. The conversion of tbe Roman empire L., Longmans, N. Y„ Appleton, 1864. 2d e., 1865. 8vo. 8s. 6d. $2.00.— The conversion of the Northern nations. L., Longmans, N. Y., Appleton, 1865 8vo. 8s. 6d. $2.00.— The conversion of the West. L..S.P. C. K„ 1878. 12mo. 2s. Methodist Episcopal Missions. See Reid, J. M. Meylan, A. Histoire de l'Evangelisation des Lapons. Suivie de l'evangile au Labrador. Ps. 1863. 12mo. 1.25 fr. Millar, Robt. History of the propagation of Chris tianity. Edinb. 1723. 2 v. 3d e„ 1731. Missionary Box. Phila., Presby. Bd. 18mo. 50c Missionary Enterprise in many Lands. A book for the family L., Nelsons, 1872. 12mo. 5s. Missionary Guide-Book. L., Seeley, 1846. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Missionary Sketches for Children. Phila., Pres. Bb. 32uio. 25c. Missionary Society of the Meth. Episc. Ch. of Canada. Toronto, 1884. Missionary Stories; or, sketches of Moravian mis sions. N. Y., Am. S. S. 18mo. 55c. Missionary World : encyclopedia of information con cerning missions of all denominations in all parts of the world. N. Y., Randolph, 1873. 8vo. $2.50. Missiouen i Nordpolarlandene (The missions in the lands of the North pole). After the German. Kbhn. 1869. Missions of S. P. G. to the Heathen. Calc 1845. Missions to the "Women of China. Edited by Miss Whately. L., Nisbet, 1866. 12mo. 2s. Missions-werk der Evangelischen Briider- gemeinde. Gnadau, 3d e., 1881. 8vo. 70 Pf. Mitchell, J. Murray, D.D. Foreign missions of Protestant churches : their state and prospects. L., Nisbet, N. Y., Reveil, 1888. I2mo. ls. 50c. Modern Christianity, a Civilized Heathenism. L., Simpkin, 1872. n. e., 1880. 8vo. ls. Moffatt, Robt. Missionary labors and scenes in Southern Africa. N. Y., Carter & Bros., 9th ed., 1864. 12mo. 75c. Moister, XV. History of Wesleyan missions in all parts. L., Stock., 2d e., 1870. 8vo. 6s.— The missionary world: an encyclopaedia. L. 1873. — Mis sionary anecdotes : sketches, facts, and incidents. L.,Wess. Conf., 1875. Svo. 4s. Missionary stories: narratives, scenes, and incidents. L., Wesl. Conf , 1877. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Moller, P. Blad ur war tids mission. I. Madagascar missionhistorie (A leaf from the missions of our day. I. Missionary history of M.). Montronci, Maxime de. Missions d'Amerique d'Oceanieetd 'Afrique. Ps. 1846. 1 fr. Moore, E. D. Life scenes from mission fields. N. Y., Scribner. 1857. L., Low, 1858. 8vo. $1.00. 6s. Moravian Missions among the Indians of No. America, History of. Bethlehem, Pa., Clauder, 1838. 12mo. 90c Mortimer, Mrs. Night of Toil : labors of the first missionaries. L., Hatchard, 7th ed., 1878. 3s. 6d, N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1849. ISmo. 45c. Mosheim, J. L. De rebus Christianorum ante Constantinum M. Commentatio Helmstedt. 1753. Moule, A. E. The story of the Cheh Kiang Mission of the Church Missionary Society. 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News of Female Missions in Connection with the Church of Scotland. Edinb. 1881. Niecamp, J. L. History of Danish missions. Geneva, 3v. Noel, B. "VV. Christian missions to the heathen nations. L., Nisbet, 1842. Svo. 8s. Noget mere om Missionen i Ostindien (More about the mission to East India). Haderslev, 1866. HISTORIES 644 HISTORIES Norbert, 1*. Memoires historiques presentees a Be- tuiit 14 sur les niissions des ludes orientales. Luques, 1745. 4 v. Nottrott, L. Die Gossner'sche Mission unter dem Kolhs. Halle, 1874-87. 2 v. 8vo. 8 Mk. Oldendorf, C. G. A. Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Briider auf den caraibische Inseln St. Thomas, St. Croix, und St. Jan. Barby, 1777. 2 v. Om Harald KlaksDaab|ogden Kristelige Kirkes Beg\ mlelse i Danmark (On the baptism of Harald Klait and the beginning of the Christian Church in Danmark). Kbhn., 1826. Osborn, 31. C Missions and missionaries of the last half-ceutury. L. Ostberg, G. 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Phila. 1880. 12c Recits Tires de l'Histoire des Missions. Ps. 1864. 1 fr Proclmow, J. D. Missions Geschichten fiir kinder. Berl. 1S62. 4to. 1 Th. 25 Sgr. Rautenberg. Rundschau iiber die Geschichte der danisch-sachsischen evangelisch-lutherischen Mis sion unter den Tamulen. Von Zieganbalg bis auf de Gegenwart. Lpz. 1888. 8vo. 2 Mk. Reichel, L. T. Early history of Moravians in No. Carolina. Bost., Clauder, 1857. 24mo. 50c Reid, J. M. Mission and missionary societies of the M. E. Church. N. Y., Phillips & H., 1879. 2 v. 12mo. $3.00. Rohden, L. Geschichte der rheinischeu Missions gesellschaft. Barmen, 1856. 3d ed., 1888. 2 v. 8vo. 3Mk. Ridgeway, Jos. Perils among the heathen. N. Y., Nelson, 1863. 16mo. $1.00. Robb, A. Heathen world and the duty of the Church. L., Hamilton. ISO-'. ISmo. Is. 6d. Robertson, Jas. History of the mission of Nova Scotia. L., Grnombntlge, 1S47, 12mo. 3s. 6d. Robertson, XV. A. S. Missionary societies of Great Britain L.. Mozley, 1873. Svo. Is. Robson, ,J. Outlines'of Protestant missions. Edinb., Hamilton, 1885. ISmo. 6d. Rosie, T. Const Missions. A memoir, by Jas. Dodds. L . Nisbet, 1X02. Svo. 3s. Oil. Rowley, H. Story of the Universities' mission to Central Africa. L., Saunders & O., 1860. 8vo. 21s. n. e., 1867. 5s. Rudelbachj, A. G. Den finu-la.plandiska Missionen til 1726 och Th. v. Westens lefnad. Ol'versaltning (The Finn-Lapp Mission to 1726, and the life of Th. v. YV.) Transl., Stolm., 1841. Riichblick auf unsere liundertfunfzig jahrige Missionsarbeit [Moravian]. Herrnhut, 1882. 8vo. 75 Pf . Russel, M. Polynesia. History of the South Sea Islands, including New Zealand, with narrative of the introduction of Christianity. L., Nelson, 1842, n. e., 1851. 12mo. 3s. Sangster, M. E., Mrs. (Ed.) A manual of the mis sions of the Reformed Dutch Church in America. N. Y. 1887. Santhalmission, Nordiske (The Scandinavian mis sion to the Santhals). Kbhn. 1884. Schanz. Samling af Foredrag ang. den ydre Mission (Collection of lectures relating to foreign missions). Kbhn. 1887. Schattenthum und Lichttriumph auf der Siid- lichen Halbkugel. Altona, 1855. 16mo. 22)4 Sgr. Schlier, J. Missionsstundeu. Nordlingen, 1867-83. 5 v. 8 Mk. Schmidt, C. C. G. Der Sieg des Christenthums. Lpz., Hinrichs, 1845. 3d e., 1857. 8vo. 16 Sgr. Schroder, J. H. Om Skytteanska Scholan i Lycksele Lappmark tOn the Skyttranska school in the Lycksele Lappmark). Sundsvall, 1851. Schwartzkopflf. Missions Geschichte. Hfte 1-4. 1. Gronland; 2. Ceylon; 3. Der rothe Mann; 4. Der Grosse Ocean und die Mission. A. Allgemeines. Neuholland. Berl. 1868-69. 8vo. 4 v. 95 Pf.— Hfte, 5-8. 5. Der grosse ocean. B. Neusseland; 6. AllenGardiner, oderimkaltenSiiden; 7. Polynesien, —Tahiti; 8. Labrador, Berl. 1870-74. 4 v. 8vo. 1.60 Mk.— Hft. 9. Zum Herzen des Schwarzen Erd- theils (Central Africa). 1878. 8vo. 60 Pf; Hft. 10. Sandili und Cetschwayo. Kaffirland, 1879. 8vo. 65 Pf. Hft. 11. Die Bassuto, oder das Land diesseits und jenseits d. Vaal, 1881. Svo. 35 Pf. Hft. 12. Die Berliner in Transvaalien, 1882. 8vo. 60 Pf. Scott, A. M. The day dawn in Africa, or progress of the Prot. Episc Mission at Cape Palmas, West Africa. N. Y. 1858. 12mo. $1.50. Seddall, Henry. Missionary history of Sierra Leone. L., Hatchards, 1874. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Selwyn, G. A. Letters on the Melanesian Mission. L. 1855. Shaw, Wm. Narrative of missionary labors in South East Africa. L., Hamilton, I860. 8vo. 6s. Sherring, M. A. Indian Church during the Great Rebellion. L. , Nisbet, 1858. 12mo. 5s. History of Protestant missions in India, 1706-1871. L., Triib ner, 1875. 2d e. Rei. Tr. Soc. 1884. 8vo. 6s. Skaar, G. N. Madagaskar. Fremstillet i Missions- timer (M exhioited in mission hours). Chra. 1867. Skematisk ofversigt ofver Svenska miss. Decbr., 1886 (Schematic review ot Swedish missions. Decbr., 1886). Lund, 1887. Smith. Fifty years of foreign missions; or, the for eign missions of the Free Church of Scotland, in their year of jubilee, 1879-80. Edinb. 1879. Smith, C. V. Russisk Missionsvsesen i Siberien (Russian missionary affairs in Siberia). Kbhn. 1869. From a Danish periodical. Smith, Geo. Short history of Christian missions. Edinb., Hamilton, 1844. 3d e., 1886. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Smith, S. F. Missionary sketches: concise history of the American Baptist Union. Bost. 1879. n. e., 1883. — Rambles in mission fields. Bost., Corthell, 1884. 16mo. $1.25. Smith, Thomas. Mediaeval missions. Edinb., Ham ilton, 1880. Svo. 4s. 6d. Smith, Thos., and Choules, John D. The history and origin of missionary societies. L-, Kelly, 1824-5. 2 v. Continued by John Williams. L. 1838-9. 6th e., 1844. 2 v. Svo. 26s. Bost. repr. of 4th e., 1837. 2 v. 4to. $7.50. Society P. G. F. P. Results of one hundred and fifty years of work. L. 1881. Sorensen. Den evangeliske Mission i Bagindien (The evangelical mission in Farther India). Kbhn. 1875. Sominerfeldt, H. C. Den norske Zulumission (The Norwegian Zulu mission). Chra. 1865. Southgate, H. Visit to the Syrian Church of Meso potamia—the present state of Christianity in Tur key. N. Y„ Appleton, 1844. 12mo. $1.00. Spangenberg, A. G. Von der Arbeit der evangelischen Briider unter den Heiden. Barby, 1782. Speckmann, F. Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika. Hermannsb. 1870. 8vo. 3 60 Mk. Steele, It. The New Hebrides and Christian missions. L., Nisbet, 1880. Svo. 8s. 6d. Steger, V. St. Missionshistorien. Bearbetad af C. J. Nordenson. Stockhm., n. e., 1843. Steiuer, Paul. Blatt aus der Geschichte der Briider- mission, oder eine Missionsversuch auf der Gold- kiiste vor hundertfunfzig Jahren. Basel, 1888. Svn. 15 Pf. Stevenson, W. F. Our mission [i.e., Irish Pres. Ch.] HISTORIES 645 HISTORIES to thi. East L. 1873— The dawn of the modern mission. Edinb., Simpkin, 1SS7. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Stock, E. The story of the Fukien mission of the Church Missionary Society. L. Seeley, 1877. 16mo. 4s. t>d.— Japan and the Japan mission of the Ch Miss. Soc. L., Seeley, 1880. 8vo. ls. 6d. Stolz, C. Die Basler Mission in Indien. Basel, 1882 8vo. 50 Pf. Storrow, Edwd. India and Christian missions. L Snow, 1859. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Story of the Irish Church Missions to 1869. L Nisbet, 1875. Svo. 3s. 6d. Stop, Baron. History of the English Baptist Mission To India. Phila., Am. S. S. Un., 1835. 12mo. 32e Stowell, W. n. Missionary work of the Church. Ed. by E. Storrow. L., Snow, 1873. 8vo. 5s Strachan, J. M. From East to West; or, Glances at the Church's work iu distant lands. L., Gardner 1882, 2d e., 1888. Svo. 3s. 6d. Strack, C. Missionsgeschichte von Deutschland. Lpz 1860. 8vo. 26 Sgr. Stracke, G. S. Neueste britische, hollandische, und deutsche Missionsanstalten im schfinsten Verein. Bremen, 1803. Strickland, W. P. History of the American Bible Soc. N. Y., Harpers, 1856. 8vo. $1.50. Sudafrika zur Darstellung der Geschichte der Berliner Gesellschaft. Berl. 1862. Sutton, Amos. History of the mission to Orissa. Phila., Am. S. S. Un., 1835. 8vo. 27c— Orissa and its evangelization. L., Hamilton, Bost., Heath, 1S50. 8vo. 5s. $1.00. Tahiti without the Gospel. Phila., Am. S. S. 18mo. 70c. Tahiti receiving the Gospel. Phila., Am. S. S. 18mo. 70c Tahiti with the Gospel. Phila., Am. S. S. 18mo. 70c Tahiti and its Missionaries. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1846. n. e., 1S58. 12mo. 3s. Tales from the Diary of a Missionary Priest. (R. C.) N. Y. Sadlier. 18mo. 75c Taylor, J. H. China; its spiritual need and claims, with brief notices of missionary efforts, past and present. L. 1865. Tenncnt, J. E. Christianity in Ceylon, its progress under the Portuguese, Dutch, British, and Ameri can missions. L., Murray, 1850. 8vo. 14s. Tetens, S. Christendommens Indforelse i Norden ved Auscharius (The introduction of Christianity to the North by Ansgar). Kbhn. 1826. Third Jubilee of the Moravian Missions. L. 1882. ls. Thoburn, J. M. My missionary apprenticeship. L. 1884. 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L., Nisbet, 1848. 12mo. 6s.— Abbeokuta, or sunrise within the tropics: the origin and progress of the Yoruba mission. L., Nisbet, and N. Y.. Carter, 1853. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 75c— The Southern Cross; or, Gospel in New Zealand. L„ Nisbet, and N. Y., Carter, 1858. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 75c. Tupper, H. A. Foreign Missions of the Southern Baptist Convention. Phila., Am. Bapt. Pub. Soc, 1880. 8vo. $3.50. Tvangfri. Hefter indeh. Medd. om Loventhals Mis sion. 1-2 (Periodical pamphlets containing infor mation about L. mission, 1-2). Kolding, 1886-7. Tyler, W. S. Memoir of H. Lobdell, . . . aud the early history of the Assyrian Mission. Bost. 1859. 12mo. Ueberblick uber die Mission der Evangelischen Ijriirler-Uritat bis 1839. Gnadau. Ueberblick uber das Missions-werk der Bruder Gemeinde, 1857-64. Ilebersicht der Missions-geschichte der Evan gelischen Briiderkirche in ihrem ersten Jahrhun- dert. Gnadau, 1632. 2 v. 8vo. 10 Sgr. Underhill, E. B. Christian Missions East and West. [Baptist.] [L ] Is. 6d. 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Giitersloh, Bertel- mann, 1S7S-84. 2d e., 1883-86. 8vo. 9.20 Mk.— Abriss einer Geschichte der protestantischen Missionen von der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart. Lpz., Hinrich, 2d e., 1883. 8vo. 1.50 Mk. Engl, transl. by T. Smith. Edinb., Gemmell, 1884. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Watson, Richard. Defence of Wesleyan mission in the West Indies. L. 1817. 8vo. Weber, A. Louis Harms et les Missions de Hermanns- bourg. Ps. 1870. 12mo. 2 f r. Wegener, H. Geschichte der christlichen Kirche auf deu Gesellschafts Archipel. . . . Berl. 1845. 8vo. 2Th. Weitbrecht, J. J. Protestant missions in Bengal. L„ Shaw, 1844. 12mo. 5s. Weitbrecht, Mrs. Letters od female missionaries in India. L., Nisbet, 1843. 18mo. 2s.— Missionary sketches in Northern India. L., Nisbet, 1858. 12mo. 5s. Wheeler, M. D. First decade of the Women's For. Miss. Soc of the M. E. Church, with sketches of its missionaries. N. Y., Phillips & H., 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Whitehouse, J. O. 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A thousand years: or, the missionary centres of the middle ages. L., S P. C. K., 1872. 12uio. 3s. Yonge, Charlotte M. Story of the Christians and Moors iu Spain. L. and N. Y., Macmillan, 1878. 16mo. 4s. 6d. $1.25. [Yoruba.] Die mission in Joruba Land. Basel, 1857. Young, K. Modern missions: their trials and triumphs. L. and N.Y., Cassell. 18S1-3. 3d e., 1886. 12mo. 5s. $2.00.— Light in lands of darkness: missionary labor among Greenlanders, Eskimos, Patagonians, etc. L and N. Y., Cassell, 1883. 3d e., 1881. 12mo. 6s. $2.00. Zahn, Th. Die Arbeiten der Norddeutschen Missions- gesellschaft. Bremen, 1864 — Missionsinethoden im Zeitalter der Apostel. Krlangeu, 1886. 8vo. 80 Pf. Zehn Jahre auf der Goldkuste. Skizzen aus dem Leben des Basler Missiouars J. Heck, Basel, 2de„ 1869. Zeller, C. H. Griindung der ersten Christen-Ge- meinde in Europa. Strassbg. 1847. 18mo. 2 Sgr. Ziegler, Carl. Kurze Geschichte der Berliner Mis- sionsgesellschat't, nebst den ihr zugehbrenden Stationen in Sudafrika. Eclcartsberga, 1837. 8vo. 6 Sgr. Zuchelli, A. Merkwiirdige Missions- und Reisebe- schreibung nach Congo. Aus dein Italienischen. Frankf. a.M., 1715. Zweigbergh. Den nyare ev. luth. Tamuler mission (The recent evang-luth. mission to Tamil). Stolm.. n. d. 3. Protestant Missions among the Jews. Ayerst, W. Jews iu the 19th century; essays and re views. L., Wertheim, 1848. 8vo. 6s. Barber, Mary A. S. Redemption in Israel; or, narratives of conversions among the Jews. L., Seeley, 1855. 12m o. 6s. Bassin, E. The modern Hebrew, and the Hebrew Christian. L., Nisbet. 1882. 8vo. 4s. 6d. Bonar, A. A., and McCheyne, K. M. Narrative of a mission of enquiry to the Jews from the Church of Scotland in 1839. Edinb., Hamilton, 1842. 12mo. n. e., 1854. 8vo. 5s. Phila. 1845. Bye. Jerusalem, Jodefolket og Jddemissionen (Jer usalem, the Jews, and the missions to the Jews). Lillehammer, 1878. Christen, Die, in Ansehung der Juden, wie sie sind; und wie sie sein sollen. Wien, 1781. 8vo. Collection of Testimonies iu favor of religious liberty in the case of the dissenters . . . and Jews. L. -1790. 8vo. Crawford, Chas. Three letters to the Hebrew nation. L. 1817. 12mo. Da Costa, I. Israel and the Gentiles: history of the Jews. L., Nisbet, 1850. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Zollinger, j. J. Gentile and Jew in the courts of the Temple of Christ. L,, Longman, 1862. 2 v. 8vo. 21s. Duncan, John, I , L. I). The work of the Holy Spirit in connection with the conversion of the Jews. Edinb., 1839. 8vo. Eckstein, Baron von. Geschichtliches iiber die Askesis der alten Heidnischen und der alten Jii- dischen Welt. Freiburg. 1862. 8vo. 1 Th. 10 Sgr. Edwards, Mrs. Missionary work among the Jews in Moldavia. L., Hamilton, 1867. 12mo. 5s. Etheridge, J. W., Dr. Religious and scholastic learning of the Jews. L., Longman, 1856. 8vo. 7s. 6d. — Targums of Onkelos aud Jonathan Ben Uzziel. L., Longman, 1862. n. e., 1865. 8vo. 8s. 6d. Ibiil, J. M., Notes from the Journal of. Edited, with a brief sketch of the Abyssinian church, by Rev. W. D. Veitch. L., Nisbet, 1860. 12mo. 2s. 6d — Dreizehn Jahre in Abessinien; oder Geschichte des Konigs Theodoros II. und der Mission unter seiner Regierung. Basel, 1869. 8vo, 9Gr.— TheFalashas (or Jews) of Abyssinia. Preface by Dr. Krapf. Transl. from the German by S. P. Goodhart. L., Macintosh, 1869. 12mo. ls. 6d. Flood, J. Laesning i Koindeforeninger for Hedninge och Jude Mission. Christa. 1881. Gaussen, S. C. L. Die Verkiindigung des Evange- liums unter den Juden und ihre nahe Erldsung. Hamb. 1844. 8vo. 6* Sgr.— Juden und Hoffnung ihrer baldigen Wiederherstellung vermittelst des Evangeliums. Karlsruhe, 1844. 8vo. 2k Sgr. Gay, T. Tre schiarimeuti agli Israelii!. Firenza, 1880. 8vo.. Goldstern, Israel. Et Billede fra den nyeste JSde- mission (A picture from the most recent mission to the Jews). Odense, 1886. Gruber, B. Christ undlsraelit. Reichenbach i. Schl., 1880. 8vo. 50 Pf. Harms, L. , Pastor. Ueber die Juden Mission. Bres lau. 1862. Svo. 2 Sgr. Hebrew Customs ; or, the missionary's return. Phila., Am. S. S. U. [1830]. 12mo. Heine, Gerh. Das Volk Israel und die Christenheit. Cothen, 1887. 16mo. 60 Pf. Hirsch, S. It. System der Religiosen Anschauungen der Juden, und sein Verhaltniss zum Heidenthum, Christenthum, etc. Lpz. 1842. l.Bd. 8vo. 18 Mk. Izates, E. Briefe an eine christliche Freundin iiber die Gruudwahrheiteu des Judenthums. Lpz. 1883. 8vo. Jew, The, in this and other lands. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1814. ls. 6d. Jewish Faith and Gospel Faith. [L. 1881.] 16mo. Jews, A Looking-glass for the ; wherein they may clearly see that the Messiah is come. L. 1674. 16mo. Jews in Kelation to the Church and the World. Lectures by Cairns, etc. L., Hodder, 1877. Svo. 4s. 6d. Jews, To the. (Jesus of Nazareth the true Messiah.) L., 1861. 12mo. Juden. Hierin auff das Kiirtzest ist angezaigt der Haiden, Juden, uud Christen die friimbsten und pbsten Mannen. 1518. 4to. Juden. Warum treten wir nicht in das Christen thum ein. Von einem Juden. Lpz. 1882. 8vo. 50 Pf. Juden, Von dem Christelichen Stryt geschehen zu Lissbona . . . Zwiischen deu Christen und Neiiwen Christen oder Jiiden, von wegen des Gecreiitzigten Gottes. 1506. 4to. Kalkar, C. A. H. Missionen blandt JSderne (The missions among the Jews). Kbhn. 1868. — Israel und die Kirche. Hamburg, 1869. Svo. Swedish transl. Kbhn. 1881. Keith, Alexr. The land of Israel, according to the covenant with Abraham. Edinb., Longman, 1844. 8vo. 9s. 6d. Kellogg, S. H., Dr. The Jews; or, prediction and fulfilment. L., Nisbet, N. Y., Randolph, 1883. 8vo. 4s. 6d. $1.25. Knapp, Albert. Missionslieder fiir Israel gesam- melt. Basel, 1837. Svo 2 Sgr. Krag, P., og (and) Wulff, P. To Foredrag ved Israels Missionsmodet i Bethasda 26 April, 1883 (Two addresses at the " Jewish Mission" in Beth asda, 26th April, 1883). Kbhn. 1883. Lectures on the Conversion of the Jews, etc., by ministers of the Church of Scotland. Edin., Aylott, 1842. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Lectures on the Conversion of the Jews, etc., under British Soc. L. 1843. Lectures on the Destiny of the Jews, by clergy at Liverpool. L., Hatchard, 1841. 12mo. 9s. Le6tures on the History of the Jews, by ministers of the Established Church of Scotland. Glasgow, Collins. 1839. 12mo. 3s. 6d. [Leslie, Chas.] The case of the Jews, considered with respect to Christianity. L. 1755. 12mo. — Short and Easy Method with the Jews [see Vol. I. of his works. Oxf. 1832. 7 v. 8vo]. Also separately, L., Rivington. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Lowe, H. Die Juden-Mission, eine Aufgabe der evan gelischen Kirche. Erlangen, 1869. 8vo. 40 Pf. Lord, J. H. The right attitude of the church toward the Jews. L., Bosworth, 1883. Svo. ls. 6d. Marsh, W. " Salvation is of the Jews." Preface by . L. [1885]. 8vo. Myers, A. M., Dr. The Jews; or, crisis of Judaism exemplified. L., Wertheim, 1848. n. e.,1852. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Narrative of a Mission to the Jews from Church of Scotland in 1839. Edinb., Hamilton, 1850. n. e., L., Longman, 1854. 2 v. 8vo. 5s. Nat og Morgen. FortEell. fra Missionen bl. JBderae (Night and morning. Stories from the missions among the Jews). Stavanger, 1863. Norris, H. H. Origin, etc., of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. L., Maw man, 1S25. Svo. 12s. Obligations of Christians to attempt the Con version of Jews. 1813. 8vo. HISTORIES 647 BIOGRAPHIES Orobio, Isaac. Israel avenged. Transl. by McCaul. L., Wertheim, 1840. 8vo. ls. 6d. [Phillips, J. C] The removal of the vail,— a tran sient view of the . . . Scriptural waterworks from Eden, and baptismal fountains which spring up into everlasting life for the conversion of the Jews. Ellesmere, 1848. 8vo. Plath, C. H. C. Was machen wir Christen mit unsern Juden ? Nordl. 1881. Svo. 2.80 Mk.— Welche Stel- lung haben die Glieder der Christlichen Kirche dein modernen Judenthume gegeniiber einzunehmen. Berl. 1881. 8vo. 50 Pf. Fooljeii . Den jodem-ehristelige Beveegelse i Syd-Rus- lauH (The Jewish-Christian movement in Southern Russia). Kbhn 1S86. Kabbinism, Erom, to Christianity. L. [1882], 8vo. Rajpurker. Prayers of Jewish New Year's Day. Bombay, 1862. Bawlinson, G. Contrast of Christianity with heathen and Jewish systems. L., Longmans, 1861. 8vo. 9s. Reichardt, F. H. Relation of the Jewish Christians to the Jews of the first and second centuries. L., Seeley. 1884. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Rise, Fall, and Future Restoration ofthe Jews. Annexed are six sermons addressed to the seed of Abraham by several evangelical ministers. . . . L. 1806. Svo. Roi, J. F. A. de la. Die Evangelische Christenheit und die Juden. Karlsruhe, 1884. 8vo. 7 Mk. — Das Institutum Judaicum in seiner Bliithezeit. Karls ruhe, 1S84. 8vo. 1.20 Mk. Saphir, A. Det ganske Israel skal frelses (All Israel to be saved). Transl. Kbhn. 1885. Schnedermann, G. Das Judenthum und die Christ- liche Verkiindigung in den Evangelium. Lpz. 1S84. 8vo. 5 60 Mk. Schriften des Institutum Judaicum in Berlin. Nr. 1-6. Berl. 1886 sqq. Svo. 80 Pf— .1.20 Mk. ea. Schriften des Institutum Judaicum in Leipzig. Nr. 1-21. Lpz. 1884 sqq. 8vo. 70 Pf.— 1 Mk. ea. Stern, H. A. Dawnings of light from the East. L., Wertheim, 1854. Svo. 8s. — Journal of a mis sionary journey to the Jews in Arabia Felix. L., Wertheim, 1856. — Wanderings among the Falashas in Abyssinia. L., Wertheim, 1862. Svo. 15s. Taylor, M. C. Judaism. Edinb. 4d. Timann, R. Die Judenfrage und die Evangelische Kirche, Halle, 1881. 8vo. 50 Pf. Verein der Freunde Israels zu Basel. Seine Entstehung und seine Arbeit wahrend funfzig Jahren. Basel, 1881. 8vo. 1 Mk. Warren, W. Jew and Christian. Cambr. 1882. 8vo. Wilkinson, John. Israel's mission and missions to Israel. L. 1889. Wise, I. M. Judaism and Christianity: their agree ments and disagreements. Lectures. Cincinnati, Bloch, 1883. 16mo. $1.00. Wolff, Jos. Missionary journal, 1824-29. L. 1829. Svo. —Researches and missionary labours [1831-34]. L., Nisbet, 1836. 8vo. 12s. Phila. 1837.— Journal of his missionary labours, 1827-38. L., Burns, N. Y., Rogers, 1839. 8vo. 12s. 75c— Mission to Bokhara. L., Parker, N. Y., Harpers, 1845. n. e.. Blackwoods, 1848. 8vo. $2 00. 10s.— Travels and adventures. L., Saunders, 1861. 8vo. 12s. Ziethe, W. Funfzig Jahre der [Berlin] Juden Mission. Berl. 1872. Svo. 30 Pf . VI. BIOGRAPHIES. (a) Collective. American Missionaries formerly connected with the Society of Enquiry, Andover, Memoirs of; with introduction by Leonard Woods. Bost. 1833. 8vo. Arnold-Foster, F. E. Heralds of the cross; or, the fulfilling of the command. Chapters on missionary work. L„ Hatchards, 1882. n. e., 1885. 8vo. 5s. Banks, J. S. Three Indian heroes ; missionary, states man, soldier. L„ Wesl. Conf. Off., 1874. 12mo. ls. 6d. . . Braidwood, J. True yokefellows in the mission field. Life and labours of Rev. J. Anderson and Rev. R. Johnston, traced in the rise and develop ment of the Madras F. C. Mission. L. , Nisbet, 1862. Buet, ' Chas. ' Nos missionaires. Ps. 1884. 12mo. 25 ctm. . . T Carne, John. Lives of eminent missionaries. L., Washbourne, 1832. n. e., 1852. 3 v. 12mo. 9s. Christian Biography, containing the lives of Lmany eminent missionaries and others]. L., ir. hoc. ri835?].16 v. 12mo. ea. 3s. 6d. Corbett, John. The beautiful feet; memorials of seven West Indian missionaries. L lSob. Cox, Samuel H. Missionary remains; or, sketches of . . . Evarts, Cornelius, and Wisner, with notes by Ellis. L., Jackson, 1835. 18mo. 2s. Cruger, F. E. J. Christenlehre in Lebensbildern aus alterer und neuerer Zeit, besonders aus der Missionsgeschichte. Berl. 1857. 8vo. 17^ Sgr. Eddy, D. C. Heroines of the missionary enterprise: [sketches of Harriet Newell, Aim H. Judson. Esther Butler, Elizabeth Harvey, Harriet B. Stewart, Sarah L Smith, Eleanor Macomber, Sarah D. Comstock, Henrietta Shuck, Sarah B. Judson, Annie P. James, Mary E. Van Lennep, and Emily v.. Judson]. Bost Ticknor & Co., L., Hall, 1850. 75c. 2s 6d. Ellis, Harriet W. Our Eastern sisters aud their missionary helpers. L., Rei. Tr. Soc, 1883. Svo. 2s 6d. Farnham, J. M. XV. Directory of Protestant mis sionaries in Chiua, Siam, and the Straits settle ments. Shanghai. Pres. Miss. Pr., 1887. Finished Course, The ; brief notices of departed church missionaries. Preface by C. F. Childe. L., Seeley, 1865. 12mo. 5s. Forbes, A. G. Pioneers of the Christian faith. L., Virtue, 1873. Svo. 5s. Gardner, Jas. Memoirs of Christian missionaries. L., Griffin, 1843. 2d e., 1856. 12mo. 2s. 6d.— Min istering men; or, heroes of missionary enterprise. L., Dean, 1862. 12mo. n. e., 1880. 2s. 6d.— Hero ines of missionary enterprise. L,, Blackwood, 1863. n. e , 1880. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Grove, Rasmussen. Kristelige Levnetslob i det nittende Aar-hund rede, — deribl. Gobat, Patteson, etc (Christian lives in the nineteenth century,— among these . . . ). Odense, 1887. Haydn, H. C. American heroes on mission fields. Brief missionary biographies. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1800. 12mo. $1.25. Japp, A. H. Master missionaries: studies in heroic pioneers' work. [Sketches of Jas. Oglethorpe, David Zeisberger, Samuel Hebich, Wm. Elmslie, Geo. Washington Walker, Rob. Moffat, Jas. Stew art, Wm. Black, John C. Pattison, and John G. Fee]. L., Unwin, 1880. N. Y., Carter, 1881. 3d e., 1883. Svo. 3s. 6d. $1.50. Knill, Richard. Memoirs of female missionary labourers. L., Simpkin, 1839. 32mo. ls. 6d. Labourers in the East ; or, memoirs of eminent men who were devoted to the service of Christ in India. By the author of Lily Douglas. Leith, 1822. 12mo. Laborers in the East : memoirs of Claudius Bu chanan, Henry Martyn, and David Brown. Phila., Presby. Bd. Publ. ISmo. 65c Larnay, L'Abbe de. Vie de trois missionaires aposto- liques du diocese de Poitiers, morts victimes de leur zele pour la conversion des infideles, pendant 1837, 1853, 1854. Ps. 1856. 8vo. Lash, A. H. Blossoms of missionary work. [India.] L. 1S84. Leben Evangelischer Heidenboten. Erlangen, 1835. 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Mackenzie, C. F. [So. Africa]. See Mackenzie.. Anne.— By Harvey Goodwin. L., Bell, 1801. 3d e.. 1880. Svo. 3s. 6d. Marchal, R. P. Souvenirs d'un missionaire. Ps. 1874. 3.50 fr. Maria, Franziska. Von A. Richard. Mainz, 2d e.,. 1S81, 8vo. 3 Mk. Marie, F. [Tonquin]. Par E. Dambrine. Paris, 1883. 12mo. 2 fr. Marsden, Joshua. [In " Grace Displayed."] N.Y. 1813 12mo. Marsden, Samuel [India], By his son. L., Rei. Tr. Soc. 185S. 12mo. 3s. Marshman, Joshua [India]. See under Wm. Carey, by J. Maishman. Martig, Clun. [China]. Basel, 1805. Svo. 3 Ngr. Martin. Wm., and Gavin [India]. By Wm. F. Mar tin Edinb., Hamilton, 1887. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Martyn, Henry [India]. By Charles D. Bell. L. and N Y Armstrong, 1880. 12mo. 75c — Bv John Hall. Phila., Am. S. S.. 1883. 16mo. 10c —By John Sar- geant. L, Seeley, 1819, and frequently, n. e.,1867. Svo. 5s. Bost., Sayre, 1832. 12mo. $1.25.— [By J Vahl ] Basel, 1868.— Journals and letters, ed. by Saml. Wilberforce. L., Seeley, 1837. 2 v., abr. ed., 1839. 2d e., 1844. 12mo. 21s. Mason, Francis [Burmah]. L. 10s. 6d. Mason, Helen H., Mrs. [Burmah]. By Francis Mason. N. Y., Colby. 1847. 12mo. 60c. Matheson, Donald [China]. L., Morgan & S., 1871, n. e. 12mo. 2s. 6.1. Matheson, J. W., and Mrs. By Geo. Patterson. Phil. 1864. !2mo. Meckerji, H. C, Mrs. [India]. By M. Leslie. Pais- lev. 1883. , „ „ TT „ Messinger, Erasmus J. P. [Atnca], By S H. Tyng. N Y 1857. Repr. Phila , Am. S. S. U. 18mo. 70c Middleton, Thos. Fanshawe, Bp. [India]. By C. W. Le Bas. L., Rivington. 1830. 2 v. Svo. 26s. BIOGRAPHIES 652 BIOGRAPHIES Miertsching, J. A. [Greenland]. By D. Benham. Bethlehem, Pa., Clauder. 4to. 50c. Mills, Saml. John [Africa]. By E. C. Bridgman. N. Y., Randolph. 1864. 12mo. $1.25.— By Gard. Spring. N. Y. 1820. Impr. ed. by E. C. Bridgman and C. W. Allen. 1829. Milman, Reginald, Bp. [India]. By his sister. L., Murray, 1879. 8vo. 12s. Milne, J. By H. Bonar. L., Nisbet, 1808. N. Y., Carter, 1870. 12mo. 6s. $2.00. Milne, Wm. [China]. By Robt. Philip. N. Y., Fan- shawe, 1840. 75c Missionaire, Le, de Methlakatla, par A. Boegner. Ps. 1882. 12mo. 60 ctm. Mbgling, Hermann, und Weitbrecht [India]. Von H. Gundert. Basel, 1886. n. e. Calw. 1882. Svo. 3 Mk. • Moffat, Robt. [So. Africa]. By David J. Deane. L., Partridge, and Chicago, Reveil, 1887. 8vo. ls. 6d. and 75c— By W. Walters. L. and N. Y., Carter, 1882. 12mo. $1.25.— By M. E. Wilder. Chicago, 1887.— See also Livingston, David. By A. Man ning. Moffat, Robt., and Mary. By their son Jno. S. Moffat. L., Unwin, and N.Y\, Armstrong, 1885. 8vo. 18s. $2.50.— Life's labor in S. Africa. L., Snow, 1871. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Moffat, Robt., and Livingston. By Anne Man ning, under title " Heroes of the Desert." L., Nel sons, 1874. N. Y., Nelson, 1875. 12mo. 3s. 6d. $1.25. Morike, K. E. G. Basel, 1887. 8vo. 50 Pf. Morison, Robt. [China]. By Wm. John Townsend. L. 1S8S. Morrison, A. M. By E. Richards. N. Y. 1843. 12mo. Morrison, Charles. Memoir. 1839. 2 v. Morrison, Robt. [China]. By Aleott. 50c— By W.J. Blaikie. L.— Von Ad. Christ. Basel, 1878. 8vo. 30 Pf.- By Mrs. Morrison. . L„ Longmans, 1839. 2 v. 8vo. 24s.— [In German.] Cincinnati. 1861. Muller, Theod. VonKiibler. Basel, 1877. 8vo. 25 Pf. Munson, Samuel, and Lyman, Henry [Sumatra], By Wm. Thompson. N. Y. 1839. Murray, A. W. [Polynesia] [under title " Forty Years' Mission Work in Polynesia and New Guinea"]. L., Nisbet. 1876. Svo. 7s. 6d. Nerinckx, C. [R. C. U. S. A.]. By Camillus P. Maes. Cincinnati, Clarke, 1880. 8vo. $2.50. Nesbit, Robt. [India]. By J. Murray Mitchell. L., Nisbet, 1S58. 8vo. 6s. New, Charles [E. Africa]. Memoirs by S. S Barton. L.. Hodder, 1873. n. e., 1876. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Newell, Harriet, Mrs. [India] . By Leonard Woods. Boston, 1814, N. Y., Gates & S.. 50c., and Phila., Am. S. S. U. 18mo. 34c— Memoires de. Traduit de 1'Anglais. Ps., n. e., 1861. 12mo. 75 ctm. Nitschinann, David [U. S. A.]. By Edmund de Schweinitz [in " Fathers of the American Mora vian Church"]. Bethlehem, Pa., 1882. Nobili, Roberto dei, und Schwartz, Christ. Frdr. [E. India]. Von Jul. Pauli. Niirnberg, 1870. 16mo. 90 Pf Noble, Robt. T. [India]. By his brother John Noble. L., Seeley, 1866. 2d e., 1868. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Nott, Saml. [India]. Hartford, 1869. Ogle, J. F. Byhissister. L., Longmans, 1873. 10s.6d. Parsons, Levi [Palestine]. By D. O. Morton. Bur lington, Vt., C. Goodrich, 1824. 50c Paterson, J. [in "The Book for Every Land"]. L , Snow. 1857. n. e., 1866. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Paton, J. G. [Hebrides]. Autobiography. L , Hod der, 1889. 8vo. 6s. Patrick, St. [Ireland]. Most ancient lives, with pref ace by Jas. O'Leary. N. Y., Kenedy, 1874. 3d e., 1876. 16mo. $1.00. Patterson. Le missionaire de la MSlanesie, par A. Boegner. Ps. 1881. 12mo. 00 ctm. Patteson, John Coleridge, Bp. [Polynesia], By Frances Awdry [under title "Story of a Fellow Soldier"]. L., Macmillan, 1875. 12mo. 2s. 6d.— Von Willi. Baur [in " Lebensbilder aus der Heiden Mission"]. Giitersloh, vol. 4, 1878. 8vo. 2.80 Mk.— By W. E. Gladstone [in " Gladstone's Gleanings." L., Murray, 1879. 7 v. 16mo. ea. 2s 6d.] —En Martyr i Missionen. By Knudsen. C. i J. C. P., a martyr in missions.) Stavanger, 1877,— By Jesse Page. L., Partridge, 1888. 8vo. ls 6d.— In Memoriam. By C. M. Yonge. L., Skefflngton, 1872. 12mo. 6d.— By C. M. YoDge. L. and N. Y., Macmillan, 1873-78. 2 v. 8vo. $5.00.— See Living stone, Gordon, and Patteson. Pauli, George [Benita]. By S. Wilson. Phil., Presby. Bd. Pub., 1872. 16mo. $1.10. Paulus, Beate. By M. Weitbrecht. N. Y„ Dodd, 1873. 18mo. 75c Pearce, Horatio. By Thorneley Smith. Edinb., Hamilton, 1864. 8vo. 4s. Pearce, W. H. [India]. In memoir of Yates, Wm., Bp., which see. Peck J. M. [No. America], Memoir by Rufus Bab- cok. Phil., Am. Bap. Pub. Soc, 1864. 12mo. Sl-50. Peck, W. R. By his father. L., Mason, 1830. n. e., 1852. 18mo. ls. 6d. Perkins, Judith G. [Persia], By Justin Perkins. Bost.. Am. Tr. Soc, 1853. 16mo. $1.00. Perry, Matthew C, Commander. By W. E. Griffis. Bost., Cupples & H., 1887. n. e., Hurd & H.. 1890. Svo. $2.00. Pfander, K. Gottlieb [Arabia]. Von Ch. F. Eppler. Basel, 1888. 8vo. 1.40 Mk. Phillips, J". G. The missionary martyr of Terra d#l Fuego, L., Wertheim, 1861. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Fhilippo, J. M. [Jamaica]. By Edwd. B. Underbill. . L , Yates. 1881. Svo. 6s. 6d. Plutschau [Tranquebar], Von W. Germann. Er langen, 1868. 8vo. 2 Re. Polentz, Georg v. [Samland]. Von P. M. R. Tschackert. Lpz. 1888. 8vo. 1.20 Mk. Porter, Ebenezer. By Matthews. Bost. 1887. Posey, Humphrey [U. S. A.]. By Robt. Fleming. Bo*t., Am. Tr. Soc. Fossett, Wilhelm [So. Africa]. Von E. P. Wange mann. Berl. 1888. 8vo. 2.25 Mk. Pourie, John [India]. By G. Smith. Calc. 1869. Pratorius, H. Von O. Schott. Basel, 1883. Svo. 15 Pf. Pratt, Andrew T„ [Turkey]. By Geo. F. Herrick (under title "An Intense Life"). N. Y., Reveil, 1890. 50c. Pratt, Josiah [Sec C. M. S.]. Memoir by his sons. L., Seeley, 1849. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Pyer, John. By R. P. Russell. L., Snow, 1865. 8vo. 6s. 6d. Rabbinowitsch, J. Levenet, fortalt af hans selv (Life, told by himself). Kbhn. 18S7. Ragland, Thos. G. [India]. By T. T. Perowne. L. 18—. Reid, John [E. Indies]. By Ralph Wardlaw. L., Jackson, 1845. n. e., 1851. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Rhea, S. A. [Persia]. By Dwight W. Marsh. Phila., Presb. Bd. Publ., 1869. 12mo. $2.00. Rhenius, C. T. By his son. L., Nisbet, 1841. 8vo. 10s. Ribbentrop, F. [India]. Von Kriiger. Bremen, 1873. 8vo. 2 Mk. Ricci, Pater. Schaflh. 1854. Rice, Luther [Burmah]. By Jas. B. Taylor. Phila. 1841. Riedel, Joh. Frdr. [Indian Archipelago]. Von R. Grundemann [in "Lebensbilder aus der Heiden- Mission." vol. 2]. Giitersloh, 1875. 8vo. 3 Mk. Riemenschneider, J. Fr. [New Zealand]. Von L. Tiesmeyer. Bremen, 1875. 8vo. 1 Mk. Riggs, Stephen R. [Am. Indians]. [Under title "Mary and I; or, Forty Years with the Sioux"]. Chicago. Holmes, 1880. 12mo. $1.50. Righter, Chester Newell [Levant]. By Saml. I. Prime [under title "The Bible in the Levant"]. N.Y., Sheldon & Co., 1859. 18mo. 75c Ripka [R. C, China]. Memorial by F. Prandi. L. 1861. Robertson, Henrietta, Mrs. [So. Africa] [under title " Mission Life among the Zulu Kaffirs"]. L., Bemrose, 1866. 2d e., 1875. Svo. 3s. 6d. Robinson, E. J. [India]. Memorial. L. 1867. Rodt, Rudolph von [India]. Von K. W. Bouterwek. Elberfeld, 1852. 8vo. 10 Sgr. Rooney, Mrs. [Fiji]. [In " King and People of Fiji."] By J. Waterhouse. L., Jobson, 1867. Svo. 5s. Roper, Edward. By MeCarthie. L. 1877. Rosie, T. [W. Africa]. By Jas. Dobbs [under title " Coast Missions"]. L., Nisbet, 1862. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Ross. William. By R. F. Fisher. Glasg. 1881. Rostan, J. L. [Switzerland], By Lelievre. Trans. by J. R. French. L., Wesl. Conf. Off., 1870. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Rott, Ferd. Von O. Brauns. Herrmansb. 1871. Rouse, L. M., Mrs. [India]. By her husband. Calc. 1885. Rudolph, von Rodt [India]. By K. W. Bouterwek. Elberfeld, 1852. 8vo. 10 Sgr. Saker, Alfr. [Africa]. By E. B. Underhill. L., Bapt. Miss. Soc. 1884. Svo. 2s. 6d. Sandeman, David [China], By A. A. Bonar. L., Nisbet, 1861. 8vo. 5s. Sarjant, John [Mauritius]. By T. Bond. L. 1834. 12mo. Schlienz, C. F. Eulogie von Riggenbach. Basel, 1688. Schauffler, Wm. Gottlieb [Turkey]. Autobiog raphy. N. Y., Randolph, 1888. 12mo. $1.25. Schneider, Jas. H., and Edwd. M. By I. N. Tar- box [under title "Missionary Patriots"l. Bost., Cong. Pub. Co., 1C87. 16mo. $1.25. BIOGRAPHIES 653 BIOGRAPHIES Schneider, H. Gnadau, 1880. Schrumpf, Rosette [S. Africa]. Strasb. 1863. Schwartz, C. F., und Schubert, G. H. Der Send- hote des Evangeliums in Indien. Erlangeu 1S60 bvo. 12 Sgr.— By Dean Pearson. L., Seeley 183l' n e 1855. 2 v. Svo. 16s. Also N. Y. 1835. 12mo' 2s. 6d. Germ, transl. 1846.— See Nobili. Roberto dei Vou G. H. Schubert. Erlangen, I860. Svo 12 Sgr. Scudder, David Coit [India]. By H. E. Scudder. N. \ .. Hurd & H., 1865. Svo. $2.00 Scndder, John [India]. By J. B. Waterbury N Y ^Harper, 1870. 12mo. $1.75.— By M. E. Wilmer' N. Y. (R. P. D. Ch. Bd. Publ.) 18mo. 80c Selwyn, Geo. Aug., Bp. [New Zealand]. By H. W Tucker. L., Longmans, 1879. 2 v. 5th e„ 1886. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Shaw, Barnabas [So. Africa]. By Moister. L. 3s 6d Shaw, W. [S. E. Africa]. L., Wesl. Conf. Off., 1874' 8vo. 6s. 6d. Short, Augustus, Bp. [Australia]. By Fred. T Whitington. L , Gardner, 1888. Svo. 7s. 6d. Shrewsbury. W. J. By his son. Manchester, Ham ilton, 1868. Svo. 5s. Shuck, Heurietta [China]. By J. Bell Jeter. N Y" 1845. 2d e., Bost., Lothrop, 1874. 16mo. $1.25. Under title "An American Woman in China and her Work there." Simon, Philibert [Mantchuria]. Par Briand. Poi tiers, 1878. 12mo. 2.75 fr. Smith, John [Br. Guiana]. By Richd. Treffey, Jr. L., Mason, n. e., 1850. 12mo. 3s.— By E. A. Wall- brige. L., Cash, 1848. 8vo. 7s. Smith, S. L., Mrs. [Syria]. By E. W. Hooker. Bost. 1839. 3d e. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc. 1845. 12mo. 75c. Somerville, Andrew [Sec. F. M. U. P. 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Stoddard, David Tappan [Persia]. By J. P. Thomp son. N. Y. 1858. 2d e. Bost., Am. Tr. Soc, 1861. 12mo. $1.25. Sutherland, Mrs. By A. Waddel. Paisley. 1883. Taylor, J. B. [Freedmen]. By his son. Memphis, Tenn., So. Bap. Pub. Soc, 1872. S1.50. Taylor, Wm., Bp. [\V. Africa]. By E. Davies. Reading, Mass., Holiness Bk. Cone, 1885. 12mo. 75c Tellstrom, forste svenska Missionaeren i Lapp marken. Jemte bifogade under i attelser om engeiska Missionen i Stockholm. By G. Scott. (T., the first Swedish missionary in the Lappmark. Also, information on the English Mission in Stock holm). Gefle. 1842. Temple, Daniel [Turkey]. By D. H. Temple. Bost,, Cong. Pub. Co , 1855. 12mo. $1.50. Theodora [India], Von F. Mathissen. Basel, 1880. Svo. 40 Pf. Thomas, John [Bengal]. By G. B. Lewis. L. and N. Y., Macmillan. 1873. 8vo. 10s. 6d. $4.00.— By G. S. Rowe N. Y., Meth. Bk. Cone. 12mo. 70c Thomason, Thomas T. [India]. By J. Sargent. Phila., Am. S.S. Un., 1833. l8mo. 21c Thompson, T. S. [India]. By J. H. Hacke. L. 1887. -By Heibes. L. 1887. Threlfall, Wm. [So. Africa]. By S. Broa'bent. L., Mason, 1860. 18mo. Is. 9d. Thurston, Lucy Goodale [Hawaii], By Mrs. A. F. Cummings [under title "The Missionary's Daugh ter"! N. Y. 1842. _. Tiesmever, L. [New Zealand]. Von Fraulein Rie- menschneider. Bremen, 1875. 16mo. 1 Mk. Tinker, R. [Hawaii]. By M. L. P. Thompson. N. Y., Derby & J , 1856. 12mo. 50c. Titcomb, Jonathan Holt, Bp. [Burmah]. B., Alien T. Edwards; L., Banks, 1887. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Townsend, Henry [W. Africa]. By his brother Geoive. L. 1887. Tucker, J. T. [India], By Pettitt. L., Nisbet, 1872. 12nio. 2s. Gd. Tucker, Jane, Mrs. [India]. By Mrs. G. F. White. L. 1887. Turner, N. [New Zealand]. By J. G. Turner. L., Wesl. Cnut. Off., 1872. Svo. 5s. Tyrrell, Wm., Bp. [Australia]. By R. G. Boodle. L., Gardner. 1881. Svo. 7s. 6d. Urquhart, John [India], By XV. Orme. L„ Nisbet, 1869. 12nio. 3s. Cd. Van Lennep, Mary E., Mrs. [Turkey]. By her mother, Mrs. Joel Hawes. Hartford, Conn., Belk nap & H., 1847. 2de. N. Y. 1860. 12mo. $1.00. Vassar, John. By T. E. Vassar. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1879. 12mo. $1.00. Venables, Adington R. P., Bp. [Nassau]. By W. F. H. King. L., Gardner, 1878. Svo. 3s 6d. Venn, Henry [Hon. See. C. M. S.]. By XV. Knight. L., Seeley, 1880. 2d e., 1881. Svo. 6s. Vinton, Justus N., and Calista H. [Burmah], By Calista V. Luther. Phila., Corthell, 1881. 12mo. $1.00. Vogtlin, J. Basel, 1881. Vos, M. C. [So. Africa], (In German from the Dutch.) Base], 1829. Wakefield, Rebecca, Mrs. [E. Africa]. By R. Brewin. L.. 2d e., 1879. Svo. 4s. Waldmeier, Theophilus [Lebanon]. Autobiog raphy. L., Partridge, 1890. 8vo. 2s. Walker, S. A. [W. Africa]. By his sister. Dublin, 1847. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Wallich, Mrs., Sermon to the memory of. By Ward. Serampore. 1813. Walsh, J. J. [India]. By A. O. Johnson. Phila 1859. Walthers, C. T. Von C. Schottgen. Halle, 1742. Ward, Wm. [ludia]. By Saml. Stennett. L., Simp kin, 1825. 12mo. 5s.— Memoir. Phila., Am. S. S. 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L., Snow, 1842 n.e., 1866. 12mo. 2s.— By Ebenezer Prout. L., Snow, 1843. 4th e., 1847. 8vo. 3s.— The missionary. L. 1S49. 16mo. Williams, Richard [Patagonia]. By Jas. Hamilton. L., Nisbet. 1853. 2d e., 1857. Svo. 3s. 6d. Williams, Samuel Wells [China]. By Frederick Wells Williams. N. Y., Putnams, 1888. 8vo. $3.00. Wilson, Daniel, Bp. [India]. By Jos. Bateman. L., Murray, 1800. 2 vols. 3d 1,000, 1860; rev. and condensed, 1861. 9s. Bost., Gould & L., 1860. 1 vol. 8vo $3.0(1. Wilson, E., Mrs. [Bombay]. By her husband. L., Longsmans, 1S25. 12mo. 16s. Wilson, James [Polynesia]. By John Griffin. L., 3d e , 1819. 12mo. 3s. Gd. Repr. Bost., Crocker & B., 1827. l2mo. 50c Wilson, John [India]. By Geo. Smith. L., Murray, 1878. 2d e., 1879. Svo. 9s Wilson, Margaret, wife of John "Wilson. By John Wilson. Edinb. 1838. 5th e., 1858. Svo. 6s. Winnes, Philip. Basel, 1873. Winslow, Chas. L. [Ceylon], By Mrs. E. C. Hutch- ings. Bost., Am. Tr. Soc, 1866. 18mo. 50c— Also another life. Bost. 1834. Winslow, C, 31rs. [Ceylon]. By J. B. Waterbury. Bost. 1851. Winslow, Harriet L., Mrs. [Ceylon]. By her hus band, Mirou Winslow. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1835. ISmo. 55c. Wolff, Joseph [Palestine and Persia]. By J. Bayfair. N. Y , Bliss &" XV., 1821. 12mo. $1.00. Wood, John. Basel, 1888. BIOGRAPHIES 654 BIOGRAPHIES Worcester, Saml. [Sec. A. B. C. F. M.]. By S. M. Worcester. Bost. 1852. 2 v. 8vo. Xavier, St. Francis [R. C] [India and Japan]. Par D. Bonhours. Ps. 1682. 4to. Transl. by Mr. Dry den. L. 1688. Svo.— By H. J. Coleridge. L„ Burns & O., 1872-3. 2 v. Svo. 21s. L., B. & O.. 1881. 8vo. —Par J. F. Godescard. Limoges [18721. 12mo.— Von N. Greff. Einsiedeln, 1885. 8vo.— By Martoli and Maffei. Eng. trans, by Dr. Faber. L., Jones, 1858. Svo. 6s.— By Venn. L., Longman, 1862. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Yates, Wm., Bp. [India]. By Pearce and Hoby. L., Houlston, 1847. Svo. 10s. 6d. Yeardley, John [Gieece]. By Chas. Taylor. L., Bennett, 1859. Svo. 8s. York, Sarah E. W., Mrs. [Greece]. By Mrs. R. M. Med berry. Bost., Phillips, S„ & Co., 1853. 13mo. $1.00. Youd, Thos. [Br. Guiana]. By W. T. Veness. L. [1875]. Svo. Zaremba, Felician V. [Syria]. Von K. F. Ledder- hose. Basel, 1882. 8vo. SO Pf. Zeisberger, David [Am. Indians]. Par C. G. Blum hardt. Neufchatel, 184*1. 12mo. — Von J. J. Heim [in Sountags-Bibliothek, vol. 3]. Bielefeld, 1849. Svo. 5 Sgr.— Von H. Romer. Giitersloh, 1890. 8vo. 1 Mk.— By Edmund de Schweinitz. Phila., Lippincott, 1838. Svo. $3.50.— Diary, 1781-98. Trans, by E. F. Bliss. Cincinnati, Clarke, 1885. 2 v. Svo. $6.00. Ziegenbalg [Tranquebar]. Von W. Germann. Er langen, 1867-8. 2v. 8vo. 2 Re Ziemann, Wilhelm [India]. Berlin, 1884. 8vo. 30 Pf. Zinzendorf, NicholasLudwig, Count V. By F. Bovet. Ps. 1860. 2 v. 8vo. 7 fr. Transl. into Engl, by J. Gill. ]Under title "The Banished CountJ L. and Edinb., Nisbet, 1865. 8vo. 6s.— Von J. E. Brauns [in Sonntags-Bibliothek, III. Band, 5 and 6 Heft]. Bielefeld, 1849. Svo. 10 Sgr. —Von G. Burkhardt. Flensborg, 1866. n. e., 1870. 8vo. 18 Pf.— By Jas. Hutton [in " an essay, etc"] L. 1755. 8vo.— Von R. Oeser. Frankf. a. M., 1852. 8vo. 10 Sgr. n. e., 1865.— Der Graf von Z. und die Brudergemeinde . . . Von L. C. von Schrautenbach. Gnadau, 1851. 8vo. 1 Thr.— Von J. T. Schroder. Lpz. 1863. Svo. 1 Th. 15 Sgr.— Von H. Tietzen. Giitersloh, 1888. 8vo. 5 Mk.— Von W. Zwick [in SammlungvonVortragen. Bd. 8. Hft. 5]. Heidelb. 1882. 8vo. 5.40 Mk. Converts. Abyssinian Boy. Nashville, Tenn., So. Meth. Bk. Cone. 1857. 2d e., 1869. 18mo. 50c Adjai, the African slave boy : Good out of evil, or By Mrs. A. F. Childe. L., Wertheim, 1850. 18mo. 2d e. by C. F. Childe, 1852. 2s. African Orphan Boy. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1853. 32mo. 30c Africaner, a Namacqua Chief of South Africa. By John Campbell. L. 1830. 8vo. Africaner, or Missionary trials. Phila., Pres. Bd. Pub., IS—. 18mo. 25c Anajee, Joseph. By Mrs. Morton. Halifax, 1879. Andre-Marie, le R. P. 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Williams, Richard (Catechist to John Williams). By Jas. Hamilton. L., Nisbet, 1853. 2d e., 1857. Svo. 3s. 6d. Yawa, Lydie, Der Lebensweg von [W. Africa]. Von J. Merz [under title " Kumint herhber und hilft uns"]. Bremen, 1877. Zamba, an African Negro King. Ed. by P. Neil- son. L., Smith & E., 1847. Svo. 7s. 6d. Zerere, Jacob. Von R. Grundemann. Lpz. 1887. 12mo. 10 Pf. VII. MISCELLANEOUS. '(Essays, Sermons, Hortatory Works, the Philosophy of Missions, etc.) Abeel, David. The missionary convention at Jeru salem ; or, the exhibition of the claims of the world to the gospel. N. Y. 1838. 12mo.— Happy influ ence of foreign missions on the church. [Sermon on Is. liv. 2.] Abriss der Geschichte des Ursprungs und Wachsthums der Bibelgesellschaften, etc Bar men [1870]. 12mo. Aktstykker til Belysn. af Forholdet mellem Biskop Schreuder og det norske MS. (Documents to elucidate the relationship between Bishop S. and the Norwegian MS.) Stavauger, 1876. Adams, Chas. 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Harbinger of the millennium. Bost., Pierce. 1833. 12mo. 83c Colton. Successful missions (Society Islands, etc.). Phil. 1830. 24mo Considerations on the Practicability, Policy, and obligation of communicating to the natives of India the knowledge of Christianity. By a late resident iu Bengal. L., Richardson, 1808. Svo. 12s. Cotton, G. E. L. A charge to the clergy of the dio cese of Calcutta. Cambr. 1859. 8vo. 2d e. Cal cutta, 1863. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Crawford, Chas. An essay on the propagation of the gospel, etc. Phila. 1801. 12mo. Cremer, H. Luther's Stellung zur Judenmission. Barmen, 1870. 8vo. 4 Sgr. Croil, Jas. The missionary problem. Toronto, 1883. 12mo. Cunningham, J. XV. Essay on introducing Christi anity into India. L., tiatchard, 1822. 5s. Gd. Cunnyngham, W. G. E. Thoughts on missions. Nashville, So. Meth. Pub., 1874. 12mo. 15c Cust, R. N, Language as illustrated by Bible trans lation. In "Notes on Missionary Subjects." L., Stock, 1888-89. 8vo. 21s. Daa, L. Kr. Til det norske missionsselskabs Gene- ralforsamling i Drammen, 1873 (To the Norwegian general missionary assembly at Drammen, 1873). Chra. 1873. Dabney, R. L. The world white to harvest. N. Y. 1858. Daggett, Herman. Inauguration address at the opening of the foreign mission school [Owyhee], May 6, 1818. Elizabeth, N. J., 1819. Deckert, E. Die Civilisatorische Mission der Euro- past- unter den wilden Volkern. Berl., Habel, 1881. 8vo. 75 Pf. Decombaz, Saml. Histoire des missions evange liques. Ps. 1SC0. 2 v. 4 fr. Dibble, Sheldon. A voice from abroad; or, thoughts onmissions. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1848. 18mo. 40c Diehlmann, K. Unionsqualen eines Missionars. Niirnberg, 1851. 8vo. 30 Pf. Dietel, R. W. Missionsstunden. Lpz. 1884-9. 5 v. Svo. 7.20 Mk. Dominguet, R. P. Les missionaires et les directeurs de stations et retraites. Ps. 1809. 5 50 iv. Dorchester, D. The problem of religious progress. N. Y., Phillips & H., IStU. 12mo. £2.00. Douglas, James. Hints on missions. L., Cadell, 1S2J. 12mo. 2s. 6d. Driiseke, J. H. B. Die rechte Stellung zum Mis sions Werk. Magdeburg, 1834. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Duboc, J. Die Propaganda des Rauen Pauses und das Johannes Stif tin Berlin. Lpz. 1862. 8vo. 9 Sgr. Duff. Evangelistic theology. Edinb. 1S68. Duff, Alex. Speech in Exeter Hall ... at anniver sary of the Church of Scotland's foreign missions. Edinb. 1837. Svo. — Female education in India. Edinb. 1839. Svo.— Missions the chief end of the Christian church. L., Groombridge, 1839. 12mo. 2s. 6cl. — Missionary sympathy with lhe Free Church. A sermon. Documents of adherence to the Free Church, by the missionaries to the Jews, Edinb., Johnstone, 1^43. Svo. Explanatory statement to the friends of the Indian Mission of the Church of Scotland. . . . Edinb. 1844. &vo.— Home organi zation for foreign missions. Edinb. 1850. 8vo. — Missionary addresses before the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, 1835-7-9. L., Groom bridge, 1850. 12mo. 3s. 6d.— Foreign missions [two addresses]. Edinb. 1872. East, D. J. Western Africa, its condition, and Chris tianity the means of its recovery. L., Houlston, 1S44. 12mo. 6s. Ebrard, J. H. A. Die Einwiirfe wider die Mission. Zurich, 1845. Svo. 3 Sgr. Ellinwood, F. F. The great conquest. N. Y. 1876. Eppler, C. F. Missious-Harfe; Week und Erinner- ungs-Stimmen. Basel, 1852. Svo. 16 Sgr. MISCELLANEOUS 657 MISCELLANEOUS Er Danmark for lille til at have en Hedninge- mission ? (Is Denmark too small to have a mission to the heathens ?) 'Kbhn. 1883. Etwas iiber Missionen. Basel, 1803. is?" EiniSeworteUDerMissions«'esen. Gottingen, Fabri, F. Die Entstehung des Heidenthums und die Aufgabe der Heidenuiission. Lpz. 1859. 8vo. Fallacies Exposed in "Modern Christianity, a Civilized Heathenism." L., Simpkin, 1873. 8vo. Far^ell Letters [on Missions]. L. 1822 Feier des Funfzehn jahrigen Jubilaum der Rhem Missionsgesellschaft zu Barmen. Barmen, 1878. Finsternisz des Heidenthums. Cine 1879. 16mo. 12 Sgr. Fischer, J. E. Die Kraft des Evangeliums : Mitthei lungen aus der alteren Missions-geschichte, etc Niirnbg. 1853. 8vo. 24 Sgr. Flood, J. Ny Raskke af Missionstraktater med Bille- der (New series of mission tracts with pictures). Stavanger, 1877.— Lasi-ning i Kvindeforeninger for Hedninge- og Jode-Missionen (Reading for women's associations for missions to the heathens and the Jews). Chra. 1881. Florey, R. Draet med Missionsgarnet (Haul with the missionary net). Transl. by P. Blessing. Dram men, 1867. Foranstaltninger under Hungersnoden i San talistan 1884 (Relief work in Santalistan during the famine in 1884). Kbhn. 1885. Forchhammer, J. Niels Vibe Stackfleth. (A lecture.) 1867. Fortssettelse af David Cranzes Brodre-Historie. Oversat efter den i Barby 1791 udkomne Udgave (Continuation of David Cranzes' history of the United Brethren. After the ed. of 1791, publ. at B.). Kbhn. 1792. Foster, John. Missious the glory of the age. Bost., Fletcher, 1833. 16mo. 40c Frantz, Alexr. Das Missions Werk, Predigt. Mag deburg, 1816. 8vo. 2}4 Sgr. Frere, Bartle. Eastern Africa as a mission field. L., Murray, 1874. 8vo. 5s. Friedel, H. A. Der Kleine Missionsfreund. N. Y. 1861. 16mo. Gall, James. The science of missions. Edinb. and L. 1878. 8vo. [In progress.] Galle, Friedrich. Missions Rede in der Dom- Kirche zu Halle. Halle, 1845. 8vo. 1 Sgr. Gardiner, Th. Light for the heathen. Aberdeen, 1872. Garratt, S. The midnight cry. L., Nisbet, 1861. 3d e., 1868. 8vo. 4s. Gaume, J. J. L'evangelisation apostolique du globe. Ps. 1879. 12mo. 1.50 fr. Gaussen, S. C. L. Die Juden und die Hoffnung ihrer baldigen Wieder-herstellung vermittelst des Evan geliums. Karlsruhe, 1845. 8vo. 2J£ Sgr. Geikie, A. C. Christian missions to wrong places, among wrong races, and in wrong hands. L., Nis bet, 1871. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Geist der Britischen Mission. Basel, 1877. Gilbert, R. O. Das jede Missionsfeier zunachst eine Erinnerung an die uberschwengliche Gnade Gottes in Christo gegen uus selbst sei. Dresden, 1850. Svo. 2 Sgr. . Gleanings from Mission Fields about Children. 70c Gossner, Johannes. Auserlesene Erzahlungen aus der Heiden Welt. Berl. 1838. 9 v. Svo. 9 Sgr. Goulburn, E. M., and Woollcombe, E. C. Pray ers in behalf of missions and missiouaries, com piled from the Holy Scriptures. Oxf., 4th e., 1882. Grande Missionaires. Ps. 1875. 2 fr. Grandpapa's Missionary Stories for the Young. L„ Snow, 1859. 12mo. ls. Grant, A. The past and prospective extension of the gospel by missions to the heathen. (Bampton lec ture, 1843.) L., Rivington, 1844. n. e., 1845. Svo. 9s. Graul, Carl. Die Evangelische Lutherische Mission zu Dresden, an die Evangelische Kirche aller Lande. Lpz., Dorffling, 1845. 8vo. 4 Sgr.— Wie machen wir uns f ertig, unter den Heiden zu treiben das Evangelium des Friedens. Niirnberg, 1861. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Gray, J. Claims of the world on Amencan youth. Phila. 1835. [Annual of Board of Education of Presby Ch ] Great Debate. Verbatim report of ABC. F. M. meeting Des Moines, la., Oct. 7, 1886. Bost., Houghton, M. & Co., 1886. 8vq. 25c Gude Den Aand hvori Christi Mission bor fores (The spirit in which the mission of Christ ought to be conducted). Kbhn. 1865. Guernsey, L. E. Ethel's trials in becomiug a mis sionary. N. Y"., Am. S. S. [187-]. 12mo. $1.25.— Mission box. N. Y'., Am. S. S., 1880. 16mo. 90c Guinness, H. Grattan, Mrs. The wide world and our work in it. [Story of the Guinness East London Institute for Home and Foreign Missions.] L. [Hodder], 1887. Gutzlan", K. Geschiedenis der Uitbreiding von Christus Koningrijk. etc. Rdam. 1826. Gwinall, XV. The Christian in complete armour. L., Tegg, 1844. Svo. n. e., 1844. 9s. Ha-afner, 1. Onderzock naar het nut der zendelingen __ en zendelgenootseh. 2 druck. Amst. 1823. Harting. Ueberblick der Evangelischen Missionen. Lpz. 1864-75. Hagenbach, C. R. Die Theologische Schule Basel's und ihre Lehrer 1460-1S49. Basel, 1860. 4to. 20 Sgr. Hamilton, R. XV. Missions, their authority, aim, aud encouragement. L., Allan, 1846. 2d e. 8vo. 4s. Gd. Handelingen der alg. Vergadering van het Nederl Bijbel Gnootschap. Amst. 1880. Hansen, W. Die Missions Thatigkeit der Griecb ischen Kirche Russland's. Dorpat, 1868. Hardie, A. The bearing of evangelistic work on the divine life and doctrine. Edinb., 2d e., 1872. Harless, G. C. A. v. Das Licht in der Finsterniss. Predigt. Wittenb. 1848. Svo. 3 Sgr.— Die Bedeu tung der Mission. Dresden, 1849. 8vo. 3 Sgr.— Aus welcher Quelle, die geseguete Ttichtigkeit zum Werke der Mission. Predigt. Lpz. 1855. Svo. 3 Sgr. Harnach, Theodosius. Die Kirchliche Missions- Arbeit ist Ausrichtung des Missions-amtes Christi, Niirnberg, 1858. 8vo. 2J^ Sgr. Harring, M. Sendwort auf das Vorwort des Koop- man in Heide, mit dem Endworte: " Nicht Ratio- nalismus Oder Orthodoxie." Itzehoe, 1843. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Harris, J. The great commission. L., Ward, Bost., Gould & L., 1842. n. e., 1852. 8vo. 7s. 6d. $1.00. — The Christian church constituted and charged to convey the gospel to the world. Bost. 1842. 12mo. Harthoorn, S. E. Oude grieven en nieuwe bewijzen ten aanzien van de evangel, zending. Harlem, 1864. Hartmann, R. Das elfte Waldenburger Missions Fest. Breslau, 1854. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Hasle. Prsediken om Herrens Missionsbefaling (Sermon on the Lord's missionary command). Ronne, 1880. Haygood, A. G. Prize essay on missions. Nash ville, So. Meth. Publ., 1874. 10th e., 1876. 12mo. 20c Heathen Nations : duty of the present generation to evangelize the world. Oberlin, O., Fitch, 3d e., 1849. 12mo. 32c Heinemann, G. W. F. Ein Missionskleeblatt. N. Ruppin. 1863. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Hellier, Benjn. Universal mission of the church of Christ. L. 1884. Hesse, J. Fromme Heiden. Basel, 1879. Hessey. The supply of ministers and especially of native ministers for the colonial and missionary church. Hibbert Lectures on the origin and growth of re ligion. L, Williams & N., 1878 sqq. 12 v. 12mo. ea. 10s. 6d. Hickok. Complete idea of the world's conversion to Jesus Christ. A sermon. Boston, 1866. Hilarion, P. F. Le missionaire, au Part des missions. Ps 1875. 75 ctm. Hirche, G. T. L. Predigt bei der ersten Mission's Feier des Mssn. Hiilfvereins am linken Ufer der Neisse. Rothenburg, 1S42. Svo. 1)4 Sgr. Hitchcock, R. D. Final triumph of Christianity. Sermon. N. Y. 1863. Hoyer. Folkene og Missionen. Bergen, 1S82. Hoff, V. J. Er vor Tid en Missioustid f (Is our age a missionary age ?) Kbhn. 1867. Hoffmann, Wm. Soil die Heiden-Mission von Frei- will. Gesellsch. oder von der Kirche betrieben werden •'. Schaffh. 1842.— Soil die Sache wie bisher von Freiwilligen Gesellschaften. oder von den Amt- lichen Repraesentanten der Kirche betrieben wer den ? Sehaffhausen, 1842. 12mo. 5 Sgr.— Bruder liches Wort an sammtliche Freunde der Evange lischen Mission zu Basel. Basel, 1847. — Missions Fragen. Heidelberg, 1848. 8vo. 1 Th. 14 Sgr.— Missions Stunden. Stuttg. 1848. 8vo. 1 Th. 20 Sgr. — Missionstimer (Missionary hours). Transl. by H. P. Falck. Kbhn. 1849.— Missions Stunden: neue Sammlung. Stuttg. 1851. Svo. 1 ( Thr.— Die Christliche Literatur als Werkzeug der Mission unter den Heiden. Berl 1855. Svo. 5 Sgr Hofmann, J. C. C. von. Die Mission iu der Heiden- Welt und unter Israel. Niirnberg, 1856. 8vo. sSgr. Hogarth, XV. Missious a natural growth from Chris tianity. (Sermon.) N. Y. 1855. MISCELLANEOUS 658 MISCELLANEOUS Holm, J. Den Evangeliske Mission i Aaret 1843. Kbhn. 1843.— Missions-Catechismus. Kbhn. 1843.— Missionen som Kirkens Sag (Missions, the affair of the church). Kbhn. 1845, Holm, P. A. Praediken ved Missionsmdde i Slagelse (Sermon at missionary meeting in Slagelse). Sla gelse, 1866. Home Helpers for Foreign Missions. L. and Edinb. 1881. Hook, W. F. Reasons for contributing to the support of an English bishop at Jerusalem. L. 1842. Hopkins, W. B. Apostolic missions. (Cambridge sermons.) L., Parker, 1853. 8vo. 5s. Home, Melville. Letters on missions addressed to the Protestant ministers of the British churches. L. 1794. n. e., Seeley, 1824. 12mo. 4s. 6d. Bost. 1835. Hough, Jas. Protestant missions vindicated. L., Seeley, 1837. 8vo. 4s. I! nonius, Carl. Missions Predigt. Jena, 1859. 8vo. ~% Sgr. Irene, the Missionary. Bost., Roberts, 1879. 16mo. $1.25. James, J. A. Korsets sager. En Missionstal. Ny fortbattrad upplaga. Helsingborg, 1842. Janzen, J. Missionsbetraktelse og bon. 2. uppl. (Missionary meditation and prayer. 2d e.) Jenkyn, T. W. The union of the Holy Spirit and the church in the conversion of the world. L., Snow, 1837. 12mo. n. e., 1855. 6s. Johansen, J. Der skal blive een Hjord, een Hyrde. Missionsforedrag (There shall be one flock, one shepherd. Missionary lecture). Haderslev, 1865. John, G. Gerstacker und die Mission. Halle, 1869. — Hope for China. A sermon. L. 1872. 8vo.— China, her claims and call. L., Morgan & Scott, 1882. 8vo.— Spiritual power for missionary work. 35c. Johnston, Jas. A century of Protestant missions, and the increase of the heathen during the hundred years. L., Nisbet, 1887. 22d 1,000. 1888. p. 8vo. 3s. — A century of Christian progress. L., Nisbet, 1888. 8vo. 3s. Josenhaus, J. Bilder aus der Missions-Welt. Basel, 1858-72. 4 v. 8vo. 8 Sgr.— Ausgewahlte Reden. Basel, 1886. Journal of a Deputation sent Fast from the Malta colleges. L., Nisbet, 1854. 2 v. 8vo. 12s. Jouve, Abbe. Le missionaire de la Campagne. Ps. 1874. 3 v. 9 fr. Jubilee Services of .London Missionary Society. L., Snow, 1844. 3s. Od. Jubilee "Volume of the Church Missionary So ciety. L., Seeley, 1849. 18mo. Is. Kalkar, C. H. Et par Ord til Missionsvennerne i Danmark om min Stilling til Missionssagen (A couple of words to Danish friends of missions about my position in missionary matters). Kbhn. 1869. — Udkast til Betaenkning af den med Hensyn til den gronlandske Missions Udvikling nedsatte Commission. Kbhn. 1872 (Draft of report from committee appointed with regard to the Greenland Mission). Kay, Wm. Is the Church of England duly fulfilling her office as a mission church ? Oxf. and L. 1865. 2d e. 8vo. Kelley, D. C. Go, or die. Essay on missions. Nash ville, So. Meth. Publ., 1874. 12mo. 20c. Kerr, J. C. Medical missions. San Fco. 1878. 12mo. Kesselring, H. Die Aufgabe der Protestantischen Kirche und Theologie in Bezug auf die aussere Mission. Zurich, 1884. 8vo. 50 Pf. Kierkegaard, P. C. Tale ved Missionsmodet i Aal- borg, Nov. 11, 1865 (Sermon at missionary meeting in Aalborg, Nov. 11, 1865). Aalborg, 1865. King, C. AV., and Lay, C. T. The claims of Japan and Malaysia on Christendom. N. Y., French, 1839. 2 v. 12mo. $2.00. Kirchhofer, Johannes. Das Missions-Werk, be- trachtet nach seiner Wichtigkeit und Nothwen- digkeit. Schaffhausen, 1832. Svo. 5 Sgr. Kleine (Der) Missions Freund. Barmen, 1856-63. 9 v. 8vo. 3 Th. Klicfoth, Theodor. Predigt zum Missions-Feste. Weimar. 1852. 8vo. 3£j Sgr. Klumpp, F. XV. Das Evangelische Missions-Wesen. Stuttg. 1844 Svo. 7}4 Ssrr. Knittel, C. AV. Das zelinte Waldenburger Missions Fest. Breslau, 1853. 8vo. l<4 Sgr. Knowlton, M. J. The foreign missionary: his field and his work. Phila. 1881. Knudsen, C. Om Missionen til Born (On the mission to children). Stavanger, 1877. Kok, J. Hvorledes skulle vi fore Menneskene til Kristus ? Missionspreediken (How are we to lead men to Christ ? Missionary sermon). Kbhn. 1869. Koopmanu, W. H, Missious Predigt Uber Philipper ii. 9-11. Altona, 1860. 8vo. 3 Sgr. Kordina, J. P. Miszionsiwo Knesowe dzjeko. Jena (?) 1861. 8vo. 1 Sgr. Kraft't, J. C. G. L. Vortrag gehalten in der ersten bffentlichen Missious-Stunde des Missions-Vereins. Erlangen, 1844. Svo. m Sgr.— Zwei Missions Vortrage, zum Besten der Missionssache. Erlan gen, 1845. 8vo. 4 Sgr.— Drei Missions-Predigten iiber 1 Korinther xv. Guben, 1856. 8vo. 3 Sgr. Krag, P., og Wulff, P. To Foredrag ved Israels Missionsmodet i Bethesda 26 April, 1883. Kbhn. 1883. Krauszold, Lorenz, Predigt am Missions Feste zu Dresden gehalten, Dresden, 1843. 8vo. 2J^ Sgr. Kratzenstein. Zeitfolge der Christianisirung der Volker, etc. Berl. 1844. Kuntze, E. W. T. Predigt zum Jahresfeste des Altmarkischen Missions Hulfsvereins. Berl. 1839. Svo. 3*^ Sgr. — Rede bei der Eroffnung des Missions- Betsaales, etc. Berl. 1839. 8vo. 2J^ Sgr. Kupfer, F. Mein Lieber, willst du ein Christ sein, so hilf die Heiden bekebren. Basel, 1856. Landgren. Ofversigt af de Protest. Missionars. Hudikswall, 1872. Lang, Gustav. Von dem heiligen Werk der Mission. Schreiberhau, 1860. 8vo. Ijl Sgr. Lang, J. I>. Causes of the comparative failure of the transportation system in the Australian colonies. L., Valpy, 1S37. 12mo. 6s. Langbein, B. A. Die Mission, eine Friedens-Pre- digerin. Chemnitz, 1861. 8vo. 2 Sgr. — Die Kirche kommt erst in der Missionsarbeit. Predigt. Niirnb. 1863. 8vo. 2 Sgr. jLanghans, E. F. Pietismus und Christenthum im Spiegel der ausseren Mission. 1. Thl. Pietismus. Lpz , Wigand, 1864. 8vo. 2.10 Mk.— 2. Thl. Das Christenthum und seine Mission im Lichte der Weltgeschichte. Zurich, 1875. 8vo. 8 Mk.— Pietis mus und aussere Mission vor dem Richterstuhl ihrer Vertheidiger. Lpz. 1866. 8vo. Larroque, Patrice. De Tesclavage chez les nations Chretiennes. Lpz. 1860. 12mo. 20 Sgr. Lasonder. Die Geschiedeniss der Christ, zending, een belangrijk onderdeel der Christ, theologie. Utrecht. 1819. jLathern, J. The Macedonian cry, and a plea for missions. Toronto. Briggs, 1884. 12mo. 70c. Laurie, Thos. The Ely volume; or, contributions of foreign missions to science and human well-being. Bost., Cong. Pub.. 1881. 2d e., 1887. 8vo. $3.00. Lebon, Hubert. Souvenirs curieux des missions etrangeres. Ps. 1852. 1 fr. Leipolt, Gust. Die Leiden des Europaers im Afri- kanischen Tropenklima und die Mittel zu deren Abwehr. Lpz., Duncker, 1887. 8vo. 2 Mk. Leonhardi, Gustav. Nacht und Morgen Erzahlungen aus der Evangelischen Heiden-Mission. Lpz. 1859. 2 v. 8vo. 1 Th. 71^ Sgr. Liggins, John. Great value and success of foreign missions. N. Y., Baker & T., 1888. 12mo. 75e. Lilie, Die, der Mission. From the Norwegian by H. Sebald. Gotha, 1854. 12mo. 15 Sgr. Linke, F. Missionsstudien oder Beitrage zu Mis- sionswisseuschaft. Gbttingen, 1848. Lipsius, Richd. A. In welcher Form sollen wir den Heidnischen Kultur-Yolkern das Evangelium bringen? Berlin, 1887. 8vo. 30 Pf. LOhe, Wilhelm. Die Mission unter den Heiden. Zwei Gespiache zur Belehrung. . . . Nb'rdlingen, 1843. 16mo. 5 Sgr.— Die Heiden-Mission in Nord- Amerika. Ein Vortrag in der General-Versamm- lungdes Protestantischen Central-Missions- Vereins zur Niirnberg, 1846. Niirnb. 1847. 8vo. 1J4 Sgr.— Protestantische Missions-Predigt von der Abend- mahls-zucht. Niirnbg. 1853. 8vo. 1J4 Sgr. Lioomis, S. L. Modern cities and their religious Sroblems. Introduction by Rev. Josiah Strong, i.D. N. Y., Baker & Taylor, 1887. 12mo. $1.25. Loventhal, C. Til den danske Menighed af Folke- kirken. Mit Missionssyn (To the Danish congrega tion of the state church. My view of missions). Kbhn. 1870. Lowe, John. Medical missions, their place and power. [By Sir Wm. Muir.] L., Unwin, 2d e., 1887. 12mo. 5s. Lowrie, J. C. Missionary papers. N. Y., Carter, 1881. 12mo. $1.50. Lubker, Friedrich. Der Fall des Heidenthums. Schwerin. 1856. 8vo. 9 Sgr. Lucke, G. C. F. Missions Stunden Oder Beitrage zur Missionswissenschaft. Gfittingen, 1841. 8vo. 10 Sgr. Ludewig, F. A. Das Ernte- oder Missionsfeld unsers Herrri Jesu Christi. Predigt. Breslau, 1850. 8vo. ^ Sgr. Luquet, J. F. O. Lettres a Msgr. de Langres sur la congregation des missions etrangeres. Ps. 1843. 6 f r. McCaul, Dr. The old paths, or modern Judaism compared. L., Wertheim, 1846. 8vo. 10s. MISCELLANEOUS 050 MISCELLANEOUS MacFarlane, John. The jubilee of the world: essay ?,ni_-. bnstian missions to the heathen. Glasg., Whittaker, 1842. 8vo. 5s. Tof-f E* "*¦* Snort practical hints on missions. L. 1S42. McKeever, H. B. The Master's calls to thee, young man. Phila. 1865. 16mo. B Malan, S. C. Letters to a young missionary. L Masters, 1858. 12mo. ls. 6d. Mandley J. G Woman outside of Christendom. L., Trubner, 1880. 8vo. 7s. 6d. Manual for Missionary Candidates. Btn. 1859 Martin, Henry. Twenty sermons preached in Cal cutta, etc. L., Seeley, 1822. 5th e., 1824 Mason, E. Signs of the times. Sermon before the Brooklyn and N. Y. F. M. S., 1850. N. Y. 1850 Matter, Jaques. Histoire critique du Gnosticisme, et de son influence sur les sects religieuses. Strasbg. 1813-6. 3v. 8vo. 7 Th. 26 Sgr. Maydorn, F. K. O. Die innere und aussere Mission in der Schule. Breslau, 1854. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Means. Proposed mission (A. B. C. F. M.) in Central Africa. Bost. 1879. Mejean, Emile. Paul Orose et son apologetique contre les paiens. Strasb. 1862. 8vo. 33 sous. Meischel, J. F. Missions Predigt iiber Psalm 46. Niirnberg, 1851. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Merensky, A. Europaische Kulturund Christenthum gegeniiber dem sudafrikanischen Heidenthum. Berl. 1888. Svo. 25 Pf. Mermannius, Xheatrum Conversionis Gentium, etc. Antw. 1872. Merz, J. Kommt heriiber und Hilft Uns. Bremen, 1877. Miller, S. The observance of the monthly concert in prayer. Phila., Pres. Bd., 1845. 18mo. 35c. Missionary Candidates' Manual. Cant. 1859. Missionary Enterprise : A series of discourses de livered in America. L., Chapman, 1845. n. e.,1849. 8vo. 6s. Missionary Sermons at Hagley, by various clergy men. L., Bell & D., 1859. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Missionary Speeches, No. 3. L., S. P. G., 1857. Missionary Tracts, No. 1. Bost. 1859. Missionary's (A) Dream : The clergy, universities, and Church. L., Rivingtons, 1880. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Missionen, Et was iiber, oder iiber die Bemii- hungen fiir die Bekehrung der Heiden, besonders diejenigen der Englicchen Missions-Societat. Basel, 1803. Missions ; their temporal utility, rate of progress, and scriptural foundation. L., 1873. Missions Betstunden Eine Zeitschrift. Redigirt vom Directorium und zum Bestem des allgemeinen protestantischen Pfarr-Waisenhauses zu Winds- bach. Niirnberg, 1838-40. Svo. 1 Th. 15 Sgr. Missions-Biichlein. Heidelb. 1860. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Missions-Btfchlein, fur Dienstboten. Anleitung zu einer guten Generalbeicht. Diilmen, 1852. 8vo. Hi Sgr. — Kleineres, zur Beniitzung bei Missions Andachten. Koln, 2d e., 1852. 16mo. J^ Sgr.— Katholisches. Anleitung zu einem Christlichen Lebenswandel. Regensb., 33d e., 1858. 12mo. 13J£ Sgr. Missions-Biichlein oder Practische Auslegung des Missionstextes. Luc. vi. 38. Eisln. 1852-3. 2v. 5WSgr. Missions Catekes. Stklm. 1860. Missions Predigten aus dem Fvangelium. Gnadau, 1849. Svo. 1 Th. 10 Sgr. Missions Reden an die Protestantischen Gemein- den Deutschlands. Augsburg, 1843. 8vo. 6)4 Sgr. Mitchell, J. Murray. The religious condition of Christendom. L., Hodder, 1880. 8vo. 7s. 6d.— Christianity and ancient paganism. L., Hodder, 1887.— The foreign missions of Protestant churches: their state and prospects. L., Nisbet, 1888. 12mo. Is. Moller, Wilhelm. Christus und das Missions Werk. Missions-Predigt. Lpz., 1837. 8vo. 3% Sgr. Moister, W. The missionary world. L. 1873. Monod, Guillaume. Conference des Chretiens evangeliques de toute nation, a Paris (1855). Ps. 1856. 8vo. 3fr. Monod, Jean. Conference de I'alliance evangglique a Londres (1851). Ps. 1852. 8vo. 2 fr. Moritz, I. C. Worte der Ermahnung an meine Briider vom Hause Israel. Hamburg. Moule, A. E. China as a mission field. L. [1881.] 16mo.— Opium and the spread of Christianity. Shanghai, 1877. 8vo. Mullens, J. London and Calcutta compared. L., Nisbet, 1868. 12mo. 3s. 6d. Muller, F. M. On missions. L. & N. Y., Scribner, 1S74. 8vo. $1.00. Miiller, J. L. Missions Predigt iiber das Evangelium. Oldenburg, 1840. 8vo. 3M Sgr. Munkel, C. C. Missions Predigt. Nerden, 1855. 8vo. 2J4 Sgr. Nachrichten aus der Heiden Welt. Stuttg. 1834-43. 12 v. Svo. 8 Th. 10 Sgr— Cincin., 1856-7. 2v. 16mo. 20 Sgr. Nachrichten fiir Freunde der Mission. Lp*., 1859-60. 2 v. 8vo. 8 Thr. Nampon, K. P. Manuel du Missionaire. Ps. 1861. 3.50 fr. Nelson, H. A. Attraction of the cross: a sermon. Bost. 1868. Neubig, Andreas. Das Christenthum als Welt Re ligion betrachtet. Regensbg. 1839. 8vo. 25 Sgr. Newman, J. P. Christianity triumphant; its defen sive and aggressive victories. N. Y., Funk, 1884. 12mo. 75c. Nickell, J. H. Premium essay on missions. Alton, _ 111., 1864. Nitzsch, C. J. Wirkung des evang. Christenthum's auf Kulturlose Volker. Berl. 1852. 8vo. 4 Sgr. Noel, B. W. Essay on Christian missions to heathen nations. L., Nisbet, 1S42. 8vo. 8s. Nugee, G. Necessity for Christian education in India. L., Rivington, 1846. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Nugent, Sophia M. "I Must:" short missionary Bible readings. L., Cassell, 1888. 32mo.. Cd. Ochs, C. Die Mission, der Samaritaner Dienst der Kirche. Niirnberg, 1856. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Official Report of the Church Congress at Wol verhampton. L. 1878. Oliphant, Dr. Did evangelical missions 1700-1800, propagate Deism? L., Rivingtons, 1877. 8vo. ls. 6d. Om Missionssagen. Af Forf. til " Smaavink om Menneskelivets Forhold set i Naadens Lys" (On Missions. By the author of "Glimpses ot human life in the light of grace"). Kbhn. 1871. Opfordring til den danske Menighed (Call to the Danish congregation of the Church). Middle- fart (1870. Orientirende Oversigt over den Kristne Mis sions Gieruings. Stavaoger, 1879. Ostberg, J. Missions-Predikningar, Boner och Berattelser (Mission sermons, prayers, and ser vices). Linkoping, 1853. — Forsta Skandinaviska Missions Motet. Soderk, 1864.— Missionsfalten i Hjorted (The mission field in H.). Stolm. 1870. Ostertag, Albert. 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In dianapolis, 1883. — Evangelistic work in principle and practice. N. Y"., Baker & Taylor, 1887. 12mo. $1.25. Pierson, H. W. [Ed.] American missionary me morial. N. Y., Harpers, 1853. 8vo. $1.75. Plath, C. H. C. Die Envahlung der Volker im Lichte der Missions-geschichte. Berl. 1867. Svo. 6 Pf.— Missionstudien. Berl. 1870. 8vo. 20 Pf.— The subject of missions under three new aspects: the Church and missions; the representation of the science of missions at the university; commerce and the Church. Eng. transl., Edinb., Hamilton, 1373. 8vo. 3s. 6d.— NeueMissionsfragen. Berl. 1883. Plea for Voluntary [Missionary] Societies, and defence of the decisions of the [Presby.] General Assembly of 1836. N. Y. 1837. 12mo. Fond, Enoch. Short missionary discourses. Wor cester, 1824. 70c. Porter, A. A. The principles of our faith in the work of foreign missions. N. Y. 1858. Poulain. De Evang. Zending als getnige van de Godslijkheit d. Christend. Utrecht. 1868. Proceedings of the Foreign Christian Mis sionary Society. Cincin. 1883. Proceedings of the General Conference on MISCELLANEOUS 660 MISCELLANEOUS Foreign Missions, etc., held at Mildmay Park. L. 1879. Prochnow, J. D. Ebenezer: Denkstein einer Fiinf- undzwanzigjahrigen Missions-Thatigkeit. Berl. 1862. 8vo. 7}i Sgr. Pusey, E. B. The Church, the converter of the hea then. Two sermons. L., Rivington, 1838. 8vo. 3s. Randannc, Abbe. liltude histor. sur l'ancienne Mission Diocesaine de Clermont. Ps. 1885. 12 fr. Rankin, W. Address before the Synod of Newr Jer sey. (S. L. A.) 1855. Rautenberg, J. W. Die Kirchenspaltung und die Mission. Hambg. 1841. 12mo. 7% Sgr. Raven, L. Le Missionaire Protestant. Ps. 1856. 1.50 fr. Reichel (Bp. of Meath). The earliest missionary organization of the Christian Church: a sermon ... on behalf of the S. P. G. Dublin (.McGee), 1890. 8vo, pp. 26. 6d. Reiniek. Verhandlung aer Versammlung der Evan gelischen Christen Deutschland's und anderer Lander. Berl. 1857. 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Die Herrlichkeit der Missions-Arbeit. Schreiberhau, 1852. 8vo. V& Sgr. Rothlieb, J. WartidsuppmaningatwerkerforGuds rikas udbredande (The call to our age to work for _ the extension of the kingdom of God). Stolm. 1848. Riickert. Die Missionssache, gegrundet auf dem Beispiel und dem Bef ehl des Sohnes Gottes. Berl. 1824. Salfeld, Ernst. Nachrichten aus der Heidenwelt. Hambg. 1848. 8 v. 12mo. 12 Sgr. Sander, Philipp. Das Werk der Evangel. Mission ein Werk der Kirche. Gastpredigt. Celle, 1845. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Saphir, Philip. Letters and diaries. Edited by his brother. Edinb., Groombridge, 1852. 12mo. Is. 6d. Schattenseiten der Mission und der Bibel- Verbreitung. Bellevue. 8vo. Wfa Sgr. Scheele, C. Missions Todtenfeier. Magdebg. 1858. 8vo. 2% Sgr. Scheibel, J. G. Rede am 13. Stiftungs-Feste des Mis- sions-Vereins zu Dresden. Dresden, 1832. 8vo. 2\i Sgr. Scheibler, M. F. Die Verbreitung der Bibel eine Weltbegebenheit. Elberfeld, 1819. Schneider, J. Die aussere und innere Mission in der Schule. Breslau, 1854. 8vo. 5 Sgr. Schnijder. Der Evangelischen Heiden - Missions- Recht, Pflicht und Erfolg. Basel, 1886. Schott, O. Warum ist die Bekehrung der Heiden so schwer. Basel, Missionsbchhrg, 1883. Schreiber, A. Zur Charakeristik der Missions-gebiete der Rheinischen Mission. Barmen. 1883. Svo. 40Pf. Schreuder, H. Nogle Old til Norses Kirke om chris- telig Pligt med Hensyn tilOmsorg for ikke-christne Medbrodres Salighed (Some words to the Norwegian Church about Christian duty in regard to the salva tion of non-Christian brethren). Chra. 1842. Schuh, Benjamin. Essai sur l'exercicedu ministere evangelique parmi les peuples non-Chretiens. Strassbg. 1862. 8vo. 3 fr. Scliweder, G. Die evangelische Mission mit beson- derer Beziehung auf das Evangelische Deutschland. Berl. 1857. Svo. 3 Sgr. Scudder, John. The Redeemer's last command: Appeal to Christian mothers on behalf of the heathen. N. Y., Am. Tr. Soc, 1841. 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Y. and Brooklyn. N. Y. 1857.— God's rule for Christian giving. 75c. Spieker, H. H. G. Zions Klage und Hoffnung an seinen Missionsfesten. Predigt. Griinberg, 1847. 8vo. 1J4 Sgr. Sprague, W. B. Contrast between true Christianity and other systems. N. Y. 1837. 12mo. Steane. Proceedings of the Amsterdam Conference of the Evangelical Alliance. L. 1868. Steger, B. St. Die Ausbreitung der Kirche Christi unter alien "Volkern der Erde. Predigt. Niirnbg. 1843. 8vo. 2% Sgr.— Die Evangelische Heiden- mission. Drei Gesprache zur Erweckung und Belebung des Missionssinnes unter dem volke. Niirnbg. 1844. 8vo. 3% Sgr.— Die Protestantischen Missionen und deren gesegnetes Wirken. Hof . 1844. 3 v. 8vo. 2 Th. 9U Sgr. Stier, Rudolf. Missions-Predigt aus dem hohen- priesterlichen Gebete des Herm. Lpz. 1856. 8vo. 3 Sgr. Stiftungsfeier, Die, des Juliehscben Hiilfs-Missions- Bibel-und-Tractat-Vereins. Elberfeld, 1834. 8vo. 3» Sgr. Stow, Baron. (Ed.) Missionary enterprise. Dis courses by American authors. 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The theological missionary and foreign missions. 1884. — Moravian missions. Lec tures. N. Y , Scribners, 1884. 12mo. $2.00. Tomlin, Jacob. Missionary journals and letters from the East, L., Bailliere, 1844. 12mo. ls. 6d. MISCELLANEOUS 661 MISCELLANEOUS Tonna, Mrs. Missionary tales of real life. 30c. Tschackert, P. M. R. Vorteile und Gefahreu welche cler Mission aus der Kolonialpolitik erwachsen Lpz. 1886. 8vo. 30 Pf. Uppmanlng til Missions-sakens beframiande (Calls to help the missions). Stolm. 1847 Vahl, J. Er det Guds Villie, at Christeirdommen i /ore Dage skal udbredes blandt Hedningerne og hvorledes kan dette ske paa den bedste Maade ? (Is it the will of God that Christianity shall be prop agated among the heathen in our day, and how can this best be accomplished ?). Kbhvn. 1859 — HBrt Oversigt over Danske Missions-virksomhed, etc. Cbhn. 1866.— Beretning om deu Evang. Alli ances ottende aim Mode. Cbhn. 1886. Vaughan, C. J. "Forget not thine own people" L., Macmillan, 1874. 2d e., 1876. Svo. 3s. 6d Vel tin an. J. G., und Fraancken. TSspraken bij Gelegenheid der algemeene Vergadering, etc Rdam. 1843. s Venn, J. Foreign missions: the measure of their claims ou the church's attention. L. Vereinigung, Ueber die, Lutherischer Christen mit andern Confessionen im Werk der Heidenbekeh- rung. Darmstadt. 1863. Vett. Hamburg's Theilnahme an den Bestrebungen der Heiden Mission. Hamb. 1882. Vetter, C. W. Macht der Finsterniss und Sieg des Lichts. Aus der Geschichte der Evangel. Heiden- Missionen. Neu Ruppiu, 1860. 16mo. 12 Sgr. Vormbaum, R. Missions-Segen. Bielefeld, 1852. 8vo. 15 Sgr. Vos. De Zendings Methode van Jan Compagnie. Utrecht. 1863. Wagner, C. F. SchriftmassigeS Bedenken iiber Ver- handl ungen des neunten Kirchentages betreffend die Heiden- und innere Mission. Frankfurt a. M., 1858. Svo. 4 Sgr. Waldmeier, T. Rept. of work under his charge. Leominster. Wallmann, J. C. Predigt am Missions-Feste in der Domkirche zu Halle. Halle, 1844. 8vo. 2 Sgr.— Die Missionen der Evangelischen Kirche. Quedlinburg, 1848. 12mo. 15 Sgr. — Janicke's Missionare und vier Ursachen iiber das gesammte Missionswesen der Gegenwart. Halle, 1859. 8vo. 12 Sgr. Walsh, W. P., Bp. Christian Missions (Donellau Lectures,1861). Dublin & L.,Hatchard. 1862. 8vo. 6s. Wangemann, F. Pflicht uud Aufgabe der Missions- arbeit des XIX. Jahrhunderts und Widerlegung der gegen sie erhobenen Einwiirfe. Berl., Wohlgemuth, 1881. 8vo. 25 Pf. Warneck, Geo. Komm' und sieh'. Ein Wort der Eiuleituug und Einladung zu den " Lebensbildern au der Heidenmission." Giitersloh, Bertelsmann, 1873.— Die apostolische und der modernen Mission. Giitersl. 1876. — Das Studium der Mission auf der Uni- versitat. Giitersloh, Bertelsmann, 1S77. 8vo. — Das Studium der Mission auf der Universitat. Giitersl. 1877.— Die Christliche Mission. Giitersl. 1879.— Die Belebung des Missionsinnes iu der Heimath. Giitersl. 1879.— Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwi- schen der modernen Mission und Cultur. Giitersl. 1879.— Engl, trans., Edinb., Simpkin. 1883. 8vo. 4s. 6d.— Warum is das XIX. Jahrhundert ein Mis- sionsjahrhundert. Halle, Frieke, 1880. 8vo. 25 Pf . — Die Heidenmission, eine Grossmacht in Knech- tesgestalt. Halle, 1883.— Protestantische Beleuch- tunir der romanischen Angriff e auf die evangelische Heidenmission. Giitersloh, Bertelsmann, 18S4-5. 2 v. 8vo. 6.60 Mk.— Die Mission in der Schule. Giitersl., Bertelsmann, 1887. 8vo. 2 Mk.— Der gegenwartige Romanismus im Lichte seiner Hei denmission. l. Die romische Feindschaft wider die evangelische. Kirche. 2. Das Romische Chris tenthum Halle, Strien, 1888. Svo. 35 Pf.— Kir- chenmissiou Oder freie Mission. Giitersl., Bertels mann, 1,-88. Svo. Warneck, Geo., und Grundemann, R. Mission- stunden. 2 bd.: Die Mission in Bildern aus ihrer Geschichte. 2. Abthl'g. Asien und America. Giitersl., Bertelsmann, 1888. 8vo. 4.20 Mk. Warren, AV. 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N Y., Carters, 1856. 12mo. 25c. Wilmer, M. E. The Missionary doctor. N. Y., Ref. Cli. Bd. 12mo. 80c Winslow, Mil on. Hints on missions to India. N. Y., Dodd, 1856. 12mo. $1.00. Withrow, J. L. Condition of the heathen and their conversion. Sermon. Bost. 1886. Withrow. W. Romance of missions. 60c Work for the Young at Home. Paisley, 18S2. Worte der Klage[und Ermahnung an die Basler Mission, etc. Bern. 1846. Wurkert, AV. B. Missions-Predigt iiber die Offen- barung St. Johannes xxii. 16-21. Camenz, 1854. 8vo. 2 Sgr. Wylie, Mael. Bengal as a field for missions. L., Dalton. 1855. 8vo. 10s. Young, R. The success of Christian missions testi monies to their beneficent results. London (Hod der), 1890. Post 8vo.. pp. 270. 5s. Zahn, F. M. Einige Bedenken gegen die Mission. Bremen, 1665.— Handel und Mission. Giitersl. 1886. — Der iiberseeische Branntweinhandel. Der west- afrikanische Branntweinhandel. Giitersl. 1886. 8vo. 50 Pf. Zezschwitz, C. A. G. v. Wie feiern wirunsere Mis- sionsfeste alsKirchenfeste? Niirnberg, 1862. 8vo. 3 Sgr. Zimmermann, F. R. Die Mission eine Gottes- Kampferin. Dresden, 1850. i-vo. 2 Sgr. Zur Missious-Feier in der Diocese Aalen. Nordlingen, 1854. 8vo. 214 Sgr. Zur Missions-Sache des Prof. Dr. Baumgarten. Lpz. 1859. 8vo 7Ji Sgr. Zychlinski, P. Missions-Bibel [i.e. Texts bearing on mission work] . Giitersl., Bertelsmann, 1884. 8vo. 60 Pf. YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 09863 1659 ' ¦'' ¦