THE

ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPAEDIA.

POPULAR RELIGIOUS WORKS
ET
JOHD5T lE-A-IDJIIE, ID-ID., X.L.ID.

i.
A NEW AND COMPLETE
CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES,
On the basis of Cruden.
Twenty-second Edition. Post 8vo, 5s., cloth.
II.
ANALYTICAL CONCORDANCE TO THE HOLY SCRIPTURES;
Or, The Bible pbesehted under Distinct and Classified Heads ok Topics.
Third Edition. Post 8to, 8s. 6d., cloth.
III.
BIBLICAL CYCLOPAEDIA;
Or, Dictionary op Eastern Antiquities, Geography, Natural History, Sacked Annals
and Biography, Theology and Biblical Literature.
With Maps and Pictorial Illustrations.
Eighth Edition, revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 63., cloth.
IV.
ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPEDIA;
Or, Dictionary op Christian Antiquities and Sects, comprising Architecture, Controversies,
Creeds, Customs, Denominations, Doctrihes, Government, Heresies, History, Liturqies,
Rites, Monastic Orders, and Modern Judaism.
Post 8vo, 8s. 6d., cloth.

THE

ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPEDIA ;

or.,
DICTIONARY

CHRISTIAN ANTIQUITIES AND SECTS,

COMPRISING

ARCHITECTURE, CONTROVERSIES, CREEDS, CUSTOMS, DENOMINATIONS, DOCTRINES,
GOVERNMENT, HERESIES, HISTORY, LITURGIES, RITES, MONASTIC ORDERS,
AND MODERN JUDAISM.

EDITED BY

JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.D.,
PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE TO THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN
CHURCH — SCOTLAND.

"The public now demand of those professionally devoted lo the sciences that they shall not confine the
knowledge they have such favoured opportunities of acquiring to the lecture-room, but shall render it available
to the well-informed of all professions, and to the more intelligent, at least, of the other sex."— Edinburgh Review.

LONDON:
GRIFFIN, BOHN, AND COMPANY,
STATIONERS' HALL COURT.
1862.

" If what is here said shall administer any light to these parts of Church antiquity, I shall be very
glad; if not, I am content it should follow the fate of many much better books, to be thrown aside.
It was never designed to instruct the learned, but only to form a short scheme of the true state of things,
for the benefit of those who have not been much conversant in the antiquities of the Church; at least,
to give some aid and direction to the younger sort, who first apply themselves to the study of those.
ancient times. And if it may but attain this end, I shall think my time and pains have been well
bestowed. "— Cfowe.

PREFACE.

This volume, the fourth I have edited for popular use, completes the series.* The
earlier volumes were meant to give help for the understanding of Scripture, either
by enabling the reader to compare it with itself in single verses or in groups of
passages, or by imparting information on Biblical words, Eastern customs, Geo
graphy and Antiquities. These unpretending volumes have been well received,
and the Editor hopes that to some extent his design has been realized.
The sphere of this volume is different from that of its three predecessors. It refers
not primarily to Biblical, but to Ecclesiastical matters — to Theology as found in the
various sections of the Church — to the peculiar customs and canons of primitive
times — to Fathers and councils — to schisms and heresies — to medissval ceremonies
and institutions — and to the origin and growth of more modern religious parties,
and the characteristic elements of their history and progress. A great body of
curious and useful information will be found in it, gathered from an immense
variety of sources and authorities. Special attention has been given to what are
termed Church Antiquities ; and many articles on points of present and more ancient
Scottish ecclesiastical usage have been inserted for the benefit of English and foreign
readers. Impartial statements have been given of the doctrine and government of
what are usually called Evangelical bodies. The theology of Arminianism and Cal
vinism has been treated historically, and not polemically. Episcopalian, Presby
terian, Independent. Baptist, and Psedo-Baptist, has each stated his own case, and
spoken in his own defence, without hinderance or objection, — a statement of the
argument being generally taken from the works of well-known or representative
men in these various communions. Thus, if Bishop Hinds and Dr. Barrow speak
on behalf of prelates, Coleman and Killen may say a word in defence of ruling
elders, and Davidson may plead for Congregational order ; if Cox maintains the
immersion of believers, Wardlaw and Halley may vindicate the sprinkling of infants.
A considerable number of the articles have appeared already in the Encyclo
paedia Metropolitana, which had, some years ago, become the property of the pre
sent publishers. It is now impossible to assign all those articles to their respective
authors. I must, however, particularize the principal editor of that work and
the Kev. Dr. Hartwell Horne^ — such articles as Bell, Chrisome, Conclave,
Excommunication, Impropriations, Inquisition, Investiture, Mass, Ordina-
,'$ The three previous volumes are : —
New and Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures, on the hasis of Cruden. Twenty-second edition.
Biblical Cyclopaedia; or, Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geography, Natural History, Sacred Annals and
Biography, Theology, and Biblical Literature. Eighth edition.
An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures ; or, the Bible presented under distinct and classified heads
or topics. Third edition.

PREFACE,

tion, &c, being by the former ; and by the latter, such articles as Bible, Bull,
Catechism, Concordance, Creed, Liturgy, Penance, Psalmody-, Sacra
ment, &c, which have also been revised by their venerable author expressly for
this publication. Distinctive terms relating to the Church of England, such as
Archdeacon, Canon, Dean, Prebend, Kector, Tithes, Vicar, &c, are also
from the same great repository. Not a few of the smaller articles from the Metro-
politana have been carefully revised or re-written by the Kev. Edward Cockey,
M.A., late Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, Vicar of Hockley, Essex. But
all the articles and a few others thus acknowledged form less than a third of
the more than 1,500 articles, short and long, of which this volume is composed.
No Cyclopaedia comes into direct competition with this one. Broughton'sl His
torical Dictionary of AU Religions, in two folios (London, 1745), extends to Moham
medanism and classic mythology, but in many places gives an excellent digest off the
more elaborate investigations of Bingham ; Buck's Theological Dictionary is Very
miscellaneous, having many articles on ethics and spiritual experience, with numer
ous biographies ; Hook's Church Dictionary refers of course particularly to |he
Church of England ; Marsden's Dictionary of Christian Churches and Sects fully
and faithfully verifies its title ; the College Lectures of Bates (London, 1845) are
an excellent compend on Christian Antiquities and the Ritual of ihe English Church ;
Eden's Churchman's Theological Dictionary (London, 1859) is, as the name implies,
"intended, though not exclusively, yet more specially, for the use of members of
the Church of England ; " Landon's New General Ecclesiastical Dictionary is far
from being completed (London, 1849-53) ; Gardner's Faiths of the World occupies
ground far beyond the ecclesiastical territory, but is full of information on the
Eastern or Greek Church ; while Herzog's voluminous Real-Encyclopcedie takes in
all branches of theological science. Our Cyclopedia, confining itself to its proper
province, is meant for no party or sect ; but gives information on each of them, so
full as to present an intelligible and trustworthy record of the more important of them,
and at the same time so brief and compact as to keep the volume within reasonable
limits and price. A list is affixed of the more important works which may be con
sulted or used as authorities. In speaking of authorities, it would be unpardonable
not to mention the immense storehouse of Bingham, whose industry was equalled by
his learning and his usual impartiality. We might refer also to Augusti's Denkwvr-
digkeiten, or to the abridgment of it in his Handbuch der Christlichen Arehdologie,
arranged in sections ; and to Siegel's Handbuch der Christlich-kirklichen Alterthumer,
arranged alphabetically, — two excellent Manuals. Riddle's Christian Antiquities
is based upon Augusti, with occasional translations from Siegel; and so is the
American work of Coleman. These works, with the Arehdologie of Rheinwald and
the Lehrbuch of Guericke, with the Histories of Mosheim, Neander, Kurtz, SchafF,
and Gieseler, have furnished, in their respective departments, continuous assistance
or verification. Where corroborative extracts are given, they are given from the
best authorities ; and documents of importance are usually quoted at length.
In a word, the aim has been to combine popularity with exactness, so that
readers of every grade may profitably consult 'the volume. While it will be
seen how corruption crept innocently into the Church, how error was stealthily
introduced, and ambition and infirmity created schisms and shibboleths, it will

PREE'ACE. Vll
also be thankfully noted, that many essential and saving truths were still
preserved; and that while the cross was often overshadowed, it was not en
tirely concealed. Not to speak of anti-scriptural dogmas and ceremonies, which
the spread of sound and free opinion tends ever to counteract, and will ultimately
destroy, may it not be hoped that the various parties of Protestant Christendom,
looking at the truth no longer each from its own isolated point of view, but in
the light of the Divine Word, and looking on one another in the spirit of the
" new commandment,'' may learn to revere one another's integrity of motive, and
love one another, in recognition ofthe Lord's own prayer — " that they also may be
one in us" — so that there may " unto Him be glory in the Church by Christ Jesus
throughout all ages, world without end?"

JOHN EADLE.

13 Lansdowne Crescent, Glasgow,
November, 1861.

A BRIEF LIST OF WORKS BEARING ON THE SUBJECTS
TREATED IN THIS VOLUME.
General Church History.
The Magdeburg Centuriators and the Annates of Baronius in reply ; the Histories of Schroeckh,
Mosheim, Milner, Neander, Gieseler, Guericke, Spanheim, Jortin, Burton, Waddington, Kurtz,
Schaff, Milman, Hardwicke, and Killen — with the Me'moires of Tillemont, the Histoire de
L'Eglise of Basnage, and the Histoire EccUsiastique of Fleury.
Special or Epochal Church History.
The Fathers, — Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Evagrius ; Bede's Ecclesiastical His
tory; Stillingfleet's Origines Brilannicce; Cranmer's Works; Strype's Memorials and Annals;
Foxe's Martyrs ; Booh of Homilies and Canons ; Hooker's Polity; Jewel's Apology ; Carwithen's,
Baxter's, and Bishop Short's respective Histories of the Church of England; Bishop Mant's
History ofthe Church of Ireland; Jeremy Collier's Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain;
L'Estrange, Comber, Nichols, Bishop Sparrow, Wheatly, Procter, Brogden, and Keeling, on the
Common Prayer ; the Works of Bishop Burnet, of Hall, and Usher; Soame's Anglo-Saxon Church
and History of the Reformation ; Bishop Gibson's Codex ; the volumes of Heylin on the one side,
and Brooke and Neal on the other; Thomas Fuller's Church History of Great Britain; Price's
Nonconformity, Lathbuiy's History of the Nonjurors ; Burn's Ecclesiastical Law, &c. Booke of
the Universal Kirke; the Westminster Directory; Histories ofthe Church of Scotland, by Knox,
Crookshanks, Calderwood, Eow, Kirkton, Stevenson, Woodrow, Cook, Hetherington, Lee, and
Cunningham ; Steuart's Colkc&ms; Buchanan's Ten Tears' Conflict; Bryce's Ten Tears; M'Ker-
roVs History ofthe Secession Church; Struthers's History ofthe Relief Church; Reid's History of
the Presbyterian Church in Ireland; Hodge's Constitutional History ofthe Presbyterian Church
in America. Lawson's Episcopal Church in Scotland; and the Works of Sage, Keith, Skinner,
and Spotswood. Stanley's History ofthe Eastern Church ; Neale's History ofthe Eastern Church ;
Pinkerton's Translation of Platon's Present State of the Greek Church; Mouravieff's History of
the Church of Russia. Sarpi's History ofthe Council of Trent; Eanke's History ofthe Popes;
D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation; Massingberd's English Reformation ; Labbeus et Cos-
sartius, Concilia Sacrosancta ; Wilkins's Concilia Magna Britannia; Spelman's Concilia;
Bishop Beveridge's Synodicon; Grier's Epitome of the General Councils; Seckendorfs Com-
menlarius Bistoricus ; Quick's Synodicon ; Baird's Religion in America.

vni list op works on subjects teeated of.
Antiquities and Worship.
Suicer's Thesaurus; Vitringa De Synagoga vetere; Lord King's Enquiry; Durandus, Ra
tionale Divinorum Officiorum— translated by Neale and Webb; Durant, De Ritibus Ecclesias
Catiolicce ; Hospinian, Historia Sacramentaria, Tiguri, 1598, 1602 ; Sanches De Sacramento '
Matrimonial; Dodwell De Origine Episcoporum ; Rabanus Maurus De Institutione Clericorum;
Du Cange, Glossarium; Eenaudot, Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio; Goar, ~E.o%o\oytm, sive
Rituale Groscorum; Daniel, Thesaurus Hymnologicus ; Maskell's Monumenta Riiualia; Clichtoveus,
Ehcidatorium Ecclesiasticum; Palmer's Origines Liturgicce; Rock's Hierurgia; Spelman on
Tithes; Selden on Tithes; Bingham's Origines Ecclesiastical; or, the Antiquities ofthe Christian
Church, London, 1843, in nine volumes ; Augusti, Denkwurdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archa
ologie, 1817-31, twelve vols.; and Handbuch der Christlichen Archaologie; Siegel, Handbuch
der Christlich-kirklichen Alterthiimer, 3 vols., Leipzig, 1836; Coleman's Antiquities ofthe
Christian Church; Rheinwald, Die Kirklkhe Archaologie; Miinter, Sinnbilder und Kunst-
vorstellungen der alien Christen, 1825 ; Didon's Iconographie Chrelienne, Paris, 1843 ; Riddle's
Manual of Christian Antiquities; Bates's College Lectures on Christian Antiquities.} On the
Catholic side, Ritter and Braun's edition of Peluccia's Politia; Mammachius, Originum et Anti-
quitatum Christianarum libri xx., Romse, 1749-55; Grancolas, L' Ancien Sacramentaire, and
his Les Anciennes Liturgies; Johnson's Unbloody Sacrifice; Thorndike's Works; Guericke,
Lehrbuch des Christlich-kirklichen Archaologie; Moreri's Grand Dictionnaire Historique; and
the Dictionaries of Broughton, Hook, Buck, Eden, and Gardner, referred to in the Preface.
Polemical.
In Systematic Theology — the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Musculus; the Systems
of Turretine, Mastricht, Pictet, Quenstedt, Stapfer and Muntinghe ; of Dick, Hill, Wardlaw, and
Woods ; the Dogmatik respectively of Twesten, Ebrard, Martensen, Hofmann ; Hahn, Lehrbuch
der Christlichen Glauben; Hey's Lectures on Divinity ; Calvin's Institutes ; Arminii Opera, trans
lated by Nichols; Limborch, Theologia Christiana; Richard Watson's Theological Institutes;
Whitby on the Five Points. Canons and Catechism of the Council of Trent, translated by Buckley;
Petavius, Opus de Theologicis Dogmatibus; 'LmgscOiS Anglo-Saxon Church; James's Bellum Papale;
Pearson on the Creed; Burnet and Harold Browne on the Thirty-nine Articles; Bower's History
of the Popes ; Mendham's Literary Policy of the Church of Rome and other works ; Mohler's Sym-
bolik, and Nitzsch's Beantwortung, or reply ; Bullarium Romanum ; Bishop Gibson's Preserva
tive against Popery ; A. Butler's Lives of ihe Saints ; C. Butler's Book of the Roman CathoUc
Church and his Vindication ; Edgar's Variations of Popery ; Stavely's Horse Leech ; M'Crie's
Won'ks ; Greenwood's Cathedra Petri. Barclay's Apology ; Clarkson's Portraiture of Quakerism.
Wall's History of Inf ant Baptism ; Carson on Baptism. Oxford Tracts for the Times; Goode's
Rule of Faith. Catechismus Racoviensis ; Priestley's Institutes; Newman's Arians. Hagenbach,
History of Doctrines ; Hall's Harmony of Confessions; Dunlop's Collection; Miiller, Die Symbo-,
lichen Biicher der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche ; Niemeyer, Collectio Confessionum ; Winer,
Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der verschiedenen Kirchen-parteien; Vater, Synchron-
istische Tafeln der Kirchengeschichte ; Swedenborg's True Christian Religion.
Miscellaneous.
Galland's Bibliotheca veterum Patrum, &c. , fourteen vols., folio ; Cave's Historia Literaria ; Lives
of the Fathers ; Primitive Christianity, &c. ; Du Pin's Nouvelle Bibliotheque, forty-three vols.,
octavo, translated in sixteen volumes, folio ; Acta Sanctorum, fifty-five volumes, folio, begun in
1643, and still in progress; D'Achery's Spicilegium; Corpus Juris Canonici; Dugdale's Monas-
ticon Anglicanum ; Fosbrooke's British Monachism; Archdall's Monasticon Hibernicum; Le Quien's
Oriens Chrislianus; Godolphin's Repertorium Canonicum; Ceillier's Histoire Ge'ne'rale des auteurs
Sucre's et Ecclesiastique ; Adam's Religious World; Marsden's Churches.

ECCLESIASTICAL CYCLOPEDIA.

A
A and Q (Alpha and Omega), the first and
the last letters of the Greek alphabet. In Reve
lation i. 8, xxi. 6, xxii. 13, this title is three
times applied by Christ to himself, and is ex
plained as meaning " the beginning and the
ending," "the first and the last." The idea,
under a different form of expression, is found in
the Old Testament. There is no doubt that, in
the Apocalypse, the title asserts the Lord's su
preme divinity, His eternity and immutability,
His creative and all-embracing presence and
energy. Various ingenious comments — some of
them very trifling — have been made upon the
letters ; and, inwoven with the figure of the cross
— alpha being placed on the one side, and omega
on the other — they formed a frequent symbol in
the early Church.
Abata (ajixric), that portion of the interior of
ancient churches within which the people were
not permitted to worship, hence its name JiSits,
or Sparm, or aiuTm scilicet, 0~fiz "inadmissible."
It was separated from the body of the edifice
by wooden rails, called cancelli, whence our
word chancel; and as it was exclusively de
voted to the priesthood, the altar, oblation table,
bishop's throne, and seats for the presbyters were
placed inside its precincts. The jealousy of the
¦ clergy in the time of St. Ambrose to preserve
their prerogative to the exclusive occupation of
the abata, was so intense, that when the
Emperor Theodosius came to present his offer
ing, he was barely suffered to enter that he might
lay it upon the oblation table: the privilege of
communicating within the rails being resolutely
denied even to his imperial majesty. This
stern discipline, however, relaxed a little in
subsequent times; for we find that permission
to communicate at the altar was granted to the
faithful in the sixth century; and the second
council of Tours ordained that the "holy of
holies " should be open both for men and women
to pray and communicate in at the time of the
oblation. With this exception, however, the
original discipline was maintained during the
performance of other religious services  Cole
man, p. 83; Bingham, vol. ii., p. 433. — See
Chancel.

ABB
Abba, Abbat, Abbot, ^x (Father), titles
of honour and authority, first derived from
the literal signification of the word. Abba
occurs three times in the New Testament,
having in each place the explanation itotjij
attached to it. The Jews are said to have
forbidden their slaves to use this title to their
masters, while it was commonly adopted among
themselves as expressive both of honour and
affection. In the Eastern Churches it was given
at a very early date to their bishops, and is
still retained in the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopic
Churches. The title is pre-eminently borne by
the Bishop of Alexandria. Baba, Papa, Pope,
had their origin from the same root. Abbat,
or Abbot, in the fourth and fifth centuries,
was gradually, and at last distinctively, applied
to the heads of those religious orders who
then began to exclude themselves from the
world. The power they exercised within their
own circle was all but absolute, and rarely, if
ever, was it disputed by those who had given
themselves up to their spiritual guidance. They
inflicted corporeal as well as spiritual punish
ments upon offenders — whipping constituting the
former, while the latter comprised suspension
from the privileges of office, exclusion from the
Eucharist, severer devotional exercises, expulsion
from the abbey, and excommunication. They
were endowed with such opulence, and were so
famed for their sanctity, that bishops were fre
quently chosen from their number ; for, in the
first instance, they assumed to themselves no
active share in the government of the Church,
and were considered as the humblest of laymen.
At length the abbot, or archimandrite (chief of the
sheepfold), became the priest of the house ; and,
from the decrees of the councils held in the fifth
century, abbots were evidently at that time adopted
among the clergy, and subject to the bishops and
councils alone. They cultivated learning with
considerable success, and gradually engrossed
within their different establishments its most im
portant documents. In the seventh century they
were made independent of episcopal jurisdiction,
assumed the mitre, and bore the pastoral staff.
Through the whole of the dark ages riches and
B

ABB
immunities were heaped upon them. Kings, and
dukes, and counts, abandoned their thrones and
honours to submit to their sway ; or themselves
assumed the title of abbot, as among the highest
civil distinctions. Hugh Capet, the founder of
the third French dynasty, was styled Hugh
1'Abbe', or Hugh the Abbot. Many offices in the
state were now aspired after by the abbots : we
find them performing the functions of ambas
sadors and ministers, and occasionally adorning
with their talents the highest stations. To their
watchfulness over the manuscripts and other
monuments of antiquity, now almost wholly in
their hands, it is but just to record that the whole
Christian world became indebted. Their ambi
tion, however, and their vices knew no bounds.
Gregory VII., who was eagerly bent upon
humbling the bishops, and .transferring their
privileges to the Roman see, granted them
exemptions both from the temporal authority
of their sovereigns and all other spiritual juris
diction, besides that of Rome, before un
known. They assumed the titles of universal
abbots, abbots-sovereign, abbots-general, &c,
and twenty-six lords-abbots sat in the English
Parliament. Abbe', a kind of secular clergymen, once
popular in France, and amongst whom arose
several men of great literary merit. They
enjoyed certain privileges in the Church, but no
fixed station, being considered as professed
scholars and academics, and principally occupied
in public and private tuition. Some of them
have risen to eminence in the state.
Abbess, the superior of an abbey or convent
of nuns, over whom she exercises nearly the
same rights and authority as the abbots-regular
over their monks. Their powers were formerly
very extensive ; they are said to have assisted
at ecclesiastical councils, and even to have been
sometimes called to the English Wittenagemote,
before the conquest. Some abbesses have had
the right of commissioning a priest to act for
them in those spiritual functions which their sex
would not permit them to exercise ; they have
occasionally confessed their own nuns ; and are
allowed, by St. Basil, always to be present when
tlie priest shall confess them. In the Russian
Church, the abbess is called Hegumina. A secular
priest performs divine service in the chapel of
the house, but the nuns read the lessons and sing
the hymns. " The nunneries in Russia, at pre
sent," says Mr. Pinkerton, " are properly nothing
but asylums for aged and unfortunate females,
who thus spend the remainder of their days in
retirement, most of them usefully employed;
and it were altogether inconsistent with truth
and justice to consider them as belonging to
those retreats of licentiousness and vice, of which
we have so many shocking accounts in ecclesi-
i astical history." — Present State of tlie Greek
Church. — See Monachism.
Abbey, sometimes written Abbatbey or

ABC
Abbacy, a religious house, governed by a supe
rior, under the title of abbot or abbess. The
jurisdiction of abbeys was first confined to the
immediate lands and buildings in possession of the
house. As these establishments increased in im
portance, and were brought into the neighbour.
hood of cities and populous towns, they ex
ercised extensive powers over their respective
neighbourhoods, and in some cases issued coins,
and became courts of criminal justice. In
other instances they gave birth to towns and
cities. Abbeys, priories, and monasteries, differ
principally in the extent of their particular powers
and jurisdiction. All these establishments, in
the Greek Church, follow the rule of St. Basil.
The Russian abbeys and nunneries have been an
object of peculiar attention in the policy of that
government since the time of Peter the Great,
who brought the whole discipline of them under
such peculiar restrictions as have effectually
remedied their grosser inconveniences. The rage
for entering into these retreats no longer exists ;
and as all the higher ranks of the Russian clergy
are taken from amongst them, it is a matter of
just anxiety with the government that such men
only should be suffered to enter the order as may
afterwards prove worthy of their important desig
nation. Both the male and female establishments
are divided into three classes : Stauropegia, Cajno-
bia, and Laura. The first two are directly under
the government of the holy synod, and the last
under that of the archbishops and bishops of their
respective dioceses. The abbeys in England,
before the time of the Reformation, were numer
ous and wealthy, and enjoyed many important
privileges. Their lands were valued, at the time
of their confiscation by Henry VIII., at the
immense sum of £2,850,000, an enormous sum,
by our present currency. — See Monastery.
Abbot is also a title given to bishops whose
sees were formerly abbeys ; and sometimes to the
superiors or generals of some congregations of
regular canons, as that of St. Genevieve at Palis,
and of Montreal in Sicily. It was likewise
usual, about the time of Charlemagne, for several
lords to assume the title of count-abbots, abba-
commites, as superintendents of certain abbeys.
In the Evangelical Church of Germany the
title is still sometimes given to such clergy as
possess the revenues of former abbeys.
Abbots in Commcudnni, seculars who
have received tonsure, but are obliged by their
bulls to take orders when of proper age.
Abbots-Regular, those who take the vow,
and wear the habit of their order.
Abbreviators, secretaries connected with the
court of Rome, first appointed about the early
part of the fourteenth century, to record bulls
and other papal ordinances. The office has been
held by some eminent men.
Abcedary, Abcedarian, or Abbeceda-
rinn.A, B, C, D, E, &c, a term applied to those
compositions whose parts are disposed in alpha-

ABE
betical order, as some chapters of the book of
Lamentations, and some Psalms, as xxv., xxxiv.,
cxix., &e. This is the most obvious indication
of verse in the Hebrew poetical books, and was
no doubt intended for the assistance of the
memory. St. Augustine, it is1 said, composed a
psalm against the Donatists, for the special use of
the laity, which he divided into as many parts as
there are letters in the alphabet, in imitation of
the 119th Psalm. The same term is also applied
to a teacher of the rudiments of learning.
Abelians, Abeolitcs, or Abclonians, here
tics who appeared about the reign of Arcadius,
in the diocese of Hippo, in Africa, and disappeared
in the reign of Theodosius. This sect pretended
that Abel was married, but died without having
known his wife. Their peculiarity was derived
from this doctrine, which they carried into prac
tice, by enjoining men and women, upon entering
into the matrimonial state, to entire continence.
They, moreover, adopted a boy and a girl, who
were to inherit their possessions, and to marry
upon the same obligation and profession.
Abeyance, a term denoting that which is in
expectancy — thus, if an incumbent die, the fee
of houses and lands belonging to the rectory is
in abeyance till a successor be formally in
ducted. Abjuration, a form by which in ancient
times, in England, a criminal who had taken
refuge in a church might save his life by abjuring
the realm, or taking an oath to leave or renounce
his country for ever. Also a form by which
Popery is renounced, and formal admission to the
Protestant Church obtained. Oath of abjuration,
in a civil sense, signifies the oath by which a per
son obliges himself to acknowledge no right in
the Pretender to the throne  See Oath.
Ablution, a religious ceremony of ancient
and modern times, which consisted in certain
purifications of men or things, accompanied with
washing them either wholly or partially. The
Egyptians appear to have practised it from the
earliest antiquity ; the Greeks adopted it under
various forms ; and the Romans are said to have
been scrupulous in their use of it before they per
formed a sacrifice. It was more or less partial
according to the occasion; but at the entrance
of the Roman temples convenient vessels were
placed for this sacred washing. Several cere
monies of the Mosaic law may be called ablu
tions; and the early Christians appear to have
practised it before partaking of the communion;
in imitation of whom Roman Catholics still occa
sionally practise it before and after mass. The
Syrians, Copts, &c, have their annual solemn
washings; the Turks, their greater and lesser
ablutions. All the Oriental religions abound with
this ceremony, which Mahomet very naturally
adopted into his code of observances.
Ablution, in the Romish Church, is also used
for a sup of wine and water, anciently taken after
the host, to wash it down. Sometimes it signi-

ABS
fies the water used to wash the hands of the
priest who consecrated it.
Abracadabra and Abraxas, words found
inscribed on some of the amulets supposed to
have been used by the Basilidians. — See Ba-
silidians. Abrahamitcs, or Abrahamians. — See
Pauliciaxs. — A sect who derived their ap
pellation from Abraham, a native of Antioch,
or, as the Arabs called him, Ibrahim. The Em
peror Theophilus, who united in his own character
the apparent zeal of a Christian with the fury of
a persecutor, exterminated the Abrahamites, on
a vague charge of idolatry, in the ninth century.
— A more modern sect of this name sprang up in
Bohemia under the Act of Toleration, published
by the Emperor Joseph II., in 1782. They re
jected all distinctive Christian doctrine, acknow
ledging one God, and receiving nothing of Scrip
ture but the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer.
They derived their name from their professing to
hold the faith of Abraham before he was circum
cised. Severe means were employed against
them; they were draughted into the army, and
sent to the borders of the empire. Few of them,
however, recanted ; but the sect soon died out.
Absolution, in canon law, a juridical act,
by which the priest, or minister, remits the sins
of such as are penitent. — This is supposed to be
dope by the Roman Catholic priests more directly
and immediately, by virtue of their holy office ;
and by the clergy of the Established Church of
England, by " a power and authority given to
Christ's ministers to declare and pronounce for
giveness " to the truly penitent. In the Greek
Church absolution is deprecatory, as she lays
no claim to the infallible powers of the Roman
hierarchy. Baptism was known among the
ancients as ihe sacrament of absolution, or in
dulgence, a general pardon of sins being conveyed
to every true disciple at his entrance with the
" mystical body of Christ by the laver of regenera
tion." In like manner the Eucharist was esteemed
an absolving ordinance : " When we drink the
blood of the Lord," says St. Cyprian, "our
sorrowful and heavy heart, which before was
pressed with the anguish of our sins, is now ab
solved or set at liberty by the joyfulness of the
Divine indulgence or pardon." But the most
distinguishing feature of the indulgence granted
through a participation of the Eucharist was
this — that "it resolved the bonds of excom
munication, without any other formality or cere
mony." It was usually granted during Passion
week (hebdomas indulgenlice). Absolution was
also pronounced during the ministration of the
Word; it was administered in a precatory man
ner, accompanied by the imposition of hands;
and, finally, it was judicially exercised when
penitents, after their performance ofthe canonical
penance imposed upon them for their sins, were
publicly and solemnly received at the altar,
where, pardon being pronounced, they were de-

3

ABS
clared free to the full communion of the church.
The first and second of these absolving pro
cesses were called " Sacramental Absolution ;"
the third, "Declaratory Absolution;" the.fourth,
"Frecatory Absolution;" andthefifth, "Judicial
Absolution." — See Indulgence.
The form that Tetzel used in vending the
indulgences which first awoke the indignation
and resistance of Luther has been often quoted,
but is said by Catholics to be unauthentic.
They have thus stated their opinions upon this
subject : " Every Catholic is obliged to believe
that when a sinner repenteth him of his sins
from the bottom of his heart, and acknowledgeth
his transgression to God and his ministers — the
dispensers of the mysteries of Christ — resolving
to turn from his evil ways, and bring forth fruits
worthy of penance, there is then, and not other
wise, an authority left by Christ to absolve such
a penitent sinner from his sins ; which authority
Christ gave to his apostles and their successors,
the bishops and priests of the Catholic Church,
in these words, 'Receive ye the Holy Ghost;
whose sins ye shall forgive, they are forgiven unto
them, and whose sins ye retain, they are retained.' "
Penitents in the Church of Rome coming for
public absolution, are enjoined to appear at the
church door on the day and at the hour ap
pointed, kneeling, each bearing an unlighted taper
in his hand. Notice being given to the congre
gation by the officiating clergyman that he is
about to receive the penitents to the consolations
of the church, he falls prostrate before the altar,
and utters some prayers for the occasion, to which
the people respond, according to the prescribed
form. The priest having risen, advances from
the altar to the church door, where he exhorts
the penitents, and then taking them by the hand,
leads them into the midst of the congregation.
Absolution is then pronounced. In the admis
sion of one who had been excommunicated the
following ceremonies are observed: — The priest
sits down before him at the church door and
repeats the Miserere — the penitent being at the
time prostrate, the congregation kneeling, and
the clergy standing. At the commencement of
each verse of the Miserere, the priest strikes the
penitent, who is stripped to his shirt as far as his
waist, with a short stick or whip made of cords.
At the conclusion of the Miserere the penitent
is absolved in the usual way. Penitent women
must be veiled during the ceremony which restores
them to the bosom of the church. After absolu
tion is pronounced, the following prayer is read : —
" The passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, the
merits of the blessed Virgin and all the saints,
and all the good that thou hast done, and the
evil that thou hast suffered, be to thee for the
remission of sins, the increase of grace, and the
reward of eternal life."
The form of absolution in the Book of Com
mon Prayer has given rise to great controversy
respecting "the power and authority" claimed

ABS
therein fer the ministers of the Anglican Church.
By not a few of the clergy and laity the meaning
of the term is confined to an official declaration
of God's forgiveness of sin. There are many,
however, who plead for a stronger sense. Wheat-
ly, in his observations on the seasonable use
of the form of absolution in the Morning and
Evening Prayer, takes the higher ground, by
contending " that since the priest has the
ministry of reconciliation committed to him
by God, and hath power and commandment to
declare and pronounce to his people, being peni
tent, the absolution and remission of their sins,
therefore, when he does declare and pronounce
such absolution, those in the congregation that
truly repent and unfeignedly believe, have their
pardon conveyed and sealed to them at that very
instant through his ministration." In reply to Dr.
Bennett, who maintained that the form was only
declaratory, and that a mere deacon had as much
authority to pronounce the form of absolution as
to preach a sermon, Wheatly adds: "This form
is expressly called by the Rubric, the Absolution,
or Remission of Sins. It is not called a Declara
tion of Absolution, as one would think it should
have been, if it had been designed for no more."
With reference to the form of indicative absolution
in the Service for the Sick— *" I absolve thee" —
it is held by many that remission of church cen
sures and forgiveness of offences against the
clergy and members of the church are all that is
intended, for proof of which the collect imme
diately following is quoted, in which the penitent
is represented as earnestly desiring God's pardon
and forgiveness, an idea utterly inconsistent with
the notion that his offences against God had just
been remitted. On this view nearly all the
standard writers on the Liturgy and Articles of
the English Church are agreed, the differences
that exist being generally of a verbal character —
apparent rather than real. We conclude in the
words of Bishop Burnet : — " Upon a repentance
sincerely begun and honestly pursued, we do in
general, as the heralds of God's mercy and the
ministers of his Gospel, pronounce to his people
daily the offers that are made us 'of mercy and
pardon in Christ Jesus. We do, also, as we are
a body that may be offended with the sins of
others, forgive the scandals committed against
the church ; and that such as we think die in a
state of repentance, may die in the full peace
of the church, we join both absolutions in one : in
the last office, likewise praying to our Saviour
that he would forgive them ; and then we, as the
officers of the church, authorized for that end, do
forgive all the offences and scandals committed
by them against the whole body. This is our
doctrine." Abstinence, a term nearly synonymous
with fasting, in the sense in which fasting
is most commonly used. The Church of Eng
land makes no distinction between them, but
the Church of Rome distinguishes between days

ABS
of fasting and days of abstinence. — See Fast
ing. If we take this term to express the abstain
ing from particular kinds of food or refreshment,
we may observe that the law of Moses contains
several precepts on the subject ; and, moreover,
that some of the primitive Christians denied
themselves the use of particular meats, though
others regarded this abstinence with contempt.
Asceticism began early in the Church, and was
severely reprobated by the apostle of the Gen
tiles, as in Coloss. ii. (see Rom. xiv.) The council
at Jerusalem, which was held by the apostles,
enjoined the Christian converts from among
the Gentiles to abstain from meats strangled,
and from blood (see Acts xv.) Some contend
for the perpetual obligation of this injunction;
whereas the majority of Christians maintain that
it was only of temporary duration. The common
argument against its perpetuity runs thus : —
Though blood and things strangled could have no
moral evil in them, they were forbidden to the
Gentile converts, because their brethren con
verted from the Jewish faith still felt so strong a
repugnance to their use that they could not con
verse with any who used them. This reason
having now ceased, the obligation to abstinence
ceases with it. It must, however, be observed,
that the Christian churches generally, for several
centuries, abstained from blood as an article of
food; but in the time of St. Augustine much laxity
prevailed, especially in the African Church, on
this subject, the opinion then becoming popular
that the injunction, being one of expediency, wa3
only of a temporary nature.
Abstinents or Abstinentes, a sect of
heretics, of the third century, which originated in
France and Spain. They opposed marriage, and
hence have been called Continentes, and con
demned the use of flesh and wine. In what
doctrinal error their heresy consisted it is diffi
cult to ascertain.
Abuna, the title given by the Christian
Arabs to the archbishop or metropolitan of
Abyssinia, who is rarely, if ever, a native of that
country. The title denotes our Father, and is
variously written. The abuna, who resides at
Cairo, is selected by the Patriarch of Alexandria,
whose appreciation of the person best fitted for
the office is generally influenced by the douceur
he may be enabled to give. After his election he
is held responsible by the Patriarch of Alexandria
for the due administration of the duties pertain
ing to his office. He is chosen usually from the
Coptic priests, between whom and the Abyssinians
-& friendly intercourse is maintained at Cairo.
Abusive, in ecclesiastical law, is applied
to a permutation of benefices without the con
sent of the bishop, which is consequently null.
Abyssinian Cburcb, that section of the
Christian Church established in Abyssinia, the
country denominated by the ancients Ethiopia.
The conversion of the Abyssinians to the
Christian faith is ascribed to Frumentius, who

ABT
visited that country about the year 333. They
are described as a branch of the Copts or
Jacobites, with whom they agree in admitting
but one nature in Jesus Christ, and rejecting the
council of Chalcedon ; on which account they are
also called Eutychians and Monophi'sites. The
term Copt properly applies only to those Chris
tians who live in Egypt, Nubia, and the countries
adjacent. The Abyssinian Church is governed
by a bishop or metropolitan, styled abuna, who is
appointed by the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria,
residing at Cairo. The abuna being a foreigner,
and generally ignorant of the language and
manners of the country, is not permitted to
meddle with the affairs of the government : his
principal employment is the ordination of priests,
deacons, and monks. Next in dignity is the
komos, or hegumenos, a kind of arch-presbyter,
who has the inferior priests and deacons, with
the secular affairs of the parish, under his inspec
tion. The deacons occupy the lowest rank of
priesthood. They have canons also, and monks ;
the former of whom marry ; the latter, at theit
admission, vow celibacy, but with a reservation,
making a promise aloud before their superior to
keep chastity, but adding, in a low voice or
whisper, "as you keep it." The debtarabs, a
set of chanters who assist in the musical parts of
the service, are in general estimation even more
so than the komos, though the latter be superior
in rank. The emperor alone takes cognizance
of all ecclesiastical causes, except a few smaller
ones reserved to the judges; and confers all
benefices, except that of abuna.
The monks are divided into two classes — those
of Debra Libanos, and those of St. Eustathius.
They have not, properly speaking, any convents,
but inhabit separate houses erected round their
church. Their ignorance is extreme. The superior
of the monks of Mahebar Selasse", in the north
west part of Abyssinia, is the itchegueV who is
of greater consequence in turbulent times than
the abuna. He is ordained by two chief priests
holding a white eloth or veil over his head, and
a third repeating a prayer ; after which they all
lay their hands on his head, and join together in
siDging psalms. The churches are very numer
ous, owing to the prevalence of an opinion among
the great, that whoever leaves a fund to build a
church, or has erected one during his life, makes
a sufficient atonement for all his sins. They
are usually erected on eminences in the vicinity
of running water, for the purpose of affording
facilities to the purifications and ablutions
which they practise according to the Levitical
law. The churches are surrounded with rows
of Virginia cedar, and being circular, with
conical summits and thatched roofs, and encom
passed on the outside with pillars of cedar, to
which the roof, projecting eight feet beyond the
wall, is fixed, furnish an agreeable walk in the
hot or rainy season, and diversify the scenery.
The internal partition and arrangement of the

'6

ACA
church is that prescribed by the Mosaic law;
and many of the ceremonies and observances in
their mode of worship are obviously derived from
the ceremonial rites of the Jewish religion.
The religion of Abyssinia is, in reality, a strange
compound of Judaism, Christianity, and super
stition. Judaism appears to predominate. They
practise circumcision, and extend it to both
sexes. They observe both Saturday and Sunday
as Sabbaths ; they eat no meats prohibited by
the law of Moses ; women are obliged to the
legal purifications ; and brothers marry their
brothers' wives. Their festivals and saints are
numberless. As they celebrate the epiphany
with peculiar festivity, in commemoration of
Christ's baptism, and sport in ponds and rivers,
some have supposed they undergo baptism every
year.» One of their saints' days is consecrated
to Balaam's ass ; another to Pilate and his wife,
because Pilate washed his hands before he pro
nounced sentence on Christ, and his wife de
sired him to have nothing to do with the blood
of that just person. They have four seasons of
Lent : the great Lent commences ten days earlier
than in England, and is observed with so much
severity that many abstain even from fish, be
cause St. Paul says there is one kind of flesh of
men, and another of fishes. They at least equal
the Church of Rome in miracles and legends of
saints, which occasioned no inconsiderable em
barrassment to the Jesuits, whom they presented
with such accounts of miracles wrought by their
saints, in proof of their religion, and those so
well circumstantiated and attested that the mis
sionaries thought themselves obliged to deny
miracles to be any evidence of the truth of a reli
gion. Prayers for the dead are common, and in
vocations of saints and angels ; and such is their
veneration for the Virgin that they charged the
Jesuits with deficiency in this respect. While
images in painting decorate their churches,
and excite their reverential regard, they at the
same time abhor all images in relievo, except
the cross. They maintain that the soul of man
is not created, because, say they, God finished
all his works on the sixth day. They admit the
apocryphal books, and the canons of the apostles,
as well as the apostolical constitutions, to be
genuine; but Solomon's Song they consider
merely as a love poem in honour of Pharaoh's
daughter. It is uncertain whether they believe
in the doctrine of transubstantiation. Ludolph
and Bruce differ on this question ; but the latter
affirms that they are now, with regard to doc
trine, as great heretics, and, with respect to
morals, as corrupt as the Jesuits have represented
them. Attempts have been recently made to
found evangelical missions in Abyssynia.
Adrian... the followers of Acacius, Bishop
of Csesarea, who flourished in the fourth century,
and was at one time an associate of Aetius, but
afterwards deserted him, and subscribed the
Kicean doctrine. — See Aetians.

6

ACC
Academy  The name was originally that of
a garden or grove where Plato taught at Athens.
The word usually signifies now a society of
learned men, associated for the advancement 'of
science and art, and these are numerous in the
various countries of Europe. The term is also
applied to the literary and theological seminaries
of the English dissenters, such as those for the
Baptists at Bristol and Bradford, and those for
Independents at Rotherham and Cheshunt, and
formerly at Homerton and Highbury. Some cf
the more recent academies, as at St. John's
Wood, London ; Springhill, Birmingham ; Regent
Park, London ; and the one at Manchester, take
the more ambitious name of colleges. The plan
of educating students for the ministry, in the
majority of these seminaries, is vastly more ex
pensive than in Scotland.
Acatholici (not Catholic), a term em
ployed in Roman Catholic countries to denote
Protestant and other professing Christians who
are not members ofthe so-called Catholic Church.
Acceptants. — The term arose from the famous
Jansenist controversy and the Bull Unigeni-
tus of Clement XL, 1713, many in France op
posing it, and therefore named appellants, while
others receiving it were naturally called accept
ants. This division of parties subsisted till the
middle of last century.
Acclamation. — It was a common custom in
the fourth century to testify esteem for the
preacher, admiration of his eloquence, or appro
bation of his doctrine by public applause and
acclamations in the church. We are told that
they sometimes applauded Chrysostom's sermons
by tossing their thin garments, waving their
plumes or their handkerchiefs, and crying out —
" Thou art the thirteenth apostle ; " " thou art
worthy of the priesthood," &c. Jerome alludes
in one of his letters to a sermon of his on the
resurrection, which caused Vigilantius to start up,
clapping his hands and stamping with his feet,
and shouting, "Orthodox." Such a custom,
derived originally from the theatres, was soon
found productive of evil effects in the preachers
as well as their hearers; and Chrysostom fre
quently expressed his dislike to it.
Accommodation, the analogical applica
tion of one thing to another. In theology, the term
is used to signify the application of Scripture to
something resembling or analogous to its original
purport. A prophecy is said to be fulfilled pro
perly when what is foretold comes to pass ; or by
way of accommodation, when anything occurs to
a place or people similar to what at some pre
vious period took place with regard to another.
There is considerable difficulty in the proper
application of this mode of interpreting Scripture ;
because it is obvious that if a passage relating
indubitably to one event may be arbitrarily
applied to another, merely because of some sup
posed or traceable resemblance, ingenious persons
who have no general comprehension of truth, nur

ACC
any regard to its interests, may employ as many
modes of interpretation as they have particular
and subordinate purposes to serve. But an
apostle may use a passage of the Old Testament
for the mere sake of illustration, and without
adding the formula, " that it might be fulfilled."
Thus, in Rom. x. 18, Paul quotes Ps. xix. 4,
as illustrating the diffusion of the Gospel, but
without saying that it was a fulfilled prediction.
This is very different from the kind of accommo
dation introduced by Semler and the earlier Ger
man rationalists, and applied not only to the in
terpretation of prophecy, but to the teachings, of
Christ and his apostles with regard to angels or
devils, or the atonement itself. On their theory,
the statements avowing those doctrines are only
convenient falsehoods, suited to the character and
prejudices of the age. On such a hypothesis,
where shall we find truth in Scripture, "and what
shall we say to the veracity of those who wrote
it ? For example, Jesus speaks of evil spirits
dwelling in some ; nay, speaks to tbe demon, and
charges him to " come out." What, then, shall
we say to his honesty, if he did not believe in the
reality of demoniacal possession, but only spoke
to humour the errors and ignorance of his con
temporaries? Accomplishment, in theology, is a term
u«ed in speaking of events predicted by the
Jewish prophets in the Old Testament, and ful
filled under the New. Those prophecies in which
the Jews find an accomplishment about the period
when they were first uttered, are often called
Jewish; those which Christians apply to Christ
or his dispensation, derive a distinctive epithet
from this circumstance. Unaccomplished pro
phecy is ever a difficult subject of study.
Accursed. — See Anathema.
Acepbali, or Accphalitse (from i-xifaXt;,
headless), the title of the stricter Monophysites
in the fifth century, who had been deprived of
their chief, Mongus, by his submission to the
council of Chalcedon. It seems that the name
had been before applied to the persons who re
fused to follow either John of Antioch or St.
Cyril, in a dispute that happened in the council
of Ephesus in 431. This epithet was also given
to those bishops who were exempt from the
jurisdiction and discipline of their patriarch.
In the reign of King Henry I. the levellers
received this distinctive appellation because they
were not believed to possess even a tenement to
entitle them to have the right of acknowledging
a superior lord. In our ancient law books it is
used for persons who held nothing in fee.
Achaiae Fresbyteri, or the Presbyters of
Achaia, were those who were present at the
martyrdom of St. Andrew the apostle, a.d. 59,
and are said to have written an epistle in relation
to it. Bellarmin and several other eminent
writers in the Church of Borne allow it to be
genuine ; while Du Pm, with many others, with
good reason reject it.

ACT
Achiropcrtos, the ancient name of certain
miraculous pictures of Christ and (he Virgin,
supposed to have been made without hands. The
most celebrated of these is the picture of Christ,
in the church of St. John de Lateran at Rome,
said to have been begun by St. Luke, but finished
by angels. The name is a Greek compound.
Acffimctre (a xoipiZv, watchers), the name
of an order of monks in the fifth century, who
performed a sort of chanting service night and
day, dividing themselves into three classes,
so that one might succeed another at a stated
hour, and thus their devotions might be sus
tained without any intromission. In vindication
of their practice, they appealed to the apostolic
precept, which requires us to "pray without
ceasing." There is a kind of acoemeta? now sub
sisting in the Romish Church.
Acoluthi,- an order of ecclesiastics in the
early Latin Church,whose office was in some respect
subordinate to that of the subdeacon. The arch
deacon, at their ordination, put into their hands
a candlestick with a taper — hence called accen-
sores — to intimate that they were appointed to
light the candles of the church, and an empty
pitcher, to denote that they were to furnish wine
for the sacramental festival. Imposition of hands
was not deemed necessary in the public appoint
ment of the acoluthi.
Act, in the universities, a thesis publicly
maintained by a candidate for a degree, or to
show a student's proficiency. At Oxford, the
time when masters or doctors complete their
degrees is also called the "act," which is held
with great solemnity. At Cambridge, they call
it the "commencement."
"Act" is also a collegiate appellation for the
person who proposes questions that are the
subjects of disputation in the exercises of the
university schools.
Act, a common name for certain statutes in
connection with the religious history of this
country. Among the most famous are: —
Act of Uniformity, passed in the reign'Of Queen
Elizabeth, establishing Protestantism as the na
tional religion of England, and binding all her sub
jects to the order and form prescribed in the Book
of Common Prayer. Also, a statute of the reign,
of Charles IL, 1662, enjoining all ministers in
England to declare their unfeigned assent and
consent to the entire Book of Common Prayer.
The royal assent was given to this act on the
19th May, and on Bartholomew's Day, August
24, the same year, more than two thousand
ministers were ejected from their livings, be
cause they conscientiously refused to subscribe.
Act, Conventicle, passed in 1664. It enacted
that only five persons above- sixteen years of age,
besides the family, were to meet for worship.
Act, Corporation, a statute of 13 Charles II.,
chap, i., in which it is enacted, "That no person
shall be chosen into any office of magistracy, or
other employment relating to corporations, who

ACT
9hall not, within one year next before such elec
tions, have taken the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper, according to the rites of the Church of
England." This act, which so often degraded the
most solemn service of Christianity into a step
ping-stone for civil office, has been repealed.
Act, Five-Mile, an act passed in 1665, which
imposed an oath on all nonconformists, binding
them to attempt no alteration in either Church or
State ; and provided that all ministers who did
not take it should neither live in, nor come
within, five miles of any borough, city, &c.
Act, Rescessory. — See Resoessoby Act.
Act, Test, a statute, 25 Charles II. cap. ii.,
which was enacted that every person who should
be admitted into office or trust under his Majesty,
should receive the sacrament of the Lord's Sup
per, according to the usage of the Church of
England, within three months after his ad
mittance into such office, under very severe
penalties. Act of Toleration, William and Mary, sect, i.,
chap. 18, " Passed for exempting their Majesties'
Protestant subjects dissenting from the Church
of England from the penalties of certain laws."
The Toleration Act, Lord Macaulay says, " ap
proaches very near to the idea of a great English
law. To a jurist, versed in the theory of legis
lation, but not intimately acquainted with the
temper of the sects and -parties into which the
nation was divided at the time of the Revolution,
that act would seem to be a mere chaos of ab
surdities and contradictions. It will not bear to
be tried by sound general principles. Nay, it
will not bear to be tried by any principle, sound
or unsound. The sound principle undoubtedly
is, that mere theological error ought not to be
punished by the civil magistrate. This principle
the Toleration Act not only does not recognize,
but positively disclaims. Not a single one of
the cruel laws enacted against nonconformists by
the Tudors or the Stuarts is repealed. Persecu
tion continues to be the general rule — tolera
tion is the exception. Nor is this all. The
freedom which is given to conscience is given in
the most capricious manner. A Quaker, by
making a declaration of faith in general terms,
obtains the full benefit of the act, without sign
ing one ofthe Thirty-nine Articles; an Indepen
dent minister, who is perfectly willing to make
the declaration required from the Quaker, but
who has doubts about six or seven of the arti
cles, remains still subject to the general laws.
Howe is liable to punishment if he preaches be
fore he has solemnly declared his assent to the
Anglican doctrine touching the Eucharist : Penn,
who altogether rejects the Eucharist, is at per
fect liberty to preach, without making any de
claration whatever ou the subject."
Act of Faith (Auto- da F6), a phrase ap
plied to a transaction which took place (usually
at some great festival, and on a Sunday) when a
number uf prisoners in the inquisition, having 8

ACT
been convicted of the alleged crime of heresy, were
brought forth from their dungeons to undergo a
public execution ; and when also such as 'had
been found innocent were absolved.
The details which writers on tbe inquisition
have given us of this tragical service are most
painful ; but they describe a custom which has
been now for some years only known by descrip
tion, and which we trust may never be revived.
The unhappy victims of the auto da fe, they
tell us, are treated in the following manner : — Oh
the day appointed for their execution, they are
brought into the great hall of the inquisition,
and being clothed in certain habits peculiar to
the occasion, they are conducted in procession
by Dominican friars. They have black coats
without sleeves, and walk barefooted, holding a
wax candle : the penitents who follow wear
black cloaks, painted all over with representa
tions of dimes with their points downwards, the
indication of their escaping the terrible punish
ment which awaits the relapsed, who come next
in succession, whose painted flames point up
wards. The direct and avowed opponents of the
Catholic faith, besides this latter sign of their
doom, are covered with figures of dogs, serpents,
and devils, painted with their picture upon their
breast. A Jesuit is placed on either side of the
individuals destined to be burnt, who are urging
them, by reiterated appeals, to recant and abjure
their heresies. A troop of familiars follow on
horseback, then the inquisitors on mules, with
other officers ; the inquisitor-general sitting on a
white horse, led by two attendants in black
hats and green hatbands, closing the procession.
Having arrived at the scaffold, a sermon is
delivered, replete with invectives against the
victims of inquisitorial malignity, and abun
dantly encomiastic with regard to the institution,
when a priest recapitulates from a desk the sen
tences of those who are condemned to suffer
death, and delivers them over to the magistrate,
with the farcical request that their blood may
not be touched, nor their lives endangered.
They are immediately put in chains, and hurried
to the gaol, whence they are soon taken before
the civil judge, who inquires, "in what religion
they mean to die ?" Such as return for answer
(hat thev die in the communion of the Romish
Church, are first strangled, and afterwards burnt
to ashes. All others are burnt alive ; and each
class of delinquents is instantly conducted to the
place of execution. When those who persist in
their heresy are fastened to the stake, the Jesuits
load them with officious admonitions, and at
length, in parting, declare that they leave them
to the devil, who is at their elbow, to receive
their souls and carry them into the flames of
hell. A shout is instantly uttered by the in
fatuated populace, who exclaim, " Let the dogs'
beards be made," which consists in putting flam
ing furze to the faces of the victims, who are,
from the position in which they sit, slowly roasted

ACT
to death. This spectacle is beheld by both sexes
and all ages, with the most barbarous demon
strations of delight. — See Inquisition.
Action Sermon, the Scottish designation,
time out of mind, for the sermon preached before
the celebration of the Lord's Supper, and so
named, in all probability, from the action or
ceremonial for which it is the accustomed pre
paration. Acts of the Apostles (see Biblical Cy-
elopadia), one of the canonical books of the
New Testament. It was the general usage in the
ancient churches to read in this book at all the
public services from Easter to Pentecost. The
reason, as stated by Chrysostom, was that the
miracles recorded therein being evidences of the
fact of Christ's resurrection, the church appointed
them to be publicly read immediately after the
commemoration of that glorious event, in order
to give men the proofs of the holy mystery which
was tbe completion of their redemption. This
rule was observed in the African, Egyptian, Gal-
lican, Spanish, and other churches.
Acts of the Apostles — Spurious. Such as the
Acts of Peter and Paul ; Acts of Paul and Thecla ;
Acts of Paul and Seneca, or a correspondence be
tween the apostle and the Roman philosopher ;
Acts of Philip, of Andrew, Thomas, Barnabas,
&c. A handsome edition in octavo has been pub
lished by Tischendorf, Leipzig, 1851.
Acts of the Martyrs or Saints — "A eta Martyrum
aut Sanctorum" — Records of the Lives of Saints and
Martyrs. — These began to be collected very early,
and were read on special occasions, such as com
memorative festivals. Many martyrologies seem
to have been in early circulation — sometimes
mere catalogues of names and dates (kalendaria),
and, by and by, also full biographical sketches.
Separate congregations told to one another in
detail the heroism and suffering of their mem
bers. Amongst the various attempts made to
collect such fragments, or confirm other accounts,
that known by the name of Bolland, is the most
famous. Bolland, aided by the Jesuits of Ant
werp, collected immense materials from all quar
ters. In 1773 the order was suppressed, when
the work, in forty-nine large folio volumes, had
been brought down to the 7th October. The
French Revolution created further interruption;
but the work was again resumed, and the seventh
volume for October, making the fifty-fifth of
the entire work, was published at Brussels in
1845. The huge enterprise is still in progress,
and the ninth volume for the same month was
published during the currency of the present
year. These volumes are an immense repertory,
often full of legends and absurdity, yet often honest
and able in sifting documentary evidence. So
many writers having been employed in succes
sion for so long a period, tbe Bollandist tomes
are by no means of equal merit. The work will
stretch to seventy folio volumes.
Actual Sin is opposed in meaning to Original

ADI
Sin; the latter being considered as derived from
Adam by direct inheritance, the other as perpe
trated by one arrived at sufficient age. — See
Original Sin.
Adamites, or Adamians, heretics of the
second century, who imitated Adam's nudity,
and returned, as they imagined, to his state of
pristine innocence. On entering their places of
public worship, which were chiefly caves, they
threw off their clothes. Tbey professed to live
in continence, and condemned marriage, which
they affirmed was the consequence of the intro
duction of sin into the world. Whoever broke
the laws of the society was expelled from Para
dise, as they termed it — that is, from their assem
blies — as one who had eaten of the forbidden fruit,
and was henceforth called Adam. Dr. Lardner
questions their existence; and the hesitating
account of Epiphanius, from whom it is received,
is certainly suspicious. — The same title was given
to a body of enthusiasts who, in the fifteenth
century, were massacred by the Bohemians under
Zisca; and other sects have, at various times,
been charged with the absurdities implied in the
name, in most instances, perhaps, without suffi
cient cause.
Adelphians, a sect of heretics censured by
Maximus, Anastasius, and others, for keeping
the Sabbath as a fast.
Adessenariang.- — The name is from the Latin
word "adesse" — to be present; and they, as a section
of the sacramentarians got this name, because
they held to the special presence of Christ's body
in the Eucharist, though in a different manner
from the view held by the Roman Catholic Church.
Adiaphorists (adiapogo;, indifferent), — a
name given to those who sided with Melanchthon
in the unhappy controversy which arose upon the
promulgation of the Interim, in 1548. Maurice,
the new elector of Saxony, assembled some
divines at Leipzig to consider the propriety of
accepting that edict. In this synod the too
gentle temper of Melanchthon betrayed him
into unwary and unbecoming concessions. He
placed among things indifferent — and in which,
therefore, compliance was due — the number of
the sacraments, the jurisdiction of the pope
and bishops, extreme unction, and many other
rites of the Romish Church. The evangelical doc
trine, also, was not fully stated. On these points
he was vehemently opposed by Flacius and other
Lutherans ; and the controversy which thus
arose, and which for many years distracted the
Reformers, is known in ecclesiastical history
under tbe name of the adiaphoristic controversy.
The history of the promulgation of the Interim
is detailed" by Sleidanus, xx. ; Fra Paolo, Hist.
Cone TV-id, iii., adann. 1548; Burnet, Hist. Ref.,
part ii., book i., ad ann. 1548; Mosheim, Cent.
xvi., sec. i., ch. 3, 4, and sec. iii., part ii., ch.
i. 28 ; Robertson, History of Charles V., book
ix., ad ann. 1548 ; by D'Aubigne also, and other
recent historians of the Reformation.

ADJ
A more modern controversy raged in Germany
under the same name. Spener, and other pietists,
protested against many worldly customs to which
members of the church conformed, such as danc
ing, theatrical exhibitions, games, and certain
forms and styles of dress. Their views were
opposed by many, and cards, operas, and jests,
placed among " things indifferent." The latter
party was often lax and facile, while the former
party, with the best intentions, condemned as
wrong in itself what was rendered wrong by cir
cumstances or extreme indulgence;
Adjuration, the act of binding with tbe
solemnity of an oath. We read that Saul
"adjured" the people not to eat anything, while
in pursuit of the Philistines, till the sun should
go down, (2 Sam. xiv.) It is worthy of remark
that in the Bible of 1539, the original word
rendered " adjured " in verse 28, is in verse 24
translated "charged" — "he charged the people
with an oath." In King James's version, verse
24 has " adjured," while in the latter verse (28)
the passage reads—" charged the people with an
oath." Verse 28, in the Geneva Bible (1561),
reads — "he made the people to sweare."
Adjutants-General, those fathers, among
the Jesuits, who dwelt with the general of the
order ; and whose business it was to watch over
the principal occurrences of distant countries, and
from time to time communicate information to
the general.
Administrators of Baptism, in the early
churches, were the bishops, presbyters, some
times the deacons, and occasionally laymen, in
cases of extreme urgency and danger. Women,
though at first strictly forbidden to administer
this rite, are, by the Church of Rome, allowed
to perform it in circumstances similar to those
which would justify laymen in the irregular
discbarge of this clerical duty. A question has
risen in the Anglican Church, whether such
baptism (that by laymen and midwives) is to
be regarded as null or valid. Some have replied
that, as the Reformed Church rejects the popish
doctrine respecting the danger of children who die
unbaptized, there is no necessity for an irregular
performance of it ; that as the benefit of the ordin
ance is clearly connected with its administration
by a lawfully ordained minister, the children so
irregularly baptized derive no advantage- what
ever ; and that, in the event, therefore, of their
growing to maturity, they are bound to apply to
a "lawful minister or bishop for that holy sacra
ment, of which they only received a profanation
before." A contrary opinion has, however, been
held by other clergymen, who contend that the
essence of a sacrament is not invalidated by an
irregular administration of it ; and on the same
principle, thatclergymen coming from the Church
of Rome to that of England are not required to
be reordained, so children baptized irregularly in
the Catholic communion should not be rejected
as unbaptized, when in maturer age they are

ADO
brought within the pale of the Church of Eng
land. — See Baptism.
Admission, an act of the bishop, upon' ex
amination, whereby he admits a clerk intooffice.
It is done by the formula admilto te habilem.
All persons must have episcopal ordination before
they are admitted to a benefice ; and any one
presuming to enter upon one not having such
ordination, shall, by stat. 14, Car. II., forfeit
£100. Admission or Ordination Service, a re
ligious service observed in the Church of Scot
land, and other sections of the Presbyterian body,
at the inauguration of a minister to a new con
gregation. The sermon preached on tbe occasion
is called the admission or ordination sermon.
Adniittcndo Clerico, a writ granted to
any one who has established his right of pre
sentation against the bishop ini the Court of
Common Pleas.
Admonition, an essential part of the ancient
discipline of the Church. In cases of private
offence it was performed, according to the rule
prescribed in Matt, xviii., privately. In public
cases, openly before the church ; and no delin
quent was excommunicated unless this step were
ineffectual. Admonitionists, a party of puritans in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, who published two
"Admonitions to the Parliament," in which they
condemned, as contrary to the Word of God, some
distinctive peculiarities in the ceremonial and
discipline of the Church of England, such as the
imposition of vestments, &c. The first petition
was burnt at St. Paul's Cross ; Field and Wilcox,
who presented it, were flung into prison ; and
Cartwright, who had a hand in it, was degraded
from his chair of divinity, and expelled from the
university of Cambridge.
Adonists, a party, among theological critics,
who maintained that the vowel points usually
annexed to the consonants of the Hebrew word
Jehovah, neither originally belonged to it, nor
express the true pronunciation, but are the points
belonging to the words Adonai and Elohiin,
applied te the consonants of the ineffable name
Jehovah, te warn the readers that instead of
this word, which the Jews were forbidden to pro
nounce, they are always to read Adonai.
Adoplians, the followers of Felix, Bishop of
Urgel, who, towards the end ofthe eighth century,
in answer to a question proposed to him by
Elipand, Archbishop of Toledo, put forth the
doctrine that Christ, considered in his divine
nature, was truly and essentially the Son of God ;
but that, considered as a man, he was so only
nominally and by adoption. Those who taught
or embraced this doctrine were charged with
reviving the Nestorian heresy, and great discord
was the consequence in Spain, France, and
Germany. — See Person of Christ.
Adoption (see Biblical Cyclopaedia), in
a theological sense, signifies an act of divine

10

ADO
goodness, by which we are received into the
number, and have a right to all the privileges,
of the sons of God. Transgressors are said to
be adopted into the family of heaven by the
propitiation of our Saviour and the imparta-
tion of his merit, so that, for his sake, they are
regarded as spiritual children. It also includes
God's acknowledgment of his people at the last
day; as when the Apostle speaks of "the mani
festation of the sons of God" at that period
(Rom. viii. 19). For the Romans first adopted the
child in private and by purchase; but when that
child arrived at the age of puberty, he was carried
to the Forum, and the adoption became a public
and recognized act, sanctioned by all the legal and
binding forms of the age. Thus God's children
are now adopted really; but in the day of general
judgment they shall be openly recognized or
manifested — the adoption shall be complete in
all its advantages, as well as in all its forms.
There is, however, a difference between civil and
spiritual adoption, as the latter has been desig
nated. The former provided for the relief of
those who had no children of their own ; but this
reason does not exist in spiritual adoption, to
which the Almighty was under no conceivable
obligation, since he had created innumerable
beings, and all the intelligent ranks of creation
may be considered as his children. The occa
sion of one person adopting another, amongst
men, is their possession, or supposed possession,
of certain qualities or excellences which attract
the adopter's regard; but the introduction of
mankind into the family of heaven must be con
sidered as resulting from no such existing merit.
In the case of civil adoption, though there is an
alteration of the name and external distinctions
of the person chosen, it implies no necessary
change of disposition, principle, or character ; but
the reverse is true of spiritual adoption, in which
the adopted person is assimilated to the being
whose name he is permitted to assume.
Adoration, in a theological sense, is, strictly
speaking, an act of worship due to God only,
but offered also to idols and to mortal men by
the servility of their fellow-creatures. The deri
vation of the term plainly indicates the action in
which it primarily consisted, namely, in apply
ing the hand to the mouth to kiss it, in token of
extraordinary respect to any person or object.
In the ancient Book of Job it is said. " Ifl beheld
the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in
brightness, and my mouth hath kissed my hand,
this also were iniquity" (chap. xxxi. 26, 27).
Minutius Felix states, " that as Caecilius passed
before the statue of Serapis he kissed his hand,
as is the custom of superstitious people" — (In
Oct.) And Jerome mentions that those who
adore used to kiss their hands and to bow down
their heads — (Cont. Rufin. 16, 1). The word
" kissing " is the usual idiom of the Hebrew
language to signify adoration. This is one of
the principal tokens of respect in the East, and

ADO
was, as appears from Herodotus, probably of
Persian origin.
Although it cannot be imagined that one
attitude or mode of indicating reverence is, in
itself considered, more acceptable to the Supreme
Being than another, inasmuch as his omniscient
inspection primarily regards the affections of the
worshipper, yet there is an evident decorum
and respect implied in one posture more than
in others, varying in different countries and at
different periods according to the general opinion
and established usages of society, but with
which sentiments of devotion are inseparably
connected. Upon the principle of one mode of
address to a superior being deemed respectful
and another the reverse, the attitudes and mo
tions of the body are believed to be expressive
of certain corresponding emotions in the mind.
As religion cannot be totally separated from its
forms, the genuine worshipper of God will be
solicitous about his external appearance in his
presence; nor have the votaries of superstition
and idolatry been indifferent to this view of the
subject. These sentiments and forms of address
have, by a very natural association, been trans
ferred to the intercourse of ordinary life, and have
been made to denote either a proper or an extra
vagant and impious degree of veneration.
Kissing the feet is also a mode of worship or
adoration, adopted particularly in modern time3
among the Papists, who express in this manner
their reverence of the Pope of Rome. It seems
to have been derived from the imperial court ;
but at what precise period it was introduced,
cannot now be determined. The eighth century
is the generally assigned period ; but some have
found examples of it, as they believe, in the
third. Dioclesian is said to have had gems
fastened to his shoes, tbat divine honours might
be more willingly paid him, by kissing his
feet. Hence the popes fastened crucifixes to their
slippers, that the adoration intended for the pope's
person might be supposed to be transferred to
Christ. Princes have sometimes practised this
singular homage; and Gregory XIII. claimed
it as a duty. It was rendered in the ancient
Church to bishops, the people kissing their feet
and exclaiming " trgogzvvtat ei" — I adore thee.
At the adoration of the cross on Good Friday
the Roman Catholics walk barefooted. In the
East it is a sign of the greatest respect to take off
the shoes and approach to render homage bare
footed. The Mahometans always observe this
practice when they enter their mosques.
Kissing the ground was an ancient mode of
adoration which usually accompanied the act of
prostration. Standing was sometimes an attitude of adora
tion,, the hody being inclined forward and tbe
eyes cast down to the earth. The hands also
probably rested on the knees. In the first Book
of Kings, and in the eighth chapter, it is recorded
that Solomon " stood before the altar of the Lord,

11

ADO
Sn the presence of all the congregation of Israel,
and spread forth his hands toward heaven." The
priests also were accustomed to stand in the ser
vice of the temple, and the people also during
prayer and praise in the early Christian Church.
Sitting, with the under part of the thighs rest
ing on the heels, was an ancient eastern practice,
which servants still do when in attendance upon
their masters. Most, if not all, the Egyptian
figures of worshippers in their sacred edifices are
represented in this attitude, and it is often alluded
to in the Scriptures. Thus David "sat before"
God on one of the most important occasions of
worship (1 Chron. xvii. 16).
Kneeling was extremely common, and seems
very naturally to import a person's endeavouring
to lessen his own self-importance in the presence
of a superior.
The worshippers in eastern nations generally
turn their faces towards the sun or to the east.
Adoration of the Cross, respect paid to
the cross, by bending the knee before it, as prac
tised in all Catholic countries, and by the members
ofthe Greek Church. On Good Friday the .cere
mony of "adoring the cross" is performed at
Rome, and in all the cathedrals and principal
churches of the Catholic communion throughout
the world. After the performance of the usual
introductory service, the officiating priest, and all
his assistants, advance to the altar, where a bow
more reverential than usual is made to the cross
by each of them. They then repeat in a low
voice certain prayers, on the conclusion of Which
they rise up and descend from the altar — a signal
having been made by the " master of the cere
monies." The cushions on which they knelt are
then removed, and the choir, as well as the con
gregation, repeat certain prayers, all kneeling.
Again the officiating priest approaches the altar,
kisses it, goes through the lessons for the day in
a mumbling voice, receives the cross from the
deacon, whose duty it is to hand it to him, re
moves from the head of it the veil which covers
the entire crucifix, and then elevates it with both
hands, singing, "Ecoe lignum Crude" — Behold the
wood of the cross. Instantly the whole congre
gation start to their feet, and all the ministers at
the altar begin to sing, "In quo Salus mundi
pependit" — On which the Saviour of the world was
extended. The singers answer, " Venite et adore-
mus" — Let .us come and adore. No sooner is the
last syllable chanted than all present, the offici
ating priest excepted, fall upon their knees, and
offer silent adoration to the cross. In a few
minutes they all rise up again, and the priest
uncovers the right arm of the cross,1 and again
elevates it, saying as before, but in a louder voice,
"Ecce lignum,"&,c. Next he approaches the middle
of the altar, and turning towards the congrega
tion, elevates the cross again, which now he
exposes, by the removal of the veil from every
part of it, and repeats the same words in a still
louder and more emjphatic voice. A jiurple

ADTJ
cushion is then laid upon the steps of the altar>
upon which the priest lays the cross; he then
retires for the purpose of taking off bis shoes ; his
attendants do the same; returning barefoot, they
reverently approach the piece of wood upon the
cushion, and kneeling down, they meekly kiss it.
Then all present, in the order of their rank — the
clergy always first — perform the same ceremony
of kissing the crucifix, which at last is taken up
by a deacon and placed in an upright position on
the altar. In Moscow, St. Petersburg, and
other cities of Russia, many ceremonies are per
formed during Passion Week, which are brought
to a close about four o'clock on the morning of
Easter Sunday by the ceremony of " adoring the
cross." The members of the Greek Church not
only kiss this symbol of the Christian religion,
but when the bishop or archbishop holds it forth
for the reverence of the worshippers, they rush
forward, to the imminent risk of many of them,
and embrace the crucifix with vehement devotion
and affection. — See Cr.oss.
Adoration of the Host, honours paid to
the consecrated wafer of the mass, — first by the
officiating priest, and afterwards by the whole
congregation, who regard its elevation with the
profoundest devotion and awe, as an emblem of
the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Protestant eccle
siastical writers maintain that this practice was
unknown to the Christian Church before the
twelfth century, about which period many serious
innovations in the celebration of the Eucharist
crept into the Latin Church. The foundation for
this practice is the doctrine of transubstantiation.
Previous to the introduction of this dogma,
communicants received the elements of the Lord's
Supper into their own hands, as em blems of Christ's
broken body and shed blood ; but as soon as it
began to be promulgated this practice was severely
prohibited as a dishonour to the very body, blood,
soul, and divinity of Jesus Christ. From this
time, too, the elevation of the host takes its rise ;
also the calling of attention to it by the ringing of
bells, the carrying it about in pomp, and exposing
it in public to receive adoration of all classes,
enjoining those just baptized to fall down and
worship it, .and other practices of a like nature.
Adrianists, a name given to an obscure sect
of heretics of the first century, mentioned by
Theodoret, who gives us, however, no account of
their founder, or the reason of this appellation. —
The same term is also applied to the followers of
Adrian Hamstedius in the sixteenth century.
They were Anabaptists, and maintained several
errors concerning the person of .Christ.
Adultery. — The following are some par
ticulars of the discipline of the ancient Church
with regard to this sin, and others of the same
.class. The apostolical canons forbade the recep
tion into holy orders of any persons guilty of
fornication; and, according to the council of
Eliberis, virgins who had fallen into this sin
were suspended from the communion of the
12

ADV
church for twelve months, at the end of which
period four years' solemn repentance was added,
if they did not marry those by whom they had
been defiled. The same council also appointed
seven years' penance for a single act of adultery ;
ten years, in the event of a repetition ; and a stern
refusal of the rites of the church at the last hour,
if the criminal persevered in his immoral course
to the end of his life. The canons of St. Basil
enjoined a penance of seven years for fornica
tion, and fifteen for adultery ; but the council of
Ancyra only appointed the term of seven years
for adultery, omitting fornication altogether. As
to the clergy, utter excision from the dignities of
office and the communion of the church was the
punishment of those convicted of adultery ; and
in the event of a priest's wife being found guilty,
she must be immediately put away, or her hus
band be degraded. Intermarriage with a Jew
was esteemed a crime of equal magnitude with
adultery, and was punished accordingly; and
the sixty-seventh canon of St. Basil decreed that
he who successively married two sisters should be
esteemed an adulterer, and be subjected to the
penalty of fifteen years' penance. The woman,
also, who had been married to two brothers, was
cut off from all participation in the communion
of the church to the day of her death. — See also
Concubinage, Incest, Marriage.
The term Adultery is also used to denote the
act of one who has intruded himself into a
bishopric during the lawful bishop's life. It is
so caUed because a bishop is supposed to contract
a kind of spiritual marriage with his church.
Advent, in the calendar, the time preceding
the feast of the nativity, commencing with Ihe
fourth Sunday before Christmas day. It was
appointed to employ the thoughts on theAdventus,
or first coming of Christ in the flesh, and his
second coming to judge the world. This is one
of the seasons, from the beginning of which to
the end of the octave of the Epiphany, marriages
could not be celebrated in England without
express license. This restriction cannot be
proved of earlier date than the council of Sale-
gunstade, in 1022. At this time the Church
renews her service, thus constituting it the
beginning of the ecclesiastical year ; " the reason
for which," says Wheatly, is, that " the Church
does not number her days nor measure her
seasons so much by the motion of the sun as by
the course of our Saviour, who, being the true
Sun of Righteousness, began now to rise upon the
world." — See Christmas.
Advocate is particularly used to denote a
person appointed to defend the rights and revenues
of a church. The word advocalus, or advowee,
is still employed for patron. — See Advowee.
Advocate, Devil's. — See Canonization.
Advowee, the advocate of a church or reli
gious house, as a cathedral, abbey, monastery,
&c. — defensor or bailiff in Germany. Some
times it signifies a person who has a right

ADV
to present to a church living. Charlemagne
had the title of advowee of St. Peter's, which
the people conferred upon him for having pro
tected Italy against the Lombards. Pope
Nicholas constituted King Edward the Con
fessor, and his successors, advowees of the monas
tery of Westminster, and of all the churches in
England. Advowees were the guardians and
administrators of temporal concerns; and under
their authority all contracts passed which related
to the churches. The collection of the tithes
and all other church revenues were under their
control ; as a reward for which, many of the
richest benefices were placed by the heads or
principals of convents at their disposal. The
command of the forces furnished by their monas
teries for war was entrusted to them. Some
times there were sub-advowees, who introduced
great disorder, and very much contributed to
the ruin of the monasteries. Their avarice so
increased that the clergy soon felt them to be an
intolerable burden ; hence the churches began to
get rid of them as best they could, until at
length, in the reign of Frederick II. of Ger
many, the office was finally abolished — grants of
large sums of money and other gifts having been
previously given them, as compensation for the
loss of their profession. The origin of this office
is sometimes assigned to the time of Stillico, in
the fourth century ; but the Benedictines repre
sent it as commencing so late as the eighth
century. Persons of the first rank were gradually
introduced into it, as it was found necessary
either to defend with arms, or to protect with
power and authority. In the course of time
every person who took upon him the defence of
another was denominated advowee or advocate;
hence cities had their advowees, as Augsburg,
Arras, &c. There wa3 also advowees of pro
vinces and countries, as of Alsace, Swabia, Thu-
ringia, &c. Two kinds of ecclesiastical advowees
are mentioned by Spelman — the one, of causes or
processes, advocati causarum; who were nomi
nated by the king, and undertook to plead Ihe
causes of the monasteries; the other, of terri
tory or lands, advocati soli — sometimes called by
their primitive name, advowees, though more
usually patrons — were hereditary, as being the
founders and endowers of churches, &c.
Ailvonson or Advowzen, a right to pre
sent to a vacant living in the Church of Eng
land, synonymous with the term patronage in
Scotland. The word is derived from advocatio,
because the right of presenting had been origi
nally gained by such as were founders or bene
factors of the church. The nomination of proper
persons to all vacant benefices was at first vested
in the bishops; but they readily allowed the
founders of churches the nomination of the per
sons to officiate, only reserving to themselves a
right to judge ofthe qualifications of such persons
for the office. Advowsons are presenlive, where
the patron presents a person to the bishop to be

13

.EON
instituted into the living; collative, where the
bishop presents as original patron, or from a right
he has acquired by negligence and lapse ; dona
tive, where the patron puts the person into pos
session by a simple donation in writing. For
merly, advowsons were appended to manors —
advowsons appendant ; and the patrons were
parochial barons, the lordship of the manor and
the patronage of the church being usually in the
same hands, until advowsons were given to reli
gious houses. The lordship of the manor and
advowson of the church were afterwards divided
- — advowsons in gross. In ancient times, the
patron had frequently the sole nomination of the
prelate, abbot, or prior, either by investigature
or direct presentation to the diocesan. A free
election was left to the house, but a conge d'elire,
or license of election, was first to be obtained of
the patron, who confirmed the person elected.
Advowson of the moiety of the church is,
where there are two patrons and two incum
bents in the same church, each of a moiety
respectively. A moiety of the advowson is where
two must join the presentation, and there is but
one incumbent (7 Anne, c. 18). Grants of ad
vowsons by Papists are void (9 Geo. II., c. 36,
§ 5; 11 Geo. II., c. 17, § 5)- See Patronage.
Advowsons are temporal inheritances and lay
fees, and may be granted by deed or will, and
are assets in the hands of executors. The legal
distinctions to be observed in the sale of these are :
— The clergyman preferred cannot buy a living
for himself. The patron may sell the next pre
sentation to a benefice— that is, he may dispose
of his right, as patron, to present a new incum
bent when next the benefice becomes vacant;
and the right of presentation returns to the
patron whenever the church is again void. The
patron, if he desires to sell the next presentation,
must conclude the bargain during a period in
which the incumbency is occupied : he cannot
dispose of it " whilst the church is void, so as to
be entitled thereby to such void turn." Patrons
may not only make a grant of the next presen
tation; but also they can dispose of the advowson.
vEou. — See Gnostic.
JEra, any large portion of time distinctly
marked by the occurrence of remarkable events.
The Christian aera dates from the birth of Christ,
which is erroneously placed, according to the
common account, in the year of the world 4003.
Aerians, the followers of Aerius, said to be
a semi-Arian, who, in the latter part of the fourth
century, excited divisions throughout Armenia,
Pontus, and Cappadocia by his opposition to some
of the commonly received opinions of the day.
He denied that there was a difference of order
between bishops and presbyters. He condemned
prayers and alms for the dead, stated fasts, the
celebration of Easter, and other ceremonial ob
servances. Some attribute his views of the epis
copal office to jealousy at the promotion to that
office of his former friend Eustathius. But there

AFF
must have been many good Christians to whom
the tyranny and arrogance of the bishops of that
century had rendered such views highly acceptable ;
while, on other questions, the teaching of Aerius
was an effort to restore Christianity to somewhat
of its primitive simplicity, and free it from Jewish
adulterations (Neander, vol. iii., p. 104). There
were some of his followers remaining in the days
of Augustine.
Aetians, the followers of Aetius, a native of
Antioch, in Ccele Syria, who may be regarded
as the founder of the Anomcean form of the
Arian heresy — (from iim/tos, unlike). Eunomius
was his pupil and amanuensis ; and the title
of Eunomian, derived from him, may be re
garded as nearly equivalent to Aetian. Their
distinguishing doctrine was that the Son was
of unlike substance to the Father. Those who
were called Eusebians, or Acacians, had been
followers of Aetius up to a certain point, hold
ing with him that the Son was a creature;
and they are not unreasonably charged by him
with inconsistency when they would not follow
np their heretical views to what he deemed their
necessary consequences. Of the Holy Spirit, the
Aetians held that he also was created by the
Father through the immediate power and opera
tion of the Son. And after the creation of the
Son and the Spirit, they taught that the Father
created all other things in heaven and earth by
the power and operation of the Son. The Greek
historian, Socrates (book iv., cap. 35), describes
Aetius as an Aristotelian — as a man of super
ficial attainments, but "fond of cavilling — a
thing which any clown may do " — and having
little acquaintance with the sacred Scriptures
(Neander, vol. iv., p. 77; Gieseler, vol. i., p. 339.)
—See Arianism.
Affinity expresses that kind of legal kin
which is contracted by means of a marriage;
hence it is distinguished from consanguinity.
As it is a creature of the law, so has the law
pronounced it in some cases to cease when its
cause (the marriage) has been defeated. A
widow may be admitted in evidence for her
former husband's brother, but cannot be so
whilst she is a wife. The law of Moses forbade
marriage in certain cases of affinity (Lev. xviii.
&c), and from those laws our own civilians and
others in Europe pretty generally derived their
prohibitions. The Jews are permitted to marry
their nieces, as well as their first cousins ; but a
woman cannot be married to her nephew, because
the law of natural order would thereby be violated.
A man who had married his niece would still be
her head and guide, whereas confusion of re
lative duties would ensue if a woman were to
be married to her nephew; for the husband
would, in that case, become her head — thus
reversing the natural law of social dependences
and obligations. In the earlier ages of the
Christian Church much attention was given to
this question, in order to make the line of de-

14

AFF
marcation between tbe conduct of the heathen
and the disciples of Christianity as broad as
possible. This anxiety, however, was carried
beyond its proper limits, inasmuch as several
prohibitions not sanctioned by divine authority
were introduced at different times, and in various
sections of the Christian Church. The follow
ing degrees of affinity were, in general, included
in the prohibitory laws : — Marriage with a step
mother, step-sister, daughter-in-law, step-daugh
ter, brother's widow, uncle's widow, brother's
daughter, uncle's daughter, and the sister of a
deceased wife. The marriage of cousins- german
was not forbidden before the time of the Emperor
Theodosius, who was instigated by St, Ambrose
to introduce it among the forbidden degrees.
Arcadius subsequently rescinded the prohibition,
but it was restored in the time of Justinian.
The prohibitions of the law of England may
be seen in the table drawn up by Archbishop
Parker in 1563, annexed to the Book of Com
mon Prayer, and usually found in the authorized
translation. The Westminster Confession iden
tifies affinity and consanguinity ; but the principle
has not been consistently carried out. If A and
B are brothers, and C and D are sisters, then if
A marry C, D becomes his sister, and how could
A marry his brother's sister ? Yet such mar
riages are not prohibited. Step-brothers and
step-sisters may marry also, irrespective of the
affinity created between their parents. A may
have a son, C, by a previous marriage, and
B in the same way may have a daughter, D, but
C and D may marry. Affinity is not in such
a case treated as consanguinity. On the ques
tion of marrying a deceased wife's sister a large
body of literature has been called into existence
during the last few years, contributed by divines,
lawyers, senators, scholars, and gentlemen of
private station. Spiritual affinity is a dogma of
the Romish Church, which supposes the existence
of a relationship between a godfather and his
god-daughter sufficient to forbid their marriage
without a dispensation. — See Marriage.
Affusion, a mode of baptism, by pouring
water on the subject. — See Baptism.
African Church, that division ofthe Chris
tian Church locally situated within the six
Roman provinces of Africa, viz., Tripolis, Byza-
cena, Africa Proconsularis, Numidia, and the
two Mauritanias. The entire district was about
2,350 miles in length, and its average width 350
miles. This church was remarkable for the
number of its bishops, their independency of one
another, their catholicity of sentiment, and gene-
rons forbearance with each other's prejudices and
differences of opinion, and church discipline.
Another striking peculiarity of this ancient
church consisted in this — that, except in Africa
Proconsularis, where the Bishop of Carthage was
primate, the primacy was not attached to any
particular see, but devolved upon the senior
bishop in each province. For this reason the

AGA
primates were called Senes ; and great care was
taken to keep a record of the particulars of every
bishop's ordination, so that no dispute as to
seniority might arise when the time came for
appointing a primate. The title to the office
might sometimes be forfeited by misconduct ;
but in that case the next in order of seniority
succeeded to the vacant post. For the ordina
tion of a primate it was not necessary that he
should go out of his own diocese to obtain it at
the hands of a superior bishop ; nor was it re
quired that a primate from another district
should attend at the ceremony of consecration to
render it legitimate ; for the inferior bishops of
each province managed their own affairs, choos
ing and consecrating their own metropolitans
perfectly independent of the control, though not
of the friendly advice and counsel of neighbour
ing bishops and primates.
Agapse (ayas-fl, love), certain feasts of the
early Christians, to which allusion is supposed
to have been made by Jude, verse 12, and Peter,
2 Epist. u. 13. Some are of opinion that these
feasts are also intended in the complaints of the
apostle Paul, 1 Cor. xi. 21, respecting certain
irregularities at Corinth. The Jews were not
without a custom of this kind, for which they
found a Scriptural sanction in Deut. xii. 5, 7,
12; xiv. 23, 27, 29; and the learned Lightfoot
has observed, in a note on 1 Cor. x. 16, that on
the evening of the Sabbath the Jews had their
xotvuvix, or communion, when the inhabitants of
the same city met together in a common place to
eat; and that near the synagogues were their
%'.vtih%icc, or places where strangers were enter
tained at the public charge, and had the privi
lege of a dormitory.
In Pliny's letters to Trajan, he speaks of a
" promiscuous harmless meal," which has been
understood to refer to this custom, at which
Christians of all descriptions met, and which
they discontinued on the publication of his edict
against such assemblies. While this proves the
early, and almost apostolic origin of the agapse,
it has been thought also to demonstrate that the
primitive Christians did not regard them as of
divine authority; for this is the only part of
their public conduct which even " torture " and
death could compel them to alter (Pliny's
Epist. x. 97, 98). Tertulhan describes them
thus:  " The meaning of our repast is indicated
by its name, for it is called by a word which
in Greek signifies love. The hungry eat as
much as they desire, and every one drinks as
much as to sober men can be useful ; we so feast
as men who have their minds impressed with the
idea of spending the night in the worship of
God ; we so converse as men who are conscious
that the Lord heareth them." It has been
much controverted whether the agapse were
partaken before the Eucharist, immediately after,
as a kind of appendage or concomitant, or at a
totally distinct time; the latter, according to

15

AGA
some writers, being celebrated in the morning,
and the former in the evening. Regarded, how
ever, as a simple testimony of Christian kindness
and unity, connected with the exigencies of the
time, and even extended, according to the testi
mony of Julian, to the relief of the heathen poor
occasionally, it will appear nothing remarkable
that the period of observing this feast should
have been regulated by its design, and by the
opportunities afforded in seasons of persecution
and distress. The kiss of charity was given at
the conclusion of the agapse. At the council of
Carthage, held in the fourth century, we find
these feasts forbidden to be held in churches,
except under particular circumstances; other
regulations obtained in succeeding councils re
specting them, to the middle of the thirteenth
century, after which we have no authentic traces
of their existence.
Some modern sects have revived this primitive
custom : the Sandemanians, or Glassites, partake
of a frugal repast together every Sabbath, either
in an apartment adjoining to their place of wor
ship, or at some contiguous private dwelling
belonging to their members, every one of whom
is expected to attend ; and they conclude with
the kiss of charity. The Methodists hold their
love-feasts once every quarter of a year. The
members of the society are admitted by tickets,
which are occasionally, but not frequently,
granted to strangers. They commence the feast
in a similar manner to their public worship ; after
wards some small pieces of bread are handed
round; conversation upon their Christian ex
perience then freely takes place; and the meet
ing is terminated by singing and prayer.
Agapetie (beloved ones), certain young
women and widows who devoted themselves to
attend upon the ministers of the primitive
churches. Sometimes they were the deacon
esses of the societies, and took up their abode
with ecclesiastics. It was a custom which soon
fell into abuse and disrepute.
Agenda (from agere, to do), is generally ap
plied, by church writers, to signify things neces
sary to be performed in the church service, such
as morning and evening prayer. Sometimes it
is opposed to credenda, things to be believed.
Agenda is also applied to certain books of the
church, and is synonymous to the ritual, liturgy,
missal, formulary, &c.
Agistment, Tithe of, the tithe due from
the profit of feeding cattle on a common pasture.
Agnoctie (aynosai, not to know), a name some
times given to a sect of the fourth century,
which disputed the omniscience of God, and
stated that he knew past occurrences only by a
superior memory, and things future by a limited
prescience. In the sixth century the followers
of Themistius, a deacon of the Alexandrian
Church, received the same name, from their alleg
ing that Christ was ignorant of cartain future
events, as, particularly, the' period of the day of

16

AGN
judgment— an hypothesis which they founded on
Mark xiii. 32. Socinus and his associates main
tained similar opinions : that God possesses not
an infinite knowledge, and cannot have a deter
minate and certain acquaintance with the future
actions of intellectual beings: that he changes
his mind, alters his purposes, and adapts his
measures to rising circumstances (Socini Opera,
tom. i. 543-9; Crellius De Deo et ej. Attr^
cap. xxxii).
Agnus Bei (The Lamb of God), a term
applied, in the Church of Rome, to certain repre
sentations, made in wax, of a lamb, bearing the
triumphal banner of the cross, and similar to
those sculptured ornaments so common in most
of our old churches and cathedrals. These
figures, which bear the year and name of the
pope, are consecrated by the pope himself on
the Monday following Easter, in the first and
seventh year of his reign, and distributed,
at certain periods, among the people, to be
carried in religious processions. The pope first
delivers them to the master of the wardrobe,
by whom they are given to the cardinals and
attending prelates, who receive them in their
respective caps and mitres, with great form and
reverence. From these superior ofiicers and
ecclesiastical persons they are conveyed to infe
rior priests ; and from them they are received by
the people at large, who preserve them, generally,
in a piece of stuff, or cloth, cut into the shape of
a heart. The most intelligent persons of the
Catholic persuasion venerate these consecrated
memorials simply as they do any other memora
bilia of the Christian faith ; but by the vulgar
and superstitious, great mystical virtues are
ascribed to them; and they at one time had
become articles of sale in most Catholic countries.
Accordingly, by statute Eliz., c. ii., it was en
acted that those who should " bring into Eng
land any Agnus Deis, grains, crucifixes, or other
things consecrated by the Bishop of Rome, should
undergo the penalty of prsemunire." Indeed, the
Agnus Dei was never very common in this
country, being principally confined to Spain and
the more immediate territories of the Papal states,
where the Catholic religion was maintained in its
greatest pomp and splendour. The figure has
always been deemed an appropriate emblem ofthe
triumph of the cross over the errors and abomi
nations of paganism ; and on that account has
been used as ornaments in most ecclesiastical
edifices, both at home and abroad, aud by the
Reformed as well as by the Roman Catholic
Church. This name is also given to that part of
the sacrifice of the mass, where the officiating
priest, striking his breast thrice, rehearses the
prayer " Agnus Dei" — Lamb of God, &c, and
then divides the sacrament into three parts,
a practice, it is said, first introduced by Sergius
I. ; but of this there is considerable doubt. The
divisions of the accidents was certainly long

AGO
prior to his pontificate ; and as to the song Agnus
Dei, for anything that appears, it might have
been introduced into the service by Sergius II.,
or even by Sergius III., the predecessor of For-
mosus. For an interesting account of the cere
monies connected with the consecration and
distribution of the Agnuses at Rome, we refer the
curious reader to Burder's Rehgious Ceremonies,
p. 222.
Agonistici (ayajy, combat), a name given by
Donatus to certain members of his sect who were
sent to preach at the fairs and markets, to sub
jugate the people, as it were, by the strength of
their arguments.
Agonyclila; or Agonyclites (from a, yaw,
knee, and xXlv&i, to bend), a sect in the seventh
century, who held it improper to bend the knee,
and whose practice it was to perform their devo
tions in a standing posture.
Agi'ippinians, the disciples of Agrippinus, a
bishop of Carthage, in the third century, who
are said to have first introduced the practice of
rebaptization. Agyuiaui (from tt, priv., and yuvn, woman),
a sect of the seventh century who proscribed
marriage and the use of animal food.
Aisles. — See Church, Nave.
AEascaui, a sect of Anti- Lutherans who de
rived their name from their leader, John Alasco,
a noble Pole. Banished from his own country,
and from German}', he took refuge with his
friends in England, under Edward VI., who
granted them the use of the church of the Augus
tine friars, in London. In the reign of Mary
they were again driven abroad, and sunk into
obscurity on the death of their founder. They
held that baptism was no longer necessary in
the Church, and that the words " This is my
body," in the institution of the Eucharist, em
braced the entire celebration of the sacred Supper.
Alb or Albe, a white garment, worn by
deacons in the ancient churches, and still in use
among the clergy of the Roman Catholic com
munion. It is in some respects similar to the
surplice worn by the clergy of the English
Church. Anciently, the newly baptized wore an
alb from Easter-eve to the Sunday after Easter,
which was hence called dominica in albis — the
whole week being septima in albis. The an
cient alb was made to fit the body tightly, and
was bound round the middle with a girdle sash ;
the sleeves were either plain, like those of a cas
sock, or else full, and gathered close on the
wrists, like the sleeve of a shirt. The alb was
in special use at the commemoration of the Lord's
Supper. Albanenses, a dualist ic sect in Italy, in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, so named from
Alba in Piedmont, their chief locality. They
were a branch of the Cathari, which see.
Albati (Fratres Albati, Bianchi, or White
Penitent), so called from the dress which they
wore, were an enthusiastic sect in Italy towards

ALB
the end of the fourteenth century. They are said
to have come down from the Alps, and to have
gone in a kind of procession through- several
provinces, praying and singing hymns, and
gathering a prodigious number of followers, so
as seriously to alarm the reigning pontiff, Boni
face IX. Their leader accordingly was seized,
carried to Rome, and committed to the flames iu
1399. Albigenses, a sect of the twelfth century,
who were eminently distinguished by their oppo
sition to the Church of Rome, and who, from the
importance of many of the sentiments for which
they contended, as well as from the zeal with which
they maintained them under severe persecutions,
have been enrolled in the honourable catalogue
of reformers. The remoteness of the age in which
they lived, and the difficulties attending the
detection of facts, amidst imperfect and often
contradictory documents, render it almost im
possible to give any very accurate detail either
of their origin or progress. They have been fre
quently considered as essentially the same with
the Waldenses ; but no evidence of this identity
can be deduced from (what writers on this sub
ject have often pleaded) their being confounded
with them, and condemned under their name, by
the decrees of their enemies, since nothing is
more common than to class different, and even
opposing parties in religion, under the same ob
noxious and indiscriminating term, for the sake
of condemning them all with the least expense
of thought. They first made their appearance
in the vicinity of Toulouse and the Albigeois in
Languedoc, and may, with probability, be con
sidered as a sect of tbe Paulieians, who, having
withdrawn from Bulgaria Thrace, either to
escape persecution, or from motives of zeal to
extend their doctrines, settled in various parts
of Europe. They acquired different names in
different countries, as in Italy, whither they ori
ginally migrated, they were called Paterini and
Cathari, and in France Albigenses, from the cir
cumstance, as Mosheim affirms, of their opinions
being condemned in a council held at Alby (Lat.
Albigia) in the year 1176. Others, however,
maintain that this appellation was derived from
the district itself, which was their chief residence,
Albigensium being formerly the general name
of Narbonne-Gaul. Besides these epithets they
were called, in different times and places, and by
various authors, Bulgarians, Publicans, Boni
Homines, or Good Men, Fetro-Brussians, Hen-
ricians, Albelardists, Arnoldists, and Passagers.
In fact, the term was frequently employed to
denote any description of heretic or dissentient
from the Romish Church. Hence it becomes
extremely difficult to ascertain their peculiar
opinions with precision. Upon the authority of
several writers, tliey are charged with holding
Maniebseism. The bookof the sentences of the
Inquisition at Toulouse charges them with be
lieving that there are two Gods and Lords, good
17 C

ALB
and evil; and all things visible and corporeal
were created by the devil, or the evil god ; that
the sacraments of the Romish Church are vain
and unprofitable; and that, in short, its whole
constitution is to be condemned. They are stated
to have maintained the unlawfulness of marriage;
to have denied the incarnation of Christ, and the
resurrection of bodies; and to have believed
that the souls of men were spirits banished
from heaven on account of their transgressions.
These representations must of course be taken
with abatement, since they proceed from adver
saries; and it is, in truth, most probable that
their chief sin consisted in rejecting the supersti
tions of the Romish Church, the advocates of
which, in consequence, endeavoured to render
them odious, by imputing to them doctrines
which they never believed, and concealing from
view excellences both of faith and practice for
which they were really distinguished. Admit
ting that they did blend many errors with their
system, or that they might in some things carry
liberty into licentiousness, it is sufficiently obvi
ous that they possessed much truth, and were will
ing to suffer for its sake. A crusade was formed
against them at the commencement of the thir
teenth century, and Innocent III. admonished all
princes to oppress and expel them from their
dominions. Their chief protector was Raymond,
Earl of Toulouse, whose friendship drew upon
his head the thunders of excommunication. The
legate who bore the papal decree was accompanied
by twelve Cistercian monks, who promised a plen
ary remission.of sins to all who engaged in the holy
league against the Albigenses. Dominick, the ori- '
ginator ofthe inquisition, joined in the service, and
during the campaign set up for the first time the
holy office at Narbonne. Raymond, after much
resistance, at length yielded to terror, solicitation,
and self-interest. In the year 1209 the dreadful
war began ; and Simon, the celebrated Earl of
Montfort, became generalissimo of the army.
Notwithstanding the intrepidity displayed by the
objects of this military persecution, town after
town was captured, and the poor people, who
were stigmatized with the name of heretics, but
who are characterized by Hume (Hist., vol. ii.),
as " the most innocent and the most inoffen
sive of mankind," were hanged, slaughtered,
and burnt, without mercy. The Earl of Tou
louse was assisted by the kings of England
and Arragon ; but he lost his dominions, and in
vain appealed to the council of Lateran. Rais-'
ing some forces in Spain, while his son Raymond,
exerted himself in Provence, he regained the city
of Toulouse, and part of his possessions. The
earl died in 1221, and his son succeeded to the
dominions he had recovered ; but Pope Honorius
III. stimulated Louis of France to engage in the
contest ; and though he encountered numerous
difficulties, Baymond was necessitated at length
to obtain peace upon very degrading conditions,
and finally relinquished his Protestantism. But

ALL
in hundreds of villages every person had been
slain, and more than three-fourths of the landed
proprietors were plundered of their estates. The
Albigenses were dispersed, and excited no fur
ther attention till they united with the Vaudois,
and amalgamated with the Genevan Reformed
Church. — See Waldenses.
Ales, as festivals, were, according to Warton
(Hist, of English Poetry, vol. iii.), variously dis
criminated, as the bridal-ale, whitsun-ale, lamb-
ale, leet-ale, &c. But the church-ales, and clerk-
ales, called sometimes the lesser church-ales, were
amongst those authorized sports which, at the
period of the Reformation, produced great con
tention between Archbishop Laud and the puri
tans. The people, on the conclusion of afternoon
prayers on Sundays, according to Bishop Pierce,
in reply to Laud's inquiries, were in the habit of
going " to their lawful sports and pastimes,"
in the churchyard, or neighbourhood, or in some
public-house, to drink and make merry. By the
benevolence of the people at their pastimes, it is
added, many poor parishes have cast them bells,
beautified their churches, and raised stock for the
poor. Sometimes these were held in honour of
the tutelar saint of the church, or for the express
purpose of raising contributions to its repair.
Clerk-ales were festivals for the assistance of the
parish-clerk, with money or with good cheer, as
an encouragement in his office; " and since these
have been put down," says the prelate above
quoted, " many ministers have complained to me
that they are afraid they shall have no parish-
clerks." Alexandrine Copy (Codex Alexandrimus), a
celebrated MS. of the Bible in Greek, including
the Old and New Testament, Apocrypha, the
Epistles of Clement of Rome, &c, now deposited
i,n the British Museum, and originally sent to
England, in 1628, as a present from the Patri
arch of Constantinople to Charles I. This eccle
siastic, Cyrillus Lucaris, a native of Crete, is said
to have brought it himself from Alexandria, and
states, in an inscription annexed to it, that it
was said " by tradition to have been written by
Thecla, a noble Egyptian lady, about thirteen
hundred years ago, shortly after the council of
Nice." Its claims to the attention of the Bibli
cal student have been amply discussed by Wet-
stein, Woide, Davidson, and Fregelles. In 1786
the New Testament appeared, as complete in
print as a MS. could well be rendered, edited
by the learned Dr. Woide. Types were pur
posely formed to imitate the original; it was
printed without spaces between the words, and
line for line after the copy, with an ample pre
face containing an account of the MS., and an
exact list of all its various readings. The Old
Testament has since been published in a similar
style by Mr. Baber, and a cheap edition of the
New Testament is advertised for immediate pub
lication. Allegation, in ecclesiastical law, articles
18

ALL
drawn ont in a formal manner to establish the
complainant's cause against the person injuring
him. The defendant answers the allegation upon
oath, and this is called a defensive allegation.
When issue is thus joined, both parties proceed
to their respective proofs.
Allegorical Interpretation, a mode of in
terpreting Scripture which originated among the
Jews of Alexandria. It was freely employed
upon the Old Testament by Philo, and was car
ried to great lengths by the author of the Epistle
of Barnabas, who was probably an Alexandrian
convert to Christianity. It was reduced to some
thing of method by Clement and his school, and
still farther advanced by Origen, who may be re
garded as tbe great master of this dangerous art.
Scripture, it was said, has three senses — the
literal or historical, the moral, and the mystical;
and, according to Origen, the mystical is of two
kinds — the allegorical and the analogical; the
former, where the Old Testament prefigures the
history of Christ and his Church; the latter,
where the things of a higher world are typified
(from itoiyu, I lead up). For, as St. Paul speaks
of "Jerusalem which is above," Origen held the
existence of a spiritual world, in which every
thing of this earth has its antitj'pe. It is evident
that, however controlled, in the case of Origen,
by a faithful devout, and dutiful spirit, such prin
ciples of interpretation tended to the subversion of
all belief in the historical truth of Scripture.
All-Saints Day, otheiwise All-Hallows
Day, a feast of the church, celebrated on the first
day of November, in honour of the saints gene
rally, and those in particular to whose memory
there is no distinct day assigned. It appears
that in the pontificate of Boniface IV., and
about the year 612, the Pantheon at Rome —
a temple dedicated to all the gods — was taken
from the heathen by Phocas, the emperor, and
dedicated to the honour of all the saints and
martyrs of the church. This was done at the
instigation of Boniface, who also appointed the
first of May for the celebration of the festival ;
but, in the year 834, it was altered to the first
of November, by order of Pope Gregory IV.
At the time of the Reformation this festival was
retained in the ecclesiastical calendar of the
Anglican Church,
All-Sonls 9>ay, a feast celebrated in the
Church of Rome, on the second of November, in
commemoration of all the faithful deceased. It
was instituted by Odilon, abbot of Cluny, in the
eleventh century. The following narrative ex
plains its origin: — A Cluniac monk, passing
through Sicily on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
felt a strong inclination to visit Mount iEtna,
then supposed by many to be the mouth of hell ;
accordingly he ascended to the crater, and while
gratifying his curiosity, he heard complaints
from the evil spirits within, that by the effectual
prayers of the Cluniac monks, very many souls
which had been long under their dominion would

ALM
be taken away. On his return from Jerusalem,
the monk related this circumstance to his superior,
Abbot Odilon, who immediately appointed the
second of November to be annually kept in his
monastery, when prayers for " all the souls of the
faithful departed" should be offered up. In a
short time the day was ordained to be kept as a
general holiday by the pope himself. Of course,
it is not to be found in the calendar of any of the
Reformed churches.
Almanac. — The almanac annexed to the
Book of Common Prayer is part of the law of
England, of which the courts must take notice in
the returns of writs, &c. This may be considered
as a sort of perpetual almanac ; but it begins now
to stand in need of some revision, being founded
upon the Gregorian calendar, according to which,
the length of the year is accounted 365 days 5 h.
49' 12", whereas its actual length is 365 days 5 h.
48' 49"-7 ; it will, therefore, necessarily become
erroneous after a great number of years has

Almaria or Armaria, a name used in
ancient English records for the muniments or
archives of a church or library.
Almaricians or AnsaBtricians, a sect which
arose in France at the beginning of the thirteenth
century, the followers of Almariu of Bena, and his
disciple, David of Dinanto. Their mystical pan
theistic opinions were ably attacked by Albertus
Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, while they drew
forth from the Parisian divines the condemnation
of the works of Aristotle, from which they were
supposed to be derived. This sect carried out to
a mischievous extent the views which had been
propounded in the preceding century by Joachim
of Calabria, on the three dispensations of the three
persons in the Trinity, teaching that the power of
the Fatherwas confined to theMosaic dispensation
while that of the Son reached to the beginning
of the thirteenth century, and the reign of the
Holy Ghost then commencing, the sacraments,
or all the ceremonies of external worship, were
henceforth to be discontinued.
Almoner or Almner (eleemosynarius), an
officer of great distinction belonging to the king's
household, whose duty it is to distribute his ma
jesty's alms daily, to admonish the king to bestow
alms on saints' days, &c, and who anciently dis
posed of the king's meat, immediately after it
came from table, to twenty-four poor persons of
the parish in which the palace stood, whom he
selected at the court gate. Deodands, and the
goods of afelo de se, fell to the lord almoner, for
the purpose of relieving such as he judged proper
objects of charity. In France, the grand almoner
was formerly the highest church dignitary of the
kingdom. He bestowed the sacraments on the
king, and said mass before his majesty on state
occasions. All hospitals and houses of charity
were under his superintendence.
Almonry, the place in or near the church.
where alms were distributed to the poor.

19

ALM
Alms, such things as are given for the relief of
the poor. In the apostolic times (see 1 Cor. xvi.
1, 2) a collection was made every Lord's day,
either at the time of communion, or at the agapce,
or feast of love, for the relief of necessitous breth
ren. This excellent practice is still observed in
many Christian churches — in some before, and in
some after, the celebration of the Lord's Supper.
In the days of Chrysostom a custom prevailed
of giving alms to the poor before going into
church ; the objects of their bounty and sym
pathy being arranged around the entrance, "that
the sight, of them might provoke the most back
ward and inhuman soul to compassion." The
duty of relieving the poor is thus enforced by
the above named father, in his exposition of
these words, Thou shalt not appear before the
Lord thy God empty. " These words," said he,
" were spoken to the Jews ; but how much more
so to us. Therefore the poor stand before the
door of the church, that no one should go in
empty, but enter securely with charity for his
companion. You go into the church to obtain
mercy, first show mercy. Stretch forth your
hands not only to heaven but to the hands
of the poor. If you stretch out your hand to
the poor you touch the very height of heaven;
for He that sits there receives your alms; but if
you lift up barren hands, it profits nothing."
The custom of giving alms to the poor at the
gates of churches has come down to our time, as
may be seen in all Catholic countries. Alms
were also, in ancient times, the principal, and,
in some instances, the only subsistence of the
clergy. Those of the primitive Christians were
divided into four parts; one of which was re
served for the poor and for the repairing of
churches, the other three were distributed
amongst the bishops, priests, and deacons.
Hence we find that in the Book of Common
Prayer the Scriptuie sentences selected for read
ing at the time of offering include some injunc
tions to the congregation to contribute to the
support of the ministers who labour among them.
" The offerings for the clergy, or their share in
the collection," says Wheatly, "must certainly
be meant by the above-mentioned sentences,
which have a direct and immediate regard to
them ; for it is well known that in the primitive
times the clergy had a liberal maintenance out
of what tbe people offered on these occasions."
The same writer goes on to say, that " Now,
where the stated income of a parish is not suffi
cient to maintain the clergy belonging to the
church, they have still a right to claim their
share in these offerings."
In process of time that which was originally
a fruit of benevolence became enforced by eccle
siastical laws, and all the powerful stimulants
which an artful priesthood could educe from
eternal hopes and fears. The convenient doc
trine of the apocryphal book of Tobit, that " It is
better to give alms than to lay up gold ; for

20

ALM
alms doth deliver from death, and shall purge
away all sins," was universally inculcated, until
the riches of the world were poured into the lap
of the Church.
The clause in 1 Peter iv. 8, " Charity shall
cover the multitude of sins," seems to have been
sometimes adduced as a proof of the saving merit
of almsgiving. But the meaning of the apostle
is, that love is blind to faults, and that if men
" have fervent charity among themselves," they
will not be prone to detect and exaggerate one
another's failings.
"Oh, excellent alms -giving!'' says Edgar;
"Oh, worthy reward of the soul ! Oh, salutary
remedy of our sins!" "It was usual," observes
Mr. Fosbrooke, in his Monasticon, " to recom
mend this as a means of liberation from guilt.
The sick were taught to expect cures by the
same mode. It was a general opinion that per
sons who had no issue should give alms and
found charitable institutions. They (the rich),
as well as their inferiors, used to put a written
schedule of their sins under the cloth which
covered the altar of a favourite saint, accom
panied by a donation, and a day or two after re
examined the schedule, which the virtues of the
saint converted to a blank!" It is not, however,
to be forgotten that many of the monastic estab
lishments which became surreptitiously enriched
were afterwards the sources of the most effectual
charity to the poor, and are found to this day,
in various parts of Catholic Europe, distinguished
for the useful exercise of this Christian virtue.
In the Romish Church the term is still used
as including all gifts to the church and the
poor. The Mahometan theology represents alms as
needful to make the prayers of the faithful to be
heard above; and a saying of one of their caliphs
has been often quoted amongst them with appro
bation, " Prayer carries us half-way to God, fast
ing to the door of his palace, but alms introduces
us to his presence chamber." The general dis
position of liberality to the distressed is certainly
amongst the best features of the Mahometan
Church, which has produced many shining exam
ples of this species of charity. In most of the
countries of Europe the relief of the poor is now
placed under civil control and assessment. In
Scotland, prior to tbe recent poor-law, the heritors
and kiik-session of each parish could impose an
assessment, and they were the legal trustees of
the money so acquired. But an assessment, ex
cept in the large towns, was rarely resorted to,
the Sabbath collection at the church door being
deemed sufficient. — See Poor. .
Alms-Box or Chest (called by the Greeks
Kifitimv), a box in which the alms of the church
were collected, both in public and private assem
blies. By 27 Henry VIII. and the injunction of
the canons, a small chest, or coffer, is to be placed
in a convenient situation in every parish church of
England and Wales, and the produce of it distri-

ALM
buted to the poor. It is generally secured by
three keys, which are kept by the minister and
churchwardens. Canon 84 of the English Church
says: — " The churchwardens shall provide and
have, within three months after the publishing
of these constitutions, a strong chest, with a hole
in tbe upper part thereof, to be provided at the
charge of the parish (if there be none such al
ready provided), having three keys: of which
one shall remain in the custody of the parson,
vicar, or curate, and the other two in the custody
ofthe churchwardens for the time being : which
chest they shall set and fasten in the most con
venient place, to the intent the parishioners
may put into it their alms for their poor neigh
bours. And the parson, vicar, or curate, shall
diligently, from time to time, and especially when
men make their testaments, call upon, exhort,
and move their neighbours to confer and give, as
they may well spare, to the said chest ; declaring
unto them that, whereas, heretofore, they have
been diligent to bestow much substance other
wise than God commanded, upon superstitious
uses, now they ought at this time to be much
more ready to help the poor and needy, knowing
that, to relieve the poor, is a sacrifice which
pleaseth God ; and that, also, whatsoever is given
for their comfort is given to Christ himself, and
is so accepted of him that he will mercifully re
ward the same. The which alms and devotion
of the people, the keepers of the keys shall yearly,
quarterly, or oftener (as need requireth), take out
of the chest, and distribute the same in tbe pre
sence of most of the parish, or six of the chief of
them, to be truly and faithfully delivered to their
most poor and needy neighbours."
Almucia or Almucium, a cap worn chiefly
by the clergy, made of goats' or lambs' skins : the
part covering the head was square, and behind it
covered the neck and shoulders. It is probable
this square form of the cap was the origin of the
one now worn in our universities.
Alogians or Alogi (a. priv., and Xayaj, word),
an obscure sect at the beginning of the second
century, who appear to have arisen in opposition
to the Montanists. They are said to have denied
that Jesus Christ was the Logos, or Eternal
Word of the Father, and to have rejected the
Gospel and Revelation of St. John as spurious.
Lardner denies the existence of any such sect, as
they are first mentioned by Epiphanius and
Philaster, and there is no contemporary writer
who notices them.
Altar (see Biblical Cyclopaedia), is a term
used among many Christians, to signify a square
table placed on the eastern side of tlie church,
and sometimes the whole of the platform on
which it stands, a little elevated above the floor,
and set apart for the celebration of the holy
communion, marriage, and other important uses.
In the ancient churches, the altar, or holy
table, was net placed close to the wall, but
in the middle of the sanctuary; thus allowing

ALT
space to walk round it. Behind it, and close
to the wall, seats for the bishops and presbyters
were placed. At the time of the Reformation
a warm controversy sprang up as to whether the
altars in use in Popish times ought to be re
tained ; Bishop Hooper, it is said, being the first
to propose their removal, and the substitution of
tables instead, in a sermon before Henry VIII.
This resulted in a general order to all the bishops
to pull down the old altars, and to provide tables
which should stand in the body of the church, or
in the chancel. The term altar is still used both
by Protestants and Roman Catholics — by the
former occasionally, and in a metaphorical man
ner, but by the latter uniformly and with greater
consistency, inasmuch as they regard the celebra
tion of the Eucharist as a proper sacrifice. It
was the ancient practice, both of the Greek and
Latin Churches, to pray with their faces towards
the east, and, as we have seen, to place their
altars on tables towards that quarter ; hence, also,
possibly arose tlie practice of the members of the
Church of England turning and bowing towards
the east on the recital of the Apostles' creed, &c.
Moresin expressly tells us, that the altars of
papal Rome were placed towards the east, in
imitation of the practice of antiquitj'.
At first, each church contained but one altar,
and we read of cities containing several churches,
in none of which, but one in each town, was the
privilege of having an altar permitted ; but in
process of time they were so multiplied that we
read of no less than twelve or thirteen altars in
some churches. In St. Paul's Cathedral, when the
chantries were granted to Henry VIII., there were
fourteen; and in the cathedral of Magdeburg
there were forty-nine. The altars of the Roman
Catholic Church bear a strong resemblance to
tombs ; and as the primitive Christians were in
the habit of holding their meetings and celebrat
ing the mysteries of their religion over the grave3
of their martyrs, it was formerly a rule in the
Romish Church never to erect an altar without
enclosing in it the relics of some saint. Until
the time of Constantine they were usually built
of wood, but from that period altars of stone
became general, and at length the council of
Epone, in the year 509, decreed that no altar, ex
cept it was built of stone, should be consecrated.
The term altar, though in general use in the
early ages of the Church, was not understood
to convey » sacrificial idea; for this was one
of the many charges preferred against Chris
tianity by heathenism that it has no altars.
Origen, Lactantius, and other Christian apolo
gists, replied to this allegation by confessing that
they bad none, in the heathen or Jewish sense of
the term, but that they had an unbloody altar for
their own mystical and unbloody sacrifice. It is
true that Chrysostom invests the altar with much
awe by the terms he employs to designate it : he
writes of it as the " mystical," " tremendous,"
"spiritual," "Divine," ""royal," "immortal," and

21

ALT
"heavenly table:" whereas St. Augustine simply
denominates it "Mensa Domini" — the Lord's
Table (see 1 Cor.) Some of the altars had a can
opy, called the Ciborium, supported by four orna
mented pillars, the top of which was surmounted
by a ball adorned with flowers, and bearing the
emblem of Christianity, a cross. As innova
tions upon the original simplicity of Christian
worship crept in, we find them ornamenting the
altars with large crosses made of silver, and sus
pending under the canopy of it, as well as over
the baptistry, silver figures of a dove, as repre
sentations of the Holy Ghost. In the year 506
a new ceremony of consecration, distinct from
that of the dedication of the church, was intro
duced, where also we find the first mention of the
application of holy chrism in the ceremony; and
soon after, the practice of bowing to the altar, kiss
ing the rails and doors ofthe chancel, and anything
belonging to the " holy of holies," began to ap
pear. The bishops generally preached from the
steps of the altar, and the superior clergy were
permitted to kneel around it at the time of ordina
tion. The rubric of the English Church has : —
" The table, at the communion time having a
fair white linen cloth upon it, shall stand in the
body of the church, or in the chancel, where morn
ing and evening prayers are appointed to be said.
And the priest, standing at the north side of the
table, shall say the Lord's Prayer, with the col
lect following, the people kneeling." Wheatly
thus explains : — " Wherever it be placed, the
priest is obhged to stand at the north side (or end
thereof, as the Scotch Liturgy expresses it; which
also orders that it shall stand at the uppermost
part of the chancel or church), the design of
which is, that the priest maybe the better seen and
heard ; which, as our altars are now placed, he
cannot be but at the north or south side. And,
therefore, the north side being the right hand or
upper side of the altar, is certainly the most
proper for the officiating priest, that so the assist
ing minister — if there be one — may not be obliged
to stand above him. And Bishop Beveridge has
shown that wherever, in the ancient liturgies, the
minister is directed to stand before the altar, the
north side of it is always meant. The covering
of the altar with a fair white linen cloth, at the
time of the celebration of the Lord's Supper, was
a primitive practice, enjoined at first, and retained
ever since for its decency. In the sacramentary
of St. Gregory this covering is called "palia
altaris " — the pall of the altar ; to distinguish it, I
suppose, from the "corporis palia," or the cloth
that was thrown over the consecrated elements.
And the Scotch Liturgy orders that the holy
table at the communion time should have a
carpet, and a fair white linen cloth upon it, with
other decent furniture, meet for the high mys
teries there to be celebrated; and by our own
canons, at all other times when divine service is
performed, it is to be covered with a carpet of
silk, or other decent stuff, thought meet by the

AMB
ordinary of the place, if any question be made of
it ; which was originally designed for the clean
keeping of the said (white linen) cloth, though
the chief use of it now is for ornament and de
cency." The Christian altars, as well as those be
longing to the heathen, enjoyed the privilege,
even before the time of Constantine, of screening
from justice those who fled to them for succour;
which privilege was subsequently extended to the
rails of the chancel, and to other portions of the
sacred edifice. The term altar has also been
used for the oblations or incidental incomes of
the Church. In former times a distinction was
made between the church and the altar: the
tithes were called "ecclesia," the church, and the
other contingent revenues the altar. (Siegel;
Hospinian, De origine Altarium.) — See Church.
Altarage, in English ecclesiastical law, in
cludes the offerings made upon the altar, and the
tithes derived to the priests by reason of his ad
ministering at the altar, obventio altaris. There
has been much dispute, since the Reformation,
with regard to the extent of vicar's claim upon
tithes, as altarage ; by Mich. 21 Eliz. it was de
termined that the words altaragium cum manso
compelenti should entitle him to the small tithes
of the parish ; but in the case of Franklyn, T.
1721, it was decreed, and it is now generally un
derstood, that the extent of the altarage depends
entirely upon the usage and manner of endow
ment. Altare-Portatile, a moveable altar, to' be
used in places which have no altar regularly
fixed and consecrated.
Altar of Ft'othesis is a name given by the
modern Greeks to a small preparatory kind of
altar, upon which they bless the bread before it
is carried to the larger one. — See Credence.
Altar-Thane or Church Thane, in an
cient law books, the parson of the parish is
so called.
Ania or Amula, a vessel in which a com
municant used to bring to the church his obla
tion of wine for the Lord's Supper.
Ainbo or Ambon (from u.itu.$u.iva>, go up),
an elevated place or platform in ancient churches,
having an ascent on either side, and situated in
the body of the edifice for the convenience of the
hearers. Here the singers stood ; here, also, at its
top, the Gospel was read, and the Epistles from
a step lower ; here new converts of religion con
fessed their faith ; and the acts of martyrs, and
epistles of distant churches, were published to
the people. It was occasionally used as a pulpit ;
for we are told by Chrysostom, that " he was the
first that preached in the ambo, or reading desk
of the church, by reason of the multitude of
people that crowded up to hear him." Some of
these ambos are still left standing, both in Eng
land and on the Continent, although the modern
reading desks and pulpits are more generally
substituted in their stead.
Ambrosian Chant, the chant which was

22

AMB
introduced into his church by St. Ambrose,
and was generally practised during the fifth
and sixth centuries. It was the sacred music
of the Greek Church, brought by the bishop into
tlie Western Church, and was regulated by the
four Grecian scales. Twelve authentic hymns of
Ambrose are still preserved, among which are
the Te Deum Laudamus, probably a translation
from the Greek, and the Veni Redemptor Gen
tium. The Ambrosian Chant is said to be still
preserved in the Duomo at Milan ; but Dr. Bur-
ney, who attended there during its performance,
was not able todiscover the difference between it
and the chant ofthe other cathedrals of Italy, and
of those in France, which is commonly said to be
the Gregorian Chant.
Ambrosian Prayer of Consecration. —
This composition, though nearly the same as the
mass, has one important variation from the words
of consecration employed in the latter service.
The mass service prays that the eucharistic sacri
fice " may become to us the body and blood of
Christ," while the former is content with acknow
ledging it as " the figure of the body and blood
of Christ."
Amedicn or Amedians (lovers of God),
a religious congregation in the Church of Rome,
that had twenty-eight convents, wore gray
clothes girt with a cord, but without breeches,
and had- wooden shoes. Pius IV. united them
with the Cistertians and the Soccolanti.
Amen (Greek &/tm), used in Scripture,
and still preserved in our different Christian
churches at the conclusion of prayer : it signifies
assent and desire, as, verily; so be it; so it ought to
be. In this sense it exists, with little alteration as
to sound, in the languages of most countries where
Christianity has been known. It is recorded that
the primitive Christians not only pronounced the
amen audibly, but also accompanied it with a
physical effort to signify the ardency of their
devotion. Jerome says — "They echo out the
amen like a thunder-clap;" and Clemens Alex-
andrinus adds — " At the last acclamation of their
prayers, they raised themselves upon their tiptoes,
as if they desired that the word should carry up
their bodies as well as their souls to heaven."
Ureat importance was anciently attached to the
use of this word by communicants on receiving the
bread and wine. It was also the custom for the
congregation to answer amen at the close of the
prayer of consecration — a custom which is noticed
by Justin Martyr (Apol. i., 65, 67), and to which
Bingham thinks there is a plain allusion even in
1 Cor. xiv. 16, but which seems to have fallen
into general disuse in the Western churches about
the sixth century. — In the English Book of
Common Prayer, the amen is, in some instances,
printed in Roman characters, and in others in
Italic ; the reason of which, according to Wheat-
ly, is that the amen in Italic is to be said By
the congregation, and not by the minister; but
that the minister, as well as congregation, must
unite in uttering the amen printed in Roman. 23

AMP
American Churches. — See Episcopacy,
Independency, Pilgrim Fathers, Puritans.
presbytery. Amice, « vestment of the ancient Church,
formed of an oblong square of linen, and covering
the neck and shoulders.
Ammonians, a name sometimes given,
from their great founder, Ammonius Saccas, to .
the Eclectics, or New Platonists, a philosophical
sect which arose at Alexandria towards the c'ose
of the second century. They professed to form
their system by selecting and reconciling what
was reasonable in the tenets of all other philoso
phers, and rejecting what was contrary to reason ;
and what they professed with regard to philoso
phy they easily extended to religion, which, in
fact, was with them entirely founded on philoso
phical principle^. Their efforts were for the most
part directed against Christianity ; and the con
test was carried on with great ardour through the
third century. But as Origen and his scholars,
on the one hand, adopted, with the services of
religion, some of the peculiar principles of the
eclectic philosophers, their adversaries; so, on the
other hand, certain disciples of Plotinus assumed
the name and professed the faith of Christians,
on condition that they should be allowed to retain
some favourite opinion of their master. Ammo
nius Saccas had been educated in Christianity,
and he seems never to have abandoned the name
of the faith while he was disparaging its doc
trines and its essence. His disciple, the illus-'
trious Plotinus, made no pretensions to the name..
And Porphyry, who came next in age and repu
tation, thought it necessary, for the credit of
Ammonius, to maintain that he had deserted
Christianity. Ainorccans, an order of Gemaric doctors,
who commented upon the Jerusalem Talmud;
they succeeded the Mischnic doctors, and after
continuing 250 years, were followed by the
Seburseans. Amphiballus, a large surplice worn by the
monks in the middle ages, that entirely covered
the body.
Amphidryon, another name for the follow
ing— Amphithyra (a,fi,<plSvpa., folding doors), called ¦
also " £iix«" — Le., vela, veils, which were curtains
or veils in ancient churches, placed before the
door of the chancel, to hide the full view of this
sacred place from the catechumens and unbe
lievers. Chrysostom, it is supposed, refers to tbem
in these words — " When the sacrifice is brought
forth, when Christ, the Lamb of God, is offered ;
when you have this signal given, let us all join
in common prayer ; when you see the veils with
drawn (™ */t$ ilafa aviXxi/nax) then think you
see heaven opened, and the angels descending
from above."
Ampulla, a vessel, bellying' out like a jug,,
that contained- unctions for the bath; Amongst-
the ornaments and sacred utensils of churches,

AMS
we find the ampulla answering various purposes,
¦such as holding the oil for chrism, consecration,
&c. ; and a vessel of this kind is still used in the
coronations of the kings of England and France.
Amsdorfinns, those who, in the Majoristic
controversy (q. v.), took part with " the impe
tuous Amsdorf," who, in his earnest opposition to
the opinions of Major, went so far as to assert
that good works were an impediment to salvation.
Amulet, anything hung round the neck
from a superstitious motive, as >• preservative
against bodily sickness and injury, or spiritual
assault and danger. In the early ages of the
Church this superstitious practice greatly pre
vailed, having been introduced by the heathen
converts, and also by many of the Jews who had
embraced Christianity. They were sometimes
called Periammata, the Greek word for anything
suspended round the neck, and sometimes Phylac
teries, the Greek word for preservatives. Con
stantine, in one of his laws, condemns magic,
and dooms to capital punishment those who
should be convicted of practising it ; but he made
an exception in favour of public augurs, charms
for the removal of bodily distempers, and the
prevention of storms and other evils. This tole
rance of the general custom of wearing amulets
was looked upon by the partially instructed
disciples of Christianity as a tacit acknowledg
ment of their virtue, and of the propriety of
wearing them. Hence amulets came into very
extensive use. The 36th canon of -the council
of Laodicea condemns all clergymen who made
such " fetters of the soul," and sentences those
who wore them to be cast out of the Church.
Chrysostom inveighed against them, as did also
St. Basil, Epiphanius, and other fathers of the
Church. By the superstitious members of the
Church of Rome the practice of wearing amulets
is still preserved, virtue of the most extraordi
nary nature being ascribed to many of them.
The curious reader may satisfy himself on this
subject by authorizing some friend in Rome,
Paris, or Dublin, to purchase an assortment for
him at those shops where the trade in relics,
scapulars, crosses, beads, rosaries, &c, is carried
on. Amyraldism, the system of the celebrated
Moses Amreat, Amyraut, or Amyreldas, a
French Protestant, which, in the middle of the
seventeenth century, originated several warm
controversies in France and Holland. His fol
lowers were also sometimes called Universalists,
and hypothetical Universalists, because of the
condition of faith attached to their creed, of
which the following is a summary : — That God,
desiring the happiness of all men, excludes
none from the benefits of Christ's death, by
any decree or purpose of his. No one, how
ever, can be made a partaker of those benefits
without faith in Christ: and though God re
fuses to none the power of believing, he does
not grant to all that assistance which is neces-

ANA
sary for the improving it to their final salvation.
— The theory of Amyrald, while it seemed to
tone down the so-called rigour of Calvinism;
removed none of its difficulties. His universal-
ism was only ideal, and therefore without any
effect ; it was grace — qua aclu nemo salvatur.
Against such doctrines, propagated from Saumur,
Rivet and Moulin of Sedan, strenuously opposed
themselves. Against the same theory was drawn
up in Switzerland a formula consensus in 1675.
Anabaptists (Re-baplizers), a name that has
sometimes been given to all Christians who con
sider baptism by any other mode than that of
immersion, or administered to any other parties
than those who can give a credible profession of
their faith, null and void. They consequently
administer this rite in their own manner to all
persons who have not previously submitted to
it in any different form. — See Baptist. It
would appear tbat some of the earliest sec
taries denied the validity of the baptism of the
Catholic Church, and would suffer no one to
join their respective communities but those who
should first receive baptism at their own hands.
Such was the practice of the Novatians and
Donatists. The Catholic Church, at a later date,
denied the baptism of heretics to be valid ; and
amongst the Eastern and African Churches, many
instances occurred in the third century of their
being re-baptized. Some German Baptists in
modern times are said to have administered bap
tism more than once to the same individuals,
who, having been separated from their commu
nion for misconduct, have been again received';
and to converts of other Baptists on joining
their sect.
The term, however, derives its importance in
history from an extravagant body of professed
religionists who disturbed the peace of Germany
and the Netherlands early in the sixteenth cen
tury, and retarded in no small degree the pro
gress of the Reformation. In no way are they
to be identified with modern Baptists. " Melanch
thon gives this account of their first appearance
at Wittemberg, in a letter to theElectorof Saxony.
"Your Highness is aware of the many danger
ous dissensions that have disturbed your city of
Zwickau (in Misnia), on the subject of religion.
Some persons have been cast into prison there
for their religious innovations. Three of the
ringleaders have come hither; two of them
ignorant mechanics, the third is a man of letters.
I have given them a hearing, and it is astonish
ing what they tell of themselves ; namely, that
they are positively sent by God to teach ; that
they can foretell future events ; and, to be brief,
that they are on a footing with prophets and
apostles. I cannot describe how I am moved
by these lofty pretensions." These persons were
Nicholas Storck, Mark Stubner, and Martinus
Cellarius, who had been previously associated
with Thomas Munzer, at Zwickau, in freaks cf
the wildest enthusiasm. Storck was a baker of

24

ANA
that place, who had chosen twelve of his own
trade as his particular associates, and called them
his apostles, and seventy-two disciples, Stubner
had some learning, which he exercised in the
perversion of Scripture, to support the pretensions
of his companions. This visit to Wittemberg,
in wbich they first appear, was in the spring of
1522. Luther, on his return from banishment,
had an interview with these fanatics, whom he
dismissed, declaring to them, " The God whom I
serve and adore will confound your vanities."
They appear, from the same testimony, to have
rejected the baptism of infants as invalid, appeal
ing to their own revelations as authority upon the
point. We next find Munzer at Alsted, on the
borders of Thuringia, in the electorate of Saxony,
where he inveighed against the Pope and the
Reformation. Here he gradually flattered the
populace into the belief of his being divinely
commissioned to originate a new political com
munity, principally by the interpretation of their
dreams. Numbers of them took a solemn oath
to put to death all wicked persons, to appoint
new and righteous magistrates, and to unite with
him in what they called the establishment of a
pure and holy church. Happily, this design was
discovered and frustrated before it could be
carried into execution at this place. He now
retired to Nuremberg, and, being expelled from
thence, to Mulhausen, where he managed his
attempt with more success. In 1525 a vast
body of the peasants of Thuringia, Suabia, and
Franconia, had entered into his schemes ; and it
was not until several of the princes had united
their forces, and had drawn these fanatics, after
the slaughter of many thousands of them in
skirmishes, into a pitched battle in the neigh
bourhood of Mulhausen, that the insurrection
was quelled, and their leader slain. It is admit
ted on all hands that the peasantry were in a
very oppressed state at this period : in their early
manifestoes they declared that they sought for
nothing but a relaxation of the severity of their
chiefs, and some share of civil liberty ; but the
artifices and persuasions of Munzer, and above
all, his confident predictions of success, urged
them to desperate measures. This war alone is
supposed to have cost the provinces in which
it raged more than 50,000 men. But though the
early chiefs of this faction were thus cut off, the
principles they had disseminated were eagerly
cherished by man}'. Of these the leading one
was, that Christ was now about to assume the
reins of all civil government, and that over
the subjects of his kingdom and church the
exercise of any earthly magistracy was not only
needless, but an infringement of their rights.
The more moderate of the Anabaptists digested
their opinions into the following points of doctrine:
— That the Church of Christ ought to be exempt
fiom all sin; that all things should be in com
mon among the faithful ; that all usury, tithes,
and tribute, ought to be entirely abolished ; that

ANA
the baptism of infants was an invention of tha
devil ; that every Christian was invested with a
power of preaching the Gospel, and, consequently,
that the Church stood in no need of ministers or
pastors; that in the kingdom of Christ civil
magistrates were absolutely useless; and that
God still continued to reveal his will to chosen
persons by dreams and visions. Such senti
ments were well adapted to the religious and
political circumstances of the empire; appearing,
on the one hand, to accord with and complete
the views of Luther and his associates, and, on the
other, to provide a complete emancipation for the
discontented and oppressed. It is evident how
easily the fanatical leaders of a multitude could
derive a sanction from them for the most des
perate enterprises. Having given birth, by their
conduct, to various penal laws against them, in the
electorate of Saxony and in Switzerland (where
they were at first treated with great mildness), as
well as in other parts of Germany, from the year
1525 to 1534, we find the Anabaptists at the
latter date attracting considerable attention in
Westphalia, under two intrepid and able leaders,
John Matthias of Haerlem, and John Bockholdt of
Leyden. The former was originally a baker,
and the latter a journeyman tailor; but both
possessed considerable powers of oratory, a plau
sible and confident address, and many preten
sions to external sanctity. Having gained over
to their cause a Protestant preacher of the name
of Rothman, who had first introduced the doc
trines of the Reformation into Munster, and one
Knipperdoling, a principal citizen, they deter
mined to make that city, one of the first rank in
the empire, aud under the sovereignty of its own
bishop, the centre of their future efforts. They
were not tardy in the application of their prin
ciples and resolves. Having called in a strong
body of their converts from the environs, in a
night ofthe month of February, 1 534, they seized
the arsenal and senate-house of the city, with
little or no opposition, and ran, with shouts of
" Repent, and be baptized," and " Depart, ye
ungodly," through the streets, brandishing drawn
swords. The consuls and senate, who governed
in name of the bishop, with the nobility, church
dignitaries, and all the sober part of the citizens,
were sufficiently alarmed to obey this latter in
junction with all speed, leaving everything they
possessed to the votaries of the former. Matthias
now assumed the supreme direction of affairs;
issued commandswhich it was declared to bedeath
to disobey ; and, though at first the old forms of
government were preserved in the election of
a senate and consuls, the most arbitrary and
unbounded authority was quickly conceded to
him. So far sincere to his principles as to be
apparently without a wish for personal aggran
dizement, he ordered all the convertible property
of the city to be collected together and invested
in one fund, to be managed by deacons nomi
nated for the common benefit. All the inha-

25

ANA
bitants were declared equal, and were equally
provided for at the common tables which were
established in every part of the town; and
Matthias is said even to have prescribed the
dishes, of which he partook in common with his
followers. He now developed talents of no ordi
nary kind as a military commander, and shared
with the lowest of the people the various labours
he enjoined. Every one capable of bearing
arms was trained to military duty, and every
hand that could assist obliged to work upon the
fortification of the city, or in replenishing the
magazines. Messengers were despatched, as
long as it was safe, into the country, to invite
their brethren to come to their aid, and share
their triumphs, the city of Munster being now
dignified with the title of Mount Sion ; and the
most confident assurances held out to the various
branches of the sect in Germany and the Low
Countries, that' from this favoured spot their
leaders would shortly go forth to the conquest of
all nations. Count Waldeck was at this time
the bishop and sovereign of Munster, and pos
sessed both energy and experience as a general.
He surrounded the city in about three months
with a considerable army. Scarcely, however,
had they encamped, before Matthias sallied out
with a chosen band, and putting a large party of
the besiegers to the sword, returned into the city
with great exultation, and a valuable booty.
The next day he was determined to venture his
whole success on his spiritual pretensions, and
declared that, after the example of the chosen
servant of heaven of old, Gideon, he would go
forth with only thirty of his men, and overthrow
the host of his enemies. The daring part of his
pledge he fulfilled ; his associates, who felt them
selves honoured by the election, as willingly
followed him, and they were all cut to pieces.
This utter failure of their leader made a con
siderable momentary sensation in the city; but
his wary and ambitious coadjutor, Bockholdt,
quickly raised the drooping cause. His measures
at first were entirely defensive; but he was by
far too cautious and cunning to suffer any feel
ing of torpidity, or even common calmness to
take possession of the minds of his followers.
Visions and various predictions had announced
some great event to be approaching, when, Bock
holdt stripped himself naked, and ran through the
city, proclaiming, " that the kingdom of Sion
was at hand; the highest things on earth must be
brought low, and the lowest exalted." One of the
first interpretations of this injunction was the level
ling of the churches to the ground ; another, the
degrading the most respectable of his associates,.
Knipperdoling, to the office of common hangman;
a thin] was to be still more formally announced.
In the month of June it was declared by a fellow-
prophet to be revealed to him from heaven that
John Bockholdt was called to the throne of David,
and must be forthwith proclaimed king in Sion.
Bockholdt solemnly, and on his knees, declared the

26,

ANA
same important circumstance to have been com
municated to himself, and that he humbly
accepted the divine intimation. In the presence
of the assembled citizens, he was now hailed as
their monarch, and appeared in all the pomp of
his new dignity. He clothed himself in purple,
and wore a superb crown ; a Bible was publicly
carried before him in one hand, and a drawn sword
in the other. He coined money, bearing his own
likeness ; appointed body guards, officers of stare
aud of his household, and nominated twelvejudges
of the people, in imitation of the judges of Israel.
This fanatic was permitted to add one more un
happy proof of the extravagance to which the
human mind is capable, while professing to act
under the most sacred sanctions. Doubts were
hinted by the public teachers of the obligations
of matrimony, and of the expediency of being
restrained from taking more wives than one. At
length it was declared to be an invasion of spiritual
liberty, and the new monarch himself confirmed
the wavering and awed the fearful by marrying
at once three wives. Only one of them, however
(the widow of his predecessor), was dignified with
the title of queen. Freedom of divorce and the
most unbridled licentiousness followed this vile
example among the people ; every good man in
Germany secretly trusted that such a scene could
not long be suffered to disgrace the Christian
name, and the German princes hastened to afford
the bishop new succours. In May, 1535, the
siege was converted into a close blockade ; but
the vigilance of Bockholdt had left no point un
guarded. Famine,however, gradually threatened
the besieged ; their supplies were uniformly inter
rupted ; the greatest horrors were suffered ; and
the courage of some of. the sect began to fail.
While new visions and revelations still sustained
the faith of the multitude, Bockholdt found it
necessary to make severe examples occasionally
of the unbelieving ; and, in the presence of all his
family, cut off the head of one of his wives with
his own hands, for daring to express some doubts
of his divine authority. But a deserter from the
besiegers, who had been taken into the service of
the Anabaptists, had discovered a part of the for
tifications rather weaker than the rest, and carried
the intelligence to the bishop's camp. Intrusted
with the direction of a small detachment (June
24), he ascended the wall and seized one of the
gates; an advantage which, being observed from
their intrenchments, . was instantly followed up
by the main body of the besieging army, and
though theAnabaptists defended themselves with
all the frantic courage of -enthusiasm and despair,
the greater part of them were put to the sword, and
the whole town subdued to its rightful sovereign in
the course of the day. Bockholdt and Rjiipperdol-
ing were among the few prisoners that were taken.
The former was instantly loaded with fetters, and
after having been paraded in mock majesty through
all tho chief towns of the neighbourhood, was
brought 'back to Munster, and exposed to the

ANA
most excruciating tortures. These he bore with
great firmness ; and though but twenty-six years
of age at his death, retained to the very last an
undiminished superiority over his sufferings, and
an unshaken profession of the principles of his
party. Thus, after a precarious and disgraceful
dominion of fifteen months, ended the kingdom of
the Anabaptists at Munster. During the whole
period of its continuance, the reformers of Wit-
temberg earnestly testified against its spirit, and
stimulated the princes of Germany to put them
down (see Ranke's History of Reformation, vol.
ii., p. 202). Mosheim has taken pains to prove
the Mennonite Baptists of Holland to be the
" descendants of these Anabaptists." They
themselves reject the appellation as an odiosum
nomen. Menno condemned with much indig
nation the licentious tenets and extraordinary
pretensions of the Anabaptist prophets. — See
Mennonites. Anacamptcria, in ecclesiastical history,
small inns or hospitals, built adjoining to the
ancient churches, as receptacles for the poor.
Anagnoses or Anaguosmata (avxyivutrxai,
I read), a book of the lessons of the Greek Church
during the year.
Anagnostcs (avxymaTn;, lector, a reader),
an officer in the Church, of whom we have the
earliest mention in Tertulhan, de Pressor. Han:,
c. 41, where the lector is expressly distinguished
from the episcopus, presbyter, and diaconus, and
it is implied that the Church observed a fixed
rule respecting the office and duties of these several
ministers. Cyprian speaks of their ordination,
and observes that their office was an introduc
tion to the higher offices of the Church. In the
Western Church the subdeacons early assumed the
privileges of the readers, and the latter office be
came almost extinct. There were readers in the
Jewish synagogue, and in the early Christian
Church any one able to read might read. Boys
often read in the church, and Julian, afterwards
the apostate, was a reader, in his boyhood, of the
church of Nicomedia (see Riddle's Christian
Antiquities, p. 303).
Anagogy (avayayn, leading up), is sometimes
used by ecclesiastical writers for an elevation of
the mind to things spiritual and eternal, and op
posed to " iVt«jiV — history. It is applied more
particularly to Jewish and other expositions of
the types of the law of Moses.
Analogy of Faith is a certain consistency
of revelation with itself, in all its various parts,
which, without involving any such sophism as
has been objected to it, constitutes an impartial
rule oi interpreting Scripture, and of reconciling
apparent contradictions.
Anaphora («v«0of«, offering), a name some
times given by ancient writers to the elements in
the Eucharist.
Anathema (atih/id), a Greek term, signify
ing h thing separated from God, or devoted to
£ome infernal deity. The phrase, (/.vudiy.c/. sa-rat, 27

ANC
which.is used by St. Paul in Gal. i. 8, and trans
lated by let him be accursed, occurs very frequently
in the canons of ancient councils. The council o
Gangra, about the middle of the fourth century,
closes every one of its canons in this way ; and
we find in other instances the same solemn form
employed to cut off from the communion of the
church, and, as it was supposed, from the hope of
heaven, not only those who might differ from
their brethren on mysterious points of doctrine,
but even those who might object to some form or
ceremony on which Scripture is altogether silent.
The council of Trent anathematized all those who
should hesitate to accept the large body of canons
and decrees in which its decisions were embodied.
As a matter of church discipline, in its highest or
judiciary form, the anathema could only be pro
nounced by a pope, council, or some of the superior
clergy. Another form of anathema, called ab-
juratory, was principally applied to the confession
of heretics, who were made to anathematize the
errors they abjured. Robbers, and other disturbers
of the public peace, were, in the dark ages, de
livered over by anathemas to the vengeance of
heaven ; a form of this kind is quoted by Robert
son in his History of Charles V., from Boquet,
which, he observes, " was composed with peculiar
eloquence." Analhemata (avaGnpccToc), the term used by
Luke (xxi. 5) for the gifts and ornaments of the
temple, and afterwards applied by ecclesiastical
writers to all sorts of ornaments in churches,
whether in the structure itself, or in the vessels and
utensils belonging to it. It sometimes denotes,
in a more restricted sense, those peculiar gifts
which were hung on pillars, and set in public
view as memorials of some great mercy which
men had received from God. These last were
called by Latin writers, donaria.
Anchorets or Anchorites (ava^a/fsai, I re
tire), were a celebrated order of religious persons,
whose habitations were, in most instances, entirely
secluded from all other abodes of men; some
times in the depths of wildernesses, in pits, or in
caverns ; though at other times we find several
of them fixing their habitations in the neighbour
hood of each other, when their cells were called
by the collective name of laura. Yet they
always lived personally separate ; and thus the
laura was distinguished from the camobium, or
convent, where the monks formed themselves into
a society, and subsisted on a common stock. A
convent would sometimes be surrounded by a
laura, to which the more devout, or the more idle
of the monks would ultimately retire. To Paul,
the hermit, the distinction is assigned of having
first devoted himself to this kind of solitude.
These cells, according to some rules, were to be
only twelve feet square, of stone, and with three
windows. The door was locked upon the an
choret, and often walled up. One of the win
dows, when they were attached to the build
ing of an abbey or monastery, generally formed

AND
the choir, and through it the sacrament was
received ; another was devoted to the reception
of food ; and the third was used for lights,
being clothed with horn or glass. Thus affixed,
they were called anchor-hotels, anchor-houses,
and destina, as that which is said to have been
occupied by St. Dunstan, at Glastonbury, and
which, according to Osbern, in his life of that
monk, was not more than five feet long, two feet
and a-half broad, and barely the height of a man.
The order of anchorites in Egypt and in Syria
comprehended, in the first instance, all those
hermits of the desert who abandoned the ordi
nary abodes of mankind, and wandered amongst
the rocks and haunts of wild beasts, nourishing
themselves with roots and herbs that grew spon
taneously, and reposing wherever they were over
taken by night. Amongst those early anchorites,
Simeon Stylites, who lived at the close of the
fourth century, will ever occupy a wretched im
mortality. Having passed a long and severe
noviciate in a monastery, which he entered at
the age of thirteen, this devotee contrived, within
the space of a mandarin, or circle of stones, to
which he was confined by * heavy chain, to
ascend a column, gradually raised from nine to
sixty feet in height, on the top of which, without
descending from it, he passed thirty years of his
life, and at length died of an ulcer in his' thigh.
Crowds of pilgrims from Gaul to India are said
to have thronged around his pillar, and to have
been proud to supply his necessities. In succeed
ing ages the order of anchorites assumed a more
entire distinction from that of hermits, and other
religious recluses, and was regulated by its own
rules. Early in the seventh century the councils
began to notice and to modify this kind of life.
" Those who affect to be anchorites," say the
Trullan canons, " shall first for three years be
confined to a cell in a monastery; and if, after
this, they profess that they persist, let them be
examined by the bishop, or abbot ; let them live
one year at large; and if they still approve of
their first choice, let them be confined to their
cell, and not be permitted to go out of it, but
by consent and benediction of the bishop, in case
of great necessity." — See Monachism.
Andrew's Day, St., a festival observed
by the Church on the 30th of November, in
honour of the apostle, St. Andrew, the tutelar
saint of Scotland. " As he was the first that
found the Messiah," says Wheatly, "and
the first that brought others to him, so the
Church for his greater honour commemorates
him first in her anniversary course of holy
days, and places his festival at the beginning
of Advent, as the most proper to bring the
news of our Saviour's coming." Tradition
records that after labouring in Scythia for several
years, and afterwards in Epirus, and in various
districts of Asia Minor, he came at length to
Patios, in Achaia; here he incurred the dis
pleasure of the governor by endeavouring to

ANG
withstand his efforts to bring the disciples again
into idolatry. The governor having enraged
the proconsul against him, he was seized,
scourged, and afterwards crucified. In order
that his death should be more lingering, he was
not nailed, but tied to the cross, which was
made in the form of the letter X. When he
died, an honourable Christian lady, named Max-
amilla, had his body taken down, embalmed,
and decently and reverently interred. His re
mains were afterwards taken up and carried to
Constantinople, and there buried in the great
church which Constantine had built to the
honour of the apostles.
Angel, literally a messenger, a name not of
nature, but of office (see Biblical Cyclopaedia).
The ancient Persians were so learned in the
ministry of angels in this lower world that they
assigned them distinct charges and provinces,
giving their names to the months and days
of the months. The Jews, after their return
from the captivity in Babylon, infected by
the boasted wisdom of the Chaldean sages, who
peopled the air with agencies of this descrip
tion, began to find numerous names and dis
tinct orders of angels, of which four principal
ones are reckoned — that of Michael, the first in
order ; Gabriel, the second ; Uriel, the third ;
and Raphael, the fourth. In the apocryphal
book of Tobit, the last is made to say, " I am
Raphael, one of the seven holy angels which
present the prayers of the saints, and which go
in and out before the glory of the Holy One."
Maimonides and other writers speak of ten
degrees or orders of angels being anciently
acknowledged by the Jews. The Christian
fathers, full of the prejudices of their early life,
and fond of imitating the learned trifling of their
adversaries, retained or adopted many strange
and groundless notions of the heathen world on
this subject. Several of them believed angels to
have bodies ; and others that they were pure
spirits who could assume bodies at pleasure. Of
the first opinion were Clemens Alexandrinus,
Origen, Casarius, and Tertulhan; while St.
Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nicene, Cyril, and
Chrysostom, advocated various shades of the
latter. As the heathen writers tell us of a race
of heroes who " were all of them born from the
love either of gods for women, or of mortal man
for a goddess," Josephus and Philo speak of the
angels of God mixing with women, and beget
ting a most wicked offspring; a sentiment
which the Jewish historian, and the fathers
after him, with not a few modern intrepreters,
assign to Gen. vi. 2, which in some copies of
the Septuagint is said to have read " angels
of God." At this period, indeed, it seems to
have been the prevailing opinion, not only that
angels once had an intercourse of this de
scription with the world, but that it was con
tinued at intervals, and the pages of some of
these writers are defiled by attributing to them

28

ANG
the grossest vices of mankind. St. Gregory
Nazianzen, and after him, some of the Socinian
writers, held that angels were created long
before our world. In the Middle Ages, angels
were divided into nine orders, or three hier
archies: the first of which consisted of cherubim,
seraphim, and thrones ; the second, of dominions,
virtues, and powers; and the third, of prin
cipalities, angels, and archangels.
Angelic II vmn, a 'very ancient hymn of
the Christian Church, so called from its com
mencing with the song of the heavenly host,
recorded in Luke ii. 14. The following is its
form, as given in the Apostolical Constitutions,
vii. 47. " We praise thee, we magnify thee, we
give thanks unto thee, we celebrate thy glory,
we worship thee through the great High Priest,
thee, the true God, the one unbegotten, im
mortal, for thy great glory. 0 Lord, heavenly
King, God the Father Almighty, O Lord, the
God and Father of Christ, the spotless Lamb,
that taketh away the sins of the world. 0 thou
that sittest upon the cherubim, receive our
prayer. For thou only art holy, thou only art
the Lord, 0 Jesus, the Christ of God for all
created nature, our King; through wdiom be
unto thee honour, praise, and adoration." It is
entitled in the Constitutions "A morning prayer,"
and is supposed by Bingham to have been in
tended for private devotion, because it is placed
among many other private prayers. But it was
early used in the communion service, though not
exactly in the same form. Chrysostom speaks
of it as used daily at morning prayer ; and other
authorities referred to by Bingham show plainly
that its use in public worship was not confined
to the communion service. It is now employed
in the Greek Church, as an ordinary hymn, in
their morning service; and, on the whole, it
would appear that Bunsen is not far from the
truth, when he entitles it " The Morning Hymn
of the early Church." This last writer con
siders that in its primitive form it was nearly as
follows : —
"Glory to God on high:
And on cirth peace, good-will among men; or,
And on earth peace among the men of good-will.
We praise thee, we bless thee, we worship thee,
We give thanks to thee for thy great glory.
0 Lord, Heavenly King, God the Father Almighty :
Lord God!
0 Lord, the only begotten Son :
Jesus Christ!
That takest away the sins of the world :
Save mercy upon us.
Thou that takest away the sins ofthe world :
Have mercy upon us, receive our prayer.
Thou that sittest at the right hand of God the Father:
Have mercy upon us.
For tliou only art holy:
Thou only art the Lord Jesus Christ :
To the glory of God the Father. Amen."
The form is translated in Bingham (book xiii.,
cap. 10, § 9), — " Glory be to God on high, in earth
peace, good-will towards men. We praise thee,
we laud thee, we bless thee, we glorify thee, we
worship thee by the Great High Priest, thee the

ANN
true God, the only unbegotten, whom no one can
approach for thy great glory, 0 Lord, heavenly
King, God the Father Almighty : Lord God the
Father of Christ, the immaculate Lamb, who
taketh away the sin of the world, receive our
prayer, thou that sittest upon the cherubims.
For thou only art holy, thou only Lord Jesus,
the Christ of Gpd, the God of every created
being, and our King. By whom unto thee be
glory, honour, and adoration."
Angelites, otherwise called Severites, Thec-
dosiani, Damianisti, &c, a Christian sect so de
nominated from Angelium, in Alexandria, the
place where their earliest assemblies were usually
held. They first appeared during the reign of
Anastasius, and Pope Symmachus, in the year
of Christ 494. They are said to have affirmed
that the Trinity consisted of a Deity in common,
and not of persons self-existent, each being
divine by a participation of this common nature.
Angel of Peace. — It was an opinion of the
ancients that every man had an evil and a good
angel in attendance upon him from the day of
his birth to the day of his death ; hence arose
the practice of praying for the protection of the
" Angel of Peace." Chrysostom, in his homily
upon the Colossians, says — " Every man has
angels attending him, and also the devil very
busy about him. Therefore we pray, and make
our supplications for the angel of peace." In
another of his homilies, he gives a form of ex
hortation to be used by deacons when praying
with catechumens, viz., " Pray ye catechumens
for the angel of peace, that all your purposes
may be peaceably directed." " The design of
all this," says Bingham, " was not to teach their
catechumens to pray to their guardian angels;
but it was to teach them to pray to the God of
angels, that he who makes his angels encamp
about his servants would, by their ministry,
defend them from the incursions of wicked
spirits." Ann, Annat, or Annates, an ecclesiastical
tax of the value of every spiritual benefice
for one year, which the pope formerly levied
throughout Christendom, on issuing bulls, to the
new incumbent. The term in Germany denotes
what is called in the canon law servitia com-
munia, and not the annat proper. Its origin is
very obscure ; some writers have traced it to An-
thonine, Bishop of Ephesus, in the fifth century,
who imposed a tax of this kind on all the pre
lates he consecrated. According to Hume, it
was first levied in England, by Clement V., in
the reign of Edward I. ; but Blackstone ascribes
the introduction of this impost to the usurpation
of Pandulph, the pope's legate, in the reigns of
King John and Henry III. In the exchequer
is still preserved a valuation of them, by com
mission, from Nicholas III., a.d. 1292. At
this period, however, they would appear to have
been but partially levied, principally in the See
of Norwich. Blackstone agrees with Mr. Hume

29

ANN
that it was only in the time of Clement V. that
they were first attempted to be made universal
in England. Though, strictly, the annat was
only to amount to a year's income of the new
incumbent, it frequently was increased, by the
efforts of the papal agents and their accessibility
to the intrigues of the clergy, to much more than
the actual value; while, in other cases, it was
comprised by much less. In the reign of Henry
VIII. it was transferred by statute to the king,
and regularly received by the crown, under the
Dame of first fruits, until the time of Queen
Anne, when the entire amount of this tax was
appropriated to the augmentation of poor livings,
under the name of Queen Anne's Bounty. — See
First-Fruits. In Scotland, the ann, or annat,
is a half-year's income of the benefice enjoyed by
the widow, children, or representatives of a de
ceased clergyman. If he die without children
the widow receives one-half of the annat, and the
nearest relatives of the deceased the other; if
there are children, she receives one-third, and
they two-thirds; if children only are left, they
obtain the entire amount. The old act of 1672
is as follows : — " The King's Majesty, judging
it necessary for the good of the church, that such
a stated and equal course be taken for clearing
and securing the ann due to the executors of
deceast bishops, beneficed persons, and stipendi
ary ministers, as may be suitable to the interest
of the executors, and no discouragement or
binderance to the planting of the vacant bene
fices, doth therefore, with advice and consent of
his estates of Parliament, statute and ordain, that
in all such cases hereafter, the ann shall be an
half year's rent of the benefice or stipend, over
and above what is due to the defunct for his in
cumbency, which is now settled to be thus — viz.,
if the incumbent survive Whitsunday, there shall
belong to them for their incumbency the half of
that year's stipend or benefice, and for the ann
the other half; and if the incumbent survive
Michaelmas, he shall have right to that whole
year's rent for his incumbency, and for his ann
shall have the half year's rent of the following
year : and that the executors shall have right
hereto, without necessity or expenses of confir
mation." Annate, in some authors of the Middle Ages,
has the same meaning with anniversarium ; that
is, a day held yearly in commemoration of the
dead. But it is more peculiarly applicable to the
masses for the dead celebrated for a year.
Annals Ecclesiastical, an important work
of Baronius, published at Rome in twelve vo
lumes folio, at the close of the sixteenth and
beginning of the seventeenth century. These
volumes comprise a vast fund of valuable mat
ter, selected from the papal archives, for the pur
pose of confuting the Centuriators of Magdeburg.
The documents contained therein commence with
the birth of Christ, and continue to the year
1671 — those selected by Baronius extending

30

ANN
down to the year 1198, and the continuation by
Raynaldi and Laderchi. The edition of Pagi
(Lucca, 1738-56) with notes, and the first con
tinuation of Raynaldi is in thirty-eight folios.
Annihilation, in a theological sense, is as
difficult to human comprehension as creation
itself, its opposite. Hence, among the pro
foundest philosophers of the heathen world,
neither idea seems to have been brought into
discussion ; for a real first cause was no part of
their system. The Brahminical faith teaches
that a succession of annihilations has already
taken place in the material system of the uni
verse, and will continue, at intervals, eternally.
The Siamese consider personal annihilation the
greatest possible reward of virtue. Among
Christian writers the subject of annihilation has
been a fruitful source of controversy. Soma
writers have argued for its being abstractedly
impossible even to Deity; while others have
contended that it must be the easiest of all opera
tions, or rather that it needs no exertion what
ever on the part of God, all things having a
tendency to destruction, and infinite power being
required to uphold them. Some have contended
for the annihilation of the wicked as their final
punishment ; and so understand all the passages
of Scripture which speak of their being de
stroyed. This controversy has of late years made
some noise in England ; but it is really baseless
and unscriptural.
Annua Pensione, an ancient writ for pro
viding the king's unpreferred chaplains with a.
pension. Where an annual pension was due to
the king from an abbot or prior, by this writ he
could nominate any of his chaplains, who were
not provided with livings, to receive the same.
Annulus. — See Ring.
Annunciada, a society founded at Rome in
1460, for the marrying of poor girls. Four hun
dred maids appear before the pope on Lady Day,
get each sixty crowns, with various portions of
apparel, if they wish to marry ; while those
who prefer the cloister receive a double por
tion, and are, after they have announced their
choice, further distinguished by being decked
with garlands of white flowers. Misson in
forms us that out of 350 young women pre
sented, when he witnessed the ceremony, only
thirty-two chose to surrender themselves to "the
Church." Anuunciade, an order of French nuns,
founded in 1500 by Jane of Valois, the divorced
wife of Louis XII., that they might practise
what are called the ten principal virtues or
delights of Mary. This order had forty-five
monasteries, which were dispersed at the Revo
lution. There is also another Italian Annun-
ciade, called the celestial, founded at Genoa in
1604. Annunciation Day, a feast of the Church,
celebrated annually on the 25th of March, in
honour of the salutation of the Blessed Virgin,

ANN
or, as some authors hold, of our Saviour him
self. This festival is of ancient date, as we find
it noticed in one of the canons of the council
of Trullo, though not in those of the previous
council of Laodicea : the latter forbade the ob
servance of any festival during Lent except the
Sabbath ; but the former makes a further excep
tion in favour of the annunciation. Hence it
would appear that during the interval between
these two councils this festival was added to the
calendar. And, indeed, Bingham assigns its in
stitution to the seventh century, about which
time the council of Toledo ordered it to be cele
brated eight days before Christmas. Several
Romish writers bring forward a sermon of St.
Athanasius, and another of Gregory Thaumatur-
gus, to prove its still greater antiquity; but both
sermons have been proved spurious. The Eastern
and Western Churches vary considerably in their
seasons of observing this feast. The Syrian
calendar notes it down for the first day of Decem
ber, and distinguishes it by the appellation of
" Bascarach " inquiry — or investigation. The
Greeks, who are by no means scrupulous in its
solemnization, celebrate it even in Lent ; while
the Armenian churches, in order to prevent it from
occurring at that period, hold it on the fifth of
January. This day has also received the follow
ing names : — 1. The day of salutation, from the
history recorded in Luke i. 29. 2. The day of the
Gospel. 3. Annunciatio Angeli ad B. Mariam ;
the annunciation of the Angel to Saint Mary.
4. Annunciatio Domini; the annunciation of the
Lord. 5. Annunciatio Mariae; the annunciation of
Mary. 6. The festival ofthe incarnation. Hence
it was that in Rome, France, and England, the
ecclesiastical year began with this day. 7. Festum
conceptionis Christi; the festival ofthe conception
of Christ. The faith of the Roman CathoUc
Church, and that of other churches, respecting
the incarnation of the Saviour, so prominently
brought before* the mind in the services of this
festival, seems to include these points : — " That
the Son, who is the Word of the Father, begot
ten from everlasting of the Father, the very and
Eternal God, of one substance with the Father,
took man's nature in the womb of the Blessed
Virgin, of her substance ; so that two whole and
perfect natures, the Godhead and manhood, were
joined together in one person, never to be divided.
And because the Son of God, who had an eternal
generation, entered tlie womb of the Virgin, and
submitted to a second generation : therefore, she
that brought forth the man was really the mother
of God. And owing to the peculiar excellency
and privileges of that mother — the regard the
Holy Ghost had towards her — and the goodness
of Joseph to whom she was espoused — the Church
of God, in all ages, has been persuaded that she
continued in the same virginity, and therefore is
to be acknowledged as " the ever- Virgin Mary."
The Athanasian Creed has the following : — " The
right faith is that we believe and confess, that

ANT
our Lord Jesus Christ, the son of God, is God
and man. God, of the substance of the Father,
begotten before the worlds ; and man, of the sub
stance of his mother, born in the world. Perfect
God and perfect man ; of a reasonable soul and,
human flesh, subsisting. . . . Yet he is not
two, but one Christ : one, not by conversion of
the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the man
hood into God — one altogether, not by confusion
of the substance, but by unity of person. For as
the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, so God
and man is one Christ." — The term annunciation
is also applied to designate that part of the cere
mony of the Jewish passover, in which the reason
and origin of its celebration are explained, called
by the Jews Haggada, or the annunciation.
Anointing, the application of holy oil, as a
symbol of peculiar fitness and special designation
to some important office. Under the Mosaic dis
pensation, the priests and all the vessels of the
sanctuary were anointed with oil, to denote that
they were set apart for the service of God. We
find also that kings were anointed, though there
is no mention of any command to this effect in
the writings of Moses. The necessary use of
agreeable unguents in the East — medically, offi
cially, and for personal beauty — explains the
reason why oils are so frequently spoken of in
the Scriptures, and accounts for the many
figurative allusions to their respective pro
perties (see, among others, Ex. xxx. 26,
Sec. ; 1 Sam. ix. 16 ; Fs. xlv. 7 ; exxxiii.
2; Eccles. ix. 8; Is. i. 6; x. 27; lxi. 3;
Zech. iv. 14; Mark vi. 13; Luke vii. 37;
John xii. 3 ; 1 John ii. 20, 27). The religious
use of oil is of early mention in the primitive
Church, as both Theopholus and Tertullian, in
the end of the third century, mention it; and
though we have no reason to conclude that they
ascribed any miraculous virtue to its use, but
limited its importance to that of natural signifi-
cancy, yet superstition soon invested it with
healing, sanctifying, and even saving powers — it
being used as a representative of the grace and
unction of the Holy Ghost. The consecration of
the oil was supposed to effect a mystical change
in its nature, which, when applied to the bap
tized, made them partakers of a royal priesthood,
strengthened the sincere candidates for confirma
tion in the truths of Christianity, and imparted
to all who were ordained the graces and gifts
necessary for their holy vocation. Anointing is
much used in the ceremonial observances of the
Greek and Romish Churches, especially in bap
tism, confirmation, marriage, ordination, and also
as a preparation for death. — See Chkism ; also,
Binder's Religious Customs.
Anomoeans (from a, priv., and ipis, like),
a name applied to the pure Arians of the fourth
century, who denied any resemblance between
the essence of the Father and the Son.
Antclucan Services (beforedaum). — During
the time that pagan persecution raged against the

31

ANT
professors of Christianity, they were accustomed
to assemble for purposes of devotion and religious
instruction at night; hence the above title was
given to the services on these occasions. Ter
tulhan, exhorting Christian women not to marry
heathen husbands, asks them, " What husband
will be willing to suffer his wife to rise from his
side and go to the night assemblies?" And
Pliny, in his celebrated letter, states that " the
Christians were used to meet together on a cer
tain day before it was light, and sing a hymn to
Christ as to their God." When the fires of
persecution ceased to consume the victims of
heathen rage, and Christians were permitted to
worship after their own fashion, these nocturnal
services were continued, partly for the accommo
dation of those whose secular occupations pre
vented them from attending Divine worship
during the day, partly to stimulate ascetics to
a more devotional life, and partly to withdraw
the orthodox from the nocturnal meetings of the
Arians, who made their services as attractive as
they possibly could by chants and psalm singing,
in order to induce others to join them. These
services commenced at midnight, and ceased be
fore the dawn. They consisted — 1st, In a mental
confession of sins, made by the congregation indi
vidually, called by the council of Laodicea " the
silent prayer;" 2d, In psalm singing alternately;
3d, In the singing of psalms by one individual
at a time ; 4th, In public prayers ; and 5th, In
the repetition, by the whole congregation, of the
fifty-first psalm, called by them the " Psalm of
Confession," which psalm was subsequently ap
pointed in the Western Church as the closing
exercise of the matin (or morning) service.
Anthem, a sacred song, sung or chanted in
parts, or by turns. — See Antiphont. In an
cient times all singing from side to side alter
nately, after the manner of tbe chants in the
cathedral service, was called anthems; and ac
cording to Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian,
St. Ignatius, a disciple of the apostles, was the
inventor of these antiphonal hymns, avTiQaivoi
Sfiici. But in the service of the Church of England
the name is appropriated to certain portions of
the Psalms, or other parts of Scripture, set in florid
counterpoint, and adapted to one or more voices.
They are distinguished by the names of solo, bass,
or full anthems. The former, in her service,
have frequently symphonies for particular stops
on the organ. In bass anthems there are solo
parts for voices of different compass, and from
different sides of the choir. A full anthem is in
constant chorus, except at the leading off a
fugue, or new point of imitation. In the Romish
Church solo anthems are called motets. Anthems
were first introduced into the reformed service
of the English Church in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth  See Motet.
Anihologion, a sort of breviary or mass
book belonging to the Greek Church, and con
taining offices addressed to our Saviour, the

32

ANT
Virgin, and the principal saints. It is in two
volumes, each of which contains services for six
months, beginning with September.
Anthropology (from «»<*{»«¦«, man; and
xiyo;, a discourse), • signifies any treatise upon
human nature. In theology, the term is used to
denote a way of speaking of God after the man
ner of men, by attributing to him human passions
and affections.
Anthropomorpbites (uvfyatfos, man; and
pooipri, form), were a sect of ancient heretics, who
imagined God to be formed in the shape of »
man. Locke seems to think that this prejudice
is almost inherent in the mind: it was enter
tained by the whole sect of the Stoics, and ex
amples of its influence may easily be traced, not
only in the writings of many of the fathers, but
also among modern divines. Yet it is plain that
we can only know the meaning of love or wis
dom, as ascribed to God, by feeling what these
qualities are as inherent in ourselves.
Anthropopalhy, a word of the same import
as anthropology, except that its sense is more
restricted (from ccvl^oi^ri;, man; and ^rectos, pas
sion). Antibaptists, a term applied to those who
deny the perpetuity of the ordinance or sacra
ment of baptism. They hold that it was adopted
in compliance with the usages of society, existing
at the time of its appointment; and that it
was only intended as a proselj'tizing ceremonial.
Hence the descendants of those baptized, whether
children or adults, are under no obligation to
be baptized.
Antiburghers. — See United Pkesbyte-
eian Church.
Antidicomarianites (from uvrlhxos, an ad
versary ; and Mag !«.), a sect mentioned by Epi
phanius, who believed that the Virgin Mary,
after the birth of our Saviour, was the motherof
several children  See Virgin Mary.
Antidoron, the name of the Greek Church for
the consecrated bread, a portion in the middle,
marked by a cross, being retained by the priest,
and the rest distributed after mass to the poor.
Antilegomcna, a word in Scripture criti
cism, which is found in Eusebius, denoting those
books of the New Testament the genuineness of
which has been disputed, but which were ulti
mately admitted into the sacred canon.
Antilogy, signifies contrary sayings. Tirinus
has published a large index of such seeming
contradictions in the Bible, which he reconciles
and explains in his comments.
Antimensiuni, a consecrated cloth used in
celebrating the Eucharist where there was no
altar. It is an article of comparatively modern
invention. Aiiiiiiomians, in religion, are those who
deny the obligation of the moral law, and hold
that men are saved by the merits of Christ
alone; and that the wicked actions of those who
are in a state of grace, are not really sinful, and

ANT
will not deprive them of the Divine favour. The
origin of this sect is stated in the life of Luther.
He was on one occasion preaching to the people
upon the necessity of believing and trusting
in the merits of Christ for salvation, and in
veighing against the papists who represented
eternal happiness as the fruit of mere legal obedi
ence, abstracted from faith ; when, as he was pro
ceeding, he was interrupted by John Agricola (a
divine of some eminence in that day), who took
an opportunity of carrying the great reformer's
doctrine to an opposite extreme, by declaiming
against the moral law altogether, as a covenant
which had been totally abolished by the sacrifice
of Christ. The dispute which afterwards arose
between him and Luther on this subject, scattered
the first seeds of the sect which appeared in Eng
land not very long afterwards, and which was
known by the name of Antinomianism. The
plain teaching of Scripture is, that while Jesus
Christ bore the penalty of the law, he did not
relax its claims — nay, has given it a higher obli
gation on all who believe, and are " zealous of
good works." For further particulars concerning
its history, see Neale's History of Puritans, vol.
iv., sec. 7; Mosheim' s Church History, vol. v.,
p. 411 (see Fuller's Works, passim).
Antiosinndrians, a sect of Lutherans who
denied the doctrine of Osiander relating to justi
fication. They affirmed that man is notmadejust
by justification as God is just, but only that he
is treated by God as if he were. And so he is —
as being absolved from the penalty, and accepted
as righteous by God.
Anti-Pascha, one of the names for the first
Sunday after Easter. — See Eastkr.
Antiphony (avrttyaivicc — ccvt'i, against ; ipmn,
voice), is that species of psalmody in which the
congregation, being divided into two parts, re
peats the psalm, verse for verse, alternately; and
is in this sense distinguished from symphony, in
which the congregation sing altogether. Suidas,
under the word x°i°s> te"s us tna' m *^e t'me
of Constantius (a.d. 337-371) the choirs ofthe
churches of Antioch were divided into two parts,
who sang alternately the Psalms of David ; and
he adds that the practice extended from thence
over all the Christian world. The. time of its
introduction into the Western churches, is sup
posed to be a.d. 374, where it was first used at
Milan, by St. Ambrose. The antiphonary is a
service book of the Romish Church, containing all
the several antiphonaria, or, as they are other
wise called, responsaria, used in that service.
The author of the Roman antiphonary was
Pope Gregory the Great. For further particu
lars upon this subject, the reader may consult
Bumey's History of Music, vol. ii., p. 10 ; and
Suicer's Thesaurus, voce avritpavav.
Antitactse or Antitacti, was a sect of the
Gnostics, mentioned by Theodoret; but the
only inference that can be drawn from his words
is, that they rested more in religion upon the

APH
existence of an evil principle than was customary
with other Gnostics.
Antitype (from awl and <7woj). — The word
type is used, in theological nomenclature, to
express the peculiar character of the Old Tes
tament, which contains, as it were, the imper
fect hints and rough draught of the New, or
the antitype. In the writings of the fathers,
the word antitype is frequently used ; but
never except in the simple sense of type. Thus
the bread and wine in the sacraments are
called " avr'truvra." — antitypes of " the body and
blood of Christ." This is a usual form of ex
pression among the fathers. But an unfounded
distinction has been made by some Romish doc
tors, as if it were only before consecration that
the word was applied to the sacred elements,
but that after consecration the bread and wine
were no lqnger called antitypes, but tbe true
body and blood of Christ.
Antonians, a fanatical Antinomian sect found
principally about Berne, in Switzerland, and
named after Antony Unternarer, their founder,
who was born about 1761, and died in 1824,
after being some time confined as a lunatic. He
was somewhat of a Pantheist ; complacently
thought himself the Son of God a second time
incarnate; held that all present institutions in
Church and State were wrong; and that sensual
love was the true sacrament. The abominable
practices of his followers have subjected them
several times to trial and punishment.
Apelleans, the followers of Apelles, who
was a disciple of Marcion, but departed in some
points from the teaching of his master. He
held that the contents of the Old Testament
came partly from the good principle, partly from
the bad; and that Christ in his descent from
heaven, assumed an aerial body which he gave
back to the air as he ascended. He of course
denied the resurrection of the body; but he
taught " that those who believe in Him who was
crucified will be saved, if they evince a true faith
by good works."
Aphorismos (a.^ogntfn,'oi, suspension), the
name given to the lesser excommunication by
which offenders were excluded from the Eu
charist, being compelled to retire from the
church with the catechumens, at the conclusion
of the public service.
Aphorismos Panteles (a,ipagie-fci; tccvts^ws,
utter separation), was the title of the greater ex
communication, the effect of which will appear by
the words of Synecius, when cutting off Androni-
cus from all participation in the privileges and
services of the Church : " Now that the man is
no longer to be admonished, but cut off as an in
curable member, the Church of Ptolemais makes
this declaration or injunction to all her sister
churches throughout the world. Let no church
of God be open to Andronicus and his accom
plices, to Thoas and his accomplices ; but let
every temple and sanctuary be shut against

33

APO
them. . . , And whoever does so, whether
he be saint, presbyter, or bishop, shall be ranked
in the same class with Andronious: we will
neither give them the right hand of fellowship,
nor eat at the same table with them; and much
less will we communicate in the sacred mysteries
with them who choose to have part with Andro-
nicus and Thoas." (Bingham, Book xvi., chap.
2, § 8).
Apocalypse signifies, in general, a revela
tion ; but is particularly referred to the Revela
tion of St. John, the last canonical book of
the New Testament (see Biblical Cyclopaedia.)
Various apocryphal revelations are mentioned by
ecclesiastical writers of the second and two fol
lowing centuries, as the Apocalypse of Paul — of
Peter— of Cerinthus— of St. Thomas— of St.
John (different from the genuine book) — of Elias
— of Moses — of Abraham — and even of Adam !
(see an account of them in Moses Stuart's Pro
legomena to his Commentary on the Apocalypse).
Apocrisiarii or Responsales were "resi
dents at the imperial city, in name of foreign
churches and bishops, whose office was to nego
tiate as proctors, at the emperor's court, in all
ecclesiastical causes in which their principals
might be concerned." The office seems to have
been instituted in the time of-Constantine, or
soon after. In imitation of these officers of the
Church, monasteries also had their apocrisiarii, to
act for the society, or the individual members,
when they had to give any appearance at law
before their bishop. The Greek word is some
times translated by ambasiator ; and it is to be
noted that apocrisiarius became, in process of
time, the common title for ambassadors of the
emperors, and for legates of all kinds.
Apocrypha. — The epithet " apocrypha,'' or
"apocryphal," is given to those books which are
not admitted into the sacred canon of the Old
Testament, being either spurious or at least not
acknowledged as divine. According to some
writers, these books are thus denominated because
they were not deposited in, but removed (iri rns
x£iwrni) from the crypt, ark, chest, or other re
ceptacle in which the sacred books were kept ;
or more probably from the Greek verb above
given, because they were concealed from the
generality of readers, their authority not being
recognized by the Christian Church ; and also
because they are books destitute of proper testi
monials, their original being obscure, their origin
unknown, and their character either heretical or
suspected. The Protestant Churches not only
account those books to be apocryphal, and merely
human compositions, which are esteemed such by
the Church of Rome, as the Prayer of Manasseh,
the third and fourth Books of Esdras, the addition
at the end of the Book of Job, and the hundred
and fifty-first Psalm ; but also the Books of
Tobit, Judith, the additions to the Book of
Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the
prophet, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Song

APO
of the Three Children, the Stories of Sasanna,
and of Bel and the Dragon, and the first and
second Books of Maccabees. These books are
rejected from the divinely inspired Scriptures,
1st, Because they possess no internal evidence
or authority to procure their admission into the
sacred canon ; for not only do they contain
many things which are fabulous, contradictory,
and directly at variance with the canonical
Scriptures, as well as with authentic profane his
tory, but they are also totally destitute of pro
phecy, or other authentic mark of inspiration.
Not one of them is extant in pure ancient Bibli
cal Hebrew ; all of them are in the Greek lan
guage, except the fourth book of Esdras, which
is extant only in Latin. They were written, for
the most part, by Alexandrian Jews, and subse
quently to the cessation of the prophetic spirit,
though before the promulgation of the Gospel.
2d, The apocryphal books possess no external
evidence to procure their admission into the sacred
canon; for they were not received into that
canon by the Jewish Church, and therefore re
ceived no sanction from Jesus Christ. No part
of the Apocrypha is quoted, or even alluded to
by him, or by any of his apostles. Philo and
Josephus, two eminent Jewish writers who
flourished in the first century of the Christian
era, are totally silent concerning them ; and no
subsequent Jewish writers have recognized the
apocryphal books as forming part of their canon
of the Old Testament. Further, these books
were not admitted into the canon of Scrip
ture in any catalogue of the sacred books recog
nized by any great council of the ancient Chris
tian Church : neither are they to be found in
any catalogues of the canonical books of Scrip
ture published by the fathers, or ecclesiastical
writers of the first four centuries. Moreover,
we have the concurring testimony of numerous
writers in regular succession, from the fifth to
the fifteenth century, all of whom witness against
the canonicity of the apocryphal books, be
sides the involuntary admissions or confessions
of learned advocates of the modern Church
of Rome, who lived before and after tbe council
of Trent. 3d, The apocryphal books are re
jected by the Oriental or Greek Church from tha
canon of the divinely-inspired Scripture. Nor
were these books received into the canon of
Scripture until the fourth session of the popish
council of Trent, held April 8, 1546, when five
cardinals, eight archbishops, and forty - one
bishops of the Roman obedience (who were
almost wholly Italians), admitted the whole
of the apocryphal books into the sacred canon,
with the exception of the Prayer of Manasseh
and the third and fourth Books of Esdras ; and
they further denounced an anathema against
every one who should not receive them, and
every part of them, as sacred and canonical.
No reason, therefore, exists for applying the
books of the Apocrypha to " establish any point

34

APO
of doctrine." They are highly valuable as an
cient writings, which throw considerable light on
the phraseology of Scripture, and on the history
and manners of the East ; and the Church of Eng
land " doth read them for example of life and
instruction of manners," (Art. vi.) All the
hooks of the Apocrypha, however, are not thus
read. The Anglican Church reads no part of
either Book of Esdras, or of the Maccabees, or of
the additions to the Book of Esther ; nor does it
read the Song of the Three Children, or the
Prayer of Manasseh
Besides the preceding writings, which are com
monly termed the apocryphal books of the Old
Testament, there are numerous spurious and apo
cryphal books, composed in the early days of Chris
tianity, which were published under the names of
Jesus Christ and his apostles, their companions,
&c, and which are mentioned under the names of
Gospels, Acts, Epistles, Revelations, &c. The
very great number of heresies and schisms that
arose among Christians soon after the publishing
of the Gospel, may be assigned as the principal
cause of this multitude of books, of which a small
number only has come down to the present day.
Like the apocryphal books of the Old Testament,
these writings are utterly destitute of evidence
to procure their reception into the sacred canon.
They were not acknowledged as authentic ; nor
were they much used by the primitive Christians,
except in refuting the errors of some heretics, who
professed to receive them as genuine and inspired
productions, and with whom they were willing to
dispute upon principles out of their own books.
Few, if any, of these pieces (which it is pre
tended were written in the apostolic age) were
composed before the second century of the Chris
tian era, several of them were forged so late as
the third century, and were rejected as spurious
at the time when they were attempted to be im
posed upon the Christian world. Further, these
pretended apostolical books are filled with ab
surd, unimportant, or frivolous details; they
ascribe to the Virgin Mary, or to Jesus Christ
himself, miracles which are both useless and
improbable; they mention things which are later
than the time when the author lived whose name
the book bears ; their style is totally different
from that of the genuine books of the New Tes
tament ; they contain direct contradictions to
authentic history, both sacred and profane ; they
are studied imitations of various passages in the
genuine Scriptures, both to conceal the fraud and
to allure readers ; and they contain gross false
hoods, utterly repugnant to the character, prin
ciples, and conduct of the inspired writers. On
all these accounts the apocryphal books of the
New Testament have deservedly been rejected
from the canon of Scripture as spurious produc
tions. Some modern opposers of Divine Revela
tion, indeed, have attempted to invalidate it, by
representing tbem as of equal authority with the
genuine books of Scripture ; but so far are these

APO
productions from affecting the genuineness, credi
bility, and inspiration of the several books of the
New Testament, which were generally received
by the Christian Church as written by the apos
tles and evangelists, that, on the contrary, they
confirm the general accounts given in the canoni
cal Scriptures, and thus indirectly establish the
truth and Divine authority of the Gospel. On
the subject of apocryphal books, see, further,
Home's Introduction to the Critical Study and
Knowledge ofthe Holy Scriptures, vol i., Appen
dix, No. I. (ninth edition); Fabricii Codex
Pseudepiyraphus Veteris TestamerJi (Hamburg,
1722 41, 2 vols. 8vo); Fabricii Codex Apo-
cryphus Novi Testamenti (Hamburg, 1719-43,
3 parts in 2 vols. 8vo) ; and Jones's New and
Full Method of Settling the Canonical Authority
ofthe New Testament (Oxford, at the Clarendon
Press, in 3 vols. 8vo). A Bibliographical ac
count of the principal collections of the apocry
phal books of the Old and New Testament will
be found in Home's Introduction, vol. v., Part I ,
chapter iii. (ninth edition). A good and cheap
edition of the New Testament Apocrypha has
been published by Tischendorf. — See Bible.
Apollinarians. — It is erroneous to consider
this sect as a ramification of Arianism, although
the Arian heresy gave rise to it. Its author was
Apollinaris theYounger, Bishopof Laodicea,ama'n
of distinguished merit, and whose early lite had
been signalized by his services to the Christian
religion (Socrat., lib. xi., c. 46 ; Epiphan. Bceres.,
76). He had combated the infidelity of Por
phyry, and attacked the heresy of Arius ; but by
indulging too freely in philosophical distinctions
and subtleties, he was led to deny, in some mea
sure, the humanity of Christ. He maintained
that the body with which Christ was endowed,
or which Christ assumed, had a sensitive, but
not a rational soul, and that the divine nature
performed the functions of reason, supplying the
place of the intellectual principle. From this
hypothesis it followed that tbe divine nature in
Christ was blended with the human, and suffered
with it the pains of crucifixion and death. Other
errors have been charged on Apollinaris, but from
the accusation of Sabellianism he has been vindi
cated. His doctrines were received in many of
the eastern provinces, but as they were capable
of different explanations, his followers were sub
divided into various ramifications. The Apolli-
narian heresy, at least in name, did not maintain
its ground long, but sank under the united force
of authority and argument. The doctrine was
condemned in several councils, at Alexandria,
in 362, at Rome, in 375, and again in 378,
when Apollinaris was deposed from his bishopric
Apology, in classical authors, signifies, not,
as in popular use, an excuse, but a vindication.
There are several works under this name by
ancient writers, and some celebrated defences of
Christianity: of Quadratus, written about the
year 126 ; of Aristides, written at the same time ;

35

APO
of Justin Martyr; of Tertullian and Minucius
Felix; besides some others, such as Melito of
Sardis, Miltiades, and Claudius Apollinaris.
Bishop Watson employed the same term for his
vindications of the Bible.
Apostle properly signifies a messenger ov per
son sent by another on some business; and
hence, by way of eminence, it denotes the twelve
whom Jesus separated from the rest by the name
apostles, to accompany him constantly through
the whole course of his ministry, that they
might be faithful witnesses of the sanctity of his
life, and the grandeur of his miracles, to the
remotest nations; and, also, that they might
transmit to the latest posterity a genuine account
of his sublime doctrines, and of the nature and
design of the Gospel dispensation (see Biblical
Cyclopaedia). After the apostles had exercised
their ministry in Palestine, they resolved, accord
ing to an ancient ecclesiastical tradition, to dis
perse themselves into different parts of the world;
but what were the particular provinces assigned
to each does not appear from any authentic
History. Eusebius (Hist. Ecc, lib. i., c. 1)
and Socrates (Hist. Ecc, lib. i., c. 19), on the
authority of tradition, concur that Thomas took
Parthia for his lot ; the latter historian assigns
Ethiopia to Matthew, and India to Bartholo
mew. Eusebius says that Andrew had Scythia ;
John, Asia Minor ; Peter preached to the Jews
who were dispersed in Pontus, Galatia, Bithynia,
Cappadocia, and Asia Minor; and Paul preached
the Gospel from Jerusalem (where we know,
from the Acts of the Apostles, that James the
less continued,) to IUyricum. Of the travels
and labours of the apostles subsequently to
the particulars recorded in the New Testa
ment, as well as of their deaths, we have
very short and imperfect accounts ; but we
know from the concurrent testimony of Christian
and of heathen writers, that Christianity was
very early planted in very many parts of the
then known world. The several apostles are
usually represented with their respective attri
butes: as James the less with a fuller's club;
Paul, with a sword ; Peter, with the kej'S ; An
drew, with a cross or saltier ; John, with a cup
and a winged serpent flying from it ; Bartholo
mew, with a knife; Philip, with a long staff,
the upper end of which is formed into a cross ;
Matthew, with a hatchet; Matthias, with a
battle-axe; Thomas, with a lance; James the
greater, with a pilgrim's staff, and a gourd-
bottle; Simon, with a saw; and Jude, with a
club.- — Apostle is also an appellation given to
the ordinary travelling ministers of the Church
(see Rom. xvi. 7), and likewise to those who
were sent by the churches to carry their alms to
the poor of other churches. This usage was
borrowed from the synagogues of the Jews, who
called those sent on this message by the same
name. Thus, St. Paul, writing to the Philip
pians, tells them that Epaphroditus, their apostle,

36

APO
had ministered to his wants (Phil. ii. 25, Gr.)
In like manner, this appellation is given to those
persons who are said to have first planted the
Christian faith in any place. Thus, Dionysius
of Corinth is called the apostle of France; Boni
face (an Englishman), the apostle of Germany;
Xavier, the apostle ofthe Indies; and in the East
Indies the Jesuit missionaries are styled apostles.
Apostle, among the Jews, denoted an officer
who was anciently sent by the high priests into
the several provinces in their jurisdiction, as their
legates, to see that the Mosaic laws were duly
observed, and to collect money for the repara
tion of the temple, as well as the tribute payable
to the Romans. After the destruction of Jerusa
lem, the legates of the Jewish patriarchs were
called apostles (Mosheim's Commentaries on the
Affairs of Christianity, by Vidal, voL i., pp.
120-123). Apostle (iiroffvoXos), in the liturgy of the
Greek Church, is an appellation given to lection-
aries, containing lessons from the epistles of St.
Paul, in the order in which they are appointed
to be read throughout the year, as well as the
epistles themselves. Where such book contains
lessons from the gospels and epistles, it is termed
o\rotrro\oivayyi\iov ; and when it comprises
the Acts of the Apostles, together with the
epistles, it is called trfid-xiratri-iiXii; (Du Cange,
Gloss. Grace, in voce; Bishop Marsh's Michaelis,
vol. ii., pp. Ill, 639).
Apostles' Creed. — See Creed.
Apostolate (apostolatus), the office of an
apostle of Christ. By various ancient writers
of the fourth century, it is used for the office of
a bishop; and in the ninth and following cen
turies, it became appropriated to the papal
dignity, Apostolical (from apostle), relating to the
apostles, or delivered by them, oi- in the manner
of the apostles. The appellation of apostolical
was, in the primitive Church, given to all such
churches as were founded by the apostles, and
even to the bishops of those churches, as being
the reputed successors of the apostles. These
were, at first, confined to four — viz., Jerusa
lem, Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria; but, in
succeeding ages, other churches assumed the same
title, principally on account of the conformity of
their doctrine with that of the churches whicli
were apostolical by foundation, and because all
bishops held themselves to be successors of the
apostles, or acted in their respective dioceses with
apostolical authority. In progress of time, how
ever, the Bishop of Rome having acquired greater
power than all the rest, and the three patri
archates of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem,
having fallen into the hands of the Saracens, the
title apostolical was restricted to the pope and to
his church alone.
Apostolic Canons are eighty -five laws for
the government of the Christian Church, and
erroneously supposed by some writers to have

APO
been drawn up by the apostles themselves ; but
Bishop Beveridge, to whom we are indebted for
the best edition of them, is of opinion that
though they- were not actually written by the
apostles, yet they are of great antiquity, and
that they are a collection of the canons of
several churches, enacted before those made by
the council of Nice. They exhibit the principles
of discipline received in the Greek and Oriental
Churches in the "second and third centuries
(Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, book i., cent, i., part ii.,
chap, ii., § 19). For the literary history of the
pseudo-apostolical canons, the reader is referred
to Gibbing's Roman Forgeries and Falsifications,
pp. 64-116 (Dublin, 1842, 8vo).
Apostolic Chamber (Camera Apostolica),
the treasury of the pope, as Bishop of Rome,
whence he used to draw the necessary sums for
his personal expenses. It was also considered as
a fund for the support of Christian hospitality,
and for relieving the distresses of the poor.
Apostolical Constitutions are certain
regulations for the constitution, organization,
discipline, and worship of the Christian Church.
They fill eight books, and profess to be the work
of the apostles of Jesus Christ; but they are
utterly destitute of any evidence to support that
claim. They are supposed to have been com
piled in the Eastern or Greek Church, in the
latter part ofthe third or in the beginning of the
fourth century. They bear marks of an Arian
hand, and contain not a few superstitions, pro
fane comparisons, mystical expositions, and as
cetic regulations. As describing the form, dis
cipline, and ceremonies of the churches in the
East about the year 300, they are of some value.
The best editions in Greek are those of Bishop
Beveridge, in his Pandectae Canonum, and of
Cotelerius, in his edition of the Patres Apostolici.
The completest English edition is Dr. Chase's
(New York, 1 848, 8vo). A handsome and cheap
edition in Greek has been recently published by
Ultzen (one vol., 8vo, Rostock, 1853).
Apostolical Fathers, an appellation usu
ally given to the writers of the first century,
who employed their pen in the cause of Christi
anity, and who had converse with the apostles
or their immediate disciples. They are five in
number, viz., Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, Bar
nabas, and Hennas. These fathers were not
remarkable either for their learning or their elo
quence ; on the contrary, they express the most
pious and admirable sentiments in the plainest
and most illiterate style. But this is rather a
matter of honour than of reproach to the Chris
tian cause; since we see, from tbe conversion of
a great part of mankind to the Gospel, by the
ministry of weak and illiterate men, that the
progress of Christianity is not to be attributed
to human means, but to a divine power.
The mental weakness of the apostolic fathers
separates them by a wide and striking chasm
from the apostles themselves. The writings

APO
of the apostolic fathers are valuable reposi
tories of the faith and practice of the Chris
tian .Church during its first and purest age.
Their testimony to the genuineness and authen
ticity of the books of the New Testament is
peculiarly important ; and, as the contemporary
friends of any body of men must know the senti
ments of such men more accurately and per
fectly than the most sagacious inquirers who
flourished many ages after them, the writings of
the apostolic fathers are peculiarly valuable as
confirming those views of the doctrine and go
vernment of the Church which we read in the
New Testament. A good edition of the works of
these fathers is that published by Le Clerc, after
Cotelerius, at Amsterdam, in 1724, in two folio
volumes, accompanied both with their own anno
tations and with the remarks of other learned men.
There are also recent and cheap editions by Hefele
and Dressel. The genuine epistles ofthe apostolic
fathers were translated into English by Arch
bishop Wake, and have often been reprinted.
The hest edition of what are now believed to be
the genuine epistles of Ignatius is Mr. Cureton's
Corpus Ignatianum, containing the epistles to
Polycarp, to the Romans, and to the Ephesians,
in an ancient Syriac version, with a correspond
ing Greek text, and an English translation (Lon
don, 1849, royal 8vo).
Apostolics or Apostles, a name assumed
by three different sects, which professed to imi
tate the manners and the practice of the apos
tles. The first who called themselves apostles
flourished in the close of the second century.
Little is known of their peculiar tenets, except
that they renounced every kind of property, and
had all things in common (Du Cange, Gloss. Lat,
voce Apostolici.) — The second sect of the apos
tolics lived in the twelfth century, and were men
of the lowest birth, who gained their subsistence
by bodily labour. As soon as they formed
themselves into a sect, they drew after them a
multitude of adherents, of all ranks and orders.
Their religious doctrine (as Bernard, who wrote
against them, acknowledges) was free from
error, and their lives and manners were irre
proachable and exemplary. Yet they were
reprehensible on account of the following peculi
arities : — They held it to be unlawful to take an
oath; they permitted their hair and beards to
grow to an enormous length ; they preferred celi
bacy to wedlock, and called themselves the chaste
brethren and sisters; notwithstanding which each
man had a spiritual sister with him, with whom
he lived in a domestic relation. — The third sect
of the apostolics arose in the thirteenth century.
Its members made little or no alteration in the
doctrinal part of the public religion, their efforts
being chiefly directed to the introduction of the
simplicity of the primitive times, and more
especially the manner of life observed by the
apostles. Gerhard Sagarelli, the founder of this
sect, obliged his followers to itinerate from place

37

APO
to place, clothed in white, with long beards,
dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied
by women whom they termed spiritual sisters.
They also renounced all kinds of property and
possessions, and inveighed against the increas
ing corruptions of the Church of Rome, the
overthrow of which they pretended to foretell, to
gether with the establishment of a purer Church
on its ruins. Sagarelli was burnt at Parma in
the year 1300, and was succeeded by a bold and
enterprising man named Dulcinus, a native of
Novara, who published his predictions with
more courage, and maintained them with greater
zeal than his predecessor. He appeared at the
head of the apostles ; and, acting as a general
as well as a prophet, assembled an army to
maintain his cause. He was opposed by Ray-
nerius, Bishop of Vercelli, who defended the in
terest of the Roman pontiff, and waged a fierce
war against this chief of the apostles. At
length, after fighting several battles with obsti
nate courage, Dulcinus was taken prisoner, and
put to death in the most barbarous manner, in
the year 1307. His sect, continued to subsist in
France, Germany, and other countries, until the
beginning of the fifteenth century, when it was
totally extirpated under the pontificate of Boni
face IX
Apostolical Succession. — It is maintained
by the Romish Church, and by those who call
themselves Anglo-Catholics in the Church of
England, that the title to the episcopal office
depends on the circumstance that the power
and privileges of that office have been handed
down in succession by bishop to bishop, even
from the apostles themselves. To be governed
by bishops whose right and title is thus derived,
they consider essential to a true church ; while
those bodies of Christians who are destitute of
the apostolical succession are supposed to be de
barred from the enjoyment of the most important
of those means of grace which the Saviour
designed for his people.
How writers in the Episcopal Church have
differed on this point may be seen in the follow
ing paragraphs: —
I. On the office of the apostles, and whether
they had any successors.— Until Christ's death
the apostles were presbyters, and Christ alone
was bishop. 1. This is affirmed by Stilling-
fleet, Irenicum, part ii., p. 218; Spanheim,
Op. Theol., part i., p. 436; in Ayton's Constit.
ofthe Ch., p. 18; Hammond's Works, vol. iv., p.
781, who makes them deacons; Brett, Divine
Right Episcop., lect. viii., p. 17. 2. This is
contradicted, and the apostles made bishops dur
ing the same time, by Jer. Taylor, Episcop. As
serted; Dr. Scott, in Christian Life, vol. iii.,
p. 338 ; Dr. Monro's Inq. into the New Opinions,
p. 96; Mr. Rhind, Apol., p. 50, &c; Willet,
Synopsis Papismi, p. 236; Archbishop of Spalato,
in Ayton's Constit. ofthe Ch., append, p. 7; Jeremy
Taylor, Works, vol. vii., p. 7, &c, who contra-

38

APO
diets himself in Works, vol. xiii., p. 19, et seq.
Archbishop Laud is very positive in affirming
that' Christ chose the twelve, and made them
bishops over the presbyters (Laud on the Lit.
and Episcop. -p. 195), and Bishop Beveridge is
as confident that Christ chose these same twelve
as presbyters and not bishops (Works, vol. ii.,
p. 112). Again, Laud asserts very positively,
that Christ ordained them, since the word used
by St. Mark is "i<r«'»«" — He made them (Ibid.,
p. 196). Beveridge, on the contrary, declares
that Christ did not ordain any of them during
his life, and adduces in proof, the use of this very
term iraintn "buZixa. (Ibid., vol. ii., p. 112). 3.
Others' again affirm that the apostles were not
commissioned till after Christ's resurrection. Mr.
Sage, quoted in Ayton's Constit. of CL, app.
p. 5, 6 ; Saravia's " Priesthood," Spanheim, Op.
Theol., par. i., 436; Stillingfleet, Irenic, p. 117,
118, and par. ii., 218; Whitby, Annot. Luke
x. 1; Dr. Hammond in Ibid. ; Bellarmine, De
Pontiff, lib. iv., cap. 25; Bishop Heber in Life
of Jeremy Taylor, Works, vol. i., p. 185.
II. The apostles were extraordinary officers,
and could have no successors. 1. This is affirmed
by Pearson On the Creed, p. 16, " who are con
tinued to us only in their writings;" Whitby in
Comment. Pref. to Titus; Bishop Hoadley, see
Works, foi. vol ii., p. 827 ; Dr. Barrow in Works,
foi. vol. i., p. 598 ; Dr. Willet in Synopsis Pap
ismi, fob, p. 164, 165; Bishop Fell on Ephes.,
5, 9 ; Hooker, Eccl. Pol., b. vii., § iv., vol. iii.,
p. 187, Keble's edition; Chillingworth ; Hinds'
History of Rise and Progress of Christ., vol.
ii., p. 70-87; Hinds on Inspiration, p. 117;
Lightfoot's Works, vol. xiii., pp. 26, 27, 30, 70,
98, &c, and in other works ; Palmer On the Ch.,
vol. i., p. 169, 170; Bowers' Eist. ofthe Popes,
vol. i., 5, 6; Potter on Ch. Govt., pp. 121, 117,
Am. ed.; Steele's Phil, ofthe Evid. of Christ,
pp. 102, 105, 106, 107; Dodwell, Parenes, ad. ext.
p. 68, comp. 11, 54, 55, 62, apud Ayton; Bishop
Davenant on Col., vol. i., ch. i; Brett, Div. Right
of Episcop., lect. xii. , p. 2 6, apud Ayton ; Stilling
fleet Irenic., par. ii.,pp. 299-301; Spanheim, Fit
Dissert., 3 numb. 25, 37, 34 ; Archbishop Tillotson,
see quoted in Presbyterianism Defd., pp. 117, 118.
2. This is most resolutely impugned by Laud,
see his Three Speeches on the Liturgy Episcop.,
&c, in Oxf. edit. 1840, passim ; Dr. William
Nichols in his Defence ofthe Ch. of England;
" Bishops are successors to the apostles, both in
name and thing," says Leslie in "Letter on Epis
copacy, " in The Scholar Armed, vol. i., 64, et
alibi; Beveridge in Works, vol. ii., pp. 88, 93.
120, 147, 149, 167, 278 ; Law in his Second
Letter to the Bishop of Bangor See, in Oxf. Tr.,
vol. iii., p. 156 ; Stillingfleet (the bishop, not the
dean), in Works, vol. i., p. 371, in art. "Bishop,"
Rees' Cyclopasd.; Bishop Hicks, Mr. Rhind, Dr.
Scott, Dr. Munroe, see Ayton's Orig. Constit.
ofthe Ch., app. p. 8, lect. ii.; Bishop Honiman,
Survey ofNaphthali, par. ii., 191, &c., in Ayton ;

APO
Bishop Hall; Episc. by Div. Rights, par. ii.
Opinions differ as widely in the Church of
England at the present day (see Smyth's Pre-
latic Doctrine of Apostolical succession examined,
Boston, 1841).
Apotactitte or Apotactici (from uvotxtto),
I renounce), an ancient sect who renounced all
property, and professed poverty, in imitation of
the apostles. Augustine says that they allowed no
hope of salvation to such as used either of those
things which they renounced.
Apparel of Ministers. — The seventy-fourth
canon of the Church of England is so explicit
on this subject that it is only necessary to quote
it entire. It ought to he observed, however,
that, though nearly 250 years old, it is still
unrepealed; but, from the very nature of its
Bubject, it is properly classed among the ob
solete canons, respect being had to the spirit of
its injunctions rather than to its literal interpre
tation. The canon is as follows : — " The true,
ancient, and flourishing churches of Christ, being
ever desirous that their prelacy and clergy might
be had as well in outward reverence, as other
wise regarded for the worthiness of their minis
try, did think it fit by a prescript form of decent
and comely apparel, to have them known to the
people, and thereby to receive the honour and
estimation due to the special messengers and
ministers of Almighty God : we therefore, fol
lowing their grave judgment, and the ancient cus
tom of the Church of England, and hoping that
in time newfangleness of apparel in some factious
persons will die of itself, do constitute and appoint,
that the archbishops and bishops shall not inter
mit to use the accustomed apparel of their degrees.
Likewise all deans, masters of colleges, arch
deacons, and prebendaries, in cathedral and colle
giate churches (being priests or deacons), doctors
in, divinity, law, and physic, bachelors in divin
ity, masters of arts, and bachelors of law, hav
ing any ecclesiastical living, shall usually wear
gowns with standing collars and sleeves straight
at the hands, or wide sleeves as is used in the
universities, with hoods and tippets of silk or
sarcenet, and square caps. And that all other
ministers admitted or to be admitted into that
function, shall also usually wear the like apparel
as is aforesaid, except tippets only. We do
further in like manner ordain, that all the said
ecclesiastical persons above mentioned shall usu
ally wear in their journeys cloaks with sleeves,
commonly called priests' cloaks, without guards,
welts, long buttons, or cuts. And no ecclesias
tical person shall wear any coif or wrought
night-cap, but only plain night-caps of black
silk, satin, or velvet. In all which particulars
concerning the apparel here prescribed, our mean
ing is not to attribute any holiness or special
worthiness to the said garments, but for decency,
gravity, and order, as is before specified. In
private houses, and in their studies, the said per- j
sons ecclesiastical may use any comely and |
39

ARC
scholar-like apparel, provided that it be not cut
or pinkt ; and that in public they go not in their
doublet and hose, without coats or cassocks ; and
that they wear not any light-coloured stockings.
Likewise poor beneficed men and curates (not
being able to provide themselves long gowns)
may go in short gowns of the fashion afore
said." — See Puritans, Vestments.
Apparitor, the messenger who serves the
process of the spiritual court among the Romans.
Apparitors were the same with tipstaffs among
us, who were called opparitores comitatus.
Appeals (a tei-m of law), in ecclesiastical suits,
lie from the Archdeacon's Court to that of the
bishop ; from the Consistory Court of every dio
cesan bishop to that of the archbishop of each pro
vince, or to his official in the Court of Arches ; and
from this court there lies an appeal to the sovereign
as supreme head of the church in England. In
Presbyterian churches there are formal modes of
appeal from a lower to a higher court, or from a
kirk-session to a presbytery, from it to a synod,
and from it to the general assembly.
Appellants. — See Acceptants.
Appropriation, in law, denotes the annex
ing of an ecclesiastical benefice to the perpetual
use of some religious house or chapter, in the
same way as impropriation is the annexing of a
benefice to a lay person or corporation. At the
dissolution of monasteries, the appropriations of
the several parsonages which belonged to religi
ous foundations of one sort or another, amounted'
to more than one-third of all the parishes of Eng
land, which, by a special act of parliament, were
all given to the king ; and from these particular
benefices have sprung all the lay impropriations
now in England (see Blackstone, vol. i., p. 384).
It is computed that there are in England 3,845
lay impropriations.
Apsis denotes anything arched or vaulted, like
the canopy of heaven, to which Jerome (on Ephes.
iv.) applies the word. And hence it is sometimes
used, as arcus is, for a church porch ; sometimes
for the ambo or reading-desk ; sometimes for the
case in which the relics of saints were kept ; but
most frequently for the upper end of the chancel,-
which was built in semicircular form,- with a
vaulted roof, and called for that same reason
concha, or conchula bematis.
Aquarii. — Under this name Augustine con
demns those heretics who used water instead of
wine in the celebration of the Lord's Supper. —
See Encratites.
Arabici, a sect that sprung up about the year
207, whose leading tenet was that the soul died
with the body and rose again with it. Eusebius,
lib. vi,, u. 37, relates that a council was called to
stop the progress of this rising sect, at which
Origen attended, and by his eloquence and learn
ing induced its leaders to abjure their error.
Arcani Disciplina (system of secret in
struction), a phrase used to denote the esoteric
practice of the early Church in concealing certain

ARC
parts of worship and ceremonial from the uncon
verted, and from catechumens. Some have sup
posed that it originated in imitation of the
mysteries of heathenism, and as a means of dis
guising the original simplicity of the worship ;
and others deduce it from the necessity of caution
and secresy created by persecution. It may
be added that the idea of mysteries early and
gradually rose in the Church as the spirit of
apostolic order left it. The Lord's Supper had
an awful solemnity thrown around it, and so
had baptism ; the catechumens were placed
under long probation ; and the power and
prerogative of the clergy were proportionally
increased. When the Eucharist, the missa flde-
lium, was to be dispensed, the uninitiated were
commanded to leave the church, the doors of
which were shut and guarded with superstitious
reverence. The germs of the practice may be
traced to the end of the second century, and it
gradually disappeared, and died out at length in
the seventh century.
Archbishop is the chief bishop of the pro
vince, and the name seems formerly to have been
only a title of honour. It appears to have been
introduced into the Church about the time of
Athanasius (A.n. 320) ; but was not at that time
conceived to imply any specific jurisdiction or
precedency. In Italy several bishops are dis
tinguished with this title, who, nevertheless,
have no power or authority over other bishops.
The ecclesiastical state of England and Wales
is divided into two provinces. The Archbishop
of Canterbury has within his province the dio
ceses of Rochester, London, Winchester, Nor
wich, Ely, Lincoln, Chichester, Salisbury, Exeter,
Bath and Wells, Worcester, Coventry and Lich
field, Hereford, Llandaff, St. David's, Bangor,
and St. Asaph, together with four that were
founded by Henry VIII., and erected out of the
dissolved monasteries, viz., Gloucester, Bristol,
Peterborough, and Oxford. The Archbishop of
York has under him the following bishoprics, viz.,
that of Chester (which was erected by Henry
VIII.), Durham, Carlisle, Manchester, Ripon,
and Sodor and Man. As the seat of a diocesan,
Canterbury conprehends only a part of Kent,
together with some other parishes in various
dioceses, where the archbishop happens to have
the manors or advowsons, and which, by an
ancient privilege of the see, are, on that account,
considered as peculiars of the diocese of Canter
bury. The Archbishop of Canterbury is styled
Primate of all England, partly because in former
time he had from the pope a legatine authority
over both provinces, and partly because his
power of granting dispensations and faculties
extends over both. Until the year 1152, his
primacy extended to Ireland also, as before that
period the Irish bishops received their consecra
tion from him. In like manner the province of
York anciently claimed and possessed a metro
politan jurisdiction over all the bishops of Scot-

ARC
land, whence they had their consecration, and to
which they swore canonical obedience, until
about the year 1466, when the Scotch bishops
withdrew their obedience. Four years afterwards
Pope Sixtus IV. constituted the Bishop of St.
Andrews archbishop and metropolitan of all
Scotland. The Archbishop of Canterbury has
precedency over all the nobility (not being of
blood royal), and great officers of state; the
Archbishop of York has like precedency, except
with respect to the Lord Chancellor. In Scot
land there were two archbishops, one of Glasgow
and one of St. Andrews.— See Bishop.'
Arch-Chaplain (Apocrisiarius), the name
of the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in the old
kingdom of the Franks. He was the primate,—
formally chief adviser in spiritual things, and
virtually in civil things, too, so that he was
arch-chancellor of the realm, the summus can-
cellanus being originally subordinate to him.
Archdeacon (' A^j&axsvoj, chief of the
deacons), an ecclesiastical officer, next in rank
to the bishop, and having intrusted to him the
discharge of certain branches of the episcopal
functions. In the early ages of the Church, the
bishops in their administration of ecclesiastical
affairs, were usually accompanied by deacons,
whose more especial province it was to inspect
and relieve the indigent in their diocese, and to
assist the bishops and presbyters in preaching
and celebrating the Eucharist. Of these one was
either elected by the rest, or appointed by the
bishop (for it is not quite clear which was the
case), to be more immediately about the bishop's
person, and to act as his minister or deputy in
some of the inferior departments of the episcopal
office. And this person seems generally to have
been the oldest of the deacons. He also had his
deputy, or colleague, called "the second deacon."
In the Greek Church the archidiaconate was
simply an office of dignity and honour, not of
government. But in the Roman Church the
archdeacon was the vicar of the bishop, and had
authority even over the arch- presbyter — a sin
gular anomally in ecclesiastical polity. At one
time, indeed, about the third century, the arch
deacon at Rome usually succeeded, by a kind of
prescription, to the bishopric, which on one
occasion gave rise to a singular proceeding.
Novatus being archdeacon of the Roman
Church, expected to succeed to the episcopal
chair, upon the demise of Cornelius, at that
time bishop. But Cornelius, in order to put an
end at once to his hopes, ordained him priest.
From this story it appears that no priest could
be an archdeacon; which, indeed, must have
been the case, as long as the oldest of tbe dea
cons succeeded by right of seniority to the archi
diaconate — a custom which prevailed in the
Greek Church at least. After the office of
chorepiscopus (bishop or inspector of the vil
lages) was discontinued, the archdeacon, as
being constantly attendant upon the bishop

40

ARC
came by degrees to be employed by him in
visiting the clergy of his diocese, and in the
despatch of other matters, so that, by the be
ginning of the seventh century, he seems to
have been the regular inspector of the diocese,
in subordination to the bishop. But he was
only the inspector, not the corrector; having no
jurisdiction, but only a delegated authority to
visit, and to report. By degrees, however, either
from grants made to them by the bishops, or
from gradual usurpations of power, acquiring at
length the force of prescription, the archdeacon
acquired a jurisdiction which the law terms an
ordinary jurisdiction, being exercised by him, as
a matter of course, by virtue of his office, and
independently of any delegation from the bishop
of a part of his own power. It appears from
this account that originally each bishop had one
archdeacon. In the Church of England the
divisions of dioceses into several archdeaconries
seems to have been introduced soon after the
conquest, at which period the bishops, in virtue
of their baronies, were obliged to attend fre
quently upon the king in council. By the
canon law, the archdeacon, who is styled oadus
episcopi, has power to hold visitations, to ex
amine (by the bishop's direction) candidates for
holy orders, to institute and induct into bene
fices, to inflict ecclesiastical censures and penal
ties, to reform irregularities amongst the clergy,
and to take care of the buildings and property of
the church. The archdeacon has a court, the
judge of which, in the absence of the archdeacon,
is the official. The business of the archdeacon
in the Church of England, at the present day,
consists principally in visiting the respective
parishes within his jurisdiction at certain inter
vals, for the purpose of inspecting the churches
and glebe houses, with a view to their being
kept in good repair. He is also to have an
equal care of all the goods and ornaments of the
church. He has authority to order such re
pairs as he may think necessary, and, in case
of disobedience, to subject the offending parties
to ecclesiastical censures and a pecuniary mulct.
He is also annually to hold a synod of the
clergy in each of the rural deaneries which com
pose his archdeaconry (these are called rural
deaneries to distinguish them from the cathedral
and collegiate deaneries), and to confer with
them upon matters touching tbe welfare and
good order of the church. At these visitations
the archdeacon holds a court, at which he re
ceives the presentment of the churchwardens
of the preceding year, and administers the oath
of office to their successors.
Arches, Court of. — See under Courts.
Archimandrite. — " MavS^a;," means a
sheepfold, and is a name sometimes given to a
monastery; whence an abbot is sometimes
called archimandrite, or chief of the sheepfold.
— See AnBOT.
Archoutics (a^ut, ruler), a sect which ap

ARI
peared about the year 170, holding, among other
absurd speculations, that the creation was to be
ascribed to a variety of authors — archontes, or
archangels — and denying, it is also said, the re
surrection of the body. They seem to be allied
to the Valentinians.
Archpresbyter or Archpriest, chief among
the presbyters. The persons holding this of
fice possessed great influence from the fifth to
the seventh centuries. They shared in some
functions of the episcopal office, and did its
duties when the see was vacant. They were
thus brought into rivalry with the bishops, who
checked them by means of archdeacons, and the
latter were declared their superiors by Innocent
III. The dean corresponds in many respects
with the archpresbyter. In 1598 Clement VII.
sent an archpriest to England instead of a bishop.
Arcus (arch), a name sometimes given, from
the manner in which they were constructed, to
the porches and gates which led into the interior
narthex of an ancient church. If the church
had no atrium or porticus, these arcus were the
places for the first class of penitents.
Argenteus Codex, in Biblical history, a
manuscript of the four Gospels, so called from
the silver letters in which it is written. This
codex is preserved in the University of Upsal,
and is a copy from the Gothic version of Ulphi-
las, which was made in the fourth century. It
is of a quarto size, is written on vellum, the
leaves of which are stained with a violet colour ;
and on this ground the letters, which are all
uncial, or capitals, are painted in silver, except
the initial letters, which are in gold. This MS.
was first discovered in 1597, in the library of
the Benedictine abbey of Werden, in Westpha
lia, where it was sent as a present to Christina,
Queen of Sweden.
Arianism, in ecclesiastical history, is the
name by which the opinions of Arius is
known. Whether we consider the number.
learning, and influence of its adherents, or th&
speciousness and subtlety of its tenets, the
Arian heresy claims a more distinguished rank
than any other in the history of heterodoxy.
It began to disturb and divide the Church soon
after the conversion of Constantine. Its author,
Arius, was first a deacon and afterwards a pres
byter in the Church of Alexandria ; and Libya
was the province of his birth, as it was of
Sabellius. He was first known as a partisan
of Meletius, an Egyptian bishop, who had
created a schism in the Church, but without
any corruption of doctrine. His adherence to
the Meletian party was of short continuance; for
he was reconciled to Peter, the Bishop of Alex
andria, and was by that prelate ordained a
deacon. But his pertinacity in allowing the
validity of Meletian baptism drew on him the
censure of Peter, and he was again expelled
from the communion of the Catholic Church.
Peter, soon after the expulsion of Arius, suffered
41

ARI
martyrdom in the Dioclesian persecution, and
was succeeded in the See of Alexandria by
Achillas. To the new bishop Arius offered
such a satisfactory explanation of his conduct
that he was advanced to the rank of a presby
ter. The episcopate of Achillas was of short
duration, and soon after the conversion of Con
stantine, Alexander was promoted to the impor
tant station, contrary, it is alleged, to the expec
tation of Arius, who aspired to the dignity. The
erudition, the eloquence, and the morals of Arius
have commanded the reluctant acknowledgment
of his powerful and implacable adversaries.
But historians have differed as to his motives,
whether his heresy originated in a sincere
conviction of the truth of his opinions, or in
personal resentment against his bishop. It is
equally undecided whether the beginning of the
controversy should be attributed to Arius or to
Alexander. Yet all accounts agree that the
temper of Alexander was cool and cautious ;
and therefore it may be presumed that unless
Arius had given some provocation by the bold
ness and activity with which he disseminated
his peculiar tenets, the Bishop of Alexandria
would not have formally and authoritatively
condemned them ; neither would he have dog
matically promulgated his own opinions on a
subject so abstruse as that of the blessed Trinity.
In an assembly of the presbyters, Alexander
maintained, among other things, that the Son
was not only of the same eminence and dignity,
but of the same essence with the Father. This
assertion was censured by Arius as being an
approximation to Sabellianism. He eagerly
espoused the opposite extreme, and said, "If the
Father begat the Son, the begotten had a be
ginning of existence ; hence it is evident that
there was a time when He was not." Many of
the assembled clergy sided with the presbyter in
opposition to the bishop; and no sooner were
the opinions of Arius divulged than they found,
in Egypt and the neighbouring provinces, a mul
titude of converts. But Alexander, seated in
the chair of authority, instituted a solemn and
public investigation of the controversy ; and hav
ing already exhibited himself as a disputant, he
now assumed the office of a judge. He con
vened a synod at Alexandria, in which the doc
trines of Arius were condemned, and the heretic
himself, with nine of his adherents, were ex
pelled from the communion of the Church. The
sentence of the Alexandrian Synod was received
by Arius with an undaunted mind. He retired
into Palestine, and from this retreat wrote let
ters to the most eminent men of his times in
defence of his conduct. So great was his suc
cess that he could reckon among his immediate
followers two bishops of Egypt, seven presby
ters, and twelve deacons. A majority of Asiatic
bishops soon declared in his favour, and among
these Eusebius of Nicomedia, a man distin
guished for his influence. On the other, hand,

42

ARI
Alexander, in repeated epistles and public ap*
peals, maintained the justice of the proceedings
against his refractory and contumacious presby
ter. The Emperor Constantine at first regarded
this controversy as a matter of no political or
religious importance, and contented himself with
an attempt to suppress it, by recommending to
both parties mutual concession. He wrote to
both Alexander and Arius, and after censuring
each, advised a reconciliation. He also employed
the mediation of Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, who
ineffectually laboured to promote peace between
the disputants. When the emperor saw tbat
his admonitions and remonstrances were un
availing, and that the commotion was spread
ing throughout the empire, he adopted other
methods; and the famous council of Nice met in
obedience to his command. The bishops assem
bled from all parts of the Christian world at
Nice, in Bithjmia, and their number, according
to the testimony of Athanasius, who was present,
amounted to 31-8. After several keen debates,
the orthodox party expressed its collective
opinion on the cqntroversy in the following man
ner: — The different passages of Scripture which
attest the divinity of the Son of God having.
been selected, a conclusion was drawn that these
passages, taken together, amounted to a proof
that the Son was of the same substance with
the Father ; and the epithet 'OMOOT2IOS, de
rived from the Platonic School, was adopted
into the Nicene Confession. Eusebius of Ni
comedia, the great patron of the Arians, wrote a
letter to the council, in which he censured tho
notion that the Son was uncreated; and the
Arians drew up a written confession of their
faith. Both these documents were pronounced
by the council to be heretical. Hosius of Cor
duba was appointed to draw up a creed, which,
in substance, is the same as that which, at this
day, is called the Nicene Creed. — See Creed.
It soon received the sanction of the council, and of
Constantine himself, who declared that such as
refused to comply with its decrees must prepare
themselves for immediate exile. The hostility
of the Arians to the Catholic doctrine would
have been more dangerous to the Church if the
members of their sect had not formed divisions
among themselves.
Not less than eighteen modifications of the
Arian creed are in existence ; but the divisions
of Arianism itself are reducible to three classes
— 1. The genuine or primitive Arians. 2. The
semi-Arians. 3. The Acacians, who are known
under other appellations. — 1. The tenets of pure
Arianism, according to the representations of
Athanasius, Hilary, Basil, and Epiphanius, to
gether with the historians Socrates, Sozomen,
and Theodoret, are these: Christ is God, but
inferior to the Father in regard to His divin
ity, substance, properties, and dignity. Christ
is a creature, whose existence had a begin
ning; but he was created, out of nothing be-

ARI
fore the foundation of the world. Christ, of
consequence, is God by the will of the Father,
not by nature, but by adoption ; yet made after
the express likeness of the Creator. Christ is,
therefore, of a different essence from the Father :
he is not coetemal with the Father, because he
is begotten ; he is not coequal nor consubstantial
with the Father. The Holy Ghost is not God,
hut a creature of the Son, inferior to the Son as
well as the Father, but co-operating with both
in the work of creation. 2. The semi- Arians, it is
said, maintained the Son to be ipoiouo-ios, i. e.,
similar to the Father in essence, not by nature,
but by a peculiar privilege. 3. There were some
who took a middle course, and contented them
selves with asserting simply that the Son is
like to the Father, without any specification of
properties or substance. The head of this sect
was Acacius, the successor of Eusebius in the
see of Casarea ; but Acacius is said to have re
tracted this opinion, and to have subscribed the
Catholic doctrine at the synod of Antioch. The
Eunomians and Exocontians may be compre
hended under the first class. Ennomius was a
disciple of Aetius, a deacon of the Church of
Antioch, expelled on account of his heresy, and
whose followers were called Aetians. Exocontian
is a synonyme of Arian, because the Arians main
tained that Christ was created 1| ol>x ovruv, i. e.,
before tbe beginning of things. Eusebius, also,
Bishop of Nicomedia, has given his name to a
branch of the Arian sect. The semi-Arians
were also called Duliani, because they affirmed
that the Son was " iaSxm " — the servant of the
Father ; and Theodoret has noticed them under
the denomination of Psathyrians  It is needless
to enumerate more of these obscure modifications
ofthe Arian and semi-Arian heresy. — The funda
mental article of the opposite Nicene doctrine is
the consubstautiality of the Father and the Son.
The Son not only proceeds from the Father, he
is not only in the similitude of the Father, but
also of the same essence. He is not a creature,
for he existed before the foundation of the world.
The Holy Ghost is not of the Son only, but of
the Father and of the Son together. Athanasius
has both asserted the Nicene doctrine, and ably
defended it against objections. He has also
carefully discriminated it, not only from Arian
ism, but from Tritheism and Sabellianism.
Arianism was, however, far from being extin
guished in the empire ; for Constantius favoured
it, while Theodosius made every effort to sup
press it. Many of the German nations adopted
it. Ostrogoth and Vandal held it, and prosely
tized for it, and it became rampant for a season
in Spain and Africa. In England, Whiston
preached it in 1771, and lost his chair at Cam
bridge. Samuel Clarke followed, but was not
so explicit ; and Hoadley and Sir Isaac Newton
seem inclined to the same heresy. It found its
way into the Presbyterian churches, and was, in
many of them, the precursor of Socinianism. It

ARM
appears to be extinct as a formal faith, save in
the north of Ireland.
Armenian Church. — In the most ancient
times the Armenians seem to have worshipped the
same idols as the Persians ; but our knowledge
of their spiritual as well as temporal condition in
those ages is very defective. In the third century
of our era, S. Savorich, or Gregory, is said to have
converted Tiridates, King of Armenia, by his
preaching and miracles. In the following cen
tury, Miesrob — whose contemporary and disciple,
Moses of Khoren, has left a valuable history of
his native country — caused the Scriptures to be
translated from the Greek. It is much to be
lamented that the ignorance and superstition of
the Armenian clergy led them subsequently to
allow it to be interpolated from the Syriac and
Vulgate versions. As literature has lately been
more cultivated than formerly by the Armenians
themselves, and their language has been success
fully studied by some able men in France and
Italy, it may be hoped that the original unadul
terated text may yet be recovered. The Arme
nians are generally considered as Monopby-
sites, or those who confound the two natures
in Christ. They baptize by immersion, de
light in pictures of saints and martyrs, and
administer the cup to the laity. They be
lieve in an intermediate state, but not in purga
tory; and they pay the same superstitious regard
to the pictures of the saints as the other Chris
tians of the East. They keep many and rigid
fasts, and some festivals. Christmas they cele
brate on the 6th of January. Their church go
vernment is episcopal, and their clergy are subject
to tlie patriarch, who resides at the great monas
tery of Echmiyadzin, about ten miles distant
from Erivan. That place is also called Uch
Killseh, and may be considered as the head
quarters of the religion and literature of Ar
menia. Armenian monks. — The smaller number
are lay brethren, who follow the severe rule of
St. Anthony, the hermit, in all its rigour. They
live as hermits even in their monasteries, and are
found principally on the confines of Persia. The
greater number follow the rule of St. Basil, but
not rigidly. Their monasteries are generally in
towns or places of pilgrimage. The most cele
brated is that of Echmiyadzin, or Etchmeazin,
i. e., the descent of the Son of God, not far from
Erivan, the seat of the Catholicus or Patriarch
of the Armenian Church, where there is also
an ecclesiastical seminary and a printing estab
lishment. There are three churches near each
other at this place, whence it receives ils name
of Uch Kiliseh; and most of the vertabets, or
doctors in divinity, graduate here. The monas
tery has cells for eighty monks ; but has seldom
more than fifty occupants. The whole number
of convents in" Persian and Turkish Armenia is
about forty, and the number of monks about
200. Their revenues are very small, and their

43

ARM
discipline extremely rigid. There are also fifteen
nunneries in Persian Armenia. There is a con
vent of Armenian monks of the Order of St.
Basil at Jerusalem, which has been richly en
dowed by the liberality of the pilgrims. Most,
if not all the monks of the United or Conform
ing Armenian Church (i. e., that part of it wbich
acknowledges the supremacy of Rome), are
branches of the Order of St. "Dominic. A con
gregation of Armenian monks has long existed
at Venice, and are located on the small island of
San Lazaro.
Arminianism, the creed named after its
founder, James Arminius, who, in 1603, was
made Professor of Divinity at Leyden. He had
some time before become an object of suspicion in
the Dutch Church, from his calling in question
the truth of the Calvinistic theory of predestina
tion, and expressing lax opinions on other points
of theology. His colleague, Francis Gomar, lost
no time in complaining of his novel views. Ar
minius defended himself with ingenuity and
caution ; but it was evident that he rejected the
opinions which had hitherto been generally
received by the Reformed; and he was loudly
denounced by his opponents as maintaining a
system which revived the errors of the ancient
Pelagians. Arminius died in 1609, before any
steps could be taken for the settlement of these
disputes. But his party was already numerous
and active. Uytenbogart and Episcopius were
not inferior, as divines, to their master. In 1610
they addressed to the States of Holland a Re
monstrance in reply to the charges made against
them by their enemies, in which they declared
their belief:—" 1. That God, from all eternity,
determined to bestow salvation on those who, as
he foresaw, would preserve unto the end their
faith in Christ Jesus, and to inflict everlasting
punishment on those who should continue in their
unbelief, and resist, to the end of life, his divine
succours. 2.' That Jesus Christ, by his death
and sufferings, made an atonement for the sins of
mankind in general, and of every individual in
particular: that, however, none but those who
believe in him can be partakers of that divine
benefit. 3. The true faith cannot proceed from
the exercise of our natural faculties and powers,
or from the force and operation of free-will, since
man, in consequence of his natural corruption, is
incapable either of thinking or doing any good
thing ; and that therefore it is necessary to his
conversion and salvation that he be regenerated,
and renewed by the operation of the Holy Ghost,
which is the gift of God through Jesus Christ.
4. That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy
Ghost, which heals the disorders of a corrupt
nature, begins, advances, and brings to perfection
everything that can be good in man ; and that,
consequently, all good works, without exception,
are to be attributed to God alone, and to the
operation of his grace: that, nevertheless, this
grace does not force the man to act against his

44

ARN
inclination, but may be resisted and rendered in
effectual by the perverse will of the impenitent
sinner. 5. That they who are united to Christ
by faith are thereby furnished with abundant
strength, and with succours sufficient to enable
them to triumph over the seductions of Satan,
and the allurements of sin and temptation ; but
that the question, Whether suck may fall from
their faith, and forfeit finally this state of grace?
has not been yet resolved with sufficient perspi
cuity, and must therefore be yet more carefully
examined by an attentive study of what the
Holy Scriptures have declared in relation to this
important point." It is to be observed, that this
last article was afterwards changed by the Ar
minians, who, in process of time, declared their
sentiments with less caution, and positively
affirmed, that the saints might fall from a state of
grace. This celebrated piece procured them the
name of Remonstrants, while the Gomarists, who
replied to it, were called anti-Remonstrants.
Oldenbarneveldt and Grotius, the leaders of the
Republican party, undertook the defence of the
Arminian divines ; but the steps which they took
in their favour only accelerated the ruin of their
clients and of themselves. These eminent states
men were obnoxious to the Stadtholder, Prince
Maurice, to whose ambitious views they were
warmly opposed. Their connection with the
Arminians exposed the latter to the hostility of
that powerful nobleman, who was thus led to
regard them as dangerous persons, and to ex
tend his countenance to the leaders ofthe opposite
party, whom he found more inclined to support
his measures. The Synod of Dort was accord
ingly assembled in 1618, by the authority of the
general government, under circumstances suffi
ciently indicative of what was to follow. That
celebrated assembly, which was attended by de
legates from Great Britain, Geneva, Switzerland,
Hesse, Bremen, and the Palatinate, declared
the Calvinistic doctrine to be the faith of the
Reformed, and severe measures were imme
diately taken against the opposing party. The
Remonstrants were banished from the united
provinces; but, upon the death of Maurice,
in 1625, they were allowed to return. The
tolerant policy henceforth adopted by the states-
general, allowed them the opportunity to de
velop their theology, and it soon realized the
worst suspicions of their enemies. Episcopius
taught a most dangerous latitudinarianism, and
in another generation thev scarcely differed
from the Socinians. — See Calvinism.
Aruoldists, one of the many sects that arose
in the twelfth century, deriving its name from
Arnold of Brescia, a disciple of the famous
Abelard. He saw and deplored the evils which
arose from the opulence and arrogance of pon
tiffs and bishops, and was carried by ex
cess of zeal into violent measures for reforming
such abuses. He was crucified and burnt to
ashes in 1155 ; but his spirit long continued to

ARR
animate his disciples, who were ready to come
forward with ardour and intrepidity as often as
they fancied the time was come for carrying out
the designs of their leader.
Arrhabon (a pledge), a name sometimes
given to the elements in the Lord's Supper,
whence — •
Arrhabonarii became the title of those who
held that the bread and wine were not really the
body and blood of Christ, but only the pledge
and earnest thereof. — See Real Presence.
Artemonites, heretics who are said to
have been the first to maintain that Christ was a
mere man. Theodotus, a tanner of Byzantium,
is styled by Eusebius the father of this apostacj7,
and from him the sect obtained the name of
Theodotians. But they are more commonly
called after Artemon, another of their leaders,
who seems to have uved at or near Rome
at the beginning of the third century. It
was at Rome that Theodotus also first spread
his false doctrines, and he was excommunicated
for them by Victor, the bishop of that city,
about the year 196.
Articles (Statute of the Six, or the Bloody
Statute), was an Act for abolishing diversity of
doctrine in certain articles of opinion concerning
the Christian religion, 31 Henry VIII., «. 14.
By this law the doctrines of the real presence —
the communion in one kind — the perpetual obli
gation of vows of chastity — the utility of private
masses — the celibacy of the clergy— and the ne
cessity of auricular confession, were confirmed,
and the denial of them made punishable with
death. Articles, Five, those articles to which
King James, after much difficulty, succeeded in
obtaining the sanction of the General Assembly
of Scotland and the Scottish Parliament, in the
year 1621, his object being to assimilate the
Church of Scotland to that of England. The
articles were — kneeling at the Lord's Supper,
private communion, private baptism, confir
mation, and the observance of holy days.
Articles of Faith are certain points of
doctrine which we are obliged to believe, as
having been revealed by God, and so declared to
have been by the church of which we are
members. Articles of Lambeth were nine articles on
the subject of predestination, and the limitation
of saving grace, which were drawn up by Arch
bishop Whitgift, and recommended to the attention
of the students of Cambridge, in consequence of
some disputes which were raised in the uni
versity, at that time, on the above-mentioned
points. They were, however, merely declara
tory of the doctrines of the Church of England,
and were not imposed as of public authority.
Articles of the Clergy (articuli cleri), are
certain statutes which were passed in the reign
of Edward IL, 1316, for terminating the dis
putes between the temporal and spiritual courts

ART
respecting the limits of their several jurisdic
tions. Articles, Vhirty-Nine, of the Church of
England were first printed in the year 1563 ; and
were at first published in Latin as well as in
English. The compilation of articles by the
Reformed Churches was suggested by the cele
brated Augsburg Confession, their ohject being
to satisfy the reasonable inquiries of sober men,
who wished to be informed on the grounds of
their secession from the Church of Rome, to re
ply to the calumnies of enemies, and to edify the
members of their respective communions. " An
other reason," says Bishop Burnet, "the Re
formers had, was this : They had smarted long
under the tyranny of popery, and so they had
reason to secure themselves from it, and from all
those who were leavened with it. They here
in England had seen how many had complied
with every alteration, both in King Henry and
King Edward's reign, who not only declared
themselves to have been all the while papists,
but became bloody persecutors in Queen Mary's
reign ; therefore, it was necessary to keep all
such out of their body, that they might not se
cretly undermine and betray it." In the reign of
Henry VIII., the foundation of the articles were
laid in the changes that took place in the form
of worship ; and it is generally supposed that
Bishops Ridley and Cranmer, assisted by other
prelates, were the first to draw up an outline of
articles to be believed in the Church of England.
They were published by the king's authority.
In the reign of Edward VI., a body of
articles was compiled and published, which
passed the Convocation of 1562, and was pub
lished the year ensuing. They were again rati
fied at the provincial synod held at London in
the year 1571 — being the thirteenth year of the
reign of Elizabeth — by the signatures of eleven
bishops. At this convocation a few alterations
were made, which subsequently were erased, so
that the articles of 1563 are substantially the
same as those now published in the Book
of Common Prayer. Enactments, compelling
Dissenting teachers to subscribe to the larger
number of the Thirty-nine Articles, and school
masters to subscribe to all, were passed in the
reign of William IIL; but these have been re
pealed by the statute 19 George III., cap. 44.
Clergymen, at their ordination, induction into
benefices, or appointment to lectureships, &c,
subscribe; also, the heads of colleges, and
all who hold any clerical or literary appoint
ments at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge,
and Dublin.
Artotyrites (agTos bread, and tkj is cheese), a
Christian sect in ancient times who, according to
Epiphanius and St. Augustine, partook of cheese
as well as bread at the Eucharist — their apology
being that the first oblations that were offered
by men in the infancy of the world were of the
fruits of the earth and of sheep.

45

ASC
Ascension Day — commonly called Holy
Thursday — a festival of the Church, of very
ancient origin, observed in commemoration of
the day on which our Saviour ascended into
heaven. It is the fortieth day after Easter Sun
day, and the Sunday but one before Whitsun
day. It was always included among the great
festivals of the Christian Church, because of the
important results to mankind arising from the
completion of our Saviour's ministry upon earth,
and his reception into heaven as the mediator be
tween God and man. We leam from Hospinian
(quoted by Bingham) that when superstition
marred the simplicity and purity of ancient cus
toms, much ridiculous pageantry was adopted in
several churches on this day : such as drawing
up an image to the roof of the church, to repre
sent the ascension of Christ, and then casting
down another image to represent Satan falling
as lightning from heaven, with many other
ridiculous ceremonies of the same kind. Special
services for this day are appointed in the Church
of England, the psalms and lessons being also
suitable to the occasion.
Asccterium, a name sometimes given in old
writings to a monastery. The college of the
funerarii, or undertakers, founded by the Em
peror Anastasius, was so called. This consisted
of eight monks and three acolythists, whose oc
cupation was one of most active employment,
namely, that of continually burying the dead.
Ascetic, a term applied by the Greek fathers
to those who separate' themselves from all inter
course with the world, and who exercise them
selves in divine things. The term was origin
ally applied to a sect that appeared about the
second century, and made profession of uncom
mon sanctity and virtue, which they supposed
to consist in self-denial and mortification. They
considered it an act of great merit to deny
themselves the use of those things which were
esteemed lawful for all other Christians to enjoy,
and held it as an indispensable duty to undergo
continual abstinence, and to subject themselves
to tbe most severe discipline. Their object was,
by raising the soul above all external objects and
all sensual pleasures, to enjoy a nearer com
munion with God on earth, and, after the dis
solution of their mortal bodies, to ascend to the
supreme centre of happiness and perfection, un-
retarded by the impurities and imperfections
which debase mankind in general. The appella
tion was also given to those who were more
than ordinarily intent on the exercises of prayer
and devotion, and hence St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
calls the prophetess Anna, "who departed not
from the temple, but served God night and day,"
** iexrir^iu, iiiXet(Stffra.rn" — a most religious as
cetic. In the present day, by ascetics we under
stand those who retire from the conversation and
pleasures of the world, and pass their time in
religious mortification, although in the primitive
ages such as pretended to this title were men of

46

ASS
active life, living in society, and differing from
the rest of mankind only in their exact adher
ence to the rules of virtue and forbearance in
culcated in the Gospel.
Ascodrogites, a Greek compound term, ap
plied to a sect which arose about the year 181,
and brought, as their name implies, wine-skins
into the churches, to represent the bottles filled
with new wine mentioned by the Saviour. It is
said that scenes of bacchanalian revelry were the
result. Ascoodrutcs, a sect of the second century,
which rejected all symbols and sacraments
(Bingham). Ash- Wednesday.— See Lent.
Aspergillnm, a brush used in popish churches
for the purpose of sprinkling the holy water.
Aspersion (sprinkling). — See Baptist, Vm-
dobaptist. Assembly. — The General Assembly is the
name of the supreme ecclesiastical court in Scot
land, which holds its meeting annually, and con
sists of a certain number of ministers and ruling
elders delegated from the various presbyteries
according to the number of parishes contained in
each. The royal burghs depute one ruling elder
each, that of Edinburgh two, and every univer
sity sends a commissioner. The assembly now
consists of 363 members. The queen presides
in the person of her own commissioner, who is
always a nobleman, but has no voice in the deli
berations, his official duty being confined to the
calling and dissolution of the meetmg, which he
does in the name of her majesty, whilst the
moderator does the same in the name of the
Lord Jesus Christ. It can sit only ten free
days. The Free Church also has its General
Assembly, but composed solely of ecclesiastical
delegates, sent by ecclesiastical bodies.
Assembly of Divines, The, was an as
sembly appointed by parliament in June, 1643,
for the reformation of religion in doctrine, wor
ship, discipline, and government. It consisted of
121 divines and 30 laymen, 10 of them heing
peers. Six members were sent from Scotland.
These men sat in the Jerusalem chamber at
Westminster, July 1, 1643, and continued five
years, six months, and twenty-two days, tbe
daily attendance ranging between sixty and
eighty. Strict rules of debate were laid down,
but not always adhered to. A quaint and gra
phic account of the appearance has been given
by Baillie, a member and eye-witness : — " The
like of that assembly I did never see ; and as we
hear say, the like was never in England, nor
any where is shortly like to be. They did sit iu
Henry the VII.'s Chapel, in the place of the
convocation; but since the weather grew cold,
they did go to the Jerusalem Chamber, a fair
room in tbe Abbey of Westminster, about the
size of the college front-hall, but wider. At the
one end, nearest the door, and along both sides,
are stages of seats, as in the new Assembly

ASS
House at Edinburgh, but not so high ; for there
will be room but for five or six score. At the
uppermost end there is a chair set on a frame, a
foot from the earth, for the Mr. Prolocutor, Dr.
Twisse. Before it, on the ground, stand two
chairs for the two Mr. Assessors, Dr. Burgess
and Mr. White. Before these two chairs, through
the length of the room, stands a table at which
sit the two scribes, Mr. Byfield and Mr. Ro-
borough. The house is all well hung (with
tapestry), and has a good fire, which is some
dainties at London. Opposite the table, upon
the prolocutor's right hand, there are three or
four ranks of benches. On the lowest we five
do sit. Upon the other, at our backs, the mem
bers of parliament deputed to the assembly. On
the benches opposite us, on the prolocutor's left
hand, going from the upper end of the house to
the chimney, and at the other end of the house
and back of the table, till it come about to our
seats, are four or five stages of benches, upon
which their divines sit as they please; albeit
commonly they keep the same place. From the
chimney to the door there are no seats, but a
void space for passage. The lords of the parlia
ment used to sit on chairs, in that void about the
fire. We meet every day of the week but Satur
day. We sit commonly from nine till one or
two afternoon. The prolocutor, at the beginning
and end, has a short prayer  When,
upon every proposition by itself, and on every
text of Scripture that is brought to confirm it,
every man who will has said his whole mind,
and the replies, duplies, and tri plies are heard,
then the most part call, ' To the question.' By-
field, the scribe, rises from the table, and comes
to the prolocutor's chair, who, from the scribe's
book, reads the proposition, and says, ' As many
as are of opinion that the question is well stated
in the proposition, let them say, Ay ; ' when Ay
is heard, he says, ' As many as think otherwise,
say, No.' If tbe difference of 'Ayes' and 'Noes'
be clear, as usually it is, then the question is
ordered by the scribes, and they go on to debate
the first scripture alleged for proof of the propo
sition. If the sound of Ay and No be near equal,
then says the prolocutor, ' As many as say Ay,
stand up;' while they stand, the scribe and
others number them in their minds; when they
sit down, the Noes are bidden stand, and they
likewise are numbered. This way is clear enough,
and saves a great deal of time." Men of very
opposite views sat in the assembly — Selden and
Lightfoot, Philip Nye and Gillespie — episcopali
ans, presbyterians, independents, erastians. They
agreed generally in doctrine, and the confession
and catechisms drawn up by them are still the
standard of the Presbyterian churches in this
country and in America. But the assembly
could not agree on church government, and it
broke up without accomplishing one chief end for
which it was convened. Milton and Clarendon
looked on this assembly from opposite points of

ASS
view, but both cordially hated it ; while Richard
Baxter, objecting to many things in it, stoutly
declares, " even in the face of malice and envy,"
that " the Christian world, since the days of the
apostles, had never a Synod ,of more excellent
divines than this, and the Synod of Dort " (Light-
foot's Works, vol. xiii. ; Bailhe's Letters, vol. ii. ;
Hetherington's History of the Westminster As
sembly, 1856). — See Directory.
Asses, Feast of, a festival formerly cele
brated at Beauvais, by a stupid ceremony. The
handsomest young woman in the town was
selected, an infant was placed in her arms, and
she was then made to ride on an ass, followed by
a procession, composed of the bishop and clergy.
When they arrived at the church of St. Stephen,
mass was said, the qualities of the animal were
expatiated upon, and the dumb brute was ex
horted to make devout genuflexions ! Other
ridiculous and disgusting ceremonies followed,
and the day was closed with amusements of
various kinds — See Boy Bishop.
Assidcans or Chasideans (from Hebrew
terms signifying just, merciful, pious), a sect of
the Jews who resorted to Mattathias, to fight for
the laws of God and the liberties of their country.
They were distinguished for their valour and
zeal, devoting themselves to a more strict ob
servance of the law than other men. After the
return of the Jews from the Babylonish cap
tivity there were two sorts of As»ideans — the
one holding precisely to the Holy Scriptures ; the
other affecting a more eminent degree of sanctity
than was commanded by the law. For the
latter — the Chasidim, or pious — the people had
a peculiar veneration, and tbe rather as they
taught that works of ' supererogation were not
indifferent, but necessary to salvation. From
these sprang the Fharisees, who held that their
traditions were more perfect than Scripture.
From the others, the Tsadikim, are said to have
come the Sadducees, with a more dangerous doc
trine — that we were not to look for recompense or
punishment; for they denied the resurrection, and
were, in short, sceptical materialists.
Assumption, Feast of, a festival observed
by the Greek and Romish Churches on the 15th
of August, in commemoration of the bodily
ascent of Mary, the mother of our Lord, into
heaven. The legend upon which this festival
is founded runs thus: — The Virgin having
died, nearly all the apostles assembled from the
various quarters whither they had gone preach
ing the Gospel, to be present at her funeral.
Thomas, however, arrived three days too late;
but, feeling anxious to see Mary's face once
more, the grave stone was removed, when lol
the grave clothes were only to be seen. The
conclusion was, therefore, inevitable, that our
Saviour had rescued the body of his mother
from corruption, and transferred it to the regions
of the blessed. The Greeks have another legend
equally ridiculous. They say that three days

47

ASY
after the death (sleeping, as they call it) of the
Virgin, the apostles were assembled, when sud
denly they were surrounded with a flood of
light, and the Virgin herself stood before them,
attended by a host of angels. Paying her re
spects to them, she said, " God be with you ; I
will never leave you, nor forsake you." The
apostles, transported with the vision, exclaimed,
" 0, ever blessed Virgin, mother of God, grant
us thy aid." Mary vanished; whereupon the
apostles cried out that the Queen of Saints had
ascended into heaven, and was seated on the
right hand of her son.
Asylum, in sacred history, a city of refuge.
Six cities were appointed by the Mosaic law
(Exodus, xxi. 13; Numbers, xxxv. 11), three
on each side of Jordan, to which any one who
had undesignedly killed another might flee in
security. Those on this side of Jordan were
Kedesh of Naphtali, Hebron, and Shechem;
those beyond it were Bezar, Golan, and Ramoth-
Gilead. Besides these cities, the altar of burnt
offerings enjoyed the privilege of an asylum (see
" Cities of Refuge," Biblical Cyclopcedia). For
the asyla under the Christian Church, see
Church, Sanctuary.
Athanasian Creed. — See Creed.
Atonement (see Biblical Cyclopaedia).
Atrium (court). — See Church.
Attributes of God, the qualities and perfec
tions which we conceive as belonging to Him —
as power, justice, wisdom, &c. Sometimes they
have been divided into incommunicable and com
municable, and sometimes into natural and moral
— the first referring to His essence, and the second
to His character (see Charnock; Dick's Theology,
vol. i. ; Wood's Theology).
Attrition. — The Church of Rome regards
contrition as a perfect repentance, and attrition
as a lower and an imperfect form of it — a sorrow
merely produced by shame and by fear of pun
ishment. This is reckoned sufficient by popish
converts to secure, in certain circumstances, ac
ceptance with God.
Audians, the followers of Audius or Udo, a
Syrian layman, who, in the early part of the
fourth century, was excommunicated for the
freedom with which he censured the vices of the
clergy. He soon gathered round him a party,
which comprised even some bishops and other
ecclesiastics, and he himself became a bishop, as
well as leader of the sect. He is said to have
adopted anthropomorphite opinions, and to have
kept Easter according to the Quartodeciman rule.
When quite advanced in years, he was banished
to Scythia, and there gained many converts from
the Goths, among whom he introduced the mo
nastic system.
Audience, Court of. — See Courts.
Audientes (hearers). — See Catechumens.
Auditor, a person originally appointed by the
king or religious houses to examine and pass the
public accounts. At the present day, in all

48

AUR
cathedral and collegiate bodies, the accounts of
receipts and expenditure are overlooked and ar
ranged at stated periods called audits, when
certain members of the society meet as auditors,
to inspect and regulate the general accounts.
Augean Codex (Codex Augiensis), a Greek
and Latin MS. of the epistles of St. Paul, sup
posed to have been written in the latter half of the
ninth century, and so called from Augia major,
the name of a monastery at Rheinau, to which it
belonged. After passing through several hands,
it was, in 1718, purchased by Dr. Bentley for
250 Dutch florins, and it is now in the library
of Trinity College, Cambridge. This noted
MS., F., is written in uncial letters, and with
out accents, not continua serie, as is common
with more ancient copies, but with intervals be-
tw6en the words, and a dot at the end of each.
The Greek text is written in capitals, the Latin
in Anglo-Saxon letters ; whence it is tolerably
clear that it must have been written in the west
of Europe, where that formation of the Latin
letters, usually called Anglo-Saxon, was in
general use between the seventh and twelfth
centuries. . The MS. is defective from the begin
ning to Romans iii. 8; and the epistle to the
Hebrews is only found in the Latin version. It
has been recently collated both by Tischendorf
and Tregelles.
Augmentation, Process of, the technical
name of that process in law by which a minister
of the Established Church of Scotland calls upon
the heritors of his parish to add a certain sum,
reckoned by chalders of grain, to his annual in
come. The action is raised before that portion
of the Court of Session which forms the Court of
Tiends. — See Tiend.
Augsburg Confession. — See Creed.
Augustine Monks, a religious order in
the Catholic Church, planned by Pope Inno
cent IV., and effected by his successor, Alex
ander IV., by the incorporation of several orders,
then in existence, into one. The order embraces
the hermits of St, Paul, the monks of St.
Bridget, the Hieronymitans, and the bare-footed
Augustinians. They have all things in common;
never eat but in tbe monastery; when they walk
out they must be in twos ; they receive no let
ters nor presents in secret; their clothing is black;
and they have to listen to the reading of the
rules of St. Augustine, so called, by their superior
once every week. They are privileged to drink
wine on Sundays, and Saturday is allowed them
to provide necessaries for the ensuing week.
There are also nuns of the same order.
Aumbry, a small closet or locker in the north
wall of the chancel.
Aureola (aureus, of the colour of gold), the
crown of glory given by painters to the holy
family, the apostles, saints, martyrs, and con
fessors. Auricular Confession, or the private con
fession of sins in the ear of a bishop or priest,

AUR
who is duly authorized to receive such confession,
is part of the sacrament of penance in tbe Church
of Rome. These confessions are not to be re
vealed under pain of the highest punishment.
The council of Trent requires "secret confession
to the priest alone, of all aud every mortal sin,
of wbich, upon the most diligent search and ex
amination of our consciences, we can remember
ourselves to be guilty since our baptism, together
with all the circumstances of these sins, which
may change the nature of them ; because, with
out the perfect knowledge of these, the priest can
not make a judgment of the nature and quality
of men's sins, nor impose fitting penance upon
them." This is the confession of sins which the
same council confidently affirms to have been in
stituted by our Lord, and by the law of God, to be
" necessary to salvation, and to have been always
practised in the Catholic Church." It is, however,
manifest that such confession is both unnecessary
and unscriptural ; for, in the first place, no proof
exists that the power of remitting and retaining
sins, on wbich confession is founded, was imparted
to any besides the apostles, or, at most, to those to
whom a discernment of spirits was communicated.
Secondly, if Jesus Christ had intended this to be
a duty, he would have delivered an express com
mand upon the subject. And, thirdly, this
authority of pardoning sins, immediately in rela
tion to God, and without any reference to church
censures, was not claimed for many ages after
the time of Christ. Although the council of
Trent pronounces an anathema against all who
hold the practice of confession not to be accord
ing to the command of Christ, but a human in
vention, there is not the least ground for this
practice in the Church. We read of no such
thing in the Scriptures, though we find confes
sion of sin often enjoined, and as often practised
in the Sacred Writings; but such confession is
not commanded to be made to priests, nor are
they empowered to dispense absolution upon their
own judgment. The passages cited by the Ro
manists from the Old Testament (viz., Numb.
v. 6, 7 ; 1 Kings viii. 33, 35 ; Neh. i. 6 ; Prov.
xxviii. 13), where persons who had offended are
commanded or encouraged to confess their sins,
are inapplicable to the purpose for which they
are adduced ; for they either speak of confession
of sin to God, or of public confession before men;
but they do not contain the least hint that such
confession is to be made either in private or to a
priest. With regard to the proofs alleged by the
Romanists from the New Testament, particularly
Matt. iii. 6, where it is said that those who were
baptized by John "confessed their sins," and
Acts xix. 18, where it is recorded that some
converts " came and confessed, and showed their
deeds ;" it is evident that the former passage
speaks only of a confession before baptism, and
the latter of a confession at their first conversion
only ; and both of them speak of an open and
public acknowledgment of their former evil lives.

AUR
But what affinity has this with the command of
the council of Trent, that every person, once in
the year at least, shall confess their sins in secret
to their own parish priest ? The apostle James,
indeed, says, "Confess your faults one to an
other" (Ep. v. 16) ; but no mention is here made
of priests; and the word "faults" seems to
confine the precept to a mutual confession
among Christians, of those offences by which
they may have injured each other ; but certainly
the necessity of auricular confession, and the
power of priestly absolution, cannot be inferred
from this passage. Further, the practice of sa
cramental confession is not only repugnant to the
Scriptures, but it is also contrary to the practice
of the ancient Christian Church. Although
many of the early ecclesiastical writers earnestly
recommend confession to the clergy; yet they
never represent it as essential to the pardon of
sin, nor as having any connection with a sacra
ment, . They only urge it as entitling a person
to the prayers of the congregation, and as being
useful for supporting the authority of wholesome
discipline, and for maintaining the purity of the
Christian Church. But Chrysostom expressly
condemns all secret confession to men (Hom.
xxxi. on Heb.) as being obviously liable to great
abuses; and Basil (on Psalm xxxvii. 8), Hilary
(ou Psalm li.), and Augustine (Confess, lib. x.,
c. 3), all advise confession of sin to God only.
We learn from Tertulhan (De Pudicitia), and
Eusebius (Hist. Eccl, lib. v., c. ult.), and other
ancient writers, that the penitents confessed their
sins when the people were present ; and, when
they were absolved and reconciled, such absolu
tion and reconciliation took place in the presence
of the whole church. In short, no instance of
established private confession occurs earlier than
the fourth Lateran Council, held under the
pontificate of Innocent IL, in the year 1215,
which proves that auricular confession is a novel
invention, which has no antiquity to recommend
it. And as this practice of the Church of Rome
has neither Scripture nor antiquity to support it,
so it is repugnant to reason. For no man is
obliged, by the law of nature, to reveal all his
secret sins and offences, with all their particular
circumstances and aggravations, to any one per
son whomsoever; and particularly, there is no
rational principle which dictates to us, that we
must confess our sins privately to a priest. This
is neither necessary to repentance nor to for
giveness. Not to the former, for we may be
thoroughly sorrowful and penitent, without re
hearsing all our delinquencies to a priest ; and
not to the latter, for, upon our sincere confession
of our sins to Almighty God, and unfeigned re
pentance of them, we shall find mercy and pardon
through the merits of Christ Jesus, without a
complete enumeration of all our sins to any man
once a year. But although there is not any
authority whatever for requiring auricular con
fession to priests ; yet confession of sins to God is

49

E

AUR
an indispensable duty; and confession to clergy
men may sometimes be useful, by leading to
effectual repentance ; and, therefore, the Angli
can Church encourages her members to use con
fidential confession to their minister, "or to some
other discreet and learned minister of God's
Word, and open their grief " (Second Exhorta
tion in the Communion Service). But this is
very different from its being an essential part of
a sacrament, instituted by Christ or his apostles.
A contrite sinner may feel relief in unburdening
his mind to his spiritual pastor, and may receive
advice and consolation, which may soften the
pangs of a wounded conscience ; his scruples may
be removed, and his good resolutions may be
confirmed. The only absolution which the Church
of England authorizes her clergy to pronounce
is ministerial, or declaratory of God's pardon
upon the performance of the conditions which he
has been pleased to require in the Gospel. It
always supposes faith and sincere repentance, of
which God alone is judge. Nor was any abso
lution, except declaratory and precatory, known
among the early Christians, as is evident from
the ancient liturgies and rituals yet extant, and
also from the authors who have written upon
these subjects, particularly from the treatise of
Morinus, De Pamitentia, in which he has proved
that the indicative form of absolution, as it is
called, "Ego te absolve-" — I absolve thee — was in
troduced into the Church as late as the twelfth
century. Previously to that period, only some
such prayer as this was used — " Absolutionem et
remissionem tribuat tibi omnipolens Deus " — May
Almighty God grant thee absolution and remis
sion. The right of requiring confession, and of
absolving sins, as exercised in the Church of
Rome, must necessarily be the source of an undue
and dangerous influence to the clergy ; and must,
at the same time, operate as a great encourage
ment to vice and immorality among the people.
Evangelical churches exact confession from noto
rious offenders, as preliminary to restoration; but
they by no means consider nor represent divine
forgiveness as a certain consequence of that out
ward and voluntary act. In the Oriental, or Greek
Church, the mystery of confession, as it is termed,
is always necessary. That church, indeed, pre
scribes it to all her members four times in the
year, and her injunctions are obeyed in monas
teries; but the laity, for the most part, confess only
once in the year. In Russia they are obliged to
do this by the laws of the land ; and it is usually
done in the great fast before Easter. It is said
that the members of the Greek Church do not
consider confession as a divine precept, but allow
it to be only a positive injunction of the church.
Among the Lutherans, private confession was
formerly nractised universally, though they never

AZY
held, with the Romanists, that forgiveness of sin
in this world was necessary for forgiveness in a
future world; and it was connected with the
disgraceful custom of making, on that occasion,
a small pecuniary present to the clergyman con
fessor, of whose salary, in many places, it con
stituted an important part. But this confes
sion-money, as well as the private confession
itself, has been abolished in most of the Lutheran
countries and congregations, and another source
of revenue established in its place. Some trac-
tarian clergy in London have recently indulged
the popish practice of auricular confession. In
the Church of Rome, eonfession is sometimes used
for the crypt under the high altar, in which the
remains of martyrs are deposited by others-
it is called Martyrium, and also xaTafiao-ts, be
cause steps went down to it. An ornament
of the altar and an oratory have also received
this name.
Auto-cephali (auras and xi?y.Xn, one's own
head), in the sense of acknowledging no superior.
All metropolitans, anciently were so, prior to the
institution of patriarchs. The ancient British
were so also, prior to the coming of the monk of
Augustine. Bishops who are under no metro
politan' were sometimes called by the name.
Auto da fe. — See Act op Faith.
Ave-Mary or Ave-IUaria (hail Mary!), the
angel Gabriel's salutation of the Virgin Mary,
when he brought her the tidings of the incarna
tion. It is become a prayer, or form of devotion,
in the Romish Church ; and their chaplets and
rosaries are divided into so many ave-maries and
so many pater-nosters. Bingham observes, that
among all the short prayers used by the an
cients before their sermons, there is not the least
mention of an ave-mary; and that its original
can be carried no higher than the beginning of
the fifteenth century, when Vicentius Ferrerius,
who was a celebrated preacher in that age, first
used it before his discourses. From his example
it obtained such authority as not only to be pre
fixed to all the sermons of the Romish preachers,
but to be joined with the Lord's Prayer in their
breviary. Erasmus says, wittily, that the
Romish preachers were used to invoke the Vir
gin mother in the beginning of their discourses
as the heathen poets were used to do their
muses. — See Mary.
Avoidance takes place where there is no
lawful incumbent in a benefice. This may
happen in many ways, by death, resignation, or
deprivation, which may be inflicted for a variety
of reasons.
Azymites (aZvfta, unleavened bread), was
applied by the Greeks to the Latins as a term of
reproach, because they consecrated in Azymis,
i. e., in unleavened bread. — See Eucharist.

50

B

BAM

Bampton lecture, a course of eight ser
mons preached annually before the university
of Oxford, and established by the Rev. John
Bampton, canon of Salisbury. The founder's
will is as follows: — " I give and bequeath my
lands and estates to the chancellor, masters, and
scholars of the university of Oxford for ever, to
have and to hold all and singular the said lands
or estates upon trust, and to the intents and pur
poses hereinafter mentioned ; that is to say, I will
and appoint that the vice-chancellor of the uni
versity of Oxford for the time being shall take
and receive all the rents, issues, and profits there
of, Mid (after all taxes, reparations, and neces
sary deductions made) that he pay all the
remainder to the endowment of eight divinity
lecture sermons, to be established for ever in the
said university, and to be performed in the man
ner following : I direct and appoint that, upon
the first Tuesday in Easter Term, a lecturer be
yearly chosen by the heads of colleges only, and
by no others, in the room adjoining to the print
ing-house, between the hours of ten in the morn
ing and two in the afternoon, to preach eight
divinity lecture sermons, the year following, at
St. Mary's, in Oxford, between the commence
ment of the last month in Lent Term, and the
end of the third week in Act Term. Also, I di
rect and appoint, that the eight divinity lecture
sermons shall be preached upon either of the fol
lowing subjects : — To confirm and establish the
Christian faith, and to confute all heretics and
schismatics — upon the divine authority of the
Holy Scriptures — upon the authority ofthe writ
ings of the primitive fathers, as to the faith and
practice of the primitive Church — upon the Di
vinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ —
upon the Divinity of the Holy Ghost — upon the
Articles of the Christian Faith, as comprehended
in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. Also, I
direct that thirty copies of the eight divinity lec
ture sermons shall be always printed, within two
months after they are preached, and one copy
shall be given to the chancellor of the univer
sity, and one copy to the head of every college,
and one copy to the mayor of the city of Oxford,
and one copy to be put into tbe Bodleian Li
brary; and the expense of printing them shall
be paid out of the revenue of the land or estates
given for establishing the divinity lecture ser
mons ; and the preacher shall not be paid, nor
be entitled to the revenue, before they are
printed. Also, I direct and appoint that no per
son shall be qualified to preach the divinity
lecture sermons, unless he bath taken the degree
of Master of Arts at least, in one of the two
universities of Oxford or Cambridge ; and that
the same person shall never preach the divinity
lecture sermons twice." Many excellent treatises

BAN
have been given to the world in connection with
the Bampton Lecture.
Band, a well-known portion of clerical
dress, said to be a relic of the ancient amice.
It belongs, also, to the full dress of the bar
and university in England, as well as to that
of some of the ancient schools. In Scotland it
distinguishes ordained ministers from licentiates
or probationers, and is said to be a remnant of
the old cravat worn universally by the clergy a
hundred years ago.
Band Societies were instituted by John
Wesley, for the purpose of promoting the im
provement of the members of his " connection "
in personal religion. These societies are more
select than those called class-meetings, in which
persons of different ages and different conditions
of life, both male and female, are united under
a " leader ;" and they are, moreover, based upon
the principles of " equality and fraternity." Each
" band " consists of four, five, or six members —
i. e., of those in class-meeting — of the same sex,
and as near as can be of the same age and worldly
circumstances. They meet once a-week, for the
purpose of disclosing to each other their religious
experience, which they do much more freely than
would be agreeable at a class-meeting. At each
meeting the members propose to one another four
questions — 1. " What known sins have you
committed since our last meeting ? " 2. " What
temptations have you met with ? " 3. "How
were you delivered ? " 4. " What have you
thought, said, or done, of which you doubt
whether it be sin or not ? " The bands are
further divided into twos — hence the desirable
ness of even numbers — and each companion is
bound to watch over his fellow, with a view to
promote his spiritual welfare. The rules of these
bands are — 1st. That whatever is spoken in
them shall not be repeated elsewhere, or again.
2d. That every member agrees to submit to his
minister in things indifferent ; and 3d. That each
shall bring what money he can spare, weekly, to
deposit in the common stock. — See Methodists.
Bangorian Controversy, a famous dispute
of last century, in the Church of England, which
ultimately led to the suspension of Convocation.
It was occasioned by a sermon preached by Hoad
ley, Bishop of Bangor, before King George I, and
published at the royal request. The sermon was
" On the nature of the kingdom of Christ," in
which the bishop dwelt on the spirituality of the
Church, in its character, functions, and discipline,
urging that political defences aud penalties
were not needed for it, but were productive of
pernicious results. A fierce controversy at once
ensued, and Snape and Sherlock were so vehe
ment in their opposition that they were erased
from the list of royal chaplains. Convocation

61.

BAN
took up the matter, and a committee had
censured the sermon, when, in 1717, the govern
ment arrested their proceedings ; nor to the pre
sent has Convocation any real liberty of action.
The orthodox clergy, as a body, it may be added,
were opposed to Hoadley, whose views on the
sacrament, and other points, were suspected of
Socinianism. Banns, or public proclamation made before
the congregation, announcing the intention of
certain parties to come up for marriage. Accord
ing to the statute 26 of George IL, it is enjoined
that "All banns of matrimony shall be pub
lished upon three Sundays preceding the solemni
zation of marriage, immediately after the second
lesson." Before the passing of that act, the
rubric allowed the publishing of banns on holy
days as well as on Sundays, immediately before
the sentences for the offertory. The design of
" publishing the banns of marriage " in this
manner is self-evident: to ascertain whether
there is any reasonable ground of objection
to the proposed marriage. Wheatly observes
— " The curate is not to stop his proceed
ing because any peevish or pragmatical person,
without just reason or authority, pretends to
forbid him, as is the case sometimes when the
churchwardens, or other officers of the parish,
presume to forbid the publication of the banns,
because the parties are poor, and so like to
create a charge to the parish. Bat poverty is no
more an impediment of marriage than wealth ;
and the kingdom can as little subsist without the
poor as it can without the rich." In Scotland
proclamation is to be made in the parish church
three several Sabbaths; but the law is often
evaded, and one Sabbath only is taken. The
Directory says: — "Before the solemnizing of
marriage between any persons, their purpose of
marriage shall be published by the minister three
several Sabbath days, in the congregation, at the
place or places of their most usual and constant
abode, respectively. And of this publication the
minister who is to join them in marriage shall
have sufficient testimony before he proceed to
solemnize the marriage. Before that publication
of such their purpose (if the parties be under
age), the consent of the parents, or others under
whose power they are (in case the parents be
dead), is to be made known to the church officers
of that congregation, to be recorded."
Baptism, the first of the two sacraments of
the New Testament. It is thus spoken of in the
twenty-seventh article ofthe Church of England:
— " Baptism is not only a sign of profession and
mark of difference, whereby Christian men are
discerned from others that be not christened, but
it is also a sign of regeneration, or new birth,
whereby, as by an instrument, they that receive
baptism rightly are grafted into the church ; the
promises of forgiveness of sin, and of our adop
tion to be the sons of God by the Holy Ghost,
are visibly signed and sealed ; faith is confirmed, 52

BAP
and grace increased by virtue of prayer onto
God. The baptism of young children is in any
wise to be retained in the church, as most agree
able with the institution of Christ." The West
minster Confession says: — " 1. Baptism is a sacra
ment of the New Testament, ordained by Jesus
Christ, not only for the solemn admission of the
party baptized into the visible church, but also
to be unto him a sign and seal ofthe covenant of
grace, of his ingrafting into Christ, of regenera
tion, of remission of sins, and of his giving up
unto God through Jesus Christ, to walk in new
ness of life : which sacrament, is, by Christ's own
appointment, to be continued in his Church until
the end of the world. 2. The outward elemeut
to be used in this sacrament is water, wherewith
the party is to be baptized in the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,
by a minister of the Gospel, lawfully called there
unto. 3. Dipping of the person into the water is
not necessary; but baptism is rightly adminis
tered by pouring or sprinkling water upon the
person. 4. Not only those that do actually pro
fess faith in, and obedience unto Christ, but also
the infants of one or both believing parents are
to be baptized. 5. Although it be a great sin
to contemn or neglect this ordinance, yet grace
and salvation are not so inseparably annexed unto
it, as that no person can be regenerated or saved
without it. or that all that are baptized are un
doubtedly regenerated. 6. The efficacy of bap
tism is not tied to that moment of time wherein
it is administered ; yet notwithstanding, by the
right use of this ordinance, the grace promised is
not only offered, but really exhibited and con
ferred by the Holy Ghost, to such (whether of
age or infants) as that grace belongeth unto,
according to the counsel of God's own will, in
his appointed time. 7. The sacrament of
baptism is but once to be administered to any
person." The use of water as an instrument of
religious initiation was not unknown to the
Greeks before the time of Christ. We have the
authority of Clemens Alexandrinus and Ter
tulhan for stating that purification by water
was the first ceremony performed at initiation
into the Eleusinian mysteries ; and Hesychius
renders the word " Sheaves " — or the waterer, by
" o ayvtffrhs ruv 'EXwo-tvtuv" — the priest, whose
office at the Eleusinian mysteries was that of
purifying. Whether this rite was derived from
some ancient patriarchal tradition prevalent in
Egypt, from which country the mysteries were
introduced into Greece, or rather owed its origin
to mere human invention, it is impossible satis
factorily to conjecture. Thus much may be ob
served, that purification by water seems an em
blem so naturally fitted to express that mental
purity with which we ought to approach the
Deity, that it scarcely requires the supposition of
a divinefradition to account for its being adopted
as a religious ceremony amongst people unen-

BAP
lightened by revelation. Baptism is said by some
to have been used by the Jews, together with
circumcision, in the admission of proselytes.
Considering that themselves had been admitted
into the Mosaic convenant by circumcision, by
baptism, when they washed their clothes, and
sanctified themselves, previous to receiving the
law at Mount Sinai, and by sacrifice, they required
the same rites to be observed by proselytes. A
woman proselyte they admitted by baptism and
sacrifice. In cases where the proselyte had chil
dren, they not only circumcised, but also bap
tized them, and they called the baptism of a pro
selyte his new birth or regeneration. Wall, in his
work on Infant Baptism, thus draws a parallel
between Jewish and Christian baptism : —
1. The Jews required of 1. The Christians re
proselytes a renunciation
of idolatry, and to believe
in Jehovah.

2. The Jews interrogated
the prosley te, while stand
ing in the water.

3. The Jews baptized
the infant children of pro
selytes. 4. The Jews required for
an infant proselyte, that
either his father, or the
church of the place, or
three grave persons, should
answer for the child.
5. A Jewish proselyte
was said to be born again,
when baptized.
6. The Jews told the
proselyte that he was now
clean and holy.

7. The Jews declared
the baptized to be under
the wings of the Divine
Majesty or Shecbinah.

8. At the paschal season,
the Jews baptized prose
lytes that they might eat
tlie passover.
9. The Jews had their
proselytes ofthe Gate.

quired to renounce the
devil and all his works,
and to believe in the Trin
ity. 2. The Christians put in
terrogatories as the cate
chumen was about to enter
the water, which he had
before answered in the
congregation. 3. The Christians bap
tized infants.
4. The -Christians ob
served a similar custom.

5. Our Saviour and the
apostles call baptism re
generation, or being born
again. 6. The same term is used
in the New Testament; the
baptized Christians are
cafled the saints, the holy,
the sanctified; "sanctified
with the washing of
water." 7. Among Christians
this whs shown by the
gifts ofthe Holy Ghost; to
this end the laying on of
hands was used — a custom
probably taken from the
Jewish Church.
8. The Christians at
Easter administered bap
tism in a solemn manner.
9. The Christians had
their catechumens or com-
petentes.

The authority for this parallel is that of the
Babylonian Talmud and the writings of Maimo
nides. The Talmudists and the Rabbins may be
wretched expositors of the law committed to the
keeping of the people of God ; but this circumstance
will not invalidate an historical testimony which
asserts the existence of a particular custom at the
time when their writings were composed. The
Talmud was completed at the termination of the
fifth century, and the laws there recorded, re
lating to proselyte baptism, must be taken as an
evidence of facts then existing. Such is the
vague statement on the one side, and argued by

BAP
Danz, Ziegler, Selden, Lightfoot, and others;
while Carpzov, Winer, De Wette, and Schnecken-
burger maintain, with more probability, that
the proof is defective — that while the Gemara
only gives a tradition that the rite existed in the
first century, it was probably introduced with
special formality after the destruction of Jerusa
lem. Philo and Josephus make no allusion to
the custom, neither is there any reference in the
best Targums, in the apocryphal books, nor in
the fathers of the first three centuries. In fact,
according to Josephus {Antiq. xiii. 9, xx. 2),
passages in which he speaks of the admission of
proselytes, baptism is not mentioned. Water
when used was used in the form of the ordinary
bathing — the lustration was not administered to
proselytes ; they simply washed them in water.
This ceremony grew into importance after sacri
fices had ceased, and about the end of the third
century was lifted into peculiar prominence.
The frequency of lustrations as enjoined by the
Mosaic law and practised by the people — the
numerous images taken from them in the pro
phets — the obvious fitness of water as a symbol
of purification, and the expectations of renova
tion — of the gift of "clean hearts" under the
reign of Messiah, — all show why the use of
water was, in divine wisdom resorted to by John,
and why the people were in no way startled by
the introduction of baptism.
Baptism was instituted by our Lord himself,
as the means of admission into his Church, when
he gave this direction to his disciples after his
resurrection (Mark xvi. 15, 16), "And he said
unto them, Go ye into all the world, and preach
the gospel to every creature. He that believeth,
and is baptized, shall be saved; but he that be
lieveth not shall be damned." By Psedobap-
tists it is thought it corresponds, as the sacra
ment of initiation, to the rite of circumcision in
the Jewish Church, being the badge and mark
whereby Christians are discerned from those who
are not christened. The analogy between bap
tism and circumcision appeared so forcibly to the
church, under the government of St. Cyprian,
that it was doubted by some in his time, and his
opinion was requested, whether baptism ought
not to be delayed till the eighth day after the
birth of a child, in order that the resemblance
between the Jewish and Christian sacrament
might be strictly preserved. The Christian
Church admits equally to this sacrament persons
of either sex, adults or infants. The service
found in the Common Prayer for the baptism of
such as are of riper years, was added at the re
view on the restoration of Charles II., as described
in the preface to the Common Prayer, in conse
quence of the growth of Anabaptists, whose
principles having gained strength during the pre
ceding century, it was necessary to have a form
fitted for the administration of baptism to adults.
There was an administration of baptism, in
use in the first centuries after Christy called

53

BAP
clinical baptism. By clinical baptism is meant
baptism administered to a person on his death
bed. Mention is made of this custom by Cyprian
and Eusebius; by Epiphanius (in Heres. Cerinlh.),
and by other writers of the fourth and fifth cen
turies. The necessity of so baptizing occurred
•when a heathen in his last sickness was converted
to Christianity ; but it more frequently happened
in consequence of the prevalence of a supersti
tious notion, that baptism itself washed away all
the sins of their past life ; and therefore many
persons, convinced of the truth of Christianity,
delayed to receive it till their last sickness,
hoping thereby to die released from the guilt of
sin, and to secure their admission into heaven.
Against this error we find the fathers of the
Church, such as Gregory and Chrysostom — in
veighing in powerful language. Two of the most
remarkable instances of this superstition are found
in the Emperor Constantine and his son Constan-
tius, who were both baptized on their death-bed.
The sincerity of a submission to the self-denying
principles of our religion, thus wrung from the
convert under fear of death, must have been
doubtful. It was therefore decreed by the council
of Neocesarea, a.d. 350, and of Laodicea, 363,
that no clinic should ever be admitted to the
order of a presbyter. •
The Church has always committed to the
clergy the right of baptizing; but though in the
Anglican Church the deacons are supposed,
after Philip's example, to have divine authority
for performing this office, the exercise of it by
that order appears to have been limited by the
discipline of the church, out of respect to the
higher orders of the clergy, to cases of urgent
necessity, in which a priest is not present. This
submission of the deacon to his superior is inti
mated in the service of ordering deacons, used in
the Church of England, where the deacon is em
powered to baptize in the absence of the priest.
Tertulhan admits the validity of lay-baptism,
when administered by laymen in cases of urgent
necessity ; so does the council of Eliberis, a.d.
305 ; and also Jerome. The antiquity of the
opinion is confessed by Calvin (Iml., 1. iv., c. xv.,
§ 20). Basil, however, seems to have held the
contrary notion ; and the apostolic Const., cap.
x., 1. iv., forbid laymen to baptize. Those who
are inclined to take up the consideration of the
argument should keep this in mind, that it is one
thing to dispute the ecclesiastical right of a lay
man to baptize, and another to deny the spiritual
validity of a sacrament so administered. Bap
tism by a layman is at this time unknown in the
Church of England or in any of the Presby
terian bodies in Scotland or America; yet, it
may be interesting to our readers to notice some
of the ancient canons made, during the thir
teenth century, in England, by the pope's le
gates, connected with this point. In the con
stitution of Edmund, Archbishop of Canter
bury, a.d. 1236, 26. H. 3. there is this direc-

BAP
tion: — "Item interroget sacerdos latcum dill-
genter, cum, in necessitate baptizaverit puerum;
quid dixerit, etiam quidfecerit. Et si diligenti
prcecedente inquisitione facta sibi fide plena, in-
venerit laicum distincte et informa ecclesim bap-
lizasse, sive in Latino, sive in Gallko, sive in
Anglico, approbet factum. Si verb baptizatus
fuerit puer a laico, precedentia et subsequentia
mersionem expleantur vel suppleantur a saeer
dote" — " When a layman has, upon urgent
necessity, baptized a child, the priest shall in
quire diligently with what words and acts it was
performed ; and if upon diligent inquiry he find,
and is well persuaded, that the layman did dis
tinctly, and according to the forms of the church,
whether in Latin, French, or English, baptize
the child, he shall confirm tbe proceeding : but
in this case the rites preceding and following the
immersion shall be supplied by a priest." By
another constitution of the same archbishop,
order was given, that, in cases of childbirth, the
attendants should have water ready at hand to
baptize the child, if necessity required. The
legatine constitutions of Otho, in the following
year, gave farther order, that laymen should be
instructed how to baptize, which was again en
forced in 1260, by the constitution of another
legate, Othobon. It would be difficult to say
whether this earnest desire to prevent any child
dying unbaptized was owing more to supersti
tion than to a profound policy on the part of
the clergy, who made a belief in the extreme
necessity of baptism one means of preserving
the people in the profession of Christianity. It
would seem that lay-baptism became very pre
valent in consequence of these constitutions ; for
we find, in 1279, a constitution of Archbishop
Peccham, in a provincial synod held at Reading,
enjoining that baptism by laymen shall not be
repeated ; and in cases where it appears doubt
ful whether the child has been baptized or notj
that the form should be used which is still pre
served in our Liturgy — " If thou art not already
baptized, I baptize thee, &c." These references
to the ancient constitutions of the Church of
England, subsequent to the Church of Eome, will
elucidate the history of the form of private
baptism now existing in the Common Prayer
Book. In the Liturgy of Edward VI. there is
internal evidence that the form of private bap
tism was intended for tbe use of the laity as well
as of the clergy, in cases of necessity, where the
life of the child was, in danger. In the articles
drawn up by the Convocation, A. d. 1575, the
twelfth article contained a solution of a doubt
described as having arisen, whether the form of
private baptism might be used by laymen or no.
The Convocation decided in the negative; but
this article, though existing in the MS., was
never printed, and the doubt remained till the
conference at Hampton Court, in the first year of
James I., at which time the form was altered so
as expressly to exclude lay-baptism. As tha
54

BAP
form now stands, instead of being called private
baptism, it might be more correctly termed,
'* the office for receiving publicly iuto the church
persons baptized at home by the minister."
From this it may be concluded that lay-baptism is
now excluded from the church, there existing no
necessity for it; but the church does not say
that lay-baptism is no baptism.
The sacrament of baptism can be received only
once : such has been the universal consent of the
Church: her belief in the single administration
of baptism is expressed in the article of the
Nicene Creed — " I believe in one baptism for
the remission of sins." The cases which appear
to the contrary are derived from the re-baptizing
of persons who had been baptized by heretics ;
but those who administered baptism in these cir
cumstances denied altogether the validity of
heretical baptism — that it was no baptism, and
that they who had received it were in fact not
baptized. In the early Church certain classes of
persons were excluded from baptism — the openly
immoral — those who lived by the manufacture
of images and other instruments of superstition,
with astrologers, conjurers, and fortune-tellers,
stage-players, gladiators, wrestlers, strolling min
strels, and dancing-masters, with all addicted
to theatrical exhibitions.
In baptism, water has been used in two dif
ferent ways. Immersion was a common form in
the primitive Church, and infants are yet dipped
in the Greek Church. The adult persons to be
dipped were completely undressed in very early
times; but a sense of decency gradually prevailed.
Sprinkling has also been employed to a large
extent, especially in the Western Church. The
question is, whether the water should be applied
to the subject, or the subject brought into con
tact with the water.— See Baptist, P^edobap-
tists. In the rites of baptism according to the
Church of England, we find two institutions of
purely human origin, namely, that of sponsors,
and signing with the cross. Sponsors or god
fathers, are called in the ancient writings of the
church patrini and iva$o%ot, or susceplures. The
earliest mention of sponsors is made by Tertul-
lian. Perhaps it is doubtful whether, during the
three or four first centuries, the office of answer
ing for the children to be baptized pertained to
the patrini or susceptores, whom we now term
godfathers. The term sponsor, used by Tertul
han, would certainly imply this duty. Cyril of
Alexandria, A. v. 412, mentions the susceptor
saying amen for the child baptized. From an
early period of the second century there were
attendants upon the children baptized, whose
distinct office it was to receive them from the
hand of the priest; and since renunciation of
sin and profession of faith were made from the
earliest periods by adults, it is highly probable
that these acts were, in the case of infants, per-
jformed by the sponsors or patrini. The defenders

BAP
of the custom say that it seems but a becoming
act of reverence to the Almighty Giver of all
good, that for infants who cannot promise for
themselves, nor thank him for the great blessings
contained in this sacrament, some public acknow
ledgment should be made, in their name, of the
faith and obedience which God demands. — To
give the name at baptism probably arose from
the Jewish custom of naming the child at cir
cumcision. According to the fourteenth article
of the eleventh chapter of the French Church
Discipline, ministers are to reject ancient pagan
names, such as Diana, and names belonging to
God, such as Immanuel.' — 'There is evidence for
the sign of the cross as early as the third cen
tury. Much resistance was made, at the time
subsequent to the Reformation, by the Puritans,
against the preservation of this rite. We only
quote what the thirtieth canon says: — "We
are sorry that his majesty's most princely
care and pains taken in the conference at
Hampton Court, amongst many other points,
touching this one of the cross in baptism, hath
taken no better effect with many, but that still
the use of it in baptism is so greatly stuck at
and impugned. For the further declaration,
therefore, of the true use of this ceremony, and
for the removing all such scruple as might any
ways trouble the consciences of them who are
indeed rightly religious, following the royal steps
of our most worthy king, because he therein
followeth the rules of the Scriptures, and the
practice of the primitive Church, we do com
mend to all the true members of the Church of
England these our directions and observations
ensuing : — First. It is to be observed, that al
though the Jews and Ethnicks derided both the
apostles and the rest of the Christians, for
preaching and believing in Him who was
crucified upon the cross ; yet all, both apostles
and Christians, were so far from being discour
aged from their profession by the ignominy of
the cross, as they rather rejoiced and triumphed
in it. Tea, the Holy Ghost, by the mouths of
the apostles, did honour the name of the cross
(being hateful among the Jews), so far, that
under it he comprehended not only Christ cruci
fied, but the force, effects, and merits of his
death and passion, with all the comforts, fruits,
and promises which we receive or expect thereby.
Secondly. The honour and dignity of the name of
the cross begat a reverend estimation even in the
apostles' times (for aught tbat is known to the
contrary) of the sign of the cross, which the
Christians shortly after used in all their actions :
thereby making an outward show and profession,
even to the astonishment of the Jews, that they
were not ashamed to acknowledge Him for their
Lord and Saviour who died for them upon the
cross. And this sign they did not only use
themselves with a kind of glory, when they met
with any Jews, but signed therewith their chil
dren when they were christened, to dedicate

55

BAP
them by that badge to his service, whose benefits
bestowed upon them in baptism the name of the
cross did represent. And this use of the sign
of the cross in baptism was held in the primi
tive Church, as well by the Greeks as the
Latins, with one consent and great applause.
At what time, if any had opposed themselves
against it, they would certainly have been cen
sured as enemies of the name of the cross, and
consequently of Christ's merits, the sign whereof
they could no better endure. This continual and
general use of the sign of the cross is evident by
many testimonies of the ancient fathers. Thirdly,
It must be confessed, that in process of time, the
sign of the cross was greatly abused in the
Church of Rome, especially after that corruption
of Popery had once possessed it. But the abuse
of a thing doth not take away the lawful use of
it. Nay, so far was it from the purpose of the
Church of England to forsake and reject the
Churches of Italy, France, Spain, Germany, or
any such like churches, in all things which they
held and practised, that, as the Apology of the
Church of England confesseth, it doth with
reverence retain those ceremonies which doth
neither endamage the Church of God, nor offend
the minds of sober men ; and only departed from
them in those particular points wherein they
were fallen both from themselves in their ancient
integrity, and from the apostolical churches,
which were their first founders. In which re
spect, amongst some other very ancient cere
monies, the sign of the cross in baptism hath
been retained in this church, both by the
judgment and practice of those reverend fathers
and great divines in the days of King Edward
the Sixth, of whom some constantly suffered for
the profession of the truth ; and others, being
exiled in the time of Queen Mary, did, after
their return, in the beginning of the reign of our
late dread sovereign, continually defend and use
the same. This resolution and practice of our
church hath been allowed and approved by the
censure upon the Communion Book in King
Edward the Sixth his days, and by the harmony
of Confessions of later years : because, indeed, the
use of the sign in baptism was ever accom
panied here with such sufficient cautions and
exceptions against all popish superstition and
error, as in the like cases are either fit or con
venient. — First, The Clmrch of England, since
the abolishing of Popery, hath ever held and
taught, and so doth hold and teach still, that
the sign of the cross used in baptism is no part
of the substance of that sacrament ; for when the
minister, dipping the infant in water, or laying
water upon the face of it (as the manner also
is), hath pronounced these words, / baptize thee
in the name ofthe Father, and ofthe Son, and of
the Holy Ghost, the infant is fully and perfectly
baptized. So as the sign of the cross being
afterwards used, doth neither add anything to
the virtue and perfection of baptism, nor, being 66

BAP
omitted, doth detract anything from the effect
and substance of it  Secondly, It is apparent in
the Communion Book that the infant baptized
is, by virtue of baptism, before it be signed with
the sign of the cross, received into the congre
gation of Christ's flock, as a perfect member
thereof, and not by any power ascribed unto the
sign of the cross. So that, for the very remem
brance of the cross, wbich is very precious to all
them that rightly believe in Jesus Christ, and in
the other respects mentioned, the Church of
England hath retained still the sign of it in
baptism; following therein the primitive and
apostolical churches, and accounting it a lawful
outward ceremony and honourable badge, whereby
the infant is dedicated to the service of Him that
died upon the cross, as by the words used in the
Book of Common Prayer it may appear. Lastly,
The use of the sign of the cross in baptism,
being thus purged from all popish superstition
and error, and reduced in the Church of England
to the primary institution of it, upon those true
rules of doctrine concerning things indifferent,
which are consonant to the Word of God, and
the judgment of all the ancient fathers, we hold
it the part of every private man, both minister
and other, reverently to retain the true use of it
prescribed by public authority : considering that
things of themselves indifferent do iu some sort
alter their natures when they are either com
manded or forbidden by a lawful magistrate;
and may not be omitted at every man's pleasure,
contrary to the law, when they be commanded,
nor used, when they are prohibited."
In Scotland, the ordinance of baptism is ad
ministered with great simplicity. The parent
presents his child — is solemnly reminded of his
duties toward it — prayer is offered — then water
is sprinkled on the babe's face, and with the
repetition of the common formula. Baptism is
held to be the child's initiation into the church,
and a declaration on the part of the parent that
his child is God's gift, himself coming under a
pledge to train it for God's service. The Direc
tory says — " Baptism, as it is not unnecessarily to
be delayed, so it is not to be administered in any
case by any private person, but by a minister of
Christ, called to be the steward of the mysteries
of God. Nor is it to be administered in private
places, or privately, but in the place of public
worship, and in the face of the congregation,
where the people may most conveniently see and
hear ; and not in the places where fonts, in the
time of Popery, were unfitly and superstitiously
placed. The child to be baptized, after notice
given to the minister the day before, is to be pre
sented by the father, or (in case of his necessary
absence) by some Christian friend in his place,
professing his earnest desire that the child may
be baptized. Before baptism, the minister is to
use some words of instruction, touching the in
stitution, nature, use, and ends of this sacrament,
showing ' That it is instituted by our Lord.

BAP
Jesus Christ : That it is a seal of the covenant
of grace, of our ingrafting into Christ, and of our
union with him, of remission of sins, regenera
tion, adoption, and life eternal : That the water,
in baptism, representeth and signifieth both the
blood of Christ, which taketh away all guilt of
sin, original and actual, and the sanctifying
virtue of the Spirit of Christ against the do
minion of sin, and the corruption of our sinful
nature : That baptizing, or sprinkling and wash
ing with water, signifieth the cleansing from sin
by the blood and for the merit of Christ, to
gether with the mortification of sin, and rising
from sin to newness of life, by virtue of the
death and resurrection of Christ : That the pro
mise is made to believers and their seed; and
that the seed and posterity of the faithful, born
within the church, have, by their birth, interest
in the covenant, and right to the seal of it, and
to the outward privileges of the church, under
the Gospel, no less than the children of Abraham
in the time of the Old Testament — the covenant
of grace, for substance, being the same ; and the
grace of God, and the consolation of believers,
more plentiful than before : That the Son of God
admitted little children into his presence, em
bracing and blessing them, saying, "For of such is
the kingdom of God." That children, by baptism,
are solemnly received into the bosom ofthe visible
church, distinguished from the world, and them
that are without, and united with believers ; and
that all who are baptized in the name of Christ
do renounce, and by their baptism are bound to
fight against the devil, the world, and the flesh :
That they are Christians, and federally holy be
fore baptism, and therefore are they baptized:
That the inward grace and virtue of baptism is
not tied to that very moment of time wherein it
is administered; and that the fruit and power
thereof reacheth to the whole course of our life ;
and that outward baptism is not so necessary,
that, through the want thereof, the infant is in
danger of damnation, or the parents guilty, if
they do not contemn or neglect the ordinance of
Christ, when and where it may be had.' "
When the parents are dead, or abroad, a sponsor
may be taken ; and by an old act, fallen into
disuse, parents either ignorant or vicious may
provide a fit person to present their children. In
the case of foundlings the session itself becomes
sponsors. Private baptism, though often prac
tised, has always been discouraged ; or, if circum
stances make it necessary, intimation is previously
made in the pulpit of the time and place.
Other customs are now in disuse, or pre
served only in the Roman Catholic Church,
viz. : — 1. Trine immersion, or dippingthree times.
In the Prayer Book of Edward VI. this form
was prescribed, but was afterwards omitted. It
was used as early as the third or fourth cen
tury. 2. Chrism, or unction, with plain oil before
baptism, and with unguent after baptism, is
mentioned by TertuUian, Cyprian, Cyril, and

BAP
Chrysostom. The form in King Edward VI. 's
Liturgy was: — "Almighty God, the Father of
our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath regenerated
thee by water and tbe Holy Ghost, and hath
given unto thee remission of all thy sins; may he
vouchsafe to anoint thee with the unction of his
Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of
everlasting life. Amen." 3. Milk and honey is
mentioned by TertuUian as given to persons after
baptism; some learned men have derived this
ceremony from Jewish customs at proselyte bap
tism. It seems to have been discontinued after a
few centuries. 4. Exorcism was used in the
fourth century, and was at that time nothing
more than, as the word implies, putting the bap
tized upon his oath, and declaring to him his
obligation to renounce sin. This ceremony
abounds with corruption in the Church of Rome.
The form in King Edward VI. 's Liturgy is as
follows: — " Then let the priest, looking upon the
children, say, I command thee, unclean spirit,
in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost, that thou come out and depart
from these infants, whom our Lord Jesus Christ
hath vouchsafed to call to his holy baptism, to
be made members of his body, and of bis holy
congregation. Therefore, thou cursed spirit,
remember thy sentence, remember thy judgment,
remember the day to be at hand wherein thou
shalt burn in fire everlasting, prepared for thee
and thy angels. And presume not hereafter to
exercise any tyranny towards these infants,
whom Christ hath bought with his precious
blood, and by this his holy baptism calleth to be
of his flock." 5. Candles were lighted after bap
tism, and placed in the hand of the person bap
tized, as early as the fourth century, as an emblem
of the illumination of the spirit. 6. The chrisom,
so called in the English Church, was a white
garment or surplice, put on immediately after
baptism. In King Edward VI.'s Liturgy, the
form was: — "The godfathers and godmothers
were to lay their hands upon it, and the minister
was to put upon him his white vesture, commonly
called the chrisom, and to say, take this white
vesture as a token of the innocency which, by
God's grace, in this holy sacrament of baptism,
is given unto thee, and for a sign whereby thou
art admonished so long as thou livest, to give
thyself to innocence of living, that after this
transitory life thou mayest be partaker of the life
everlasting. Amen." 7. Salt was not given to
the baptized earlier than the eighth century — ¦
nor 8. Were the ears touched with spittle till
the ninth. 9. The kiss of peace was frequently
given, as late as the fifth century, and washing
of the feet was sometimes practised. 10. Easter
and Pentecost were considered solemn times fbr
the administration of baptism, from a period as
early as the second and third centuries.
Heresies respecting Baptism which sprung up
during the first five centuries after Christ. — 2d
Century. Marcion allowed baptism to be repeated

57

BAP
ihrice. He affirmed that none but virgins, widows,
or celibates were fit subjects for baptism, and
permitted women to baptize. The Montanists
baptized the dead. The Valentinians, instead of
baptizing in the name of the Father, &c, used a
mystical form in the name of the Unknown
Father of all things, in the Truth, the Mother of
all things, in him that came down on Jesus, in
the union and redemption and communion of
powers. They used not water but poured a mix
ture of oil and water on the head, and then
anointed the persons so baptized. — 3d Century.
The Manichees affirmed that baptism by water
was not necessary to salvation, aud accordingly
they did not baptize their converts. — 4th Cen
tury. Arius baptized in the name of the Son
only. — 5th Century. Pelagius affirmed that in
fants were baptized for ©ther reasons, and not
because of original sin (see also Augusti, Siegel,
Coleman). Baptismal Regeneration.— See Tracta-
KIANISM. Baptism for the Dead, a species of vica
rious baptism practised by the Marcionites, and
based on a misapprehension of what the apostle
says(l Cor. xv. 29). TertuUian reprobates it,
and Chrysostom describes it as a fantastic act.
The living man was hid under the bed of the
dead one, and the dead man being solemnly
asked if he would be baptized, the living man
replied for him, and was baptized in his room.
The apostle's words in the passage referred to,
admit of a totally different explanation.
Baptism of the Bead, a strange custom
prevalent in the north of Assyria, alluded to by
Gregory Nazianzen, and condemned by the third
council of Carthage. The idea seems to have
been that men unbaptized during life might still,
though late, receive some benefit, if they were
baptized after death.
Baptist, the name of a. large religious de.
nomination, whose leading principle is, that bap
tism ought not to be administered to infants, but
to persons capable of believing and understanding
the religion into which they are baptized. They
farther hold that immersion in water is the only-
form of baptism. The Baptists are sometimes
termed Antipasdobaptists, to express the ground
of their variance from those Christianswho main
tain infant baptism, and who are classed in this
controversy under the term Pasdobaptist. Since
all Christians agree that the true religion is that
which prevailed in the times of Christ and his
apostles, it naturally follows that each sect
endeavours to prove the existence of its doctrines,
and the reception of them by the Church during
the times of what is termed primitive Chris
tianity. Instead of giving a statement of our own,
we prefer giving the words of Dr. Cox a late
leading Baptist. As to the mode, he says, the
Baptists "maintain that the Greek word, of which
baptism is but the English form, properly and
exclusively signifies immersion, and that, conse-

BAP
quently, the command to baptize can only be
fulfilled in this manner. Hence the idea enter
tained by many that the application of water in
any way, by sprinkling, pouring, or plunging,
as equally legitimate, according to the design of
the institution, they entirely repudiate. In the
critical discussion of the subject some of their
body also zealously argue that immersion is not
at all a mode of baptism, but is baptism itself;
on the same ground that to represent immersion
as a mode of immersion would be a palpable
absurdity ; and this would seem obvious enough
if it be admitted that the Greek term can only
be represented by the word immersion. In proof
of this, the Baptists allege — 1. That the term is
used in the sense of immersion throughout the
whole extent of Greek literature, as the dipping
of a pitcher in water, dipping an arrow in poison
ous matter, dipping a pen in ink; that persons
the most profoundly skilled in the original lan
guage of Scripture, and in the history of the
Christian Church, have admitted this to be the
primary signification and the primitive practice;
and that the use of the term in the modern
Greek corroborates this translation. 2. That
the circumstances attending the administration
of the ordinance of baptism at the introduction
of Christianity, as recorded in the New Testa
ment, are equally significant and conclusive.
They remark that persons were ' baptized in
Jordan' (Matt. iii. 6 ; Mark i. 9) ; ' in the river
Jordan' (Mark i. 5) : that baptize cannot,
therefore, mean to pour, because to pour applies
to the element, not to the person ; and in that
case the water would be said to be poured upon
the person, not the person poured in or into the
water; nor «an it mean to sprinkle, for it is
evidently needless to place a person in a river to
sprinkle a little water upon him ; nor is it ever
done by those who maintain that sprinkling is
baptism. The Baptists also remark that Jesus,
after having been baptized, ' went up straight
way out of the water' (Matt. iii. 16); that
'both Philip and the eunuch went down info
the water.;' that the latter was baptized while
there, and that they both came ' up out of
the water' (Acts viii. 38-39); circumstances
which plainly show that to baptize is to dip
under water ; they also refer to the expression,
' buried with Christ by baptism,' as implying
that in baptism persons were ' buried ' in the
water ; and that when the gift of the Spirit on
tbe day of Pentecost (Acts i. 5), is called a
baptism, and our Lord says of his last agony,
'I have a baptism to be baptized with' (Luke
xii. 20), there is an evident allusion to the
fulness of that gift, and the depth of those suffer
ings, both of which find an emblem in immersion,
but none in the use of a little water, as in pour
ing or sprinkling. But as it regards the mode
of baptism, this body of Christians contend that
they are not distinguished from tbe vast
mass of. the Christian world. They appear

58

BAP
to the testimonies of eminent divines, not
of their own body, and to the practices of the
Catholic, the old English Episcopal Church,
and to the Greek and Armenian Churches of the
present day." As to the other distinctive tenets
of the Antipsedobaptists. He writes: — "The
Baptists plead the various instances recorded in
the New Testament as confirmatory of their
views of what they distinctively denominate
1 believers' baptism,' as exclusively theirs. Those
baptized by John confessed their sins (Matt.
iii. 6). The Lord Jesus Christ gave the com
mand to teach and baptize (Matt, xxviii. 19 ;
Mark xvi. 15-16). At the day of Pentecost
they who gladly received the word were baptized,
and they afterwards continued steadfastly in tbe
apostles' doctrine and fellowship (Acts ii. 41,
42, 47). At Samaria those who believed -were
baptized, both men and women (Acts viii. 12).
The eunuch openly avowed his faith (in reply to
Philip's statement — If thou believest with all
thine heart thou mayest), and went down into
the water and was baptized (Acts viii. 35, 39).
Saul of Tarsus, after his sight was restored, and
he had received the Holy Ghost, arose and was
baptized (Acts ix. 17, 18). Cornelius and his
friends heard Peter, received the Holy Ghost,
and were baptized (Acts x. 44-48). Lydia
heard Paul and Silas ; tbe Lord opened her
heart, and she was baptized, and her household.
Paul afterwards went to her house and com
forted the brethren (Acts xvi. 14, 15, 40). The
jailor, and all his house, heard the word, and
were baptized, believing and rejoicing in God
(Acts xvi. 32, 34). Crispus, and all his house,
and many Corinthians, heard, believed, and were
baptized (Acts xviii. 8). The disciples of
Ephesus heard and were baptized (Acts xix. 5 ).
The household of Stephanus, baptized by Paul,
were the first fruits of Achaia, and addicted
themselves to the ministry of the saints (1 Cor.
i. 16; xvi. 15)."
Nor have the Baptists been wanting in their
endeavours to support their opinions by the
evidence of antiquity. They assert that infant
baptism was unknown before the third century ;
that it got footing during tbe fourth and fifth,
and prevailed generally till the Reformation.
They farther maintain, that during the dark
ages, and prior to the Reformation, traces are to
be met with of what they consider pure baptism :
that the ancient British Church before the arrival
of Augusfine did not baptize infants : that Bruno
and Berengarius in the eleventh century, the
Waldenses, the Lollards, and the Wickliffites
were opposed to infant baptism ; and in compli
ance with these opinions, they take to themselves
the honour of inscribing amongst the patrons of the
Baptist sect, Sir William Sawtre, the first Lol
lard martyr in England, who was burnt (1401) in
the reign of Henry the Fourth. It is certain that,
at an early period of the Reformation, and before
file horrible attempts of the Anabaptists at Mun-

BAP
ster, disputations were held at Zurich, Bale and
Berne upon infant baptism. Anabaptism is said
to have taken its rise at that period at Zurich.
But we must beware of confounding the Baptist
with the Anabaptist sect. The term Anabaptist
is one of reproach, and the wild and visionary
doctrines held by them, on the subject of civil
government, are distinctly disclaimed by tbe
Baptists, who even on the subject of baptism
differ from the German Anabaptists, who re
peated adult baptism, and used sprinkling instead
of immersion. The Anabaptist notions were so
contrary to the mild spirit of Christianity, that
we cannot wonder that the Baptists were desirous
to separte themselves from all connection with
that odious sect. It has appeared to some a
difficult task to separate the Baptists from the
Anabaptists for some years after the Reformation
in England. That many of those who were
persecuted for Anabaptism, during the reign of
Elizabeth were pure Baptists, is highly pro
bable ; but it must be acknowledged that among
the opposers of infant baptism were sometimes
found those who held opinions which the tem
poral authorities justly considered as incentives
to anarchy. Towards the latter part of the reign
of Elizabeth the powers of the Star Chamber
and the High Commission had almost destroyed
dissent : the Baptists fled the country, and settled
principally in Holland : and the existence of this
sect then became more evident. At Amsterdam a
Baptist church of English refugees was founded
by Mr. Smyth, who had been a beneficed clergy
man of the Church of England, and having
become attached to the Brownists, had seceded
from the church. Mr. Smyth seems to have held
sentiments on the suhject of predestination and
election which would be termed Arminian.
Whether Smyth baptized himself and proceeded
to administer baptism to his congregation, or
whether he joined with others in restoring,
according to a certain form, the pure baptism as
he considered it, after it was lost, is a point dis
puted, although perhaps of no great moment.
In the formation of this congregation by Smyth,
we have the earliest evidence of the existence
of regular Baptist churches, even though the
previous prevalence of pure Baptist principles
be acknowledged. Smyth died soon after these
proceedings, somewhere about the year 1610,
and was succeeded in his charge by Thomas
Helwisse, who shortly after returned to England
with his congregation, and settled in London.
Their motive for leaving Holland is said to
have been this — that they did not believe
themselves justified in living abroad for the pur-"
pose of avoiding persecution. The severities
exercised by King James the First, at this time,
against the Puritans and Baptists, Who were
still- considered Anabaptists, brought forth some
writings in defence and explanation of the prin
ciples of the Baptists. From the return of tbe
congregation formed at Amsterdam by Smyth

59

BAP
and Ilelwisse, and their subsequent disclaimer of
the false notions of the Anabaptists in a petition
to the parliament in 1620, we may date the
public acknowledgment of the Baptists as dis
tinct from the Anabaptists, though for years
after, even to the time when Bishop Taylor
wrote his Liberty of Prophesying, the deniers of
infant baptism were still considered to maintain
Anabaptist errors ; a belief not altogether unjust,
when we consider that the fifth monarchy men
of Cromwell's time were chiefly Baptists. In
the year 1623 the Baptists are described as
carrying an external appearance of holiness, and
as denying the doctrines of predestination, repro
bation, final perseverance, &c. It is therefore
probable that the Baptists of this time were what
is now termed General Baptists. The year 1633
provides us with the earliest records remaining
of the formation of a Particular Baptist church
in London under Mr. Spilsbury. The persons
who formed this congregation had separated
themselves from one of the Independent persua
sion. Upon their separation, being desirous to
procure baptism, they sent over to Holland one
of their members to receive baptism, and return
with authority to administer the ordinance to
them. Such care, according to the present notions
of the Baptists, is unnecessary ; and to an objec
tion made — Why did not these persons receive
their baptism from some members of Helwisse's
congregation ? — it is answered, that Spilsbury's
followers being Particular or Calvinistic Baptists,
¦would not have any connection with those of the
Arminian persuasion. Between these two deno
minations of Baptists there never was much
intercourse, nor is there at the present day.
During the prevalence of the Presbyterian
power, prior to the murder of Charles the
First, the Baptists as well as the Independents
Buffered much from the Presbyterians. This
drew from the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists
a publication of a Confession of Faith, wherein
they wiped away the reproach of Anabaptism,
professing tnat their sentiments were in no
wise hostile to regular government. This con
fession consisted of fifty-two articles. In the
doctrinal part it is strictly Calvinistic, and is
according to the independent discipline. By this
confession they asserted their claim to toleration,
as men disposed to live peaceably under a lawful
government. At this time we find that the two
fold division of the sect into Anabaptists who
were opposed to worldly government, and Ana
baptists who professed obedience to the civil
magistrate, began to be acknowledged. In the
Short Parliament, called by Cromwell in 1653,
and which was termed in derision, Praise God
Barebone's Parliament, from Mr. Barebone, a
Baptist minister, who was conspicuous in that
assembly, the Baptists appear to have had some
influence; but the assembly being found, as
Cromwell probably intended it should be, unequal
fo the management of public affairs, resigned its

60

BAP
power in less than six months after it was con
voked. We cannot wonder that, during this
period, the nation in general regarded with
suspicion every person to whom the title of Ana
baptist might with any justice be applied ; for
amongst the Baptists were not only found those
who most opposed themselves to the Protector's
government, and who were decided promoters of
republican principles, but others also who pro
fessed to believe the near approach of the reign
of Christ with his saints upon earth, and who
considered that they should be justified in pro
moting, by the sword, the establishment of what
was called in reproach the fifth monarchy. In
the year 1650 a conspiracy was formed by these
fifth monarchy men, with Harrison, the regicide,
at their head; but the vigilance of Cromwell
defeated tbe plans formed for his destruction ; the
ringleader was seized and imprisoned, and con
tinued in confinement till his death, (see Carlyle's
Speeches and Letters cf Cromwell, vol. iii. ) Upon
the restoration, the Baptists presented an address
to the king, disclaiming Anabaptist principles,
and accompanied with a confession of faith. It is
probable that these persons were principally
General Baptists. A second conspiracy of the
fifth monarchy men, in 1661, against the king,
brought forth from the Baptists another dis
avowal of Anabaptist principles, in an address
presented to the king, and signed chiefly by Par
ticular Baptists. In the period between the
restoration and the revolution in 1688, the Bap
tists suffered, in common with their dissenting
brethren, from the endeavours made to reduce
the people to conformity with the church ; but
since that period they appear to have suffered
little or no molestation. The Particular Baptists
held a general assembly in London in 1689. At
this time they seem publicly to have professed
their distinguishing character of belief in the
Calvinistic doctrines of personal election and
final perseverance. They have since held similar
meetings ; but the chief place of their concourse
is at Bristol. The Particular Baptists have had
many disputes upon a point which is also still
agitated amongst the General Baptists, that of
mixed communion. The question is this, whether
persons baptized in infancy, but not baptized when
come to full age, may be admitted to partake the
sacrament of the Lord in their congregation. The
teachers of both denominations are much divided
in opinion, and frequent pamphlets have been
written on both sides. Among6t the General
Baptists, for some few years after the revolution,
much difference existed, owing to the prevalence
of Arian principles, which were first professed by
Matthew Caffin, whose followers were termed Caf-
finites. Some, however, of the Particular Baptist
churches have become Socinian, and so have the
greater part of those societies of General Baptists
which existed at the end ofthe seventeenth cen
tury ; a consequence which some of the members
attribute to the neglect of inculcating strongly tha

BAP
pure Calvinistic principles. The Baptist churches
are congregational in their form of government.
The meetings of the members of the different
congregations are held for the purpose of mutual
advice, and not for the general government of
the whole body. The General Baptists are so
called from their professing the Arminian doc
trine of universal redemption. The Particular
Baptists, on the other hand, follow the Calvinistic
doctrine of personal or particular election.
In 1812 was formed the Baptist Union of Eng
land, consisting of more than a thousand churches.
During tbe prevalence of Antinomian and Hyper-
calvinistic feelings — which Andrew Fuller did so
much to put down — classical and theological
learning was to some extent neglected ; but it is
now duly appreciated. Gale, Gill, Carey, Foster,
and Hall, have been ornaments of the denomi
nation. The Baptist Missionary Society origi
nated in 1792, and has mauy flourishing mis
sions in India, Jamaica, and the west coast of
Africa, presided over by 200 missionaries, (see
the Works of Carson, Baptist Noel, &c. )
In consequence of the spread of Socinianism
amongst the General Baptists, in 1770, the more
evangelical portion, under the guidance of Mr.
Daniel Taylor and others, separated themselves,
and formed what is known as the New Connexion,
the rest being distinguished by the appellation of
the Old Connexion. Neither of these form
numerous communities now. In Wales the Bap
tists still retain the firm and extended footing
which they got at an early period in that country.
In Scotland originated the Scotch Baptists ; they
are Calvinistic in theology, but differ from the Par
ticular Baptists in their government being more
thoroughly congregational in form, and exceed
them in the peculiar strictness of their church
discipline. They regard the command given to
the Christians at Antioch (Acts xv. 29) as still
binding. They trace their rise to the Antiburgher
minister of Cupar Angus, Mr. Carmichael, who,
having changed his opinions as to baptism, went
up to London, and was baptized by Dr. Gill, in
1765. Their numbers have never been large —
American Baptists. Many of the puritan fathers
who settled in America probably held Baptist
sentiments; but it was Roger Williams, at one
time a Church of England minister, who first
openly avowed them. Expelled from Massa
chusetts, he fled to Rhode Island, and in 1638
founded the city of Providence ; and in the year
following, the first American Baptist church. The
Baptists now form, including all their sects, one
of the largest and most influential religious
parties in the country. According to Baird
(Religion in America), they comprise about
4,000,000 of the community. They possess
numerous theological seminaries, some of wliich
have risen to eminence, and very numerous home
and foreign missionary societies, the origin of
which they all trace to the appeal to the Ameri
can Baptists sent from India by Dr. A. Judson

BAP
and the Rev. L. Rice, in 1814.— The Free
will Baptists were originated by Benjamin Ran
dall, 1780, in New Hampshire. Their name
expresses their characteristic tenet. They hold
also a general atonement, and reject election.
In 1827 they formed a general conference, which
meets triennially. Their steady adherence to
the anti-slavery cause has prevented their pro
gress in the southern states. In 1841 the Free
Communion Baptists, who date their first church
as far back as 1750, united with them, and
adopted their name. They hold the opinions of the
Free Communionists of England. — TheOldSchool
Baptists are those who have returned to that high
or more truly pseudo Calvinism which it was the
merit of Andrew Fuller to have so successfully
combated in England. — The Six-Principle Bap
tists are so named from adopting as their creed the
six things enumerated in Heb. vi. 1-3. They are
Arminian in theology, and generally opposed to
anti-slavery, temperance, and other liberal move
ments. — Seventh-daj' Baptists are so called on
account of their observance of the Jewish Sab
bath. They arose in England about 1650, and
in twenty years numbered about 9 or 10 churches.
Their first American church was founded by
Stephen Mumford, in Rhode Island, 1681.— The
Tunkers or Dunkers, i. e., Dippers, originally a
German sect, first arose amongst German emi
grants in America, ia 1718. They agree with
Seventh-day Baptists as to the observance of,
that Sabbath; with Quakers in simplicity of
dress, and in their scruples as to oaths ; they agree
with Romanists as to merit and works, and hold
also the doctrine of universalism (Baird's Religion
in America; Griffin's Cyclopaedia of Religious
Denominations, article " Baptists," by Dr. Cox.)
Baptistery, a building, wherein the sacra
ment of baptism is administered, distinct from
the church. These edifices are either octagonal
or circular, surmounted with a dome ; and as the
font is generally placed near the entrance of the
church, to typify the initiation of the new Chris
tian, so is the baptistery situated in the approach
to the western or principal gate, for a similar
reason. They are of very high antiquity ; for one
was prepared for the ceremonial of the baptism
of Clovis; and as, in the earlier periods of church
history, this rite was celebrated only at the great
festivals of Easter and Whitsuntide, it became
necessary that considerable space should be
afforded to accommodate the numbers that par
took of the ceremonial. However numerous the
churches might be in the more considerable cities
of Italy, still there was only one general bap
tistery to which all resorted, and which was
always dedicated to the Baptist. The church
to which the baptistery was attached naturally
assumed a pre-eminence, considering the other
churches as dependent upon it. In the east
ern empire they were termed qano-ri^a, or
places of illumination, the ceremony of initia
tion into the Christian church being considered

61

BAR
as giving a new light to the catechumens. The
church of Santa Sophia, at Constantinople had
a most spacious baptistery attached to it, in
which one of the councils of the church assem
bled. The most ancient of the baptisteries of
Rome is that of the Lateran, in which some anti
quaries have been willing to discover the remains
of therma? baths, originally within the precincts
of the imperial palace. The baptistery of Pisa,
both externally and in the interior, has deservedly
excited the admiration of travellers, and is par
ticularly alluded to by Addison in his Travels.
That of Florence must ever prove an object of
peculiar attraction, on account of the beauty of
its gates, with the bas reliefs of which Michael
Angelo was so enraptured, that he exclaimed
they were deserving to be the portals of Paradise.
Bardesanists, the followers of Bardesanes
of Edessa, a man of acute genius and profound
erudition. He wrote in defence of Christianity;
but afterwards was misled by the Oriental philo
sophy, and adopted the belief in two eternal
principles, with several other gnostic opinions.
He wrote (about a.d. 175) a learned treatise
against the Marcionites.
Barlaamites, followers of Barlaatn, origi
nally of Calabria, but afterwards a monk of the
order of St. Basil, at Constantinople At first, in
many theological controversies, he took the side
of the Latins against the Greeks ; but ultimately,
reversing his position, he became the chief cham
pion of the Greeks against the Latins. In 1339
Barlaam represented the emperor at Avignon,
for the purpose of negotiating with the pope a
union of the Greek and Latin Churches. He
changed sides again on coming to reside in Italy,
and being made Bishop of Geraci, in Naples. His
principal work was Ethical secundum Stoicos —
a very questionable code of morals.
Barnabas' Day, St., the festival of St.
Barnabas, observed on the 11th of June. The
history of this illustrious disciple will be found
in the Acts of the Apostles, to which we must
refer the reader. His death, it is supposed, took
place at Salamis, in Cyprus, to which island he
departed, in company with Mark, as recorded in
Acts xv. While engaged in disputing in the
synagogue, certain Jews who had come from
Syria excited the congregation against him,
who shut him up till night, when they returned,
and brought him out, and after torturing him, to
gratify their hateful malignity, they stoned him
to death. He was buried by his cousin, Mark,
in a cave not far from the city.
Barnabas, Gospel of, a spurious romance.
Epistle of— usually printed among the apostolical
fathers — a weak farrago of allegories, fables, and
inconsistent ethics.
Barnabitc, a religious order, now only
existing in Spain, though formerly its members
were to be found in Italy, France, and Austria.
They devoted themselves to public teaching, and
the instruction of youth, and were, in short, a

BAR
sort of missionary college to the Holy See. The
origin of this order is thus given : — " Sometime
in the sixteenth century three Italian gentlemen
were advised by a celebrated preacher to read the
epistles of St. Paul with careful attention, which
advice they faithfully observed. From this cir
cumstance they were called clerks of St. Paul.
As their first sen-ice was performed in the
church of St. Barnabas, at Milan, they received
tbe title by which they were afterwards known,
Barnabites. Barrier Act, the ninth aet of the General
Assembly, 1697. "The General Assembly, taking
into their consideration the overture and act,
made in the last assembly, concerning innova
tions ; and having heard the report of the several
commissioners from presbyteries, to whom the
consideration of tbe same was recommended, in
order to its being more ripely advised and deter
mined in this assembly: and considering the
frequent practice of former assemblies of this
church, and that it will mightily conduce to the
exact obedience of the acts of assemblies, that
general assemblies be very deliberate in making
of the same, and that the whole church have a
previous knowledge thereof, and their opinion be
had therein, and for preventing any sudden
alteration or innovation, or other prejudice of the
church, in either doctrine, or worship, or disci
pline, or government thereof, now happily estab
lished : Do therefore appoint, enact, and declare,
That before any general assembly of this church'
shall pass any acts which are to be binding rules
and constitutions to the church, the same acts be
first proposed as overtures to the assembly, and
being by them passed as such, be remitted to the
consideration of the several presbyteries of this
ehurch, and their opinions and consent reported
by their commissioners to the next general
assembly following, who may then pass the
same in acts, if the more general opinion of the
ehurch thus had agree thereto." This law still
exists in all Presbyterian churches, and is a
perfect safeguard against hasty change or any
sudden innovation — hazards to which bodies
popularly constituted are more or less exposed.
Bartholomew's Day, St., a festival of
the church, in commemoration of the apostle of
that name, supposed also to be the same as
Nathanael. Tradition states that he travelled
into India, where for some time he preached
Christianity, made many converts, and estab
lished churches. From thence he returned into
Asia, preaching at Hierapolis and in Lycaonia :
he then proceeded to Albanople, in Armenia,
and boldly denounced the idolatry of the place,
which drew down upon him the wrath of tlie
governor, who had him apprehended, tortured,
and then crucified. This day is memorable in
the annals of Protestant martyrdom, for the com
mencement in Paris, in the year 1572, of that
horrid massacre of Huguenots, which extended
for thirty days throughout all France, resulting
62

BAR
in the loss of more than 30,000 lives. Medals
were struck at Rome in festive commemoration
of the tragedy, and solemn mass was chanted in
presence of Pope Gregory XIII. and his car
dinals, who thus thanked God for the horrible
butchery. Bartholomites, an order of friars origi
nally fugitive monks of St. Basil, founded in
1307 at Genoa, but on account ofits irregularities
suppressed in 1G50. In the church which be
longed to this monastery at Genoa is preserved
the portrait which, according to absurd tradition,
Jesus is alleged to have sent to King Augustus
—Also, a community of secular priests in Wur-
temberg, founded in 1640 by Bartholomew
Holzhauser, which flourished for many years,
but has now fallen into decay.
Basilian Monks, an order called after St.
Basil, who, having retired into a desert, estab
lished a monastery, and drew up a code of
discipline for his followers. Numbers flocked to
him, and many communities bearing his name,
and regulated by his rules, sprung up every
where throughout the Eastern and Western
Churches. The annalists of this order say tbat
it has furnished to Rome 14 popes ; to the
churches, 1,805 bishops; to the monasteries,
3,010 abbots; and to the gratitude, encourage
ment, and example of Christians in all places
and ages, 11,035 martyrs. The various orders
of monks of the Greek Church follow St. Basil's
rule. Basilica, originally a hall of justice, in
which also merchants used to assemble, as in
the Exchange of modern times (Cic. ad Att.
xi. 29. ; In Verrem vi. ; Pro Murena). The
name is derived from fiatriXtxa (sc. ffroa), be
cause magistrates with the power of kings heard
causes in them. They were, moreover, places of
public resort for the citizens generally, where
the current news of the day was freely discussed,
young orators declaimed, and all matters, civil
and social, thoroughly canvassed. The first of
which we read was built under the direction of Cato
the Censor, and thence called Porcia, u.c. 568
(Lib. xxxix. 44). Victor enumerates no less
than nineteen in Rome. The name was trans
ferred to Christian churches in the age of Con
stantine, who, with the zeal of a recent convert,
gave his own palace on the Coelian mount for the
site of a temple to the faith that he had embraced.
Hence Ausonius, addressing the Emperor Gra
tian, says, " The Basilicae, which heretofore were
wont to be filled with men of business, were now
thronged with votaries praying for the protec
tion of God." The name properly means "the
royal palace," and was probably retained when
the use of the Basilica was altered, because
churches were held to be the temple or palace
of Jehovah. From this time the name became
generally employed to designate places of Chris
tian worship. The palace of Constantine, on the
Cceliau mount, is considered as the most ancient 63

BAS
of the Christian Basilicse, although the Vatican
itself can date from the same founder, who de
molished the circus of Nero and two temples, to
make room for the new edifice. This most
ancient church was destined to survive all the
incursions of northern barbarism, and all the
ravages of civil discord, and was only removed
by Pope Julian II., to make room for that edifice
which is the proudest monument ever reared by
man to the honour of the Deity. The third
Basilica of Constantine, that of "St. Paul, yet
exists, and may be regarded as affording a
complete specimen of the ancient church, which
differed but little from the Basilica of pagan
ism, being a quadrilateral hall, with a flat
ceiling, divided by columns into three or five
aisles. It was Justinian who projected a
different form when rebuilding the church of
Santa Sophia, at Constantinople; and in his
adoption of the shape of the great emblem of
Christianity, he has been followed by almost
every ecclesiastical architect, even to modern
times. It was at Venice, in the church of St.
Mark, that the earliest Italian copy of Santa
Sophia is to be traced ; the shape as well as the
dome is there faithfully imitated. Santa Maria
del Fiore, at Florence, was constructed after the
same model; and Bramante, when called upon
for the design of St. Peter's, did not feel himself
authorized to deviate from a form which had ob
tained the approbation of so many centuries.
The seven Basilicse of modern Rome are — St.
Sebastian, St. Lorenzo, Sta. Maria Maggiore, St.
Giovanni Laterano, Sta. Croce, Sta. Paolo, St.
Pietro (Vaticano). From the front of these
churches, the pope, on certain solemn festivals,
is accustomed to give his benediction to the
people, which has rendered it necessary for the
architects to introduce galleries, detracting from
the dignity of the facade. For example, fine
as the west front of St. Peter's undoubtedly is,
how much would its magnificence have been
enhanced, if either Bramante or Michael Angelo
had been permitted to copy the portico of the
Pantheon, with its single row of columns, instead
of introducing the windows, &c, necessary to
afford an opportunity for the papal benediction !
Even in St. Paul's, in which no such ceremony
occurs, other considerations obliged Sir Christo
pher Wren to break that part of the church into
two storeys, in conformity to the general plan ;
so that the portico of the Pantheon at Paris must,
in modern architecture, be regarded as superior to
both  See Chukcii.
Basilidians, the followers of Basilides,
who, about the year 125, became distinguished
at Alexandria as the author of one of the most
popular of the gnostic systems. He taught that
from the great original (his appyros) there pro
ceeded seven emanations, which formed a first
heaven, or kingdom of spirits ; from these came
seven more; and so on, to 365 kingdoms of
spirits each being an imperfect impression of the

BAS
one above it. The abstract idea of these spiritual
kingdoms, i. e., God so far as he has revealed
himself, in contradistinction to God in himself,
he called Abrasax, or Abraxas; a name which is
supposed to be of Coptic origin, but the letters of
which, when written in Greek characters, repre
sent the number 365. The seven spirits of the
lowest heaven, and especially the chief of them,
Archon, who is the God of the Jews, are the
creators of the world. They formed man with a
soul which is the seat of sense and passion ; but
the supreme God added a more exalted rational
soul. To effect the return of human spirits
into the world of light, was, who was chief of
the first seven seons or emanations, united itself
with the man Jesus at his baptism, leaving him,
however, before his crucifixion, that the man
might suffer alone. The latter BasiliJians in
troduced into this part of the system some strange
docetic ideas, some of them teaching tbat Simon
the Cyrenian was crucified in the stead of Jesus,
while Jesus stood by in the form of Simon.
They also corrupted their master's doctrine in
regard to the Archon. For whereas Basilides
had taught that he was not evil, but only cir
cumscribed, and therefore ready to subject him
self to the higher arrangement of the world as
soon as it was made known to him, they, on the
contrary, conceived him to be the open adver
sary of the world of light. And this view
opened the way to all kinds of immorality ; for
the more enlightened they supposed themselves
to be, the more contemptuously they could
trample on the restraints of a law which came
from an inferior and even adverse authority.
They were also much addicted to magic. A
great number of gems have been discovered in
Egypt, inscribed with the mystical word abraxas,
which there is good reason to suppose were used
by the Basilidians as charms. The party was
still in existence about the year 400.
Basil, liiturgy of, the form of divine
service originated, or rather revised, by Basil,
Bishop of Csesarea. After the lapse of fifteen
hundred years, this liturgy, without any material
difference, prevails all over the East, and also in
Russia and Abyssinia. — See Litukgy.
Bath-kol. — See Bibliomajscy.
Baxterianism, a middle path between Cal
vinism and Arminianism, proposed by the famous
Richard Baxter. Like so many attempts, or com
promises of a similar kind, it has not succeeded ;
for it is contradictory, and wants self-consistence.
He held by Calvinism in its leading elements,
but added other tenets to it, as if to dilute and
modify it. He maintained personal election with
regard to some, and advocated a species of con
tingent election with regard to the rest — that is,
tliey have " common grace" offered them, and if
they improve it they may be saved. Christ
never intended, his theory argues, that all men
should be saved ; but yet all men have a condi
tional offer, of certain gifts through his death.

BEL
Still he says, " Christ died for all, but not for all
alike or equally — that is, be intended good
to all, but not an equal good with an equal
intention." Though he advocates common grace
for all, he proceeds to say that " it is only by
sufficient grace that a man's will can perform a
commanded act. — See Amybaiihsm. All this
seems but an awkward way of saying that,
while the death of Ghrist secures the salvation
of his people, it has opened the door of mercy to
all mankind, or that there is universal applica
bility, but a limited application of blessings.
Beadle. — See Doorkeepers.
Beads. — See Rosary.
Beatification. — See Canonization.
Begbards, Begnines. — Between 1150 and
1200 societies of women were formed in Hol
land, living by industry, and having no special
monastic rule. They were called Beghinae, or
Beguttae. Various origins have been assigned
to the name — some deriving it from a supposed
patroness, St. Begghi, daughter of Pepin, and
others giving a more homely source, and connect
ing it with the verb to beg. The second name
is compounded thus, bei-gott — by God. Such
unions were soon to be found in many parts of
Germany, and they joined at length the third
order of St. Francis. Many of them became
really mendicant, and not a few of them suffered
as heretics. After 1374, the male Beghards
were called Lollards, and the original term was
scoffingly applied in France to any fanatical
devotee. Beguinagia are yet found in connec
tion with many Belgian cities.
Bell.— Bingham (Orig. Eccl., viii. 7) gives
sufficient reasons for supposing that bells were
of late introduction as invitatory to Christian
worship; inasmuch as, during the times of
persecution, any public signal would have be
trayed the hour and place of religious meeting.
The Egyptian Church appears to have used the
Jewish summons by the trumpet ; for in the rule
of Pachomius, every monk is enjoined to leave
his cell, cum audierit vocem Tubae ad collectam
vocantis (Bib. Pat., xv. 629), and the same
custom is mentioned by Climacus, Abbot of
Mount Sinai, in the sixth century (Id., v.
244). In other monasteries the call was given
by a wooden mallet, which each recluse in turn
struck on the cell of his brethren. Palladius,
by whom the custom is recorded (Hist. Laus.,
104), calls this instrument Igusrwao-Tjifjov uipir
gUv ; and Brand, in his Popular Antiqui
ties, ii. 214, remarks, that " a vestige of the
custom still remains in some of our colleges,
in which the Bible clerk knocks at every
student's door with a key, before he rings
the chapel bell." The summons in the mo
nastery at Jerusalem founded by the Roman
Lady Paula, was given by one chanting halle
lujah (Hieron., Ep. 27). "in the Greek Church,
an instrument of wood or iron, irnp-awpav and
iyutHignt was used for this purpose; and it was

64

BEL
pretended that Noah by the first called all living
ereatures to the ark. The custom is still retained
by the Greeks ; for although bells were given as
early as the year 863 by Ursus Patricianus,
Duke of Venice, to Michael the Emperor, who
built a tower for their reception in Santa Sophia
(Baronius, x. 319), their usage has never pre
vailed in the East. Bells were probably intro
duced into England very soon after their
invention. They are first mentioned by Bede,
about the close of the seventh century. Ingul-
phus (Hist, fob, 889), records that Turketulus,
Abbot of Croyland, who died about 870, gave a
great bell to that abbey, which he named Guth-
lac, and afterwards six others. The ritual for the
ceremony may be found in the Roman Pontifi-
cale; and it is derived from a statute of the coun
cil of Cologne, in which bells are termed Tuba;
Ecclesial militant-is. Subsequently all bells on
their first suspension were exorcised and blessed,
receiving, as was imagined, power to chase away
devils, to calm tempests, and to extinguish fires.
Each, for the most part, had its baptismal name
engraven round its verge, and from the many in
scriptions which the diligence of our antiquaries
have preserved, we select the following. The two
following mottoes are as frequently met with in bel
fries as the "Affliction sore" on tombstones: —
Funera plango. Fulgura frango. Sabbata pango.
Excito lentos. Dissipo ventos. Paco cruentos.
Laudo Deum verum. Plebemvoco. Congregoclerum.
Defunctos ploro. Pestem fugo. Festa decoro.
I toll the funerals. I break the lightnings. I an
nounce the Sabbath.
I rouse the slow. I disperse the winds. I pacify the
bloody.
I praise the true God. I summon the congregation. I
assemble the clergy.
I bewail the dead. 1 chase away the plague. I grace
the festivals.
The bell of the High Church of Glasgow has
on it the following inscription : " In the year of
grace, MDCXIV., Marcus Knox, a merchant of
Glasgow, zealous for the interest of the Re
formed Religion, caused me to.be fabricated in
Holland, for the use of his fellow-citizens of
Glasgow, and placed me with solemnity in the
tower of this cathedral. My function was
announced by the impress on my bosom, and I
was taught to proclaim the hours of unheeded
time. GXCV. years I bad sounded these awful
warnings, when I was broken by the hands of
inconsiderate and unskilful men. In the year
MDCCXC. I was cast into the furnace, re-
founded at London, and returned to my sacred
vocation. Reader, thou also shalt know a
resurrection, may it be unto eternal life." The
ceremony of baptizing bells had not ceased to
excite great attention in the court of France
even a short time previous to the Revolution.
"Our church," observes Wheatly, in his
Exposition of the Liturgy of the Church of
England, "in imitation of the saints in for
mer ages, calls on the minister and others

BEL
who are at hand, to assist their brother in his
last extremity. In order to this, she directs
that when any one is passing out of this life a
bell should be tolled. " The custom is sufficiently
innocent, and may rest itself upon those " chari
table inducements," which, in the eloquent
language of Sir Thomas Brown, so pressingly
urge us that w-e " can scarce contain our prayers
for a friend at the ringing of a bell." The
Church of Rome, indeed, pushed this, as it did
all similar usages, within the verge of supersti
tion; and Durand, in his Rationale, has given
instructions and reasons for various performances
on the passing bell, all of which we do not fully
understand, but at most of which we may be for
given for smiling. For a dying woman two
strokes are to be tolled, For a man it is to be
tolled thrice, because the Trinity was first revealed
in him ; for Adam was formed from the earth, Eve
from Adam, and the future generations of man
kind from both conjointly ; so that herein is an
emblem of the Trinity. For an ecclesiastic it is
to be tolled as many times as he has orders. In
several parts of England vestiges of this popish
custom are said still to remain, though with dif
ferent proportions in the numbers. Nine knells
are tolled for a man, six for a woman, and three
for a child. In other places, also, especially in
our universities, a bell is rung at six every morn
ing, probably to call the artisans to labour, and at
eight or nine in the evening. The last may be
derived from the Norman curfew.
Bell, Book, and Candle, the name of
the great anathema, and derived from the
strange ceremony accompanying it. The fol
lowing account is taken out of the articles of
the General Great Curse, found at Canterbury,
a. d. 1562, as it is set down by Thomas
Becon, in the Reliques of Some. This was
solemnly thundered out once in every quarter
— that is, as the old book saith: — " 'The Fyrst
Sonday of Advent, at comyng of our Lord Jhesu
Cryst : The fyrst Sonday of Lenteen : The Son-
,day in the Feste of the Trynyte: and Sonday
within the Utas (Octaves) of the Blessed Vyrgin
our Lady St. Mary.' At which Action the Pre
late stands in the Pulpit in his Aulbe, the Cross
being lifted up before him, and the Candles
lighted on both sides of it, and begins thus, ' By
Authority God, Fader, Son, and Holy-Ghost,
and the glorious Moder and Mayden, our Lady
St. Mary, and the Blessed Apostles Peter, and
Paul, and all Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors,
Vyrgyne, and the hallows of God; All thos byn
accursed that purchases Writts, or Letters of any
Leud Court, or to let the Processe of the Law of
Holy Chirch of Causes that longen skilfully to
Christen Court, the which should not be demed
by none other Law: And all that maliciously
bereaven Holy Chirch of her right, or maken
Holy Chirch lay fee, that is hallowed and
Blessed. And also all thos that for malyce or
wrathe of Parson, Vicare, or Priest, or of any
65 F

BEM
other, or for wrongfull covetyse of himself with-
holden rightful Tyths, and Offerings, Rents, or
Mortuaries from her own Parish Church, and by
way of covetyse fals lyche taking to God the
worse, and to bemself the better, or else torn him
into another use, then hem oweth. For all
Chrysten Man and Women been hard bound on
pain of deadly Sin, not onlyche by ordinance of
Man, but both in the ould Law, and also in the
new Law, for to pay trulyche to God and holy
Chirch the Tyth part of all manner of encrease
that they winnen trulyche by the Grace of God,
both with her travell, and alsoe with her craftes
whatsoe they be truly gotten.' And then con-
concludes all with the Curse it self, thus ' And
now by Authoritie aforesaid we Denounce all
thos accursyd that are so founden gnyltie, and
all thos that maintaine hem in her Sins or gyven
hem hereto either help or councell, soe they be
departed frne God, and all holi Chirch: and that
they have noe part of the Passyon of our Lord
Jhesu Cryst, ne of noe Sacraments, ne no part of
the Prayers among Christen Folk: But that
they be accursed of God, and of the Chirch, froe
the sole of her Foot to the crown of her hede,
sleaping and waking, sitting and standing, and
in all her Words, and in all her Werks ; but if
they have noe Grace of God to amend hem here
in this Lyfe, for to dwell in the pain of Hell for
ever withouten End: Fiat: Fiat. Doe to the
Boke: Quench the Candles: Ring the Bell:
Amen, Amen.' And then the Book is clapped
together, tbe Candles blown out, and the Bells
rung, with a most dreadful noise made by the
Congregation present, bewailing the accursed
persons concerned in that Black Doom pronounced
against them."
Bema (jiYip.a, tribunal), the name given to
the bishop's throne which stood in the chancel of
all ancient churches ; the seats of the presbyters
were known also by the same name ; it was also
applied to the ambo, or reading desk, and lastly
to the entire sanctuary, including the bema
proper, the altar, and all the other furniture of
that sacred place. "Bema and ambo," says
Bingham "have both the same original, from
amliaita/, because they were places exalted
above all the rest, and like the tribunals of
judges, had an ascent by steps into them." Again
he says, "though the bema be called the high
and lofty throne by those who speak in a rheto
rical strain, yet that is only meant comparatively
in respect of the lower seats of presbyters; for
otherwise it was a fault in any bishop to build
himself a pompous and splendid throne, in imi
tation of the state and grandeur of the secular
magistrates. This was one of the crimes which
the council of Antioch in their synodical epistle
against Paulus Samosatensis, laid to his charge,
that he built himself a high and stately tribunal,
not as a disciple of Christ, but as one of the rulers
of the world. It was then the great care of the
Christian Church, to observe a decorum in the

BEN
honours which she bestowed upon her bishops,
that they might be such as would set them above
contempt, but keep them below envy ; make them
venerable, but not minister to vanity or the out
ward pomp and ostentation of secular greatness."
— See Ambo, Church, Cathedral.
Benedicite, or "the song of the three
Hebrew children," is a canticle appointed by the
rubric of the Church of England to be said or
sung at the morning service, instead of the hymn
Te Deum, whenever the minister may think fit.
This hymn though not now to be found in any
of the canonical books, was, nevertheless, quoted
by Cyprian as part of the inspired Scriptures.
It is a paraphrase of the forty-eighth psalm.
In the Book of Common Prayer published under
the sanction of Edward VI., it was ordered that
the Te Deum should be said daily throughout
the year, except in Lent, when the Benedicite
was to be used. The minister had no choice
according to this appointment; but in the sub
sequent revision of the Prayer Book, the choice
was left to the option of the minister to read the
Te Deum or the Benedicite.
Benedictines, an order of monks called after
St. Benedict, who, about the year 530, in the
reign of Justinian, made a settlement at Subi-
aco in Italy, where in a short time he estab
lished no fewer than twelve monasteries or
ccenobies. From thence he removed to Monte
Cassino, near Naples, and there founded another
monastery, whence he propagated his order
with unwearied devotion into surrounding coun
tries. It appears from the rule of St. Benedict
himself, that he did not contemplate creating a
new order, nor that his followers should assume
his name as their distinguishing appellation.
He merely wrote seventy- three chapters of re
gulations for the Coenobites and Anchorets,
which in his day were the only orders the Italian
churches allowed. It is, nevertheless, remark
able, that for six hundred years after the publica
tion of his rule, the greatest part of the European
monks followed!!, including the Carthusians, Cis
tercians, Cluniacks, Grandimontenses, PraemonT
stratenses, and several others. In short, Hospinian
enumerates twenty-three orders that sprang from
this illustrious Saint. In the twelfth century no
fewer than 12,000 monasteries, which in the
Middle Ages became the repositories of literature
and science, were under this rule. The monks of
St. Benedict inform us that he was so much
given to self-mortification, he would often roll
himself in a heap of briars to check any carnal
desires that he found to arise within; and the
following wonderful miracle wrought upon his
account, is recorded by St. Gregory in his Dial.,
lib. iii. When the Goths invaded Italy they
came to his cell, and set fire to it. The fire blazed
furiously all round him, but, like the three
Hebrew children, he received no injury what
ever. This so enraged his savage persecutors that
they threw him into a burning hot oven, and

BEN
shut it close; but St Benedict was found the
next morning safe and unhurt, his flesh not being
scorched nor his clothes singed. He died on the
21st March, 542. The Benedictines of the con
gregation of St. Maur have won to themselves
immortal fame by their handsome editions of
many of the fathers.
Benediction, the act, also the form, of
praise or blessing. The benedictions, whether
thanksgivings for mercies, or blessings invoked
upon special occasions and on special subjects, in
the ancient churches were numerous, and formed
a very prominent and important part of public
worship. Two or three examples may not be un
interesting : After the Lord's Prayer in the cele
bration of the Eucharist, the bishop pronounced
this benediction upon the people, — " The peace
of God be with you," in order that with calm
ness and pious composure of soul they might
commemorate the great act of man's redemption.
At the conclusion of morning prayer, the deacon
called on the congregation to bow their heads to
receive the imposition of hands, or the bishop's
benediction; the bishop then lifting his hands
solemnly repeated the following prayer, or one of
the same import : " 0 God, faithful and true,
that showest mercy to thousands of them that
love thee ; who art the friend of the humble and
defender of the poor; whose aid all things stand
in need of, because all things serve thee: look
down upon this thy people, who bow their heads
unto thee, and bless them with thy spiritual
benediction; keep them as the apple of thine
eye; preserve them in piety and righteousness,
and vouchsafe to bring them to eternal life, in
Christ Jesus, thy beloved Son, with whom unto
thee be glory, honour, and adoration, in the Holy
Ghost, now and for ever, world without end.
Amen." The deacon then dismissed the people
with these words, " Depart in peace." Some
times, too, their sermons were prefaced by short
ejaculatory benedictions, as, " Blessed be the
name ofthe Lord," "Blessed be God," " Blessed
be God, who hath comforted your sorrowful souls,
and established your wavering minds." Though
it is true that no one ritual obtained throughout
all the churches, but every bishop adopted for
himself such a form as he thought most con
venient and edifying for his own congregation,
yet in all both the prayers and benedictions were
the same in substance down to the rise of Ari
anism. At the ordination of presbyters a solemn
benediction, or consecration prayer, was pro
nounced, which need not be quoted here at length ;
it concluded thus — " Fill thy servant with healing
power and instructive discourse, that with meek
ness he may teach thy people, and serve thee
sincerely with a pure mind and willing soul, and
unblamably perform the sacred services for thy
people, through Christ Jesus our Lord." In the
morning service of the Church of England the
first benediction (see Book of Common Prayer)
comes after the litany; it is in these words: ,
67

BEN
" The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of
God, and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be
with us all evermore. Amen. " "I must not for
get to observe," says Wheatly, " that this form is
rather a, prayer than a blessing, since there is
no alteration either of person or posture pre
scribed to the minister, but he is directed to pro
nounce it kneeling, and to include himself as well
as the peopled" The second or final benediction
at the conclusion of the service is taken chiefly
from the words of Scripture ; the first part of it
from Phil. iv. 7, and the latter part being a
paraphrase upon Num. vi. 24, 25., viz. : " The
peace of God, which passeth all understanding,
keep your heart and minds in the knowledge and
love of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ our
Lord; and the blessing of God Almighty, the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, be amongst
you and remain with you always. Amen." In
Presbyterian churches the words of the apostolic
benediction, 2 Cor. xiii. 14, are usually em
ployed at the close of public worship.
Benedictus (blessed), a hyinn taken from
Luke i. 63, appointed to be said or sung after
tbe second lesson in the morning service of the
Church of England, and so named from the first
word of the hymn in the Latin Vulgate.
Benefice, in law, generally signifies any
ecclesiastical preferment except a bishopric; and
by stat. 13 Rich. II. benefices are divided into
elective and donative, and so also the canon law
considers them. According to more strict and
proper acceptation, the term benefice is confined
to rectories and vicarages. A benefice must be
given for life, and not for a term of years. The
word, as is stated above, is borrowed from the
feudal system, having formerly been applied to
the portions pf land given by lords to their
followers for service and maintenance, ex mero
beneficio. Hence, as in the early Church the
revenues of the clergy arose from the common
stock distributed by tlie bishop to the ministers
in his jurisdiction, the similarity of his superin
tendence to that of the feudal lord induced a
corresponding similarity of language regarding
it. Sometimes, indeed, benefices were conferred
upon ecclesiastics by the lay lord, on the same
tenure as he would have given them to his lay
vassals ; namely, that they should provide men,
as occasion required, to serve in the wars. Re
specting benefices in Scotland it was decreed by
the parliament at Edinburgh, 1592, being the
second act of the twelfth parliament of James
VI: — " Our Soveraine Lord, considering the great
abuses quhilkis ar laitlie croppen in the Kirk,
throw the misbehaviour of sik persones as ar
provided to ecclesiastical functions, sik as par
sonages and vicarages, within onie paroehin, and
thereafter neglecting their charge, ather leave
their cure, or els committis sik crimes, faultes or
enormities, that they are found worthie of the
sentence of deprivation, ather before their awin
Presbyterie, or else before the Synodal! or General

BEN
Assemblies; quhilk sentence is the lesse regarded
be them, because albeit they be deprived of their
function and cure within the kirk, zit they think
they may bruik lawfullie the profites and rentes
of their saidis benefices induring their liferentes,
notwithstanding the said sentence of deprivation :
Therefore our Soveraine Lord, with advise of the
Estaites of this present Parliament, declaris, that
all and quhatsumever sentences of deprivation,
ather pronunced alreadie, or that happens to be
pronunced hereafter, be onie Presbyterie, Synodall
or General Assemblies, against onie parson or
vicar within their jurisdiction, provided sen his
Hienesse coronation; all parsones provided to
parsonages and vicarages, quha hes voit in Par
liament, Secreitt Councell and Session, or pro
vided thereto of auld, before the Kingis corona
tion, (and Maister George Voung, Archdeane of
Saint Andrew's being speciallie excepted), is and
sail be repute in all judgments ane just cause to
seclude the parson before provided, and then
deprived, from all profites, commodities, rentes,
and dewties of the said parsonage and vicarage,
or benefice of cure, and that ather bee way of
action, exception, or reply: And that the said
sentence of deprivation sail bee ane sufficient
cause to make the said benefice to vaik thereby.
And the said sentence being extracted, presented
to the patrone, the said patrone sail be bound to
present ane qualified person of new to the kirk
within the space of sex months thereafter : And
gif he tailzie to do the same, the said patrone sail
tine the richt of presentation for that time
allanerlie; and the richt of presentation to be
devolved in the hands of the Presbyterie within
the quhilk the benefice lies, to the effect that they
may dispone the same, and give collation thereof
tp sik ane qualified person as they sail think
expedient. Providing always, in case the Pres
bytery refusis to admitt onie qualified minister
presented to them be the patrone, it sail be
lauchful to the patrone to reteine the haill fruites
of the said benefice in his awin hands. And
further, his Hiene9se and Estaites foresaidis
declairis, that the deprivation already pronunced,
or to be pronunced, by onie Presbyterie, Syno
dall, or General Assemblies, against onie of the
parsones or vicars foresaidis, sail na wayes hurt
or be prejudicial to onie tackes lawfully set be
that person deprived before his deprivation, to
quhatsumever persones."
Benefices are either simple or sacerdotal :
simple, those which involve no higher obliga
tion than the reading of prayers, chanting of
anthems, &c. — such are canonries and chaplain-
ries; sacerdotal, those which include the care
of souls, such as rectories and vicarages. A
benefice may become void de jure when its pos
sessor is proved guilty of heresy or simony —
crimes which disqualify a clergyman for retaining
a benefice. But should the incumbent resign or
die, the benefice becomes void de facto. It may
also become void when, by the sentence of the

BIB
<e, a holder of a benefice is declared guilty
of immorality, or some offence against the
state. — See Advowson, Patronage.
Beneficiary, one who has the disposal of
benefices in the Established Church. He is not
the proprietor of the revenues accruing from
those benefices, but the administrator of them.
Benefit of Clergy. — See Clergy.
Bereans, a small and diminishing party of
religionists in Scotland, followers of a Mr. Bar
clay, who, in 1773, left the Church of Scotland
because he had not been presented to the parish
of Fettercairn, though the people were unani
mously in bis favour. His views, and those of
his followers, are extreme on many points, and
they took the name of Bereans, from Acts,
xvii. 11., naming themselves after the intelligent
and conscientious Jews of an eastern city. They
deny natural theology, in spite of the apostle's
assertion (Rom. i. 19, 20), and they hold assur
ance to be of the essence of faith, which, is simple
credence of the truth, though to make salvation
depend on assurance is to say, that it depends
not on my belief in Christ, but on my belief that
I do believe in Christ The entire book of
Psalms they regard and interpret as solely re
ferring to Christ, and reckon it a perversion to
apply any psalm to individual spiritual experi
ence. In other matters they do not differ to
any great extent from other evangelical com
munities. Berengarians, followers in the eleventh
century of Berengarius (Berengar, Archdeacon of
Angers), who opposed the doctrine of transub
stantiation, and thereby brought upon himself a
variety of troubles. He recanted, in appearance,
his views more than once, for fear of the penalty
of heresy. He revived the doctrine of Scotus that
the bread and wine still remain in themselves
symbols after consecration, though they are
something more to the believer.
Bernardins, an order of monks, not
founded, but reformed by St. Bernard. Their
origin dates from the twelfth century, and they
do not differ much from the Cistercians. — See
Cistercians. Bethlehemites, a company of English
monks that arose in the thirteenth century, of
whom little is known. They wore a red star
with five rays, in memory of the star of Beth
lehem, and had a settlement at Cambridge.
Another order of the same name was founded in
tbe island of Teneriffe, which has forty houses,
principally in the Canary Isles, and they are
also to be found in the Spanish West Indies.
Bible, Bi/&<;, is an Egyptian plant, of which
a material for writing upon was made. Bible is
now specially applied to the Holy Scriptures, but
Chaucer furnishes usages of the word as applied
to any book.
Bible is applied by Christians, by pre-emi
nence, to the collection of sacred writings, or the
Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa-

68

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ment, as being the "Book," the " Book of Books,"
from its superiority to all other books. By the
Jews the Bible (that is the Old Testament, which,
only, they acknowledge to be divinely inspired) is
called mtkroh, that is, the lesson or lecture.
The list of books contained in the Bible is called
the canon of Scripture. Those books which are
contained in the list or catalogue to which the
name of canon has been appropriated, are termed
canonical, by way of distinction from others,
which are called deutero-canonical, or apo
cryphal ; and which are either not acknowledged
as divine books, or are rejected as spurious, for
the reasons already stated in the article Apo
crypha. This sacred volume is that on which
the Jewish and the Christian religions are
founded, and the present article will contain a
sketch of the literary history of the Bible, or an
account of its canon and divisions — manuscripts
and printed editions — versions, ancient and mo
dern — and of polyglot Bibles, or editions of the
Bible accompanied by several versions.
I. History cf the Canon of the Hebrew Bible :
Its Divisions. — The Hebrew Bible, or Old Tes
tament, comprises those books which were written
previously to the birth of Jesus Christ. With
the exception of a few Chaldee words (occasion
ally inserted in the historical and prophetical
writings after the Israelites became acquainted
with the Babylonians), and also of a few pas-
Sages in Chaldee, occurring in Jer. x. 11, Dan.
ii. 4, to the end of ch. vii., and Ezra iv. 8, to
vi. 19, and vii. 12-17, these books are written
in the Hebrew language. The first canon or
collection of them was made by the Jews ; but by
whom it is now impossible to ascertain. It is,
however, certain that the five books of Moses,
called the Pentateuch, were collected into one
body within a short time after the death of the
Hebrew legislator; because the book of Deu
teronomy, wbich, in effect, is an abridgment
and recapitulation of the other four books, was
deposited in the tabernacle, near the ark, agree
ably to the command he gave to the Levites
(Peut. xxxi. 24, 26). Here it was kept, not
only while the Israelites remained in the wilder
ness, but afterwards, when they were settled in
the land of Canaan. To the same sanctuary
were consigned, as they were successively pro
duced, the other sacred books which were
written before the building of the temple at
Jerusalem; and, after the completion of that
edifice, Solomon directed that these books should
be removed into it; and also that the future
compositions of inspired men should be secured
in the same holy place. We may therefore con
clude that the respective works of Jonah, Amos,
Hosea, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Habakkuk, and Obadiah (all of whom
flourished before the Babylonish captivity), were
regularly deposited in the temple. On the cap
ture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and the
consequent destruction of the temple, the auto

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graphs of the sacred books are supposed to have
perished; although some learned men have con
jectured that they were preserved, because it
does not appear that the conqueror evinced any
particular enmity against the Jewish religion;
and in the account of the sacred things carried to
Babylon (2 Kings xxv., 2 Chron. xxxvi., Jer.
Iii.) no mention is made of the sacred books.
If, however, they were destroyed with the
temple, it is certain that there were at that
time numerous copies of them ; and we cannot
doubt but that some of these copies were
carried by the Jews to Babylon. For — not to
insist upon the known reverence of that people
for the Hebrew Scriptures, which moreover were
too much dispersed to render it credible that
all the copies were lost — we find the prophet
Daniel, when in captivity, referring to the law
as then existing (Dan. ix. 11, 13), and also
(ix. 2) expressly mentioning the predictions of
Jeremiah, which he could not have done if he
had never seen them. On the rebuilding, or
rather on the finishing of the temple, in the
sixth year of the reign of Darius, the Jewish
worship and sacrifices were fully re-established
by Ezra, according "as it is written in the law
of Moses" (Ezra vi. 18), which would have
been impracticable if Ezra had not been in actual
possession, either of the original manuscript of
the law, or of a copy so well authenticated as
to leave no doubt of its accuracy in the minds of
the people. But that which still more clearly
proves that the Jews must have had transcripts
of the sacred writings during, as well as subse
quent to, the Babylonish captivity, is the fact,
that when the people requested Ezra to produce
the law of Moses (Neh. viii. 1), they did not
entreat him to get it dictated anew to them, but
to "bring" forth "the book of the law of
Moses, which the Lord had commanded to
Israel." About fifty years after the rebuilding
of the temple and the re-establishment of the
Jewish religion, it is generally admitted that the
canon of the Old Testament was settled ; but by
whom this great work was accomplished, is a
question on which there is a considerable differ
ence of opinion. On the one hand, it is con
tended that it could not have been done by
Ezra himself; because, though he has related
his zealous efforts in restoring the law and wor
ship enjoined to the Jews, yet respecting the
settlement of the canon he is totally silent; and
the silence of Nehemiah, who has recorded the
pious labours of Ezra, as well as of Josephus, who
is diffuse in his encomiums on him, has further
been urged as a presumptive argument that he
could not have collected the Jewish writings.
But to these hypothetical reasonings we may
oppose the constant tradition of the Jewish
Church— uncontradicted both by their enemies
and by Christians— that Ezra, with the assist
ance of the members of the great synagogue
(among whom were the prophets Haggai, Zecha-

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riah, and Malachi), collected as many copies of
the sacred writings as he could find, and from
them set forth a correct edition of the canon of
the Old Testament, with the exception of his
own writings, the prophecy of Malachi, and the
book of Nehemiah, which were subsequently an
nexed to the canon by Simon the Just, the last
of the great synagogue. In this Esdrine text,
the errors of former copyists were corrected; and
Ezra added in several places, throughout the
books of this edition, whatever appeared neces
sary to illustrate, correct, or complete them.
Whether Ezra's own copy of the Hebrew Scrip
tures perished in the pillage of the temple by
Antiochus Epiphanes is a question that cannot
now be ascertained: nor is it material, since
we know that Judas Maccabseus repaired the
temple, and replaced everything requisite for
the performance of divine worship (1 Mace. iv.
36-59), which included a correct copy of the
Scriptures, if not that of Ezra himself. This
copy remained in the temple until the destruc
tion of Jerusalem and the subversion of the
Jewish polity by the Romans under Titus, when
it was carried in triumph to Rome, among the
other spoils which had been taken at Jerusalem
(Prideaux's Connection, part i., book v., sub anno
446; Josephus, deBell. Jud., lib. vii., ch. v., sec.
5 ; Home's Introduction to the Critical Study of
the Scriptures, vol. ii., part i., ch. ii., sect. l).
Thus, while the Jewish polity continued, and for
nearly five hundred years after the time of Ezra,
a complete and faultless copy of the Hebrew
canon was kept in the temple at Jerusalem,
with which all others might be compared. And
it is worthy of remark, that although Jesus
Christ frequently reproved the rulers and teachers
of the Jews for their erroneous and false doc
trines, yet he never accused them of any corrup
tion in their written law or other sacred books.
And St. Paul reckons it among the privileges of
the Jews, that " unto them were committed the
oracles of God" (Rom. iii. 2), without intimating
or insinuating that they had been unfaithful to
their trust. After the final destruction of Jeru
salem by the Romans, there was no established
standard of the Hebrew Scriptures; but, from
that time, the dispersion of the Jews into all
countries, and the numerous converts to Chris
tianity, became a double security for the preserv
ation of a volume held equally sacred by Jews
and Christians, and to which both constantly
referred as to the written Word of God. Though
they differed in the interpretation of these books,
they never disputed the validity of the text in
any material point.
The various books of the Hebrew Scrip
tures were divided by Ezra into three parts
or classes, viz., the Law, the Prophets, and the
Celubim (or Hagiographa), that is, the Holy
Writings. This division obtained in the time
of Jesus Christ (Luke xxiv. 44), and is also
noticed by Josephus (contr. Apion., lib. i., sec.

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8) in the following terms, though he does not
enumerate the several books :—" We have," he
says, "only twenty-two books, which compre
hend the history of all former ages, and are
justly regarded as divine. Five of them proceed
from Moses ; they include as well the laws, as
an account of the creation of man, extending to
the time of his (Moses) death. This period
comprises nearly three thousand years. From
the death of Moses to that of Artaxerxes, who
was King of Persia after Xerxes, the prophets
who succeeded Moses committed to writing, in
thirteen books, what was done in their days.
The remaining four books contain hymns to
God (the Psalms), and instructions of life for
man."  I. The Law contained the five books of
Moses, viz.— 1. Genesis, 2. Exodus, 3. Leviticus,
4. Numbers, and 5. Deuteronomy. It is not
known when the writings of the Jewish legis
lator were divided into five books; but, as the
titles of them are evidently of Greek origin, it is
not improbable that they were prefixed to the
several books by the authors of the Greek ver
sion, now generally known by the appellation of
the Septuagint.— II. The writings of the Prophets
comprised — 1. Joshua, 2. Judges and Ruth, 3.
1 and 2 Samuel, 4. 1 and 2 Kings, 5. 1 and 2
Chronicles, 6. Isaiah, 7. Jeremiah and Lament
ations, 8. Ezekiel, 9. Daniel, 10. The twelve
Minor Prophets, 11. Ezra, 12. Nehemiah, and
13. Esther.— III. The Celubim, or Holy Writings,
contained — 1. The Psalms, 2. The Proverbs,
3. Ecclesiastes, and 4. The Song of Solomon.
The sacred books were thus divided, that they
might be reduced to the number of letters in the
Hebrew alphabet, which amounts to twenty-two:
at present the Jews reckon twenty-four books in
their canon of Scripture. In this last division, the
Law stands as before; and the Prophets are
divided into the former and latter prophets,
with regard to the time when they respectively
flourished. The former prophets contain the
books of Joshua, Judges, and 1 and 2 Samuel,
and 1 and 2 Kings; the two last being each
considered as one book. The latter prophets
comprise the writings of Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets, whose
books are reckoned as one. The reason why
Moses is not included among the prophets is,
because in eminence and dignity, he so far sur
passed all those who came after him that they
were not accounted worthy to be placed on a
level with him ; and the books of Joshua and
Judges are reckoned among the prophetical
books, because they are generally supposed to
have been written by the prophet Samuel.
The Celubim, or Hagiographa, consist of the
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth,
Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, Esther,
Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah (reckoned as one),
and 1 and 2 Chronicles, which also are reckoned
as one. In the modern copies of the Hebrew
Scriptures, the Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lament-

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atinns, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, are placed
immediately after the Pentateuch, under the
name of the five Megilloth, or volumes. This
order, however, is not always observed ; but the
variations from it are unimportant (Leusden,
Philologus Hebraius, diss. ii. ; Bp. Cosins' Schol
astical History of the Canon, ch. il.) The order
of the books of the Old Testament, as they are
arranged in the editions of the Latin Vulgate
version, according to the decree of the council of
Trent (Sess. iv.), is as follows : — Genesis, Exo
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua,
Judges, and Ruth ; four books of Kings — that
is, 1 Samuel or 1 Kings, 2 Samuel or 2 Kings,
1 Kings, otherwise called 3 Kings, 2 Kings,
otherwise called 4 Kings ; 1 Esdras (as this
book is termed in the Septuagint and Vulgate
versions) or Ezra ; 2 Esdras, or as we denomin
ate it, Nehemiah ; *Tobit, "Judith, Esther, Job,
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon,
*The Book of Wisdom, 'Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah,
Jeremiah and *Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Nahum (which book in
our editions is placed immediately after Micah,
and before Habakkuk), Jonah (which we place
.immediately after Obadiah), Micah, Habakkuk,
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, *1
Maccabees, and *2 Maccabees. Those books to
which asterisks are prefixed are deservedly re
jected by Protestants as apocryphal.
The Pentateuch was anciently divided, by the
Jews, into fifty or fifty-four Paraschioih, or larger
sections, according as their year is simple or inter
calary, one of which is still read in the synagogue
every Sabbath day. Many of the Jews suppose
this division to have been appointed by Moses ;
but it is by others attributed, and with greater
probability, to Ezra. These paraschioth were
further subdivided into smaller sections, termed
Siderim, or orders. Until the persecution of
Antiochus Epiphanes the Jews read only the
law ; but the reading of it being then prohi
bited, they substituted for it fifty-four Ilaphtaroth,
or sections from the prophets. Subsequently,
however, when the reading of the law was
restored by the Maccab°.es, the section which
had been read from the law was used for the
first and that from the prophets, for the second
lesson. These sections were also divided into
Pesukim, or verses, which have likewise been
ascribed to Ezra ; but, if not contrived by him,
it appears that this subdivision w-as introduced
not long after his death : it was probably intended
for the use of the Targumists or Chaldee intei>
preters. After the return of the Jews from the
Babylonish captivity, when the Hebrew language
had ceased to be spoken, and the Chaldee became
the vernacular tongue, it was usual to read the
law, first in the original Hebrew, and afterwards
to interpret it to the people in the Chaldee
dialect. For the purpose of exposition, there
fore, these shorter periods were very convenient.
It is worthy of remark, that the same practice

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exists, at the present time, among the Karaite
Jews, at Simpheropol, in Crim-Tartary, where
the Tartar translation is read after the Hebrew
text. The divisions of the Old Testament which
now generally obtain among biblical critics
are four in number, viz., 1. The Pentateuch, or
five books of Moses ; 2. Tbe Historical Books,
comprising Joshua to Esther inclusive; 3. The
Doctrinal or Poetical Books of Job, Psalms, the
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon;
and 4. The Prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah,
with his Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the
twelve Minor Prophets. These are severally
divided into chapters and verses, to facilitate
reference, and not primarily with a view to any
natural division of the multifarious subjects
which they embrace ; but by whom these divisions
were originally made, is a question concerning
which there exists a considerable difference of
opinion. That they are comparatively a modern
invention, is evident from their being utterly
unknown to the ancient Christians, whose Greek
Bibles had Ti:-x<u (titles) and KiQakaia (heads);
but tbe intent of these was rather to point out
the sum or contents of the text, than to divide
the various books. They also differed greatly
from the present chapters ; many of them con
taining only a few verses, and some of them not
more than one. The invention of chapters has,
by some, been ascribed to Lanfranc, who was
Archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of
William the Conqueror and William II. ; while
others attribute it to Stephen Langton, who was
Archbishop of the same see in the reigns of John
and Henry III. But the real author of this
division was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, or
Hugues de Saint Cher, who flourished about the
middle of the thirteenth century, and wrote a
celebrated commentary on the Scriptures. Having
projected a concordance to the Latin Vulgate
version, by which any passage may be found, he
divided the entire Bible into chapters, which are
the same we now have : these chapters he sub
divided into smaller portions, which he distin
guished by the letters A. B. C. D. E. F. and
G., which are placed in the margin at equal dis
tances from each other, according to the length
of the chapters. The facility of reference thus
afforded by Hugo's divisions having become
known to Rabbi Mordecai Nathan (or Isaac
Nathan, as he is sometimes called), a celebrated
Jewish teacher in the fifteenth century, he un
dertook a similar concordance for the Hebrew
Scriptures ; but, instead of the marginal letters
of Hugo, he marked every fifth verse with a
Hebrew numeral, thus M 1. n 5. &c., retaining,
however, the cardinal's divisions into chapters.
This concordance of Rabbi Nathan was com
menced A. D. 1438, and finished in 1445. The
introduction of figures into the printed copies of
the Hebrew Bible commenced in the edition of
the Pentateuch, Megilloth, and Haphtaroth,

71

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printed at Sabioneta, in Italy, in 1557; in which
every fifth verse is marked with a Hebrew
numeral. Each verse of the Hebrew text is
marked with an Arabic numeral in the Antwerp
Polyglot, printed in 1569. Athias, a Jew of
Amsterdam, in his celebrated edition of the
Hebrew Bible, printed in 1661, and again in
1667, also marked every verse with the figures
in common use, except those which had been
previously marked in the Sabioneta edition with
Hebrew letters, in the manner in which they at
present appear in Hebrew Bibles. By rejecting
these Hebrew numerals, and substituting for
them the corresponding figures, all the copies of
the Bible in other languages have since been
marked (Home's Inlrod. lo the Critical Study
ofthe Scriptures, vol. ii., part i., ch. ii., sect. 2).
II. Manuscripts and Printed Editions of the
Hebrew Bible. — Hebrew Bibles are either manu
script or printed. The manuscripts have been
divided into two classes, viz., autographs, or
those written by the sacred authors themselves,
whicli have long since perished; and apographs,
or copies made from the originals, and multi
plied by repeated transcription, which vary in
value according to their antiquity. The manu
scripts still extant are either in the form of rolls,
which are used in the synagogues, or square,
which are used by private individuals. The
law of Moses being held in the profoundest
veneration by the Jews, various regulations have
been made, from time to time, for the guidance
of the transcribers, who were obliged to conform
to them in copying the rolls destined for the
use of the synagogue. The date of these regu
lations is not known ; but they are long posterior
to the Talmud; and though many of them are
the most ridiculous and useless that can well be
conceived, yet the religious observance of them,
which has continued for many centuries, has
certainly contributed in a great degree to pre
serve the purity ofthe Pentateuch. The follow
ing are a few' of the principal of these regu
lations:— The copies of the law must be
transcribed from ancient manuscripts of ap
proved character only, with pure ink, on parch
ment prepared from the hide of a clean animal,
for this express purpose, by a Jew, and fastened
together by the strings of clean animals. Every
skin must contain a certain number of columns
of prescribed length and breadth, each column
comprising a given number of lines and words.
No word must be written by heart or with
points, or without being first orally pronounced
by the copyist; the name of God is not to be
written but with the utmost devotion and at
tention, and previously to writing it, the pen
must be washed. The want, or the redundance,
of a single letter, the writing of prose as verse,
or verse as prose, respectively, vitiates a manu
script; and when a copy has been completed, it
must be examined and corrected within thirty
days after the writing has been finished, in

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order to determine whether it is to be approved
or rejected. These rules, it is said, are ob
served to the present day by the persons who
transcribe the sacred writings for the use of
the synagogue. The square manuscripts, which
are in private use, are written either on vellum
or on paper, of various sizes. Those which
are copied on paper are considered as being
the most modern ; and, if written in the
rabbinical Hebrew character, are invariably of
recent date. The best manuscripts are those
copied by the Jews of Spain, which are written
in beautiful characters, like those in the He
brew Bibles printed by Bomberg, Stephens, and
Plantin. The manuscripts transcribed by the
Jews of Germany are less exact and beautiful;
the characters in which they are written re
semble those of the editions of Munster and
Gryphius. The manuscripts of the Italian Jews
hold a middle place between these two classes.
The pages, in all of them, are usually divided
into three columns of various lengths ; and the
initial letters are frequently illuminated and
ornamented with gold. In many manuscripts
the Masora is added ; what is called the larger
Masora being placed above and below the
columns of the text, and the smaller Masora
being inserted in the blank spaces between the
columns. The Masora is a system of critical notation,
designed to mark how tradition taught the
true reading of the Hebrew Scriptures. The
text of the sacred books, it may be proper to
remark, was originally written without any
breaks or divisions into chapters and verses, or
even into words; so that a whole book, as
written in the ancient manner, was in fact but
one continued word. The Hebrew books having
undergone an infinite number of alterations by
successive transcriptions, during the lapse of
ages (whence various readings had arisen), the
Jews had recourse to a canon, which they
judged to be infallible, in order to fix and
ascertain the reading of the Hebrew text; and
this rule they called Masora, or tradition, as if
this critique were nothing but a tradition which
they had received from their ancestors. Some,
indeed, have ascribed this system of notation to
Moses ; others, to Ezra and the members of the
great synagogue, and their successors, after the
restoration of the temple-worship on the death
of Antiochus Epiphanes. Other dates and per
sons have been assigned ; but the most probable
opinion is that of Bishop Marsh, who observes
that the, Masora cannot be dated higher than
the fourth or fifth century. The Masoretic notes
and criticisms are the most stupendous monu
ment of minute and persevering labour, in the
whole history of literature ; they relate to the
books, verses, words, letters, vowels, points, and
accents. The Masorites or Massorets (as the
Jewish literati who invented this system were
called), with a reverential — not to say super-

BIB
stitious — attention, of which history does not
furnish an instance that can be compared with
it, counted all the verses, words, and letters of
all the twenty-four books of the Old Testament,
and of each of those twenty-four books, and of
every section of each book, and of all its sub
divisions. The Masorites were the first who
distinguished the books and sections of books
into verses. They marked the number of the
verses, and of the words and letters in each
verse, and placed the amount at the end of each,
in numeral letters, or in some symbolical word
formed out of them ; and they also marked the
middle verse of each book. Further, they noted
the verses where something was supposed to be
forgotten ; the words which they believed to be
changed; the letters which they deemed to be
superfluous ; the repetitions of the same verses ;
the different reading of the words which are
redundant or defective; how often the same
word is found at the beginning, middle, or end
of a verse, the different significations of the same
word; the agreement or conjunction of one
word with another ; what letters are pronounced,
and what are inverted, together with such as
hang perpendicular ; and they took the number
of each ; for the Jews cherish their sacred books
with such reverence that they make scruple
of changing the situation of a letter which is
evidently misplaced; supposing that some mys
tery has occasioned the alteration. They have
likewise reckoned which is the middle letter
of the Pentateuch, which is the middle clause
of each book, and how many times each letter
of the alphabet occurs in all the Hebrew Scrip
tures, (Waltoni, Prolegomena, c. viii.) Such
is the celebrated Masora of the Jews. At first
it did not accompany the text ; afterwards the
greatest part of it was written in the margin.
In order to comprise it within the margin, it
became necessary to abridge the work itself:
this abridgment was called the little Masora,
Masora parva; but, being found too short, a
more copious abridgment was inserted, which
was distinguished by tbe appellation of the great
Masora, Masora magna. The omitted parts
were added at the end of the text, and called
the final Masora, Masora finalis. There is
another invention ascribed to the Masorites,
which it is proper to notice in this place. In
Jewish manuscripts and printed editions of the
Old Testament, a word is often found with a
small circle annexed to it, or with an asterisk
over it, and a word written in the margin of the
same line. The former is called the Ketib, that
is, written, and the latter, Keri, that is, read or
reading, as if to intimate, write in this manner,
but read in that manner. For instance, when
they meet with certain words, they substitute
others; thus, instead of the name Jehovah
(which, expressing the being, the essence, and
the eternity of the Deity, the Jew3 consider a
word too sacred for human utterance), they sub-

BIB
stitute Adonai, which is expressive not of God
but of Lord. And, in lieu of terms not strictly
consistent with decency, they pronounce others
less indelicate, or more agreeable to their ideas of
propriety. (Walton, ut supra ; Whittaker's In
quiry into the Interpretation ofthe Hebrew Scrip
tures, p. 114-178).
Concerning the value of the Masoretic sys
tem of notation, biblical critics are greatly
divided in opinion. While some have com
mended the undertaking, and have considered
it as an admirable invention for preserving
the purity of the sacred text, and for put
ting a stop to the arbitrary and unbounded
licentiousness and rashness of transcribers and
critics, others have altogether censured the
design, suspecting that the Masorites corrupted
the purity of the text, by substituting for the
ancient and true reading of their forefathers
another reading more favourable to their pre
judices, and more opposite to Christianity, whose
testimonies and proofs they were desirous of
weakening as much as possible. Without
adopting either of these extremes, Bishop Marsh
observes that the text itself, as regulated by the
learned Jews of Tiberia3, was probably the
result of a collation of manuscripts. But as
those Hebrew critics were cautious of intro
ducing too many corrections into the text, they
noted in the margins of their manuscripts, or in
their critical collations, such various readings
derived from other manuscripts, either by them
selves or by their predecessors, as appeared to be
worthy of attention. This, he is of opinion, is
the real origin of those marginal or Masoretic
readings which we find in many editions of the
Hebrew Bible. But the propensity of the later
Jews to seek mystical meanings in the plainest
facts, gradually induced the belief, that both
textual and marginal readings proceeded from
the sacred writers themselves; and that the
latter were transmitted to posterity by oral tra
dition, as conveying some mysterious appli
cation of the written words ; they were regarded,
therefore, as materials not of criticism but of
interpretation. The same eminent critic further
remarks, that, notwithstanding all the care of
the Masorites to preserve the sacred text with
out variations, "if their success has not been
complete, either in establishing or preserving the
Hebrew text, they have been guilty of the only
fault which is common to every human effort"
(Bp. Marsh's Lectures on Divinity, part ii., lect
x., p. 84, 98).
Though any designed corruption of the Hebrew
Scriptures was utterly impracticable, and was,
indeed, never suspected, yet the carelessness and
inadvertence of transcribers, during the long
series of many hundred years, would unavoid
ably cause very many mistakes. It was not,
however, until the seventeenth century that any
extensive collation of Hebrew manuscripts was
made. This was owing to the notion (founded

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on the bold assertions of the rabbins, which were
implicitly credited by the Christians,) which had
been formed of the absolute integrity of the
sacred text, in consequence of its supposed pre
servation from error by the Masora. The first
critic that impugned this notion was Johannes
Morinus, a priest of the Oratory at Paris, who,
in the first volume of his Exercitationes Biblicce
de Hebrmi Grmcique Textus sincerilate, published
in 1 633, laboured to show that the Hebrew Bible
has descended to posterity in a very imperfect
state ; not that the Jews had wilfully corrupted
the sacred writings, but that they had transcribed
them so negligently as to have lost in very nu
merous instances the original and genuine text.
Morinus was soon after followed by Louis Cap-
pel, Hebrew Professor at the French Protestant
University of Saumur, whose Critica Sacra was
first published at Paris in 1650. In this work
he was led to question the general integrity of
the text, from the difference which he observed
between the Hebrew text and the version of the
Septuagint, and between the Hebrew and the
Samaritan Pentateuch; from the manifest and
palpable corruptions which he thought he saw in
the text itself; and from the many reasons which
led him to suppose that the vowel points and the
Masora were both a modem and an useless inven
tion. The principles of Cappel were adopted by
Bishop Walton, in his Prolegomena to the Lon
don Polyglot, in whieh that learned prelate
acknowledged the necessity of forming a critical
apparatus, for the purpose of obtaining a more
correct text of the Hebrew Bible, and materi
ally contributed to it by his own exertions. At
length, the necessity of a collation of Hebrew
manuscripts began to be generally acknowledged ;
and some attempts to that purpose were made
by subsequent editors of the Hebrew Bible, viz.,
by Rabbi Joseph Athias, in his celebrated edition
of the Hebrew Scriptures, printed at Amsterdam
in 1661, and again in 1667; by Jablonski, in
his edition printed at Berlin in 1699; by Van
der Hooght, at Amsterdam, in 1705 ; by Opitz,
at Kiel, in 1709 ; by J. H. Michaelis, at Halle,
in 1720 ; and by Houbigant, at Paris, in 1753.
Of these editions some notice will be found in
the course of this article. The manuscripts
thus collated were examined with the same
attention, the various readings of them were
discussed with the same freedom, and their
respective merits ascertained by the same rules
of criticism as had been previously applied in
respect to manuscripts of profane authors. But
all preceding collations of manuscripts were sur
passed by that of Dr. Kennicott, who, in 1753,
published at Oxford his First Dissertation on the
state of the printed Hebrew text, in which he
endeavoured to show the necessity of the same
extensive collation of Hebrew manuscripts as
had already been undertaken of the Greek manu
scripts of the New Testament ; and, in support
of his opinion, he exhibited a specimen of various

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readings from seventy Hebrew manuscripts pre
served in the Bodleian library. In 1759 he
published his Second Dissertation on the state of
the printed Hebrew text, in which he also replied
to the objections which had been made to his
First Dissertation. The utility of the proposed
collation being then very generally admitted, a
very liberal subscription was made (amount
ing nearly to £10,000), in order to defray the
expense of collation. Various persons were
employed both at home and abroad ; but of the
foreign literati the principal was Professor Bruns,
of the university of Helmstadt, who not only
collated Hebrew manuscripts in Germany, but
travelled for that purpose into Italy and Switzer
land. The business of collation occupied from
1760 to 1769 inclusive, during which period Dr.
Kennicott published annually an account of the
progress made. The arranging and digesting
of the materials thus acquired necessarily occu
pied several succeeding years. The variations,
contained in nearly seven hundred bundles of
papers, being at length digested, and the whole,
when put together, being corrected by the origi
nal collations, and then fairly transcribed into
thirty folio volumes, the work was put to press
in 177*. In 1776 the first volume of Dr. Ken-
nicott's edition of the Hebrew Bible was delivered
to the public, and in 1780 the second volume.
Extensive as Dr. Kennicott's collections were, a
copious gleaning remained for the researches of
John Bernard de Rossi, Professor of Divinity
and Oriental Languages in the Royal Academy
of Parma; the result of whose collations was
given to the public between the years 1784-1788,
1799. The total number of codices collated by
or for Dr. Kennicott, for his edition of the Hebrew
Bible, is six hundred and ninety-four. Of these,
"six hundred and thirty-four are manuscripts;
forty-three are printed editions ; and the remain
ing seventeen are copies of the Talmud, Rabbi
nical works, collections of various readings. Of
the manuscripts collated by Dr. Kennicott and
his coadjutor, M. Bruns, some were collated
throughout, others only in select passages. The
synagogue-rolls being generally written in con
formity with the same standard, it was seldom
deemed necessary to do more than collate them
in a few passages." The total number of manu
scripts and editions collated by De Rossi amounts
to twelve hundred. Of these, six hundred and
ninety-one are manuscripts ; and three hundred
and thirty-three printed editions were in his own
library, and one hundred and thirty-four manu
scripts, and forty-two printed editions were in
foreign libraries. Of the immense mass of various
readings which the collations of these eminent
critics exhibit, multitudes are insignificant, con
sisting frequently of the omission or addition of
a single letter in a word, &c. But they are not
on that account useless ; for they all contribute
powerfully to ascertain and establish — instead of
invalidating — the authenticity and integrity of

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the sacred text, in matters of the greatest im
portance ; as all the manuscripts, notwithstand
ing the diversity of their dates, and of the places
where they were transcribed, agree in that which
constitutes the proper essence and substance of
divine revelation, viz., its doctrines, moral pre
cepts, and historical relations, (Kennicott, Dis-
sertatio Generalis; De Rossi, Prolegomena ad
Var. Lect.)
The printed editions of the Hebrew Bible
are very numerous. The following are those
most worthy of attention, either from their
rarity or their intrinsic value : — The first printed
Hebrew book is an edition of the Psalter, sup
posed to be printed about the year 1477. It is
of extreme rarity, and is printed with a square
Hebrew type, approaching to that of the German
Jews. The text is without points, except in the
first four psalms, which are clumsily pointed.
The commentary of Rabbi Kimchi is subjoined
to each verse of the text, in the rabbinical
Hebrew character, and is much more complete
than in subsequent editions, as it contains all
those passages which were afterwards omitted as
being hostile to Christianity. At Soncino, in
the duchy of Milan, the Pentateuch was printed
in 1482. It was followed by the Greater Pro
phets in 1484, and the Lesser Prophets in 1486.
The Hagiographa was printed at Naples in 1487 :
a copy of it on vellum, in two folio volumes, is
in the library of Eton College. The first edition
of the entire Hebrew Bible appeared at Soncino
in 1488 : it is at present so scarce that only nine
copies of it are known to be in existence, one of
which is in the library of Exeter College, and
another in the Bodleian library, Oxford. This
edition, and that of the Psalter above noticed,
are considered as equal in value to manuscripts.
The next edition of the whole Hebrew Bible was
published in 1494 at Brescia, and is remarkable
for being the edition from which Luther made
his German translation of the Old Testa
ment. The Brescian edition was the basis of
the Complutensian (forming part of the cele
brated Complutensian Polyglot), printed in 1517,
and described in the sequel of this article. In
1518 Daniel Bomberg published at Venice two
editions of the Hebrew Bible, the one in quarto,
the other in large folio : the latter was edited by
Felix Fratensis, and, as it contains the Hebrew
text, accompanied with the Masora, it is called
Bomberg's first rabbinical Bible. The second
edition of it, which is more correct, was printed
also at Venice, in 1525, 1526, under the direc
tion of Rabbi Jacob Ben Chajim, who pointed
the text according to the Masoretic system. The
Brescian edition of 1494 was likewise the basis
of Daniel Bomberg's Hebrew Bible, printed at
Venice in 1521, and of Sebastian Munster's edi
tion in Hebrew and Latin, printed at Basil in
1534-5, and of his second edition in Hebrew
only, but accompanied with parts of the Masora
and various critical annotations, and which was

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finished in the following year. The Compluten
sian is the basis of the Hebrew text in the Ant
werp (1572) and Paris (1641) Polyglot Bibles;
and Bomberg's second rabbinical Bible is the
basis of all the modern pointed copies. In the
years 1539-1544 Robert Stephens printed his
edition of the Hebrew Bible, in four quarto vo
lumes; and in 1544-1546, his very beautifully
printed edition, in seven volumes sixteenmo. In
1587 was printed at Hamburgh the edition of
Elias Hutter, in large characters. In 1611 the
celebrated Hebraist, John Buxtorf, printed at
Basil his octavo edition; and in 1618, 1619, he
published his great rabbinical Bible, which, on
account of the additional matter comprised in it,
is held in great esteem by Hebrew scholars. It
contains the commentaries of the celebrated Jew
ish rabbins, Jarchi, Aben Ezra, Kimchi, Levi
Ben Gerson, and Saadias Haggaon : an appendix
is subjoined, containing, besides the Jerusalem
Targum, which is pointed by Buxtorf (who also
corrected and amended the great Masora), to
gether with the various lections of the Rabbis
Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali. The Tiberias, which
Buxtorf published in 1620, was intended to
illustrate the Masora and other additions to his
great Bible. In 1635 Manasseh Ben Israel
printed a quarto Hebrew Bible at Amsterdam,
in two volumes. It is said to be very correct.
In 1657 was published, under the superintend
ence of the eminently learned Bishop Walton,
the London Polyglot Bible (described in the
sequel of this article), in which the Hebrew text
is printed masoretically, almost in absolute agree
ment with the many preceding editions, and with
the latest manuscripts. The celebrated edition,
executed by Joseph Athias, a Jewish printer at
Amsterdam, was published in 1661, and again
in 1667: the first of these octavo editions is
the most beautiful, but the second is said to be
the most correct. The text of these editions
was founded both on manuscripts and printed
editions. The edition of Jablonski, a learned
clergyman of the Lutheran church, appeared at
Berlin in 1699, in large octavo. The eminent
critic, De Rossi, considers this to be one of the
most correct editions of the Hebrew Bible. In
his preface, Jablonski gave some very valuable
remarks on the origin of the mistakes of tran
scribers; and, having announced the existence
of various readings, he pointed out the means of
correcting them by the collation of manuscripts,
which he strenuously recommended. He chiefly
followed the text of the edition of 1667, and
confined his corrections principally to the vowel
points and accents. In 1705 was printed at Am
sterdam the edition of Everard Van der Hooght,
well known for its typographical beauty and its
convenience for common use. The Hebrew text
is that of Athias's second edition, with marginal
notes, pointing out the contents of each section :
the characters, especially the vowel points, are
uncommonly clear and distinct. Van der Hooght's

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Hebrew text was accurately reprinted at Leipzig,
in 1831, under the editorship of Dr. Augustus
Hahn, which has since been repeatedly printed
in octavo and duodecimo. The reprint of Van
der Hooght's text at London, in two octavo
volumes, in 1811-12, under the editorship of
Mr. Frey, is far from being correct; but the
stereotype editions executed at London in 1822,
and again in 1828, are every way superior, in
point of beauty as well as of accuracy. In pre
paring the edition of 1811 for the press, the
editor (Mr. Judah D'Allemand) states that he
discovered not fewer than two hundred errata in
Van der Hooght's edition; which have been
carefully corrected. In addition to his previous
labours, every page was revised four times, after
the stereotype plates were cast, by scholars con
versant in the Hebrew language. Van der
Hooght's summaries of the contents of each
chapter are omitted, to diminish the price of the
book. The Masoretic notes and various read
ings are very neatly and clearly exhibited at the
foot of each page. — In 1709, Professor Opitz, at
Kiel, published a Hebrew Bible, for which he
collated both printed editions and manuscripts ;
and in 1720 John Henry Michaelis published
a Hebrew Bible, for which he collated many
. printed editions, besides five Hebrew manuscripts
preserved at Erfurt. The text is from Jablon-
ski's edition, and the various lections are given
at the bottom of the page. Toward the middle
of the last century great expectations were raised
by the preparations made for an edition of the
Hebrew Bible, by Charles Francis Houbigant,
one of the fathers of the Oratory at Paris, whose
Prolegomena appeared in 1746, and were fol
lowed in 1753 by a splendid edition of the Hebrew
Scriptures, in four volumes quarto. The text
is that of Van der Hooght, without points.
With the exception of the Samaritan readings,
printed in the margin of the Pentateuch, his
critical apparatus consisted of extracts from only
twelve Hebrew manuscripts, of which he is said
not to have made all the use he might have
done. Houbigant also printed a new Latin
version, expressive of such a text as his critical
emendations (which are too often founded on
conjectures) appeared to justify and recommend.
All preceding editions of the Hebrew Bible,
with critical apparatus, were surpassed by that
of Dr. Kennicott (whose collations have been
already noticed), which appeared in 1776, 1780,
at Oxford, in two volumes folio. The text
was printed from that of Van der Hooght, but
without the points, with which all the Hebrew
manuscripts were collated. In the Pentateuch,
the directions of the Samaritan text were printed
in a column parallel to the Hebrew. The nu
merous variations, from the text of Van der
Hooght, both in the Samaritan manuscripts, and
also in the Hebrew manuscripts, printed editions,
and the Talmud, are placed at the bottom of
the page, and his authorities are designated by

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numbers, from 1 to 692, which are explained
in the Dissertatio Generalis. This dissertation
answers to what are called prolegomena in other
editions, and contains much valuable critical
disquisition on the history, &c, of the sacred text.
To Dr. Kennicott's edition, Professor De Rossi (of
whose collations notice has already been taken),
published an important supplement at Parma
in 1784-1788, 1799, in five quarto volumes,
containing extracts from Hebrew manuscripts.
This work and Dr. Kennicott's edition form one
set Of collations. In 1793 an edition of the
Hebrew Bible was published at Leipzig, by Dr.
Dcederlein and Professor Meissner, in two volumes
octavo, containing the principal various readings
of Kennicott and De Rossi. There are copies
bearing the date of Halle, 1818; but'they are
only the edition of 1793, with a new preface by
Dr. Knapp. More valuable is the edition exe
cuted under the superintendence of Professoi
Jahn, at Vienna, in 1806, in four volumes octavo.
The text is very neatly printed, the chief vowel
points are retained, and a copious selection of
the most important various readings is given.
Dr. Boothroyd's edition of the Hebrew Bible,
without points, after the text of Kennicott, is
valuable for its critical apparatus, which is com
piled with great industry from the most approved
ancient and modern English and foreign biblical
critics. The text is neatly printed after that of
Kennicott, with the chief various readings,
selected from his collection of Hebrew manu
scripts, from that of De Rossi, and from the
ancient versions (Le Long's Bioliotheca Sacra,
edited by Marsh, vol. i. ; Bishop Marsh's Lec
tures, part ii., lect. x., xi. ; Home's Introduction
to the Scriptures, vol. v., part i., chap, i., sec. 1 ;
and the Introductions of De Wette and Haver-
nick, both of which exist in English transla
tions).— T. H. H.
The New Testament, the inspired record of
Christian revelation, consists of two primary
parts — the Gospels and the Epistles. This division
is found at a very early period — the ivayyi'km
and the an'oa<roy.oi. The various books were com
posed at different times and places, and with
purposes as diversified. A long period must
have elapsed before they were gathered together
into one volume. Tertullian speaks of the
Novum Testamentum as well known in his day,
so that probably by the middle of the second
century the greater part was gathered together,
the most of the epistles being collected in Asia
Minor. The canon was fixed by no inspired
sanction, nor by the decree of any council — the
earliest councils, such as that of Laodicea in
363, merely enumerating what books were be
lieved by the churches to be in the canon. The
gospels and epistles are quoted as inspired and
genuine by the apostolical fathers, and by Jus
tin Martyr, Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria,
Origen, Tertullian, Athanasius, &c. Some of

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the books were longer in being received into the
canon than others, showing the jealous care
which was exercised. Eusebius speaks of the
Homologoumena, or books universally received,
and of the Antilogomena, books about which
some doubts had been expressed. These last
were the Epistle of James, the Epistle to the
Hebrews, the second Epistle of Peter, second
and third of John, Jude, and the Apocalypse.
It might be shown that the feelings against
those books sprung, not from evidence hostile
to them, but from misconception as to the doc
trine supposed to be contained in them. Mis
interpretation of their purpose and contents,
not unlike the subjective criticism of later times,
led to scepticism and rejection.
Thus the New Testament is a book of remark
able simplicity of structure. It is a collection
of seven-and-twenty separate and independent
tracts. These tracts circulated singly for a long
peripd, and in various countries, ere by the pious
wisdom and foresight of the Church, they were
gathered together and bound up into a volume.
The apostles at an early epoch separated to
their several fields of foreign labour, and when a
few of them did happen to meet again, it was
not to concert measures for literary publication,
but to discuss questions of discipline, organi
zation, and missionary enterprise. "With one
exception — in itself an imitation of ancient
prophetic oracle — the style of the New Testa
ment is reduced to the two simplest and com
monest forms of human speech — telling a story
and writing a letter. The gospels and epistles
make up the book. The four gospels are but
brief biographies, quiet, earnest, unaffected
sketches ; and twenty-one books are letters — the
fruit of easy and familiar correspondence — and
sent to various churches from the pressure of
peculiar circumstances. About the book there
is no literary ambition, no exaggeration, nothing
meretricious in form or pretension. The tell
ing of an honest tale about the man Jesus, and
the writing of a letter of counsels and sugges
tions, are works which admit of no embellish
ment or ornamental appendages ; for clearness
and impressiveness are their prime beauty and
first distinction. The radiance that now illu
mines our path to immortality, comes like its
brightest emblem, through a colourless atmo
sphere. In these respects, man's expectations as
to the history, character, contents, and power of
the book, are utterly contrary to the reality —
apparent folly is found to be consummate
wisdom — seeming weakness is strength. Truly
" the weak things of the world " astonish us by
their power. Strange it is that the life of Him
who descended from his father's bosom to ransom
a guilty world — who spake as never man spake,
for he thought as never man thought and loved
as never man loved — who is presented to us as
the model-man, the incarnation of perfect virtue
— strange it is that his life should be written four

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times, and by such a quaternion — first, by a petty
officer of Roman inland revenue— then, by a
literary friend and follower of the man who had
the hardihood to deny all knowledge of his Mas
ter — again, hy a physician of pagan extraction,
who was not even an eye-witness — and lastly,
by a Galilean fisherman. And the majority of
the letters were composed, not by a member of
the original apostolical college, but by a scholar
trained in all the subtleties of rabbinical lore,
whose first position toward the new cause was
that of a restless and malignant persecutor —
himself a " Hebrew of the Hebrews, " and yet
especially magnifying his office as the "apostle
of the Gentiles." Those letters, often written in
a dungeon, and sent in all directions, to Corinth,
Ephesus, Philippi, and Rome, were in course of
time interchanged and copied from the perishing
autographs, and gradually gathered into one
volume. The language of the New Testament is the
Alexandrian Greek of that period, further modi
fied in its use by men who were Hebrew by
birth, and employed it as the vehicle of a new
revelation — new words being coined, and old
words being employed in a new signification.
It is not a pure tongue ; it has not the pic
torial euphony of Isaiah, nor is it the lucid
and musical diction of Xenophon. It is a
broken speech — Hebrew in essence and Greek
in dress, Hebrew in spirit and Greek merely in
body, drapery, and costume. That Greek has
not the grace and elegance of classic times ; for
it was learned by those who used it in Palestine,
not from books, but from conversation. In a
language at which Plato would have sneered for
its barbarous structure, and which Demosthenes
could not have interpreted in its Hebrew idiom
and allusions, were these books of the New
Testament composed. Yet no volume ever com
manded such a profusion of readers, or was
translated into so many languages. Such is
the universality of its spirit, that no hook loses
less by translation — none has been so frequently
copied in manuscript, and none so often printed.
The origin of the four gospels, and their rela
tion to one another, have been matters of keen
disputation. Did the evangelists borrow from
a common source, or did they make use of one
another? If they took their materials from a
common source, was it a written document, or
merely a collection of floating traditions ? Or,
if they borrowed from one another, which is the
first gospel? Has Mark taken from Matthew
and Luke, or Luke from Matthew and Mark?
There are remarkable verbal coincidences in the
gospels — how shall we account for them ? These
three gospels (for the Gospel of John comes not
into comparison) have many points of resem
blance, and when we compare, in some places,
Matthew with Mark, Mark with Luke, and
Matthew with Luke, the parallel passages, in
any of the two collated gospels, are numerous

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and striking. The hypothesis of a written
document, out of which the three evangelists
served themselves as they pleased, is utterly
preposterous. However ingeniously Eichhom,
Marsh, and Gratz, may find the original of the
three synoptical gospels in a Protevangelium,
written and retouched from time to time, and
altered by the taste and constitutional sympathies
of each of the three biographers who selected
their materials from it, the whole hypothesis is
unwieldy and cumbrous — no such document was
ever heard of in ancient times— and the very idea
of its existence appears to involve a high impro
bability. Why, if it ever existed, did it not take
the first rank, and render the treatises extracted
from it unnecessary ? The parent gospel must
surely have been as highly venerated as any of
its offspring. But till it sprang from the fertile
brain of Eichhom, no one ever heard of it. Nor
is it by any means clear that the three synoptical
evangelists made use of one another. Such a
thing might, indeed, account for some similari
ties ; but how then shall we explain the numerous
discrepancies in structure and arrangement, or
what reason shall we assign for so many gospels ?
The truth is, that the whole inquiry is to a great
extent superfluous. The phenomena of resem
blance among the three gospels are neither so
uniform nor so striking as to necessitate the for
mation of such theories. Let three honest and
intelligent men write the life of a friend and
teacher, let it be their object to present a faithful
literary portrait, and let it be considered necessary
to such fidelity that a special account of his more
remarkable sayings be given, and that the scenes
and results of his most striking actions be
described. Now, where might we expect simi
larity in three such biographies ? Plainly when
they record the sayings of their common Master,
and when they describe the peculiarity of his
most famous deeds. The case stands precisely so
with the gospels. Real and direct similarity is
found principally in their records of Christ's
lessons and conversations. How could it be
otherwise ? If the three reports of their Master's
teaching be faithful, need it surprise us that
verbal similarity or identity is everywhere
observed? Would not each strive to give the
very words, or at least the general phraseology ?
Fidelity, therefore, required similarity in such
simple and unadorned narratives ; and if many
of the addresses of Jesus were in the shape of
replies to previous questions — were in short brief
conversations — then we should expect equal
similarity in the recital of the words, as well of
inquirers as of disputants ; for such verbal coin
cidence is almost identical with truthfulness. In
reporting the words of Christ and the words of
others, the very idea of giving such words must
create constant similarity. Now, in the Gospel
of Matthew, the great majority of the instances
of its agreement with Mark and Luke occur in
such recital of others' words, or the words of

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Christ, and so in respect to the other gospels.
In the sections of simple narrative, where each
evangelist was free to use his own diction,
verbal similarity rarely occurs, except in the
ordinary formulas which express common and
daily acts, such as departures, journeys, embark
ation, and temporary residence. Besides, the
narrative part in these gospels is small in pro
portion to the other contents — about a-fourth in
Matthew, a-half in Mark, and scarcely more
than a-third in Luke. If, then, three-fourths
of Matthew, one-half of Mark, and two-thirds of
Luke be filled with honest reports of the sayings
of the great Teacher, and of those with whom
he came into contact, must there not be great
and parallel similarity in their three statements ?
From the very nature of the case, then, we
might expect no little verbal agreement, even
more similarity than has actually occurred ; for
we meet with perfectly exact identity in a mere
fraction of the gospels compared to the whole
contents. Why, then, should men have striven
so restlessly to account by mere hypothesis for
what must have been an anticipated and a
necessary phenomenon ? It is plain that prior to
the composition and publication of the canonical
gospels, the early Christians must have possessed
a pretty full and correct idea of the Lord's life
and ministry. His career must have been a
frequent and joyous theme of conversation and
study. The discourses of the apostles must have
often dwelt on the marvellous events of the life
of the God-Man, reciting what he said and
describing what he did, in order to prove his
Messiahship, and by this means establish the
faith, quicken the joys, and foster the hopes of
the early converts. And the gospels must have
embodied these memorabilia which were so fami
liar to the first Christians. Not that we can
fully espouse the theory of De Wette, Olshausen,
and others, who, without hesitation, trace to such
a source the correspondences of the first three
gospels. These coincidences need, as we have
seen, no such explanation. Besides, not a few
members of these first Christian communities
seem to have reduced to a written form their
reminiscences of apostolic instruction. "Many,"
says Luke, "have taken in hand to set forth in
order a declaration of those things which are
most surely believed among us." These numerous
authors seem to have comprised in their respec
tive treatises what each one had caught and
treasured up from the sketches given by the
apostles, and from the general conversations of
the believing brethren. That these sketches were
brief, fragmentary, and without formal authority,
is evident from their speedy disappearance. If
they were correct brochures, then much of what
they contained will be found in the canonical
gospels. With these exceptions, therefore, that
the three evangelists may have seen the earlier
compilations of the " many," and that they must
have embodied in their biographies much that

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was matter of common and current belief among
the primitive churches, these histories of Jesus
are separate and independent publications. Their
testimony is that of witnesses to the same
facts, without previous consultation ; occasional
sameness of language with occasional discrep
ance of arrangement, giving to their evidence
the unmistakable stamp of intelligence and
honesty, as that of men who could not be de
ceived themselves in circumstances so propitious
to the formation of aright and mature judgment,
and who were too pure and generous to be guilty
of deceiving others.
That so large a portion of the New Testa
ment should consist of epistolary correspondence
is a striking phenomenon ; still it was natural
and necessary in the circumstances. The early
churches often needed counsel, warning, and
instruction. They had no written oracles to ap
peal to, and therefore the apostles, as the living
depositaries of inspired truth, were obliged to
communicate with them in the form of " doctrine,
reproof, correction, and instruction in righteous
ness." These letters are, therefore, the fervent
outpouring of pastoral zeal and attachment
They are not abstract impersonal treatises — mere
systems of theology. Like other letters, they
have their peculiar charm. They are written
without reserve, and in unaffected simplicity.
Sentiments come warm from the heart without
the shaping, pruning, and punctilhous arrange
ment of a formal discourse. There is such a
fresh and familiar transcription of feeling, so
frequent an introduction of colloquial idioms, and
so much of conversational frankness and vivacity,
that the reader associates the image of the writer
with every paragraph, and his ear seems to
catch and recognize the very tones of living
address. These impressions must have been often
deepened by the thought that the letter came
from "such an one as " Paul, always a sufferer,
and often a prisoner. If he could not speak, he
wrote ; if he could not see them in person, he
despatched to them those silent messengers of
love. Paul was the principal letter-writer in
the New Testament. When that change which
passed over him with the shock of a spiritual
earthquake, had subsided into resolute attach
ment to the new religion, what ardour and
heroism were seen to be united in him — what
a rare combination of intellect and heart, of
enthusiasm and perseverance! Still, with him
there was no stoical abnegation of humanity —
while he lived for the world he lived in the world.
He shrunk from the scourge, and declared himself
a citizen of Rome, and the shuddering expecta
tion of a Roman dungeon suggested the warmth
and comfort of a " cloak." The culture of the
schools Was in him " baptized with the Holy
Ghost and with fire." Words are often unable
to convey his thoughts ; they reel and stagger
beneath the weight and power of his conceptions.
And whether we turn to his alarmed appeal to

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the people of Lycaonia, where he was taken for
the god of eloquence, to his oration before the
critics and judges of the Areopagus, or to his
pleading at the bar of Felix and Agrippa  or
whether we survey his letter to the church in
Rome in its fullness, profundity, and compacted
system — or his epistle to Corinth, so varied and
magnificent in argument, so earnest and so per
suasive in remonstrance and vindication — or the
missive sent to Galatia, so vivid and startling in
its surprise, indignation, and sorrow — or that to
Ephesus, so opulent in thought, and exalted in
sentiment, as if to compensate for the costly books
of magic wbich had been given to the flames—
or that to Philippi, so warm and exuberant in its
congratulations to the first European city where
the Gospel had been proclaimed — or that to
Colosse, exposing the insidious assaults of a
specious philosophy, which corrupted the purity
and marred the simplicity of the Gospel — or his
twin communications to Thessalonica, calm, affec
tionate, and consolatory — or those to Timothy
and Titus, replete with the sage and cordial
advices of paternal kindness, and long and varied
experience — or the brief note to Philemon con
cerning a dishonest and fugitive slave, who had
been unexpectedly brought to " the knowledge of
the truth," — or the epistolary tractate addressed
to the Hebrews, with its powerful demonstration
of the superior glory and the unchanging per
manence and spirituality of the New Dispensa
tion — to whichever of these compositions we turn,
we are struck with the same lofty genius and
fervid eloquence, the same elevated and self-
denying temperament, the same throbbings of a
noble and yearning heart, the same masses of
thought, luminous and many-tinted, like the
cloud which glows under the reflected splendours
of the setting sun, the same vigorous mental
grasp which, amidst numerous digressions, is
ever tracing truths up to first principles — all
these the results of a master mind into which
nature and grace had poured in royal profusion
their rarest and richest endowments. Similar in
character are the other and catholic epistles ofthe
New Testament — the epistle of James, so severe,
lofty, and individualizing in its tone, so like the
personal teaching of Jesus, as seen in the Sermon
on the Mount — the two epistles of Peter, tbe
very image of himself in warm impulse and
aspiration, and so full of Jewish allusion and
associations, quite in keeping with the spirit of
him who was " the apostle of the circumcision"
— the three epistles of John, so redolent of love,
"the bond of perfectness," and ever recurring to
the necessity of a holy life as the true accompani
ment and realization of an orthodox creed; and
lastly, the brief chapter of Jude, a volcanic
denunciation of Antinomian licentiousness and
fruitless formalism.
Down to the period of the invention of print
ing, the books of the New Testament were pre
served in manuscript, written on the usual kinds

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of material. The most ancient of these manuscripts
are in uncial characters, without accents and points,
or iota subscribed, and without any interpunction
or division of words. Some manuscripts are writ
ten in *ri%M, or lines— as many words being in a
line as are usually now found in a clause. Divi
sions called xtip a\ctm, and larger ones called rir-
*.a were also introduced, the author of the former
being usually said to be Ammonius of Alexan
dria. The New Testament was also, in course
of time, divided into church lessons, and by
Cardinal Hugo, in the thirteenth century, into
chapters. Sanctes Pagninus appears first to have
broken up the chapters into verses, in his Latin
translation, 1528 ; and Stephens introduced the
same method, but differently arranged, into his
edition of 1551.
The first portion of the New Testament printed
was the hymns of Zacharias and Mary, as an
appendix to a Greek Psalter, 1486. In 1512
appeared at Tubingen the Gospel of John, Al
dus Manutius having previously printed the first
six chapters of the same book (Venice, 1504).
The Complutensian Polyglot contained the entire
New Testament — the printing of the book being
finished in 1514, but the publication delayed till
1522. The manuscripts used by the Compluten
sian editors were neither numerous nor of great
value, and were probably borrowed by Cardinal
Ximenes from the Vatican. Erasmus had be
fore this published his first edition in 1516, in
folio. He had very few manuscripts, and these of
no great moment, and the work was cursorily
done in about nine months. In 1519 appeared a
second edition, in 1522 a third edition, a fourth
in 1527, and a fifth in 1535. Stephens's first
edition appeared at Paris, 1546, and is often
called the 0 mirificam, from the two first words
of the preface, and his second in 1549. Many
editions, as those by Plantin, appeared at Ant
werp, and by Rapheleng at Leyden : many also
issued from the press at Geneva ; and Le Jay's
Polyglot appeared in 1654. The Compluten
sian text was principally followed in all these
editions. The first Aldine edition was published
in 1518, and is based on the text of Erasmus ;
and the same text, with more or less variations,
was often reprinted. Stephens's third or royal
edition appeared at Paris in 1550, and in it he
followed chiefly the fifth edition of Erasmus ; his
fourth edition came out in 1551 ; and a fifth was
published by his son in 1569. These editions
were often reprinted at various places, as at
Basle and Frankfort. The first edition of Beza
appeared in 1565 at Geneva, and the basis of the
text is the third edition of Stephens ; a second
was published in 1582, for which he had the
assistance of some manuscripts ; and a third was
published in 1589, and from it principally our
present authorized version was taken. The first
Elzevir edition appeared in 1624 (16mo, Ley
den), and in it the unknown editor followed the
third edition of Stephens. The second edition

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appeared at the same place, in duodecimo, and by
a few words in the preface, secured to itself the
rank of Editio Recepta, or received text. The
so-called received text is really that of the
Elzevirs — the Dutch printers — a text which has
been often reprinted. The London Polyglot was
published in 1657, and. Dr. Fell gave to the
world a critical edition (Oxford, 1675). Mill's
New Testament appeared in 1707 (folio, Ox
ford), in which are gathered together 30,000
various readings. It was reprinted by Kiister,
at Amsterdam, in 1710. Bengel published an
edition in 1734, did his best in the circum
stances, and introduced the study of textual cri
ticism. Wetstein followed in 1751, 1752, in his
two elaborate folios, and advanced critical know
ledge. Griesbach entered the field, 1774-1777.
He collated many manuscripts, enlarged the in-
strumentsof criticism, and gave shape and impulse
to the science. Matthaei published at Riga a New
Testament, in twelve volumes, and relied to a
great extent on junior codices. The last volume
of his second edition was published in 1807.
Alter published at Vienna, in 1786, 1787, an edi
tion based on one manuscript. Birch, in 1788,
published at Copenhagen the four gospels, the text
being that of Stephens's third edition. Griesbach
appeared in a remodelled form in 1791 and 1806,
and this edition has been several times reprinted.
The first volume was re-edited by Scholz in
1827, and he introduced not a few sources of
emendation. Scholz's first volume appeared in
1830 (4to, Leipzig), and the second in 1836 — the
result of more than twelve years' preparation.
No less than 674 manuscripts are described by
him, 331 of them for the first time collated by
himself. Yet, as Dr. Davidson has truly said, the
value of the work lies not in its text, " but in its
critical apparatus." Lachmann published a small
edition at Berlin in 1831, and the first volume of
a new octavo edition in 1842, and the second in
1850. The ancient manuscripts alone are followed
by him, and in his patristic authorities he does not
come lower than the fourth century. Tischen-
dorf's first edition appeared at Leipzig in 1841,
and his seventh edition, greatly altered from
the first during the year 1859. An edition
by Tregelles, tbe result of much study, travel, and
toil, is now proceeding through the press. Edi
tions too numerous to be mentioned have also
appeared at various times, but possessing no dis
tinctive or critical character.
The principal editions of the New Testament
referred to in the previous paragraph are at
tempts to give us. the precious volume as its
authors left it But there are hosts of vari
ous readings, and many conflicting theories,
so that we shall now present a brief and simple
view of the subject to the general reader.
If the Bible is divine truth, conveyed in
human language, all its words must be precious.
Whether we hold verbal inspiration in its
strictest sense, or simply maintain that prophets

80

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and apostles, while using their own style with
conscious freedom, were under the infallible
guidance of the Spirit of God, the same result
presses upon us — that the meaning and authority
of the revelation depend on the words originally
employed, and faithfully conveyed to us from
ancient times. Honest interpretation and intel
ligent faith imply a genuine and uncorrupted
text. If some momentous vocables have been
lost, and others have been interpolated, — if we
have not the terms of the message transmitted
with substantial fullness and correctness, per
plexity and despair may drive us to conjecture,
but we dare not preface any passage with the
conclusive affirmation — " Thus saith the Lord."
There is no foundation for our faith, unless we
of the present day are persuaded that we have
Scripture essentially as pure as it was published
at first by its various authors. A mutilated
Bible, with fragmentary clauses, and disfigured
by numerous and dismal spaces, out of which
precious words had dropped and disappeared,
could neither entice us to its study, nor command
us to do it homage. Alas ! what melody could
he struck from a harp with broken and missing
chords. Now, there is here a preliminary ques
tion. If God has given a perfect revelation to
the world, will he not take effectual means to
prevent its being injured in the course of trans
mission to distant ages? Will he not secure
to the nineteenth century the very words of
Christ's sayings and discourses? Or are we to
be placed at sad discount and disadvantage in
having to take our Bible from the hands of
copyists whose aching fingers and drowsy eyes
have produced serious discrepancies in the sacred
text? May it not be anticipated that a book
miraculously given will be miraculously pre
served from error ? And will not its essence be
vitiated, its purpose frustrated, and its heavenly
origin discredited, if it be exposed to the certain
hazards of ordinary literary productions? Has
Heaven deserted its own offspring, and left it, like
an orphan, to be spoiled in helpless exposure ?
We need not theorize when the fact is so ap
parent. There are numerous various readings
both in the Old and New Testament, and these
have been produced in consequence of frequent
transcription. The inspired autographs have
long ago perished, and the most ancient copies to
which we have access exhibit many textual
variations. No promise of infallibility was made
to transcribers, and no pledge that the copy
should be a perfect reflection of the orignal. No
special class of pious and honest caligraphists
was set apart to the enterprise of multiplying
Bibles, and the Church had no board of super
vision to take cognizance of their inks and parch
ment, discover and correct their various blunders,
give authority to their revised and amended
manuscripts, and throw such guaranteed copies
into general circulation. The work was left, in
a great measure, to individual effort. And thus

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scholars put themselves to the work of scribes,
and, in the pride and pedantry of learning,
rounded off the harder terminations, and
smoothed the suspected solecisms of the sacred
penmen. Critics with quill in hand could not
resist the temptation of amending one gospel
from another, or of inserting some explanatory
terms in the margin, which their successors
innocently introduced into the text. Theologians
opened out the roll before them, and dipping
their reed into the ink-horn, marked with the
symbols of suspicion some clauses that wore the
semblance of antagonism to their favourite creed,
and he who next copied their manuscripts felt
himself warranted to omit the branded words
altogether. Heretics found that in transcription
they possessed a speedy and secret power of
proselytism — a defective canon being the best
support of a defective faith — and for their own
purposes they " handled the Word of God deceit
fully." Men not accustomed to the art of copy
ing might piously engage in the work, but with
no aptitude for it, might execute it in slovenly
and self-satisfied haste. The unpractised eye of
an illiterate scribe might mistake one letter for
another, and even from similarity of reading, one
line for another, and his scrawl might be again
abused by some one as stupid as himself, to
whom he had lent it for a similar purpose. And
it might, and did happen, that the codex from
which a copy was made, was misread, the
sense misunderstood, and the words wrongly
divided. Or if one wrote while another read to
him, word by word or clause by clause, then
imperfect hearing, difference of pronunciation,
refined or vulgar accent, originated varieties of
spelling and yet grosser faults ; while even the
expert and " ready writer," trusting too much to
his memory and dexterity, changed the position
of words, added or omitted, and unconsciously
substituted synonymes. The history of the
English translation furnishes one marked illus
tration. The greatest care was taken of the
sheets of Dr. Blayney's famous quarto edition as
it was slowly passing through the press. It
was thought to be an immaculate work, when
it was discovered that no less than half a
verse had been omitted in the Apocalypse
(xviii. 22). The omission was evidently pro
duced by the fact that the two parallel clauses of
the verse had a similar ending ; the printer's eye
was deceived by the double occurrence of the
word "more," and he omitted all the intervening
words. The text of Scripture has been liable to
these usual hazards, and such sources of error,
as those we have indicated, were long in opera
tion. Now, in all this nothing has befallen the
Bible but what is common to other books. But,
as the Bible is distinguished from all other books
in its origin, why, it may be asked, has it not
been signalized also in its literary progress from
age to age? It may be answered, that faith in
81 G

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the divine origin of Scripture should have kept
men from tampering with its contents. If the
consciousness that they were writing out the
book of God had overshadowed their spirit as
it ought — if they had felt that every word was
sacred, and every letter an integral part of a
supernatural record — if they could have realized,
that in copying the Scriptures for others, they
were standing to them in God's stead, speaking
to them in God's name,, and thus personating,
as far as possible, the prophets and apostles of
an earlier epoch — then surely that vast responsi
bility must have deterred the unqualified, and
checked the presumptuous, and thrown such an
honour and sacredness over the work as should
have excited the minute and skilful diligence,
and sharpened the pious and prayerful scrupulo
sity of the early churches. The function of the
scribe must have felt itself hallowed and ennobled
by its operation on the Word of God, as was
the artistic genius of Bezaleel and Aholiab in the
construction of the tabernacle and its sacred ves
sels and furniture. The exposure of Scripture
to such danger is therefore no argument against its
heavenly nature. God gave bis oracles to the
world in a perfect state, and left it in charge to
men to preserve thein immaculate. He works
no superfluous miracles, but tests in this manner
the faith and sincerity of the Church. Physical
life is His gift too ; but he has cast no mystic
shield around it, to protect it from accident,
danger, or self-destruction. It is entrusted to
man himself to preserve and prolong it, and his
abuse or neglect of this commission may be a
very unworthy acknowledgment of the gift, but
it is certainly no argument against the divinity
of its origin. If, then, no superhuman care has
been taken of the words and letters of the in
spired pages — if thousands of various readings
do exist — is it not a great duty to strive to have
a text as nearly as possible in the condition in
which its holy authors left it? How can we
have faith in any doctrine, if there be doubts as
to the very words on which it is based ? Textual
criticism, in this view, takes precedence of evi
dences as well as interpretation. It must be a
Bible materially the same as when first published
that we defend, and not the errors and deviations
of patristic and mediaeval scribes. The import
ance of this work has been often overlooked, and
the plodding scrutiny of collators and editors has
been despised, as fruitless and suspicious toil
amidst dusty parchments and mouldy manuscripts.
With what pangs of terror and indignation did
not Owen attack Walton, and Whitby assail
Mill! And even where the results of critical
labour have not excited panic and dismay, the
work, so far from being hailed with gratitude,
has too often excited wonder, tinged with satirical
compassion for the amount of misdirected effort.
At the same time, we should be grateful that the
text of Scripture is so perfect. It is in a far
better state than that of any common book 82

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which has come down to us from ancient times.
In many classical authors there are numerous
passages so hopelessly corrupt, that conjecture ia
the only remedy for amending them. Let any
one look at the pages of iEschylus, Sophocles,
Plato, Terence, or Lucretius, and he will find,
not only thousands of different readings — scarcely
a line being without one — but many places in
which erudite skill can only guess at what the
text might be. There are sentences which
nobody can construe, clauses of whieh no one
can divine the meaning, collocations of words
which all the tact of Hermann could not un
ravel, and all the ingenuity of Bentley and
Forson could only interpret by recomposing the
paragraph. Since the publication of the first
edition of the Greek Testament by Erasmus
in 1516, what prodigious pains and research
have been bestowed upon its text! Beza,
Stephens, Usher, and Fell led the way. Then
followed the thirty years' toil of Mill — toil only
concluded fourteen days before his death. The
task of his life was done, and the servant was re
leased. In Kiister's edition of Mill are supplied
the readings of twelve additional manuscripts.
The pious labours of Bengel preceded those of
Wetstein, who collated upwards of sixty manu
scripts, and has appended to his text more than a
million of quoted authorities. The 30,000 various
readings of Mill were in this way considerably
augmented. Griesbach collated some hundreds of
manuscripts, and he has been followed by Scholz,
Lachmann, Tischendorf, and Tregelles. The
readings may now amount to at least a hundred
thousand. For not only have all the differences
in all the manuscripts been carefully compared
and accurately jotted down, but the old ver
sions, such as the Syriac, Latin, and Gothic,
have been ransacked, and their supposed variations
added to the lists ; nay, the quotations found in
the fathers have been subjected to the same
ordeal, and all their discrepancies and peculiari
ties seized on and subjoined to the formidable
catalogue. Let our readers bear in mind what we have
said as to the numerous sources of variation
on the part of the copyists; let them reflect
on the fact that the authors of the old versions
might not always make a skilful and accurate
translation, and that it is often matter of mere
conjecture as towhat they saw in the Greek manu
scripts; let them further recollect that the fathers
quoted generally from memory, sometimes inter
posing a brief paraphrase, inserting an expository
parenthesis, adding a plainer synonyme, and
often quoting the same verse in d'ifferent ways ;
and he will not be surprised that the various
readings should form so huge a list. The collation
of three or four classic manuscripts gives nearly
as many readings for a single author, and the won
der is that so many manuscripts, of all ages and
countries ; so many versions, themselves needing
revision ; and so many quotations made freely,

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and with no attempt at verbal accuracy — should
not have quadrupled the number already dis
covered. To put the matter in a modern light.
Let it be the Bible in our own authorized version
which is under critical investigation, and let the
first edition of it under King James be reckoned
the standard. It will be found on examination
that the variations of spelling must be reckoned
by myriads, every clause affording an example ;
and that the actual misprints in the various
editions would amount to many thousands. And
if quotations of Scripture printed in sermons
and famous books of theology were also com
pared, and the differences noted down, the roll of
various readings would swell to a bulk beyond
calculation. And then if peculiar idioms in the
Gaelic and other tongues were to be regarded as
proofs that the translators read accordingly in
the original copy from which they made their
versions, who could put into figures the swarms
of multiplied readings? Now if, instead of
being printed, and the errors of the press cor
rected by the apparatus of proofs and revises,
and compared with one another for these two
hundred years, our copies of the English Bible
had been aU written out, either by some men who
had leisure, or by others who made copying their
craft and occupation — each scribe, whether ama
teur or professional artist, taking whatever copy
he could most readily lay hold of; what must
have been by this time the register of various
readings, if some hundreds of these English
manuscripts were to be collated, and versions and
quotations were forced to add their prolific
results? A volume as large as Scripture itself
could not contain the muster. In like manner,
the number of copies possessed at the middle of the
third century by several millions of Christians
must have been very great : probably a hundred
thousand copies of the whole or of parts of the
New Testament were in circulation in families
and in churches. Transcription must therefore
have been very often repeated ; and not only so,
but from the nature of things, fewest copies would
be taken from the veritable autographs of the
evangelists and apostles. More copies would be
taken from the second transcription than the
first, and from the third than the second, because
the facilities for transcription increased with the
dispersion of manuscripts already made ; so that
by the time specified, the copy ih the possession
of individuals or communities might have been
written off from a roll which was itself a fiftieth
transcription in succession from the first date and
publication of the gospel or epistle. That in all
this multiplying and copying error should be
found, who can wonder ? , In a quarto pulpit
Bible with which we are familiar, one clause
reads, " who makes" (not his sun, but) " bis son
to rise on the evil and on the good." And in a
metrical psalm book — from the queen's printers
in Edinburgh — runs the line, " I said that ye are
goods" (gods). In an edition of the queen's

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printers in London, 1843 (Eph. i. 9), occur the
letters " glood" for "good." If such mistakes
happen, with all the careful readings and correc
tions of modem printing-houses, what might not
be expected among the ancient scribes? We
repeat it, the wonder is that the Greek and
Hebrew various readings are not greatly more
numerous than they really are. It seems as if
Providence had studiously kept them down to
their present amount.
And the faith of no one needs to be stum
bled. The great majority of these discrepan
cies refer to orthography and the order of
words ; whether it should be Jesus Christ or
Christ Jesus ; whether a particle should be
here or there in a clause; whether some noun
should have its masculine or neuter form ;
whether Se or «< is the genuine term, or whether
a personal pronoun, plainly implied in the syn
tax, should be inserted or deleted. We have
opened a page of Tischendorf's edition of the
Greek New Testament at random, p. 82, contain
ing a portion of the first chapter of Mark; and
here are the variations, which we record in plain
English : — V. 7, instead of " mightier than I," one
manuscript has "the mighty one," aplain blunder
of the Alexandrian copyist. Instead of " after
me," one codex simply reads " after," " me" heing
implied, and its omission being apiece of obvious
stupidity. Another manuscript has omitted the
Greek word for " stooping down ;" the error of a
hurried or slovenly transcriber. It is very plain
that such readings are and can be of no authority,
for they have no support. They are the result
of evident negligence ; but yet they are as care
fully noted as if they had been supported by pre
ponderant authority, with a host of manuscripts
and versions in their favour. Therefore, if all
those various readings which have really no
support at all were discarded, nine-tenths of the
whole list would be at once expunged, and the
vast majority of the remaining tenth — whatever
the evidence for and against them — will be found
to be of utter insignificance. The sense is not
materially affected by the critical result, so that,
after such inevitable deductions, only a few
remain of primary importance, and sometimes
these are supported by authority so nicely bal
anced, that it is difficult to come to a satisfactory
decision. After all, then, the text of Scripture
is in a state that warrants us in placing implicit
faith in the revelation which it contains. The
text of no ancient author has undergone scrutiny
and revision so careful and prolonged ; and we
feel no hesitation in affirming that we have the
Bible virtually in the state in which it was
originally furnished to us. The spots in the
sun do not darken his lustre ; and these minor
discrepancies — the unavoidable results of human
infirmity — do not detract from the perfection
and authority of the oracles of God.
The received text of the New Testament
originated in the self-lauded speculation of a

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family of tradesmen. The first Elzevir edi
tion appeared, as we have said, in 1624, at
Leyden, and the second, which was published in
1633, had in the preface to the reader those
words, " texlum ergo habes nunc ab omnibus recep-
tum" — you have here «, text now received by
all. This clause, at first only a printer's puff,
has verified its own prophetic truth ; for the
Elzevirian text has become the lextus receptus of
Protestant Christendom. This text rested on
Beza's edition, and Stephens's third, which itself
was based on the fifth of Erasmus, and that
scholar followed to a great extent in his fourth
and fifth, editions the text of the Compluten
sian Polyglot Such is the accidental lineage of
the common text of the New Testament Was
it not a kind and wise Providence wbich secured
that the few manuscripts used by these printers
and editors should contain a text so good — so
fair a copy of the gospels and epistles of the
apostolic ages? There w^as no systematic ar
rangement or learned consultation. The edi
tors of the Complutensian Polyglot, under the
patronage of Cardinal Ximenes, had but a few
manuscripts from Rome, and these apparently of
modern date, for the copy which they printed in
1517. Erasmus had but five manuscripts for his
first edition ofl516,and actually himself translated
into Greek the last six verses of the Apocalypse.
Robert Stephens for his first edition had sixteen
manuscripts ; and he followed their authority in
thirty-seven instances, though he differed from the
Complutensian in 581 places. Beza had some
new manuscripts andother documentary assistance,
though he did not use them with critical accuracy
or completeness. Thus out of these careless and
undesigned sources was the received text
extracted by the hardihood and trick of the
Elzevirs. Suffice it to remark, that amidst all
that has been done for the textual criticism of
the New Testament — amidst this great accumu
lation of various readings, only a few important
passages have either a doubt thrown over them
or are matter of debate, and the faith of the
Church is uninjured by the result. Though the
famous dispute about the passage in 1 John v.
7,8, concerning the three heavenly witnesses, be
now regarded as settled — the clauses being found in
noancientGreekmanuscriptorversion,not even in
the Vulgate before the eighth century — no Greek
or Latin father having quoted them even in their
formal treatises in defence of the Trinity, and
the words as they appear being apparently a
slovenly translation from the Latin version —
though such is the case, still the existence of the
Trinity remains a distinctive and imperishable
tenet of New Testament revelation. Though the
doxology to the Lord's prayer, as found in
Matthew vi. 13, may not have originally belonged
to it, such sentiments of homage are in perfect
harmony with Christian supplication. The
doctrine of the atonement is not impugned,
whether we read in Acts xx. 28, " the Church of 84

BIB
God," or, as we ought perhaps to read, " the
Church of the Lord" (Christ), "which he has
purchased with his own blood." The Godhead
of the Saviour remains paramount in 1 Tim. iii.
16, whether we read, " God was manifest in the
flesh," or, perhaps, according to the weight of
authority, "who was manifest," — God being
the nearest antecedent. Though the words in
Acts viii. 37, containing the reply of Philip to
the eunuch when he asked to be baptized, " If
thou believest with all thine heart, thou mayest,"
are now allowed on all hands to be an interpola
tion, we should refuse nevertheless to admit an
adult to baptism save on the personal profession
of his faith.
But yet, while such are the ultimate facts
in regard to the criticism of the New Testa
ment, we must rejoice in every effort to give
us the ipsissima verba of evangelists and
apostles. The smallest particles are often the
means of exhibiting peculiar beauties and
emphasis in the process of inspired thought or
narration, as the smallest lines of the face give
it a meaning and expression which the larger
features by themselves cannot impart.
The three great sources of criticism are, manu
scripts, versions, and early quotations. The
chief difficulty lies, however, in the applica
tion and practical treatment of these elements
of judgment. The theory is plain, but the art
is one of peculiar and intricate delicacy. For
the correction of the text there exist hundreds of
manuscripts, few of them containing the whole of
the New Testament, and many of them lectiou-
aries, that is, divided so as to be used in the
church-service. Some of these codices reach
back at least to the fifth century. It is a proof
of their great age that some of them had been
written over with more modem literary works ;
but chemical ingenuity has contrived to remove
the last penmanship, and leave the original
writing to be deciphered. In estimating the
authority of manuscripts, it is ever to be borne
in mind that mere number is of little weight
Twenty manuscripts may have no more weight
than one, as the whole score may have been copied
from one another, or may have come from a com
mon source. Again, the age of a manuscript is
always an element of value, because the less sel
dom a manuscript has been transcribed, the less
likelihood is there that errors have crept into the
text: whereas, during every process of transcrip
tion, defective vision, momentary inattention, or
accidental mistake, may introduce variations.
At the same time, mere age is not a sufficient
criterion ; for a manuscript of the ninth century
may have been copied from one of the third, and
is therefore really older in its reading than one of
the sixth century taken from one of tbe fourth.
There are many means of determining the age of
a codex, from the material on which it is written,
the form and size of the letters, the colour of the
ink, the presence or absence of lines called stkhoi,.

BIB
and the employment or omission of the signs
of interpunction, and other apparatus of more
modem Greek. A manuscript on parchment,
without separation of words, written in ancient
characters, and devoid of accents, points, and
ecclesiastical notations, may be safely assigned
to a high antiquity. But it is not enough to
know the age of a manuscript ; its country is an
additional element of authority. The scribes of
Alexandria, elated with the superiority of their
provincial orthography, were in the habit of
changing the spelling of the works which they
copied ; and they did not limit such pedantic
and wicked operations to common and classical
authors, but they also carried them into the
transcription of the sacred books. So that,
while we agree generally with Tischendorf and
Tregelles in assigning a high value to the manu
scripts A, B, C, D, &c. — the most ancient uncial
manuscript — yet we have occasional hesita
tions to go all the length of their estimate,
because the majority of these old codices are
traced to Egypt by the forms .of spelling
employed ; and we sometimes think with Dr.
Davidson, that what are called junior and cur
sive manuscripts, are often under estimated.
Whatever be the faults of Scholz's edition — and
they are many and unpardonable — we think
that some of his arguments in favour of the
high authority of several eastern manuscripts,
have never been fully represented or met. For,
those Byzantine codices were the work of a
people who had no pride in scholarship, and
were under no temptation to alter the inspired
diction. May it not be presumed that their
copies would be taken in the simple conscien
tiousness of a good and honest heart ? Again,
these oriental codices had their origin in the very
countries in which the epistles and two of the
gospels at least had their earliest circulation.
Their agreement, moreover, with the textus
receptus is also remarkable, as showing their
accordance with the codices best known, and of
readiest access in Europe. The mere age of
these eastern and junior manuscripts should not
therefore operate conclusively to their entire and
uniform disparagement.
It has sometimes been thought that the pecu
liarities of manuscripts might lead to a classifi
cation — that the national characteristics of the
copyists are so decided that manuscripts might
be arranged according to the regions where they
have been produced. A new rule of value would
in such a case be established, and the authority
of a reading would be determined, not by the
number or age of manuscripts in its favour, but
by the family to which such codices belonged.
Bentley and Bengel suggested such an arrange
ment, and the theory has been adopted and
elaborated by Hug, Griesbach, and Scholz.
Griesbach's system, which created an immense
sensation on its first publication, was assaulted
with peculiar virulence and ability by many dis

BIB
tinguished scholars at home and abroad, and it
soon sank into disuse; nay, it was all but
abandoned by its author himself before his death.
He divided manuscript into three great recen
sions — the Alexandrian, the Western, and the By
zantine—deriving the classification from alleged
peculiarities in the manuscripts and in the quota
tions of the church fathers in the respective
countries. But considerable pressure was em
ployed in adjudging the manuscripts to the various
localities ; the boundaries between the ideal king
doms were elastic and variable ; some codices
defied all ethnographical position, and the system
became so confused, arbitrary, and complicated, as
to cease to be of any practical and permanent
value. Hug's hypothesis, which claimed its
parentage in times so far back as the third cen
tury, in the revision of Lucian in Syria, and of
Hesychius in Egypt— both of them preceded by
Origen — has met a similar fate with that of
Griesbach. The modified systems of Scholz,
Rinck, and others, need not be mentioned nor
discussed. The sum of the matter is, that there
appear to be two distinct classes of manuscripts
— the Eastern and the Western — the former
characterized generally by having such varia
tions as flow from common infirmity, and the
latter by such as spring from wilful and critical
emendation. Yet the balance is often upon the
whole very equal. Rinck shows from an ex
amination of the text of the first Epistle to
the Corinthians, in cases where the western
differed from the eastern manuscripts that only
thirteen readings not in the eastern could be
safely preferred. Let us earnestly hope that
proper principles will guide the future editors of
the New Testament — that the value of a reading
will be judged by other and safer criteria than
those of any theory, the ingenuity, intricacy,
and modifications of which deprive it of all
workable adaptation to enlightened and pro
gressive criticism. A new and a true path has
at length been opened. Tischendorf has made
great orogress in it ; and we fondly trust that
Tregelles will exhibit a decided advance over all
his contemporaries and predecessors. Tischen
dorf 's publication of separate valuable codices
cannot be too highly recommended; and the
amount of minute, wearying, and perplexing
labour with chymical tinctures, magnifying
glasses, and reflected lights, can scarcely be
imagined. Let facsimiles of the most important
documents after his example be printed or litho
graphed, and then the editor or commentator
will be able to derive his conclusions in the
quietness and solitude of his own study. Win-
should every investigator be obliged, for the sake
of collation, to bury himself for months in the
British Museum, or be forced to travel to Patmos,
Jerusalem, or Mount Athos, or be compelled to
knock humbly and often at the doors of the Vati
can, till some suspicious cardinal give him a
tardy admission, which probably places him

85

BIB
under the surveillance of a Jesuit secretary or
director ?
The ancient versions are also a source of au
thority in the correction of the text By a
careful examination of the words of a version,
we may be able to learn what was found by the
translator in the original. But such a process is
rather intricate ; for the character of the version
itself must be determined, and the state of its
own text ascertained. If it be a literal trans
lation, 'the reasoning vas to the words of the
original may have some degree of certainty.
The Peshito-Syriac version of the New Testa
ment was executed probably about the end of
the second century. Its very blunders show that
it was made immediately from the Greek original ;
and its venerable age and general accuracy make
it of great value to the critic, notwithstanding
the oriental peculiarities of its style. The text
of the Fhiloxenian-Syriac version cannot, how
ever, be depended on, with all its bald literalities ;
for it has been greatly tampered with. The
Vulgate contains Jerome's Latin version of the
Old Testament, and his revision of an older text
of the New Testament. And here again the
learned world is under great obligation to Tisch
endorf, who has published the best codex of
this ancient version. We need not allude to
other versions, but content ourselves with saying,
that for the restoration of the text, the authority
of versions must, from the very nature of the
case, from the difference of language, and the
varying qual i fications of translators, be greatly
inferior to that of manuscripts. It involves an un
certain process of inference from the words of the
version, as to those of the original whence it was
taken ; a process the value of which depends on
the fidelity and scholarship of the versionist.
The critical use of these old translations implies
accurate and extensive erudition. He who
quotes their authority should most certainly be
able to read them with precision and facility. It
was one defect in Mill's qualification as a critic,
that he did not understand tbe oriental versions,
and so he fell into many blunders from con
sulting awkward Latin translations.
I'he early Christian writers in their epistles, ex
positions, and treatises made a very liberal use of
the inspired oracles. It might therefore be de
duced from their quotations how they read in their
copies of the New Testament. If they bad cited
Scripture with professed accuracy, we should have
come to a direct knowledge of the state of the
text in each century, and in the various coun
tries in which those ancient writers flourished.
But the fathers often quoted from memory, and
they had no concordances in those.days to assist
them in turning to the proofs or passages which
they wanted. In cases of controversy they were
obliged to be accurate, but there is little doubt
that their transcribers so altered their Scripture
quotations as to assimilate them to its current
text. They also cited Scripture often according

BIB
to the sense, that is, the sense which they put upon
the verse or paragraph themselves. It is said,
for example, in Matthew x. 29, " Are not two
sparrows sold for a farthing, and one of them
shall not fall on the ground," &c. Origen some
times quotes this passage correctly, but no less
than five times he thus reads it, " shall not" or
" doth not fall into tbe snare." But is not a
similar practice common among ourselves ? It is
clear from this brief account which we have given,
that the weight of manuscripts is superior to
that of versions and quotations.
But now, if any reading has equi-ponderant
authorities for and against it, is there no collateral
method left of arriving at a satisfactory judg
ment ? May there not be some few additional
evidences, which, though apparently insignificant
as the small dust in the balance, may yet exer
cise a slight but appreciable influence? May
there not be something in the style, form of
thought, or mode of expression, which may
afford an instinctive discovery of the genuine
text? There is no doubt thai such a species of
internal evidence may and ought to have its
weight. Were we able to identify ourselves
with an author, and throw ourselves completely
into the current of his thought, impulses, and
diction, then we might be qualified to imagine
what is the genuine reading, in any contro
verted clause or vocable. Yet so much of this
judgment is subjective — so much of it is de
pendent on personal taste, that no great reli
ance can be placed upon it. First, it is a law
— the authority and safety of which every one
will recognize — that the more difficult read
ing is to be preferred to the simpler reading.
Critics and copyists were always tempted to
make plain what they could not comprehend, to
alter an idiom which they deemed harsh and
liable to be mistaken, and to simplify what
seemed to them a rare or difficult form of syntax
or etymology. Therefore, of two readings, the
shorter, more difficult, and idiomatic, is probably
the correct one; the longer and simpler being
probably the product of a copyist, who slily
insinuated his own opinion into the text, and
moulded it according to his grammatical skill.
Again, that reading is the best which can be
proved to be tbe parent of all the variations.
The genealogy of the conflicting lections can
sometimes be traced, and tbat form of the words
or clause from which the others have sprung is
authenticated to be the original text. Mere
conjecture is to be sternly discarded. If any one
look into Bowyer's Conjectures, he will see
what a fool erratic erudition can make itself;
and how exegetical predilections, theological
leanings, and superficial philology on the part
of Barrington, Owen, Markland, and Woide,
have produced the wildest and most worthless of
critical absurdities. Thus have we stated the
general theory of Biblical criticism. But the
gieat difficulty, as we have already said, lies in

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BIB
the application of such general laws. There are
so many elements of conflict which must be har
monized, and of intricacy which must be un
ravelled; so many points of evidence to be
ascertained, and so many estimates to be made
of the simple and combined weight of tbe various
authorities, that it requires no little patience,
tact, and experience to arrive at a true judgment.
Haste is to be deprecated, and rashness is to be
deplored. Above all, we need an earnest faith
in Scripture, as a grand preservative against
heedlessness and temerity. Wetstein and Gries
bach have been blamed— we believe unjustly —
for theological bias; but none of them had a
great depth of pious reverence for the Word of
God, as a volume truly inspired. Matthaei
blended a low scurrility with all his critical
efforts. The industry of Scholz was not equalled
by his attention ; and negligence in such a work,
disguise it as we may, is a want of conscientious
ness. If the critic felt that he has to do, not
with doctrines, but with the very sources of
them ; that his concern is not with evidences,
but with the prior question, whether an alleged
divine document has in it nothing but the
unchanged Word of God ; and that his business
lies not in interpretation, but in securing for the
interpreter that text which the Spirit of God has
judged the fittest for the impartation of saving
truth — surely there is no amount of labour which
he will spare, no sources of assistance which he
will indolently neglect, no form of literary
training from which he will timidly shrink ; but
he will work, collate, judge, and decide in a
spirit of manly and prayerful dependence on Him
who claims the book as his own, and who will
not he unmindful of any effort to keep it as he
gave it, and preserve it to the world in its
original integrity. It is a remarkable fact, that
the only portion of the New Testament which
our translators have marked as spurious, is now
ascertained to be genuine, by indisputable autho
rity. The passage is the last half of the 23d
verse of the second chapter of the first Epistle
of John ; and is distinguished in the authorized
version by being printed in italics, and the first
word placed in brackets (see Introduction to the
New Testament by King, De Wette, Davidson,
&c.)_ J. E.
III. Ancient Versions of tlie Bibte. — These
are numerous, and of considerable importance for
the criticism and interpretation of the Bible. At
first the Jews were very reserved in communi
cating their sacred writings to strangers. Despis
ing and shunning the Gentiles, they withheld
from them the treasures of divine knowledge
contained in the Bible ; nor were the Egyptians,
Arabs, and other nations bordering on the Jews,
acquainted with these books until after the several
captivities of the Jews, when the singularity of
the Hebrew laws and ceremonies induced several
to desire a more particular knowledge of them.

BIB
The earliest version of the Bible is the Greek
translation, usually called the Septuagint Ac
cording to the account of the psuedo-Aristeas,
Ptolemy Philadelphus applied to Eleazar, the
Jewish high priest at Jerusalem, for proper per
sons to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into the
Greek language; and Eleazar sent six elders
from each of the twelve tribes. These seventy-
two persons soon completed their work; and
from their number it was called the Septuagint
version, seventy being a round number. This
account is now generally rejected as fictitious.
By some learned men it has been supposed that
this was called the Septuagint, because it was
approved by the sanhedrim, or great council of
the Jews, who were seventy in number. But
whatever was the origin of its name, or the num
ber of its authors, their introduction of Coptic
words, as well as their rendering of ideas purely
Hebrew altogether in the Egyptian manner,
clearly prove that they were natives of Egypt.
The Pentateuch was probably executed during
the joint reigns of Ptolemy Lagus and his son
Philadelphus : it is allowed to have been trans
lated with great fidelity. Next to the Penta
teuch for ability of execution, are the Proverbs
and book of Job. Internal evidence proves that
Joshua was not translated until twenty years after
the death of Ptolemy Lagus. During the reign of
Ptolemy Philometer the books of Esther, Psalms,
and the Prophets were translated, with various
and inferior degrees of ability. The dates of the
Greek version of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and
Kings, are not known. The Septuagint version
was in great esteem among the Jews in the time
of Christ, and very many of the quotations in the
New Testament are made from it.
There are four principal editions of the Greek
Bible, or Septuagint version, from one or more
of which all subsequent editions have been copied,
viz., the Complutensian, the Aldine, the Vatican,
and the Oxford, or Dr. Grabe's edition. — 1. The
Complutensian edition was undertaken by the
divines of Complutum, or Alcala, in Spain, and
forms part of the Complutensian Polyglot de
scribed below. It bears the date of 1515. The
text was composed after several manuscripts,
which the editors have not described ; hence they
have been charged with having altered it in
various places, to make it harmonize with the
Hebrew, or rather with the Vulgate version, and
with having filled up the chasm in the Septu
agint from other Greek versions. This edition
has been copied in the Antwerp and Paris Poly
glots, also described below, in the editions
printed by the Commelines in 1586, 1599, and
1616, and in those executed by Walder in 1596,
and Ilutter in 1599. —2. The Aldine edition
appeared in 1518, two years after the death of
Aldus Manutius. The text of this edition was
formed from several ancient manuscripts. Bishop
Walton has pronounced it to be much purer
than that in the Complutensian Polyglot, to

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BIB
which it is actually prior in point of time— the
latter not being published before 1522, though
it bears the date of 1517. Bishop Marsh asserts
that it is interpolated in various places from
other Greek versions. The Aldine edition was
reprinted at Strasburg in 1526, at Basil in 1545,
at Frankfort in 1597, and at other places. —
3. The Vatican edition was published at Rome in
MDLXxxvi.,though commonly dated mdlxxxvii.,
the figure i having been subsequently added. Tbe
text of this edition was taken from the cele
brated Codex Vaticanus, 1209 (a manuscript of
the fifth century), with the exception of such
words as the editors regarded in the light of
errata; and the work was executed under the
direction of Cardinal Carafa and other learned
persons, at the expense of Pope Sixtus V. Copies
with the date of 1587 are of most frequent occur
rence. The Vatican edition has been reprinted
in Bishop Walton's Polyglot (described in a
subsequent section), and also in various other
forms. The editions most valued are — (1.) That
printed at Cambridge in 1665, with a learned
preface by Bishop Pearson. (2.) The edition pub
lished by Lambert Bos, at Franeker, in 1709,
with additional various readings. (3.) That of
Beineccius, at Halle, in 1730 (again in 1737),
also with additional various readings from the
Complutensian and Aldine editions, and from
the Alexandrian manuscript (4.) That of Oxford,
1817, in six volumes, with various readings
from the Alexandrian manuscript, to which is
prefixed a valuable introduction, extracted from
Carpzov's Critica Sacra. ( 5.) The Oxford edi
tion, in five volumes folio (1798-1827), begun
by the Rev. Dr. Holmes, was completed after his
decease by the Rev. James Parsons, B.D., with
various readings, the result of several years' col
lation, the expense of which was defrayed by a
noble subscription, promoted by the delegates of
the Clarendon press. The plan and execution
of this edition are highly commended by Bishop
Marsh. (6.) The edition executed at the press of
Mr. J. A. Valpy, London, 1819.— 4. The Oxford
edition, prepared by Dr. Grabe, has for its basis
the text of the celebrated Codex Alexandrinus,
a manuscript written at the close of the fourth
century, or early in the fifth century, and pre
served in the British Museum ; but where read
ings, which were believed to be genuine, were
found in the Vatican edition, or in other manu
scripts, such readings were adopted. Though
Dr. Grabe prepared the whole for the press, yet
he published only the first and fourth volumes
in 1707-1709, the second being edited by Dr.
Lee in 1719, and the third by Dr. Wigan in
1720. The text of Grabe's edition was accurately
and beautifully printed by Breitinger, in four
volumes quarto, at Zurich, 1730-1732. The
various readings of the Vatican edition are exhi
bited at the foot of the page. A splendid/oc-siroife
edition of the Old Testament of the Codex A lexan-
drinus was published by the Kev. Henry Hervey

BIB
Baber, M.A., one of the librarians of the British
Museum, at London, 1816-1828, 4 vols, folio.
Besides the Septuagint, there are several other
Greek versions of the Hebrew Scriptures, which
claim to be noticed in this article, particularly
those of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus. — ¦¦
1. Aquila was a Jewish proselyte, a native of
Sinope, in Pontus, who flourished in the second
century. His version is extremely literal. He is
said to have published two editions of it, the second
of which was preferred by the Jews as being most
exact 2. Theodotion was a native of Ephesus,
and nearly contemporary with Aquila. His ver
sion is more free than that of Aquila, and, in fact,
is a kind of revision of the Septuagint, made after
the original Hebrew. It supplies some defi
ciencies in the Septuagint; but where Theo
dotion translates without help, he evidently
shows himself to have been but indifferently
skilled in Hebrew. His version of the book
of Daniel was introduced into the Christian
churches, as being deemed more accurate than
that of the Septuagint. 3. Symmachus was an
Ebionite, or semi-Christian, who lived a few years
later than Theodotion, that is, about the year of
Christ 200. His version, though concise, is free
and paraphrastic, regarding the sense rather than
the words of the original. Besides the preced
ing Greek versions, there are three others,
usually called the fifth, sixth, and seventh ver
sions ; which derive their names from the order
in which Origen disposed them in the columns of
his hexaplar edition of the Bible. But their age
and authors being unknown, and they being in
themselves of little value, it is not necessary to
take any further notice of them in this place.
Syria being visited at a very early period by
the preachers of Christianity, several translations
of the Scriptures were made into the language of
that country. The most celebrated of these is
the Peschito, or Literal, as it is usually called,
on account of its very close adherence to the
Hebrew text, from which it was immediately
made, about the end of the first, or early in the
second century. To its general fidelity almost
every biblical critic of eminence bears unqualified
approbation. This version is printed in the
Polyglots of Paris and London. Historical
evidence concerning the Arabic versions does
not extend beyond the tenth century, when
Rabbi Saadias Gaon, a celebrated Jewish teacher
at Babylon, translated the Hebrew Bible into
Arabic. Of this translation, the Pentateuch
and Prophecies of Isaiah are all that have
hitherto been discovered and printed. There
are several other Arabic versions extant; but
not being very ancient, nor possessing much
critical authority, they are of little value. There
are several versions of the Bible in the Persian
language, but most of them are in manuscript
The Persian translation of the Pentateuch,
printed in the London Polyglot, was executed by
a Jew in the eleventh or twelfth century. The

BIB
language of ancient Egypt was divided into
three dialects— the Copt;c, or dialect of Lower
Egypt ; the Sahidic, or dialect of Upper Egpyt ;
aud the Bashmuric, which was spoken in
a province of the Delta. The Coptic ver
sion was made from the Septuagint, perhaps
in the second or third century, and certainly
before the seventh century. Of this version the
Pentateuch, book of Psalms, Minor Prophets,
and the New Testament, have been printed.
Of the Sahidic version, all that remain were
published by the Rev. Dr. Ford in his Appendix
to Dr. Woide's edition of the New Testament,
from the Alexandrian manuscript (Oxford, 1799,
folio). An edition of the fragments of the Bash
muric version was published by W. F. Eyel-
breth, at Copenhagen, in 1816, in quarto. The
Ethiopic version was also made from the Septu
agint, and (it is supposed) about the second or
third century. Of this version the Psalms and New
Testament have been printed. The Septuagint
was likewise the parent of the Armenian ver
sion, executed towards the close of the fourth, or
early in the fifth century, and of the Sclavonic,
or old Russian version, made in the ninth century.
The Armenian Bible was first printed at Amster
dam in 1666. The best critical edition is that
published by the Rev. Dr. Zohrab, at Venice,
in 1805. The Sclavonic Pentateuch was printed
at Prague in 1519, and the entire Bible in
1570. The Gothic version was executed from
the Septuagint by Ulphilas, a celebrated bishop
of the Mceso-Goths, about the middle of the
fourth century. Philostorgius (Hist. Eccl., lib.
ii., c. v.) asserts that Ulphilas omitted the books
of Kings, from an apprehension that the martial
spirit of his countrymen might be excited by the
relation of Jewish wars. But this assertion is
refuted by Cardinal Mai's discovery, in the
Ambrosian library at Milan, of some fragments
of the Gothic translation of these books.
It appears that the Latin or Western Church
possessed several Latin translations of the New
Testament, but only one version of the Old Testa
ment, which was made from the Greek. This
translation was generally received in the time of
Jerome, who, towards the close of the fourth
century, undertook a revision of it, at the request
of Pope Damasus. Of this version, only the
Psalms and book of Job have descended to our
time. In fact, these two books, with tbe
Chronicles, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song
of Solomon, were the only parts of it which
were ever published ; his manuscript version of
the other books of the Old Testament being
either secreted or destroyed by some person to
whom they were intrusted. This loss only
stimulated Jerome to fresh exertions ; and in
the year 405, he completed his translation from
the Hebrew, which he had commenced before he
had finished his revisal. This new version was
gradually introduced into the Western Church,
for fear of offending weak persons. At length it

BIB
received from Pope Gregory the Great, the
sanction of papal authority. Since that time,
with tbe exception of the Psalms (which, being
daily chanted to music in the church service,
made it difficult to introduce alterations in
them), Jerome's new translation from the He
brew has been exclusively adopted by the Church
of Rome, under the name of the Vulgate version ;
and a decree of the council of Trent, in the six
teenth century, pronounced it to be authentic;
and commanded that the Vulgate alone should
be used in all sermons, expositions, and dis
putations. Great confusion having arisen from
the incorrectness and numerous variations both
in the manuscripts and printed editions of this
version, Pope Sixtus V. caused a new and cor
rected edition (the proof sheets of which he him
self revised) to be published at Rome in 1590.
This he commanded to be received as authentic;
but it was found to be so extremely incorrect
that Clement VIII., his successor, suppressed
this edition, and published another authentic
edition, which differs materially from tbe Six-
tine edition, both in sense and words. The
Latin Vulgate version is allowed to be, upon
the whole, a faithful translation, though some
passages are mistranslated, in order to support
the peculiar dogmas of the Church of Rome.
The modern printed editions of it are very
numerous (Home's Introduction, vol. ii., part i.,
chap, iii., sect, iii., § 2-4; Le Long and Masch,
Bibliotheca Sacra, part ii.)
IV. Modern Versions qftheBible  The trans
lations of the Scriptures into the different modern
languages, which are spoken in the four quarters
of the globe, are so numerous that it is difficult
to obtain correct accounts of all of them. The
following tables, however, will exhibit at one
view tlie principal translations, together with
the dates when they appeared, the authors by
whom they were executed, and the names of the
places in which they were severally printed.
These tables have been drawn up from the
accounts of versions in Bishop Marsh's His
tory of Translations; Home's Introduction, vol.
v., part i., sect. vii. ; Missionary Societies'
Transactions; and Townley's Illustrations of
Biblical Literature, three volumes octavo. Of the
numerous versions therein noticed, the following
are the most important to the English reader: —
1. English Bibles. — Although it is impossible, at
this distance of time, to ascertain when, or by
whom, Christianity was first planted in this
island, as well as the earliest time when the
Scriptures were translated into the language of
the inhabitants ; yet we know that, for several
hundred years, they had part, at least, of the
sacred volume in their vernacular tongue. The
earliest version, of which we have any ac
count, is a translation of the Psalms into the
Saxon language, by Aldhelm, or Adhelme, the
first Bishop of Sherborne, about the year 706.
[I 'or continuation, seepage 93.]

89

TABLE I.
TRANSLATIONS IKTO THB LANGUAGES OF MODERN ETJEOPE.

Language.

Romaunt or Wai-)
densian (executed f
inthetwelfthcen-ftury)  J
English (executed I
aooutl380), ....f
Spanish (Valencian \
dialect of),  1
German, 
English, 
French, 
Swedish 
Danish 
Dutch, 
Italian, 
Spanish, 
Russian, 
Helvetian dialect, ....
Lower Saxon dialect,
Finnish 
Croatian, 
Basque 
.Welsh, 
Hungarian, 
Wendish, 
Icelandic, 
Pomeranian dialect, . .
Polish 
Bohemian, 
Modern Greek, 
Wallachian, 
Ditto, (revised)
edition),  j
Romanese 
Lithuanian, 
Turkish, 
Irish, 
Livonian, 
Esthonian, 
Esthonian, dialect of,
Dorpatian dialect ..
Orisons, 
Upper Lusatian, ....
Lapponic, 
Manx, 
Gaelic 
Portuguese, 
Italian, 
Spanish, 
Ditto, 
Ditto, 

Maltese, 
Samogitian, 
Judaao-Polish, 
Modern Russ 
Karelian (Gospel?
of Matthew), . . 5
Turko-Greek, 
Albanian, 
Catalonian, 
ModemGreek (New?
Version)  i
Modern Greek 
Spanish Basque, or(
Escuara,  1
Rommany, Gitono.l
orSpanishGipsey,)
Bulgarian, 

French (New Ver- 7
sion),  J

New Tes
tament, when
printed.

1848
(John)

1522 1526

15.14
1524

1556151915251513
15531571 1S671574

158516381G48

166611,02less1685 1686
17271706 1755
fl74S-7
J.63-67J 17i.7
("17127
J>8lj 1769

183918201820 1821
18^11820 18261S27
18321S30

(Luke) 1838
(Luke) 1838

1842
London

Bible, or
Old Testa-
ment.wlien printed.

1851

14781534
1535 1535
154115501560
15621569
1581 1529
15331G42

1598
1589 158415841583
15961593

1657 1660

16S5 I6S9-]

1719J17281772 1S02
1748-53 1783 1776
1793, 94
1S21

::}

1840

Thorlack 
Unknown, 
Several.Several, 
Maximus Calliergi, .
Unknown, 

Peter Waldo, probably,

JohnWiclif, 
Boniface Ferrer, .

Martin Luther, 
Tindal and Coverdale,
Robert Olivetan 
Olaus Petri, 
Palladius and others,

Antonio Bruccioli's revised (?)
Cassiodorua de Reyna, 
Cyril and Methodius 

Unknown, .

Theodosius,  _...,.
Unknown,  .. . .
S. B. Chylinsky, 
Lazarus Seaman, 
Dr. Daniel and Bishop Bedell,

Unknown, .

Several, 
Unknown, 
Bishops Wilson and Hildesley, ..
James Stewart and others, 
Ferreira d'Almeida (Romish), ..
Antonio Pereira (Romish), 
Antonio Martini (Romish), 
Padre Scio (Romish) 
("Bishop Torres Amat (Rom-)
I ish)  J
CT. Amat, revised by Rev. J. \
£ Lucena (Protestant),  f
fRev. W. Jowett, M.A., and*?
i, Signor Cannolo,  J

\T. Solomon,  ,
Russian Bible Society, ,

Dr. Evangelos Mexicos,
Mr. Prat, 

The Archimandrite Hilarion.
< Rev. H. D. Leeves, M.A., and?
I Professor Banbas,  J

f A corps of translators under
I the direction and supei-vi-
1 sion ofthe Rev. Dr. M. Lus-
[ combe and Rev. Dr. Matter,
90

;i

Place of Triming.

("London, edited by the Rev. W
t S. Gilly, D.D.
London.Valencia.
Wittemberg. Uncertain.
Geneva. Upsal, Sweden.
Copenhagen.Geneva, Frankfort or Basle.
Ostrog, " Zurich.
Lubeck.Stockholm.Tubingen.Rochelle.London.
Vienna,
L Wittemberg.
liolum, Iceland.
Barth.Cralitz, Moravia.
Geneva. ¦ Belgrade.
Schuol. London-
Oxford,London. fRiga,
I Ditto.
J Ditta
I Coire,
Bautzen. Stockholm.
London and Whitehaven.
Edinburgh.
Amsterdam and Batavia.
Lisbon.Turin.Madrid. Ditto.
London (for the Christian Know
ledge Society,).
Malta.
Petersburg.London.
Petersburg.

Corfu.London.

{"Smyrna (for British and
I Foreign Bible Society).
Paris (for the Christian Know*
ledge Society, London).

TABLE II.
TRANSLATIONS INTO THE LANGUAGES OP MODERN ASIA.

Language.

1. Arabic and its de
rivative languages.
Arabic,  ,

Pushtoo,  ,
Bulocha, 
2. Sanscrit and its de
rivative languages.
Sanserif, 
Sikh or Panjabee, ..

Kashmiree, 
Wutch or Multanee,
Guzarattee, 
Bikaneer, 
Kunkuna,  ,
Manmar,  ,
Oojuvinee, 
Bundelkundee, Nepaulese, 

Magudha or Pali,

Oordoo, .

Mauratta, .

Hindee, .

Hindonstanhee, ....
Bengalee, 
Orissa, 
Canarese 
TamuL 

Telinga or Teloogoo
Cingalese, 

Malay, 
Malay alim,
Chinese, ...

Burmese, 
4. Other Asiatic Ver
sions.
Borneo 

Formosan,.. 
Japanese, 
Tartar, 

Tartar or Mant-7
chew Tartar, J
Orenburg-Tartar,
Calmuc-Tartar, ..
Mongolian-Tartar,

New Testament, or De
tached Books thereof.

New Tes
tament.

1816
isi5

ISIS

IS08
1811 1819
18191819 18201819181818221822
18221822
1815-32

1807

1S12

11808-14
11801 18071S201715

11771-80
.1820 1G68
182-
r 1809-14
1 1811-1
C13-I6J 1817 &c.

4 Gospels, 1804,

4 Gospels, 1816,

f Gospel of 7
I Mark, 1812 j

("Matt and")
LJolin, 1661 j
John, 1844,

Matt., 1822,

J Matt, and?
iLuke, 1815 $

Bible, or Old Testament,
or Detached Boolts thereof.

Bible, or
Old Test.

180
1809

'1-51 -US

1731-33 1844
1815-21 615-20
1835

Detnched Books.

(Psalms andl
"1 Prov., 1830, j
Isaiah, 1836,
Gen. Lev., 1822,
 1

Pent., 1818,

SPent. and "1
Hist, books, ]
1812-15, .. I
{Pent. Hist. & f
Poet books, |
1806-12  J
Psalms, 1747,

rGen., Exod.,")
4 and Levit., >
t 1771-83, ..j

Psalter, 1815,
Pentateuch,

TN. Sabat and Rev. H,
I Martyn, B.D., ....
Lieut.-Col. Colebroke,
Rev. H. Martyn, 
Rev. Mr. Glen, 
Mirza Ibraham.

rJoiin Layden, M.D.7
J. and others, ....3

Baptist Missionaries, .

{Baptist and Wes
leyan Mission
aries, 
rRev. T. T. Thoma-
$ son and M. Da
6 Costa, 

Baptist Missionaries, .

{"Danish Missionary?
t Benjamin Sthultzj
Rev. H. Martyn, 

Baptist Missionaries, . .
Rev. W. Hands.
r Danish Missionar-T
3 ies, Zie*genbalg >
t and Schultz,  J
M. Des Granges, 
Fybrantz and Philipsz,
CMr. W. Tolfrey and
i. others, 

Rev. B. Bailey 
Rev. Dr. Marshman, ..
CRev. Dr. Morison,!
l& Rev. Mr. Milne, j
Baptist Missionaries, . .

Robert Junius, 
Rev. Mr. Gutzlow, —
C Edinburgh Society'!-
£ Missionaries,

Ditto,

Moravian Missionaries, '
f Two Mongolian chief- ^Petersburg.
(_ tains and others, .
[Continuation on next page.

Place of
Printing,

£ Calcutta.
Petersburg. f A strachan.
Serampore.

Colombo.Calcutta,Serampore-Halle.
Calcutta. Serampore.
Tranquebar.Vizagapatam. > Colombo.
(Amsterdam
land Batavia.
Cotym.
Serampore.Canton. Serampore. N"igel (Borneo)
Amsterdam.
Singapore. "" Karass and
A strachan.
A strachan.

91

TABLE II  Continued.

Language.

New Testament, or De
tached Books thereof.

Bible, or Old Testament,
or Detached Books thereof.

Author.

Place of
Printing.

New Tes
tament.

Detached Books.

Bible, or
Old Test.

Detached Books.

Tcheremissian, ....
Trans-Caucasian 7
Georgian, 
Otaheitean or Ta-1

1818-25 1828 ....{
1844-49 1844 1842
1832 1835

4 Gospels, 1821,
4 Gospels, 1821,
Matt, 1843,

17431838

("Rev. Messrs, Swan"?
I and Stellybrass, j
Russian Bible Society,
Basle Missionaries.

Petersburg.Petersburg. Moscow.Eimeo, Tar-itf,
and London
London. Honololu.
Samoa.
Tonga, Smyrna, Moscow.London.

r Missionaries of the j
-J London Mission- >
L ary Society, .... J
C Missionaries of the )
-! London Mission- >
I ary Society, .... J
American Missionaries
r Missionaries of the T
1 London Mission- £
L ary Society, .. .. 3
Wesleyan Missionaries
American Missionaries
r Missionaries of the 7
¦J Basle Missionary £
r Missionaries of the l
-? Church Mission- ?
C ary Society, .... j
Several Books,
1844,
54 Gospels,
I 1826-33.
Armenian (Modern),
Ararat, or Eastern"?
TABLE III.
TRANSLATIONS IKTO THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN AFRICA ANI) AMERICA.
African- Accra,
Language.
Bullom, ... 
Amharic (a dialect"?
of Abyssinia), .._$
Galla, 
Mandingo,
Namaque, .
Sichuana, .
Do. (Bassouto")
dialect;,  j
Catfre, 
American Indian-
Virginian, 
Delaware, 
Indian Massachus-'
sett,  ,
Chippeway, 
Mohawk,
Ditto, 
Esquimaux, ..
Greenlandish,
New Testament, or De
tached Books thereof.
1S22
1828-32
1832
1841
Bible, or Old Testament, or
Detached Books thereof.
Bible . or
Old Test.
(Matt and")
1 John, 1 844, j
Matt., 1816,
Matt, 1841,
r Matt, 1837,
< Matt, and \
CJoIto.ISS^J"
5" 1800-1
113-19J 1799
("3 Epist of 1
iJohn,1818,iI Gospel of 1
iJohn,1709,J
1G03
Detached Books.
Psalms, 1709,
Isaiah, 1839,
Rev.  Hanson.
Rev. G. R. Nylander,
M.Asselin deCherville,
Rev. J. L. Kxapf, ....
("Missionaries of Lon-
i don Miss. Society,
Missionaries, 
Rev. Mr. Schmelin, . .
Rev. Mr. Moffat, 
Rev. J. P. Pelissier, . .
CE. Casalis and other
(.French Missionaries,
VV esley anMissionaries,
Rev. John Eliot, 
C. F.Dencke, 
Experience May hew,
Messrs. Jones, 
Place of
Printing.
¦Rev. Mr. Freeman,
j Capt Brant, Capt.
. Norton, 
(Moravian Mission-
1 aries, 
Ditto, 
London.
Ankobar.
f London.
5 Cape Town,
("Graham's I Town.
j- Cape Town.
(Cambridge
< (New Eng-
( land).
New York.
f Boston (New
/England).York, U. C.
New York.
I London,
Copenhagen.
92
BIB

BIB

TABLE IU.— Continued.

Language.

New Testament, or De
tached Books thereof.

Bible, or Old Testament, or
Detached Books thereof.

Author,

Place of
Printing.

New Tes
tament.

Detached Books.

Bible, or
Old Test.

Detached Books.

West Indian—

17811829 1832 1825

Copenhagen.
London.
London(forthe Society for
promoting ChristianKnowledge).
Negro -Creolese, ....
Arawak (Guiana), ..
South America—
Rev. W. H. Brett, . .
Dr. Mora.
Dr. Pazos-Kanki.
C Matt, and 1
(John,18D0,j
Aimara, 
Luke, 1829,
A Saxon version of the four gospels was made
by Egbert, Bishop of Lindisfern, who died a.d.
721 ; and a few years after, the venerable Bede
translated the entire Bible into that language.
Nearly two hundred years after Bede, King
Alfred executed another translation of the
Psalms, either to supply the loss of Aldhelm's
(which is supposed to have perished in the
Danish wars), or to improve the plainness of
Bede's version. A Saxon, translation of the
Pentateuch, Joshua, part of the books of Kings,
Esther, and the apocryphal books of Judith and
the Maccabees, is also attributed to Elfric, who
was Archbishop of Canterbury, a.d. 995. A
chasm of several centuries ensued, during which
the Scriptures appear to have been buried in
oblivion, the general reading of them being pro
hibited by the papal see. The first English trans
lation of the Bible, known to be extant, was
made by an unknown individual, and is placed
by Archbishop Usher to the year 1290 ; of this
there are three manuscript copies preserved in
the Bodleian library, and in the libraries of
Christ's Church and Queen's Colleges, at Oxford.
Towards the close of the following century, John
de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley, in the county of
Gloucester, at the desire of his patron, Lord
Berkeley, is said to have translated the Old and
New Testaments into the English tongue ; but,
as no part of this work appears ever to have
been printed, the translation ascribed to him is
supposed to have been confined to a few texts,
which were painted on the walls of his patron's
chapel, at Berkeley castle, or which are scattered
in some parts of his works, several copies of
which are known to exist in manuscript. Nearly
contemporary with him was the celebrated John
Wiclif, or Wickliffe, rector of Loughborough in
Leicestershire; who, about the year 1380, with
the aid of various assistants, translated the
entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate into the
English language, as it was then spoken. A
revision of this version was made about the
year 1395, or it may be a little earlier, by John
Purvey, Wiclif's assistant or curate. A com
plete edition of Wiclif's translation and of Pur-
vey's revision was published in 1851, at the
expense of the delegates of the university press,
at Oxford, in parallel columns, in four volumes
quarto, under the joint editorship of the Kev.
Josiah Forshell, M.A., secretary, and of Sir
Frederick Madden, principal keeper of the manu
scripts of the British Museum, London. The
text of this edition is printed from manuscripts
in the British Museum and in the Bodleian
library at Oxford, collated with other manu
scripts preserved in various college libraries at
Oxford and Cambridge, and elsewhere. The
editors have prefixed a valuable dissertation, con
taining a history of Wiclif's translation, to
gether with a glossary of obsolete words. An
edition of the New Testament, according to
Wiclif's translation, was published at London,
in 1848, in octavo, from a contemporary manu
script in the possession of Lea Wilson, Esq.,
F.S.A. ; which was formerly in the library of
the monastery of Sion, Middlesex. The edition
of the New Testament published by the Eev.
John Lewis, M.A., at London, in 1731, in folio
(which has hitherto been considered as the
identical translation of Wiclif,) is now ascer
tained to have been taken from a manuscript of
Purvey's revision. It was re-edited in quarto, in
1810, by the Rev. H. H. Baber, M.A., one of
the librarians of the British Museum, who pre
fixed a memoir of Wiclif.
For the earliest printed edition of any part of
the Scriptures in English, we are indebted to
William Tindal ; who, having formed the design
of translating the New Testament from the ori
ginal Greek, removed to Hamburg for this purpose,
and thence to Cologne. Here, with the assistance
of the learned John Fry or Frith, and of William
Eoye, both of whom afterwards were martyrs for
the Keformation, he finished his important under
taking; and the English New Testament was
printed at Cologne in quarto, in 1526. From Co
logne Tindal proceeded to Worms, where, in the
same year, he completed what has hitherto been
usually called his first edition of the New Testa
ment. The whole of this impression, with the
exception, it is said, of a single copy, being
93
BIB
bought up and burnt by Tonstal, Bishop of
London, and Sir Thomas More, Tindal put
forth a new edition in 1527, and a third in
1528 ; and in 1531, his translation of the Pen
tateuch appeared at Marburg in Hesse, together
with another edition of his Testament. In the
same year he published an English version of
the prophet Jonah, with a prologue full of invec
tive against the Church of Rome. Strype sup
poses that, before his death, he finished the
whole Bible except the Apocrypha, which was
translated by John Rogers; but it seems more
probable that he translated only the historical
parts. On Tindal's return to Antwerp in 1531,
he was seized and imprisoned ; and, after a long
confinement, was put to death in 1536, at Ville-
vorde near Brussels, on the charge of heresy, being
first strangled, and his body afterwards reduced
to ashes. In 1535 the whole Bible translated
into English was printed in folio, and dedicated
to King Henry VIII. by Miles Coverdale, whom
Edward VI. afterwards promoted to the see of
Exeter. This was the first edition published by
royal authority. In 1537 another edition of the
English Bible was published by John Rogers,
the martyr: it is chiefly Tindal's and Cover-
dale's, somewhat altered, and appeared under
the assumed name of Thomas Matthewe. A
revised edition of this translation, corrected by
Cranmer and Coverdale, was printed at London
in 1539, by Grafton and Whitchurch, in very
large folio, which, from its size, is usually
denominated the Great Bible. No new version
was executed during the reign of Edward VI.,
though several editions were printed, both of the
Old and New Testaments. About the year
1550 Sir John Cheke translated the Gospel
according to St. Matthew and part of the first
chapter of the Gospel according to St. Mark,
which was first published in 1 843, by the Rev.
James Goodwin, B.D. Sir J. Cheke made
much use of the older versions, and aimed to
banish from his translation every word which
was derived from a Latin root. During the
reign of Queen Mary, Miles Coverdale, John
Knox, Christopher Goodman, and other exiles
who had taken refuge at Geneva, published
the book of Psalms there, in 1559, with mar
ginal notes ; and in the following year, the
whole Bible appeared, with summaries, mar
ginal notes, maps, and brief annotations. From
the place of publication, this is usually called
the Geneva Bible : it was highly esteemed by the
Puritans, and within the short space of fifty-six
years (from 1560 to 1616), numerous editions
were printed in various sizes, principally by the
king's printers. Eight years after the comple
tion of this translation, another new version was
published at London, with two prefaces by
Archbishop Parker: it is now generally termed
the Bishops' Bible, from the circumstance of eight
of the translators being bishops. This version
was used in the churches for forty years, though 94

BIB
the Geneva Bible was more read in private
houses. In the year 1682, the Romanists, find
ing it impossible to withhold the Scriptures any
longer from the common people, printed an
English New Testament at Rheims: it was
translated, not from the Greek, but from the
Latin Vulgate, and the editors (whose names are
not known) retained a multitude of words, of
Greek origin, untranslated and unexplained,
under the pretext of wanting proper and ade
quate English terms by which to render them ;
and thus contrived to render it unintelligible to
common readers. Two learned confutations of
the errors and mistranslations of this version
were published, one by Dr. William Fulke in
1617, and the other by Mr. Thomas Cartwright
in the following year. In 1609-10 an English
translation of the Old Testament was published
at Douay, in two volumes quarto, with annota
tions : this was also made from the Latin Vul
gate. This translation, with the Rhemish ver
sion of the New Testament above noticed, forms
the English Bible, which alone is used by the
Romanists of this country.
The last English version which remains to
be noticed, is the authorized translation now
in use, which is commonly called King James's
Bible. Shortly after his accession to the throne
in 1603, several objections being made to the
Bishops' Bible, at the conference held at Hamp
ton Court in the following year, the king com
manded that a new version should be under
taken, and fifty-four learned men were appointed
to this important labour; but, before it was
commenced, seven of the persons nominated were
either dead or had declined the task; for the
list, as given us by Fuller, (Church Hist.
book x., pp. 44-47) comprises only forty-
seven names. All of them, however, were pre
eminently distinguished for their piety, and for
their profound learning in the original languages
of the sacred writings ; and such of them as
survived till the commencement of the work
were divided into six classes. Ten were to meet
at Westminster, and to translate from the Pen
tateuch to the end of the second book of Kings.
Eight, assembled at Cambridge, were to finish
the rest of the historical books, and the Hagio
grapha. At Oxford, seven were to undertake
the four greater prophets, with the Lamentations
of Jeremiah, and the twelve minor prophets.
The four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and the
Apocalypse, were assigned to another company
of eight, also at Oxford ; and the epistles of
St. Paul, together with the remaining canonical
epistles, were allotted to another company of
seven, at Westminster. Lastly, another com
pany, at Cambridge, were to translate the
apocryphal books, including the Prayer of
Manasseh. Agreeably to the regulations given
to these six companies, each book passed the
scrutiny of all the translators successively. In '
the first instance, each individual translated

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every book, which was allotted to his division.
Secondly, the readings to be adopted were agreed
upon by the whole of that company assembled
together, at which meeting each translator must
have been solely occupied by his own version.
The book, thus finished, was sent to each of the
other companies to be again examined j and at
these meetings it probably was, as Selden informs
us, that " one read the translation, the rest hold
ing in their hands some Bible, either of the
learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian,
&c. If they found any fault, they spoke; if
not, he read on" (Table Talk, art. "Bible.")
Further, the translators were empowered to call
to their assistance any learned men, whose studies
enabled them to be serviceable, when an urgent
occasion of difficult}- presented itself. The trans
lation was commenced in the spring of 1607, and
the completion of it occupied almost three years.
At the expiration of that time, three copies of
the whole Bible, thus translated and revised,
were sent to London, — one from Oxford, one
from Cambridge, and a third from Westminster.
Here a committee of six — two being deputed by
the companies at Oxford, two by those at Cam
bridge, and two by those at Westminster — re
viewed and polished the whole work : which was
finally revised by Dr. Smith (afterwards Bishop
of Gloucester), who wrote the preface, and by
Dr. Bilson, Bishop of Winchester. This trans
lation of the Bible was first published in folio in
1611, and is that now universally adopted
wherever the English language is spoken. It
was printed by the king's printers, by whom
succeeding editions have continued to be printed ;
and the competition between them and the two
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, led to
the smuggling of Dutch editions into England,
between the years 1630 and 1660. Numerous
errors, and some of them, of great importance,
have been detected in the English and Dutch
copies of this date (DTsraeli's Curiosities of
Literature, second series, vol. iii., pp. 313-325.)
In 1683 this translation was corrected, and
many references to parallel texts were added by
Dr. Scattergood; and in 1701 a very fine
edition was published in large folio, under the
direction of Dr. Tenison, Archbishop of Canter
bury, with chronological dates, and an index by
Bishop Lloyd, and accurate tables of Scrip
ture weights and measures by Bishop Cumber
land: but this edition is said to abound with
typographical errors. The latest and most com
plete revision is that made by the Rev. Dr.
Blayney, under the direction of the vice-chan
cellor and delegates of the Clarendon press, at
Oxford. In this edition, which was printed
both in quarto and folio, in 1769, the punc
tuation was thoroughly revised; the words
printed in Italics were examined and cor
rected by the Hebrew and Greek originals ;
the proper names, to the etymology of which
allusions are made in the text, were translated

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and entered in the margin ; the summaries of
chapters and running titles at the top of each
page corrected; some material errors in tha
chronology rectified; and the marginal refer
ences were re-examined and corrected, and
thirty thousand four hundred and ninety-five
new references were inserted in the margin. From
the singular pains bestowed, in order to render
this edition as accurate as possible, it has hitherto-
been considered the standard edition, from which
all subsequent impressions have been executed.
Notwithstanding, however, the great labour and
attention bestowed by Dr. Blayney, his edition
must now yield the palm of accuracy to the very
beautiful and correct edition published by Messrs.
Eyre and Strahan, his majesty's printers; but
printed by Mr. Woodfall in 1806, and again in
1812 in "quarto, as not fewer than one hundred
and sixteen errors were discovered in collating
the edition of 1806 with Dr. Blayney's, and one
of these errors was an omission of considerable
importance. After the publication of the present
authorized translation, all the other versions
gradually fell into disuse, with the exception of
the Psalms and the epistles and gospels in the
Book of Common Prayer, which were still con
tinued — the former according to the translation
in Cranmer's Bible, and the latter according to
that of the Bishops' Bible, until the final revisal
of the Liturgy of the Church of England, at
which time the epistles and gospels were taken
from the present version; but the Psalms are
still retained according to the translation of
Cranmer's Bible. Upwards of two centuries have
elapsed since the authorized English version of
the Scriptures, now in use, was given to the
British nation. During that long interval, though
many passages in particular books have been ably
elucidated by learned men, yet its general fidelity,
perspicuity, and excellence, have deservedly given
our present translation a high and distinguished
place in the judgment of the Christian world,
wherever the English language is known or read.
It survived the convulsions both of church and
state during the great rebellion ; and it has
continued to be used not only by the Anglican
Church, but also by all the sects which have with
drawn from her, as well as in Scotland and in the
British Colonies. To its general accuracy, sim
plicity, and energy of style, the most accomplished
biblical scholars have borne willing and most
explicit testimonies ; and though it was virulently
assailed about thirty years since, with some sem
blance of learning, but with no real foundation,
by Mr. John Bellamy and Sir James Bland
Burges, their attacks were solidly and completely
refuted by the Rev. J. W. Whittaker in his
Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Interpre
tation of the Hebrew Scriptures (8vo, London,
1819), and Supplement (8vo, London, 1820); by
the Rev. H. J. Todd, in his Vindication of our
Authorized Translation and Translators of the
Bible, &c. (8vo, London, 1819); and in his Me-

95

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moirs ofthe Life and Writings of Bishop Walton
(2 vols., 8vo, London, 1821); and by the Rev.
Professor Lee, in A Letter to Mr. John Bellamy
(8vo, London, 1821). In fact, when the very few
real faults are considered, which the most minute
and scrupulous inquirers have been able to find
in the present translation, and when we perceive
the most distinguished critics of modern times
producing very discordant interpretations of the
same text or word, we cannot but call to mind,
with gratitude and admiration, the integrity,
wisdom, fidelity, and learning of the venerable
translators, of whose labours we are now reaping
the benefit; who, while their reverence for the
sacred Scriptures induced them to be as literal
as they could, to avoid obscurity, have been
extremely happy in the simplicity and dignity
of their expressions; and who, by their strict
adherence to the Hebrew idiom, have at once
enriched and adorned the English language.
2. Welsh Version. — Some portions ofthe Bible
are said to have been translated into the ancient
British or Welsh language before and during
the reign of Edward VI. ; but no efficient steps
were taken for supplying the inhabitants of the
principality of Wales with the Scriptures until
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In 1563 an act
of parliament was passed, commanding that the
Old and New Testaments, together with the
Book of Common Prayer, should be translated
into the Welsh tongue, and committed the direc
tion of the work to the Bishops of St. Asaph,
Bangor, St. David's, Llandaff, and Hereford.
In 1567 the New Testament was printed; but
the Old Testament did not appear until the year
1588. It was translated by Dr. William Morgan,
successively Bishop of Llandaff and St. Asapb,
who also revised the previous version of the New
Testament. During the reign of James I. the
Welsh version underwent a further examination
and correction from Dr. Parry, who succeeded
Bishop Morgan in the see of Llandaff. This
corrected version was printed at London in 1620,
and is the basis of all subsequent editions.
3. Irish Version. — The New Testament having
been translated into Irish by Dr. William Daniel,
Archbishop of Tuam, Dr. Bedell, who was ad
vanced to the see of Kilmore and Ardagh in
1629, procured the Old Testament to be tran
slated by a Mr. King, who, being ignorant of
the original languages, executed it from the Eng
lish version. Bishop Bedell therefore revised and
compared it with the Hebrew, the Septuagint,
and the Italian version of Diodati. He sup
ported Mr. King while engaged on his important
work ; and on the completion of the translation,
he would have printed it in his own house, and
at his own charge, if he had not been prevented
by the troubles in Ireland. The manuscript,
however, escaped the hands of the rebels, and
was subsequently printed in 1685, at the expense
of the Hon. Robert Boyle.
4. Manx Version. — Towards the close of

96

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his life, the truly venerable Bishop of Sodor
and Mann, Dr. Thomas Wilson, formed a plan
for translating the New Testament into the
Manx language. He procured the four gos
pels and the Acts of the Apostles to be trans
lated, but lived only to see the Gospel of
St. Matthew printed at his expense. His ex
emplary successor, Bishop Hildesley, caused
the manuscript to be revised, and procured
the translation of the New Testament to be
completed : this, by the munificent aid of the
venerable Society for Promoting Christian Know
ledge, and of some benevolent individuals, he was
enabled to print between the years 1756 and
1760. In 1763 he was encouraged, by the influx
of benefactions (obtained chiefly in consequence
of that society's applications), to undertake a
Manx version of the Old Testament, which was
completed only two days before his decease, on
the 30th of November, 1772. In the following
year, the entire Bible, together with the apocry
phal books, was printed at the expense of the
same society, which, in 1776, published another
edition of the New Testament. This version
has since been repeatedly printed.
5. Gaelic Version  The Society in Scotland for
Propagating Christian Knowledge has the honour
of giving to the inhabitants of the Highlands the
Holy Scriptures in the Gaelic dialect. The New
Testament was translated from the Greek by the
Rev. James Stuart, minister of Killin, and printed
at their expense in the year 1767. The several
books of the Old Testament were translated and
published in four detached portions or volumes,
viz., tbe prophetical books by the Rev. Dr.
Smith in 1783, and tbe remaining books by the
Rev. Dr. John Stuart, minister of Luss (son of the
translator of the New Testament), in three parts,
which appeared successively in the years 1783,
1787, and 1801. In 1807 a new and revised
edition of the whole Gaelic Bible was printed,
which, in 1816, received the approbation of the
General. Assembly of the Church of Scotland,
(Home's Introd., vol. ii. part i., vol. v., part i.,
sec. vii., § 3 ; Townley's Illustrations of Biblical
Literature, vol. iii.)
V. Polyglot Bibles. — Polyglot Bibles are edi
tions of the original text, accompanied with
versions of the Scriptures in several languages.
The honour of having first conceived the plan of
printing a Polyglot Bible is due to the celebrated
Aldus Manutius, the elder ; but of this projected
undertaking only one sheet was ever printed in
collateral columns of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
in the year 1501. In 1516 there was printed at
Genoa the Pentaglot Psalter of Agostino Gius-
tiniani, Bishop of Nebo : it was in Hebrew, Arabic,
Chaldee, Greek, and Latin, and was accompanied
by glosses and scholia. In 1518 John Potken
published the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
and Ethiopic, at Cologne. But the first poly
glot edition of the entire Bible is that usually
called the Complutensian Polyglot, from Alcala

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in Spain, the Latin name of which city is Com-
plutum. The printing of this celebrated work
was begun in 1502. Though completed in 1517,
it was not published until the year 1522, and
cost the munificent Cardinal Ximenes, prime
minister of Spain, the sum of fifty thousand
ducats. This polyglot is usually divided into
six parts or volumes. The first four comprise
the Old Testament, with the Hebrew, Latin, and
Greek, in three distiuct columns; the Chaldee
paraphrase being at the bottom of the page, with
a Latin interpretation, and the margin is filled
with Hebrew and Chaldee radicals. The fifth
volume contains the New Testament in Greek,
with the Latin Vulgate version, and interpreta
tions of the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek names
occurring therein ; and the sixth volume is filled
with various critical tracts. The impression was
limited to six hundred copies, three of which was
struck orf on vellum. One of these was deposited
in the royal library at Madrid, a second in the
royal library at Turin, and the third (which is
supposed to have belonged to the cardinal him
self), after passing through various hands, was
purchased at the sale of Signor Finelli's library
in 1789, for the Count M'Carthy of Toulouse,
for £483. On the sale of his library at Paris
in 1817, it was bought by George Hibbert,
Esq., for 16,100 francs, or £676 3s. 4d. sterling;
and on the sale of Mr. Hibbert's library in 1829,
it was sold for £525. Copies of the Complu
tensian Polyglot, on paper, are in the libraries
of the British Museum and Sion College, Lon
don, and also in several of the college libraries in
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
The Complutensian Polyglot was followed and
excelled by that printed at Antwerp by the emi
nent printer, Christopher Plantin, between the
years 1569 and 1572, in eight volumes folio: it
is commonly known by the appellation of the
Antwerp Polyglot, and sometimes as the Spanish
and Royal Polyglot, from being published under
the patronage of Philip IL, King of Spain. It
was printed in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Chal
dee ; and contains, besides the whole of the Com
plutensian Polyglot, a Chaldee paraphrase of part
of the Old Testament which Cardinal Ximenes
had deposited in the public library at Alcala, hav
ing particular reasons for not publishing it. This
edition has a Syriac version of the New Testa
ment, and the Latin version of Sanctes Pagninus,
as reformed by Arias Montanus, who was the
principal editor of this noble work. The first
five volumes contain the Old and New Testa
ments, in the languages above stated; and the
three last are filled with lexicons and grammars
of the various languages in which the Scriptures
are printed, together with indexes, and a treatise
on sacred antiquities. Of this polyglot, only
five hundred copies were printed; the greater
part of which being lost in a voyage to Spain,
complete sets of it are of rare occurrence. — The
Paris Polyglot, printed by Antoine Vitre be-

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tween the years 1628 and 1645, is in ten large
folio volumes, and is one of the most magnificent
works that ever issued from the press. It was
executed at the expense of M. Le Jay, who was
ruined by the undertaking; and contains all
that is inserted in the Complutensian and Ant
werp Polyglots, with several important addi
tions, particularly of the Samaritan Pentateuch
and its version. One great inconvenience in this
edition is, that the Samaritan, the Syriac, and
the Arabic, are not placed in parallel columns,
but occur in different volumes. It is also defec
tive, in having no critical apparatus or prolego
mena, nor any of the grammars and lexicons
which accompany the former polyglots  Though
less magnificent than the three preceding editions,
the London Polyglot is in all other respects pre
ferable, being more ample and more commodious.
It was published at London in 1657, in six folio
volumes, under the superintendence of Dr. Bryan
Walton, afterwards Bishop of Chester, assisted by
several learned men. The first volume contains
a very extensive critical apparatus (of which the
prolegomena, written by Bishop Walton, are a
treasure of sacred criticism), and also the Penta
teuch. The second and third volumes comprise
the books of the Old Testament ; the fourth has
the apocryphal books ; the fifth contains the
New Testament ; and the sixth is composed of
various readings and critical remarks. Nine
languages are used in this edition, though no one
book of the Bible is printed in so many. This
stupendous monument of learning and munifi
cence was commenced in 1653, and finished in
1657 ; and it was the first work ever printed in
England by subscription. The plan of it was
approved and encouraged by the exiled monarch,
Charles IL, and also by Oliver Cromwell ; the
latter allowed the paper to be imported duty free.
On the restoration of Charles II., Dr. Walton
presented the work to his majesty, and cancelled
two leaves of the preface, in which he had com
plimented Cromwell, for which others were sub
stituted, containing compliments to the king;
and to some copies he prefixed a dedication to
his majesty. From these circumstances, the
copies which have the original leaves are called
republican, while those which have the substituted
leaves are termed loyal copies: the former are
most valued. The variations between these two
editions are specified by Mr. Butler, in the first
volume of his Harm Biblical, and by Dr. A.
Clarke in his Bibliographical Dictionary. The
London Polyglot is not considered to be com
plete without the Lexicon Heptaglotton, published
by Dr. Edmund Castell at London, in 1669, in
two volumes folio. It contains a joint lexicon
ofthe Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Ethi-
opic, and Arabic languages, together with a
separate lexicon of the Persic, and brief gram
mars of the several tongues. It is perhaps the
greatest and most perfect undertaking of the
kind hitherto performed by human industry and
97 H

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learning. Dr. Castell (who was assisted by
several learned men) expended both his fortune
and his life in this immense undertaking  The
Leipzig Polyglot appeared irf 1760, in three
volumes folio. It was edited by Christian Rei-
neccius. The Old Testament is given in Hebrew,
Greek (from Dr. Grabe's edition of the Alexan
drian manuscript of the Septuagint), Latin, and
German. The Latin version is that of Sebastian
Schmidt, revised ; and tbe German version is that
of Martin Luther. It has marginal notes, and the
various readings of the Vatican and other manu
scripts. The New Testament is given in ancient
and modern Greek, together with the Syriac and
German versions. The New Testament was
previously published in 1713, and again (with
a new title) in 1747. — The great rarity and high
price of all former polyglots, which render them
inaccessible to the majority of biblical students,
induced Mr. Samuel Bagster, the publisher, to
undertake what may not improperly be called
the second London Polyglot Bible. The work
was commenced in 1816, and finished in 1823. It
is very beautifully printed in two sizes, quarto and
folio. The quarto edition comprises the Hebrew
text ofthe Old Testament, from Van der Hooght's
edition; the Samaritan Pentateuch, from Dr.
Kennicott's edition of the Hebrew Scriptures; the
Septuagint Greek version of the Old Testament,
from Bos's edition of the Roman or Vatican text ;
the Latin Vulgate ; and the authorized English
version. At the end of the Old Testament there
are given the various readings of the Hebrew
and Samaritan Pentateuchs, together with the
Masoretic notes, and the various lections of the
Alexandrian manuscript as edited by Dr. Grabe,
and the apocryphal chapters of the book of
Esther. The New Testament is given in Greek,
from Dr. Mill's edition, with the whole of the
important various readings from Griesbach's
edition, printed at Leipzig in 1805; and is fur
ther accompanied by the Peschito, or old Syriac
version, the Latin Vulgate, and the authorized
English version. The Syriac is given from Wid-
manstadt's edition (printed at Vienna in 1555),
collated with the accurate edition executed at
London in 1816, under the joint superintendence
of the Rev. Dr. Buchanan and the Rev. Dr.
Samuel Lee, successively Professors of Arabic
and of Hebrew in the university of Cambridge.
But the Apocalypse, and such of the epistles as
are not found in the old Syriac, are given from
the Philoxenian or new Syriac version. The text
of the Latin Vulgate version is taken from the
edition of Pope Clement VIII. The authorized
English version is accompanied with the mar
ginal renderings, and a new and useful selection of
parallel references. Ihe folio edition, besides the
languages above enumerated, contains versions
of the Scriptures in four modern languages, viz.,
German, by Martin Luther; Italian, by John
Diodati; French, by John Frederic Ostervald;
and Spanish (executed from the Latin Vulgate), 98

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by Philip Scio de San MigneT. Copies of fbc
several texts and versions of this polyglot edi
tion are also printed in detached small octavo
volumes. — In 1841 (and again inl846), the same
bookseller pnblished the English Hexapla, in
quarto, exhibiting the six most important Eng
lish translations, viz., of Purvey's revision of
Wiclif, of Tindal and Cranmer; the Genevan,
Anglo-Rbemish, and the authorized translation;
together with the Greek text of the New Tes
tament, after Dr. Scholz's critical edition (pub
lished at Leipzig in 1830-1836). Various read
ings are subjoined of the commonly received
Greek text, and the principal Constantinopo-
litan and Alexandrine manuscripts ; and also
a complete collection of Scholz's text, with
Griesbach's critical edition, published at Leip
zig in 1806. To the whole is prefixed an
historical account of the several English trans
lations (Home's Introduction, vol. v., part i.,
chap, i., sec. 5). — The preceding aTe the poly
glot editions of the entire Bible which are most
worthy of notice. Besides them there are nu
merous editions extant, in two or three lan
guages, called Diglots and Triglots, as well
as polyglot editions of particular parts of the
Scriptures. An account of these will be found
in the Biblioiheca Sacra of Le Long, edited by
Dr. Masch, and in Dr. A. Clarke's Bibliographi
cal Dictionary. — T. H. H.
[The preceding article, with the exception of
the part relating to the New Testament, was ori
ginally composed for the Encyclopaedia Metro
politan, by the Rev. T. H. Horne, B.D., and
has been carefully revised for the present work
by its venerable author].
Bibllcists or Bible Doctors, an appella
tion given by some writers of the Church of
Rome to those who profess to adhere to the
Holy Scriptures as the sole rule of faith and
practice. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the
Christian doctors were divided into two parties,
the Biblici, or Bible doctors, and the Scholastici.
The former interpreted the sacred volume in their
schools, though for the most part miserably;
they explained religious doctrines nakedly and
artlessly, without calling reason and philosophy
to their aid, and confirmed them by the testi
monies of Scripture and tradition. The latter,
or Scholastics, did nothing but explain the
Master of the Sentences, or Peter Lombard ; and
they brought all the doctrines of faith, as well as
the principles and precepts of practical religion,
under the dominion of philosophy. And as these
philosophical or scholastic theologians were
deemed superior to the others in acumen and
ingenuity, young men admired them, and listened
to them with the greatest attention; while the
Biblical doctors, or doctors of the sacred page
(as they were called), had very few, and some
times no pupils. Several persons of eminent
piety, and even some Roman pontiffs, in the

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thirteenth century, seriously admonished the
scholastic theologians, more especially those of
Paris, to teach the doctrines of salvation accord
ing to the Scriptures, with simplicity and purity ;
but their admonitions were fruitless. The Holy
Scriptures, together with those who studied them,
fell into neglect and contempt ; and the scholas
tic or schoolmen, who taught the scholastic
theology with all its trifling subtleties, prevailed
in all the colleges and universities of Europe,
down to the time of Luther (Mosheim's Eccl.
Hist, by Murdoch, book iii., cent, xii., part ii.,
ch. iii., sect. 8, and cent, xiii., part ii., ch. ii.,
sect. 7).
Bibliomane? (from /3i(3Ai'»v, a book, and
ftasTiix, divination), divination by books.
This mode of penetrating into futurity was
known to the ancients under the appellation of
Sortes Hornericae and Sortes Vigiliance. The
practice was, to take up the works of Homer or
Virgil, and to consider the first verse that pre
sented itself as a prognostication of future events.
Sometimes, however, they transcribed different
verses on separate scrolls, one of which they
drew, and acted upon accordingly. From pagan
ism, this superstitious practice was introduced
into Christianity in the fourth century; and the
Christians consulted the Bible for the same pur
pose. Whatever text presented itself, on dipping
into the Old or New Testament, was deemed to
be the answer of God himself. Absurd as this
practice was, it gained ground by the countenance
of some of the clergy, some of whom permitted
prayers to be said in the churches for this very
purpose. Others, however, laudably attempted
to suppress it : for, in the council of Vannes
(in Gaul), held a.d. 465, it was ordained, that
" whosoever, of the clergy or laity, should be
detected in the practice of this art, should be cast
out of the communion of the church." In 506
this decree was renewed by the council of Agde ;
and that of Auxerre, in 578, among other kinds
of divination, forbade the lots of the saints,
" Sortes Sanctorum," as they were called ; adding,
" Let all things be done in the name of the
Lord." But these ordinances gradually became
slighted ; for we find the practice again noticed
and condemned in a capitulary or edict issued by
Charlemagne in the year 793. In the twelfth
century this mode was adopted as a means of
discovering heretics. One Peter of Thonlouse
being accused of heresy, and having denied it
upon oath, a person who stood near took up the
gospels on which he had sworn, and opening them
suddenly, the first words he saw were those ad
dressed by the demoniac to Jesus Christ, "What
have we to do with thee, thou Jesus of Nazar
eth?" (Mark, i. 24). Bibliomancy was also prac
tised, not only in the common occurrences of life,
and by private individuals, but also by the highest
dignitaries of the Gallican Church, on the most
public occasions, and particularly on the election
of bishops. When a bishop was to be elected

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it was customary to appoint a fast, usually for
three days : afterwards, the Psalms, the epistles
of St. Paul, and the gospels, were placed on one
side of the altar, and small billets, with the
names ofthe candidates upon them, on the other.
A child, or some other person, then drew one of
the billets ; and the candidate whose name was
inscribed on it, was declared to be duly elected.
On one of these occasions, when the see of Or
leans was vacant, one Saint Euvert caused a
child to be brought that had not yet learned to
spell; he then directed the infant to take up one
of the billets. The child obeyed, and took up
one on which was written the name of Agnan,
who was proclaimed to be elected by the Lord.
But, for the more general satisfaction of the mul
titude, Euvert consulted the sacred volumes. On
opening the Psalms, he read, "Blessed is the
man whom thou choosest and causest to approach
unto thee, that he may dwell in thy courts"
(Psal. Ixv. 4). In the epistles of St. Paul he
found, " Other foundations can no man lay, than
that is laid, which is Jesus Christ" (1 Cor. iii.
11). And in the gospels he opened on the pas
sage, " Upon this rock will I build my church,
and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it"
(Matt. xvi. 18). These testimonies were ac
counted decisive in favour of Agnan ; all the
suffrages were united, and he was placed in the
episcopal chair of Orleans, amidst the acclama
tions of the people.
The practice of bibliomancy likewise obtained
in the Greek Church. A single instance, out of
many that might be given, will prove its existence
and injurious tendency. On the consecration of
Athanasius (who had been nominated to the
patriarchate of Constantinople by the Emperor
Constantine Porpbyrogenitus), the officiating
prelate, Caracalla, Archbishop of Nicomedia,
opened the gospels upon the words, " For the
devil and his angels" (Matt. xxv. 41). The
Bishop of Nice first saw them, and adroitly
turned over the leaf to another verse, which was
instantly read aloud, "The birds of the air
came and lodged in the branches thereof" (Matt.
xiii. 32). But as this passage appeared to be
irrelevant to so grave a ceremony, that which
had first presented itself became gradually
known to the public. In order to diminish the
unpleasant impression thus produced, the people
were reminded that, on a similar occasion, an
other Patriarch of Constantinople had accident
ally met with a circumstance equally inauspicious,
by opening on the words, "There shall be weep
ing and gnashing of teeth" (Matt. viii. 12); and
yet this patriarchate had been neither less happy
nor less tranquil than formerly.
Another kind of bibliomancy, not very dissi
milar from the Sortes Sanctorum of the Chris
tians, was the " Bath-kol," or daughter of the
voice, in use among the Jews. It consisted in
appealing to the very first words heard from any
one reading the Scriptures, and regarding them

99

BID
as a voice from heaven, directing the inquirers
in the affair concerning whieh they were inquir
ing. The following is an instance: — Rabbi
Acher, having committed many crimes, was led
into thirteen synagogues ; in each synagogue a
disciple was interrogated, and the verse he read
was examined. In the first school the following
words of the prophet Isaiah were read : " There
is no peace unto the wicked " (Isa. xlviii. 22) ;
in another, these words of the Psalmist : " Unto
the wicked, God saith, What hast thou to do to
declare my statutes, or that thou shouldest take
my covenant in thy mouth?" (Psal. 1. 16).
Similar sentences being heard in all the synago
gues against Acher, it was concluded that he was
hated by God ! (Basnage's Hist, of the Jews, p.
165). This species of divination received its
name from being supposed to succeed the oracular
voice delivered from the mercy seat, when God
was consulted by the Urim and Thummim
(Exod. xxviii. 30). It is a tradition among the
Jews that the Holy Spirit spoke to the Israelites,
during the tabernacle, by Urim and Thummim ;
under the first temple, by the prophets ; and under
the second temple, after the cessation of the
prophets, by the Bath-kol, (Lewis's Antiq. of
the Hebrew Republic, vol. i., p. 112-114; Pri
deaux, Connection, part ii., book v., sub anno
170 b.c.) Be that as it may, an old rabbinical
tract describes Bath-kol thus — " Bath-kol is
when a sound proceeds from heaven, and another
sound proceeds from it." Now, "kol" often signi
fies thunder — the voice; and "bath" is daughter
— the daughter of the voice may mean originally
the echo produced by a clap of thunder ; an omen
which each one might interpret as he was in
clined. Various forms cf bibliomancy have been prac
tised in this country. In former times the Bible
was consulted on New Year's Day with special
formality — each member of the house, before he
had partaken of food, walking up to it, opening
it, and placing his finger at random on a verse —
that verse declaring his fortune fbr the next
twelve months. The Bible, with a sixpence
inserted into the book of Ruth, was placed under
the pillows of young people, to give them dreams
of matrimonial divination. In some parts of
SBbtland the sick were fanned with the leaves of
the Bible, and a Bible was put under the head of
women after child-birth, and into the cradle of
new-born children. A Bible and key were some
times employed to detect a thief; nay, more than
all, a suspected witch was taken to church, and
weighed against the great church Bible. If she
outweighed the Bible, she was acquitted ; but if
the Bible outweighed her, she was condemned
(Brand's Popular Antiquities, iii. 22).
Bidding of the Bcade, a charge an
ciently given by the parish priest, requiring his
parishioners to come to prayers on some special
occasions. The custom is still retained in the
Church of England, in the notice given out on

100

BID
Sundays of days appointed to be kept holy fn
the ensuing week.
Bidding Prayer, the fifty-fifth canon of the
Church of England enjoins that " before all
sermons, lectures, and homilies, the preachers
and ministers shall move the people to join with
them in prayer in this form, or to this effect, as
briefly as conveniently they may : Ye shallpray
for Christ's holy Catholic Church, &c, especially
for the Churches of England, Scotland and
Ireland : and herein / require you most especially
to pray for the king's most excellent majesty,
&c. : Ye shall also pray for our gracious Queen
Anne, &c. : Ye shall also pray for the ministers
of God's holy Word, &c. : Ye shaU also pray for
the king's most honourable council, &c. : also,
ye shall pray for the whole commons of this
realm, &c." This form is known as the " bidding
prayer," or the " bidding of prayer ;" but it is
now rarely used — the practice of reading a
collect or some short prayer before sermon being
generally substituted for it. Bishop Burnet-in-
forms us that before the Reformation, when-the
priest had announced his text, he bade the
people to pray for the church, king, pope, &c,
in the same form as above, after which a general
silence for a few minutes ensued, during whicn
time the people repeated their prayers — counting
them upon their beads ; the priest also knelt
down and recited his prayers. The rising of the
priest was the signal for all to cease 'their devo
tions and give attention to the sermon.
The origin of " bidding prayer" may be thus
traced : — In the early ages of the Church it was
the duty of the deacons to act as monitors and
directors to the people in the exercise of their
public devotions; hence they adopted certain
forms of words to give the worshippers or hearers
notice when one part of the service had con
cluded and another was about to begin. Assoonas
the bishop had ended his sermon the deacon cried
aloud, " Let the hearers and unbelievers depart:"
he then called upon the catechumens to pray,
giving directions what they should pray for; in
like manner, he called upon the energumens
and penitents in their respective order, using the
solemn words of exhortation both to them and
to the people to pray for them. The catechu
mens being dismissed by the words " lie, missa
est," the deacon called upon the faithful to pray
for themselves and the whole state of Christ's
Church. The deacon's call to prayer was dis
tinguished from that of the bishop's, the latter
being a direct form of address to God, while the
deacon's address was to the people. — See Ora-
eium. In the Apostolical Constitutions there is
a form 'of " bidding prayer" which is ushered in
with these words : " Let no one of those that are
not allowed come near. As many as are be
lievers let us fall upon our knees. Let us pray to
God through his Christ. Let us all intensely
beseech God through his Christ." Then follows
the several calls and directions for prayer, at the

BIR
end of each of which the people answered,
" Lord have mercy upon them," or " Save them,
O God, and raise them up by thy mercy." At
the celebration of the communion, the duty of
deacon in directing the people's devotions, by
telling them for whom and for what they should
pray, was not to be neglected; for after the
prayer of consecration he commanded the people
to " pray that God would receive the gift that
was then offered to him, to his altar in heaven,
as a sweet smelling savour, by the mediation of
his Christ." At the close of the communion the
deacon again addressed the communicants thus :
" Now that we have received the precious body
and the precious blood of Christ, let us give
thanks to him that hath vouchsafed to make
them partakers of his holy mysteries, &c, &c."
Having concluded he bids them rise up and
commend themselves to God by Christ (Bing
ham's Origines, i. 293)  See Peayee.
Birrus (fiv^cs, tunica, coat), a name given to
the ordinary outside habit worn by Christians
in Africa in the time of St. Augustine. Bingham
has a very interesting section (book iv., sec. 19)
on this subject, in which he shows satisfactorily
that in those early ages, neither bishops, nor
presbyters were accustomed to wear any distin
guishing habit, but that which was common to
all Christians. When the council of Gangra
condemned the errors of Eustathius, who was so
enamoured of the monastic life as to teach that
those who lived in a married state were destitute
of all hope in God, the pallium, or philosophic
cloak, adopted by Eustathius, was not overlooked.
" If any man uses the pallium, or cloak, upon the
account of an ascetic life, and as if there were
some holiness in that, condemns those that with
reverence use the birrus, and other garments
that are commonly worn, let him be anathema."
Long after this we find the French clergy still
wearing the ordinary habit of the times, and not
one to distinguish them as clergymen ; and it is
well known that when some of those clergymen
who had formerly been monks, introduced the
ascetic cloak, Celestine, Bishop of Rome, wrote a
letter of reprimand, in which he asks, " Why
that habit (the cloak) was used by the French
churches when it had been the custom of so
many bishops for so many years to use the
common habit of the people?" In the course of
time, however, it became the practice of choosing
the clergy chiefly from among the monks and
ascetics, which gradually led to the general
adoption of the philosophic habit; but this was
not till the fifth or sixth century. — See Appaeel
OF MlSISTEItS.
Bishop, according to the episcopal form of
church government, the name of the third and
highest order of clergy. In this article we
shall speak historically only, and without re
ference to Scripture exegesis or polemical ar
gument (see Biblical Cyclopaedia). — See also
Episcopacy, Pbesbytekianism. Bishops are

BIS
found in a very early period of the Church, and
under a variety of names, indicative of their rank
or their duties. Thus we find them named apos
tles, as by Theodoret; inspectors (i'pojo*), as by
others ; successors of the apostles, as by Cyprian ;
presidents (o-josSom), as by Tertullian ; angels of
the churches, as by Socrates; chief priests, as by
Jerome; fathers (a/3/35), as by Cyril; patriarchs,
as by Gregory Nazianzen ; vicegerents of Christ,
as by Hilary ; and rulers of the church.
" Blessed"" or "most blessed," and "holy" or
"most holy," were epithets commonly applied to
them. The power of the bishops was great, and
their prerogative high. Not only originally did
they preach, but they confessed baptized persons,
ordained the clergy, and dedicated churches.
The government and discipline of the church
were committed to them, and the presbyters and
deacons were subject to them. Schools and
cloisters were under their superintendence, and
they presided of right in the synods of their dio
ceses. The revenues of the church were under
their full control ; marriage, divorce, and admin
istration of property came under their jurisdic
tion; and they granted letters of credence to
persons about to travel.
Bishops seem to have worn no distinctive
badge or dress till about the fourth century. But
after that their official costume consisted of " the
mitra, or infula; sometimes called ' ffr'iQavos,'
corona, crown; '*;'£«{«,' diadema; or 'rmga,'
tiara — Pallium, the pall (wpotpogtov, hga trroXi],
or superhumerale, pectorale) or ephod which was
often used to denote the person or office of a
bishop, especially in the disputes of the Middle
Ages, being a cloth of white linen, without
seam (nullis acubus perforata), hanging down
over the shoulders ; but afterwards made of wool,
and marked with crosses, of a purple colour, be
fore the eighth century— Gloves, worn when per
forming any sacred office — Sandals, after the
seventh and eighth centuries we find them express
ly mentioned as an episcopal badge — Caligm, or
military boots, usually of a red or a violet colour
— A ring (annulus), signifying the espousal of the
bishop to his church ; called accordingly annulus
sponsalitius, or annulus pronubus ; annulus pa-
latii — The pastoral staff (bixavixtov, pedum),
which varied a Uttle in form, but was usually
bent, or crooked, at the top — The cross, either a
cross of wood or gold, worn on the breast, and
hanging from the neck, called by the Greeks to
r-,^l'/.y.fj.a, or to iyxoXxtov, by the Latins crux
collaria, or carried by bishops in their hand during
processions or other solemnities, and hence called
crux gestaloria. For a long period the Roman
bishops claimed, as their privilege, the '¦jus cru-
cem ante se gestandi,' — right of carrying a cross
before them. In the twelfth century this right
was allowed to all metropolitans and patriarchs ;
and from the time of Gregory IX. it has been
granted to all archbishops."— Siegel, Augusti,
Riddle.

101

BIS
The elections of bishoprics were purely popular
for the first three centuries : in the fourth and fifth
centuries the emperors began to interfere, owing
to the great tumults which frequently took
place. At the council at Aries, 452, a canon
was made which directed the bishops to choose
three candidates for the vacant chair, out of
whom the clergy and people might select one.
And by other laws, the clergy and people, on the
contrary, were directed to choose three, out of
whom the bishops selected one by lot: this was
the rule in the Spanish Church at the time of
the council of Barcelona, a.d. 599. Justinian,
also, in his Novel. (123, u. 1), directed that the
clergy and chief men should choose three, and
the ordaining bishop select one of them. During
the breaking up of the Roman empire, the con
sent of the Gothic kings in France and Spain
began to be asked, by way of compliment, which
originated the custom of more modern times,
which has given the entire nomination to the
king. The age at which persons are qualified to
be made bishops in the English Church is thirty :
in the council of Agde, 506, we find the first dis
tinct limitation of the age to be thiry years ; but
it is manifest from the accounts given by Euse
bius, Ambrose, Socrates, and Theodoret, of the
ordination of several eminent persons at an ear
lier period, that the rule was in their time not
observed. In the present age the bishops are
always selected from the presbyters, and such
was the general custom as early as Cyprian's
time; but instances are met with of deacons
made bishops, as Theodoret and Epiphanius re
port of Athanasius; and what will appear yet
more strange, of laymen at once raised to the
episcopal chair, as Paulinus and all the his
torians relate of Ambrose, Socrates, Sozomen of
Nectarius, and Pontius of Cyprian. Nazianzen
also relates that Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea,
was only a catechumen when elected. In the
third and fourth centuries the bishops had the
disposal of the revenues of the Church : so things
remained until the time of Justinian, a.d. 500,
when began the practice of endowing particular
churches with lands — a custom which, as it in
creased the power of the clergy as a body, tended
much to diminish the authority of bishops, by
rendering the clergy independent of the bishops'
support. Three bishops were required by the
most ancient canons to concur in the act of con
secration of a bishop — a custom still preserved
in the Anglican Church — the bishop elect being
presented to the presiding bishop by two others.
The office being one of high honour, was often
aspired to during the Middle Ages, merely for its
dignity and revenue. The Keformation altered
this state of things, and bishoprics were abolished
in Germany. The name, however, is still re
tained in Sweden, and the bishops are one of the
estates of the realm, but their power is very
limited. Several persons bear the same title in
Prussia, but without any jurisdiction.

102

BIS
In the Church of Rome the right of elect
ing bishops belongs to the pope. Titular
bishops are common in the Church of Rome,
whose office is named after dioceses no longer
in existence — episcopi in partibus infidelium.
The title was first given to bishops whose pro
vinces had been conquered and wasted away
by the Saracens. Most, if not all of the popish
bishops in Scotland are titulars  See Chore
piscopus; England, Church of; Scotland,
Episcopal Church in.
The Church of England is governed by
bishops. The form of election is this:— When
a see is vacant, the dean and chapter no
tify the vacancy to the queen in chancery, and
crave leave to make an election. The queen
grants them leave to choose — conge d'elwe — the
person whom, by letters missive, she has already
appointed. Within twenty-six days they pro
ceed to the election, and notify it under their
seal to the queen, the archbishop, and the bishop
elect. The archbishop subscribes it, fiat confir-
matio, and grants the requisite commission. A
proclamation is then made, that all who oppose
the election may appear — the citation being af
fixed to the door of Bow Church. Other por
tions of summons and proof are gone through,
and the bishop elect takes the oath of suprem
acy, and that against simony. Consecration
follows, and is performed with imposition of
hands by the archbishop, according to the forms
prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer.
The bishops of England are,, by virtue of their
bishoprics, lords of parliament, and form part of
one of the three estates of parliament, under the
name of the lords spiritual. They sit in the
Upper Honse, as holding, or being supposed to
hold, baronies of the king ; for William the Con
queror changed the spiritual tenure of frank al
moin, or free alms, under which the bishops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into
the feudal or Norman tenure by barony, which
subjected their estates to all civil charges and
assessment, from which they were before exempt ;
andi n right of succession to those baronies, which
were unalienable from their respective dignities,
the bishops and abbots were allowed their seats
in the House of Lords. The new Bishops of
Ripon and Manchester have no baronies, and the
Bishop of Sodor and Man has no seat. Bishops
take rank next to viscounts. A difference, how
ever, exists in the privileges of the bishops, as re
spects their being tried by their peers upon in
dictment for treason, or felony, or misprision of
either, and sitting upon such trials in the court
of the Lord High Steward : from this privilege
they are excluded on the ground of not being
noble in blood. Custom has also practically ex
cluded them from sitting on trials for capital
offences, upon impeachments or indictments in
full parliament. They have usually withdrawn
voluntarily in such cases, but have entered a pro
test, expressing their right to stay.

BIS
The Archbishop of Canterbury is styled Me-
tropolitanus et Pnmus totius Anglios. The Arch-
bi.-hop of York, Primus et Metropolitanus Anglias.
They are called metropolitan because they were
at first consecrated in the metropolis of their pro
vince. The Archbishop of Canterbury has pre
cedence of all the nobility of the realm, im
mediately after the blood royal ; he has also the
privilege of crowning the King of England, and
has prelates for his officers. The Bishop of
London is his provincial dean; the Bishop of
Winchester, his chancellor ; the Bishop of Lin
coln, his vice-chancellor; the Bishop of Salisbury,
his precentor; the Bishop of Worcester, his chap
lain. He has the power of dispensation in any
case not contrary to the law of God ; and on this
right is founded his power of granting special
licenses to marry at any time or place, to hold
two livings and the like, and also his power of
conferring any degrees in prejudice of the univer
sities. The Archbishop of York is next in pre
cedence : he has precedence before all dukes not
ofthe blood royal, and before all the great offi
cers of state, except the Lord Chancellor. He
has the privilege to crown the Queen Consort.
and to be her perpetual chaplain. The Bishop of
Durham is next, the Bishop of Winchester next,
the remainder according to their seniority of con
secration. If any be a privy councillor, he ranks
after the Bishop of Durham, but the junior bishop,
unless he be of London, Winchester, or Durham
has no seat in the House of Peers.
A Suffragan is a titular bishop advanced to
assist the bishop of any diocese in his spiritual
function ; or one who supplies the place of the
bishop, so that by his suffrage, matters com
mitted to him are determined. Thev are regu
lated by an act of Henry VII. (26 Hen. VIII.
c. 14). By this act every bishop at his pleasure
may present two honest and discreet spiritual
persons within his diocese to the king, that
he may give one of them the title, style, and
dignity of any of the following sees: — Thet-
ford, Ipswich, Colchester, Dover, Guildford,
Southampton, Taunton, Shaftsbury, Molton,
Marlborough, Bradford, Leicester, Gloucester,
Shrewsbury, Bristol, Penrith, Bridgewater, Not
tingham, Grantham, Hull, Huntingdon, Cam
bridge, Berwick, St. Germain, and the Isle of
Wight. In Ireland there were four archbishops : Ar
magh, primate of all Ireland ; Dublin, primate
of Ireland ; Cashel, primate of Munster ; Tuam,
primate of Connaught. And eighteen bishops :
Meath, Kildare, Derry, Raphoe, Limerick, Ard-
fert and Aghadoe, Dromore, Elphin, Down and
Connor, Waterford and Lismore, Leighlin and
Ferns, Cloyne, Cork, and Ross, Killaloe and
Kilfenora, Kilmore, Clogher, Ossory, Killala
and Acherilly, Clonfert and Kilmacduagh. By
an act (18 Car. i., c. 10), a bishopric in Ireland
is declared incompatible with any ecclesiastical
.dignity or benefice in England or Wales. But

BLO
by an act passed in the reign of William IV.,
and another in that of Victoria, the following
charges were ordained :— The archi-episcopal
diocese of Tuam was to be united to that of
Armagh, and that of Cashel to Dublin ; but the
two suppressed archbishoprics were in future to
be bishoprics. The diocese of Dromore was to be
united to that of Down and Connor; that of
Raphoe to Derry ; Clogher to Armagh; Elphin
to Kilmore ; Killala and Achonry to Tuam and
Ardagh ; Clonfert and Kilmacduagh to Killaloe
and Kilfenora ; Kildare to Dublin and Glande-
lagh; Leighlin and Ferns to Ossory; Water
ford and Lismore to Cashel and Emly; Cork
and Ross to Cloyne. The diocese of Meath and
Clonmacnoise, and that of Limerick, remain unal
tered. The archbishoprics were to be reduced to
two, and the bishoprics to ten. One archbishop
and three bishops represent the Irish Church in
the House of Lords. They are changed even-
session, and the system of rotation by which ail
sit in turn is regulated by 3 William IV. c. 37
(s. 51). The two archbishops sit in each session
alternately. — See Episcopacy.
Bishop's Bible. — See Bible, p. 95.
Blasphemy (QXaripnfcia, to speak against
one, to detract), though generally applied to irre
verent and daring language uttered against God
or his divine attributes, is found also in Scripture
applied to reproachful language uttered by one
man against another (see Rom. xiv. 16; 1 Pet.
iv. 4, in the original). Blasphemy " against
God " was a capital offence, according to the law
of Moses ; the blasphemer was to be taken with
out the camp or city, and stoned (Lev. xxiv.
12-16). Whoever heard another blaspheme was
bound to make it known in the proper quarter, so
that the offender might come to condign punish
ment. Under tlie theocracy, blasphemy was iden
tical with treason. The early Christians distin
guished blasphemy into three classes — 1st, That of
lapsers or apostates — those driven by the persecu
tion of the heathen to deny and curse Christ ; 2d,
That of heretics or profane professors — they who
had adopted and taught unscriptural doctrines,
or indulged in the use of profane language ; 3d,
The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, con
cerning the nature of wbich they were not all
agreed (see Biblical Cyclopaedia). In England
blasphemy is punishable at common law by fine
and imprisonment. In Scotland, by 21st cap.
part i., car. ii., it was punishable by death ; but
this extreme penalty is not now enforced. A
student, of eighteen years of age, named Thomas
Aikenhead, was executed at Edinburgh for blas
phemy, in 1697 (Macaulay's History, vol. iv.,
p. 781). — See Penal Laws.
Blood, Eating of, in the first three centuries
after Christ was generally forbidden, or, at least,
it was the custom to abstain from eating it ; and
clergymen convicted of having violated the rule
which forbade its use, were degraded. — See Ab
stinence.

103

BOA
Boards, Sacred, small pieces of wood which
were struck together, to assemble Christians for
worship, prior to the use of bells. In popish
countries such boards are employed during the
solemnities of Passion week, and bells are rung
again when Easter returns.
Bogomiles, a sect which appeared in the
Greek empire in the year 1116, said to have
sprung from the Massalians, and to have blended
with their fanatical opinions more or less of the
Paulieian or Manichsean tenets. Their name, as
interpreted by the Greek historians, meant call
ing for mercy from above — "bog" — God, "mihi"
— have mercy; but it is rather equivalent to
friends of God. They seem to have been a kind
of ascetics and rationalists — denying all mys
teries, rejecting all sacraments, condemning
marriage, and scorning a resurrection. Their
leader Basilius was burnt as a heretic at Con
stantinople by Alexius Comnenus. But the sect
maintained their ground for many years after his
death, especially in the neighbourhood of Philip-
popolis. Bohemian Brethren, a sect in Bohemia
that sprang out of the remains of the Hussites,
towards the middle of the fifteenth century. The
Calixtines had become the ruling party in the
country, by making several compromises with
Popery ; and the " Brethren" refused to accept
the compact which that party had made with
the council of Basle, 1433. Their own name was
that of " Brothers," or " Brothers' Union." In the
midst of many hardships, inflicted on them both
by Calixtines and Catholics, they rapidly grew
and multiplied, so that in 1500 they possessed
two hundred parishes. They professed to be
guided by the Holy Scriptures, and they rejected
popish sacramental errors. They divided their
members into three grades — the beginners, the
proficient, and the perfect — and over all of them
there was a minute and constant superintendence
made by the office-bearers, who were divided into
bishops, presbyters, deacons, cediles, and aco
lytes. In their theology they were in general
Calvinistic ; and they gained the approbation of
Luther and the reformers, with whom they held
some correspondence by letter and by deputation.
The Brethren, however, would not go into mili
tary service, and suffered for their refusal. Fer
dinand deprived them of their place of worship,
because they would not fight against the Pro
testants in the Smalcaldic war. A thousand of
them retired into Poland, where they obtained and
enjoyed toleration, and allied themselves with
the Calvinists; while the remnant left behind
had their principal residence at Fulneck, in
Moravia, and came to be known as Moravian
Brethren. Various other changes passed over
them, and they were often persecuted and dis
persed, till Count Zinzendorf re-organized the
society. The Bohemian Brethren have been
sometimes confounded with the Waldenses ;
and, indeed, it was a Waldensian bishop who

BOU
ordained their first bishop. — See MoeAVIAK
Bkethken. Bollandists, an association of Jesuits at
Antwerp, who were engaged for many years in
publishing the stupendous collection known by
the name of Acta Sanctorum. This work was
originally projected, and some materials for it
were prepared by Heribert Rosweyde; but he
died before any part of it was ready for the press ;
and it was then taken up by John Bolland, who
published the first two volumes in 1643. Many,
editors in succession have proceeded with the
laborious task. — See Acts' of the Maktyes.
Boohs of Sports. — See Sports.
Borrelists, named after their founder, Borrells
a kind of quaker sect in Holland, rejecting prayer,
the sacraments, and all forms of external worship,
professing to be apostolical in their purity, and
branding all the churches around them as being
degenerate in constitution and character.
Boskoi (fiiirxot, graziers), an order of fanatic
monks, who in the early ages of the Church arose
in Syria and Mesopotamia. They lived upon
mountains, refused dwelling in houses, and
would not eat bread nor drink wine ; but when
fatigued from their religious duties of singing
and pra3-er, they each went forth with knife in
hand to cut down or dig up such herbs as were
in their opinion fit for food ; hence their name
graziers. They soon fell into disorder, and
eventually became extinct.
Bounty, Queen Anne's, a fund created for
the augmentation of small livings — under £50
per annum — by the appropriation of the revenue
arising from the tenths or first-fruits formerly
paid to the pope, but transferred to the sovereign
in the reign of Henry VIII. Queen Anne had
these profits vested in trustees for the benefit of
the Church in the manner stated above. — See
Disme, First-fruits.
Bonrignonians, followers of Antoinette
Bourignon de la Porte, a famous Flemish mystic,
believed by some to have been partially insane,
and by others to have been an inspired prophetess.
She was born at Lisle, in 1616, and died at
Frankfort in 1680. The lady was exceedingly
deformed in person, but had an ardent tempera
ment, and wild imagination. Many extraordi
nary tenets were broached by her. Her theology
was in every way crude and inconsistent; and reli
gion consisted, according to her, " in an internal
motion or sensation, and neither in knowledge
nor practice." Peter Poiret reduced her reveries
to a kind of system in his Divine Economy. Her
reveries gained many disciples in Scotland —
more, it is said, than in any other country. Dr.
Gordon of Aberdeen propounded her hallucina
tions in Scotland, and with some results, for he was
deposed by the General Assembly in 1701. A
good account of Bourignonianism is found in the
Assembly's condemnation of it ; such as, 1. The
denying the permission of sin, and the inflicting
of vengeance and damnation for it. 2. The atui-

104

BOW
huting to Christ a twofold human nature, one of
which was produced of Adam before the woman
was formed ; the other, born of the Virgin Mary.
3. The denying tbe decrees of election and repro
bation, and the loading these acts of grace and
sovereignty with a multitude of odious and
blasphemous aspersions, particularly wickedness,
cruelty, and respect of persons. 4. That there
is a good spirit and an evil spirit in the souls of
all men before they are born. 5. That the will
of man is unlimited ; and that there must be iu
man some infinite quality whereby he may unite
himself to God. 6. The denying of the doctrine
of divine prescience. 7. The asserting of the
sinful corruption of Christ's human nature, and
rebellion in Christ's natural will to the will of
God. And, 8. The asserting a state of perfec
tion in this life, and a state of putrefaction in the
life to come ; that generation takes place in
heaven ; and that there are no true Christians in
the world.
Bowing towards the East, a practice or
ceremony of general use in the early Christian
churches. Its origin is thus stated : — The sun
being a symbol of Christ, the place of its ris
ing was a fitting though imaginary represen
tation of heaven, whence Christ descended, and
to which he ascended in glory as the mediator
between God and man. The heathens charged
the Christians with worshipping the rising sun ;
but St. Augustine repudiates such an idea, when
he says, " We turn to the east, whence the
heavens, or the light of heaven arises, not as if
God was only there, and had forsaken all other
parts of the world, but to put ourselves in mind
of turning to a more excellent nature, that is, to
the Lord." Turning to the east, as a symbol
of turning to God, has reference to some of the
ceremonies connected with baptism in ancient
times. When the persons to be baptized entered
the baptistery, where they were to make their
renunciation of Satan and their confessions of
faith, they were placed with their faces towards
the west, and commanded to renounce Satan
with some gesture or rite ; this they did by
striking their hands together as a token of ab
horrence, by stretching out their hands against
him, by exsufnation, and by spitting at him as
if he were present. They were then turned
round to the east, and desired to lift up their
hands and eyes to heaven, and enter into cove
nant with Christ, the Sun of Righteousness.
"The west," says Cyril of Jerusalem, "is the
place of darkness, and Satan is darkness, and
his strength is in darkness. For this reason
ye symbolically look towards the west when ye
renounce that prince of darkness and horror.'
To this we add from St. Jerome, " First we re
nounce him that is in the west, who dies to us
with our sins ; and then, turning about to the
east, we make a covenant with the Sun of
Righteousness, and promise to be his servants."
Bowing toward the east is practised in those 105

BOY
churches of the establishment where the congre
gations are instructed to turn their faces in that
direction at the recital of the creed. This cus
tom, which had become nearly obsolete, is beinf
revived in many quarters, by those clergymen
who advocate a return to most of the ecclesias
tical usages which obtained in the Anglican
Church during the infancy of the Reformation.
A strong repugnance to the revival of this or
any other custom supposed to savour of " popish
superstition," is, however, generally cherished
and expressed by the laity of the Church of
England. Boy Bishop, the principal person in an ex
traordinary sacred frolic of the Middle Ages, and
down to the period of the Reformation. On St.
Nicholas' Day, the 6th of December, the boys
forming the choir in cathedral churches elected
one of their number to the honour of bishop,
and robes and episcopal symbols were provided for
him, while tbe other boys, assuming the dress of
priests, took possession of the church, and went
through all the ecclesiastical ceremonies but
that of mass. This strange reversal of power
lasted till Innocents' Day, the 28th of the same
month. In Sarum, on the eve of that day, the
boy went through a splendid caricature of pro
cessions, chantings, and other festive ceremonies.
Dean Colet, in his statutes for St. Paul's School,
London, ordains that the boys should come to
St. Paul's Church and hear the "chylde"
bishop's sermon, and each of them present him
with a penny. By a proclamation of Henry
VIII., 1 542, this show was abolished ; but it was
revived under Mary, and in 1556, the boy bishops
still maintained some popularity. The similar
scenes in France were yet more extravagant, and
often indecent. The council of Paris, in 1212,
interdicted the pastime, and the theological
faculty of the same city, in 1414, make loud
complaints of the continuance of the diversion.
In Scotland similar saturnalia also prevailed, as
Scott has described in his Abbot, connected with
" those jocular personages, the pope of fools, the
boy-bishop, and the abbot of unreason." This
custom is supposed to have given rise to the
ceremony of the Montem at Eton. Bishop Hall,
in his Triumphs of Rome, says, " What merry
work it was here in the days of our holy fathers
(and I know not whether, in some places, it may
not be so still), that upon St. Nicholas, St.
Katherine, St. Clement, and Holy Innocents'
Day, children were wont to be arrayed in
chimers, rochets, surplices, to counterfeit bishops
and priests, and to be led, with songs and
dances, from house to house, blessing the people,
who stood grinning in the way to expect that
ridiculous benediction. Yea, that boys in that
holy sport were wont to sing masses, and to
climb into the pulpit to preach (no doubt
learnedly and edifyingly) to the simple auditory.
And this was so really done, tbat in the cathed
ral church of Salisbury (unless it be lately de-

BOY
faced) there is a perfect monument of one of
these boy-bishops (who died in the time of his
young pontificality), accoutred in his episcopal
robes, still to be seen."
Boyle's Lecture, a course of eight sermons
preached under the will of the Hon. Robert
Boyle in 1691. His purposewas to prove the truth
of Christianity against infidels, and to answer
new difficulties, without entering into controver
sies existing among Christians. The clergyman
is to be some learned divine within the bills of
mortality. Burnet published an abridgment of
many of the sermons, in four volumes, 1765.
Brandeum, the cloth in which the body of
a saint has been wrapped, which is frequently cut
up, and the pieces distributed as relics.
Bread. — The quality and form of the bread
to be employed in the administration of the
Lord's Supper, have been the subject of much
controversy in the Church. The general practice,
till at least the beginning of the eighth century,
was to use common bread. But there is some
reason to suppose that in the ninth century, from
the desire naturally felt to make as much dis
tinction as possible between that which was
regarded with such awe and the ordinary food
of man, the use of unleavened bread was intro
duced into the Western Church, where it was
defended on the assumption that our Saviour
must have used such bread at his last supper.
In the Greek Church the ancient practice was
retained, and this added one more to the points
of difference between them. But it was not till
the year 1053, that it became the occasion of
open warfare. In that year Michael Cerularius,
the Patriarch of Constantinople, having caused
all the churches of his diocese to be closed, in
which service was performed according to the
rites of the Romish communion, attacked, in a
letter which is still extant in a Latin translation,
the whole Western Church. Leo IX. replied to
this letter, dwelling much more on this unimpor
tant question of form than on the more serious
points of doctrine on which the two churches
differ, and the controversy was carried on with
much bigotry and intolerance on both sides.
Each party upbraided tbe other as heretical,
under the name of Azymite (a*£t/pu, unleavened
bread) on the one hand, and Fermentanian (fer-
mentum, leaven) on the other. The emperor
exerted himself to prevent an open rupture, and
invited papal legates to Constantinople to treat
for peace. But the temper of the contending
parties was not for peace. The legates laid on
the altar of St. Sophia a formal act of ex
communication (July 16, 1054); the patriarch
retaliated with a similar anathema; and other
patriarchs taking part with him, the separation
between the Eastern and Western Churches was
complete. The form of a small thin wafer was
perhaps introduced at Rome about this time.
Bread, Bay of, a title given (1), To the
Lord's Day, as the day on which the Lord's

BRE
Supper was commonly celebrated: (2), To the
day before Good Friday, as the day on which
that sacrament was instituted. — See Eucharist.
Brethren. — See Cellites, Common Lot,
Plymouth Bbethben, Sack Teinity.
Brethren of the Free Spirit, a sect
which came into notice in Italy, France, and
Germany, in the thirteenth century, deriving
its name from what appears to have been
its distinguishing tenet, viz., that the chil
dren of God enjoy through the Spirit a perfect
freedom from the obligations of tbe law. They
were called by the Germans and Flemish
Beghards and Beguiles. In France they had
the name of Beguins and Turlupins. Mosheim
gives extracts from some of their books, which
show that they adopted a strange system of
mystic theology, maintaining that the rational
part of the soul is not created, but a portion
of the Deity ; and that we may, by the power
of contemplation, become perfectly united to
the divine nature, and be as truly the sons of
God as Christ is. They held that in conse
quence 'Of this union, the believer could not sin
 a tenet which some of them interpreted to
mean that no acts performed by a believer were
sinful, however contrary to the law of God.
Others, boasting of their freedom from the
dominion of carnal lusts, are said to have dis
regarded in their habits of life everything like
modest}' and decency. Others again are said to
have carried their notions of freedom no farther
than to claim exemption from the outward
observances of religion, denying the obliga
tion to observe the outward forms of reli
gion. And some have surmised that this
contempt of what the Church held all-important,
was their chief crime, as it raised them enemies,
who were not usually very scrupulous in heap
ing up all manner of charges against those who
had once been denounced as heretics. — See under
Begul-ses. Breviary (Lat.., breviarium,) the book con
taining the daily service of the Church of Rome.
It is frequently, but erroneously, confounded with
Missal and Ritual. The Breviary contains the
matins, lauds, &c, with the several variations to
be made therein according to the several days,
canonical hours, and the like ; and it may be
considered as corresponding with the daily service
of the United Church of England and Ireland.
The Missal, or mass book, answers to the
"order of the administration of the Lord's
Supper," together with the collects, epistles, and
gospels to be used throughout the year ; and the
Ritual is composed of occasional offices for bap
tism, matrimony, visitation of the sick, &c
Originally the Breviary contained only the
Lord's Prayer and the Psalms, which were used
in the divine offices, to which were subsequently
added lessons out of the Scriptures, according to
the institutes of the monks, in order to diversify
the service of the church. Various additions

106

BRI
were subsequently made by the popes Gelasius
and Gregory sumamed the Great : lives of the
saints, replete with ill-attested facts, were in
serted, in compliance with the opinions and
superstition of the times. This gave occasion
to many revisions of the Roman Breviary by
the councils, particularly, of Trent and Col
ogne, and also bv several popes, as Gregory
IX., Nicholas III"., Pius V., Clement VIII.,
and Urban VIII., as likewise by some cardi
nals, especially Cardinal Quignan, by whom
various extravagances were removed, and the
work was brought nearer to the simplicity of
the primitive offices. In its present state the
Breviary of the Church of Rome consists of the
services of matins, lauds, prime, third, sixth,
nones, vespers, complines, or the post-communie,
that is of seven hours, on account of the saying
of David, " Septes in die laudem dixi " — Seven
times a day do I praise thee. (Psalms cxix. 1 64).
The obligation of reading this service-book every
day, which at first was universal, was by degrees
reduced to the beneficiary clergy alone, who are
bound to do it on pain of being guilty of mortal
sin, and of refunding their revenues in proportion
to their delinquencies  See Liturgy.
Brief. — See Bull.
Brigettins or Bridgetins, an order of nuns,
named after St. Brigetta, a lady of Sweden, who,
in the fourteenth century, persuaded her husband
to become a monk, while she retired to a reli
gious-establishment in Spain. Here she estab
lished a new order, and published rules for them,
dictated, according to her, by Christ himself.
Enjoying many visions and ecstasies, she came to
Rome, and travelled also to Palestine. She died
in 1373, and was canonized in 1391. The rule
of the order is almost that of St Augustine.
It spread through various countries ; and Sion
House, opposite Richmond, was a monastery
belonging to it, built by Henry V.
Brownists, a sect of Puritans, named after
Robert Brown, their originator, who, being
vehemently opposed in England, founded a
church according to his principles at Middle-
burgh, in Holland. Their theology was Calvinis
tic ; but they differed equally from the Episco
palian and Presbyterian modes of government.
Their principles were an extreme form of what
is now termed Independency. The church in
Holland soon quarrelled among themselves ; and
Brown, returning to England in 1589, recanted,
and obtained a rectory in Northamptonshire. The
Brownists in England were severely persecuted ;
and being very numerous, a number of them
retiring to Holland, elected a Mr. Johnson to
be their pastor, and after him the learned Ains
worth. Their church flourished for more than a
century. To this body belonged the famous
Robinson, who, with a portion of his congrega
tion from Leyden, sailed in the "Mayflower," and
landing at Plymouth, in New England, made
the first permanent settlement there.

BUC
Bnchnnites. — Elspat Simpson was tbe
daughter of a wayside innkeeper betwixt Banff
and Portsoy. She was born in 1740, was in
early womanhood a domestic servant in Glasgow,
became tbe wife of a journeyman potter, Robert
Buchan, and left the Scotch Episcopal for her
husband's church, the Burgher Secession. Mrs.
Robert Buchan sighed for a fame which, as a
Broomielaw potter's Wife, she could not reach,
and conceived the romantic idea of founding a
new order of religionists. Her earlier and later
pretensions were widely different. She set out
with the comparatively modest statement, that
from the second year of her age, when her mother
died, she had been a special favourite of heaven ;
that she had enjoyed the special tutorship of
Jesus Christ, and in her seventh year had a
heavenly vision, unfolding many mysteries, which
was renewed, and in a still more extended form,
about twenty-seven yeara afterwards. It was
this latter vision which made her dream of being
a public celebrity, as, by her own account, it had
subdued the flesh, sustained her for several weeks
without bodily sustenance, and strengthened her
to speak of the love of God in Christ Jesus. The
one grand article in her creed was the imme
diate advent of the Saviour ; but as her influence
grew, her creed expanded, until it represented
Elspat Simpson as the woman in Rev. xii. 1,
the veritable mother of the Saviour, who had
roamed the earth from the days of her Son's
ascension, and was now anxiously awaiting his
return. Faith in that creed was to secure the same
spiritual and immortal life to her followers, all
of whom were assured of seeing the Saviour in
the flesh, and of being translated without tasting
death. The mania under which Mrs. Buchan
was labouring led her to make a tour through
the Glasgow churches, in search of a preacher
equally familiar with the mystic meaning of the
Bible. Mr. Hugh White of Irvine, who offi
ciated in Dowhill Relief Church, fascinated his
critical hearer by his Sinaitic denunciations of car
nality in all its forms. The fanatic found an easy
dupe in the silly preacher, and as soon as Mrs.
Buchan was sure of her first convert, she left her
husband to manufacture his earthenware and man
age her tender children, and settled down in the
Irvine manse, where she also made a convert of
her hostess. The congregation traced the new doc
trines which they heard to the presence of Mrs.
Buchan, and demanded her immediate removal ;
but Mr. White would sooner part with his right
arm than with his illustrious guest. The Relief
presbytery lost no time in dealing with the delin
quent, and deposing him from the exercise of the
Christian ministry. Mr. White continued to pro
pagate his views in Irvine, under the leadership of
his patroness. Strange stories came into circula
tion about their midnight meetings, and were so
extensively believed, that the townspeople as
saulted the house in which they wore held. For
the preservation of the public peace Mrs. Buchan

107

BUC
was escorted, by order of the magistrates, beyond
the burgh bounds, in April, 1784. The company
next located in New Cample, in Closeburn, Dum
friesshire. Some had gone from Irvine to meet
the Saviour, and therefore left their property
behind them. In their new settlement they were
joined by Lieut. Conyers from England, who had
relinquished his naval commission for the spir
itual advantages of such a residence. Whilst in
Closeburn, two parts of the Divine Dictionary
were published, as edited by Hugh White, and
revised by the apocalyptic Elspat. The fanati
cal leader uniformly gave the lie direct to all
stories about her earthly parentage and history,
and always by some mystical jargon; and al
though two of her own daughters were in the
company, the duped people believed her. She led
their devotions, addressed them in mystical terms,
and dealt out to them very small rations, that their
reduced bodies might the more easily rise from
the dull earth, under the belief that the Saviour
could not return to earth until a spiritualized
people was prepared to welcome him. An infant
was one day ushered into their little circle : but
the priestess got out of the difficulty by ascribing
the paternity to Satan, their great enemy. A fast
of forty days, founded upon high Bible prece
dent, nearly annihilated the small coterie. To
make sure of personally surviving the trying
ordeal, Mrs. Buchan had sipped occasionally at a
cordial, and supplied it to all whose lives seemed
imperilled. It was generally believed that some
survived the fast by private supplies from the
sympathizing farmers; and the senses of those
who tasted of the cordial testified that it was
good Scotch whisky. The fast opened the eyes
of some, and sent them back to Irvine to their
old faith and occupations. In the course of the
fast Mr. White equipped himself in full canoni
cals, even to gloves, and looked anxiously to
heaven for the descending chariot. The light of
a farmer's lamp led them sadly astray one morn
ing, after they had watched all night for the illu
mination of the eastern sky. As the passing
light flashed across the apartment, Mrs. Buchan
announced the advent, and all made ready for
flight, even to the adjusting of their dress; but
the darkness which followed furnished the oracle
with an opportunity for reproving their unbelief
as having interdicted the actual advent. The
circulation of the wildest and most absurd stories
stirred up the enmitj- of the Closeburn people,
which issued in an assault upon their dwelling.
Fancying that they would be safer on their own
premises, they rented the Auchenhairn farm, in
Galloway, where necessity drove them to various
forms of industry. Some of the young people
had become exhausted by the intense excitement
of hourly expectation, and fancied that they
might, without either sin or shame, become wives,
and Mrs. Buchan's two daughters so felt and
acted. In the midsummer of 1791 Mrs. Buchan
became seriously ill, and earnestly taught her

BUL
followers that she would not die, but sleep for
a season, and then reappear, to guide them to
heaven. Such was the credulity of the people
that it required a sheriff's warrant to make them
part with the corpse. Mr. White publicly al
leged that the body had been translated to
heaven ; but the fear of the civil power led to
its discover)-, which so disgraced the hierophant,
that he made a precipitate retreat to America,
and the handful of followers, which never num
bered fifty, dispersed and disappeared. Seldom,
if ever, has there been a cause which had less to
recommend it, or more to expose its absurdities.
Bull is a rescript or letter issued by emperors
and popes, and sealed with lead ; though, strictly
speaking, it is the seal or pendent lead alone
which is the bulla or bull, as it is that which gives
the instrument its title and authority. During
themiddle and barbarous ages, gold, silver, waxen,
and leaden bulls were used by emperors and
kings. In affairs of the greatest importance
golden bulls were employed ; leaden and waxen
ones being confined to matters of smaller
moment. In the Record Office in the Chapter
House at Westminster there are two golden
bulls, one attached to the treaty between Henry
VIII. of England and Francis I. of France;
and the other to the instrument by which Pope
Clement VII. conferred on Henry VIII. the
title of "Defender of the Faitb." Silver bulk,
though of less frequent occurrence, are some
times to be met with in ancient documents.
Leaden bulb were sent by the Emperors of Con
stantinople to patriarchs and sovereign princes ;
they were also used by the Kings of France,
Sicily, and other monarchs, as well as by
bishops, patriarchs, and popes. The Doges of
Venice, however, did not presume to seal their
diplomata with lead until permission had been
given them by Pope Alexander III., towards the
close of the twelfth century. Waxen bulls were
first brought into England by the Normans:
most of the charters executed since the time of
William I. are sealed with green, redr or white
hulls of wax.
Papal bulls are despatched out of the Roman
chancery, by order of the pope, and sealed
with lead. They are written on parchment,
by which they are distinguished from briefs,
or simple signatures, which are written on
paper. Briefs are issued by the apostolic sec
retary, and are written in Roman character.
They are dated a die nativitalis, bulls a die in-
carnationis. In briefs the date is abbreviated, in
bulls it is given at length. Briefs begin with
the name of the pope, as Pius IX., &c, but bulls
have a fuller preface. A bull is, properly, a signa
ture enlarged: what the latter comprises in a few
words, the former dilates and amplifies. These
bulls are issued in matters of justice or of grace.
If the former be the intention of the instrument,
the lead is affixed by a hempen cord; if the
latter, it is attached by a silken thread. Tha

108

BUL
seal presents, on one side, the supposed heads of
the apostles Peter and Paul, and on the other,
the name of the pope by whom it was issued,
together with the year of his pontificate. By
bulls jubilees are granted ; and without them
no bishops in the Romish Church are allowed to
be consecrated. In Spain bulls are required for
every kind of benefice ; but in France (at least
before the revolution), and in other i countries,
simple signatures are sufficient, excepting for the
higher dignities. Previously to registering the
papal bulls in France, they were limited and
moderated by the laws of that country ; nor was
anything admitted until it had been examined
and found to contain nothing contrary to the
liberties of the Gallican Church. The occur
rence of the words "propria motu" in a bull
was sufficient to cause it to be rejected. Nor are
the papal bulls admitted indiscriminately in other
countries whose inhabitants are in communion
with the Church of Rome. In Spain, for in
stance, they are examined by the royal council ;
and if there appear any reason for not executing
them, notice to that effect is given to the pope
by a supplication, and the operation of the bull
is suspended. All bulls are written in anti
quated round Gothic letters, and consist of four
parts, viz., the narrative of the fact, the concep
tion, the clauses, and the date. In the salutation
the pontiff styles himself — " Bishop, servant of
the servants of God" — Episcopus, servus ser-
vorum Dei. The publication of papal bulls is
termed fulmination: it is done by one of the
three commissioners to whom they are directed. If
the publication be opposed, as sometimes is the
case, the fault is not charged on the pope by
whom it was issued, but an appeal is brought to
him against the person who is supposed to be
guilty of it. By this expedient the fault is laid
where it is known not to be just, in order to
evade affronting the pontiff. After the death of
a pope no bulls are despatched during the
vacancy of the see. As soon, therefore, as the
pontiff expires, the vice-chancellor of the
Romish Church takes possession of the seal of
the bulls ; and in the presence of several persons
commands the deceased pope's name to be
erased, and covers the other side, on which are
the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul, with a linen
cloth, sealing it up with his own seal; and
delivers it thus covered to the chamberlain, to
be preserved, that no bulls may be sealed with
it in the meantime. Papal bulls are frequently
mentioned in early acts of parliament, and
formerly were considered valid in this country ;
but, by the statute 28 Hen. VIII. c. 16, all
bulls obtained from the Bishop of Rome are
declared to be null and void ; and the statute 13
Eliz. c 2, pronounces the procuring, publishing,
or using of them to be high treason. The most
copious collection of papal bulls is the BullaHum
Magnum a Leone Magna ad Benedictum XIV.
(A.D. 461 to 1757), published at Luxembourg

BUL
between the years 1747 and 1758, in nineteen
tomes, forming eleven large volumes folio.
Of the instruments contained in this vast collec
tion, there are two which demand to be distinctly
noticed ; viz., the bull In Coena Domini, and that
called Unigenilus : — 1. The bull entitled " In
Coena Domini," is a particular bull which was
read every year, on the day of the Lord's Supper,
or Maundy Thursday, by a cardinal deacon, in the
presence of the pope, attended by other cardinals
and bishops, until it was discontinued in the pon
tificate of Clement XIV. It is. in fact, the latest
edition of a series of bulls, issued at different times
and by different popes, for the excommunication
of heretics, and for the maintenance of the eccle
siastical supremacy of the Roman pontiffs. It
contains various excommunications and execra
tions against all heretics and contumacious
persons who disturb, oppose, or disobey the
Roman pontiff. After the bull was read the
pope threw down a burning torch in the public
place, to denote the thunder of this anathema.
In the commencement of the bull issued by Pope
Paul IIL, a.d. 1536, the publication of this
excommunication on Maundy Thursday is de
clared to be an ancient custom of the sovereign
pontiffs, for preserving the purity of the Chris
tian religion, and maintaining union among the
faithful; but the origin of this custom is not
indicated. For the history of this bull, and
evidence of its present validity as part of the
Roman law, and of its recognition by the Romish
hierarchy in Ireland, see Dr. G. E. Biber's
Papal Bull in Coena Domini, translated into
English, with an Historical Introduction; and also
his Papal Diplomacy and the Bull in Coena Do-
mini, (London, 1848). — 2. Thebull, or constitution
Unigeniius, derives its name from its beginning
with the words " Unigenilus Dei Filius .-" it was
issued by Pope Clement XI. in 1713, against
Pasquier Quesnel's work, entitled "Le Nouveau
Testament traduiten Francois avec des Reflexions
Morales." The enemies of Quesnel had pro
cured a decree from the same pontiff in 1708,
condemning his moral reflections generally ; but
this decree not being conformable to the customs
of the kingdom of France, could not be received
or published there, and consequently had little
or no effect. Louis XIV., therefore, at the
solicitation of several French bishops, wrote to
the pope in 1711, desiring him formally to con
demn Quesnel's work, in a decree which might
distinctly exhibit the propositions that deserved
to be condemned. In the following year the
pontiff appointed a congregation of cardinals,
prelates, and divines, to examine the doctrine
contained in the book ; and on the tenth of Sep
tember, 1713, Clement XI. published the bull
Unigeniius, in which one hundred and one pro
positions are extraoted from Quesnel's work, and
specifically condemned. Two or three of these
propositions are here annexed and translated by
way of specimen of the obnoxious tenets thus

109

BUR
denounced : "81. The sacred obscurity of the
AVord of God is no reason for the laity to excuse
themselves from reading it. 83. It is a great
mistake to imagine that the knowledge of the
mysteries of religion ought not to be imparted to
women by the reading of the sacred books. The
abuse of the Scriptures, and the rise of heresies,
have not proceeded from the simplicity of
women, but from the conceited learning of men.
85. To forbid Christians to read the Holy
Scripture, especially of the Gospel, is to forbid
the use of light to the children of light, and to
make them suffer a sort of excommunication.
86. To deprive the unlearned people of the
comfort of joining their voice with the voice of
the whole church, is a custom contrary to apos
tolical practice, and to the design of God."
Although the publication of this bull gave a
favourable turn to the affairs of the Jesuits, by
which order the Jansenists were detested (against
whose doctrines on the subject of divine grace it
was levelled); yet it ultimately proved to be
highly detrimental to the interests of the Romish
Church. For it not only confirmed the Pro
testants in the necessity, propriety, and wisdom
of their separation, by convincing them that that
church was determined to adhere to all its
ancient corruptions and superstitions ; but it also
offended many Roman Catholics who were not
attached to the sentiments of Jansenius, and who
were only bent on the pursuit of truth, and the
advancement of piety. The issuing of this ill-
judged decree produced the most violent dissen
sions and tumults in France : at length, however,
the contest terminated in favour of the bull,
which was rendered valid by the authority of
the parliament, and was finally registered
among the laws of the state, (Mosheim's Eccl.
Hist, cent, xviii., sec. x., xi.
Burgher. — See Scotland, Chueches in.
Burial. — The usages of the early Christian
Church in regard to burial were few and simple,
but indicative of a " love stronger than death,"
which sought manifestation by its care for the
lifeless remains. The proper celebration of the
funeral rites was regarded as a Christian dnty.
After death the near relatives of the deceased
closed the eyes and mouth of the corpse, washed
it and dressed it for the tomb — usually in
white linen ; but in the case of persons of con
siderable wealth more costly fabrics were often
employed. The body was then enclosed in a
coffin, which was watched until the funeral took
place. In the coffin, and underneath the body,
it was not unusual to place laurel, ivy, or any
other evergreen, except cypress, to signify that
"the dead in Christ" "vivere non desinunt"
(Durand) ; but crowning either the corpse or the
coffin with garlands was repudiated as too closely
related to heathen practices. We find, however,
that the custom of strewing the grave with flowers
was sanctioned. The climate and manners of the
country, with the special circumstances of each

110

BUR
case, determined the length of the fntei val between
death and burial; and on this point there was no
fixed ecclesiastical rule or usage. The persons at
tending the funeral were, as at the present day,
either relatives or others who desired thereby to
testify respect for the dead, or sympathy with the
bereaved. Their persecutors often strove to pre
vent the last respects being paid to the martyrs,
sometimes by burning their bodies, as that of
Polycarp, and sometimes by throwing their ashes
into the sea, as in the case of the martyrs of
Lyons, and Vienne in France. Under the
Romans, funerals, more particularly of private
persons, took place at night ; and hence arose a
necessity for the use of torches in this as well as '
in the marriage procession, which also took place
at night. On this account we have the phrase
" inter utramque facem" (Propert.), to designate
tbe interval from marriage to interment. Though
Christians preferred to solemnize their funeral
rites by day, yet we find they imitated the
heathen usage so far as to make use of lighted
tapers in the procession, giving to them a sym
bolical interpretation, on the same principle as
the heathen poet just quoted, though modified by
a strictly Christian reference. They were un
derstood to denote " victory over death, and
union with Christ at the mama^e-supper of the
Lamb." In this practice we see that spirit of
compromise with heathen customs and prejudices
showing itself, which soon so greatly corrupted a
large portion of the Church.
During periods of persecution funerals had
often to be conducted at night, to evade ob
servation. But from the time of Constantine
onwards, funerals were often more truly op
portunities for display than manifestations of
sincere grief. To regulate the starting and on
ward progress of the procession the tuba was
employed, or in some cases rattles made of
wood or iron. In the eighth century the tolling
of bells, muffled to increase the solemnity of the
sound, was first introduced. It was customary,
so early as the fourth century, to carry in the
procession palm or olive branches, symbolical of
joy and victory; cypress was excluded, being
emblematic of grief; rosemary was also made
use of, but at a somewhat later date ; and the
crucifix was carried in front of the corpse cer
tainly not before the sixth century. During the
procession they sung or chanted psalms or other
suitable portions of Scripture. The meaning of
this usage and instances of the passages so em
ployed are stated in the following quotation from
Chrysostom :— " What mean our hymns ? Do we
not glorify God, and give him thanks that he
hath crowned him that is departed; that he hath
delivered him from trouble; that he hath set
him free from all fear? Consider what thou
singest at that time : ' Return unto thy rest, O
my soul! for the Lord hath dealt bountifully
with thee ;' and again, ' I will fear no evil ; for
thou art with me ; ' and again," &c He then pro-

BUR

ceeds to rebuke all excessive grief as inconsistent
with their professions of joy, confidence in the
passages they sung, and with all true Christian
faith and hope. Hence the hiring of female
mourners (prosficoS) was reprobated by the church,
though a custom which had been prevalent among
Jews as well as Romans, and which has existed
down to the present time among the Irish, with
whom the hired mourners, known as Keeners,
are also women. In opposing this practice the
opinions of the fathers were confirmed by the
decrees of councils. At the funeral prayers were
always offered up, and sometimes also the Lord's
Supper was administered, in token that the dead
and living, as members of tbe same mystic body,
hold communion with one another. This latter
practice gave origin to the unscriptural custom
cf masses for the dead. When there was no
communion the soul of the deceased was specially
commended to God in prayer : such prayers were
called " ssa^adiens, commendationes," i. e., com
mendations. Amongst early abuses which were
speedily abolished were those of administering
the elements in the communion to the dead body
as well as to the mourners, and that of giving it
a parting kiss (tpfayfta aytov, osculum sanctum)
prior to interment; for it is to be observed that
the Christians practised inhumation and not
cremation, which, from the time of Sulla the dic
tator, had been the usual Roman custom. The
position in wliich the body was laid in the grave
was much the same as at present ; the principal
reason assigned for the supine posture being that
it is a natural position in sleep, which death
resembles ; and the upward gaze was meant to
indicate the hope of a resurrection. The usual
direction of the body was east and west, as if
they looked for a second glorious advent in the
east. At a very early period the practice of pray
ing for the dead showed itself. Totally at
variance with Scripture, its introduction and
subsequent tolerance are due either to imperfect
acquaintance with Scripture truth on the part of
the instructors in the church, or to a desire to
promote its spread by an unworthy compromise
with existing heathen practices and prejudices.
But these prayers, such as they were, give no
countenance to the doctrine of purgatory; and
the wording of such as are extant shows that
such a doctrine was not current in the early cen
turies of our era. The distribution of alms at
funerals was not uncommon, and the error soon
crept in of regarding their distribution as in some
sort beneficial to the dead. As regards the
period of mourning there was no definite rule.
Augustine reproves those who imitated the
heathen in keeping a Novemdiale, all such super
stitious observances of days being opposed to the
spirit of Christianity. To the Novemdiale some
added a repetition of funeral services on the 20th,
30th and 40th days after interment, which is also
rebuked. But the observance of anniversary 111

BUR
days in commemoration of the deceased was not
so condemned.
Burial grounds were called xt,ift»~*e,a, whence
we have our word — cemetery, i. e., sleeping ground,
to indicate that in death Christians rest from their
labours in hope of a resurrection. About the fourth
century enclosures round churches began to be
employed for this purpose; at first exclusively
for ecclesiastical dignitaries, afterwards for any
who died in the communion of the church ; but
there is no example of a proper consecration of
these before the sixth century, nor of burial
within churches before the ninth. Inscriptions,
rh-Xu, were placed in the tombs: many very
ancient and interesting ones are to be found in
the Catacombs, the Christian burial place during
periods of persecution at Rome  See Catacombs.
From the examples extant in the Works of Euse
bius, Ambrose, Gregory of Nazianzen and Gre
gory of Nyssa, &c, we learn that it was from an
early period customary to deliver funeral ^rations
(Xoyot In-ix&uoi, trtrasyta, oraiiones funebres) in
praise of those deceased persons whose lives or ser
vices to the church had entitled them to this dis
tinction (Riddle's Christian Antiqidties, book vii.,
ch. 3). The impressive burial service of the
Church of England is minutely laid down in the
Book of Common Prayer, and is to be read over
all but such as die unbaptized, or who commit
suicide, or have been excommunicated. The
order, according to high authority (Palmer, in
his Origines Liturgical), is as follows : — " The
office for the burial of the dead, according to the
English ritual, commences on the approach of
the body towards the church. In primitive
times the body, immediately after death, was
washed and arrayed in new garments ; and tbe
clergy and people watched the remains until the
time of burial came. During this interval
psalms were sung and lessons read. The body
was then carried to the church, with singing of
psalms or anthems, as we learn from the Apos
tolical Constitutions, from Dionysius Areopagite,
Chrysostom, and other sources. With this cus
tom all the rituals of the Eastern and Western
Churches that I have seen concur ; and amongst
others, ,the ritual of the English Church directs
the priest and other clergy to meet the corpse at
the entrance of the cemetery, and precede it into
the church, or towards the grave, singing or
saying certain anthems appropriate to the occa
sion. Of these anthems, the two following have
been long used in the English Church in some
part of the office for the departed : ' I am the re
surrection and the life, saith the Lord,' &c. When
the procession has entered the church, the office
proceeds with psalmody and reading of Scripture.
A similar custom is mentioned by the author
called Dionysius, as prevailing in his time in the
East : and we find frequent mention of the same
amongst the Oriental fathers. Nearly the same
order prevails in the patriarchate of Constan
tinople, where many anthems and psalms are

BUR
sung, and lessons from the epistles and gospels
are read. In the Western Churches it seems that
the_ Eucharist was celebrated at this time, in
which prayers were made for the happiness of
the deceased. This was customary in Africa in
the fifth century, according to Augustine, and
in Italy in the time of Ambrose; and we find it
recognized in all the western rituals. But it was
not usual in the East, where the liturgy is not
performed at funerals even to the present day.
The psalms which are appointed by the Church
of England on the present occasion are highly
appropriate. A part of the lesson which follows
has been used by the English Church for a con
siderable length of time. It was anciently read
on the celebration of the Eucharist, which formerly
took place in England, as in other Western
Churches, at this time ; and although the English
Church has not continued the custom, but adopted
the practice of the Church of Constantinople, the
importance of this part of Scripture has caused it
to be used as the proper lesson on the present
occasion. Iu the Church of Constantinople they
read part of the fourth chapter of St. Paul's
Epistle to the Thessalonians, and a gospel from St.
John : ' Now is Christ risen from the dead,' &c.
From the church the procession advances to the
sepulchre, where, as the necessary preparations
are making, the priest and clergy sing or repeat
anthems ; and then, the body being interred
with a certain formulary, another anthem is sung
or said. The same order is found in the ancient
rituals of the Eastern and Western Churches.
The only thing worthy of notice in this part of
the English ritual is, the form repeated by the
priest, beginning, ' Forasmuch as it hath pleased
God Almighty,' &c. This form of committing
the 'body to the ground; earth to earth, ashes
to ashes, ' &c, seems, as far as I can judge, to
be peculiar to our church ; as we find that most
other rituals of tbe East and West appoint some
psalm or anthem to be sung or said while the
body is placed in the tomb ; but the same form
nearly has been used in the English Church for
many ages, though anciently it followed after
the body was covered with earth, and not while
the earth was placed upon it The anthems
which precede and follow this formulary have
generally been very anciently used in the English
Church on occasions connected with that which
we at present consider : ( Man that is born of a
woman hath but a short time to live, and is full
of misery,' &c. After this anthem is concluded,
the prayers commence with the short litany,
which is followed by the Lord's Prayer, two
collects, and a benediction."
No person can be buried in the church with
out the consent of the incumbent — an exception
being made in favour of a burial place belong
ing to a manor house. The soil and freehold of
the church belong to the parson.
In Scotland a religious service is usually held
in the house of the deceased before the body is

BUR

removed, and sometimes also, though rarely, at
the grave. The Directory says, " When any
person departeth this life, let the dead body,
upon the day of burial, be decently attended
from the house to the place appointed for publick
burial, and there immediately interred, without
any ceremony. And because the custom of
kneeling down, and praying by or towards the
dead corpse, and other such usages, in the place
where it lies before it be carried to burial, are
superstitious ; and for that praying, reading, and
singing, both in going to and at the grave, have
been grossly abused, are no way' beneficial to the
dead, and have proved many ways hurtful to
the living ; therefore, let all such things be laid
aside. Howbeit, we judge it very convenient,
that the Christian friends, which accompany the
dead body to the place appointed for publick
burial, do apply themselves to meditations and
conferences suitable to the occasion ; and that
the minister, as upon other occasions, so at
this time, if he be present, may put them in
remembrance of their duty. That this shall not
extend to deny any civil respects or deferences at
the burial, suitable to the rank and condition of
the party deceased, while he was living." By
the old book of discipline, in Knox's time,
annexed to the old paraphrase of the Psalms,
" after burial, the minister, if present, and desired,
goeth to the church, if it be not far off, and
maketh some comfortable exhortation to the
people, touching death and the resurrection ;" but
by the act of assembly 1638, sess. 23, 24., art
22, all funeral sermons are discharged. An
act of assembly 1643, sess. 9, forbids "burials,
and hanging of honours, broads, and arms of
persons, of whatsoever quality, within the kirk
where the people meet for public worship."
By the acts of assembly 1645, sess. 8, as
sembly 1701, sess. ult, " all lyke-wakes are dis
charged, as fostering superstition and profanity
through the land." Several practices common
of old in Scotland are falling into desuetude.
These lykewakes, from "lyke," a corpse, and
"wake" or "watch," though so strongly con
demned, were common up to a late period,
and the corpse, with a candle burning before
it and a plate of salt on its breast, was never
left by itself day or night. Nocturnal scenes
sometimes happened among young people so
assembled, more of merriment than sorrow. All
mirrors and time-pieces were covered with a
white cloth, prior to the interment of the corpse.
The parish churchyard, which is not consecrated
as in England, belongs to the heritors, for the
purpose of burying the dead of their own families
and the inhabitants residing on their properties.
It is under their regulation and management.
Though parishioners may own distinct burial
places, and use them, yet they acquire no
right of permanent property in "them. " The
statute 1597, u. 232, ordains, 'that all paro-
chiners of every paroch kirk within this realme,
112

CAB
build and repaire the kirk-zaird dykes of their
awin paroch kirk, with stane and morture, to
the hight of twa elnes, and to make sufficient
stiles and entresse in the saidis dykes, lo pass to
the kirk and kirk-zaird thereof; and ordainis
the Lordes of the Sessione to direct and give let
ters and charges thereupon, in forme as effeirs.' "
The grass of the churchyard belongs not to the
parish adpios usus, as was once held, but to the
minister, but he cannot place cattle in pasture
upon it ; he can only cut the grass. The kirk-
session claim the sole power of letting out mort-
clotbs (palls) within the parish for hire, and sus
tained by the Court of Session, have successfully
prevented either private individuals or associa-

CAB
tions, from trenching on their strange parochial
monopoly. " Private individuals may, no doubt,
use mortcloths belonging to themselves; but
tbey cannot lend them out to others even gra
tuitously ; nor, it should seem, can a number of
individuals subscribe for the purchase of a mort-
cloth for their joint use, although nothing be
charged to each individual on the occasion of its
being required, as this would effect an evasion of
the privilege of the kirk-session ; and so it
appears to have been held in the case of Kil
winning, although the interlocutor is certainly
not very clearly expressed." — Dunlop's Paro
chial Law, p. 72.

c

Cabala, Cabbala, or Kabbala, one of the
principal branches of modern Judaism, and that
which its professors extol as the sublimest of all
sciences. It is originally Hebrew (KaBaLaH),
signifying reception, from the root (ia'BBeL), to
receive by tradition. This term has sometimes
been used in a large sense, comprehending all
the traditions, that is, explications, maxims,
and ceremonies, which the Jews profess to have
received from their fathers ; but it is oftener
employed in a more limited acceptation, to desig
nate a species of theology and philosophy very
different from the civil and criminal ritual
and ecclesiastical traditions, which form the prin
cipal contents of the Mishna. The Cabala is
generally applied to those mystical interpreta
tions and metaphysical speculations concerning
the Deity and other beings, which are found in
many Jewish authors, and which are said to
have been handed down by a secret tradition
from the earliest ages. In order to dignify the
Cabala with the sanction of high antiquity, the
Jews pretend to derive it from Ezra or Esdras,
Moses, Abraham, and Adam, to each of whom
it had been specially revealed ; but the fact is,
that we find no Cabalistic writings but what are
evidently posterior to the destruction of the second
temple. The most celebrated of them are : — 1,
The Seplier Jetsira or Book of Creation, which
some Jews ascribe to the patriarch Abraham, but
which was actually written by Rabbi Akhiba,
who lived soon after the destruction of Jerusalem ;
and 2, The Sepher Zohar or Book of Splendour,
which was composed or invented by Rabbi
Simeon Ben Jochai, who is said to have been a
disciple of Akhiba, and who flourished in the
second century of the Christian era. Both these
books have undergone interpolations in their
transmission to modern times. The Cabala is
of two kinds, Practical and Theoretical.
I. The Practical Cabala is nothing more than
a system of magic, consisting in a superstitious use
of the Scriptures, and especially of the divine
names, with the hope or pretence of effecting

things beyond the course of nature. During
the Middle Ages this study was much culti
vated by the Jews, who — by means of diagrams
delineated in certain forms, and inscribed with
mystical terms produced by transpositions of the
letters of sacred names, or by combinations of
the initials of particular words — pretended to
heal or secure persons from wounds, to extinguish
fires, and to achieve other wonderful exploits.
II. The Theoretical Cabala is divided into
two species, viz., the Symbolical or Dogmatical,
and the Artificial or Literal.
1. The Symbolical or Dogmatical Cabala is
considered by Brucker to be originally derived
from Egypt, where the Jews learned, by the help
of allegory, to blend Oriental, Pythagorean, and
Platonic dogmas with Hebrew wisdom. That
indefatigable historian of philosophy has given
a sufficiently copious abstract of this species of
Cabala, of which the following are the chief
heads: — "All things are derived by emanation
from one principle ; this principle is God. From
him a substantial power immediately proceeds,
which is the image of God, and the source of all
subsequent emanations. This second principle
sends forth, by the energy of emanation, other
natures, which are more or less perfect, according
to their different degrees of distance, in the scale
of emanation, from the first source of existence ;
and which constitute different worlds or orders of
being, aU united in the eternal power from which
they proceed. Matter is nothing more than the
most remote effect of the emanative energy of the
Deity. The material world receives its form
from the immediate agency of powers far beneath
the first source of being. Evil is the necessary
effect of the imperfection of matter. Human
souls are distant emanations from the Deity ;
and, after they are liberated from their material
vehicles, will return, through various stages of
purification, to the fountain whence they first
proceeded." — Brucker's Bistory of Philosophy,
by Dr. Enfield, vol. ii., p. 205.
2. The Artificial or Literal Cabala is sub-

113

CAB
divided into three principal branches, affording
an ample scope for the exercise of ingenuity or
industry, and whieh are respectively termed
Gematrla, Notaricon, and Temurah.
(1.) Gem.atria is a word of Greek origin,
signifying quantity, proportion, or equal dimen
sion. It is a mathematical way of considering
the Scriptures, all the Hebrew letters being con
sidered as numerals. This artifice does not differ
materially from that of the Chronogram, in
which the year or date of a particular transaction
is expressed by the numeral letters of a word :
there is, however, this distinction between the
two, viz., that all the Roman letters do not
denote numbers, but only C D I L M V X,
whereas every letter in the Hebrew alphabet has
an arithmetical or numeral power.
Any two words or phrases occurring in different
texts, and containing letters of the same numeri
cal amount, are deemed mutually convertible;
and any one or more words, consisting of letters
which, on being cast up as numerals, make the
same total sum as the word or words of any
particular text, are at once admitted as develop
ing the latent signification of that text. Thus,
because the letters of the words nVtt) N2> Shiloh
shall come (Gen. xlix. 10), amount to 358, and
the word itido, Messiah contains the same num
ber, it has been deemed a sufficient proof that
this passage is a prophecy of the Messiah.
(2.) Notaricon is a term borrowed from tbe
Romans, among whom the noiarii, notaries or
shorthand writers, were accustomed to use single
letters to signify whole words, together with
other abbreviations. Notaricon is two-fold:
sometimes one word is formed from the initial or
final letters of two or three words; and some
times the letters of one word are taken as the
initials of so many other words ; and the words
so collected are deemed faithful expositions of
some of the meanings of the text in question.
(3.) Temurah, that is, permutation or change,
consists in transposing letters. Thus, sometimes
the letters of a word are transposed so as to form
another word: and sometimes a word in any
' particular text is exchanged for a word formed
by the substitution of other letters in the place of
the original letters, according to established rules
of alphabetical permutation. Of this branch of
the Cabala there are several sorts, but the most
common is, to put the twenty-second letter of the
alphabet in the room of the first, the twenty-first
instead of the second, the twentieth instead of the
third, and so on. Thus the Rabbins affirm that
the prophet Jeremiah had recourse to this kind
of Cabala (Jer. xxv. 26), and by the word
Sheshach intended Babel; because, as he was de
nouncing judgments against Babylon, it was not
safe to specify the King of Babylon by name.
(Brucker's History of Philosophy, by Dr. Enfield,
vol. ii., book iv., ch. ii. ; Allen's Modern Judaism,
ch. v. ; Buddei, Introductio ad Hisloriam Philoso
phies Ebrworum.) 114

CAL
Cainites, a perverse and stupid sect in the
second century, that paid special honour to Cain
and other persons reprobated in Holy Scripture —
such as Esau, Korah and his associates, along
with Judas Iscariot — the latter, in their opinion,
being meritorious, as causing that death which
has saved the world.
Calendar, properly the order and series of
the months which make up a year, and taken
from the name which the Romans gave to the first
days of each month. The calendar ofthe Popish
Church is filled with saints' days, and Wheatly
says: — "The reasons why the names of these
saints' days and holy-days were resumed into
the calendar are various. Some of them being
retained upon account of our courts of justice,
which usually make their returns on these days,
or else upon the days before or after them, which
are called in the writs, Vigil. Fest, or Crust, as
in Vigil. Martin, Fest. Martin, Crast. Martin,
and the like. Others are probably kept in tbe
calendar for the sake of such tradesmen, handi
craftsmen, and others, as are wont to celebrate
the memory of their tutelar saints; as the
Welshmen do of St. David, the shoemakers of
St. Crispin, &c. And again, churches being in
several places dedicated to some or other of these
saints, it has been the usual custom in such
places to have wakes or fairs kept upon those
days ; so that the people would probably be dis
pleased, if, either in this or the former case,
their favourite saint's name should be left out of
the calendar. Besides, the histories which were
writ before the Reformation do frequently speak
of transactions happening upon such a holy-day,
or about such » time, without mentioning the
month ; relating one thing to be done at Lara-
mas-tide, and another about Martinmas, &c, so
that were these names quite left out of the
calendar, we might be at a loss to know when
several of these transactions happened. But for
this and the foregoing reasons our second re
formers under Queen Elizabeth (though all those
days had been omitted in both books of King
Edward VI , excepting St. George's Day, Lam
mas Day, St. Laurence, and St. Clement, which
were in his second book) thought convenient to
restore the names of them to the calendar,
though not with any regard of being kept holy
by the church." calendae.
Lucian, Priest and Martyr — Jan. 1.
Hilary, Bishop and Confessor — Jan. 13.
Peisca, Virgin and Martyr — Jan. 18.
Fabian, Bishop and Martyr — Jan. 20.
Agnes, Virgin and Martyr — Jan. 21.
Vincent, Deacon and Martyr — Jan. 22.
Blasius, Bishop and Martyr  Feb. 3.
Agatha, Virgin and Martyr — Feb. 5.
Valentine, Bishop and Martyr — Feb. 14.
David, tutelar Saint of Wales— March 1.
Cedde or Chad, Bishop — March 2.
Peepetua, Martyr — March 7.

CAL
Gregory, Bishop and Confessor — March 1 2.
Pateick, tutelar Saint of Ireland — March 17.
Edwaed, King of West Saxons — March 18.
Benedict, Abbot — March 21.
Richard, Bishop— April 3.
Ambrose, Bishop — April 4.
Alphege, Archbishop — April 19.
' George, Saint and Martyr— April 23.
Cross, invention of— May 3.
John, Saint, Evangelist— May 6.
Dunstan, Archbishop — May 19.
Augustine, Archbishop — May 26.
Bede, Venerable — May 27.
Nicomede, Martyr — June 1.
Boniface, Bishop and Martyr — June 5.
Alban, Saint and Martyr — June 17.
Edward, translation of— June 20.
Mahy, Virgin, visitation of— July 2.
Martin, Bishop and Confessor— July 4.
Swithin, Bishop — July 15.
Margaret, Virgin and Martyr — July 20.
Magdalene, Saint Mary — July 22.
Anne, Saint — July 23.
Lammas Day — Aug. 1.
Teansfiguration of our Lord — Aug. 6.
Jesus, name of — Aug. 7.
Laurence, Archdeacon and Martyr — Aug.
10.
Augustine, Bishop of Hippo— Aug. 28.
John Baptist, beheading of— Aug. 29.
Giles, Abbot and Confessor — Sept. 1.
Enurchus, Bishop — Sept 7.
Mary, Virgin, nativity of — Sept. 8.
Holy Ceoss, recovery of — Sept. 14.
Lambert, Bishop and Martyr — Sept. 17.
Cypeian, Archbishop and Martyr — Sept. 26.
Jerome, Priest and Confessor— Sept. 30.
Remigius, Bishop — Oct. 1.
Faith, Virgin and Martyr — Oct. 5.
Denys, Bishop and Martyr — Oct. 9.
Edward, translation of — Oct. 13.
Etheleeda, Virgin — Oct. 17.
Crispin, Saint and Martyr— Oct. 25.
Leonard, Confessor — Nov. 6.
Martin, Bishop and Confessor — Nov, 11.
Britins, Bishop— Nov. 13.
Machutus, Bishop — Nov. 15.
Hugh, Bishop — Nov. 17.
Edmund, King and Martyr — Nov. 20.
Cecilia, Virgin and Martyr — Nov. 22.
Clement I., Bishop and Martyr — Nov. 23.
Catherine, Virgin and Martyr — Nov. 25.
Nicholas, Bishop — Dec. 6.
Lucy, Virgin and Martyr— Dec. 13.
O Sapienta — Dec. 16.
Silvester, Bishop— Dec. 31  See Feasts,
Saints. Caliga; (boots). — See Bishop.
Calixtines, a party of Hussites, so named
because tbey gave the calyx or cup to the laity ;
and in this lay their special difference from the
Romish Church. Also the followers of George
Calixtus, who laboured at a scheme of compre-

CAL
hension which should embrace Papists, Luther
ans, and Calvinists.
Call. — Calling, effectual, is the work of God's
Spirit on the conscience and soul of an awakened
sinner, in contrast with the external call which
comes to every one in the preaching of the Gos
pel. Call to the ministry is said to be twofold —
either human, viz., that arising from the advice,
recommendation, or selection of others ; or divine,
viz., that which so lays hold of a man that he
is " inwardly moved by the Holy Ghost" to take
upon him the spiritual office.
Call, the name of that document by which
Presbyterian churches formally choose and invite
one to be their pastor, who must be either a licen
tiate or one who holds, or has held, a pastoral
charge. A minister is appointed to " moderate
in the call" — that is, to preach and preside over
the meeting of the church by which the call is
issued. The call is then laid on the table of the
presbytery, and if found to be a fair and un
biassed expression of the mind of the congrega
tion, it is sustained. The person called may then
accept it or decline it. The rules laid down by
the presbyteries in the moderation of a call are
simply to secure perfect freedom of choice,
and that, if there be parties in a church, the one
party shall take no undue advantage over
the other. The form of call adopted by tbe
United Presbyterian Church is as follows: —
We the undersigned, elders and other mem
bers of the United Presbyterian Congregation of
under the inspection of, and in connec

tion with, the synod of the United Presbyterian
Church, and presbyteries thereof, taking into our
serious consideration our destitute circumstances,
through the want of a fixed pastor among us,
and being satisfied by good information, or our
own experience, of the soundness in the faith,
piety, prudence, literature, and other ministerial
qualifications of you, Mr.  preacher (or
minister) of the gospel, under the inspection of
the said synod, and of the suitableness to our
edification of the gifts bestowed upon you by the
Great Head of the Church, do invite, call, and
entreat you to take the oversight of our souls,
and to execute all the parts of the pastoral office
among us ; and upon your accepting of this our
call, and being inducted into the pastoral charge
of the said congregation by the presbytery of
, we promise you all due respect, subjec

tion, and encouragement in the Lord, and to
contribute to your suitable maintenance as God
may prosper us. In testimony whereof we have
signed this our call at  this  ¦ day of
 , eighteen hundred and  , in pre
sence of the Reverend  •, moderator in said
call. Call, Celensma (xiXimrpa). — The usual call
of the ancient Christians to one another was by
chanting the word " Hallelujah." In the monas
teries one of the monks went about singing " Hal
lelujah," to give notice when the time of assem-

115

CAL
Ming for devotion had arrived. Seamen used it
as their common signal, " making," says Sidonius
Apollinaris, " the banks resound with their hal
lelujah." St. Jerome tells us. that ploughmen
used it at their labours ; and, in short, it was the
universal note of praise chanted by all Chris
tians, at all times and in all places — a sort of
watchword, signal, call, or invitation. It was
sung at the altar by the priests, in the church
by tbe entire congregation, at the confection of
the chrism, at funerals, and on other occasions.
At length innovations upon this common practice
began : the Church of Rome and other churches
forbad its use in the church, except at Easter
and during the fifty days of Pentecost ; while in
those churches where it had been most used, it
was prohibited during the season of Lent. At
Rome the Easter " Hallelujah" was made the
basis of an oath, a. pledge being given, on the
hope of living, to sing the hallelujah on that
day. Callistians, a disreputable body of heretics
in the third century, chiefly notable from the
circumstance that recent discoveries have clearly
identified their leader, Callistus, with a canonized
saint of the Romish Church. He became Bishop
of Rome in 218, having previously been a
favourer of the Noetian heretics, and having
used his influence with his predecessor, Zephy-
rinus, in their behalf. The party of which he
afterwards became the head combined laxity of
discipline and morals with heretical doctrines.
Caloyers (from xaTioyspoi, good old men),
the common designation of the monks of the
Greek Church. " A monastic life," says Burder,
" is held in great veneration among the Greeks ;
and although there are monks of different orders
among them, yet all of them owe their origin to
St. Basil, who was the sole founder of the monas
tic state." The two principal orders are known as
"the Grand Angelical Habit," and the " Lesser
Habit ;" the former being persons of distinction
who lead a more religious life than the rest, and
the latter persons of inferior rank who do not
profess to lead such sanctified lives. The Ancho
rets form another order. The degrees are three,
namely — novices, called Archari ; ordinary pro
fessed, or the Microchemi; and the perfect, or
Megalochemi. The nuns, or female Caloyers,
follow in like manner the rule of St. Basil.
They are not under any vow as to celibacj-, nor
are they closely confined within their convents.
They wear the same habit as that of the monks,
which is black, with a woollen gown of the same
colour. The priests are not allowed to visit
them, under a severe penalty.
The female religious have their arms and hands
covered to the extremity of their fingers ; their
heads are shaved; each has a separate suit of
rooms ; and those of them that are in good cir
cumstances, keep servants, and sometimes under
take the training of young ladies in the practice
of religious duties. During the intervals of

CAL
devotion they employ themselves in all manner of
fancy needlework ; and so highly prized are their
sashes that the Turks generally prefer them.
Their principal monastery in Asia is at Mount
Sinai (and it has been described by many
travellers), and in Europe at Mount Athos. — For
further information, see Henderson's edition of
Buck's Theological Dictionary.
Calvinism, the doctrine of those who are
named after Calvin — though his theology is,, in
its great leading features, that of Augustine.
Much that belongs to Calvinism is common to
all evangelical sects — such as belief in the Tri
nity, in the divinity of Christ, in the personality
of the Holy Ghost, in a perfect atonement, in
justification by faith, and in eternal glory and
punishment. But five articles are usually said
to distinguish Calvinism, as opposed to Armin-
ianism, and as explained and confirmed by the
synod of Dort. Calvinists hold —
1. That God in his infinite mercy has ap
pointed a definite number of the human race to
glory, irrespective of faith foreseen and merit
foreknown on their part. But God's is no par
tial affection, for " he loves the world ;" and a
definite number is not a small number, for the
number of the elect satisfies Christ ; and it is
only through faith in him, and by the work of
God's Spirit on their hearts, that the elect are
saved. To the eye of man the elect are the com
pany of believers ; to the eye of Christ they are
a living unity — " All that which thou hast
given me" (John vi. 39). Predestination,
though unconditional, is not fatalism ; nor does
it infringe in any way on the freedom of the will.
2. That the death of Christ infallibly secures
the salvation of his people — the elect, "the sheep."
But at the same time, being of infinite value, it
opens the door of mercy to all ; for it is needed
by all, and is adapted to all, and is the basis of
that universal offer of salvation contained in the
Gospel ; so that if men are lost, it is not for want
of an atonement. God's grace lifts believers to
heaven; but unrepented, and therefore unfor-
giveu, sin sinks men to hell.
3. That men are born in guilt, and under con
demnation, involved in the first sin of the first
man, inheriting a sinful nature from their fallen
progenitor, and unable of themselves to return
to God. Still, man is responsible ; for moral in
ability, or want of will, is very different from
natural inability, or actual want of power.
4. That the objects of God's eternal love and
choice are effectually called by his grace and
Spirit. But this call comes in and through the
means of grace; and man's freest act is self-
surrender to God in the Gospel. St. Bernard
said — " Abolish free-will, and there is nothing
to be saved ; abolish free grace, and there is
nothing by whicli to save ;" or, as Augustine said
— " If there be not free grace in God, how can
he save the world ? and if there be not free-will
in man, how can the world be judged by God?''

116

CAM
5. That those who are effectually called and
sanctified persevere, and do not finally fall away
from a state of grace. For the sentence of par
don can neither be revoked nor cancelled, and
the Spirit works out his purpose on the soul,
though it may be with many failings and aberra
tions on the part of the believer. Ferfect depen
dence on the sustaining grace of God develops the
highest spiritual activity — this is the philosophy
of Calvinism. — See Aeminianism, Amyrald-
ism, Baxterianism, Pelagians. (See also
Acta Dordracena; Scott's Reply to Tomline;
Williams's Defence of Moderate Calvinism;
and the Lectures of Dick, Hill, Woods, and
Wardlaw.) Camaldoli, a religious order, founded by
an Italian fanatic, called St. Romuald, in the
eleventh century, who at first moved from place
to place, and founded small bodies of hermits,
and finally died at Val de Castro in 1027. The
name of the order was derived from the site of
their first monastery, Campo Maldoli, near the
Appennines. The first fixed rule was made by
Peter Damiani, and Camaldoli became the pat
tern for all the younger institutions. The rule
was peculiar — the monks dwelt in separate cells,
observed silence during Lent — nay, often for one
hundred days — fed on herbs on Sundays and
Thursdays, and on bread and water the rest of
the week, and wore a white robe ; for the foun
der had had a vision of persons so clothed ascend
ing on a ladder to heaven. The order became
relaxed in course of time ; and in 1431 Pope
Eugenio reformed it. The prior Justinian founded
a new order in 1520, and the pope gave it seve
ral rich cloisters. Both orders still exist, several
attempts at union having been made in vain.
Cambridge manuscript, or Codex D, a
quarto manuscript of the Gospels and Acts, found
by Beza in the monastery of St. Irenseus, at Lyons,
in 1562, and presented by him to the university of
Cambridge in 1581. The Greek and Latin are
arranged in parallel columns, which are written
in stichometrical lines, without any intervals be
tween the words — there being also neither accent
nor the signs of aspiration. It has not a few
mutilations and interpolations ; and some mar
ginal notations have been supplied by a later hand
or hands. It had been collated by Mill and Wet-
stein ; but a facsimile was published by Kipling,
in 2 vols, folio, 1793, Cambridge.
Cameronians.— See Covenantees.
Camcrouites, named after John Cameron,
born at Glasgow, 1580, and professor of theology,
first there, and afterwards at Bourdeaux, Sedan,
and Saumur, in France. One element of his
theory was, that divine grace moves the will
through the light imparted to the judgment, —
the synod of Dort holding that grace also directly
affects the will  See Amyraldism.
Cnuiisards, the name given to the Protes
tant insurgents in the reign of Louis XIV. The

CAM
tion of the Edict of Nantes, led to this outbreak,
which wanted, however, nobility and clergy to
guide and watch it, as at previous periods.
Fanaticism prevailed, and teachers supposed to
be inspired took the lead, popularly called French
prophets. They made severe and bloody repri
sals on their enemies; for truly oppression makes
wise men mad. Stung with fury, they armed
themselves for the wild justice of revenge;
their captains did not restrain them, and their
pastors had been banished or sent to the galleys.
— See Feench Peophets.
Campanarll, Campanatores, the Latin
name of the bell-ringers in the ancient church, —
campana, as the name of a bell, being first used
by Bede, and derived from Campana, where
they were first invented— campanile being the
tower in which they were hung.
Campbclli tes or Disciples of Christ, an
American Baptist sect founded by Alexander
Campbell, a Scotchman, who left the Presby
terian Church in 1812. Some of their tenets dif
fer little from the Christ-ians. — See Christ-ians:
They are scarcely held to be evangelical by many
parties. The faith which they require, before
immersion, is said to be a vague belief in the
evangelical history. Creeds they despise, and,
therefore, many varieties of belief may exist
among them under the general plea of "faith in
Jesus of Nazareth and a willingness to obey him."
Their churches embrace 150,000 persons.
Camp Meetings, out-door religious meet
ings. In the United States of America both
Methodists and Presbyterians frequently hold
camp meetings, generally with the view of pro
moting a religious revival. These meetings are
attended by large numbers of persons who con
gregate from several miles round : on some occa
sions the numbers have amounted to ten, fifteen,
and even twenty thousand. They come in all
sorts of vehicles, on horseback, and many on
foot several miles distant, laden with provisions
for their sustenance during the festival, which
not unfrequently is protracted for six or eight
days. Booths are erected, in which prayer-
meetings are held, and other religious exercises
performed ; and they have four sermons daily.
On the Sabbath (for that day is always included)
the inhabitants of the surrounding neighbourhood
flow in in vast numbers, swelling the number of
worshippers to an indefinite extent. The ser
vices of this day are sustained with unflagging
interest, and the most enthusiastic devotion
characterizes the entire proceedings from morn
ing till night ; the Lord's Supper is administered ;
prayer, singing, and preaching suffer no relaxa
tion ; conversions take place ; and the feelings of
tbe majority are more or less excited. Con
flicting reports have been made as to the tendency
and actual result of these meetings ; some main
taining that they foster a spirit of religious fana
ticism, and that scenes of immorality disgrace

terrific cruelties inflicted on them after the revoca- I their close; while, on the other hand, many sober
117

CAN
minded persons who have been witnesses for years
deny that any immorality attend these festivals,
but admit that considerable excitement prevails,
and that the ebullition of religious feeling is
sometimes startling, though not indecorous.
Camp meetings in England form an impor
tant feature in the religious customs of the people
known as Primitive Methodists. Within the
vicinity of nearly all our principal towns out-door
meetings are annually held by the members of
this denomination, either on a common, or in a
field granted for the purpose. The period of the
year generally chosen is Whitsuntide ; the ser
vices continue but one day, commencing about
seven o'clock a.m., and concluding about six p.m.
A couple of waggons drawn close together form
the rostrum, from which the preachers — both men
and women (for their women are not forbidden to
preach) — harangue the ever-fluctuating congre
gations by turns, throughout the day. — For a de
scription of an extraordinary camp meeting, see
Mrs. Stowe's Dred. — See Methodists.
Cancclli. — See Chancel ; see also Abata.
Candidi (clothed in white), a name often
given to persons newly baptized, because they
put on white robes. — See Alb.
Candlemags, a festival of the Christian
Church, in honour of the purification of the Vir
gin Mary and the presentation of our Lord in the
temple. It is celebrated on the 2d of February,
the fortieth day after the Nativity, and derives
its name from the consecration and distribution
of tapers, which then took place, according to the
ritual of the Romish calendar, from the cessa
tion, on that day till All Hallowmass, of the
use of lights at vespers and litanies ; a custom,
the memory of which is preserved in one of the
proverbs collected by Ray :
" On Candlemas day
Throw Candle and Candlestick away."
Hospinian (de Fest. Pur., 53), has detailed the
formularies used in the benediction of the tapers
on this day. The prayers are directed through
the intercession of the Virgin, that the candles
may be sanctified to the good and profit of all
men, and the health of the souls and bodies,
whether in earth or sea; that the creatures of
wax may be so blessed, that wherever they are
lighted or placed the evil spirit may tremble,
and with his servants be in such terror and con
fusion as to fly away.
The ceremonies observed on this festival are
probably derived from the Februan or purificatory
rites of Paganism, which occurred on the same
day, and which are briefly described by Ovid,
(Fast., ii.). Pope Sergius (a.d. 641) has the
credit of transferring this " false maumetry and
untrue belief," as it is styled by Becon, in his
Reliques of Rome, to "God's worship." This
pontiff hallowed the feast "thorowe all Christen
dome; and every Christian man and woman
of covenable age is bound to come to church,

CAN
and offer up their caudles, as though they were
bodily with our Ladye ; hoping for this reverence
and worship that they do to our Ladye, to have
a great reward in heaven." Fuller, in his Church
History, informs us tbat in a convocation in the
reign of Henry VIII., among the ceremonies
which it was decided were not to be contemned
or cast away, was specially reserved this of
"bearing of candles on Candlemass day, in
memory of Christ, the Spiritual Light, of whom
Simeon did prophecy, as is read in the church on
that day " (222). The consecration of tapers,
however, was prohibited by an order of council
in 1548.
The festival of Sta. Agatha, which commences
on Candlemass day in Sicily, still more plainly
resembles tbe corresponding Februan rites.
Lighted tapers form a distinguishing part of the
ceremonial ; and the memory of Proserpine is
still cherished, though under another superstition,
by kindling a blazing pine torch near the very
spot to which the mythological legend assigned
the scene of Pluto's amorous force. A clear and
detailed account of this festival will be found in
Blunt's Vestiges of Ancient Manners in Italy.
Candles. — See Lights on the Altar.
Canon, a prebendary in a collegiate or
cathedral church : his duty is to perform divine
service at certain seasons, for which he receives a
fixed income from the revenues. — See Prebend,
Chapter. A canon in the Church of Rome
is considered as a senator. At his promotion he
is thus presented to the chapter, who assemble in
the cathedral to receive him. Accompanied by a
deputy of the chapter, the bishop's notary, and
some witnesses, he enters the church, and ap
proaching the altar, kneels down and kisses it
thrice ; he then takes his seat in the choir, while
the deputy gives the chapter a formal account of
his promotion. The deputy next presents him to
the chapter, who receives the canon elect ; after
which he makes his confession of faith, and takes
the necessary oaths of allegiance to the pope and
to the rules of the church; whereupon, he is
declared a canon. Before the Reformation,
canons in England were divided into secular and
regular, — the former living in the world, and the
latter under some fixed rule, usually that of
Angustine. Monks were shaved, but canons
wore beards and "caps, with a long black cassock
and white rochet. There were 175 houses of
this kind in England and Wales. Canons regu
lar of the Holy Sepulchre were instituted in the
twelfth century, and had a home in Warwick at
that date. — See Gilbertines, PrjEMonstea-
TENSES. Canon Law. — The canon law is a collection
of ecclesiastical constitutions, decisions, and
rules, taken out of the Scriptures, and formed
from the opinions and writings of the primi
tive fathers, the ordinances of general and pro
vincial councils, and the decretals, epistles, and
bulls of the Holy See. By this law all matters

118

CAN
of policy in the Romish Church are regulated.
The first Syntagma of canon law was com
piled in the sixth century, by John the scholas
tic, a priest of Antioch. He was also the author
of Nomo-Canonon, both of which were published
at Faris in Justelle's Bibliotheca Juris Canonici,
tom. ii. Photius also, in the ninth century, com
piled a Syntagma Canonon, and a Nomo-Cano
non ; the former has not been published, but the
latter was published by Justelle at Paris, in 1 6 1 5,
with a Latin version and commentary. The
canon law which was in use throughout the west
till the twelfth century, was the Codex Canonum,
compiled by Dionysius Exiguus in 520, published
by Justelle in 1628, and revised by Isidore of Se
ville ; the capitularies of Charlemagne ; and the
decrees of the popes, from Siricius to Anastasius.
Between the eighth and eleventh centuries,
the canon law became so intermixed with papal
decrees from Saint Clement to Siricius, which
till then had been unknown, that it became neces
sary to review the whole, and form a new body of
canon law. This is contained in two principal
parts, the decrees and the decretals ; the decrees
being ecclesiastical constitutions, being made by
the popes and cardinals, and the decretals being
canonical epistles, written by the pope, or pope
and cardinals, at the suit of persons, for the de
termining some matter of controversy, and having
the authority of a law. The decrees were first
collected by Iro, Bishop of Carnat, in the year
1114, and perfected by Gratian, a Benedictine
monk, about the year 1150 ; who, animated by the
discovery of Justinian's Pandects, reduced the
ecclesiastical constitutions into method, in three
books still extant, which he entitled Concordia
discordantium Canonum, but more generally
known as Decretum Gratiani. They commence
about the time of Constantine, and extend to the
time of Pope Alexander III. ; they were allowed
by Pope Eugenius to be read in schools and ad
judged for law. The decretals were compiled by
Raymundus Barcinius, chaplain to Gregory IX.,
about the year 1230, and extend to his pontificate.
They are contained in five books, entitled Decre-
talia Gregorii IX. In 1298 a sixth book was
added by Boniface VIII., called Sextus Decre-
talium. The Clementines, or constitutions of
Clement V., were published by him in the council
of Vienna, about the year 1308, and authenticated
byhissuccesor, Pope John XXII., in 1317, who
also published twenty constitutions of his own,
called Extravagantes Joannis ; to these have since
been added some decrees of later popes, in five
bonks, called Extravagantes Communes. These
together, viz., Gratian's decree, Gregory's de
cretals, the sixth decretal, the Clementine con
stitutions, and the extravagants of John and his
successors, form the Corpus juris Canonici, or
body of Roman canon law. As the decrees
set out the origin of the canon law, and the
rights, dignities, and degrees of ecclesiastical
persons, with the manner of election, ordination

CAN
&c, so the decretals contain the law to be
used in the ecclesiastical courts. The first title
in each of them is the title of the blessed
Trinity and the Catholic faith, which is followed
by constitutions and customs, judgments and
determinations, in such matters as are liable
to ecclesiastical cogn;zance, the lives and con
versation of the clergy, of matrimony and
divorces, inquisition of criminal matters, purga
tion, penance, excommunication, &c. ; some of
the titles, however, of the canon law, are now out
of use, and belong to the common law ; and others
are introduced, such as trials concerning wills,
bastardy, defamation, &c.
Besides the pontifical collections, which, during
the time of Popery, were considered authentic in
England as well as in other parts of Christen
dom, there is also a kind of canon law, composed
of legatine and provincial constitutions, and
adapted only to the exigencies of the English
church and kingdom. The legatine constitutions
were ecclesiastical laws, enacted in national
synods, held under the Cardinals Otho and Otho-
bon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope
Clement IV., in the reign of Henry III., about
the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial con
stitutions are principally the decrees of provincial
synods, held under various Archbishops of Can
terbury, from Stephen Langton, in the reign of
Henry III., to Henry Chichele, in the reign of
Henry V., adopted also by the province of York,
in tbe reign of Henry VI. Thus much for the
canon law in general. As to the canons of this
kingdom at the dawn of the Reformation, in the
reign of Henry VIII., it was enacted, that the
canons and constitutions should be committed to
the examination of the king's highness and thirty-
two subjects, sixteen of whom should be temporal
peers, and sixteen of the clergy. By the seventh
section of the act, however, it was declared, that
until such review, all canons, constitutions, ordi
nances, and synodals provincial then made, and
not repugnant to the laws of the realm or the
king's prerogative, should be used and executed.
This review was again proposed in the reigns of
Edward VI. and Elizabeth, but it was never per
fected. The authority of tlie canon law in Eng
land, therefore, depends upon the above statute of
Henry VIII. As for the canons enacted by the
clergy under James I., 1603, but never confirmed
in parliament, it has been adjudged, upon the prin
ciples of law and the constitution, that where they
are not merely declaratory of the ancient canon
law, but are introductory of new regulations, they
are not binding on the laity, whatever regard tbe
clergy may think proper to pay them. 'Ihere are
four species of courts in which the canon laws (as
well as civil) are, under different restrictions, per
mitted to be used. 1. The courts of the arch
bishops and bishops, and their derivative officers,
usually called in our law, courts Christian,
" Curice Christianitatis" or the ecclesiastical
courts. 2. The military courts. 3. The courts

119

CAN
of admiralty. 4. The courts of the two uni
versities. The reception of those laws in gene-

CAN

rai, and the different degrees of their reception
in these courts, is grounded entirely upon custom,
corroborated to the universities by acts of parlia
ment, ratifying those charters which confirm
their customary laws. Blackstone, in his Com
mentaries, vol. i., p. 83, referring also to Sir
Matthew Hale's History of the Common Law,
ch. ii., subjoins the following remarks as appli
cable to these courts : —
" 1. The courts of common law have the super
intendeney over these courts, to keep them
within their jurisdictions, to determine wherein
they exceed them, to restrain such excess, and in
case of contumacy, to punish the officer who
executes, and in some cases the judge who
enforces, the sentence declared to be illegal. 2.
The common law has reserved to itself the
exposition of all such acts of parliament as con
cern either the extent of these courts or the
matters depending before them. And, therefore,
if these courts either refuse to allow these acts
of parliament, or will expound them in any other
sense than that which the common law puts
upon them, the courts at Westminster will grant
prohibitions to restrain and control them. 3.
An appeal lies from all these courts to the
king, in the last resort ; which proves that the
jurisdiction exercised in them is derived from the
crown, and not from any foreign potentate, or
from intrinsic authority of their own. From
these three marks of superiority, it appears that
the canon (and civil) laws, though admitted by
custom in some courts, are only subordinate and
leges sub graviori lege ; and that, thus admitted,
restrained, altered, new modelled, and amended,
they by no means form a distinct species of laws,
but are scions of the customary or leges non
scripta* of England, properly called the king's
ecclesiastical, military, maritime, or academical
laws." Canon of Scripture, the list of books which
the churches receive as inspired. It first signi
fied a catalogue or ecclesiastical list, such as
hymns to be sung, or of members belonging to
the Church, or of the clergy. — See Bible.
Canons Apostolical* — See Apostolical
Canons ; see also Constitutions.
Canonical, a name given to ecclesiastical
virgins because of their enrolment — differing
from monastic virgins in that they lived in their
fathers' house, and were not confined to a
cloister. Canonical Hours, stated hours of prayer,
more especially observed in the Church of Rome.
The institution of canonical hours had its origin
in the monasteries, where certain portions of the
day and night were set apart for prayer and
religious austerities. At first these stated periods
were only morning and evening ; soon a mid-day
or afternoon service was added ; after which other
additions were made, which augmented these

canonical hours to five, viz., the early morning
service, ju6t at day-break, the forenoon service
at nine, the noon-tide service at twelve, the after
noon service at three, and the evening service at
nightfall. In England canonical hours have
especial reference to the celebration of marriages :
they begin at eight and end at twelve o'clock,
before and after which hours, for the better
security against clandestine proceedings, no mar
riages can be solemnized, except, indeed, a license
from the Archbishop of Canterbury is obtained ;
but this is a privilege his Grace rarely exercises.
Canonical Letters, testimonials of ortho
doxy sent to one another by the bishops and
clergy, to keep out from their communion those
guilty of heresy and immorality.
Canonical Iiife, the rule of life prescribed
to the early clergy who lived in communities.
Canonical Obedience, that obedience which
the inferior clergy are bound to render to their
bishops, and bishops to their primates.
Canonical Pension. — See Clergy, Re
venue. Canonici, a name given to the clergy be
cause their names were inserted on a roll, or
canon, which Augustine calls tabula clericorun,
and which is also called matricula, — hence to
matriculate is to have one's name placed ttr
entered on the books of a college. i
Canonization, a process in the Romish
Church by whicli deceased persons are enrolled
in the canon or catalogue of saints. Canoniza
tion succeeds beatification, or that act by which
the pope declares a person happy (beatus) after
death, and which differs from canonization in
this respect, viz. — in beatification the pope does
not act as a judge in deuermining the state of the '
beatified, but only grants a privilege to certain i
persons to honour him by a particular religious
worship, without incurring the penalty of super
stitious worshippers; but, in canonization, the
pope speaks as a judge, and determines ex cathe
dra on the eternal state of the person canonized.
The canonization of saints was not known in the
Christian Church before the tenth century ; and
from the close correspondence of its ceremonies
with those which were performed at the apothe
osis or deification of the ancient Romans, it is
with great probability supposed to derive its
origin thence. In consequence of the multiplica
tion of saints during the dark ages, the canoniz
ing of any deceased Christians was prohibited
by a solemn ordinance, in the ninth century,
unless it were done with the consent of the
bishop. This edict occasioned a new accession
of power to the Roman pontiff, as it ultimately
vested in him the exolusive right of canonizing
whomsoever he pleased. John XV. was the
first pope who exercised this assumed right, and
who, in the year 995, with great formality,
enrolled Udalric, Bishop of Augsburg, among
the number of the saints. Before a beatified
person can be canonised, the pope holds four
120

CAN
consistories. In the first, he causes the petition
of the parties requesting the canonization to be
examined by three auditors of the rota, and
directs the cardinals to revise all the necessary
instruments ; in the second, the cardinals report
tbe matter to the Roman pontiff; in the third,
which is a public consistory, the cardinals pay
their adoration to the pope. One person, called
the devil's advocate, says all he can against the
person to be canonized, raises doubts on the
genuineness of the miracles said to be wrought
by him, and exposes any want of formality in
the procedure. It is said that the ingenuity and
eloquence of the devil's advocate nearly pre
vented the canonization of Cardinal Borromeo in
the seventeenth century. But another advocate
makes a pompous oration in praise of the person
who is to be created a saint, in which he largely
expatiates on the miracles said to have been
wrought by him, and even pretends to know
from what motives he acted. In the fourth and
last consistory, the pope having convened all the
cardinals and prelates, orders the report concern
ing the deceased to be read, and then proceeds to
take their votes, whether he is to be canonized
or not. Previously to pronouncing the sentence
declaring the beatified party to be a saint, tbe
pope makes a solemn protestation that, by this
act of canonization, he does not intend to do
anything contrary to faith, or to the Catholic
[Romish] Church, or to the honour of God. On
the day appointed for the ceremony, the church
of St. Peter at Rome is hung with tapestry,
on which are emblazoned the arms of the pope,
and of the sovereign or prince who desires
the canonization, and is also brilliantly illumi
nated. Thousands of devout members of the
Romish communion fill that capacious edifice,
eager to profit by the intercessions of the new
saint with the Almighty. During the ceremonj'
of canonizing, the pope and cardinals are all
dressed in white. The expenses, which are very
considerable, are defrayed by the royal or princely
personage at whose request the beatified person
is enrolled among the saints. The cost of canon
izing the Saints Pedro de Alcantara and Maria
Maddalenadi Pazzi, under the pontificate of Cle
ment IX., amounted to sixty -four thousand
scudi, something more than £13,000 sterling.
The present practice of the Roman see is, not to
allow any inquiries to be entered into previously
to canonization, until at least fifty years after
the death of the person to be canonized.
In the Greek Church, the power of enrolling
persons in the number of saints is vested in the
patriarchal see of Constantinople. The patriarch
and his bishops, in full synod assembled, must first
inform themselves very exactly concerning the life
and actions of the person to be canonized, who
must be eminent for the miracles he has wrought,
and for the sanctity of his life. The testimony of
a thousand witn jsses is required, who must either
have personally beheld them, or, having learnt 1

CAP
them from persons of irreproachable character,
must give solemn assurances of them. Canoniza
tions are not frequent in the Greek Church,
partly on account of the great expense attending
them, and partly on account of the immense
number of saints already enrolled in the calen
dar, two or three of whose anniversaries occur in
one day. When, however, a person is canonized,
a day is fixed for his festival, on wliich his me
mory is annually celebrated. Mass is performed,
and hymns are sung in his honour ; an account
of the saint's miracles and other good works is
read ; and finally his life is inserted in the St/nax-
arion, or Book of Saints. (Mosheim's Eccl. Hist.,
cent, ix., part ii., ch. iii., cent, x., part iii., ch.
iii. ; Fabricii Bibliotheca Antiquaria, p. 269-275,
where a catalogue is given of the Romish saints
who were canonized between the years 995 and
1712; Hurd's Religious Rites and Ceremonies,
p. 244, et seq. ; Broughton's Hist. Diet., vol. i.,
sub voce).
Canopy or Ciborium, an ornament over
hanging the altar, often in the form of a small
turret upon four pillars, and is not to be con
founded with the pyx, in which the host was
kept. — See Altar, Ciborium.
Canlharns, a capacious vessel, a fountain in
the atrium or area in front of ancient churches',
for the use of the worshippers, who washed their
faces and hands before they entered. Eusebius
says, that in the court over against the church
were placed fountains (xgwai) of water, as sym
bols of purification, for such to wash as entered
into the church. In some places the fountain
was surrounded with lions, out of whose mouths
the water flowed ; hence tbe place was sometimes
called Leontarium; and it was also called " ipiaXtj,"
basin. Tertullian, in one of his discourses, ex
poses the absurdity of men going to prayers with
washed hands, whilst tbey retained a filthy
spirit and polluted soul. Some of the Roman
Catholic writers pretend to justify their use of
holy water from the existence of this ancient
custom. — See Church,Font.
Capa or Cappa. — See Cope.
Capetlanus (chaplain), from capella, a kind
of hood, and afterwards applied to chapels,
oratories, or private churches, of which the
capellanus was minister ; and of these there were
various orders. Places where relics were kept
were also called chapels, and their keepers chap
lains. — See Chaplain.
Capitularies, ecclesiastical ordinances of the
kings of France, beginning from the age of
Charlemagne. Capuchins, Order of, founded by a Fran
ciscan of the Duchy of Urbino, named Matthew
de Bassi. Having seen St. Francis represented
with a peculiar cowl (capuche), he adopted the
like form, with tbe permission of Pope Clement
VII. This was in the year 1525. Two other
monks followed his example ; after which the
pope permitted them to retire to some hermi-
21

CAP
tage, and retain their new habit.
innovation, however, gave such offence to the
Franciscans, that they set on foot a persecution
against them, so that they had to flee from
place to place, until at length they were afforded
protection in the palace of the Duke de Came-
rino. In the year 1527 the pope confirmed to
those three persecuted Franciscans, and all who
desired to belong to their community, the privi
lege of wearing the square capuche. " In the fol
lowing year the order was established, Matthew
Bassi being chosen vicar-general. He drew up
constitutions for the government of the order,
which enjoined, among other things, that they
should not hear the confessions of seculars, should
travel on foot, observe seasons of silence, say
but one mass daily, and not perform divine ser
vice by singing. An order of nuns of the same
rule .was established at Naples in the year 1538,
by Maria Lucretia Longa, a noble and pious
lady of Catalonia. After her death other nun
neries of the same order were established, two of
which were at Rome, and one at Pari3, founded
by the Duchess de Mercasur, in the year 1604.
This remarkable lady taxed her ingenuity to make
her convent remarkable for its mode of pious tor
ture ; for she crowned with thorns the heads of
the poor young women who relinquished the
endearments and useful occupations of life for the
unprofitable and rigorous routine of monastic
duties. Caputiati, a sect which arose in the twelfth
century, and got their name from a peculiar cap
worn by them, having a leaden image of the
Virgin upon it. Their professed aim was to
level all distinction of rank and office.
Caputium. — See Hood.
Caput Jejunii. — See Lent.
Caracalla. — See Cassock.
Caraites or Karaites (that is, Scriplurists),
a small Jewish sect, so denominated from their
adhering closely to the text and letter of the
Scriptures, in opposition to the Rabbins, who
add to the written law, to all the traditions of
the Talmuds, the Cabala, &c. The origin of
this sect is involved in considerable 'obscurity.
The Caraites themselves assert that the genuine
succession of the Jewish Church has been pre
served only among them ; and they have pro
duced a catalogue of their doctors, whom they
affirm to have flourished in an uninterrupted
series from Ezra, the inspired scribe. Rejecting
these pretensions, some learned men have referred
their origin to the time at wliich the traditional
or oral law was introduced, together with caba
listic interpretations of the written law, about
one hundred years before the Christian era; and
they think that there is reason to believe that
these traditions and interpretations were opposed
by a numerous body, who maintained the suffi
ciency of the Scriptures of the Old Testament
alone, in its literal sense, and became a distinct
sect under the name of Caraites. Others again 122

CAR
Their cowl : are of opinion, that this sect was not formed be
fore the completion of the Babylonish Talmud —
that is, soon after the sixth century, or, at the
earliest, not till after the publication ofthe Misna,
which was completed in the former part of the
third century. But, whatever may have been
the true period of their origin, it cannot be de
nied that they have subsisted for many centuries.
Two of their doctors, who flourished about the
middle of the eighth century, and who declared
openly for the written Word of God, to the'utter
exclusion of all traditions, seem to have been
regarded by the Rabbinists as most formidable
opponents; and they have transmitted their
names to posterity as " Anan the wicked and
his son Saul," not forgetting to add execrations
of their memory. The Rabbinists charge the
Caraites with most of the errors of the Saddu-
cees ; such as denying the immortality of the
soul, and the existence of spirits. The Caraites,
however, disclaim these accusations, and assert
their orthodoxy. In common with other Jews,
the Caraites deny that the Messiah, who they
expect will be a temporal king, is come; and,
professing to believe that his advent has been
delayed, they discourage all calculations respect
ing the time of his appearance. But they reject
all books not in the old canon of the Jews; and
they require an implicit faith in Holy Scripture,
without examining whether any article of the
law be true or false. They also differ from the
other Jews in various particulars respecting the
feasts of Passover, Fentecost, and Tabernacles :
they reject the rabbinical 6alendar, and celebrate
the feast of new moon only when they can see
it. They have neither Tephillin nor phylac
teries, nor Mezuzoth, nor schedules for door
posts ; contending that the passages of Scripture,
in which the Rabbins suppose these things to
be enjoined, require a figurative interpretation.
They considerably extend the degrees of affinity
within which marriage is prohibited ; and they
admit of divorce, but not on the slight and fri
volous grounds allowed by their Talmudical
brethren. The Caraites have at no time been
numerous. About the middle of the seventeenth
century, Dr. Prideaux computed them to be
4,430 ; and they are at present so inconsiderable
in point of numbers, that they perhaps do not
equal the number of rabbinical Jews in Lon
don only. They are chiefly found at Damascus,
Constantinople, and Cairo, and in Persia, Lithu
ania, and the Crimea. In this last-mentioned
country Dr. E. D. Clarke found a colony of
Caraites settled at Dschonfoutkate, an ancient
fortress, originally constructed by the Genoese
upon a very lofty precipice, where they dwell in
the full enjoyment and exercise of their ancient
customs and peculiarities. Caraites (he states)
deem it to be an act of piety to copy the Bible,
or copious commentaries upon its text, once in
their lives. The character of the Caraite Jews
is directly opposite to that generally attributeij

CAR
to the Jews in other countries, being altogether
without reproach. Their honesty is proverbial
in the Crimea ; and the word of a Caraite is con
sidered equal to a bond. Almost all of them are
engaged in trade or manufacture. They observe
their fasts with the most scrupulous rigour, ab
staining even from snuff and from smoking for
twenty-four hours together. They also observe
extraordinary care in the education of their chil
dren, who are publicly instructed in the syna
gogues. (Basnage's History ofthe Jews, book ii.,
ch. 8, 9 ; Enfield's History of Philosophy, book
iv., ch. i. ; Prideaux's Connection of the History
ofthe Old and New Testaments, vol. ii., part ii.,
book v., sub anno, 107, sec. 3; Allen's Modern
Judaism, ch. 25, in which the causes of the Ca
raites' dissent from the Rabbinists are given at
length in the words of one of tbe Caraitish doc
tors; Dr. E. D. Clarke's Travels in various
Countries of Europe, &c, part i., vol. ii., ch. iv.,
8vo. ed.)
Cardinal is the title given by the Theodosian
code to some of the highest ofiicers of the em
pire. It is supposed to have been introduced
into the Romish Church in the time of Gregory
the Great. The name is generally explained as
from " cardo, cardinare" — to hinge. Cardinal sig
nifies "principal," as " venti cardinales" — the four
winds from the cardinal points ; " princeps cardi-
nalis" — a sovereign prince; and we speak of chief
or cardinal truths. The cardinals are ecclesiastical
princes, or the principal ecclesiastics next to the
pope, by whom they are created. The following
is the form of address from the Roman pontiff,
in creating a cardinal : " Creamus te socium re-
gibus, superiorem ducibus, et socium nostrum ;" sind
on presenting him to the other cardinals, he sa}-s,
" Habetis frairem." The cardinals are created
by the pope when it happens that there are
vacancies, and sometimes he nominates only one
or two at a time ; but commonly the promotion
is deferred until there are ten, twelve, or more
vacancies. The persons thus promoted are
generally selected from such ecclesiastics as
have held offices in the Roman court; though
some are chosen from religious orders. Eminent
ecclesiastics of other countries are likewise
elevated to this dignity ; and the sons of sovereign
princes have frequently been honoured with a
cardinal's hat. They are divided into three
classes or orders, consisting of six cardinal
bishops, fifty cardinal priests, and fourteen car
dinal deacons, making in all seventy persons,
and constituting (when their number is full),
what is termed the sacred college, three of
whom form a consistory. The number of car
dinal bishops is always complete; but that of
cardinal priests and deacons is rarely full. The
six cardinal bishops are those of Ostia, Porto,
Sabina, Prameste or Palestrina, Tusculnm or
Frescati, and Albano. Their distinctive dress is
scarlet, to signify that they ought to be ready to
*hed their blood for the faith and the church,

CAR
when the defence and honour of either require it.
They wear a scarlet cap and hat ; the former is
given to them by the pope, if they are at Eome,
and is sent to tliein if they are absent ; but the
hat is never conferred except by the pope's own
hand; and they receive the titles of "eminence"
and " most eminent." Most of the great offices
in the Roman court are held by the cardinals,
who enjoy very extensive privileges. They have
absolute power in the church during the vacancy
of the Holy See : to them belongs the sole right
of electing the pope, for which purpose they
assemble in conclave ; and they are themselves
the only persons on whom the choice can fall.
(Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, cent, xi.,
part ii., ch. ii., cent, xvi., sect, hi., part, i., ch.
i. ; Adam's Religious World Displayed, vol. i.,
p. 309, 2d edit.)— See Pope.
Carmelites or White Friars, a religious
order of "Our Lady of Mount Carmel." It
appears that in the twelfth century, owing to the
violence to which the hermits in Syria were at
tbat time subject from the incursions of bar
barians, Aimerie, the papal legate in the east,
and Patriarch of Antioch, collected many of them
together, and located them on Mount Carmel,
where the prophets Elijah and Elisha had for
merly resided. In 1205 Albert, Patriarch of
Jerusalem, furnished them with rules, which
were subsequently confirmed by Pope Honorius
III. The Emperor Frederick II. having been
compelled to conclude a peace with the Saracens
on terms disadvantageous to the Christians, in the
year 1229, the hermits were then obliged to quit
the Holy land. They, however, soon took root
in several parts of Europe. Their rule under
went several alterations, first by Pope Innocent
IV., and afterwards by Popes Eugenius IV. and
Pius. Hence this order is divided into two
branches — those who follow the original austere
rule, and they who observe the relaxed one.
They affect to trace their descent from the
prophets above-named — a conceit which the
Jesuits stoutly controverted. The controversy
between those rival orders of a church which
boasts of its unity, was very warmly main
tained, till a brief, issued by Innocent XIL,
under date of Nov. 20, 1698, silenced both
parties. Shirts of linen are not worn by those
religionists, linsey-woolsey being preferred ; their
scapulary is a small woollen habit, of a brown
colour, thrown over their shoulders ; and their
outer garment is a coarse woollen stuff, bound
round the loins with a woollen girdle.
Carnival (carni vale, farewell to flesh), the
season just before Lent, which is given up in
popish countries and in Rome itself to every form
of revelry and amusement, such as feasts, proces
sions, operas, and masquerades.
Carol, a chant sung by the common people,
from the Nativity to the twelfth day. The
Christmas carol may be traced to the primi
tive Church. Teitullian (advers. Gentil., 39),

123

CAR
states that at their feasts it was customary for
the Christians to place in the middle such as
were able to sing, and call upon them to praise
God in a hymn, either out of the Scriptures or
of their own invention. Durand also informs us
(Ret, vi., 86, 9), that it was usual for the bishops
on Christmas day to make sport, and even to sing
with their clergy; and this custom was an
imitation of the Gloria in excelsis of the angels,
as we learn from Jeremy Taylor — " These
blessed choristers had sung their Christmas
carol, and taught the church a hymn, to put
into her offices for ever, on the anniversary of this
festivity." — See Mysteries.
Carpocratians. — This most immoral of all
the Gnostic sects owes its origin to Carpocrates,
an Alexandrian, who not only allowed but
enjoined a vicious course of life, as in conformity
with the will of God, and necessary for the
attainment of salvation. At least, so we learn
from Irenseus and Clement. Carpocrates taught
that Jesus was a mere man. In other respects
his system possessed the common features of
Egyptian Gnosticism, and perhaps borrowed more
freely than most of them from the Platonic theory
of the emanation of human souls from a world.
of light. He flourished before the middle of the
second century. The sect, though small, con
tinued to the sixth century.
Carthusians, an order of the Catholic
Church, founded by a professor of philosophy,
named Bruno, in the year 1080. The story
upon which the establishment of this order is
based, runs thus : — A friend of Bruno, who had
sustained an excellent character, having died,
Bruno attended his funeral; as the funeral ser
vice was being performed, the dead man raised
himself upon his bier, and exclaimed, " By the
just judgment of God I am accused." The
people, thunderstruck by the strangeness of the
incident, deferred the interment of the body till
the next day, when the dead man again raised
himself, and said, " By the just judgment of God
I am damned." Bruno and six others were so
deeply affected that they retired to the desert of
Chartreux, where they built a monastery on a
spot of ground granted them by Hugh, Bishop of
Grenoble, in Dauphine'. The Carthusian order
is very rigid ; its members cannot leave their
cells nor speak to any one, no not to their own
brothers, without the permission of their superior;
they must not suffer any part of their portions of
food or drink to remain till next day, except
herbs or fruit; they sleep on straw, with a
covering of felt or coarse cloth ; and their cloth
ing is of haircloth. They wear haircloth
shirts, white cassocks, and over these, black
cloaks; they refuse animal food; fast every
Friday, except that, they have a small allowance
of bread and water; they observe an almost
perpetual silence ; cannot discourse without
permission ; and then it must be in a modest
manner, and the voice so modulated as not to

124

CAS
descend to a whisper, nor rise to a brawl ; ana
they confess their sins every Saturday. Womea
are not suffered to enter their churches, which
are in general very beautiful. The Carthusian
convent at Naples is most magnificent ; nothing
is to be seen in the church and house but marble
and jasper, statues, bas reliefs, paintings, &c,
About the year 1180, this order made its appear
ance in England. A convent was established in
London, where the Charter-house (a corruption
of the original term) now stands ; and other
monasteries were founded in various parts of the
country. The articles which each brother is
allowed to possess are : — Two needles, some
thread, scissors, a comb, a razor, a hone, an
ink-horn, pens, chalk, two pumice stones,
two pots, two porringers, a basin, two spoons, a
knife, a drinking cup, a water pot, a salt cellar,
a dish, a towel, tinder, flint, wood, and an axe ,
all these, besides the bed, with felt covering, and
woollen and haircloth clothing already mentioned.
It may be instructive to add that the Carthu
sians of Cologne have the hem of Christ's gar
ment, which the woman afflicted with the loss of
blood touched in order to be cured. The ladies
of that place send wine to the Carthusians, to
have the relic steeped in it, which they drink
upon emergent occasions. (See Broughton's
Dictionary, Burder's Religious Customs. )
Cartularies, papers belonging to ancient
monasteries, containing deeds of sale, exchange,
and gift, or a record of such immunities or privi
leges as they enjoyed.
Cassock, the under dress of the clergy, being
a long coat with a single upright collar. As
worn by the English clergy, it is black ; but
among the Romish, bishops wear purple, cardi
nals scarlet, and popes white. It seems to have
been anciently called caracalla, which was also
a nickname or surname given to one of the em
perors, because his favourite dress was a long
French tunic.
Casuist. — The fifteenth and sixteenth centu
ries were fruitful in professors of casuistry, or
theologists who applied the study of morals and
law, divine and human, to the resolution of
doubts of conscience. Thus, a casuist was one
who could determine whether any particular
action was permitted or forbidden; and what,
under certain stated circumstances, ought to
be the course of action which a man should
pursue in relation to his conscience. By this
process the elevated morality of the Gospel was
soon reduced to cold and lifeless questions ; and
the broad rule of right and wrong therein de
livered, was lost in the subtle refinements of
scholastic disputation. The Jesuits were the
great propagators of this system, which in itself
comprised the whole mystery of that universal
influence which they affected over the spirits of
mankind. A confessor who was believed unerr
ingly to decide on every case, however nice and
difficult, which might be proposed to him by the

CAS
penitent at those moments in which the inmost
heart was unveiled, and who could discriminate
between all the varied shades of deadly and of
venial sin, apportioning by strict measure the
just degree of punishment to each, could not but
be all-powerful ; and infinite pains were accord
ingly taken to educate the priests for this branch
of duty, the most important of all to the temporal
interests of their order. One of the most cele
brated casuistical manuals was framed by Esco
bar of Mendoza, a Spanish Jesuit, who died in
1669, at more than eighty years of age. He
states his great work, the Theologia Moralis, to
be the marrow of no less than twenty-four doc
tors ; and alluding to the seven seals of the book
in the Apocalypse, he affirms that his volume,
sealed in like manner, is offered by our Saviour,
in presence of the four-and-twenty aforenamed
Jesuits, who represent the four- and-twenty elders,
to the great casuists Suarez, Vasquez, Molina,
and Valentia, who personify the four beasts.
But the mischievous effect which may be pro
duced by the profane vanity of Escobar is not to
be compared with that which must result from the
filthy abominations with which Sanchez (who, by
a strange paradox, is said to have been a model
of austerity and piety in his conduct) permitted
his imagination to be glutted in the foul seclusion
of his cell. His prodigious volume (as it is
styled by Petrus Aurelius), Disputationes de
Matrimonio, has, it is true, met with defenders
in Sotuel (Bibl. Script. Societ. Jesu, 252), and
Raynard (De bonis et malis libris, 57, and
Hoplotheca, 362), but it is far more justly de
scribed by the above-named Aurelius, as " Un
cloaque qui renferme des choses horribles. Un
ouvrage honteux, compose' avec un curiosity
enorme, horrible et odieux par la diligence ei
Vexactitude qui y regene, a penetrer dans des
choses monstruesuses, sales, infames et diaboliques."
These are strong words, but they are equalled by
those of Rivetus, who says this volume contains
"Talia quae vix diabolus ipse studium omne adhiben-
do, suggerere posset" (Expl. Decalogi). Whether
Sanchez invented the enormities which he has
recorded from the depraved sources of his own
fancy, or learned them from the dangerous con
fidence of the confessional, is a matter of dispute
even among his defenders ; but in either case, the
cause of religion and morals, which he pretended
to espouse, has received a dangerous wound by
his unblushing and shameful revelations.
The publication of Pascal's famous Lettres
Provinciales in 1659, inflicted a blow upon the
casuistical theology from which it has never re
covered. That finest of all satires was aimed
more especially at the Jesuits ; and not casuistry
in itself, but casuistry as taught by their order,
was the mark at which its raillery was directed.
But the whole fabric gave way at once before it,
and the huge tomes which once swayed the con
sciences of the greater part of Christendom are
now scarcely to be discovered even amid the dost

CAT

and cobwebs of such reading as is never rea d.
Most of the names of the authors above referred
to betray a Spanish original, and therefore may
not unjustly be assigned to disciples of Ignatius
Loyola. Casula. — See Chasidle.
Catacombs. — In the Lapidarian gallery of
the Vatican in Rome, Paganism and Christianity
stand confronted. On the one side are tablets,
inscriptions, and epitaphs, belonging to the old
religion ; on the other are sepulchral slabs, and
monumental sculptures, taken from that vast
under-world in which the Church of Rome found
a ready refuge in times of imperial persecution,
and in which, for more than three hundred years
the Christian population of the Eternal City
possessed a place of unenvied and undisturbed
interment. The creed of Jupiter proclaims its
vices and vanities on the tombstones and urns of
its votaries ; but on those rough blocks, with
their rude and shapeless memorials, the faith
that is in Christ exhibits its power and glory,
"graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock
for ever." The heathen relics on your one hand,
of tasteful form and lavish ornament, covered
with the pithy hexameter, the terse maxims of
sullen stoicism, or the gay watchwords of epi
curean frolic and dissipation, and emblazoned,
too, with the proud names and titles of illustri
ous descent and civic prerogative, tell the melan
choly fate of " many mighty, many noble," who
went down to the grave with a lie in their right
hand. But as you turn away in sadness, and
look on your other hand, your spirit throbs with
joy ; for the artless and often ill-spelled scrawls,
cut without skill or pains on these humble Chris
tian memorials, torn from a subterranean ceme
tery after it had been shut and forgotten for a
thousand years, speak of an oppressed people,
often driven to live and worship in rocks, dens,
and caves of the earth, — a people that " dwelt
alone," and committed their dead to a resting-
place which ferocity could not plunder nor im
piety desecrate.
The simplicity and purity of the early Church
in Rome may be easily and accurately gathered
from these tombstones. It was their creed to
"balieve, and love, and suffer." They had
learned to look on death, not as a gloomy anni
hilation or an eternal sleep. The Styx and
Lethe of a sombre nrythology had given place
with them to the " pure river of water of life,"
flowing from the throne of God and the Lamb.
The elysium of which their ancestors dreamed —
so earthy, so sensual, and so thickly peopled by
pale and sickly shades — no longer delighted
them. Heaven was their hope — a world of purity
and love ; the spirits of just men made perfect, its
busy and refined population ; and their noble ex
ercise and employment the praise and service of
Him who made them — of Him who redeemed
them. They felt a cheering nearness to departed
I friends, and were upborne by the thought of an
125

CAT
eternal and indissoluble reunion. Their deceased
brethren were not lost, but only gone before, and
they were prepared to follow when the summons
came. Death was translation to glory. The
spirit, bursting its fetters of flesh, passed at once
into heaven, and hid itself in the bosom of God ;
and though the body was committed to darkness
and to dust, in deep and lonesome caverns, where
light never penetrated nor foot of ordinary way
farer ever trod, they knew it to be precious to
Christ, and felt assured of its being raised a per
fect and spiritualized structure. Nor had they
any idea of an intermediate state of purgatorial
fires. No. They reckoned well, — that if they
were absent from the body, they would be pre
sent with the Lord. Their faith is found in
scribed in the calm hope of immediate and eter
nal felicity. The philosophers around them were
without God, having no notion of immortality,
and looking forward to death as the final extinc
tion of their being. A darkness that might be
felt enveloped all their views of futurity. Their
pulse stood still with horror as they anticipated
the approach of mortality, and they never
formed any conception or cherished any antici
pation of a resurrection. To die — to perish — to
cease to be — the doom was inevitable. Its speed
could not be arrested ; swift and fatal, it seized
its miserable victims. But the glory and crown
of Christianity is its promise and securement of
life. The despised followers of the Son of God,
in the days of the Csesars, scorned by the patri
cian, pitied by the sophist, and wondered at by
the crowd — the disciples of a foreign creed, and a
strange and simple ritual — had the invaluable
assurance of a life not interrupted by dissolution,
enjoyed on no lowly sphere, but in that region of
pure serenity, where "are pleasures" at God's
"right hand for evermore." Death, then as
now, unfolded the power of religion, faith in
Christ being as the star which shines with
brightest radiance when the gloom of night en
velopes the earth. Those " sermons in stones,"
taken out of the catacombs, are to us, not only an
eloquent lesson of the power and comfort of god
liness, but afford at the same time an unexpected
and triumphant evidence of the hopes and holi
ness of that church in the world's metropolis,
whose faith the apostle affirms was, at an early
period, " spoken of throughout the whole world "
(Rom. i. 8).
In the latter days of the republic, when Rome
was so rapidly growing in extent and architec
tural splendour, it was resolved to open quarries
for sand and building materials in the immediate
vicinity of the city. Accordingly the volcanic
subsoil in the neighbourhood of the enlarging
capital was gradually excavated, by means of
numerous perforations, extending on one side to
the distance of fifteen miles. These subterrane
ous pits and passages were a kind of net-work,
full of connected windings and galleries, having
many entrances, numerous points of junction, and

126

CAT
still more numerous divergences— mile upon
mile of dark labyrinth and devious and intricate
recesses. The sand-diggers were a low and de
graded caste, but they seem to have at a very
early period embraced Christianity. Those
among them who were Christian converts secreted
their fellow-believers in periods of danger. The
first persecutions drove hundreds of Roman Chris
tians to those secure retreats among the mines of
sand and cement under the ground, and the em
perors in their edicts oftentimes interdicted the
Christians from entering into them. Worship
was there conducted in the day of "trouble and
rebuke " — lamps, pulpits, desks, and fonts, used
on such emergencies, have been found in abun
dance. The catacombs are also described by
Jerome, and they are often alluded to in the
poetry of Prudentius. The persecutors occasion
ally found access to the catacombs, and caught
some of the refugees. Four bishops, with several
presbyters and deacons, were, at different periods,
traced in their flight, apprehended, and put to
death. Sometimes, too, they heaped earth upon
the entrances, to smother tie inmates ; and, at
other times, they flung the captives down the
eyes or apertures, that they might be dashed to
pieces. Those vaults became in course of time
the Christian cemeteries, and 70,000 epitaphs
are said to have been contained in them. Con
stantine at length formally handed them over to
the Church as a sacred donation. But in the
fifth and sixth centuries they were gradually
disregarded and blocked up with rubbish. The
barbarian from the north and east then pressed
hard upon Rome, and the sand-pits being no
longer needed, the knowledge of their turns and
chasms was easily lost.
It was not till the pontificate of Sixtus the
Fifth, in 1585, that this vast necropolis was dis
entombed, and its multifarious contents treasured
up in the museums of modern Rome. Round
their walls are now ranged these interesting
relics, often placed face to face with similar ves
tiges of pagan antiquity. They stand out in
contrast with paganism, and also with the errors
and superstitions of that sect that fondly names
itself the Church of Rome. If popish Rome
would but thus look " to the rock whence she.
was hewn, and to the hole of the pit whence she
was digged," she would learn that her peculiar
ities are but recent innovations, and had no place
in that church which first lived, and taught, and
worshipped in the City of the Seven Hills, or
among the dim and dreary vaults scattered over
the Italian Campagna.
I. Christianity opposed to Paganism  The
following are a specimen of heathen darkness and
impiety found on the monuments of the Roman
dead:— 1. One given by Mabillon, — "7, Pro-
cope, lift up my hands against God, wlio snatclied
away me, innocent. She lived twenty years.
Proclus set up this." 2. One taken from the
right-hand wall of the Lapidarian gallery:—

CAT
" Caius Julius Maximus (aged) two years and
five months. 0 relentless fortune, wlio delighted
in cruel death, why is Maximus so suddenly
snatched from me t He, who lately used to lie
joyful on my bosom. This stone now marks his
tomb— behold his mother." 3. The following was
copied by Gruter: — " To tlie Divine Manes of
Titus Claudius Secdndus, who lived fifty-
seven years. Here he enjoys everything. Baths,
wine, and hve ruin our constitution, but they
make life. Farewell; farewell. To her dear
companion, Merope Gsbakka has erected this.
For themselves and their descendants." In these
epitaphs there is either the expression of deep
melancholy, rebellious unbelief, or dissolute
scepticism. But the Christian "sorrows not, even as others
which have no hope." Among the exhumed
Christian tablets may be seen the following in
scriptions of unaffected piety and submission : —
" Vidalio, in the peace of Christ." — " Vic-
torina, in peace and in Christ." — " Ganella
sleeps here in peace." — " Vibginius remained
but a short time with us." — " The sleeping-place
of Elpis." — " To Libeea Maximilia, a most
loving wife. She Uved in peace." — " In Christ.
Martyrius lived ninety-one years, more or less.
He chose a home during his lifetime. In peace." —
"In Christ. In the time ofthe Emperor Adrian,
Marius, a young military officer, who had lived
long enough, when with blood he gave up his life
for Christ. At length he rested in peace. The
well-deserving set up this with tears and in fear.
On the sixth before the Ides of  .'' — " Lannus,
Christ's Martyr, rests here. He suffered under
Diocletian. (The sepulchre is) also for his
successors." — "Here Ues Gordianus, deputy of
Gaul, who wis executed for the faith. With all
his family: tliey rest in peace. Theophila, his
handmaid, set up this."
How simple and pleasing are these homely
records of solace in death ! How eloquently they
speak of the blessed hopes of the early Church,
at a period when it was surrounded by pagan
altars, oppressed by royal intolerance, and over
borne by vulgar clamours ; when it was com
pelled to celebrate its worship, and bury its dead
by stealth, under the shade of night, and in the
unapproachable depths of the earth ! With what
vigour and triumph did the Church that assem
bled in the catacombs embrace the blessed truth
of Him who " hath abolished death !" In these
obscure sepulchral chapels, amidst streets of
graves, and with the ashes of the saint, the bones
of the martyr, and the emblems of mortality on
every side, they often cheered themselves with
the song of hope and eternal blessedness. And
as their hymn was prolonged through the sur
rounding aisles, or caught up and repeated by
successive echoes, till at last it died away amid
the distant passages and profound abysses, oh
what joy, "unspeakable and full of glory,"
swelled their bosoms, lighted up their faces, and

CAT
mingled a thrilling emphasis with that strange
melody which floated through the niches and
corridors of this city of the dead !
II. The early Church of Rome stands opposed,
not only to Paganism, but to Popery. — The tablets
from the " Catacombs " are in direct contrast
to the errors and grossly anti-scriptural fables
and dogmas of Popery, found in the more modern
self-called Church of Rome. The old Church of
Rome, as found in these receptacles of truth sealed
in blood, had no notion of purgatory, of clerical
celibacy, of prayer to the Virgin, of paintings of
her Son, or of adoration to the martyrs. The
only, or almost the only, symbol seen on those
sepulchral stones, is the cross. 1. They believed
in the immediate blessedness of the dead. The
following is a specimen : — " Macus (or Marcus),
an innocent boy. You have already begun to be
among the innocent ones. How enduring is such
a life to you!" The phrases, "rest in peace,"
or "may God refresh you," are sometimes added;
but these are merely the natural expression of a
blessed hope, that the deceased has rested in
peace, and has been refreshed by God. 2. The
ministers of Christ had also in that old period
wives and families. Thus we read among tbe
tablets : — " The place o/*Basil, Hie presbyter, and
Ids Felicitas. They made it for tliemselves." —
" Once the happy daughter ofthe presbyter Gabi-
nus, here lies Susanna, joined wit/i her father in
peace" — " Petronia, a deacon's wife, the type
of modesty." — " In this place I lay my bones ;
spare your tears, dear husband and daughters,
and believe that it is forbidden to weep for one
who lives in God. Buried in peace, on the 3d
before the Nones of October, in the consulate uf
FESTUs(i.e.,m472)." — "Claudius Atticianus,
a lector, and Claudia Felicissima, his wife."
(Lector, a reader.) — "Terentius, the fossor, for
Primitiva, his wife, and himself." (Fossor is
gravedigger.) There are symbols found also of
several actions and scenes of Christ's life rudely
sketched, but no image of Jesus has been dis
covered. No divine titles are given to the mar
tyrs ; they were imitated and honoured, but
not adored. Up to the year 350, Christians
were accused of worshipping only one dead
man; and that was the "man Christ Jesus."
The enemy never hinted that the worship of
the new sect had a multiplicity of objects,
either tbe Virgin or the saints. (Bosio in
Roma Sotleranea, 1632 ; Boldetti in his
Osservazioni sopra i cimiterii, dei Santi Martiri.
Bottari, Aringhi, Mabillon, Raoul Rochette,
are well known also in this department. See
The Church in the Catacombs: a description
of the Primitive Church of Rome, illustrated
by its Sepulchral Remains, by Charles Mait-
Iand, M.D., second edition, revised, London,
Longman, 1847.)
Cataphrrgians. — See Montanists.
Catechctic Schools were erected adjoining
the churches where the catechumens assembled

127

CAT
to receive instruction from the catechists. A
famous catechetic school, or school of divinity,
existed for many years at Alexandria, the origin
of which St. Jerome traces to the evangelist
Mark, the founder of the church in that city.
Several such schools were established at Rome,
Caesarea, Antioch, and other places. — See Cate
chism. There was one very singular use to
which certain apartments in those catechetic
schools were converted, viz., ecclesiastical pri
sons ; in these, offending clergymen were confined,
and otherwise punished, by the direction and
authority of the bishop ; for which reason they
were called " decanica, " or prisons of the church.
Catechism. — At first, all who professed to
believe in Jesus Christ, and repented of their
past sins, were immediately admitted to baptism,
as was Simon Magus, and were subsequently
taught the particular doctrines of the Christian
religion; but, afterwards, none were admitted to
baptism until they had been instructed in the
principles of the Christian faith. Hence arose
the distinction between believers and catechu-
.mens. The course of catechetical instruction
given to adults consisted chiefly of the exposition
of the Ten Commandments, of a creed or sum
mary confession of faith, and the Lord's Prayer.
The important work of catechising appears to
have continued with unremitting diligence, until
the Church of Rome found it necessary to conceal
the errors which she had introduced into the
religion of Christ, by keeping the minds of men
in total ignorance of the truth. For several cen
turies a fatal darkness pervaded the church ;
and even many of the clergy were so ignorant
as to be almost unable to perform the public
offices of devotion. Early in the fifteenth cen
tury, however, the gloom dispersed, and the light
of the Reformation banished the tyranny of papal
influence from a great part of Europe. No
sooner was the Reformed Religion established
than provision was made for the instruction of all
persons, especially children, in the fundamental
doctrines of religion. But amidst the many
prejudices which then prevailed, it was necessary
that the first promoters ofthe Reformation should
observe tbe same caution which had been evinced
in all the other religious transactions of those
times. Therefore, it was thought sufficient to
begin with such common things as were
acknowledged equally by Papists and Protestants.
The first catechism consisted simply of the Creed,
the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer;
and it was no easy matter to bring even these
into general use. They were received by the
people, in the midst of the profound ignorance
which then reigned, as a species of incantation ;
and it was long before the grossness of vulgar
conception was sufficiently enlightened to appre
hend that the Creed, the Decalogue, and the
Lord's Prayer, were designed simply to direct
their faith, practice, and devotion.
So small was the progress made in catechetical

CAT
instruction, from the beginning of the Reforma
tion till so late a period as the year 1549. A
Shorte Catechisms, or Playine Instruction, con-
teynynge the summe of Christian Learninge, sett
fourth by the Kings maiesties authoritie for all
Scholemaisters to teache, was the work which
closed the labours of the Reformers in the reign of
King Edward VI., whose name it commonly
bears. In this manual, according to Archbishop
Wake, the complete model of the present Cate
chism of the Church of England was first laid ;
and it was also in some measure a public work ;
for, although Dr. John Poynet, Bishop of Win
chester, is generally understood to have been the
" certayne godlye and learned man," mentioned
as the author in the prefixed injunction, which
recommends it " to all scholemaisters and teachers
of youthe," yet " the debatinge and diligent ex
amination thereof was committed to certain by-
shoppes and other learned men ;" after which it
was published by the king's authority. It was
printed both in English and in Latin in the same
year, 1543 (Bp. Randolph's Enchirid. Theol., vol.
i., pref. p. vi., first edit. These two catechisms
are accurately reprinted in The Two Liturgies
a.d. 1549 and a.d. 1552, with other Documents
set furth by authority in the reign of King Ed
ward VI. Edited for the Parker Society by the
Rev. Joseph Ketley, M. A., London, 1844). The
Catechism of the United Church of England and
Ireland, now in use, is drawn up after the primi
tive manner, by way of question and answer. It
consists of five parts, viz., 1. The Doctrine of the
Christian Covenant; 2. The Articles of Belief ;
3. The Commandments ; 4. The Duty and Effi
cacy of Prayer ; and 5. The Nature and End of
the Holy Sacraments.
Among Expositions or Lectures on the Cate
chism those of Archbishops Wake and Seeker, of
Bishops Williams, Beveridge, and Nixon, of
Gilpin, Walker, Adam, Daubeny, Gordon, and
Haverfield, have their respective admirers; be
sides which there are several smaller manuals
recommended by the Society for promoting Chris
tian Knowledge. The Reformation, which was
so favourable to the diffusion of pure religion in
Great Britain, produced similar beneficial effects
on the Continent. At an early period Luther
wrote two catechisms : and of the duty which he
thus prescribed to others, he was himself a bright
example ; for he assures us that catechising
afforded him more delight than any other minis
terial duty. The same care was taken by Calvin
and other eminent Reformers abroad. The
Westminster Assembly compiled a Larger and
Shorter Catechism — the latter framed apparently
on the model of the famous Heidelberg Catechism
—known everywhere in Scotland, and taught in
all schools save the few which are professedly
Romish, or Episcopalian, or Secular. It is an
admirable compound of theology, though too pro
found for younger children : it has been often
commented on, as by Binning Watson, Ridgley,

128

CAT
and others. In 1592 a catechism was prepared
by Mr. John Craig, one of the ministers of
Edinburgh, and approved by the General As
sembly. The Romanists felt the power of
catechising; for, in the introduction to the
Catechism for Curates, composed by the Decree
of the Council of Trent, and published by com
mand of Pope Pius V., they complain that " there
were as many catechisms carried about as there
are provinces in Europe, yea, and almost as many
as there are cities." Sensible, therefore, that
catechising was the most efficacious mode of
preserving their religion, the Romish divines pre
sent at that assembly composed a catechism,
which the priests are enjoined to teach the people.
An English translation of the Trent Catechism,
as it is commonly termed, was published at
London in 1687, "permissu superiorum" under
the patronage of James II. ; another by J. Dono
van, at Dublin, in 1829, in octavo, and another
by Buckley, London, 1852.
In 1574 there was published at Cracow a Latin
Catechism, or Confession of Faith, of the Con
gregation assembled in Poland in the name of
Jesus Christ our Lord, who was crucified and
raised from the dead. It is ascribed to George
Schumann, an eminent Socinian teacher ; and is
considered to be tbe first catechism published by
the followers of Socinus. It probably was the
source of the Racovian Catechism, so called from
its being published at Racow. The task of re
forming it was first confided to Faustus Socinus
and Peter Statorius, on whose decease the work
was entrusted to Valentine Smalcius and Jerome
Moscorovius. The catechism, as re-modelled by
them, was published in the Polish language in
1605. By Smalcius it was translated into Ger
man, and published in 1608. In 1609 Moscoro
vius published a Latin translation of it at Racow.
The literary history of the Socinian Catechism
will be found in Rees's Hi-torical Introduction,
prefixed to his translation of the Racovian Cate
chism, from the Latin, published at London in
1818, in duodecimo.
Catechiat. — The office of catechist in the
ancient Church was sometimes discharged by
the bishop, sometimes by the presbytery, and
sometimes by the deacons. A distinct class was
also added from among the best instructed of the
laity, whose duty consisted in giving private in
struction to those placed under their care. They
were bound to show the catechumens the contract
they were to make, and the conditions they were
to perform, viz., repentance, faith, and new
obedience, in order to their admittance into the
Christian ship, the church, in which they were to
pass through this world to the kingdom of
heaven. Hence they were called "nautologi"
(vxvTeXeyoi), or ship-agents, as we should say.
— For an account of the women-catechists, see
Deaconess. Catcrhnmenia, that portion of the church
where the catechumens assembled. — See Church.

CAT
Catechnmens were the lowest order of
Christians, whose instruction in the principles of
the Christian religion formed the first part of the
service of the church. Though but imperfect
Christians, being unbaptized, they were acknow
ledged to be within the pale of the church.
Persons were admitted into this state by imposi
tion of hands, prayer, and the sign of the cross.
The baptized children of believing parents were
admitted catechumens as soon as they were
capable of learning; but it is not certain at
what age those of heathen converts were admis
sible. There were four classes or degrees of catechu
mens, each rising above the others, viz. — 1. Those
who were privately instructed without the
church, and who were for some time kept at a
distance, in order to make them more eager and
desirous of the privilege of entering the church.
2. The Audientes or Hearers, who were so deno
minated from their being permitted to hear ser
mons and the Scriptures read in the church, but
who were not allowed to stay and participate in
the prayers. 3. The Genuflectentes or Kneelers,
to whom the name of catechumens is more espe
cially given by the fourteenth canon of the coun
cil of Nice. A great part of the liturgy particu
larly applied to this class : it was called " Ka-
Tw^flfjWEvwv Ei/%71," the prayer of the catechu
mens, and came immediately after the bishop's
sermon. The council of Neocsesarea distin
guishes these by the name of TovuxXtvovrts,
because they always received imposition of
hands kneeling upon their knees. 4. The last
class or order was by the Greeks called Bau--
rl^ofisvoi and <&airiZim.ivot, and by the Latins
Competentes and Electi; which words, among
the ancients, denoted the immediate candidates
for baptism, who had delivered their names to
the bishop, signifying their intention to be bap
tized at the next approaching festival of Easter
or of Whitsuntide. From their petitioning for
this favour, they were termed competentes, and
from the bishop's approbation or choice, they
were styled electi. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem,
always terms this class " iairi^a/iniiii," or illumi
nated, as having received the illumination of
catechetical instruction ; and the author of the
Apostolical Constitutions uses the word Bavrrify-
jtitci, not for those who were already actually
baptized, but for those who were desirous of re
ceiving that sacrament. The competentes hav
ing delivered their names and being accepted,
both they and their sponsors were registered in the
diptychs or church books. — See Diptychs. Pre
viously to their reception of the sacrament of bap
tism, they were repeatedly examined concerning
the proficiency they had made in Christian doc
trine -. they were all exorcised for twenty days,
during which they were obliged to frequent fast
ings, prayers, and confession of their former sins,
which confession was sometimes public and
sometimes private, as the wisdom of the church
129 K

CAT
directed. At this time the competentes were
taught to repeat the creed, which they were
obliged to say before the bishop at their examin
ation for baptism. With the creed they were
also taught to make the proper responses in
baptism, particularly the form of renouncing the
devil and covenanting with Christ. Some days
before baptism they went veiled, or with their
faces covered, in order probably that their
minds might be more at liberty, and that the
wandering of their eyes might not distract their
soul. Some other minor ceremonies appear to
have obtained in different churches, which it is
not necessary to state. If any catechumens
lapsed into gross offences, they were usually
degraded from one class or order to another ; or,
if their crimes were heinous, they were denied
baptism until the hour of death. If they died
without baptism by neglect, or by their own
fault, they were disqualified for Christian burial.
Where, however, there was no contempt, but
only some necessity prevented the baptism of
catechumens, the ancients treated them a little
more favourably; not considering the mere want
of baptism under these circumstances to be of
such consequence as to exclude men from church
communion. Several cases were excepted by
those who were most rigorous in their opinions
on this subject, and who held that the want of
baptism might be supplied by other means, when
necessity prevented the reception of it. The
chief of these excepted cases was martyrdom,
commonly termed by the ancients second baptism,
or baptism in men's own blood. Tertullian and
Cyprian were both of opinion that it was avail
able, not only to compensate for the want of bap
tism, but also to restore it when it had been
lost. Nearly allied to this, and entitled to the
same indulgence, was the case of those cate
chumens who died suddenly during their pre
paration for baptism and the exercise of a holy
life. To which may be added one case more, in
which some of the fathers made an allowance
for the want of baptism, viz., when the church,
presuming a person to have been truly baptized
(he himself entertaining the same presumption),
admitted him to communicate constantly for
many years. In such a case, though it ulti
mately appeared either that the party had not
been baptized at all, or at least with a very
doubtful and suspicious baptism, yet constantly
communicating with the church was deemed an
equivalent for this defect or want of baptism ;
and such person was allowed to continue in the
church without being re-baptized. (Bingham,
book x., ch. i. and ii.)
Catena) (chains), in Greek, ruga!, a running
commentary formed out of several authors, such
as the Catena Aurea of Thomas Aquinas, the
Synopsis of Matthew Poole, and the well-known
Catena taken from the Greek fathers, and re
cently edited by Cramer at Oxford. According
to some, Procopius of Gaza, according to others,

130

CAT
Andreas of Cesarea began the practice. (Fabricii,
Bibl. Graeca., viii., p. 637.)
Cathari (xalagoi, pure), (1,) a title assumed
by the Novatians; and (2,) a name given,
especially in Germany, to those parties of semi-
Manichcenns, who, in the twelfth century, ap
peared in many parts of Europe, combining their
dualistic principles with determined opposition to
the corruption of the Romish Church, and so
gaining many proselytes, especially in the coun
tries in which the avarice and other vices of the
clergy had caused discontent and disaffection.
The Italian form of the word was Gazari, and
they were also called in that country Paterini, (q. v.)
In France they were known as Publicani, Boni
homines, and Albigenses. — See Novatians.
Cathedral, a church in which is placed the
bishop's throne (xat'Cofa, chair): it is therefore
the chief or principal church in the diocese or
district. The bishop's throne was formerly
placed in the chancel, and at each side of it were
lower seats for the presbytery, who, with the
bishop as chairman (cathedralis or cathedratU
cus), constituted the council; hence we find
the title assessores episcqporum applied to the
elders or presbytery. The cathedral, or bishop's
church, in the African Canons is frequently
termed " ecclesia matrix"- — that which required
the peculiar care and residence of the bishop, as
the principal church of the diocese ; and thus it
is opposed to the ecclesia; dicecesance, upon which
only presbyters resided. In the decrees of the
council of Carthage, the ecclesia matrix is termed
principalis cathedra. Stavely (History of Churches
in England, v.) contends that cathedrals were
built by pious princes before other churches, and
that in many respects they long maintained a pre
minence above them. Thus the right of baptism
and sepulture belonged to them exclusively, un
less in case of necessity (Selden, History of Tithes,
263), and therefore they were called the mother
churches; for, as men were born from their
mother's womb, so Christians were born from
the font, the church's womb, which at, first was
peculiar to cathedrals. Hence, in a question of
law whether a place of worship be a church, or a
chapel appertaining to the mother church, the
issue to be tried is, whether it has » baptistery
and burial ground, and if it has these it is
adjudged to be a church (Coke, 2 Inst, foi. 343) ;
and on the same ground afterwards rural and
parochial churches were styled mother churches
relatively to the chapels belonging to them. — See,
Mothering Sunday. With regard to cathe
drals in England, canons 42, 43, 44 thus enact:
" Every dean, master, or warden, or chief gover
nor of any cathedral or collegiate church, shall be
resident in his said cathedral or collegiate church
fourscore and ten days conjunctim or divisim in
every year, at the least, and then shall continue
there in preaching the Word of God, arid keep
ing good hospitality, except he shall be other
wise let with weighty and urgent causes, to be

CAT
approved by the bishop of the diocese, or in any
other lawful sort dispensed with. And when he
is present, he with the rest of the canons or pre
bendaries resident shall take special care that
the statutes and laudable customs of their church
(not being contrary to the Word of God, or pre
rogative royal), the statutes of this realm being
in force concerning ecclesiastical order, and all
other constitutions now set forth and confirmed
by his majesty's authority, and such as shall be
lawfully enjoined by the bishop of the diocese in
his visitation, according to the statutes and cus
toms of the same church, or the ecclesiastical
laws of his realm, be diligently observed ; and
that the petty canons, vicars, choral, and other
ministers of their church, be urged to the study
of the Holy Scriptures ; and every one of them
to have the New Testament, not only in English,
but also in Latin. The dean, master, warden,
or chief governor, prebendaries, and canons in
every cathedral and collegiate church, shall not
only preach there in their own persons so often
as they are bound by law, statute, ordinance, or
custom, but shall likewise preach in other
churches of the same diocese where they are
resident, and especially in those places whence
they or their church receive any yearly rents or
profits. And in case they themselves be sick,
or lawfully absent, they shall substitute such
licensed preachers to supply their turns, as by
the bishop of the diocese shall be thought meet
to preach in cathedral churches. And if any
otherwise neglect or omit to supply his course, as
is aforesaid, the offender shall be punished by
the bishop, or by him or them to whom the
jurisdiction of that church appertaineth, accord
ing to the quality of the offence. No preben
daries nor canons in cathedral or collegiate
churches, having one or more benefices with
cure (and not being residen tiaries in the same
cathedral or collegiate churches), shall, under
colour of their said prebends, absent themselves
from their benefices with cure above the space
of one month in the year, unless it be for
some urgent cause, and certain time to be
allowed by the bishop of the diocese. And such
of the said canons and prebendaries, as by the
ordinances of the cathedral or collegiate churches
do stand bound to be resident in the same, shall
eo among themselves sort and proportion the
times of the year, concerning residency to be
kept in the said churches, as that some of them
always shall be personally resident there ; and
that all those who be, or shall be, residentiaries
in any cathedral or collegiate church, shall,
after the days of their residency appointed by their
local statutes or customs are expired, presently
repair to their benefices, or some one of them, or
to some other charge where the law requireth
their presence, there to discharge their duties
according to the laws in that case provided.
And the bishop of the diocese shall see the same
to be duly performed and put in execution." 131

CAT
As to the form of English cathedrals Dr. Hook,
after speaking of the original shape and ar
rangements in popish times, thus remarks: —
" Subsequent changes were of course subject to
many variations, but they generally followed
much this course. First, the apse was taken
down, and the eastern arm of the cross was
extended considerably, so as to enlarge the pres
bytery or part in which the altar stood, and to
add a retrochoir in place of the old processionary
behind it ; and this change was probably con
nected always in prospect, and often at once,
with the carrying up of the choir eastward of the
great tower, or, in other words, reconciling the
ritual with the architectural arrangement. After
this yet another addition was made to the east
end, which was often nearly equal to the nave
in length ; and the Lady chapel was built beyond
the presbytery and retrochoir. In the course of
these arrangements the several screens, the rood
screen and the altar screen, had to be removed.
The rood screen was placed within the eastern
arch of the tower, which may now be called its
proper place, wherever the church has received
its usual additions. This screen is now almost uni
versally used as an organ loft ; and it is obvious
to remark, that though the organ intercepts the
view from the west end of the church, it cer
tainly does not do so more than the rood and its
accompaniments formerly did. The altar screen
first became necessary at the enlarging of the
space behind the altar: it formed the separation
of the presbytery from the retrochoir. In some
mstances this arrangement has been disturbed of
late years, but always with bad effect. The
modifications of these plans and arrangements
are various, but oftener on the side of excess
than of defect. The Lady chapel is not always
at the extreme east At Ely, for instance, and
once at Peterborough, it was at the north. The
great transept is never omitted (Manchester can
hardly be called an exception, since it has only
lately been made a cathedral) ; but a second
transept to the east of the tower was often added,
as at Canterbury, Lincoln, and Salisbury.
Sometimes, as at Durham, the second transept
is carried to the extreme east end of the church,
which it crosses in the form of a T. Sometimes
there was a western transept, treated in the same
way as at Ely and Peterborough ; and at Dur
ham, Ely, and Lincoln was another considerable
addition, called the Galilee porch. At Canter
bury the whole arrangement of the east end is
very remarkable, tbe crown of Thomas a Becket
taking the usual place of the Lady chapel.
The shrines of reputed saints, and chantry
monuments inserted in different portions of the
fabric, with too little respect for its general effect,
are constant additions to the plan ; but it would
be useless to attempt to reduce these to a general
rule, and endless to enumerate particular cases."
Catholic, a surname, so to speak, adopted by
the first Christians to distinguished themselves

CAT

from those sectaries who at different times broke
off from the general body of professors, and
formed themselves into parties for the purpose of
giving prominence to certain dogmas inculcated
by "heretical" teachers, in opposition to the
generally received opinions. Eusebius and other
early writers observe that the only property of
sects and heresies was to take party names, and
denominate themselves from their leaders ; while
the great and venerable name of Christian
was neglected by them. The Christian Church,
therefore, adopted the term " Catholic," as ite
characteristic designation; hence Paeian says,
in answer to Sempronian, who demanded of him
why Christians called themselves Catholics,
" Christian is my name, and Catholic my sur
name ; the one is my title, the other my character
or mark of distinction." The following extract
from Clarke's sermon on the subject will be found
appropriate: — "Theirs* and largest sense of
the term Catholic Church is that which ap
pears to be the most obvious and literal meaning
of the words in the text (Heb. xii. 23), ' The
general assembly and church of the first-born
which are written in heaven ;' that is, the whole
number of those who shall finally attain unto
salvation. Secondly, The Catholic or Universal
Church signifies, in the next place, and indeed
more frequently, the Christian Church only — the
Christian Church, as distinguished from that of
the Jews and patriarchs of old ; the Church of
Christ spread universally from our Saviour's
days over all the world, in contradistinction to
the Jewish Church, which was particularly con
fined to one nation or people. Thirdly, The
Catholic Church signifies very frequently, in a
still more particular and restrained sense, that
part of the Universal Church of Christ which
in the present age is now living upon earth, as
distinguished from those which have been before
and shall come after. Fourthly and lastly, The
term Catholic Church signifies, in the last place,
and most frequently of all, that part of the
Universal Church of Christ which in the pre
sent generation is visible upon earth, in an out
ward profession of tbe belief of the gospels, and
in a visible external communion of the Word and
sacraments. The Church of Rome pretends
herself to be this whole Catholic Church, exclu
sive of all other societies of Christians."
The title of most Catholic majesty is borne by
the Kings of Spain. Mariana asserts that it was
given to the Gothic Prince Recaredus after the
extermination of the Arian heresy, and that it
was acknowledged by the council of Toledo in
589. Vaste states that it was first assumed by
Alfonso on the re-establishment of Christianity
in Spain in 738; but the first authentic occur
rence of the title cannot be traced higher than
the reign of Ferdinand of Arragon, on the expul-
siou of the Moors in 1492. The same title was
also borne by Philip of Valois, King of France
(Froissart, L), but was superseded by that of

CEL
most Christian and eldest Son of the church, the
recent salutation of the' pope to Louis Napoleon.
Catholic Apostolic Church. — See Ie-
vinqites. Caveat, in law, a process in the spiritual
court, to stop the probate of a will, &c, or the
institution of a clerk to a benefice. When a
caveat is entered against an institution, if the
bishop afterwards institules a clerk, such institu
tion is void, the caveat being a supersedeas. A
caveat entered in tlie life-time of the incumbent
has been adjudged void, though if entered " dead
or dying," it will hold good for a month ; and
should the incumbent die then, for six months
after his death. A caveat entered against a will,
is said by the rules of the spiritual court to re
main in force for three months, and that while it
is pending a probate cannot be granted ; but
whether the law recognizes a caveat, and allows
it so to operate, or whether it only regards it as
a mere cautionary act by a stranger, to prevent
the ordinary from committing a wrong, is a point
upon which the judges of the temporal courts
have differed.
Ceimeliarcba:, keepers of the xupiXix, or
sacred vessels and utensils, were officers in the
ancient Church, usually belonging to the rank
of presbyters. They were sometimes named
sceuophylaces, from another Greek term ; and as
rolls and archives were under their charge, they
also got the name of cartophylaces, or custodes
archivorum. In the modern Greek Church the
sceuophylax often acts as the patriarch's substi
tute. As a matter of course the room or reposi
tory where the sacred things were kept was
called sceuophylacium, or ceimeUarchium, and
sometimes secretarium.
Celestines, an order founded by Peter de
Meuron, in the year 1254, under the title of the
Hermits of St. Damien. The first establishment
was on a solitary mountain near Isernia, in the
kingdom of Naples. In the year 1286 De
Meuron's love of solitude induced him to quit the
community he had formed ; but he was not long
suffered to enjoy his seclusion ; for, eight years
afterwards, he was chosen, on account of his re
puted piety, to fill the pontifical chair, under the
name of Celestin V. Hence the change in the
name of his order to that of Celestines. Feeling
the burden too great for him, he resigned his
pontificate just five months after his inaugura
tion, and betook himself again to retirement. He
died in the year 1296. After his death his
order made rapid progress in Italy, France, and
other places. Their habit consists of a white
gown, a capuche, a black scapulary, and serge
shirt, and when they go out they wear a black
cowl. They fast every Wednesday and Friday
from Easter to the Feast of the Exaltation of the
Cross, and from that period to Easter every day.
They are forbidden animal food, except when ill.
They rise two hours after midnight to say
matins. An order of hermits was founded also

132

CEL
in the same pontificate, under the same name
They were greatly persecuted by the friars
minors, by Pope Boniface, by the Patriarch of
Constantinople, and by the inquisitor of the
Neapolitan State.
Celibacy. — The vow of celibacy is imposed
by the Romish Church upon all who enter its
ministry in any degree of orders. That such a
vow is not required of Christians in holy writ,
nor consonant to the practice of the primitive
Church may be readily proved ; and the obliga
tion to marry placed on the Jewish priests by the
Mosaic institution, shows how the older revela
tion sought not to establish any unsuitableness
between conjugal and religious duties. The
evidences of the practice of the early Christians
on this point are collected by Bingham with his
usual fidelity (book iv., c. 5, sec. 5). It is gene
rally believed, he says, that all the apostles, ex
cept St. Paul and St- John, were married ; and
Clemens (Slromata, 3 ), Eusebius (iii., 60), and
Origen (Comm. in Rom., }.), have contended that
the first of them was so also, from an expression
in the text (Phil. iv. 3). This verse, however,
forms no argument. But there is another kind
of proof on which some stress may be laid. If
Paul was a member of the sanhedrim, then he
must have been married. Much depends on the
precise meaning of the phrase " xartvsyxa i^jjpuv"
— I gave my vote against them (Acts xxvi.
10). If the words are to be taken in their literal
acceptation, and there appears no good reason
why they should not, then they imply that
Saul was at the period » member of the san
hedrim; and one necessary qualification for a
seat in that high court was to be a husband and
a father. But his wife and children had not
long survived ; for when the apostle wrote to the
Church in Corinth he was unmarried. One ob
jection to this view is, that dhitfly men of years
were admitted to the sanhedrim, and Saul must
have been comparatively young at the time. But
perhaps his zeal and courage may have opened
the path to bim; and as for the qualification
referred to, we know that it was customary
for the Jews to marry at a rather early age.
In the age immediately succeeding that of the
apostles, we read of the wives of Valens, Presby
ter of Philippi (Polycarp, Ep. ad Philip., il, 11),
of Chceremon, Bishop of Xilus (Eus., vi., c. 42),
of Novatus, Presbyter of Cartluge (Cyprian, Ep.,
49), of Cypiian himself, of Csecilius, who con
verted him (Pont., Vit. Cyp.), and of several
other bishops and presbyters. Against these
facts, which are not contested, it is pretended
that married persons promised to separate them
selves from their wives as soon as they should
receive ordination. The history of Novatus dis
tinctly proves the contrary. He was accused,
long after he was a presbyter, of having caused
the miscarriage of his wife by a passionate blow.
In the first three centuiies we read of no in
junction to celibacy. It was, indeed, once pro-

CEL
posed by the intemperate zeal of Pinytus, Bishop
of Gnossus ; but the more prudent authority of
Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, restrained him by
a wise admonition, not to impose anv compulsory
burden (Ap., Eus., iv., 23). The question was re
newed in the council of Nice, a.d. 325, but was
eloquently opposed by Paphnutius, an Egyptian
bishop, who, though himself unmarried, contended
that the marriage bond was chaste and honourable,
and pointed forcibly to the moral dangers result
ing from so unnatural a prohibition (Socr., i., 1 1;
Sozomen., i., 23). Succeeding councils lent a
more favourable ear to the proposal. That of
Aries, in 340, permitted persons who were mar
ried to be ordained, but required that they should
ever afterwards live separate from their wives.
Pope Syncing, in 385, and Leo, in 442, pro
mulgated decrees yet more rigorous ; but it was
not until the pontificate of Gregory the Great,
near the close of the sixth century, that the law
was universally received. In the Greek Church
it did not prevail till a century later, and even
then it was but- partially admitted. At the
council of Trullo, held a.d. 692, bishops were
enjoined to separate themselves from their wives,
who, in order to prevent any possibility of re
newal of intercourse, were instructed to betake
themselves to monasteries ; but all orders of the
Church beneath episcopacy were permitted to
enter into, or to retain the bond of marriage.
At the council of Trent it was proposed that
the interdict which prevented the marriage of
priests should be removed ; and in the system
of theology named the Interim, prepared by
Charles V. in 1548, one express article stipu
lated that such ecclesiastics as had married, and
would not put away their wives, might be
allowed nevertheless to perform all the functions
of their sacred office. The Interim, it is well
known, was rejected with indignation by the
Vatican. No act, indeed, in the course of the
Reformation gave so much offence to the Papists
as the marriage of the clergy. Those already
in orders who took wives were held to be per
jured, and those who succeeded in the next
generation, although they might not have en
gaged in the ministry under the same vow,
were considered to be profaned and desecrated
if they took wives. Both the person and the
reputation of Catherine Bora were objects of
mean and ribald attack when she gave her hand
to Luther. Erasmus himself joined in the cry.
He believed for a time that the baptism of
Luther's child was solemnized within a few days
of his marriage, and he did not think it quite
improbable that Antichrist might be the pro
geny of the unfrocked monk and the renegade
nun (Epist xviii., 22). No topic is handled
more frequently, or with more asperity, in Sir
Thomas More's controversial writings, than the
breach of ecclesiastical celibacy. It was not
till the reign of Edward VI. that an act was
passed repealing all laws and canons which

133

CEL
required the clergy to live single. In the per
secutions of the following reign such as had
embraced the married state were visited with
peculiar severity. " Are you married ?" was
the first question of the brutal Gardiner to
Hooper, on his examination. " Tea, my Lord,"
replied the martyr, " and will not be unmarried
till death unmarry me." Even the gentler
Tunstall treated the same prisoner with indig
nity upon this point, calling him beast, and
saying this alone was matter enough to deprive
him. Taylor and Cranmer were interrogated
in like manner, and answered with equal spirit.
Elizabeth reluctantly tolerated, but never could be
persuaded to legalize the marriage of her clergy.
On the other hand, it would be no difficult task
to detail tbe enormities which this severe and
unnatural law produced, and the numerous and
flagrant crimes which may be traced to it, in
conjunction with the dangerous and convenient
practice of auricular confession. The remedy of
concubinage on the part of many of the clergy,
wliich was not only permitted but enjoined
in several parts of Europe, sufficiently evinces
the still greater dissoluteness which it was
intended to suppress. Even before the Re
formation these abuses had not escaped occa
sional notice. We need not cite the memorable
decree of the council of Paris, held under Car
dinal de Corceone in 1212, the enforcement of
which was loudly called for so late as 1643, by
the pious author of Advis Chretien touchant une
matiere de grande importance, nor the equally
memorable work of the Cardinal Pierre Damien,
the title of which proclaims the wickedness
which it sought to suppress. The story of the
6,000 heads of murdered children which were
found by Gregory the Great in his fish-pond,
may be classed, in its fullest extent, among the
many opprobrious and improbable falsehoods by
which all religious communities have been as
sailed ; but the very existence of a controversy
as to this tale among the Papists themselves,
proves that either it is not wholly groundless, or
that they are unable to advance the morals of
their clergy as a sufficient and positive contra
diction to it. But Montserrat alone is an in
controvertible evidence of the depraved habits
which celibacy occasioned, and which he details
in his Avisos sobre los Abusos de la Iglesia
Romana; for he had witnessed before his re
cantation the foul practices which he condemns ;
and finally, there must have been some founda
tion for the terrible disclosures which are con
tained in Le Cabinet du Roi de France and La
Polygamic Sacre~e. — See Monachism, Monas
teey. Ccllites, a name given, from the cells in
which they lived, to a sect or society formed
at Antwerp early in the fourteenth century, for
the purpose of ministering to the dying and
taking care of the interment of the dead —
qffices which were much neglected by the clergy,

CER
especially where there was supposed to be
danger of infection from pestilential disorders.
They were sometimes called Alexian brethren
and sisters, from the name of their patron
saint, Alexius; and sometimes Lollards, from
their chanting a dirge at funerals. Societies
of the same kind were soon formed in many
parts of Germany and Flanders. They were
vehemently opposed by the clergy and the mendi
cant friars, and were accused of many vices and
many errors, so that the word Lollard became
a common term of reproach for one who con
cealed errors of doctrine or a vicious life under
the mask of extraordinary piety. But there is
no reason to suppose that the Cellites were
hypocrites of this kind. On the contrary, their
character seems to have been cleared from the
imputations of their enemies ; for a bull was
issued in 1472, ordering that they should be
ranked among the religious orders, and be ex
empted from the jurisdiction of the bishops;
and in 1506 they obtained from Julian VI. still
greater privileges.
Cells.— Anciently the inner parts ofthe portico
of churches were divided into small places of re
tirement, sometimes called cubicula, or small
chambers, where worshippers might retire for
meditation and prayer. They were regarded as
a portion of the catechumenia, or belonging to
the catechumens.
Cemetery (xoiprrrr.^iov, sleeping place, dor
mitory), an appropriate name for a Christian
burying-place, where the dead rest in hope.
The name, as well as that of necropolis, is now
commonly given to the places of sepulture which
have recently been set apart for burial in the
vicinity of our larger towns, the older church
yards having been found to be too crowded, and
therefore to be insalubrious. A general act was
passed in 1850, giving power to the Board of
Health to shut existing burial places whenever it
was deemed necessary. Burial in cities or
churches was forbidden for many centuries in the
Church. — See Burial. But the places where
martyrs were buried often became sites of
churches, which therefore were sometimes called
cemeteries. — See Altar.
Cenobites. — See Ccenobites.
Cenones, the second order in the hierarchy of
the Montanists. The origin of the name is un-
known. Censures. — See Discipline.
Centenarii or Hecatontarchre (Hundre-
dors), u species of diviners condemned by the
council of Trullo, and probably so named because
they were leaders of companies in some of the
idolatrous processions.
Centuries.— See Magdeburg Centueies
or Centuriators.
Ccrdon was a Syrian Gnostic, who taught at
Rome in the middle of the second century. Hi?
fame was so eclipsed by that of his disciple Mar-
cion, that we hear very Uttle of the Cerdonians;

134

CER
nor is it easy to say how much of the Marcion-
ites' doctrine may have owed its origin to Cer-
don. His system was Manichsean ; for he held
two divine and antagonistic principles, denied the
reality of Christ's humanity, and scorned and
rejected the Old Testament.
Ceremonial.— See Lituegy.
Ceremony, the power of the Church to de
cree rites and ceremonies has long been matter of
dispute, and was debated with special keenness in
the early days of Puritanism. Instead of giving
the arguments on either side, or quoting the
reasonings of Cartwright and Hooker, we shall
onlv give a few judicious sentences from Principal
Hill : — " The rites and ceremonies of the Chris
tian Church, agreeably to the general rules of
Scripture, ought to be of such a kind as to pro
mote the order, the decency, and the solemnity
of public worship. At the same time, they ought
not to be numerous, but should preserve that
character of simplicity which is inseparable from
true dignity, and wbich accords especially with
the spiritual character of the religion of Christ.
The apostles often remind Christians that they
are delivered from the ceremonies of the law,
which are styled by Peter ' a yoke which neither
their fathers nor they were able to bear' (Acts
xv. 10). The whole tenor of our Lord's dis
courses, and of the writings of his apostles, ele
vates the mind above those superstitious obser
vances in which the Pharisees placed the sub
stance of religion ; and, according to the divine
saying of Paul, 'the kingdom of God is not meat
and drink, but righteousness and peace, and joy
in the Holy Ghost' (Rom. xiv. 17). The nature
of this kingdom is forgotten when frivolous ob
servances are multiplied by human authority;
and the complicated, expensive pageantry of
Roman Catholic worship, together with the still
more childish ceremonies which abound in the
Eastern or Greek Church, appear to deserve the
application of that censure which the apostle
pronounced, when he represented the attempts
made in his days to revive the Mosaic ritual as

CER
gest that, In enacting ceremonies, regard should
be had to the opinions, the manners, and preju
dices of those to whom they are prescribed ; that
care should be taken never wantonly to give
offence; and that those who entertain more
enlightened views upon the subject should not
despise their weak brethren. Upon the same
principle, it is obvious tbat ceremonies ought
not to be lightly changed. In the eyes of
most people, those practices appear venerable
which have been handed down from remote
antiquity. To many, the want of those helps
to which they have been accustomed in the
exercises of devotion, might prove very hurtful;
and frequent changes in the external parts of
worship might shake the steadfastness of their
faith. The last rule deducible from the Scrip
ture examples is this, that the authority which
enacts the ceremonies should clearly explain the
light in which they are to be considered; sliould
never employ any expressions, or any means of
enforcing them, which tend to convey to the
people that they are accounted necessary to
salvation; and should beware of seeming to
teach that the most punctual observance of
things in themselves indifferent is of equal im
portance with judgment, mercy, and the love of
God. Early after the Reformation, iu the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, the Puritans objected in
general to the lawfulness of imposing ceremonies
by authority, as an abridgment of the liberty of
Christians in matters not commanded by the
Word of God; and they objected, in particular,
to the vestments appointed to be worn by the
clergy in their public ministrations, because, hav
ing been worn in times of Popery, they had then
been abused to superstition and idolatry. They
objected also to tbe lawfulness of using the sign of
the cross in baptism, of kneeling at the Lord's
Supper, and of other observances of the like
kind. The objections were answered by assert
ing the power of the church in regulating mat
ters indifferent ; by stating the prudential consi
derations which led the Church of England to

a 'turning again to weak and beggarly elements' I retain some of the popish ceremonies, in the
(Gal. iv. 9). The multiplicity of external obser- ! hopes of keeping the Papists within the church

vances is not only an unnecessary burden, to
which Jesus did not mean to subject his fol
lowers, but it has a tendency to substitute ' the
rudiments of the world,' in place of a worship
'in spirit and in truth.' While it professes to
render the services of religion venerable, and to
cherish devotion, it in reality fatigues and ab
sorbs the mind; and it requires such an expense
of time and of money, that, like the heathen
amidst the pomp of their sacrifices, Christians
are in danger of thinking they have fulfilled
their duty to God by performing that work
which the ordinance of man had prescribed, and
of losing all solicitude to present to the Father
of spirits that homage of the heart, which is the
only offering truly valuable in his sight. Fur
ther, all the Scripture rules and examples sng- 135

and by declaring, as is done in the preface to the
Common Prayer Book, 'That no holiness or
worthiness was annexed to the garments of the
priests; and that while the excessive multitude
of ceremonies used in times of Popery was laid
aside, some were received for n, decent order
in the church, for wbich they were first devised,
and because the}- pertained to edification, where-
unto all things done in the church ought to be
referred.* These answers did not remove the
objections of the Puritans. The controversy
was agitated with much violence during a great
part of the seventeenth century. It was tlie
subject of numberless publications, of debates in
parliament, and of judicial discussion. The
Puritans, not content with argument and peti
tion, employed various methods of inflaming the

CER
minds of the people, and made many attempts to
obtain their object by faction and" commotion.
The church, irritated by opposition to her
authority, was little disposed to condescend to
weak consciences in points which might have
been yielded, and often employed severity to
bend those whom she could not convince." — Hill's
Lectures, vol. iii., p. 529.
Ccrens Pascbalis, a colossal taper which
used to be lighted on Easter eve.
Cerinthians. — If we give the name of Sa
maritan Gnostics to the followers of Simon
Magus and Menander, the Cerinthians must be
regarded as the earliest Christian Gnostic sect.
Their founder was a Jew, who studied philo
sophy at Alexandria, and thence removed to
Ephesus, to mature and publish his system. He
is said to have encountered there the apostle St.
John, whose gospel and epistles bear evident
marks of having been designed to counteract
such false teaching as that of Cerinthus. That
teaching was more accommodated to Jewish
opinions than that of the later Gnostics. The
Demiurge, the god of the Jews, was represented
as originally good ; so that the Jewish law,
which proceeded from him, was in part to be
carefully observed. But he gradually fell from
his original goodness, and then the jEon Christ
came to put an end to his dominion, and to
reveal the Supreme God. The persecution of
Christ was attributed to the enmity of the
Demiurge, who stirred up the rulers against
him. The Cerinthians were taught to expect a
resurrection, and a thousand years' reign of
Christ upon earth.
Ceroieraii (taper-bearers), persons who
walked before the deacons in the Popish Church
with lighted tapers in their hands. According to
Bingham, they are hot to be identified with the
Acoluthi. — See Acoluthi.
Cessation. — See Interdict.
Cession, Cessio, in law, a ceasing, yield
ing up, or giving over. In ecclesiastical" mat-
-ters, it is the acceptance of a benefice which
cannot be held compatibly with any other, with
out dispensation or being otherwise qualified.
Thus, if a parson possessed of ecclesiastical bene
fices is promoted to a bishopric, and no dispensa
tion is granted to hold them in commendam with
the bishopric, such benefices upon the bishop's
consecration become void, and are in law said
to be void by cession, and the right of presenta
tion to them for the next turn belongs to the
crown instead of the patron. For the causes of
voidance of benefices, the persons entitled to dis
pensations and the other qualifications, see stat.
21 Henry VIII., ch. xiii. By law, in Ireland,
no person can take any dignity or benefice there
until he has resigned any .preferment he may
have in England, by which resignation the king
is deprived of the next presentation. In the
event of a cession taking place under the sta
tute, the benefice is so far void, upon institution

CHA
fo the second living, that the patron is entitled
to present; but it will not lapse against the
patron from the time of institution, unless notice
be given him : it will, however, from the time of
induction. Chalice (Lat. calix ; Gr. jewAig, a cup), the
cup employed in the celebration of the Eucharist
and withheld from the people by the Romish
Church. The chalice was anciently made of
various materials — sometimes wood, stone, or
glass, and cups of horn seem to have been used
in England, for they are forbidden by a council
in 787. But in later days they were commonly
made ofthe precious metals, and in times of dis
tress the Church often parted with its sacred
plate, or melted it down, for the redemption of
captives or the support of the poor. J ustinian
forbade the sacred vessels to be pawned for any
inferior reason. The cup was and is distinct, as
a sacramental vessel, from the flagon in which
the wine is carried. — See Euciiakist.
Chancel (from the Franco-Norman chancel,
or the Latin cancellus), the part of a church sepa
rated from the rest of it a cancellis by bars or
lattice-work. The same reason which gave the
name chancel to the innermost part of Christian
churches, occasioned it also to be called "t£
J-'vSav Twir xiyxX'thm " — within the lattice-work
(Theodoret, v. 17). Besides these titles it was
known as fiv/ia, from the ascent to it; to "ym,
ayiaffpa, l:^an7ov, sacrarium, or sanctuary,
from the peculiar holiness supposed to be attached
to it; SwriuaTY.^tov, because it contained the
altar ; presbyterium and diaconicum, because the
presbyters sat and the deacons ministered in it;
and to afiarov and ao'vTov, or the inaccessible, be
cause the laity were not admitted to it. Some
times it was secluded from the rest of the church
by rich veils or hangings. At the upper end of
it was a semicircular building called apsis, ex-
hedra, concha, or conchula bematis, in which
were fixed the throne of the bishop and pres
byter, the communion table not being placed
quite close to the wall, but at such a distance
that the bishop's throne might stand behind the
altar, and a free passage be left round it. Above
the altar was sometimes suspended a canopy
termed xi^a/^tov, vrusyos, or umbraculum. In a
recess on one side stood a smaller table, (r*eoj-
T^arsZ«', oblatarium,prothesis,paratorium, or cre
dence table, because on it offerings were received,
and the bread and wine were placed before conse
cration. On the other side was a desk for occa
sional perusal of the Scriptures. Each of these was
sometimes distinguished by inscriptions. At the
time of the Reformation Bucer inveighed vehe
mently against retaining the distinction between
the body of the church and chancel, as tending to
magnify the priesthood. The king and parlia
ment yielded so far as to allow the daily service
to be read in the body ofthe church, if the ordi
nary thought fit, but the rubric still ordains
that "the chancels shall remain as they lia,v«
136

cnA
done in times past." The right of a seat and of
sepulture in the chancel belongs in most parishes
to the rector or vicar, and that part of the
church also is generally repaired by him. — See
Abata, Altar, Apsis, Bema, Church, Cre
dence Table.
Chancellor. — Bishops in olden times decided
many causes in reference to marriages, wills, and
disposal of property. But such duties gradually
became onerous, and sometimes invidious, and an
episcopal substitute, or chancellor, was appointed.
In England the chancellor, though deputed by the
bishop, has his authority from the law, nor is his
jurisdiction limited like that of a commissary, but
it extends to the whole diocese, and all ecclesias
tical business or disputes ; for he is the bishop's
assessor. By statute 36 Henry VIII., he must be
a doctor of civil law, if a layman or married.
The title may have come from the imperial rank
of the judge of this name, just as the bishop's house
is called a palace. The chancellor of a cathedral
is usually one of the canons residentiary, and
his office is to prepare the letters of the chapter,
and apply their seal to public documents.
Chancery — often named apostolical — a court
at Rome consisting of thirteen bishops, charged
with drawing up the minutes of bulls, &c. The
cavAintd-chanceltor, or rather vice-chancellor,
has authority over the issue of all letters and
bulls, and other public documents. His dignity
is held for life.
Chantry, a little chapel or particular altar
in a church, endowed with lands and revenues
for the maintenance of one or more priests, to
pray for the release of the souls of the founder or
his friends from purgatory. All chantries were
dissolved by 1 Edward VI., 14. Of their extent
in England at that time some estimate may be
formed from the number returned to the king's
commissioners by the dean and chapter of St.
Paul. There were no less than forty-seven
chantries in that single churcii.
Chants. — The English cathedral chants, as
applied to the Psalms, divide each verse into two
parts. The first consists of three measures, the
second of four. Double chants take two verses,
and consist of four strains. It would be well if
ability to chant the prose psalms were made
common in all our Scottish churches, so that the
entire congregation might join, and not be con
fined to a metrical version, where the nervous
and concise clauses of tbe original are either
paraphrased or are twisted and tortured into
rhyme What is usually called " intoning " the
service is in the minds of many in England as
sociated with Tractarianism.
Chapel. — The derivation of the word has
been doubted. Minshew and Cowel hold that it
is a capiendo Xacus sen Laicos; Spelman takes it
from capdla, a place where sacred relics are pre
served; and Matthew Paris, Atchbishop Williams,
and others, u Cnpd D. Murlini, from the hood of
St. Martin, which the Merovingian kings carried

CHA
about with them as a precious relic, always say
ing matins and vespers in the booth which con
tained it. The archbishop had little veneration
for this relic; for one of the misdemeanours urged
against him in the star chamber was, that he
had "wickedly jested on St. Martin's hood." —
See Capellanus.
Chapelle ardeutc, a peculiar ceremony in
the Popish Church in connection with the mass?s
for the dead. The chapelle is a small tent in
which the corpse is laid, and is called ardente in
allusion to the lights placed round the catafalque.
Incense is burned, holy water is sprinkled, prayers
are chanted, and absolution is given, ending with
requiescat in pace.
Chapels of Ease, chapels erected in large
parishes for the ease of those who lived at a dis
tance from the mother church. In England
these generally are licensed only for praying and
preaching. Baptism must be administered and
marriages and burials performed in the parochial
church. Private chapels in the houses of noble
men and others, maintained at the charge of
those persons to whom they belong, may be
erected without leave of the bishop, need not be
consecrated, and are not subject to the jurisdic
tion of the ordinary. Free chapels are built
from moneys bequeathed or given for the purpose,
and they maintain their cwn ministers. Paro
chial chapels have the right of christening and
burial, and differ in nothing from churches but in
the want of rectory and endowments. Uni
versity or college chapels possess special privileges
in connection with the academic foundations.
Chapels of Ease have been erected, either by
private benevolence or by government, in many
of the larger parishes of Scotland.
Chaplain. — See CapkllanuS. — One who
has charge of a capella, or repository of relics.
The king, queen, pi ince, princess, and any of the
king's children, brothers, sisters, uncles or aunts,
may retain as many chaplains as they please.
An archbishop, eight; a duke or bishop, six;
marquis or earl, five; viscount, four; baron,
knight of the garter, or lord chancellor, three;
duchess, marchioness, countess, baroness, being
widows, treasurer and comptroller of the king's
house, the king's secretary, dean of the chapel,
almoner, and master of the rolls, two; the chief
justice of the king's bench, and warden of the
Cinque Ports, one. Each of these may purchase
a license or dispensation to hold two benefices
with cure of souls (21 Henry VIII., 13). The
king's chaplain may hold as many benefices in
the king's gift as the king shall think fit to
bestow on him. The temporal courts do not en
force the forty-first canon, which stipulates that
the person obtaining the dispensation should be
at least a master of arts in one of the universities;
and that the benefices be not farther distant than
thirty miles from each other. Each ofthe twelve
judges, the king's attorney and solicitor-general,
the groom of the stole, the treasurer of the king's

137

CIIA
chamber, and the chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster, may appoint one chaplain, who, while
actually attendant upon their persons, is excused
from residence on any benefice which he holds,
but is not entitled to a dispensation to hold two
benefices. A chaplain is retained by letters tes
timonial under hand and seal, and cannot be dis
qualified by the simple displeasure of his patron.
I'he chaplaincy ceases with the death or attain
der of the person qualifying ; but when a chap
lain has accepted a second benefice before his
lord dies or is attainted, his dispensation con
tinues in force afterwards.
Chaplet. — See Rosary.
Chapter, the canons and prebends of a col
legiate church, of which tbe dean is the head.
These ecclesiastical communities, or corporations,
had, until the time of Henry VIII., the power of
electing bishops for their respective dioceses ; but
he having assumed that right, as a regal preroga
tive, totally deprived them of all authority in the
matter. During the bishop's life they have no
share iu the administration of the affairs of the
diocese ; but during the vacancy of the see they
exercise full control. The chapter of a collegiate
church is more properly called a college, as at
Westminster and Windsor. The canons are
either residentiary, properly so called, to whom
the non-residents were obliged at one time to
pay a portion of their income ; or minor canons,
the number of which, by recent statute, is greatly
reduced (each of them may hold a benefice,
but within six miles of the cathedral) ; or hon
orary canons — that is, clergymen having the
title, but without any emolument.
Chapter-honse, the room where the dean
and chapter met for business; and many of them
are of great beauty, as those of London, Salis
bury, and York.
Chapters, Three, a phrase often in use in the
sixth century, referring (1), to the writings of
Theodore of Mopsuestia ; (2), to the books written
by Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus, against Cyril's
anathema of the Nestorians ; and (3), to the letter
which Ibas of Edessa published against the council
of Ephesus which condemned Nestorius. These
documents, supposed to favour Nestorianism,
were condemned by Justinian in 544 ; but the
African and Western bishops, especially Vigilius
of Rome resisted the edict.
Chare Thursday or Shcre Thursday, the
Thursday in Passion Week. — See Lent.
Charge, an address delivered by a bishop to
his clergy ; also the name of the usual address
delivered in Presbyterian churches to the person
ordained by " the laying on of the hands of the
presbytery," and bearing on the duties, trials,
and encouragements of the pastoral office.
Charisma (gift), a name sometimes given
by the Greek fathers to baptism, but often em
ployed by the Church historians as the title of
the extraordinary endowments conferred on the
primitive Church, such as the gift of tongues.

CUE
Charity, a name assumed by various orders
devoted to deeds of benevolence and visitation
ofthe sick, such as — 1. Those of the Charity of
Our Lady, founded toward the end of the thir
teenth century, in the diocese of Chalons in
France, and confirmed by Boniface VIII., but
soon after dissolved. 2. Those of the Charity of
Our Ladv, a society of nuns founded in Paris in
1624, and ratified by Urban VIII. in 1630,
giving themselves to the care of their own sex in
poverty or distress. 3. Hospitallers of the.
Charity of St. Hippolytus, founded in Mexico, in
1585, by Bernardin Alvarez.
Chartophylax. — See Celmeliarch^e.
Chasible (casula), the outer dress worn
by the Romish priest at the altar — a dress which
seems to have succeeded the old Roman toga.
It was a circular cloth, with a hole to admit the
head in the centre, and as it fell down over the
body, it completely covered it. It was other
wise called paenula, p«noA/ov, amphibalhm, and
planeta. It often appears on the older sculptures
and mosaics. (Palmer's Orig. Liturg., vol. ii.,
p. 401.)
Chasidim or Priests, a modern Jewish sect,
of fanatical principles, founded about the year
1740. Their founder was Israel Baalsham, a
rabbi ; and he first promulgated his principles in
the town of Flussty, in Poland. He taught his
followers to consider him as possessed of miracu
lous powers, as having alone the true knowledge
of the sacred name, and as being the source to
which they were to look for the forgiveness of
their sins. This sect looks for the speedy coming
of the Messiah ; and supposes that he will be a
mere man, but one of so exalted a character as to
be able to effect a complete regeneration in the
hearts of his followers. They use violent and
extravagant gestures in their worship. It has
been asserted by their Jewish opponents that
their practices are immoral; but it is doubtful
whether this be correct or not. They are at
enmitj' with all the rest of the Jews, and are at
the same time the most virulent opponents of
Christianity. Their principles have had much
success among the Jews in Poland, the Danubiau
principalities and European Turkey : indeed, in
these countries, their numbers are reported to
exceed those of the Rabbinists.
Cherub. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Cherubic Hymn, a hymn to the Trinity,
sung in the ancient churches, especially at the
Eucharistic service. It was called " Trisapion" —
thrive holy, as implying praise to the " Holy
Three." It commenced with the words of the
seraphim, mentioned in the sixth chapter of
Isaiah, " Holy, holy, holy is the Lord God of
hosts, heav'einind^af:[^are~rmr~6t_t^gK^_
who arf blessed for ever. ' Amen." After a
time" this scriptural and simple ascription of
praise to the "Holy Lord God of hosts" was
deemed insufficient by the orthodox Church ; for
we find it in more elaborated forms in the fourth'
138

CHI
and subsequent centuries (see Allix On the
Trisagion). It is sung or said in the communion
service of the English Church in this form :
"Therefore, with angels and archangels, and
with all the company of heaven, we laud and
magnify thy glorious name; evermore praising
thee, and saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God
of hosts, heaven and earth are full of thy glory :
Glory be to thee, 0 Lord Most High. Amen."
Childermass Day, a festival celebrated by
the Church on the 28th of December, in com
memoration of the Massacre of the Innocents.
It was a popular superstition that it is very
unlucky to begin any work upon Childermass
Day ; and what day soever that falls on, whether
on a Monday, Tuesday, or any other, nothing
must be begun on that day throughout the year.
Though Childermass Day was reckoned unfor
tunate, nevertheless revels were held on it, The
Society of Lincoln's Inn were used to choose an
officer at that season, called the King of the
Cockneys, who presided on the day of his ap
pointment. Children. — See Parents.
Chiliasts. — See Millenarians.
Chimere, the upper sacerdotal garment of
bishops, made of black silk or satin, to which
the lawn sleeves are generally attached. Before
the time of Queen Elizabeth the chimere was of
scarlet silk ; but Bishop Hooper, not liking that
colour, either because of some imaginary affinity
between it and the scarlet lady of Rome, or as
being too light and gay for episcopal gravity,
strongly objected to its use. In compliance
with this prelate's scruples, black coloured satin
was then substituted for scarlet silk.
Choir. — Bingham is inclined to think that the
chorus or choir was a name sometimes given to
the Ghancel, and he cites a canon of the first
council of Toledo, which orders the priests and
deacons to communicate before the altar, the
inferior clergy in the choir, and the people
without it (Antiq. of Chr. Ch., viii., 6., sec. 5).
In cathedral churches, the part separated from
the nave, in which divine service is performed,
is usually termed the choir. Its two sides are
respectively called decani and cantoris, and the
chants and all other versicles of the liturgy set
to music, are sung by these alternately. We
learn from Eusebius that choir service was first
regularly established in the church at Antioch,
during the reign of Constantine ; but it is cer
tain that the practice of alternate singing in
praise of God and the Saviour prevailed among
Christians at a much earlier period. Dr.
Burney says, that " St. Ignatius, who, according
to Socrates, had conversed with the aroitles, is
supposed to have been the first who suggested to
the primitive Christians in the East, the method
of singing psalms and hymns alternately, or in
dialogue, dividing the singers into two bands,
or choirs, placed on different sides of the church.
This is called Antiphona ; and this custom soon

CHO
prevailed in every place where Christianitv was
established." When the Saxons embraced the
Christian faith in the sixth century, the Gregorian
chant was introduced at Canterbury by St.
Austin. It appears, however, from Bede, as
quoted by Dr. Burney, that " the Britons had
been instructed in the rites and ceremonies of
the Gallican Church by St. Germanus, and had
heard him sing AUelvjah many years before the
arrival of St. Austin." — See Antiphony.
Chop Church, a reproachful nickname for
certain ecclesiastical traders in preferment in tbe
time of Richard II. A document is preserved
in a manuscript register in Lambeth Palace,
a.d. 1391, entitled Litera missa omnibus Episcopis
Suffraganeis Domini contra Choppe Churches.
William Courtney was at that time archbishop,
and he expresses bimself most indignantly con
cerning these delinquents and others guilty of
simoniacal practices — " Clerum et Ecclesiam
blasphemantes ; maledicti Giezai et Simonis con-
sortes in crimine'1 — blasphemers of the clergy and
church, and partners in crime of the accursed
Gehazi and Simon Magus. All personages
guilty of the offence are ordered forthwith to
confess their fraudulent bargains to the arch
bishop, one of his suffragans, or their ordinary,
within fifteen days, on pain of the greater ex
communication. Chorepiscopus (o rris gagas trlexoros,
rural bishop, rather than because he was chosen
ex choro sacerdotum, in the early Church), a coad
jutor appointed by the bishop to assist him in
the villages remote from his city residence. It
is a disputed point whether these officers re
ceived episcopal ordination or not, and the ques
tion has been fully discussed by Bingham (A ntiq.
of the Christian Church, ii. 14). Some hold
that the chorepiscopi were only presbyters:
others that there were two sorts, the first of
which were episcopally ordained, the second
were presbyters ; and Bishop Barlow, Ham
mond, Beveridge, and Cave, maintain that all
chorepiscopi were ipso facto bishops. Their
office was to preside over the country clergy, to
inquire into their characters, and to report them
to the city bishop. They might ordain readers,
sub-deacons, and exorcists, for the service of the
country churches, and also presbyters and
deacons by special leave of their diocesan. They
might confirm, and grant letters dismissory
(called also canonical and Irenical), to such
country clergy as desired to change their
diocese. They were allowed to officiate in the
city church, in the presence of the bishop and
presbyters — a permission wbich was not granted
to country presbyters. They sat and voted in
synods and councils; but notwithstanding these,
which were for the most part their general
privileges, their powers varied much in different
dioceses and after different councils ; so that in
the course of the fourth century their authority
was much on the decline. A heavy blow was

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inflicted on them in a.d. 360, by the fifty-
seventh canon of the council of Laodicea, which de
creed that itinerant presbyters, periodeuios, should
visit the country villages for the future, in lieu
of resident chorepiscopi. They continued to sink
in estimation, till at length, in the ninth century,
the order was wholly laid aside in the Western
Church. The office of suffragan bishops in
England at the time of the Reformation much
resembled that ofthe primitive chorepiscopi. The
application of the name, however, was new ; for
in earlier times in England, all the city bishops,
under their metropolitan, were called suffragans ;
and the seventy bishops who formed the libra,
or ordinary provincial' council of the pope (so
called because the Roman libra consisted of
seventy solidi), were also known by this name. —
See Bishop.
Chrism (variously written Chrisome, Cresome,
Chrism ; %f>'tffp.a, an ointment), the sacred oil
which was formerly used in the administration
of baptism : also, the cloth with which the
infant was covered at or immediately after bap
tism. Tbe Chrism used in the Romish and Greek
Churches is prepared with great ceremony on
Holy Thursday. It is of two kinds — one of oil
and balsam, which are mystically supposed to
represent the divine and human nature of our
Saviour : this is used in baptism, confirmation,
and ordination ; — the other of oil only, with
which catechumens were anointed in the early
Church, and which is still employed for extreme
unction. The Greek Church in baptism anoints
the whole body ; the Romish only the crown of
the head. The first considers unction to be the
essential part of the sacrament of confirmation ;
the second does not reject unction on this occa
sion, but places the essence of it in imposition of
hands. Chrisome (the same derivation as the pre
vious word) was a white linen cloth laid over
the child's face at baptism, in order to prevent
the holy unguent from running off. A "chrisome
child " was a child in its chrisome cloth. Thus
Jeremy Taylor — " This day is mine and yours,
but ye know not what shall be on the morrow ;
and every morning creeps out of a dark cloud,
leaving behind it an ignorance and silence, deep
as midnight, and undiscerned as are the phan
tasms that make a chrisome child to smile"
(Holy Dying, chap, i., sec. 2). In the liturgy
compiled in the second year of Edward VI. the
minister was instructed to dip the child thrice,
— first on the right side, next on the left, and
lastly with the face towards the font; after which
the sponsors were to take and lay their hands
on the child, and the minister was to put on the
chrisome, saying, " Take this white vesture, for
a token ofthe innocency which, by God's grace,
in this holy sacrament of baptism, is given unto
thee, and for a sign whereby thou art admo
nished, as long as thou livest. to give thyself to
innocency of living; that after this transitory

140

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life thon mayest be partaker of the life everlast
ing. Amen." This done, he anointed the infant
with chrism, repeating these words : " Almighty
God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who
hath regenerated thee by water and the Holy
Ghost, and hath given unto thee the remission
of all thy sins, may he vouchsafe to anoint thee
with the unction of his Holy Spirit, and to
bring thee to the inheritance of everlasting life.
Amen." The chrisome was sometimes orna
mented with a crown worked in crimson thread,
allusive to the crown of eternal glory won by
the passion and death of Christ. The child wore
it seven days ; for which number many supersti
tious reasons were assigned ; as, that it referred
to the seven ages of mail, to the seven planets,
or to the mystical Sabbath. Hence, when it
was the custom of the Church to administer
baptism only at Easier and Whitsuntide, the
Sunday following Easter-day was called Domi
nica in Albis or post Albas, because those who
had been baptized on Easter-eve then threw off
their white robes or chrisomes, which were laid
by in the church as an evidence against them if
they broke their baptismal vow. Even after the
Reformation the chrisome was returned to the
minister, as his perquisite, when the mother was
churched, if the child lived so long; if it died
before that time, it was buried in this cloth as
its shroud. Hence, although by a manifest ab
surdity, children who die unbaptized are called
chrisomes, even now, in the bills of mortality.
So m some parts of England, a calf killed before
it is a month old is called a chrysom-calf.
Christ Cross (pronounced Cris-cross ; Fr.
croix de par le Dieu), was the name given to a
child's alphabet, either because a cross was pre
fixed to it, or because the alphabet, by way of a
charm, was sometimes written in the form of a
cross. Thus Shakspeare, "Richard III."—
" And from the cross-row plucks the letter g."
Christ-cmporia (selling cf Christ). — See
Simony. Christians, followers of Christ, and first
called so at Antioch — called after Him whose
blessed and holy name was so often on their
lips. " I honour Peter," says Gregory Nazian
zen (Orat, 31), "but I am not called a Petrian;
I honour Paul, but I am not called a Paulian.
I am named after no man, for I belong to God."
Epiphanius (Hmres., 42) observes, " No sect 01
church is called by the name of an apostle. We
hear nothing of Petrians, Paulians, Bartholo-
maens, or Thaddseans ; for all the apostles from
the beginning had but one doctrine, preaching
not themselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord.
Hence, they gave to all the churches but one
name; not their own, but the name of Christ,
from the time that they were first called Chris
tians in Antioch." Christians were also called
Catholic, or of the universal faith ; ecclesiastici,
or belonging to the Church ; dogmalici, or pos-

CHR
sessors of the true doctrine ; also Theophori and
Christophori. — See Christophori. They were
also called piscicuK, little fishes, in reference to
their baptism. — See Fish.
To show something of the lives and manners of
the early Christians, we subjoin two documents.
One is a portion of the epistle to Diognetus, long
ascribed to Justin Martyr, but whose real author
is not known. It is one ofthe most beautiful and
precious morsels of antiquity: — "Christians are
not separated from other men by country, nor by
language, nor by customs. They dwell not in cities
of their own, nor make use of a peculiar dialect, nor
affect a singular mode of life. They live in the
cities ofthe Greeks or the barbarians, as each one's
lot may be ; and with regard to dress and food,
and other matters of every-day life, they follow
the customs of the country ; yet they show a
peculiarity of conduct, wonderful and striking to
all. They dwell in their own native lands as
sojourners. They take a part in everything
as citizens, and yet endure all things as if
strangers. Every foreign country is as a father
land, and every fatherland as a foreign country.
They marry like all men, and beget children ;
but they do not expose their children." (A fre
quent custom among the heathen in that age.)
" They live in the flesh, but not according to the
flesh. They pass their time on earth, but they
are citizens of heaven. They obey the established
laws, and yet raise themselves above the laws by
their lives. They love all, and are persecuted by
all. They are unknown and condemned. They
are killed and made alive ;" (that is, their death
leads them to life ; they enter through sufferings
on an eternal life; hence the death-day of the
martyrs was called Jheir birth-day). " They
are poor, and make many rich. They are in
want of all things, and abound in all things.
They are dishonoured, and amidst their dishonour
are glorified  In a word, what the
soul is to the body, that are Christians in the
world. As the soul is dispersed through all the
members of the body, so are Christians dispersed
through all the cities of the world. The soul,
indeed, dwells in the body, but it is not of the
body ; and so Christians live in the world, but
are not of the world. The invisible soul is in
closed in the visible body ; so Christians are
known as being in the world, but their piety
remains invisible. The flesh hates and makes
war against the soul (though the soul does the
flesh no injury), because it forbids the indulgence
of its pleasures ; and the world hates Christians,
not because they refuse it, but for opposing its
pleasures. The soul loves the flesh that hates it,
and the members of the body ; and Christians
love those who hate them. The soul is inclosed
in the body, and yet holds the body together ;
and Christians are detained in the world as in
custody, and yet they hold the world together.
The immortal soul dwells in the mortal taber
nacle, and Christians dwell as sojourners in

CHR
mortal things, expecting immortality in tbe
heavens. . . . God has a5siirned them so
important a post which it is not lawful for them
to quit." The other document is that of a
heathen magistrate reporting to his imperial
master what came under his observation — the let
ter of Pliny the younger to the Emperor Trajan,
and the reply.
" Pliny to the Emperor Trajan.
" It is a rule, Sir, which I inviolably observe,
to refer myself to you in all my doubts ; for who
is more capable of removing my scruples, or in
forming my ignorance? Having never been
present at any trials concerning those who profess
Christianity, I am unacquainted not only with
the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their
punishment, but also how far it is proper to enter
into an examination concerning them. Whether,
therefore, any difference is usually made with
respect to the ages of the guilty, or no distinction
is to be observed between the young and the
adult; whether repentance entitles them to a
pardon ; or, if a man has been once a Christian,
it avails nothing to desist from his error ; whether
the very profession of Christianity, unattended
with any criminal act, or only the crimes them
selves inherent in tbe profession, are punishable ;
in all these points I am greatly doubtful. In
the meanwhile, the method I have observed to
wards those who have been brought before me
as Christians is this: — I interrogated them
whether they were Christians ; if they confessed,
I repeated the question twice again, adding
threats at the same time ; when, if they still
persevered, I ordered them to be immediately
punished; for I was persuaded, whatever the
nature of their opinions might be, that a con
tumacious and inflexible obstinacy certainly
deserved correction. There were others also
brought before me, possessed with the same in
fatuation, but being citizens of Rome I directed
them to be carried thither. But this crime
spreading (as is usually the case), while it was
under prosecution, severab instances of the same
nature occurred. An information was presented
to me without any name prescribed, containing a
charge against several persons, who upon exami
nation denied they were Christians, or had ever
b^en so. They repeated after me an invocation
to the gods, and offered religious rites with wine
and frankincense before your statue (which for
this purpose I had ordered to be brought, together
with those of the gods), and even reviled the
name of Christ : whereas there is no forcing, it
is said, those who are really Christians into a
compliance with any of these articles. I thought
proper, therefore, to discharge them. Some of
those who were accused by a witness in person,
at first confessed themselves Christians, but im
mediately after denied it ; while the rest owned
indeed that they had been of that number for
merly, but had now (some above three, others
more, and a few above twenty years ago) for-

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saken that error. They all worshipped your
statue and the images of the gods, throwing out
imprecations also, at the same time, against the
name of Christ. They affirmed that the whole
of their guilt or error was, that they met on a
certain stated day before it was light, and ad
dressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ,
as to some god, binding themselves by a solemn
oath, not for the purposes of any wicked design,
but never to commit any fraud, theft, or adul
tery : never to falsify their word, nor deny a
trust when they should be called upon to deliver
it up; after which it was their custom to
separate, and then re-assemble, to eat in common
a harmless meal. From this custom, however,
they desisted after the publication of my edict,
by which, according to your orders, I forbade
the meeting of any assemblies. After receiving
this account, I judged it so much the mo.-e neces
sary to endeavour to extort the real truth, by
putting two female slaves to the torture, who
were said to administer in their religious func
tions : but I could discover nothing more than
an absurd and excessive superstition. I thought
proper, therefore, to adjourn all further proceed
ings in this affair, in order to consult with you.
For it appears to be a matter highly deserving
your consideration, more especially as great num
bers must be involved in the danger of these per
secutions, this inquiry having already extended,
and being still likely to extend, to persons of all
ranks and ages, and even of both sexes. For this
contagious superstition is not confined to the
cities only, but has spread its infection among
the country villages. Nevertheless, it still seems
possible to remedy this evil, and restrain its
progress. The temples, at least, which were
almost deserted, begin now to be frequented ; and
the sacred solemnities, after a long intermission,
are again revived ; while there is a general
demand for the victims, which for some time
past have met with but few purchasers. From
hence it is easy to imagine what numbers might
be reclaimed from this error if a pardon were
granted to those who shall repent. ''
" Trajan to Pliny.
"The method you have pursued, my dear
Pliny, in the proceedings against those Chris
tians which were brought before you, is extremely
proper; as it is not possible to lay down anv
fixed plan by which to act in all cases of this
nature. But I would not have you officiously
enter into any inquiries concerning them. If,
indeed, they should be brought before you, and
the crime is proved, they must be punished ;
with this restriction, however, that when the
party denies himself to be a Christian, and shall
make it evident that he is not, by invoking our
gods, let bim (notwithstanding any former sus
picion) be pardoned upon his repentance. In
formations without the accuser's name subscribed
ought not to be received, in prosecutions of any
sort ; as it is introducing a very dangerous

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precedent, and by no means agreeable to the
equity of my government."
But various nicknames were given to them in
the early ages. 1. Jews — By the Romans, Chris
tians were at first regarded merely as a Jewish
sect, like the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.
As such they were accordingly denominated Jews,
and despised as a superstitious and misanthropic
sect. 2. Nazarenes — Both Jews and Gentiles
unitedly denominated the Christians Nazarenes
(Acts xxiv. 5). 3. Galileans. — The author of
the name Galileans as a term of reproach was,
according to Gregory Nazianzen, Julian the
apostate. This he constantly employed, and
made a law requiring that they should not be
called by any other name. 4. Greeks — In direct
opposition to Julian, Christian converts were by
many of the ancient Romans styled Greeks,
which with them was a proverbial phrase, expres
sive both of suspicion and contempt. When
ever they saw a Christian in the highway, they
were wont to exclaim, "Ah! a Greek impostor."
5. Magicians — By heathen nations the author
of the Christian religion was styled Magician,
and his followers Magicians. Of other names
which the malice of their persecutors invented or
applied to them, the following is a brief sum
mary :— 6. Sibyllists — From their being charged
with corrupting the Sibylline books. A favourite
insinuation of Celsus. 7. Sarmentitii — Derived
from the faggots with which the fires were
kindled around them at the stake. 8. Semaxii —
From the stake to which they were bound.
9. Parabolani, va^a^oXm — From their being ex
posed to ravenous beasts. 10. ~&iu.6&.ia<ri>i, self-
murderers — Alluding to theirfearlessness of death.
11. "Ahoi, Atheists. 12. Ns^tejoj, Novelli, new
lights. 13. 2roju£flXaT£«/, woiyshippers of the
cross. 14. Asinarii, worshippers of an ass.
Creduli, Simplices, Stulti, Lucifugm, Stupidi,
Fatui, Imperiti, Abjecti, Hebetes, Idiotce, &c.,—
See Church, Membership op.
Christians. — A variety of small sects take
this name, without any other denominational
title. According to the census of 1851, 104
congregations assumed the appellation in Eng
land and Wales.
Christ-ians or theChristian Connection,
a purely American sect, which first arose about
1803 in the New England States, iu Ohio, Ken
tucky, and in fewer numbers in the Southern
States. Their name is usually pronounced (in
a way, of course, repudiated by" themselves) as if
it were written and accented Christ-yans. The
cause of their origin seems to have been at that
time a weariness, on the part of many, of the re
straints of church discipline and " the bondage
of creeds." As they did not arise from attach
ment to any leader as the representative of a
particular system of belief, and as, in spite of the
latitudinarianism they professed, the prejudices,
feelings, and peculiarities of the various sects
from which they sprung could not be at once

CHR
shaken off, their opinions as a body have, since
their formation, been in a transition state. They
have already lapsed from the Trinitarianism
formerly professed by most of their number, and
seem rapidly tending to avowed Unitarianism.
They practise baptism by immersion, and open
communion. A United States general Christian
conference, formed of their ministers, and delegates
from the different congregations was tried ; but
being found unworkable, they have adopted
conferences for the individual States ; of such
in America they have now more than forty.
Of course, such conferences can only advise : they
have no authority. They estimate their num
bers at about 300,000, aud their ministers from
600 to 700. The education of these has gener
ally been of a low standard ; but efforts are now
made to raise it. In 1832 they obtained a
charter for a colleg»in New Albany, which,
however, they have not yet erected. Their theo
logical journal is the Christian Palladium, and
from their funds they support a book union, to
circulate a literature conformed to their ideas.
We subjoin, from the account of them by the
Rev. Joshua V. Himes, which first appeared in
the Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge, a
statement of their original constitution, to
which they still adhere : — " The Scriptures
are taken to be the only rule of faith aud
practice, each individual being at liberty to
determine for himself, in relation to these
matters, what they enjoin. No member is sub
ject to the loss of church fellowship on account
of his sincere and conscientious belief, so long as
he manifestly lives a pious and devout life. No
member is subject to discipline and church cen
sure but for disorderly and immoral conduct,
The name Christian to be adopted, to the exclu
sion of all sectarian names, as the most appro
priate designation of the body and its members.
The only condition or test of admission, as a
member of the church, is a personal profession of
the Christian religion, accompanied with satis
factory evidence of sincerity and piety, and a
determination to live according to the divine
rule, or the Gospel of Christ. Each church is
considered an independent body, possessing ex
clusive authority to regulate and govern its own
affairs." They are thus independent in govern
ment, powerless in discipline, latitudinarian in
belief. They only seem to require two things —
a moral life, and a declaration that you are a
Christian and accept the Bible as your guide.
(Religion in America, by Baird.)
Christians, Bible, or Bryanites, after
their founder, William Bryan, a Methodist local
preacher in Cornwall, who left the Wesleyan
body in 1815. He rapidly gathered churches in
Devon and Cornwall, but left the party which
he had formed in 1819. The number of" chapels
belonging to the Bible Christians is about 425,
and the membership about 13,000. Their creed
is Wesleyan, and so is their government, only it 14

CHR
is somewhat more popular in its character than
that presided over by the conference.
Christians of St. John. — See Mendeans.
Christians of St. Thomas, — See St.
Thomas. Christinas. — A day appears to have been
observed from early times in honour of our
Lord's nativity, and the Apostolical Constitutions
(v., 13), recognize the vulgar era as a tradition of
the primitive Church. St. Chrysostom, in his
homily On the day of Nativity, points out the
formal establishment of the feast on the 25th of
December, and its separation from the Epiphany,
which hitherto had been celebrated jointly with
it, from a belief that the appearance of the star
in the east and the birth of Christ were simul
taneous. This separation took place at the coun
cil of Nice, 325 ; but tbe Armenians, as late as
the thirteenth century, continued to unite the
feasts. — Antiquarians and divines are much
divided as to the real day of the Nativity. It
has been fixed at the Passover, at the Feast of
Tabernacles, or (and Usher has adopted the last
opinion) at the Feast of Expiation, on the 10th
of Tisri, answering to the close of our Septem
ber. Whichever of these it may be, it is evi
dent, from the " shepherds abiding in the field,"
that it was not in the very heart of winter. Sir
Isaac Newton has ingeniously accounted for the
choice of the 25th of December, the winter solstice,
by showing that the festival of the Nativity and
most others were originally fixed at cardinal
points of the year ; and having been so arranged
by mathematicians at pleasure, were afterwards
adopted by the Christians as they found them
in their calendar (Prophecies of Daniel, c. ii.,
part 1). After giving a list of the Roman em
perors, till the death of Commodus, a.d. 192,
aud stating in what years of certain emperors
the Saviour was either born, or baptized, or
crucified, Clemens Alexandrinus says — " There
are some who over curiously assign not only the
year but the day also of our Saviour's nativity,
which they say was in the twenty-eighth year
of Augustus, on the 25 th of Pachon (20 th of
May). And the followers of Basilides observe
also the day of his baptism as a festival, spend
ing the whole previous night in reading; and
they say it was in the fifteenth year of Tiberius
Cassar, on the 15th of Tibi (luth of January);
but some say it was on the 11th (6th) of that
month. Among those who nicely calculate the
time of his passion, some say it was in the six
teenth year of Tiberias Caesar, the 25th of Phe-
menoth (22d of March) ; others say, the 25th of
Pharmuthi (21st of April); and others, that it
was on the 19th of Pharmuthi (15th of April)
that the Saviour suffered. Some of them say
that he was born in Pharmuthi, the 24th or 25th
day (April 20 or 21)."— See Nativity.
Poly dore Virgil (De Invent., v. , 2 ), has observed
that the English were remarkable for the festivities
with which they distinguished Christmas. Brand

CHR
has made large collections on this subject. When
the devotions of tiie eve preceding it were over,
and night had come on, it was customary to
Ught candles of large size, and to lay upon the
fire a huge log, called a Yule clog or Christmas
block, a custom not yet extinct in some parts of
England, especially in the north, where coal is
frequently substituted for wood. Chandlers at
this season used to present Christmas candles to
their customers, and bakers, for the same pur
pose, made images of paste, called Yule dough
or Yule cakes, which probably represented the
Bambino. Yule (from huel, a wheel) was a sun-
feast, commemorative of the turn of the sun and
the lengthening of the day, and seems to have
been a period of pagan festival in Europe from
ancient times — among Romans, Saxons, and
Goths — and the old heathen practices, or satur
nalia, were kept up after it was regarded as the
period of the Nativity. — See Carols. At court,
among many public bodies, and in distinguished
families, an officer, under various titles, was ap
pointed to preside over the revels. Leland,
speaking of the court of Henry VII., A.D. 1489,
mentions an Abbot of Misrule, who was created
for this purpose, who made much sport, and did
right well his office (Collect, iii,, App. 256). In
Scotland he was termed the Abbot of Unreason;
but the office was suppressed by act of parlia
ment, A.D. 1555. Stow (Survey of London, 79)
describes the same officer as Lord of Misrule
(by which title he is known also to Holinshed,
Chron. iii., p. 1317, and is most frequently men
tioned by other writers) and Master of Merry
Disports, who belonged not only to the king's
house, but to that of every nobleman of honour
or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal.
The mayor and sheriffs of London each had
their lord of misrule, and strove, without quarrel
or offence, which should make the rarest pastime.
His sway began on Allhallow-eve, and con
tinued till the morrow after Candlemas Day.
The Puritans regarded these diversions, which
appear to have offended more against good taste
than against morality, with a holy horror. The
dishes most in vogue were formerly, for breakfast
and supper on Chrismas-eve, a boar's head stuck
with rosemary, with an apple or an orange in tbe
mouth, plum porridge, and minced pies. Eating
the latter was a test of orthodoxy, as the Puritans
conceived it to be an abomination : they were
originally made long, in imitation of the cratch
or manger in which our Lord was laid (Selden's
Table Talk). The houses and churches were
dressed with evergreens, and the former espe
cially with misletoe — a custom probably as old
as the druidical worship.
The Christmas Box was money gathered in
a box to provide masses at this festive season ;
and servants, who else were unable to defray
them, were allowed the privilege of collecting
from the bounty of others. The custom may
probably be traced to the Roman Paganalia. So

CIIU
that English Christmas keeping is a strange
medley of customs, derived from various sources
—most of them from the ancient superstitions
that Jesus came into the world to destroy.
Christology (Doctrine of Christ), a name
given to treatises, like those of Owen,. Dorner,
Hengstenberg, and Thomasius, which profess to
expound what is taught in Scripture concerning
the person of Christ.
Christophori (Christ-bearers), a name some
times assumed by the early Christians, be
cause they carried the Divine Master in their
hearts. Sometimes tbey called themselves, for
the same reason, Theophori; for it is written,
as Ignatius explained it, " I will dwell in
them." Christo Sacrum, a society founded at
Delft, in Holland, in 1801, by Onder de Win-
garrd, a burgomaster, the object of which is to
unite all who hold the divinity of Christ and
redemption by his death. It does not proselytize;
but though it began with four persons it now
numbers four thousand.
Church. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Churches. — For particular Churches, see
under the special Geographical or Denomina
tional titles.
Church, Form and Architecture of. —
The early Christians worshipped God wherever
they could find opportunity, — often in secret
places, and in dens and caves, because of their
persecutors. But churches proper began to be
built at an early period ; for Diocletian, in one of
his edicts in 303, orders them to be razed to the
ground. Afterwards churches were erected with
great splendour, especially under Constantine
and bis imperial successors. Justinian I. spent
his long reign in the erection of sacred edifices,
and Sancta Sophia in Constantinople, rebuilt by
him, was the fruit of his architectural zeal.
After the dark days of persecution were over,
the favourite site for a church was some eminence,
or perhaps the grave of some martyr ; yet, in
some countries they preferred subterranean ora
tories or crypts, many of which existed in Ger
many ; and the old Barony parish church of Glas
gow was similarly placed under the cathedral.
Heathen temples were sometimes consecrated as
churches, and so were halls, or places of public
meeting. — See Basilica.
The form of building at first was oblong, not
unlike a ship ; and hence the building was often
called " navis," a ship, "area," an ark, or "navi-
cula Petri," the boat of Peter. The altar was
always placed at the east end, and the chief
entrance was on the west. Another form was
that of a cross ; and, indeed, various shapes are
found, as octagons and quadrangles, but seldom
circular figures. According to Bede, the time
was when no churches built of stone existed in
Britain, but they were constructed of wood. The
first church of stone was built by St. Ninian,
and such was the rarity that it was called Can-
44

CHU
dida casa — Whitern, now spelled Whithorn — in
Galloway. Churches, especially after the fourth century,
consisted of three principal divisions. At the
east was the bema, choir, sanctum, or place of
the altar, reserved for the bishop and clergy,
often in the form of a semicircular recess or
apsis, and railed off from the nave by cancelli or
rails. The nave, mis, was the body of the church,
or place of usual assembly for the people,
having in it the ambo, or reader's desk or pulpit.
The sexes were usually kept separate during
worship, the men being on the sonth side and
the women on the north side. The catechumens
were placed behind the believers, according to
their various classes, and behind them again
were placed a certain class of penitents. Round
the walls were recesses for private meditation
and prayer, and aisles (aloe) separated the nave
from those chambers. Lastly, there was the nar
thex, ante-temple or portico, occupying the front
of the edifice, and entered by three doors from the
outerporch; and there were three entrances inward
from it, the principal one opening into the nave
directly opposite to the altar. Two of the doors,
consisting of two folding leaves, were named
the priest's door and the men's door. The vest
ibule, properly so called, was the place appropri
ated to certain catechumens and penitents. There
also stood the font or cantharus, for washing
prior to entrance ; and here, in Abyssinia, the
worshippers put off their sandals. The floors
were tastefully paved, often composed of marble,
and often made of tessellated or mosaic work.
The walls and roof were also frequently ornament
ed with mottoes, paintings, and bas-reliefs. Win
dows of glass were early used, but not in Eng
land till after the seventh century. The exedros,
or buildings outside the church, comprehended
generally the wings and exterior apartments,
and also separate buildings, such as the baptistery.
The court or atrium was the open space between
the outside walls and the church, and there stood
such outcasts as were not permitted to enter the
church. There were other buildings, such as the
vestry and repository for sacred utensils (ceim-
eliarcheion), and sometimes there were also pri
sons called decanica. Libraries, schools, and
houses for the officiating clergy sprang up round
the church ; hospitals for the sick, and diversoria,
or places for the entertainment of strangers.
Towers and bells are not mentioned till the age
of Charlemagne. It was in the thirteenth cen
tury, and after the introduction of the pointed
arch, that church architecture reached its culmi
nation. Then were built those huge and magni
ficent fabrics, the ruins of many of which still
attest their ancient harmony and grandeur.
Gothic architecture, somewhat naked and con
fused indeed, is prevailing again in Scotland, and
may of late years be seen in the churches of many
a small town and country village, though for
Presbyterian worship and teaching, it is certainly

CHU
neither the most fitting nor convenient. The
Greek style, on many accounts, appears to be
preferable ; but both are improvements on the
old barn form universal last century among all
denominations. Whatever is dedicated to God
should be the best of its kind ; and a solemn
beauty, without florid ostentation, should charac
terize the meeting- places of his people.
Churches were held in great veneration. The
people were asked to attend in decent apparel ;
emperors, as they entered, laid down their arms,
put off their crowns, and left their guard behind
them. Honorius decreed that any one disturbing
the service should be put to death. Coleman
briefly sums up the privileges by which the
sacred buildings were guarded from profanation
and sacrilege: — "Neither churches nor any of
their utensils or implements could be sold,
mortgaged, or assessed for taxes: to this rule,
however, there were occasional exceptions.
Churches could not be used for courts of either
civil or criminal cases, nor for popular elections
or legislative assemblies; but they might be
opened for the accommodation of ecclesiastical
councils, and for the coronation of princes. No
marketing, or exchanges in buying or selling of
any kind, was allowed in the church, much less
were annual fairs permitted in the neighbourhood
of a church. No convivial assemblies were in
any instance to be held in the churches ; and
even the love-feasts, the abuses of which in the
Corinthian church were so severely censured by
the apostle Paul (1 Cor. xi. 18, seq.), were not
allowed in the churches. Neither were they to
be opened for the entertainment of strangers and
travellers. It was also a high offence to speak
irreverently of the house of God, or unworthily
to engage in any official act of public worship."
From the period of Constantine, the altar, doors,
pillars, and threshold, were sometimes embraced
and kissed, and articles of value were for
safety lodged in the ecclesiastical repositories.
Churches also became sanctuaries, or places of
refuge. At first only the altar, or more sacred
portion of the building, was held to be an
asylum ; but the same sacredness was soon attach -
ed to the whole structure and its precincts ; but
refuge was not afforded to every kind of criminals.
Certain classes of them were formally denied
the privilege — such as public debtors ; Jews pro
fessing Christianity, in order to avoid payment of
debt; heretics and apostates, run-away slaves,
robbers and murderers ; adulterers, conspirators,
and ravishers of virgins. A relic of the custom is
found in the asylum yet afforded to debtors in
Holyrood — the name implying its original
sacredness — rood signifying cross.
Churches received various names, such as house
of God, domus Dei; house of prayer, the Lord's
house or temple — xvgiuxov, so used, being the ori
gin of kirche, kirk, church. Sometimes they
were named martyria, in honour of the martyrs;
and other designations, in allusion to their origin

145

CHU
and purpose, were conferred upon them, such as
tabernacle, conventicle or meeting-house, place of
instruction, corpus Christi, or body of Christ,
casas, tituli, synodi, concilia, &c. Riddle has
taken from Augusti, vol. i., 341, the following
list of other titles : — " Churches were dis
tinguished, in the course of centuries, by various
epithets, according to their size, their relation to
other churches, or some other circumstances con
nected with them. Thus we read of ecclesiae
matrices (matricales) et filiates; or simply matres
et filia?, i. c, mother churches and daughters ;
from their mutual connection and dependence.
Ecclesiae cathedrales, cathedral churches, from
being the seat of a spiritual superior and gover
nor. And these again were either episcopales or
archiepiscopales, metropolitans?, or patriarchales.
Ecclesia? Catholica? ; so called sometimes by way
of distinction from the churches of reputed here
tics and schismatics ; and sometimes as synony
mous with episcopales. Ecclesia? dicecesana?;
usually the same as episcopales. Ecclesia? paro-
chiales, or parochia?, i. e., parish churches. But
sometimes this term is equivalent to episcopales or
dioecesanse. Ecclesia? baptismales, Bari-is-rvgta,
KoXvfifiMtfci, piscinse, tinctoria, baptisterii basil
ica?, aula? baptismatis; i.e., baptisteries. Eccle
sia? curata?, in which service was performed pro
visionally by a curatus (or curate); nearly the
same as filia?. Oratoria and capella? are usually
synonymous; but, when distinguished, the for
mer denoted a private chapel, the latter a chapel
of ease. Both are sometimes called sacella?
sacra?, and in the neuter sacella, whence sacella-
nus, i. e., sacelli pra?fectus, capellanus. Ecclesia?
articulares, churches or chapels dependent on a
mother church, same as filia?, capella?. Ecclesia?
collegiata?, collegiales, or conventuales, collegiate
churches. Ecclesia? commendata? or commend-
aria?, same as curata?. Since the middle ages
the following distinctions have become common :
— Ecclesia? civica?, town or city churches. Ec
clesia? rurales, or villana?, country churches.
Ecclesia? castellana?, churches in fortresses or
castles. Ecclesia? ccemeteriales, churches in
burial grounds. Ecclesia? capitales, or cardinales,
principales. Ecclesia? majores, or primaria? ; i. e.,
matres. Ecclesia? minores, or secundaria? ; i. e.,
filia?, capella?. Ecclesia? seniores et juniores ; i. e.,
matres et filia?. Ecclesia? per se, independent
churches ; i. e., parochiales, matres," &c. — See
under the respective terms, as Abata, Altae,
Ambo, Apsis, Baptistery, Bells, Bema,
Burial, Cantharus, Catechumen, Cells,
Chancel, Clergy, Exedra, Narthex, Sanc
tuary, &c, &c. (Walch, Bingham, Augusti,
Du Fresne, Basnage, Miinter, &c.)
Churching or Thanksgiving of Women
after child-birth. — This is a parallel custom to
the purification of the Jewish law, enjoined in
the twelfth chapter of Leviticus ; and in the first
liturgy was styled the order of the purification
of women. As the Church of England, however,

146

CHU
by no means admits that any spiritual unclean-
ness is contracted by child-bearing, at the re
view of the litiirgy, the title of the service was
changed to that which it now bears. In the
Greek Church the time assigned for the celebra
tion of this rite was forty days from the birth.
In the West no precise limit has been laid down;
and the Anglican rubric enjoins only the usual
time, which is interpreted as soon as her recovery
of strength will permit. The service is meant
to be performed in church, as a public acknow
ledgment of the restoration of the woman to the
congregation ; and the end of the rite is by no
means answered if it be administered privately.
The third council of Milan expressly prohibited
this abuse. Of old a veil used to be worn on this
occasion ; and even so late as the reign of James L
this dress was enjoined by a chancellor of Norwich,
and awomanwas excommunicated for contumacy;
which excommunication, on appeal, after con
sulting with the Archbishop of Canterbury and
the bishops, relative to custom, the judge con
firmed. In King Edward's first liturgy she is
instructed to kneel "in some convenient place
nigh unto the quire door ; " this was afterwards
altered into "nigh unto the place where the
table standeth ; " and it now runs, " as has been
accustomed, or as the ordinary shall direct."
The time of performance of this service is not
laid down in the rubric ; but in the Bishop of
Norwich's Visitation Articles, 1536, it appears
then to have been read just before the commun
ion. When the chrisome in baptism was discon
tinued, the rubric directed the woman to offer
"accustomed offerings; and if there be a com
munion, it is convenient that she receive the
holy communion,"
Church, membership of. — Those in full
communion with the early Church had various
names, — "believers" (tr/o-roi), the Scriptural
appellation, and also that of "brethren," "elect,"
"beloved," "sons of God," &c. Occasionally
they were called " perfect " (teXeioj), in allusion
probably to the course of secret instruction already
undergone, and qualifying them for the Eucharist,
which was "perfection of perfections" (TEAira
rtksrZn). They were also called the initiated,
in allusion, perhaps, to the heathen mysteries.—
See Aecani Disciplina. They were also
named the " enlightened " — faTir/tus, or enlight
enment, being in the primitive period a common
name for baptism. When fully received into the
church, the members could attend all religions
assemblies, while others not so far advanced were
summoned to retire. They were permitted to
repeat the Lord's Prayer aloud, while the cate
chumens could only do" it in silence. They were
of course admitted to the Lord's Supper, and
took part in public ecclesiastical business, in the
election of ministers and the exercise of discipline,
— such as excommunication and the re-admis
sion of penitents. They had also the right to be
fully instructed in the deeper doctrines of Chris-

CHU
tianity, which were sometimes termed mysteries.
To show the spirit of the times, we note a few
of the canons of the old councils concerning
the laity, as we shall also do concerning the
clergy. Thus : —
In the Apostolical Canons — "9. It is fit
that all communicants (witr-Toi) who come into
the holy church of God and hear the Scrip
tures, but do not stay for prayers and the
holy communion, be suspended from communion,
as occasioning confusion in the church. 71. If
any Christian carry oil to the temples of the
heathen, or synagogues of the Jews, or light
candles at their feasts, let him be suspended from
communion. 73. Let no one purloin to his own
use any of the sacred utensils, whether of silver,
gold, or linen ; and if any one be taken doing so,
let him be punished with suspension from com
munion ; for it is a flagitious thing. 80. It is
not to be allowed that any proselyte from
heathenism, being baptized, should presently be
ordained a bishop ; nor any one (lately reclaimed)
from a lewd course of life (for it is unreasonable,
tbat he who has given no proof of himself should
be a teacher of others) ; unless it be by Divine
grace." In the Nicene Canons — " 17. Because many
enrolled in the canon, pursuing their own cove
tous desires and filthy lucre, have forgotten the
Divine Scripture, which saith, "He hath not lent
his moneyupon usury," as to demand everymonth
the hundredth part of the principal; the holy
synod thinks it just, that if any take (such)
use, by secret transaction, or otherwise man
age the business, so as to exact the principal,
and one-half of the principal for interest, or con
trive any other fraud for filthy lucre's sake, let
him be deposed from the clergy, and not belong
to the canon."
In the Ancyran Canons — "7. As for those
who have been guests at the heathen feasts, in
a place assigned for heathens, but brought and
eat their own victuals (only), it is decreed,
that they be received after they have been
prostrators two years ; but whether with (or
without) the oblation, every bishop is to deter
mine, after having examined the rest of his life.
8. Let them who have twice or thrice sacrificed
upon force, be prostrators four years, and com
municate without the oblation two years, and
the seventh year let them be perfectly received.
9. As to those who have not only lapsed, but
have assaulted and forced, or been the occasion of
forcing their brethren, let them occupy the place of
hearers three years, prostrators six years ; one year
let them communicate without the oblation, tbat
after ten years they may attain perfection in this
time; the rest of their lifemust also be examined.
1 9. Let professed virgins that have been false to
their profession be treated as if they were digami.
We do forbid maids to live with men, under
pretence of living in a sister-like manner. 21.
A former canon has forbid lewd women that

CHU
have murdered their children, or have used
medicines to procure abortion, to be admitted to
communion before the point of death, and this
(canon) is approved ; yet we, using more lenity,
do decree, that they be under penance ten years,
according to the terms before prescribed."
In the Neoca?sarean Canons — "2. If a
woman marry two brothers (successively), let
her be excommunicated until her death, unless
she be willing to forego tbe marriage; but if,
at the point of death, she promise to forego
the marriage, in case she recover, she shall, by
indulgence, be admitted to penance : but if
the woman, or husband, die in such marriage,
the surviving party shall not easily be admitted
to penance."In the Gangran Canons — " 13. If any
woman, under pretence of being an ascetic,
instead of the habit belonging to her sex, take
that which is proper to the men, let her be
anathema. 14. If any woman, abominating
marriage, desert her husband, and will be
come a recluse, let her be anathema. 15. If
any one, under pretence of religion, abandon his
own children, and do not educate them, and, so
much as in him lies, train them up to an honest
piety, but neglect them, under pretence of being
au ascetic, let him be anathema. 16. If any
children, under pretence of godliness, depart from
their parents, and do not give sitting honour to
them, the godliness that is in them plainly being
principally regarded, let them be anathema.
17. If any woman, under pretence of godliness,
shave her hair, which God gave her to remind
her of subjection, as if she would annul the de
cree of subjection, let her be anathema."
In the Laodicean Canons — " 28. That
love-feasts must not be held in churches, nor
meals, and beds (for guests to lie down upon),
be made in the house of God. 29. That
Christians must not Judaize and rest on the
Sabbath-day, but work on that very day ; and
give the preference to the Lord's day, by resting
as Christians, if they can : but if they are found
to Judaize, let them be anathema from Christ.
30. That neither those of the priesthood, nor of
the clergy, nor an ascetic, nor Christian layman,
shall wash in the bath together with women ; for
this is a principal (occasion of) condemnation
amongst the heathen." — See Catechumens,
Penitents. Church Rate. — See Rates, Chubch.
Churchwardens (ecclesiarum guardiani),
anciently called Churchreves (reve in Saxon
signifying guardians), or keepers of the church,
and the legal representatives of the body of the
parish. They are chosen annually, and gener
ally by the joint consent of the minister and
parishioners, unless custom, on which the right
depends, prescribes other modes, such as the
minister choosing one and the parishioners an
other, or the parishioners both (there being two
for each parish), or the appointment being in a

147

CHU
select vestry, or in a particular number of the
parishioners, and not in the body at large.
When appointed they are sworn into office by the
archdeacon or ordinary of the diocese. Canons
89 and 90 decree — " All churchwardens or quest
men in every parish shall be chosen by the joint
consent of the minister and the parishioners, if it
may be ; but if they cannot agree upon such a
choice, then the minister shall choose one, and
the parishioners another; and without such a
joint or several choice none shall take upon them
to be churchwardens ; neither shall they continue
any longer than one year in that office, except,
perhaps, they be chosen again in like manner.
And all churchwardens at the end of their year,
or within a month after, at the most, shall, before
the minister and the parishioners, give up a just
account of such money as they have received,
and also what particularly they have bestowed
in reparations, and otherwise for the use of the
church. And, last of all, going out of their office,
they shall truly deliver up to the parishioners
whatsoever money or other things of right be
longing to the church or parish, which remaineth
in their hands, that it may be delivered over by
them to the next churchwardens by bill in
dented. The churchwardens or questmen of
every parish, and two or three or more discreet
persons in every parish, to be chosen for side-
men or assistants by the minister and parish
ioners, if they can agree (otherwise to be
appointed by the ordinary of the diocese), shall
diligently see that all the parishioners duly re
sort to their church upon all Sunday and holy-
days, and there continue the whole time of
divine service ; and none to walk or to stand
idle or talking in the church, or in the church
yard, or in the church porch, during that time.
And all such as shall be found slack or negligent
in resorting to the church (having no great or
urgent cause of absence), they shall earnestly
call upon them ; and after due monition (if they
amend not), they shall present them to the or
dinary of the place. The choice of which per
sons, viz., churchwardens or questmen, side-
men or assistants, shall be yearly made in Easter
week." Peers of the realm, members of parlia
ment, clergymen and dissenting ministers, alder
men, barristers, attorneys, physicians, surgeons,
apothecaries, and militiamen whilst on service,
are exempted from the office. Persons who have
sued a felon to conviction, and the first assignee
of the certificate thereof, which is vulgarly called
a Tyburn Ticket, are also exempt from serving
in the parish in which the offence was com
mitted. Dissenters may serve by deputy. No
party, though he has lands in the parish, unless
lie lives there also, is liable to be called on to act
as churchwarden. When duly appointed, the
person must be sworn, before he executes the
office; and should he refuse to take the oath, he is
liable to excommnnication. Churchwardens are
a corporation by custom, are enabled to sue and

148

CIB
to be sued for anything belonging to the church
or poor of the parish ; they have a special pro
perty in the organ, bells, parish-books, Bible,
chalice, surplice, &c, belonging to the church,
of which they have the custody on behalf of?
the parish. With the consent of the minister,
they allot seats to the parishioners, reserving?
those which belong by prescription to particular
houses in the parish. They have also the care of
the benefice during its vacancy. As soon as
there is any avoidance, it is their duty to apply
to the chancellor of the diocese for a sequestra-*
tion, which being granted, they are bound to
manage the profits and expenses of the benefice
for the next incumbent, plough and sow his
glebes, collect the tithes, and keep the house in
repair. They must see that the church is pro-'
perly served by a curate appointed by the bishop,
whom they are to pay out of the profits of the
benefice. They have the summoning the parish
ioners to meet in vestry, to make rates. The
keys of the belfry should be kept by them, to
prevent the bells being rung without proper
cause. The collecting charity money by briefs is,
by the statute 4 Anne, c. 14, a further duty im
posed upon them. Their consent must be ob
tained for burying a person in a different parish
from that in which he dies. They are not to
allow suicides or excommunicated persons to be
buried in the church or churchyard, without
license from the bishop. They must also take
care that the church is furnished with a large
Bible, a Book of Common Prayer, a book of
homilies, a font, a decent communion table, with
the necessary articles for the celebration of
the Lord's Supper. They must see that the
commandments are set up at the east end of
the church ; must provide register-books for
baptisms, marriages, and burials; sign certifi
cates of persons having taken the communion;
and prevent any irreverence or indecency being
committed in the church ; they may refuse to
open the church except to the clergyman, or
any one acting under him. The churchyard
also is under their care ; and it is their duty to
prevent any profane or idle use of it. They are
also bound to observe whether the clergyman
performs the various duties imposed on him by
law, and whether the parishioners attend chnrch.
Every churchwarden is an overseer, as regards1
the poor ; the parish register is also under their
care, conjointly with the clergyman. At the end
of the year it is their duty to render a fall
account of their proceedings to the minister and
parishioners. Justices of the peace have no jur
isdiction over churchwardens, with respect to
their accounts as churchwardens.
Churchyard. — See Burial, Cemeteet.
Ciborium, the canopy with which, in some
ofthe more stately churches, the altar used to be
covered. In process of time the pyx took this
name. Originally, it is an Egyptian term for
the husk of a bean, and thence used by the

CIR
Greeks for a large cup, broad at the bottom and
narrow at the top. — See Altar.
Circullus, the Latin name of the cowl worn
by the monks.
Circumcellians, a party of extreme Dona-
tists, in the north of Africa, who went about,
as their name implies, from place to place,
on pretext of reforming abuses, manumitting
slaves, remitting debts, and, in other forms, tak
ing the law into their own hands. Many of
them committed suicide under a mistaken zeal
for martyrdom. — See Donatists.
Circumcision. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Circumcision, Feast of, a religious festival
in memory of the circumcision of the child Jesus,
held on the eighth day after Christmas, or upon
the first of January. — See Octave.
Cistertian Monks, an order which origin
ated with St. Robert, abbot of Moleme, a Bene
dictine, in the eleventh century. His first estab
lishment was at Citeaux, from which the title
of Cistertian monks is derived. After a time,
being ordered by the pope to resume his abbacy
at Molenie, he was succeeded at Citeaux by Al-
beric, who drew up rules for the order. At first
their habit was black, but the Virgin Mary hav
ing appeared to St. Alberic, and presented him
with a white habit, the hint so significantly
given was immediately acted upon, by the sub
stitution of a white habit. A festival was ap
pointed to be observed on the 5th August, in
commemoration of " the miraculous descent of
the ever-blessed Virgin at Citeaux." De Vitry
thus describes the rigidness of the order : " They
neither wore skins nor skirts, nor ever ate flesh,
except in sickness, and they abstained from fish,
eggs, milk, and cheese. They lay only upon
straw beds, in their tunics and cowls ; they rose
at midnight, and sang praises to God till break
of day ; they spent the day in labour, reading,
and prayer, and in all their exercises they ob
served a strict and continual silence ; they fasted
from the feast ofthe Exaltation of the Holy Cross
till Easter; and they exercised hospitality to
wards the poor with extraordinary charity."
The Cistertian order so rapidly increased that fifty
years after its establishment it had 500 abbeys.
Many eminent men sprang from it, not a few
of whom were employed by the pope to convert
the Albigenses. At one time they possessed
almost unlimited control in the temporal as well
as spiritual affairs of the kingdoms of Europe, —
so numerous and powerful had they become.
Citation, or summons to appear, usually ap
plied to a process issued from the spiritual court,
which proceeds according to the civil and canon
laws, by citation, libel, &c. By the statute 23
Henry VIII., cap. 9, spiritual judges were re
strained from citing persons out of the diocese or
jurisdiction in which they dwelt, unless in cer
tain excepted cases, upon pain of double damages
and costs against the party so citing. Every arch-
.bishop, however, has the power of citing parties

CLA
dwelling in any bishop' s diocese within his province
for heresy, if the bishop or other ordinary consents,
or if they do not do their duty in punishing the
offence. Where persons are cited out of their
diocese, and live out of the jurisdiction of the
bishop, a prohibition or consultation may be
granted ; but where persons live in the diocese,
if, when they are cited, they omit to appear, they
are to be excommunicated, &c.
Clarendon, Constitutions of, certain
constitutions made in the reign of Henry IL,
a.d. 1164, in a parliament or council held at
Clarendon, a village three miles distant from
Salisbury. These are as follows: — "1. When
any difference relating to the right of patronage
arises between the laity, or between the laity and
clergy, the controversy is to be tried and ended
in the king's courts. 2. Those churches which
are fees of the crown cannot be granted away in
perpetuity, withouttheking'sconsent. 3. Whenthe
clergy are charged with any misdemeanour, and
summoned by the justiciary, they shall be obliged
to make their appearance in this court, and plead
to such parts of the indictments as shall be put
to them ; and likewise, to answer such articles
in the ecclesiastical court as they shall be prose
cuted for by that jurisdiction ; always provided
that the king's justiciary shall send an officer to
inspect the proceedings of the court Christian.
And in case any clerk is convicted or pleads
guilty, he is to forfeit the privilege of his charac
ter, and be protected by the church no longer.
4. No archbishops, bishops, or parsons are al
lowed to depart the kingdom without a license
from the crown ; and, provided they have leave
to travel, they shall give security not to act or
solicit anything during their passage, stay, or re
turn, to the prejudice of the king or kingdom.
5. When any of the laity are prosecuted in the
ecclesiastical courts, the charge ought to be
proved before the bishop by legal and reputable
witnesses ; and the course of the process is to be
so managed that the archdeacon may not lose
any part of his right, or the profits accruing to
his office ; and if any offenders appear screened
from prosecution upon the score either of favour
or quality, the sheriff, at the bishop's instance,
shall order twelve sufficient men of the vicinage
to make oath before the bishop, that they will
discover the truth according to the best of their
knowledge. 6. Excommunicated persons shall
not be obliged to make oath, or give security to
continue upon the place where they live, but only
to abide by the judgment of the Church in order
to their absolution. 7. No person that holds in
chief of the king or any of his barons, shall be
excommunicated, or any of their estates put under
an interdict, before application made to the king,
provided he is in the kingdom ; and in case his
highness is out of England, then the justiciary
must be acquainted with the dispute, in order to
make satisfaction ; and thus that which belongs
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tried there, and that which belongs to the courts
Christian must be remitted to that jurisdiction.
8. In case of appeals in ecclesiastical causes, the
first step is to be made from the archdeacon to
the bishop, and from the bishop to the arch
bishop; and if the archbishop fails to do him jus
tice, a farther recourse may be had to the king,
by whose order the controversy is to be finally
decided in the archbishop's court. Neither shall
it be lawful for either of the parties to move for
any farther remedy, without leave from the crown.
9. If a difference happen to rise between any
clergyman and layman concerning any tene
ment, and that the clerk pretends it held by
frank-almoine, and the layman pleads it a lay-
fee, in this case the tenure shall be tried by the
inquiry and verdict of twelve sufficient men of
the neighbourhood, summoned according to the
custom of the realm; and if the tenement, or
thing in controversy, shall be found frank-
almoine, the dispute concerning it shall be tried
in the ecclesiastical court; but if it is brought in
a lay-fee, the suit shall be followed in the king's
courts, unless both the plaintiff and defendant
hold the tenement in question of the same
bishop ; in which case the cause shall be tried in
the court of such bishop or baron, with this
farther proviso, that he who is seized of the
thing in controversy shall not be disseized pend
ing the suit, upon the score of the verdict above
mentioned. 10. He who holds of the king in
any city, castle, or borough, or resides upon any
of the demesne lands of the crown, in case he is
cited by the archdeacon or bishop to answer to
any misbehaviour belonging to their cognizance ;
if he refuses to obey their summons, and stand to
the sentence of tbe court, it shall be lawful for
the ordinary to put him under an interdict, but
not to excommunicate him till the king's princi
pal officer of the town shall be pre-acquainted
with the case, in order to enjoin him to make
satisfaction to the church. And if such officer
or magistrate shall fail in his duty, he shall be
fined by the king's judges. And then the bishop
may exert his discipline on the refractory person
as he thinks fit. 11. All archbishops, bishops,
and other ecclesiastical persons, who hold of the
king in chief, and the tenure of a barony, are,
for that reason, obliged to appear before the
king's justices and ministers, to answer the duties
of their tenure, and to observe all the usages and
customs of the realm ; and, like other barons,
are bound to be present at trials in the king's
court, till sentence is to be pronounced for the
losing of life or limbs. 12. When any arch
bishopric, bishopric, abbey, or priory of royal
foundation, become vacant, the king is to make
seizure ; from which time all the profits and
issues are to be paid into the exchequer, as if
they were the demesne lands of the crown. And
when it is determined the vacancy shall be filled
up, the king is to summon the most considerable
persons of the chapter to the court, and the

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election is to be made in the chapel royal, with
the consent of our sovereign lord the king, and
by the advice of such persons of the government
as his highness shall think fit to make use of.
At which time the person elected, before his con
secration, shall be obliged to do homage and
fealty to the king, as his liege lord ; which
homage shall be performed in the usual form,
with a clause for the saving the privilege of hU
order. 13. If any of the temporal barons, or
great men, shall encroach upon the rights of
property of any archbishop, bishop, or arch
deacon, and refuse to make satisfaction for the
wrong done by themselves or their tenants, the
king shall do justice to the party aggrieved.
And if any person shall disseize the king of any
part of his lands, or trespass upon his preroga
tive, the archbishops, bishops, and archdeacons
shall call him to an account, and oblige him to
make the crown restitution. 14. The goods and
chattels of those who lie under forfeitures of
felony or treason are not to be detained in any
church or churchyard, to secure them against
seizure and justice ; because such goods are the
king's property, whether they are lodged within
the precincts of a church or without it. 15.
All actions and pleas of debt, though never so
solemn in the circumstances of the contract, shall
be tried in the king's court. 16. Sons of copy
holders are not to be ordained without the consent
of the lord of the manor where they were born.
Clareniues. — See Franciscans.
Clarisses, an order of nuns founded by St.
Clara in the year 1212, according to the rule of St.
Francis. They are forbidden to have any posses
sions, and silence for the greater part of each day
is enjoined upon them, and their habit consists of
three tunics and a mantle. The pious reput
ation of St. Clara soon led to the establish
ment of several convents, her followers becoming
so numerous. After her death they rapidly in
creased in Italy, Spain, and France; and at the
present day the Clarisses form one of the most
flourishing orders in Europe. St. Clara was of
the town Assisi in Italy.
Classig (xXwis, a meeting called together), ;
the name given in some parts of the Continent,
as in Holland and Switzerland, to a presbytery.
The Presbyterians also in the north-east of Eng
land were said to belong to the Northumberland
class. Hence, too, some writers on church go
vernment speak of a congregational presbytery or
a session, and of a classical presbytery, properly
so called. The Puritan churches in New Eng
land were originally founded on the plan of con
gregational presbytery — a plan advocated by Dr.
Owen, classical presbytery being condemned by
him. — See Presbytery, Independency.
Class meetings. — Every one of the Methodist
societies (i. e., churches or congregations) con
sists of a number of smaller bodies denominated
" classes." These classes meet at convenient
places and hours, generally weekly, under tha

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guidance of a " leader," for the purpose of mutu
ally aiding each other in their religious progress,
by narrating their "experience" of God's good
ness to them during the previous week. At
these meetings each one speaks aloud the thoughts
and feelings of the heart, and receives from the
leader such encouragement, advice, exhortation,
warning, or reproof, as the nature of his or her
particular case requires. It is evident that to
answer satisfactorily, and with good effect, the
doubts, temptations, perplexities, shortcomings
and errors which form the sum of the "experi
ence " of any single class, it is necessary that the
leader should be a man of consummate skill — a
casuist in his way — and a man thoroughly ac
quainted with the promises, doctrines, and pre
cepts of the New Testament. He should indeed
be a man of piety, wisdom, prudence, fidelity,
purity, and possessing true natural goodness of
heart. As leaders cannot be dispensed with in
the working of the Methodist societies, and as it
is not possible always, especially in new locali
ties, to obtain competent men for this office, the
task of meeting several classes during the week
not unfrequently falls upon the preacher, — thus
adding materially to the responsible duties of
his " station." The origin of these meetings is
thus given by the eminent man whose name the
society bears : " In the latter end of the year
1739 eight or ten persons came to me in London,
who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and
earnestly groaning for redemption. They desired
that I would spend some time with them in
prayer, and advise them how to flee from the
wrath to come, which they saw continually hang
ing over their heads. That we might have more
time for this great work, I appointed a day when
they might all come together ; which from thence
forward they did every week, namely, on Thurs
day, in the evening. To them, and as many
more as desired to join with them, I gave those
advices from time to time which I judged most
needful for them ; and we always concluded our
meetings with prayer suited to their several
necessities. This was the rise of the united
society, first in London, and then in other places.
Such a society is no other than a company of
men having the form and seeking the power of
godliness — united in order to pray together, to
receive the word of exhortation, and to watch
over one another in love, that they may help
each other to work out their salvation." Mr.
Wesley adds — "Each society is divided into
smaller companies called classes, according to
their respective places of abode. There are
about twelve persons in every class, one of
whom is styled the leader. There is only one
condition previously required of those who desire
admission into these societies, namely, a desire
to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from
their sins." " It was by this means," says Dr.
Adam Clarke, "that we have been enabled to
establish permanent and holy churches over the

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world. Mr. Wesley saw the necessity of this
from the beginning. Mr. Whitefield, when he
separated from Mr. Wesley, did not follow it.
What was the consequence ? The fruit of Mr.
Whitefield's labour died with himself: Mr.
Wesley's fruit remains, grows, increases, and
multiplies exceedingly." In support of the above
observation the following anecdote is recorded : 
Mr. Whitefield having met, after a considerable
interval, a Wesleyan named Mr. John Pool,
with whom he had been acquainted, accosted
him thus : " Well, John, art thou still a Wes
leyan?" Pool: "Yes, sir; and I thank God that
I have the privilege of being in connection with
him, and one of his preachers." Whitefield: "John,
thou art in thy right place. My brother Wesley
acted wisely. The souls that were awakened
under his ministry he joined in class, and thus
preserved the fruits of his labour. This I
neglected, and my people are a rope of sand"
(see Wesley's Life, Centenary of Wesleyan
Methodism). The Baptist missionaries in Jamaica,
Antigua, and other of the West India Islands,
have been compelled to adopt this plan, owing
to the very large numbers of half-instructed pro
fessors (blacks) which their congregations neces
sarily included ; and the utter impossibility of
the missionaries being able to meet the religious
requirements of all who wait upon their ministry.
— See Leader.
Clementines. — 1. A collection of nineteen
homilies of a Judaizing tendency, falsely attri
buted to Clement of Rome. They were probably
written late in the second century; and, as
Neander thinks, by one of the Ebionites; or,
as Gieseler has conjectured, by a philosophi
cally educated Christian of Rome, who, in the
course of his researches, discovered among the
Elcesaites the speculative creed which is em
bodied in these homilies (Hi*t., § 58). He sup
poses the Recognitions to be the work of an Alex
andrian. 2. The Constitutions of Pope Clement
V., published by his successor, John XXII., in
1317  See Decebtals.
Clerestory (clear story), that part of a church
which is built on tbe naves of the arches, and
rises clear over the roofs of the aisles.
Clergy, a name comprehending the entire
body of teachers in the Christian Church. The
apostles and their immediate successors were ex
posed to frequent danger and death in discharge
of their duties. Temporal honour was not for
them; but, foremost in faith, they were usually
first in martyrdom. The people to whom they
laboured esteemed them highly in love for their
works' sake, and gladly and honourably main
tained them. In fact, the marked distinction be
tween clergy and laity did not appear till the
second century. The following is the testimony
of the fathers :— Justin Martyr says : "While
the prophets of the old covenant received only
special gifts and powers from the Divine Spirit,
Christ, on the contrary, possessed the whole ful-

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ness of this Divine Spirit, and he imparts to be
lievers spiritual gifts of his fulness, as to the
prophets of the old covenant. Christians, after
they have been enlightened, receive, one the
spirit of knowledge, another the spirit of counsel
(Christian practical wisdom), another the spirit of
power, another the spirit of healing, another the
spirit of prophecy, another the spirit of teaching,
another the spirit of fear of God." " We are,
through Jesus Christ, devoted as one man to God
the Creator of the universe ; through the name of
his first-begotten Son we put off our defiled gar
ments, that is, our sins ; and being influenced by
the word of his calling, we are the true high-
priestly race of God, as God himself testifies,
saying, that in every place among the Gentiles
pure and acceptable sacrifices shall be offered to
him (Mal. i. 11). God receives no sacrifices
from any one, excepting through his priests. .
. . Prayers and thanksgivings presented by
the worthy are the only perfect sacrifices and
acceptable to God." "All righteous persons
have the dignity of priests," says Irena?us ; and
in another passage, "The Jews devoted their
tithes to God, but Christians, who have attained
freedom, devote their all joyfully and freely to
the Lord's service." " Prayer," says Tertullian,
" is the spiritual sacrifice which takes the place
of the sacrifices under tbe old covenant. The
Gospel teaches us what God requires : ' The time
cometh when the true worshippers shall worship
the Father in spirit and in truth ; for the Father
seeketh such to worship him.' God is a spirit,
and hence he requires such worshippers. We are
the true worshippers and the true priests, who
pray in the spirit, and offer to God in the spirit
the prayers that are due and acceptable to him.
These, devoted by the whole heart, fed by faith,
tended by truth, complete in innocence, pure by
chastity, crowned by love, we ought to bring up
to the altar of God, with the train of good works,
amid psalms and hymns, to obtain all things for
us from God." To the same tenor also is the
beautiful passage of Origen, in which he vindi
cates Christians from the reproach cast on them
by the heathen, that, unlike the professors of
other religions, they had no temples, images, or
altars. " He (Celsus) does not perceive," says
Origen, "that aniong us the souls of the
righteous are the altars on wliich are offered, in
a true and spiritual manner, sacrifices well-
pleasing to God, namely, prayers from a pure
conscience. The images and the offerings, as
they are not the work of men's hands, but are
formed by the Word of God, are the virtues by
which we form ourselves according to the model
of the first-bora of the whole creation, in whom
is the original type of all righteousness and wis
dom. The most glorious image, far exalted
above the whole creation, is indeed in om- Saviour,
who could say of himself (John xiv. 10), 'The
Father is in me;' but also in every one of those
who according to their ability imitate him, is the

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image of Him who created him (Col. ii.), an
image formed by looking up to God with a pure
heart And generally, all Christians seek to set
up such altars and images in their hearts, not
those devoid of life and feeling, into which they
introduce their false gods, but such as receive the
Spirit of God into themselves, which connects
itself with what is related to it. This is shown
in Holy Writ, when God promises to the
righteous (Lev. xxvi. 12), ' I will walk among
you, and will be your God, and ye shall be my
people;' and the Saviour (John xiv. 23), 'If a
man love me, he will keep my words ; and 'we
will come unto him and make our abode with
him.'" Tertullian says: "All Christians are
now in the position of those who were priests
under the Old Testament dispensation ; the parti
cular Jewish priesthood was a prophetic type of
the universal Christian priesthood. We are
priests, being called for that purpose by Christ
The highest priest, the great priest of the
heavenly Father, Christ, since he has clothed us
with himself (' for as many of you as are baptized
have put on Christ,' Gal. iii. 27), ' has made us
kings and priests to God and his Father ' (Rev.
i. 6)." And in another passage he combats the
idea of a priestly caste in Christianity. "We are
under a delusion, if we believe that what is not
permitted to the priests is permitted to the laity.
Are not we laics also priests ? (Rev. i. 6.)" He
regards the distinction between clergy and laity
not as existing originally, but as something in
troduced by the Church for the sake of order.
This distinction, he thinks, should be regarded by
the laity for that reason. " But where there are
no clergy," he says, "thou mayest also baptize,
administer the Lord's Supper, and art thyself a
priest. Where there are three (Matt, xviii. 20),
there is a church, although they may be all laics.
Every man lives by his faith, and there is no
respect of persons with God; for before God not
those who hear the law are justified, but those
who do the law. We ought all of us so to
regulate our lives according to God's will thatwe
may be everywhere fitted to administer his
sacraments. One God, one faith, one law of
life." "How can the priests," he asks, "be
chosen from the laity, if the laity do not pre
viously live so as to be fitted for the priesthood?"
But in course of time the clergy stood out as
an order more prominently ; and, after the era of
Constantine, who strangely styledhimself a bishop,
they were recognized by the state as possessed
of certain immunities and prerogatives. Talent,
zeal, piety, force of character, eloquence, learning,
or great devotedness, always gave a Christian
teacher a high place, though he had no external
rank; Origen was but a deacon and Jerome only
a presbyter. The character of the clergy was
expected to be in harmony with their office.
Hospitality, kindness to the poor, holy and
gracious conversation, contempt for the. things of
the world, should mark them, along with sedulous,

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study of the Scriptures, and a passionate desire
to be instrumental in saving souls. " Some,"
says an ancient father, Gregory of Nazianzen,
" do, with unwashen hands and profane minds,
press to handle the holy mysteries, and affect to
be at the altar before they are fit to be initiated
to any sacred service : they look upon the holy
order and function, not as designed for an exam
ple of virtue, but only as a way of supporting
themselves ; not as a trust, of which they are to
give an account, but a state of absolute authority
and exemption. And these men's examples cor
rupt the people's morals faster than any cloth
can imbibe a colour, or a plague infect the air,
since men are more disposed to receive the tinc
ture of vice than virtue from the example of
their rulers." In opposition to this, he declares
it to be incumbent upon all spiritual physicians,
" that they should draw the picture of all manner
of virtues in their own lives, and set themselves
as examples to the people ; that it might not be
proverbially said of them, that they set about
curing others, w-hile they themselves are full of
sores and ulcers." "A minister's office places
him in the same rank and order with angels
themselves ; he celebrates God with archangels,
transmits the church's sacrifice to the altar in
heaven, and performs the priest's office with
Christ himself; he reforms the work of God's
hands, and presents the image to his maker ; his
workmanship is for the world above ; and there
fore he should be exalted to a divine and heavenly
nature, whose business is to be as a god himself,
and make others gods also." (Greg. Naz. Orat,
i. ; Apolog. de Fuga) ; Neander's Memorials, &c.
By laws made by Constantine, and confirmed
byValentinian IV., Gratian, and Theodosius the
Great, the clergy were exempted, — 1. From all
civil and municipal offices, that they might give
themselves to their religious duties. 2. From
contributions to public works, such as highways
and bridges, or the furnishing of post-horses to
public officers. 3. From a variety of taxes and
imposts, such as the census copilum, or poll-tax
for militia ; the aurum tironicum, or money paid
for military exemption ; the equus canonicus, or
money paid in lieu of horses for the army ; from
the chrysargyyum, or duty paid in silver and gold
(as the name implies) on articles of trade, and
levied every five years ; from the metatum, or the
burden of entertaining the emperor and his court,
or judges, or soldiers, when they travelled ; and
from colhliones superindictai et extraordinarice,
or occasional extra assessments laid on the empire
for special purposes, or at critical periods. 4.
From military service, though this is not stated
in so many words. 5. From appearance in civil
courts. A bishop could not be forced to give
public testimony ; but it might be taken in private,
though the bishop was not obliged to take formal
oath, but only had the gospels before him. Scourg
ing and torture, which might be applied to other
witnesses, could not be inflicted on the clergy.

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Nor could the civil courts take cognizance of
purely ecclesiastical causes (Thedos. Cod., lib.
xvi., tit. 2, leg. 23.; Justinian, Novel 83),
though they could interfere in criminal matters,
and in cases between a clergyman and a layman ;
for the layman was not bound to obey an
ecclesiastical tribunal. Bishops were often arbi
ters in disputes, but only when both parties agreed
to lay the matter before them, and then the epis
copal sentence could be put in force by the civil
power. In cases of life and death clerical in
tervention was strictly prohibited.
No special clerical dress can be traced beyond
the sixth century. Up till that period the clergy
appear to have worn the usual dress of civilians.
But ecclesiastical vestments, properly so called,
may have been worn from an earlier time.
Gregory Nazianzen speaks of the white robes of
ministers, and Jerome says that one dress was
worn in society and another when officiating in
the church. Somewhere about the sixth century
pieces ofthe Jewish sacerdotal dress were appro
priated by the clergy, with portions also of the old
Greek and Roman habit. The prevailing colour
was white, while black was common in private
life. No special colour seems to have been pre
scribed till the twelfth, century. The tonsure
was introduced in the sixth century, and wigs
were worn for a long period in the Western
Church — were common, indeed, in Scotland, up
till near the end of last century.
The clergy were placed under strict discip
line. The crimes leading to punishment were
simony, heresy, apostacy, neglect of duty,
immorality, and violation of clerical etiquette.
Punishments were various : — 1. Corporeal casti-
gation, which Augustine speaks of as not un-
frequent, the delinquent being first deprived
of his clerical rank, and then scourged as a lay
man. Decanica, or prisons, were attached to
many churches. 2. Degradation — that is, the
offender was put down to a lower rank or grade
of office, and that to all appearance permanently.
A bishop might be removed to a smaller see,
presbyters were degraded to deacons, and deacons
to sub-deacons, &c 3. Suspension — either a
beneficio, from his income, or ab officio, from his
office, this latter continuing for a certain season,
and the offender being in this interval still re
garded as a member of the clerical body. 4.
Deprivation — either forbidden from the Lord's
Supper altogether, and treated as a stranger (com-
munio peregrma), or allowed to communicate
only with the laity (communio laica). 5. Excom
munication — the final cutting off of the offender
from clerical office, and the denial of all hope of
restoration to it, even though he should be
restored to the fellowship of the church. We
subjoin a few of the more characteristic of the
ancient canons concerning the clergy, as showing
the spirit of the age, and revealing some of its
tendencies and usages : —
Thus in the Apostolical Canons — "5. Let nota

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bishop, presbyter, or deacon, turn away his wife,
under pretence of religion; if he do, let him be
suspended from the communion (afo^'aria), and
deposed (xalat^'.Ulm), if he persist. 6. Let not
a bishop, presbyter, or deacon, undertake any
secular employ, upon pain of deposition. 17. He
who after his being baptized has been involved in
two marriages, or has kept a concubine, cannot
be a bishop, or a presbyter, or a deacon, or at all
belong to the sacerdotal catalogue. 18. He that
marries a widow, or one that is divorced, or a
harlot, or a servant, or an actress, cannot be a
bishop, or a presbyter, or a deacon, or at all be
long to the sacerdotal catalogue. 19 He that
marries two sisters, or his niece, cannot be a
clergyman. 20. Let the clergyman who gives
security for any one be deposed. 26. Of those
who enter bachelors into the clergy, we order
that readers and singers only do marry after
wards, if they so please. 29. If any bishop,
presbyter, or deacon, obtained his dignity by
money, let him, and he who ordained him, be
deposed, and wholly cut off from communion, as
Simon Magus was by Peter. 42. Let the
bishop, presbyter, or deacon, who spends his
time in dice and drinking, either desist, or be
deposed ; 43. The sub-deacon, reader, singer, or
layman, be suspended from communion. 44.
Let the bishop, presbyter, or deacon, who
demands usury of those to whom he lends, desist, or
be deposed. 51. If any bishop, presbyter, deacon,
or any of the sacerdotal catalogue, do abstain from
marriage, and flesh, and wine, not for mortifica
tion, but out of abhorrence, as having forgotten
that all things are very good, and that God made
man male and female, and blasphemously re
proaching the workmanship of God, let him
amend, or else be deposed, and cast out of the
church ; and so also shall a layman. 54. If a
clergyman be taken eating in a victualling-house,
except in a journey, out of necessity, let him be
suspended from communion. 70. If any bishop,
or other clergyman, fast or feast with the Jews,
or accept any doles or presents of unleavened
bread, or the like, from their feasts, let him be
deposed ; and ifa layman, suspended from com
munion." In the Canons of Nice — " 20. Because there are
some who kneel on the Lord's Day, and even in
the days of Pentecost, that all things may be
uniformly performed in every parish, it seems
good to the holy synod that prayers be offered
to God standing."
In the Canons of Neocsesarea — "1. If a pres
byter marry, let him be removed from his order :
if he commit fornication or adultery, let him be
ejected, and brought under penance. 7. Let not
a presbyter be present at a feast made on occasion
of a second marriage: for, since he who marries
a second time ought to do penance, what a pres
byter is he who consents to such a marriage, by
being entertained at the feast !"
In the Canons of Laodicea— " 54. That they of

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the priesthood and clergy ought not to gaze on
fine shows at weddings or other feasts ; but before
the masquerades enter, to rise up and retreat. 55.
That they of the priesthood and clergy, or even
laity, ought not to club together for great eating
and drinking bouts."
In the Canons of Chalcedon — " 14. Because
in some provinces it is allowed to readers and
singers to marry, the holy synod has decreed
that it is not lawful for any of them to take
heterodox wives ; and that they who have had
children by such wives, bring them over to the
communion of the church, if they have before this
been baptized by heretics ; if they have not been
baptized, that they do not permit them to be
baptized by heretics hereafter; nor marry them to
heretic, Jew, or Gentile, unless the heretic person
who is to be married to the orthodox promise to
come over to the Catholic Church. If any one
transgress this decree of the holy synod, let him
be laid under canonical censures."
The duties of the various ranks of the clergy
were strictly defined, and firm laws laid down for
their guidance. They were not allowed to leave
their station without permission, but were to re
side in their cure, deserters being condemned by
a law of Justinian to forfeit their estates ; but they
could resign in certain circumstances, and a retir
ing or canonical pension was sometimes granted.
They could not remove from one diocese to another
without letters dimissory, nor could they possess
pluralities, or hold office in two dioceses. It was
forbidden them to engage in secular employments,
or attend fairs and markets, nor could they be
come pleaders in courts of law. They were ex
pected to lead a studious life, their principal
book being the Scriptures, while heathen and
heretical treatises were only allowed them as occa
sion served. Bishops could not be " tutors and
governors," but the inferior clergy might, under
certain limitations. After the example of Paul,
some of the lower clergy might support them
selves, or fill up their leisure by some secular
occupation. Severe laws were passed against
what are called wandering clergy — vacantivi,
who appear to have been often fugitives from
discipline, without character or certificate. If
a clergyman died without heirs, his estates fell to
the church, so the council of Agde in 500 ruled.
By a law of Theodosius and Valentinian III.,
the goods of any of the clergy dying intestate
went in the same way. For the maintenance of
the clergy, see Revenues ; see also Election,
Ordination. In England, the term clerus or clergy compre
hends all persons in holy orders, and in ecclesiasti
cal offices ; archbishops, bishops, deans and chap
ters, archdeacons, rural deans, parsons (who are
either rectors or vicars), and curates ; to which
may be added, parish clerks, who used frequently
to be, andeven some few now are in holy orders.
The clergy were formerly divided into regular
and secular. Regular were those that lived under

154

CLE
certain rules, belonging to some religious order —
such as abbots, priors, monks. The secular were
those, who, on the contrary, did not live under
such rules — as bishops, deans, and parsons. The
privileges which the clergy enjoyed under our
ancient municipal laws were numerous; but
being much abused by the popish clergy, they
were greatly curtailed at the Reformation. Those
which now remain are personal, such as clergy
men not being compelled to serve on juries, or to
appear at the sheriff's, or consequently at the
court-leet, or view of frankpledge. Clergymen
are exempt also from temporal offices, in regard
to their continual attendance on their sacred
functions. Whilst attending divine service they
are privileged from arrest in civil suit, stat. 50
Edward IIL, ch. v., and 1 Richard IL, ch. xv.
It has been adjudged that this extends to the
going to, continuing at, and returning from cele
brating divine service. The ecclesiastical goods
of a clergyman cannot be levied by the sheriff;
but on his making his return to the writ of fieri
facias, that the party is a clergyman beneficed,
having no lay-fee, then the subsequent process
must be directed to the bishop of the diocese,
who, by virtue thereof, sequesters the same. So
in an action against a person in holy orders,
wherein a capias lies to take his person, on the
sheriff's making the same return, further process
must issue to the bishop, to compel him to appear:
it is otherwise, however, unless the clergyman is
beneficed. In cases of felony, benefit of clergy is
extended to them without being branded, and
they are entitled to it more than once. Clergy
men labour also under certain disabilities, such
as not being capable of sitting as members in the
House of Commons. This, however, though a
received opinion, was not restricted by law till
so late as the 41 George IIL, chap, lxiii., which
was passed in consequence of John Horne Tooke,
then in deacon's orders, being returned, and sit
ting in parliament for Old Sarum. It was then
enacted, that no priest, nor deacon, nor minister
of the Scotch Church, shall be capable of serving
in parliament; that their election shall be void,
and themselves liable to a penalty of £500 a-day,
in the event of their either sitting or voting. It
would seem, therefore, as in the case of the Bishop
of Exeter against Shore, that no one can denude
himself of holy orders. Various acts of parlia
ment have also, from the time of Henry VIII.,
been passed to prevent clergymen from engaging
in trade, holding farms, keeping tan or brew
houses, all of which are stated, explained, and
consolidated by the 57 George IIL, ch. xcix.
Clergy, Benefit of, an ancient privilege of
the Church, whereby the persons of clergymen
were exempted from criminal process before the
secular judges in particular cases; and conse
crated places were exempted from criminal arrests,
whence proceeded sanctuaries. This originally
sprang from the regard which Christian princes
paid to the Church in its infant state ; but as the

CLE
clergy increased in power, that which was
granted as a favour was afterwards claimed as an
inherent right, jure divino ; and the clergy en dea-
voured to extend the exemption not only to al
most all crimes, but also to laymen. In England
this privilege, though allowed in some capital
cases, was not universally admitted. The method
of granting it was settled in the reign of Henry
VI., which required that the prisoner should be
first arraigned, and then either claim bis benefit
of clergy, by way of declinatory plea, or after
conviction in arrest of judgment ; this latter way
is most usually practised. This privilege was
originally confined to those who had the habitum
et tonsuram clericalem, but in time every one was
accounted a clerk who could read ; so that after
the dissemination of learning by the invention of
printing, it was found that as many laymen as
divines were admitted to this privilege, and there
fore the stat. 4 Henry VII., ch. xiii., distinguishes
between lay scholars and clerks in holy orders,
and directs that the former should not claim his
privilege more then once ; and in order to their
being afterwards known, they should be marked
with a letter, according to their offence, on the
brawn of the left thumb. This distinction was
abolished for a time by 28 Henry VIII., ch. i.,
and 32 Henry VIII., ch. iii., but was held to
have been virtually restored by 1 Edward VI.,
ch. xii. ; in consequence of which statute, peers
of the realm, lords of parliament, having place
and voice in parliament, were entitled to the
benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of
clergy, for the first offence, though they could
not read, and for all offences then clergyable to
commoners ; and also for the crimes of house
breaking, highway robbery, horse-stealing, and
robbing churches. After this burning, the laity,
and before it, the real clergy were discharged
from the sentence of the law in the king's court,
and delivered over to the ordinary for canonical
purgation. This purgation having given rise to
various abuses and prostitution of oaths, was
abolished at the Reformation ; and accordingly
by the stat. 18 Elizabeth, ch. vii., it was enacted
that every person having benefit of clergy should
not be delivered over to the ordinary, but after
burning in the hand, should be delivered out of
prison, unless the judge thought it expedient to
detain him there for a limited period. Further
alterations were made in the law respecting this
privilege by 21 James I., ch. vi., which enacted
that women convicted of larcenies under the value
of ten shillings, should not suffer death ; but as
in a like case a man had his clergy, so they
should be burned in the hand, or otherwise
punished as the judge should think fit. This
was again altered by the 3 and 4 William and
Mary, ch. ix., which gave the benefit of clergy
to women in all cases where men were entitled
to it. By the 10 and 11 William IIL, ch.
xxiii., burning in the left cheek near the nose
was substituted for burning in the hand. By

155

CLE
the 5 Anne, ch. vi., this more cruel mode of
punishment was repealed, and burning in the

band was again introduced; and the test of read
ing as a clerk was also abolished, the benefit of
clergy being extended to such cases of felony as
were allowed it, without the party being required
to read. The 4 George I., ch. xi., and 6 George
I., xxiii., allowed the court to substitute trans
portation for burning in the hand, which has
been the mode of punishment subsequently
adopted for clergyable offences.
It will be collected from the above statement,
that the parties entitled to this privilege are
clerks in holy orders, without branding, or any
of the punishments subsequently introduced in
its place ; lords of parliament, peers and peeresses
for the first offence; commoners not in orders,
whether male or female, for clergyable felonies,
upon being burnt in the hand, whipped, fined,
imprisoned, or transported. It is a privilege
peculiar to the clergy that sentence of death
cannot be passed upon them, for any number of
clergyable offences committed by them. A lay
man, however, even if he is a peer, may be
ousted of clergy, and will be subject to the
judgment of death upon a second conviction of
a clergyable offence. Although by benefit of
clergy a party saves his life justly forfeited, still
the consequences are such that they affect his
present interest and future credit ; as, having been
once a felon, though cleared from that guilt by
benefit of clergy, which acts as a species of
statute-pardon, still, by his conviction, his goods
become forfeited to the king, nor shall they be
restored to the offender; that after conviction,
and until he receives judgment or pardon by the
king, he is a felon, and subject to all the dis
abilities attaching to a felon ; that after punish
ment or pardon, he is discharged of all felonies
before committed, which are clergyable, but not
those to which the benefit does not extend : this
by stat. 8 Elizabeth, ch. iv., and 18 Elizabeth,
ch. vii. ; and that after suffering the punishment
adjudged, or being pardoned, he is restored to all
capacities, and credits, and possession of his lands,
as if he had never been convicted. (Black.
Comm., vol. iv., p. 374.)
Clergy, with various epithets. Black, a com
mon name of the regular clergy of the Greek
Church in Russia, out of which the higher
clerical dignitaries are chosen. Regular, those
belonging to the monastic orders. Secular,
those who do the work of parish priests, and
belong to no special order. White, the secu
lar clergy of the Russian Greek Church, consist
ing of priests, deacons, readers, and sacristans.
They are called pritories (<rf>omt(us). — See
Aoephali. Clerk (clericus, any person who could read).
Now the term clergy has supplanted it Parish
clerk is one who reads the responses in Episco
palian churches, and assists generally in the
service. Prior to the Reformation such clerks 156

CLU
belonged to the order of clergy. The parish
clerk, by canon 91, is chosen by the minister,
and is formally licensed. By a recent statute,
Vict. 788, cap. 59, persons in holy orders may
hold the office. Clerks apostolical— see, Jes-
uates. Clerks of St. Paul— see Barnabites.
ChrksTheatine—see Theatine. Clerks of St.
Majoli — a religious order of the sixteenth cen
tury in Italy, founded by Jerome iEmilianus,
and approved by Paul IV. They gave them
selves to the religions instruction of the young
and the ignorant. Clerks regular — a name
given to various zealous and reforming bodies
or orders which sprung up in the Church of
Rome during the panic caused by the Reforma
tion. Clerks minor — see Franciscans.
Clermont Manuscript (Codex Claromm-
tamts), usually marked D., is a copy of the
epistles of Paul written on quarto vellum, in
nncial characters, and having Greek and Latin in
parallel columns. It has no marks of inter-
punction, but is written stichometrically, with
twenty-one lines on each page. Accents and
spirits have been added by correctors. It is sup
posed to have been written in the sixth century,
but the place cannot well be ascertained. It is now
in the Royal Library at Paris, No. 107. Beza
says that it belonged to the monastery of Cler
mont hence its name. It was used by him
first and it has been published by Tischendorf
(Leipzig, 1852), with a very useful preface
and appendix.
Clinics (clinici), persons baptized in sickness,
or under some urgent necessity, and who were
therefore held to be disqualified for ordination
to the Christian ministry.
Cloister. — The cloisters appear in the primi
tive churches to have been porticoes, or mai
running round the a'll^m (Euseb., x., 1 2), or auAij
(Paulus Silent, Far. L, 174), the court which
stood between the great outer porch (irjoVi/Ao
ft'tya, vr^uvn iiffohos) and the body of the church.
These cloisters were raised on columns, and there
fore the court was sometimes called nr^anvo'Kn,
and quadriporticus. In these stood the first class
of penitents, who were not allowed to proceed
farther, in order to beg the prayers of the faithful
as they entered the church (Bingham, Or. Ecc,
viii., 3, 5). They were used also as burial-
places (Id., 8).
Cluniac Monks, an order of monks founded
in the year 910 in the town of Clugni (or
Cluni), on the river Garonne, in France. They
follow the rule of St. Benedict in its most
rigid characteristics, and at one time were cele
brated throughout Europe for their uncommon
sanctity. They sing two masses daily, observe
silence, and recite psalms while at work. They
sustain the character of being very charitable.
So cautious are they in the manufacture of their
eucharistic bread, lest " accidents " should defile
it, they select the wheat, grain by grain, then
wash it well, and also the grindstones by whieh it

COA
is tobe ground : the stones are, moreover, covered
with curtains during the time they are engaged
in the service of the monks. The far-famed
piety of these religionists, male and female, origi
nated in most of the countries of Europe a very
general desire that the order should be extended
to them ; accordingly we find both the fraternity
and sisterhood of Cluniacs spreading with great
rapidity, not only throughout France, but in
Spain, Italy, Germany, and England. The
number of Cluniac monasteries in England was
thirty-eight. Coadjutor, in tbe Romish Chnrch, isa bishop
joined to another to assist him in his episcopal
functions, and in some instances to succeed him.
The well-known Cardinal de Retz was coadjutor
to his uncle, the Archbishop of Paris. The right
of appointment is in the pope.
Crena? ( camulas, feasts of love ). — See
AGAF.E. Co?na pura. — See Good Friday.
Comobites, brethren of the common life,
possessing property in common, and subjecting
themselves to a common rule of life. As a
generic name, it applies to the inmates of all
monastic institutions, each of which was named
Cosnobium. — See for the contrast Anchorets.
Colarbasians, an extreme sect of the Val-
entinians in the second century. — See Valen-
tinians.

COL
Collalines, an order of Italian monks, placed
under a rule far freer than is usually allowed to
monasteries. Collation, in canon law, conferring a bene
fice by a bishop, such benefice being part of his
own patronage ; this he does jure pleno. Col
lation differs from presentation and institution :
presentation is the act of a patron of a benefice
offering a clerk to the bishop for institution ;
collation is the act of the bishop himself. In
stitution is performed by the bishop after pre
sentation by the patron ; collation on the bishop's
own motion. Collation is giving the church
to the clerk ; presentation is offering the clerk to
the church. Collation supplies the place both
of presentation and institution, and amounts to
the same as institution, where the bishop is both
patron and ordinary.
Collect, a short form of prayer adapted to a
special occasion, circumstance, day, condition,
&c. Collects are so called either because they
are repeated when the people are collected to
gether ; or because the minister, in the name of
the congregation, offers up their prayers, collected
into short petitions ; or because they are collections
and compilations from the Scriptures. The fol
lowing tables of the collects for Sundays, and
other holidays, used in the English Liturgy, was
partly formed by Bishop Cosins, and was pub
lished by Dr. Comber : —

COLLECTS RETAINED FROM
Collects fob
4 Sunday in Advent
St John's Day.
The Epiphany.
1, 2, and 3 Sunday after Epiphany.
5 Epiphany.
Beptuagesima.
Sexagesima.2, 3, 4, 5 Sunday in Lent
6 Sunday in Lent
Good Friday, the three Collects.
Easter Day.

8 Sunday after Easter.
5 Sunday after Easter.
Ascension day.
Whit-Sunday.1 Sunday after Trinity.
The 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, !
21, 22, 23, 24, and 25 after Trinity.
The Purification.
St. Michael's Day.

ANCIENT LITURGIES AT THE REFORMATION.
Whence taken.
In some old offices for the first Sunday in Advent
St Greg. Sacr. and Gothic Liturgy.
St. Greg. Sacr.
The same, and St Ambros. Liturgy.
St Greg. Sacr.
The same.
The same.
The same.
The same ; but in St. Ambros. Liturgy for Good Friday.
They are in all offices with little variation ; but are left out
ofthe Breviaries of Pius V. and Clement VIII.
St Greg. Sacr. and a Collect almost the same in the Gallic.
Liturgy.
St. Greg. Sacr., St Ambros. Liturgy.
St Greg. Sacr.
The same.
The same.
The same. This in some old offices is called the second after
Pentecost ; in others, the first after the Octaves of Pentecost
' Are aU in St Greg. Sacr.
The same.
The same.

II.
COLLECTS TAKEN FROM ANCIENT MODELS, BUT CONSIDERABLY ALTERED AND
IMPROVED BY OUR REFORMERS AND THE REVIEWERS OF THE LITURGY.
HOW IT STOOD BEFORE.
Grant ns, 0 Lord, to learn to love our enemies, Sec
Grant to us the health of body and soul, that all
those things which we suffer for sin, &c
Who makest the minds of all faithful people to be of
one will, &c. . ^
This had been of old the Collect for Ascension Day,
on which our venerable Bede repeated it as lie
was dying.
157

Collects fob Time of Impeovehent.
St Stephen's Day. Beginning added 1662.
4 Sunday after Epiphany. End improved 1662.

4 Sunday after Easter.
Sunday after Ascension.

Improved 1662.
A Uttle varied 1549.

COL

IL— continued.

Collects foe
2 Sunday after Trinity.
8 Sunday after Trinity.
II Sunday after Trinity. v
18 Sunday after Trinity.
19 Sunday after Trinity.
St Paul's Day.

The Annunciation.
St Philip and St James.
St. Bartholomew.
Trinity Sunday.

Time of Improvement.
The order inverted 1662.
Beginning improved 1662.
Improved 1662.

COM

HOW IT STOOD BEFOBE.

Improved 1662.
Improved 1662.
Improved 1549 and 1662.

Improved 1549.

Improved 1662.
Improved 1662.

Lord, make ua to have a perpetual fear and love of
thy holy name ; for thou never fattest, &c
Whose providence is never deceived, &c.
That we, running to thy promises, may he made
partakers of thy heavenly treasure, &c.
To avoid the infections ofthe devil, &c
That the workings of thy mercy may in all
things, &c.
In the Breviaries (Missals) a new prayer was added,
mentioning St. Paul's intercession ; in the year
1549 the old prayer alone out of Greg. Sacr. was
restored, which had our walking after his example
only, which was a little varied in the year 1662.
The Breviaries had put in a new prayer ahout the
B. Virgin's intercession, which was cast out in
1549, and the form being in St Greg. Sacr. re
stored.
As thou hast taught St Philip and the other apos
tles, &c.
To preach that which he taught, &c, was altered,
hecause there is no writing of his extant
This Collect is no older than the Sacramentary
ascribed to Alcuinus. The old offices have another
Collect for it, and call it the Octave of Pentecost

III.
COLLECTS COMPOSED ANEW, AND SUBSTITUTED IN THE PLACE OP THOSE WHICH,
CONTAINING EITHER FALSE OR SUPERSTITIOUS DOCTRINES, WERE ON THIS
ACCOUNT REJECTED. Composed in

Collects foe
1 Sunday in Advent
2 Sunday in Advent
3 Sunday in Advent
Christmas Day.
Circumcision.
6 Sunday after Epiphany.

_ jsima.
A'sh Wednesday.
1 Sunday in Lent
Easter Even.
Easter Sunday.
1 Sunday after Easter.
2 Sunday after Easter.
St Andrew's Day.
St Thomas's Day,
St Matthias,
St Mark,
St. Barnabas,
St. John Baptist,
St Peter,
St. James,
St Matthew,
St Luke,
St Simon and St Jude,
All Saints.

First Book of Edward VI., 1549.
The same time.
1662. 1549.
The same time.
1662. Before this time they repeated the Collect for the fifth
Sunday.
1549.
The same time.
The same time.
1 662. No Collect for it ever before then.
The first sentence (1 Cor. v. 7) was added 1662.
1549. Then it was used on Easter Tuesday, and in 1662 was
fixed for this Sunday.
1549.
1552, Second Book of Edward VX

All composed anew in 1549.

J

The Sacramentary of St. Gregory was com
posed before the year 600, and most of the col
lects which he adopted were taken or altered
from still older liturgies. The second collect,
both in morning and evening service, is taken
from St. Gregory's Sacramentary : the third from
the Greek Euchologion.
Colleges of Piety. — See Pietists.
Collegiants, a sect formed of Arminians and
Baptists, in Holland, about the beginning of the
seventeenth century. They held colleges or
gatherings twice a-week, at which everyone might
expound; and they are alleged to be Arian, if not
Socinian in faith. They meet twice a-year at
Rheinsberg for the communion, and have no
special office-bearers.

CoIIyridians, (xoXXu(ls, a little cake, which
they offered), a party of female devotees, towards
the end of the fourth century, who came from
Thrace into Arabia, and paid to the blessed
Virgin something like divine honours.
Colly va, the name of a cake baked of wheat and
currants, and offered in certain funeral rites of the
Greeks, apparentlyto thedead, who aresupposedto
descend during the service, and eat a portion of it,
Colobiuin (from xc\a(hos, short), a short tunic
without sleeves, worn by the clergy in primitive
times. — See Dalmatic.
Coinmandries, houses ofthe Knights Hospi
tallers. — See Preceptor.

Commemoration
Burial, Diptychs.

of the Dead. — See

168

COM
Commendam, in canon law, the holding
a benefice, which, being void, is commended to
the trust and charge of some clerk, till it is again
provided with a regular incumbent ; thus, when
a parson is preferred to a bishopric, there is
avoidance by the promotion of any preferment he
may have had; but if the king by dispensation
gives him power to retain the benefice, notwith
standing his promotion, he is said to hold it in
commendam. The king being the cause of
avoidance, on promotion to dignities, and the
presentations thereon belonging to him, it is no
unusual thing where bishoprics are small, for
the king to permit tbe party promoted to hold
their beneficies in commendam, for the better
support of the dignity of a bishop; this permis
sion must be given before consecration, as after
it the benefice becomes void. A commendam
founded on the statue 25 Henry VIII., ch. 31, is
a dispensation from the supreme power to hold a
benefice contra jus posilivum. There are several
sorts of commendam: such as a commendam
semestris, wbich is for the benefit of the church,
without regard to the commendatory, being only
a provisional act of the ordinary for supplying
the vacation of six months, in which time the
patron is to present his clerk, — this is only a
sequestration of the cure and profits, until such
time as the clerk is presented ; a commendam
relinere, which is for the bishop to retain benefices
on his preferment, — these are granted on the king's
mandate to the archbishop, expressing his con
sent, which continues the incumbency, rendering
institution unnecessary ; a commendam recipere
is to take a benefice de novo in the bishop's gift,
or in the gift; of some patron whose consent must
be obtained. Commendams are seldom granted,
except to bishops : they may be either temporary
or perpetual, according to the circumstances
under which they are granted.
Commendations, a name given to the
collects, as in them those who pray commend
themselves and their services to God.
Commendatory Letters, letters or creden
tials granted by a bishop to a person about to
travel into a foreign country, and without which
they could not be admitted to the Eucharist, and
had only what was called communio peregrina —
that is, mere hospitality, without sacramental
fellowship. Commination  The service used by the
English Church " on the first day of Lent, and
all other times, as the ordinary shall appoint,"
under the title of a commination, was intro
duced by the Reformers, in lieu of the ceremony
of sprinkling ashes on the heads of the congre
gation on the first day of Lent, thence called
Ash Wednesday. At first it was ordered for Ash
Wednesday only ; but on the review of the Com
mon Prayer Book, the rubric on this point, in
consequence of an observation made by Bucer,
was altered to its present form. From Arch
bishop Grindal's Visitation Articles, 1676, we

COM
learn that in those days this service was read
four times in the year : on Ash Wednesday, on
one of the three Sundays next before Easter,
on one of the three Sundays next before Whit
suntide, and on one of the two Sundays next
before Christmas. The ordinary now sometimes
enjoins part ofthe office (from the fifty-first psalm
to the end), to be read on days of solemn fasting ;
otherwise it is only used on Ash Wednesday.
Commissary, an officer of a bishop who has
jurisdiction in remoter parts of a diocese, where
obedience to the chancellor's invitation to the
principal court would be attended with great in
convenience. Common Lot, Brethren of tlie, an asso
ciation formed in the fourteenth century, in the
Netherlands, by Gerhard Groot of Deventer.
After a retirement of three years in a Carthu
sian monastery, Groot became a deacon, and
laboured earnestly and successfully in preaching
in the vernacular. But his censures of the
priesthood subjected him to discipline, and the
Bishop of Utrecht withdrew his license. He then
retired to Deventer, drew hosts of zealous and
pious young men around him, and soon founded
this Brotherhood of the Common Lot. Institu
tions of the same kind rapidly spread through
the country. The work was also carried on
after Groot' s death by Florentius Radewins,
and some canons regular were associated with
the institute. The brethren dwelt in separate
houses, plied their respective occupations, and had
a community of goods. Their creed was evan
gelical to a great extent, and their lives were
pure. Their influence in various forms paved
the way for Luther, and he heartily acknow
ledged their services. Female societies were also
formed on similar principles, each house or sister
hood having a superior called Martha. A full and
interesting account will be found in Ullmanu's
Reformers before the Reformation, from whom
we give the following extract: — "The usual
arrangement of a brother-house was as follows :
— About twenty of them lived together in a
domicile, possessing a common fund, and taking
their food at a common table. They were again
divided into priests, clergy, and laymen. The
number of priests was at first very small, because
the first brethren, after the example of Gerhard,
viewed the spiritual office in all its magnitude
and responsibility. Subsequently, however, more
of them received ordination as priests, and of
these several accepted spiritual offices, and ceased
cohabiting with the brethren, whereas others still
continued as inmates of their houses. Usually
there were four priests, or even more, in a house,
and about twice as many so called clerici, with
whom were classed the novices, and such laymen
as were desirous of practising for a while the
brethren's method of life. Reception into a fra
ternity, usually accorded only after repeated and
urgent solicitation (for the brethren were above
courting proselytes, like the mendicant monks),

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was preceded by a year of probation, during which
the novices were subjected to very rigorous treat
ment. Nor was it thought desirable during this
interval for the probationer to return home, lest
he might again become entangled with family
affairs and worldly connections. The candidate,
on his admission into the society, was expected
to resign his patrimony for the common use.
Among the sayings of Florentius we find the
following: — 'Woe to him, who, while living in a
community, seeks his own things, or says that
anything is his own!' Whoever passed the
trial, and was still desirous of permanently joining
the society, became a clerk. This state corre
sponded with that of an ordinary monk, excepting
that no vow binding for life was exacted. Any
clerk was at liberty to leave the society without
incurring canonical penalties ; though he required
to settle accounts with the brethren, and leave
behind him a certain sum of money. The free
dom in respect of dress and mode of living was
also greater than in monasteries. The customary
dress was a gray cloak, coat, and breeches, with
out ornament. A cowl of the same colour covered
the head, whence they were called cucullati: pupils
had the hair shaved from their crowns. The life
of the brethren in every house was very me
thodical. They had fixed hours for devotional
exercises, writing, and manual labour. During
meals some book was read, the brethren taking
the duty in turn. On such occasions one of
them was also appointed to censure the impro
prieties that might take place at table. In general,
an equality like that between the members of a
family prevailed in the societies, though, for the
sake of order, it was requisite that there should
be distinct offices. Over every house presided a
rector, prior, or praepositus, elected from among
the brethren, and assisted by a vice-rector.
Special charges, in like manner, belonged to the
procurator or mconomus, to the Scripturarius, who
chiefly attended to the business of copying books,
to the librarian, to the magister novitiorum, the
infirmarius, the hospitiarius, and then to the
several tradesmen. In this respect, however,
there were a great many varieties, depending
upon the magnitude and general arrangement of
the particular houses." Some of these institutes
became nurseries of mysticism; but to them
we owe the devotion of Thomas k Kempis and
the zeal and theological knowledge of Wessel.
Common Prayer. — See Liturgy.
Communicatio IcUomatum (reciprocal
commumieationofproperties),therL&me'm'LiitherB.n
theology for expressing the relation of Christ's two
natures, and supporting the theory of the omni
potence of his humanity. But the divine nature
was not transmuted into the human, nor has the
human been absorbed into the divine, yet occa
sionally actions or feelings are ascribed to the
person of Christ which can be predicated only
of one of his natures. For example, he died;
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be omniscient; but divinity alone knows all
things. The personal union of the two natures,
how they met, acted, and reacted, and under
what form of consciousness they were preserved,
is truly a mystery of mysteries.
Commnnion. — See Eucharist.
Communion is used with various epithets :
Free communion, similar to what is called
communion- of saints. Strict communion, con
fined to the particular denomination which prac
tises. FuU communion, expressing the spiritual
status of a person free from all scandal and
censure. Infant communion, a custom in early
times of giving the Eucharist to infants. — For
communio laica, peregrina, see Clergy.
Communion Elements, the common name
for the bread and wine of the Eucharist One
hundred pounds Scots, or £8 6s. 8d. sterling; is
the sum allowed by law to ministers of the
Established Church, in name of communion
elements, which they are ordained to provide.
(Dunlop's Parochial Law, p. 289.)
Communion in both kinds. — See Eu
charist. Communion of Saints, or free or Catholic
communion, that fellowship which all genuine
believers have in one another in Christ, irrespec
tive of minor differences of creed or ceremonial.
The Westminster Confession says : — " All saints
that are united to Jesus Christ, their head, by his
Spirit and by faith, have fellowship with him
in his graces, sufferings, death, resurrection, and
glory. And being united to one another in love,
they have communion in each others' gifts and
graces ; and are obliged to the performance of
such duties, public and private, as do conduce to
their mutual good, both in the inward and out
ward roan. Saints, by profession, are bound to
maintain an holy fellowship and communion in
the worship of God, and in performing such
other spiritual services as tend to their mutual
edification; as also in relieving each other in
outward things, according to their several abili
ties and necessities. Which communion, as God
offereth opportunity, is to be extended unto all
those who in every place call upon the name of
the Lord Jesus. This communion which the saints
have with Christ doth not make them in any
wise partakers of the substance of his Godhead,
or to be equal with Christ in any respect : either
of which to affirm is impious and blasphemous.
Communion Service. — See Eucharist.
—Fault has been often found with the
communion service of the Scotch Episcopal
Church, that it too nearly approximates to the
doctrine of the mass. Thus the prayer is —
" Wherefore, 0 Lord and heavenly Father, ac
cording to the institution of thy dearly-beloved
Son our Saviour Jesus Christ, we thy humble
servants do celebrate and make here before thy
divine Majesty, with these thy holy gifts, which
we now offer unto thee, the memorial thy Son
hath commanded us to make : having in remem-

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brance his blessed passion and precious death,
his mighty resurrection and glorious ascension ;
rendering unto thee most hearty thanks for the
innumerable benefits procured unto us by the
same. And we most humbly beseech thee, 0
merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty
goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with
thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and
creatures of bread and wine, that they may be
come the body and blood of thy most dearly-
beloved Son." Tractariaus attach a meaning to
the English service which many of their brethren
repudiate, and the dispute has been before vari
ous ecclesiastical courts. — See Eucharist.
Communion of the Sick, a form which
made no small noise in Scotland in days gone by,
and was allowed by one of the five articles of
Perth, which ran as follows: — "If any good
Christian, visited with long sickness, and knowne
to the pastor, by reason of his present infirmity,
unable to resort to the kirke, for receiving of the
holy communion, or being sick, shall declare to
the pastor upon his conscience, that he thinkes
his sickness to be deadly, and shall earnestly
desire to receive the same in his house: The
minister shall not deny to him so great a com
fort, lawful warning being given to him upon the
night before, and that there be three or foure of
good religion and conversation, free of lawful
impediments, present with the sick person to
communicate with him, who must also provide a
convenient place in his house; and all things
necessary for the reverend administration thereof,
according to the order prescrived in the kirke."
It is still practised in Germany, and is authorized
by the Church of England.
Communion Tabic. — See Altar, Table.
Commutation of Penance. — See Pen
ance. Compatres-commatres, Latin terms in the
Church for godfathers and godmothers.
Compassirity, a low Latin term, to denote
the mental process by which a devotee, on be
holding in a vision the suffering Saviour, so
feels, and so sympathizes, that he acquires a
spiritual conformity.
Competentes, a class of catechumens can
didates for baptism. According to the Apostolical
Constitutions, lit. viii., c. 7, 8, a special form of
prayer was offered for them. " Those who are
about to be dedicated to God through Christ
shall here bow themselves, and receive the bless
ing of the bishop in the words which follow : — 0
thou, who by thy holy prophets hath said to
those who are about to be dedicated to thee,
'Wash you, make you clean,' and who hast
appointed a spiritual regeneration through Christ,
look now, we beseech thee, upon these persons
soon to be baptized; bless them, and sanctify
them, and make them worthy to partake of thy
spiritual gifts, the true adoption, thy spiritual
mysteries, and to be received into the body of thy
redeemed, through Christ our Saviour ; through

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whom be unto thee all glory, honour, and wor
ship, in the Holy Spirit, for ever. Amen. Then
shall the deacon say, — Depart, ye candidates
for baptism." — Const. Apost, lib. viii., c. 7, 8.
Compline or Complctorium, the hour of
prayer that formed the last service of the day. —
See Breviary.
Complutensian Polyglot. — See Bible, p.
97. Comprehension, the name of a scheme pro
posed more than once in England for the
admission of dissenters into the church. Bridg-
man and Sir Matthew Hale attempted it, and
failed. Tillotson and Stillingfleet tried in 1674,
but the bishops would not yield. After the
revolution Nottingham was friendly to such
a scheme, and the Act of Toleration was the final
result. It is also sometimes employed to denote
the Act of 1692, by which many of the Episco
palian clergy were admitted into the Church of
Scotland at the Revolution.
Conception, Feast of. — A festival is cele
brated in the Romish Church on the 8th of
December, in honour of the immaculate concep
tion of the Virgin Mary, or, as she is styled,
Virgo Deipara sine lobe concepla. Speculum
sine macula  See Calendar, Dec. 8. On
the precise time of its introduction, it is impos
sible to pronounce with certainty. St. Bernard
in the twelfth century condemned the celebration
of this festival, in opposition to the canons of
Lyons (Bern., Ep., 174); and it afterwards
became a subject of vehement controversy be
tween the Scotists and the Thomists. The
Virgin is said to have exercised miraculous
powers in behalf of Duns Scotus, who defended
her claim. But the Dominicans continued to
be as obdurate as ever in their denial. Sixtus
IV., himself a Franciscan, allowed toleration on
the point ; and his Constitutions were referred to
in the fifth session of the council of Trent, at
which also it was resolved that the doctrine of
the conception of all men in original sin was not
intended to include the Virgin. The contro
versy was revived in the university of Paris
towards the close of the sixteenth century.
The Bishop of Paris supported Maldonat, a
Jesuit, who denied the doctrine, and Gregory
XIII. confirmed the sanction of the bishop.
Afterwards, during the papacies of Paul V. and
Gregory XV., such was the dissension in Spain,
that both Philip III. and his successor sent
special embassies to Rome, in the vain hope
that the contest might be terminated by a bull.
The pontiff held the scales with no little nicety.
He intimated that the opinion of the Franciscans
had a high degree of probability, and forbade the
Dominicans from opposing it ; but at the same
time he prohibited the Franciscans, in turn, from
treating the Dominican position as erroneous.
The dispute continued to run so high in Spain
that in the military orders of St. James, of the
Sword, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, the

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knights on their admission vowed to maintain
the doctrine ; and early in the beginning of the
seventeenth century medals were struck with a
legend on one side, Alabado sia el Santissimo
Sacramento, and on the other a hieroglyphic
of the conception, with the words Concepta sine
peccato originali, encircled by the cord of the
Franciscan order. In 1708 Clement XI. ap
pointed a festival to be celebrated throughout
the Romish Church in honour ofthe immaculate
conception. Since that time the immaculate
conception has been received as an opinion by
most Romish theologians ; but now, in the ponti
ficate of Pius IX., it has been formally announced
as an article of faith. The belief is held by the
Greek Church also, wbich celebrates the feast
under the title of the Conception of St. Anne
(SiiAXx^/s). Those who wish to exhaust this
subject may consult the more than forty folio
volumes which Petrus de Alva et Astorga has
published concerning it.
Conception of our Lady, Nuns of the
Order of, a religious order founded in the year
1484 by Beatrix, sister of James, first Count of
Poralegro, in Portugal. The order was confirmed
by the. pope (Innocent VIII.) in the year 1489 ;
and in the following year Beatrix died, being
sixty-six years of age. The circumstances which
led to the establishment of this order are thus
narrated: — The King of Castile married Eliza
beth, daughter of Edward, King of Portugal,
On removing from Portugal to the court of her
husband she took Beatrix with her; but the
king fell in love with Beatrix, because of her
exquisite beauty. Elizabeth, growing jealous
of Beatrix, had her locked in a room, where
she was left three days without food. Here
Beatrix supplicated the Virgin's aid, and in
reply to her prayers the Virgin herself appeared,
and promised her a speedy release. The pro
mise was verified ; but Beatrix concluded that
it would be quite unsafe to remain any longer
within the precincts of the court. Accordingly
she quitted it privately, and withdrew to Toledo,
where was a monastery of Dominican nuns,
which she joined. For forty years she con
tinued to practise the austerities of this order ; at
the end of which period the Virgin again appeared
to her, and instructed her to found an order, to be
dedicated to her own Immaculate Conception.
Beatrix obeyed, by taking with her twelve young
ladies, nuns of the monastery with which she
was connected, and formed a community in the
palace of Galliana, which had been granted her
by the queen. After the death of Beatrix, Car
dinal Ximenes gave the nuns of the Conception
the rule of St. Clara, and placed them under the
direction of the Franciscans, because of their
zealous advocacy of the " Immaculate Concep
tion." They wear a white gown and blue
mantle, and a scapulary, to which there is
attached a figure of the Virgin. Their devo
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a lesser office for Sundays and holidays has been
added, entitled, " the Office of the Conception of
the Holy Virgin."
Concha or Conchula Bematis, another
name for the apsis. — See Abata, Apsis, Bema,
Conclave, the private room in which the
cardinals assemble for the purpose of electing a
pope ; also the assembly itself. The conclave for
the election of a pope is opened on the eleventh
day after the decease of the last pontiff. On that
morning the cardinals assemble in St. Peter's,
and after hearing the mass of Spiritus Sancti,
and a sermon on the duties to be observed in the
election, they proceed by pairs to the Vatican.
" Here," says Heylyn, " are, amongst other
buildings, five balls, two chapels, and a gallery
seventy foot long : the gallery is appointed for
conference, one chapel for the mass and for the
election, the other, with the halls, are for the
cardinals' lodgings. Every hall hath two rows
of chambers, which are, purposely for the time,
made of green or violet cloth. To each cardinal
is allowed four servants to lie in his chamber.
They that are once within are compelled, unless
they be sick, still to continue there ; and such as
are once out, are no more permitted to go in,
lest by that means the cardinals should maintain
intelligence with any foreign princes. To this
conclave (for by this name the place of the elec
tion is called) is but one door, to which belong-
eth four locks, and as many keys : one key is in
the keeping of the cardinals, one of the oity
bishops, one of the Roman nobility, and one of
the master of the ceremonies. There is in this
door a wicket or hatch, which is opened only at
dinners and suppers, whereof the master of the
ceremonies keepeth the key. At this hole the
cardinals' servants receive their meat, every dish
being first diligently searched, lest any letters
should be conveyed in them. As for the lodg
ings, they have neither holes nor windows to
give light, so that there they make day of wax
candles. And lest the pope should be made by
force, both the city and conclave are strongly
guarded. When the cardinals are going to elec
tion, the privileges of the cardinals are recited,
which every one sweareth to observe, in case he
be chosen pope. Then the master of the cere
monies, ringing a bell, calleth them to mass:
which ended, there is brought to every cardinal
a chair, and therein a scroll of all the cardinals'
names. Before the altar itself is set a table,
covered with a purple cloth, whereupon is set a
chalice and a silver bell, and about it six stools,-
on which sit two cardinal-bishops, two cardinal-
priests, and two cardinal-deacons. Every car
dinal writeth his voice in a piece of paper, goeth
to the altar, prayeth God to guide him in the
election, putteth his voice into the chalice, and
departeth to his seat. The first bishop taketh
out all the papers, and delivereth them to the
first deacon, who unfbldeth each of them, read-
eth (without mentioning the name of the elector)

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the name of the elected ; and every cardinal, in
his particular scroll, noteth how many voices
every one hath. The account being made, the
first priest having the like scroll, pronounceth who
has the most voices : which done, the priest
ringeth a silver bell, at which call the master of
the ceremonies bringeth in a pan of coals, and
burneth all the little papers, wherein the names of
the elected were written. He that hath the most
voices (so that his voices exceed the proportion
of two parts of three) is acknowledged pope,
and adored by the rest of the cardinals ; but if
they exceed not this number, they must begin
all anew. If in the space of thirty days the
election be not fully ended, then must the cardi
nals be kept from fire, light, and victuals, till
they are fully agreed" (Cosmographia, p. 112).
It may be added, that if the election does not
take place in the manner stated above, by scru-
tmium. recourse is had to another called accessus,
in which each cardinal goes (accedit) to him
whom he chooses, and salutes bim by a bow. In
this also it is required that two-thirds should be
agreed, and it must afterwards, for form's sake,
be confirmed by scrutiny. The third mode is
inspiratio, by virtue of which, if several of the
electors are agreed, coming out of their cells,
they call out to each other the name of their
favourite candidate, and thus sometimes suc
ceed in obtaining the suffrages of the remainder.
Although the ecclesiastical constitutions permit
the cardinals to choose the place of election,
convenience has set apart the Vatican. On
the death of Pius VI., in October, 1799, the
college of cardinals, then only thirty-four in
number, while Rome was in the occupation of
the French, assembled under the protection of
the Emperor of Germany at Venice, in the little
isle occupied by the monastery of St. George :
their deliberations continued till March, 1800.
A candidate for the popedom must have attained
his fifty-fifth year ; and the Emperor of Austria,
the Kings of Prance and Spain are allowed a veto,
provided their protest is offered before the decla
ration of votes in favour of any individual. (Gre
gorio Leti Vita di Sesto V., lib. v. ; Conclavi des
Pontefid Romani, a History of the Papal Elec
tions from that of Clement V. in 1305, to that
of Alexander VII. in 1655.) — See Cardinal.
Concord. — See Form op Concord.
Concordance, the first author of concor
dances to the Scriptures was Cardinal Hugo de
Sancto Caro (or, according to his French name,
Hugues de Saint Cher), who flourished about the
middle of the twelfth century, and to whom we
are indebted for the invention of chapters (see
Bible, p. 71). In the compilation of his concor
dance, which, as being the earliest work of the
kind, must have demanded unwearied patience
and indefatigable diligence, he is said to have
employed five hundred monks in selecting and
arranging in alphabetical order all the declinable
words of the Old and New Testaments, accord-

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ing to the Latin Vulgate version. The work
probably was at first much less voluminous than
at present, and has increased in size by frequent
revisions and improvements. This concordance
appeared under the name De Sancto Jacobo, or
the Concordance of St. James, probably from
the circumstance of Hugo having resided for a
considerable time in the convent of St. James at
Paris, where he delivered lectures on the Holy
Scriptures. John of Darlington and Richard
of Stavensby, assisted by other Englishmen,
made considerable additions to the original work,
which was afterwards considerably improved by
Conrad of Halberstadt, who flourished a.d.
1290. It was still further enlarged and im
proved in the fifteenth century, about the time
of the council of Basle, by John de Ragusia,
who added all the indeclinable words ; and at
length it received its present form from John of
Segovia, and John Schott. From the Latin
concordance of Cardinal Hugo are derived
those concordances, in various languages, which
have so greatly aided the studies of Biblical
scholars. 1. The earliest Hebrew Concordance is that of
Rabbi Isaac, or Mordecai Nathan, a learned Jew,
who lived in the fifteenth century, and who
applied Hugo's chapters of the Latin Vulgate to
the Hebrew Bible, but substituted Hebrew
numerals for the marginal letters abode
f and G, introduced by the cardinal. Ten
years were devoted by Nathan to his laborious
work, which, though completed in 1448, was
not published until 1523, when it appeared at
Venice, but with considerable defects, many
words and phrases being entirely omitted. A
second and more correct edition was printed at
Basle in 1581, by Ambrose Froben, but without
altering the form, or supplying the defects. A
splendid edition of Nathan's Concordance was
published at Rome in 1621, in four volumes
folio, by Marius de Calasio, a learned Francis
can friar. Calasio's work was afterwards re
printed at London in 1747-49, in four volumes
folio, under the editorship of the Rev. William
Romaine, M.A., assisted by Mr. Rowe Mores,
and by Lutzena, a Portuguese Jew. John
Buxtorf, to whose labours Biblical literature is
so deeply indebted, undertook to correct and
reform the preceding editions of Nathan's work,
and happily succeeded, by casting it into an
entirely new form. Hia Concordantiae Hebraicas
et Chaldaicce appeared at Basle in 1632, and
was abridged by Christian Rarius, under the
title of Fons Zionis, sive Concordantiarum
Hebraicarum et Chaldaicarum, J. Buxtorfii
Epitome, (Berolini, 1677, 8vo.) A new edition of
Buxtorf s Concordance was published at Leipzig,
in 1840, by Dr. Julius Fuerst, in one volume
folio, entitled Librorum Sacrorum Veteris Tes-
tamenti Concordantiae Hebraicae et Chaldaicas.
So numerous and extensive are the corrections
and improvements of this beautifully printed

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volume that it may almost be considered as a
new work. It gives also the meaning of the
terms, seeking out the Sanscrito-Semitic root} —
then detailing the various uses of the words as
they occur in Hebrew literature — then the syno
nyms, &c Dr. John Taylor's Hebrew Concord
ance, adapted to the English Bible after the man
ner of Buxtorf (London, 1754-57), in two folio
volumes, is one of the most laborious and most
useful works ever published for the advancement
of Hebrew learning, and the understanding of
the Old Testament in its original language.
It is, in fact, a grammar, lexicon, and con
cordance, founded on the Concordance of Bux
torf, all whose errors Dr. Taylor has corrected.
He has also inserted the word or words by which
any Hebrew word is rendered in the authorized
English translation ofthe Bible; and, where the
Hebrew is not literally rendered, a literal trans
lation is added. In general, all change or dif
ference in the two texts is diligently remarked ;
and the author has added all the words (about
120 in number) which Buxtorf had omitted,
together with the Hebrew particles out of
Christian Noldius's very complete Concordan-
tim Particularum Ebraeo-Chaldaicarum (4to,
Jenae, 1735, last edition). The Englishman's
Hebrew Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testa
ment (London, 1844, in two volumes royal
octavo), and The Bible Student's Concordance, by
Aaron Pick, are both useful works to the
student of the Hebrew Scriptures.
2. Concordances to the Greek Testament — (1.)
Erasmus Schmidius's (or Schmidt's) Novi Testa-
menti Greed Jesu Christi Tameion, aliis Concor-
dantice (Lipsiae, 1717, folio). This was, in its day,
justly considered as the best Greek concordance to
the New Testament. It was beautifully reprinted
at Glasgow, and published at London in 1819, in
two octavo volumes. (2.) Carl Hermann Bruder's
Concordantios omnium vocum Novi Testamenti
(Lipsise, 1842, in quarto), though modestly
published as a new edition of Schmidt's Concor
dance, is so great an improvement upon that
work, the innumerable errors of which Dr. B.
has corrected, that it may now be regarded as
almost a new concordance. He has availed him
self of every possible critical aid ; and has added
170 words to the concordance of the New
Testament, many of which are not to be
found in any lexicon. This work is beauti
fully printed. (3.) The Rev. G. V. Wig-
ram's Englishman's Greek Concordance to the
New Testament (London, 1839, royal octavo),
is specially designed for mere English readers,
who will find it a useful aid to their study of
the Greek Testament. (4.) Dr. John Williams's
Concordance to the Greek Testament, with the
English Version to each word; the principal
Hebrew Roots corresponding to the Greek words
ofthe Septuagint ; with short critical notes and an
index (London, 1767, quarto), will be found a
useful and not expensive work, by those who

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cannot purchase either of the preceding concor
dances to the Greek Testament.
3. Concordances to Ancient Versions. — (1.)
The best and most complete concordance to
the Septuagint version of the Old Testament
is Abraham Trommius's Concordantias Grceae
Versionis, vulgo LXX Inierpretum (Amst et
Traj. ad Rhen., 1718, in two volumes folio);
which has entirely superseded the earlier work
of Conrad Kircher, published at Prankfort in
1607, in two quarto volumes. The Greek
word is first given, to which are subjoined its
different acceptations in Latin; then follow the
different Hebrew words, whieh are explained
by the Greek word in the Septuagint version.
These Hebrew words are arranged under the
Greek, in their alphabetical order, with the pas
sages of Scripture where they occur. If the word
in question is found in the Greek versions of
Aquila, Symmachus, Theodosion, or of any
other ancient Greek interpreters ofthe Old Testa
ment, the places in which it occurs are referred
to, at the conclusion of the quotations from the
Scriptures ; and immediately after these, all the
passages in the apocryphal books are specified,
in which the word appears. The work is ter
minated by a useful index, a Hebrew and
Chaldee lexicon, a Greek lexicon to Origen's
Hexapla, by Montfaucon, and a succinct colla
tion by Lambert Bos of the Frankfort and Eo
man editions of the Septuagint. (2.) Cardinal
Hugo's labours for the Vulgate gave rise to
several others, by Henricus Regius, (Colonise,
1535, 4to.); Johannes Gastius (Basilse, 1551,
folio) ; Robert Stephens (Parisiis, 1555, folio),
a rare and beautiful work ; Johannes Bene
dicts (Parisiis, 1562, folio); Caspar de Za-
mora (Romas, 1627, folio). But that which
for a long time was considered to be the most
useful work for this version is the Coneor-
danliw Bibliorum of Franciscus Lucas, which
first appeared at Antwerp in 1606, in folio. The
most beautiful edition is said to be that printed
at Cologne in 1684, in octavo; and the most
complete, that printed at Avignon in 1786, ia
two volumes quarto. This, however, is super
seded by the new and copious Concordawtm
Bibliorum Sacrorum Vulgates .affioms, published
at Paris by the Abbe" F. P. Dutripon, in 1838,
in quarto. Besides correcting the errors of all
preceding editors or compilers of Latin concor
dances, M. Dutripon has added upwards of
25,000 verses, and very numerous historical
and geographical notes.
Several concordances to the Scriptures are ex
tant in the English language. The earliestof these
was compiled and printed by Thomas Gibson, or
Gybson, for the New Testament It is entitled
Tlie Concordance of the New Testament, most
necessary to be had in the hands of att soche as
desire the Communication of any place contayned
in the New Testament, and was printed at Lon
don in 1535, in octavo. This is a work of not

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very frequent occurrence. More common is the
concordance of the entire Bible, compiled by
John Marbecke, Organist of Windsor, which was
printed in black letter by Richard Grafton, in
1550, in folio, with this title : A Concordance,
that is to saye, a Worke, wherein by the ordre of
the letters of the A B C ye may redely finde any
worde conteigned in the whole Bible, so often as it
is there expressed or mencioned. This concor
dance, which was dedicated to King Edward
VI. by the compiler, "Jhon Marbek," was
adapted to the edition commonly termed " Mat-
thewe's Bible." In Fox's Acts and Monuments,
vol. ii., p. 546, there is a very interesting narra
tive of the account which Marbecke gave to the
bishops of his labours, and which exhibits him
as a remarkable instance of indefatigable dili
gence. The publication of the authorized English
version of the Bible, in 1611, gave occasion to
the compiling of numerous concordances adapted
to it, by Newman, Downame, Powell, Cotton,
Bernard, and others during the seventeenth
century, and by Fisher, Brown, and others
during the eighteenth century. Of these, two
only are particularly worthy of attention, viz. :
1. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scrip
tures of the Old and New Testament, or a
Dictionary and Alphabetical Index to the Bible,
by Alexander Cruden, M.A. (London, 1763,
1810, 1824, quarto). Theirs* edition of this
well-known and useful concordance appeared
at London in 1737. The edition of 1763 is the
third and last of those superintended by the
author, and is usually considered the best, from
his known diligence and accuracy in correcting
the press. The value of Cruden's Concordance
has caused it to be repeatedly printed, but not
always with due regard to accuracy. The Lon
don edition of 1810, however, is an honourable
exception; every word, with its references,
having been most carefully examined with the
English Bible for that edition. The impression of
1824 is a reprint of that of 1810. 2. A New Con
cordance and Dictionary of the Holy Scriptures,
with the various significations of the principal
words, by which the true meaning of many pas
sages is shown, by the Rev. John Butterworth
(London, 1767, 1785, 1816, octavo). This is, for
the most part, a judicious abridgment of
Cruden's large work. In order to insure cor
rectness, the compiler of it collated every word
and reference in the proof sheets, with the several
texts of the Bible. The second edition of 1785,
is considerably improved. The third edition of
1816 is a reprint of the second, with some
alterations in the definitions, made by the editor
(Dr. Adam Clarke), who reprinted, by themselves,
the original passages so altered. An abridged
and portable edition of Cruden, of which more
than twenty editions have been sold, has been
published by Griffin and Co. A splendid edition,
imp. 8vo, on the basis of Cruden, with many im-

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provements and additions, was published in 1859
by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
In 1840 tie Rev. Mark Wilks (who has been
settled for many years in France) published a
Concordance des Saintes Ecritures, adapted to
J. F. Ostervald's revision ofthe French Protestant
Translation of the Bible (Home's Introduction
to the Critical Study ofthe Scriptures, vol. v., part
ii., ch. vi., sec. i., §. 6 ; Townley's lUustrations of
Biblical Literature, vol. i., p. 483, 484; vol. ii,
p. 183, 184 ; vol. iii., p. 1 1 8, 120). The concord
ances for the German Bible are : The first by Kon-
rad Agricola, Nuremburg, 1609, folio, and often
reprinted. The more usful is that of Fr. Lankisch
(German, Hebrew, and Greek), Leipzig and Frank
fort ; an Abstract by M. F. Lankisch, Leipzig,
1680, 4to.; Smaller Concordancehy G. Michaelis,
Jena, 1733, 8vo.; J. M. Otto, Sulzbach, 1823,
8vo. ; also, Real Concordance, by Biichner, Jena,
1750, &c., &c. ; do. do. Real u. Verbal Concor
dance, Jena, 1740; new edition by Heubner,
Halle, 1840 (9th edition, 1852); Real Verbal
Concordance, by J. C. Beck, Basle, 1770, 2 Th.,
folio; Wichmann, Bibl. Hande. &c, Dessau in
Leipzig, 1782, revised 1796 and 1806 ; H. Schott,
do. do., Leipzig, 1827 ; J. J. Ohm, Spruchc, &c.
Leipzig, 1812, 8vo. ; Bibl Hande. f. Rel.-lehrer,
&c, Leipzig, 1841, 8vo. ; F. J. Bernhard, Bibl.
Concordance oder dreif. Register, Leipzig, 1850-1,
8vo. ; Hauff, Realu. Verbal Concordance, &c,
2 vols., 8vo., Stuttgart, 1828-34 ; Haupt, do. do.,
3 vols., 8vo., Quedlinburg, 1823-7.— T. H. H.
Concordat, the name by which an agreement
concerning beneficiary matters is distinguished
in the canon law. None made without the
authority of the pope is binding on successors,
and the pope acts, not as a temporal prince,
but as the spiritual head of the Church. In
1418 concordats were made with Germany,
France, and England. The treaty concluded be
tween Leo X. and Francis I., in 1516, for the
abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction is commonly
known in France as the Concordat. The first
article of this concordat treats of elections, and
stipulates that chapters shall not elect them
selves as heretofore ; but that on the occurrence
of a vacancy, the King of France, within six
months, shall name a doctor or licentiate of
theology, not under twenty-seven years of age,
for the pope's approval. Bishoprics vacant in
the court of Rome are to be conferred by the
pope, without the king's nomination. Abbeys and
priories are to follow the same rule. The second
article abolishes reversions. The third relates to
collations, and the rights of graduates. The
fourth gives the pope the option of one benefice
from every patron who has a right to present to
ten; and demands a true account of their
ordinary value. The fifth regulates causes and
appeals. The sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and
tenth, differ little from the Pragmatic Sanction.
This treaty, which so largely increased the
authority of the pontiff over the Gallican Church,

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was received with the utmost reluctance and in
dignation. The parliament of Paris, after de
liberating for a month, refused to register it, and
when at last compelled to publish it, they an
nexed a solemn protest, and an appeal to the
next general council. The chief obloquy of the
transaction fell upon the Chancellor du Prat, who
was cardinal legate, and principally concerned
in promoting it. Some modifications were after
wards made in it from time to time, especially
in the clauses relating to the declaration of the
value of benefices and the papal option. The
king also extended his right of nomination to
archbishoprics, bishropics, and abbeys.
The French revolution annihilated this con
cordat ; but on the 15th of July, 1801, a new
concordat, which had for some months been
under discussion, was concluded between Pius
VII. and Bonaparte; and was finally ratified
at Rome on the 9 th of August. By this con
vention the Roman Catholic religion was re
established in France, though under a more sim
ple and moderate form than bad existed during
the monarchy. Pius was, indeed, happy to make
any terms with a people whom he had long given
up as for ever alienated from the popish dominion;
and hence we may account for those concessions
he so readily made. He wisely withheld the
publication of this concordat for some time,
though its ratification had been previously an
nounced by his bull " ecclesia Dei." Among the
principal articles of this concordat were the con
firmation of the existing republic ; a new division
of the dioceses ; the resignation, on the part of
the ancient bishops, of their several sees; the
nomination of the new bishops and archbishops
by Bonaparte, within three months after the
publication of the pope's bull ; the alienated pro
perty of the church to remain undisturbed by
the pope ; the bishops and priests to receive an
adequate salary from government. On the re
storation of the Bourbons to the French throne,
after various negotiations, the pope finally con
cluded a treaty with the French monarch, in
the year 1817, whereby the concordat of 1801
was totally to cease, and the affairs of the church
were replaced on the footing of the status quo
established by the convention between Leo X.
and Francis II. There was also a German con
cordat concluded in 1448, between Pope Nicolas
V. and the Emperor Frederick III., and subse
quently confirmed both by Clement VII. and
Gregory XIII. By this the pope reserves to
himself the presentation to all benefices in the
court of Rome, and within two days' journey of
that city. All other ecclesiastical elections are
to be confirmed by the pope. Benefices conferred
alternately by the pope" and private patrons
belong to the first in the months January,
March, May, July, September, and November,
which thence are termed menses papales; and the
payment of annates or first fruits is carefully
regulated. A concordat was made with Naples

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in 1818, greatly to the advantage of the pope
dom. Another was concluded with Bavaria in
1817; one in the same year with Sardinia; and
one with Spain in 1851. Recently a concordat
was concluded between the papal court and
Spain ; and another between the papal court and
Austria, which makes Austria more and more
the vassal of Rome.
Concubinage, forbidden in Scripture and
by the early Church. Persons guilty of it were
not to be ordained to the ministry. Several ex
ceptions were made in the case of private mem
bers. A slave, faithful as a concubine to her
master, might be admitted to fellowship. Con
cubines which might be regarded as inferior
wives, or as persons privately married, were also
not excluded. If a man had a concubine, and she
were a free woman, he was asked to marry her;
if she were a slave, to dismiss her prior to admis
sion to the Church. Harlotry and adultery
were differently treated. — See Adultery.
Condignity. — See Grace.
Confalon, a fraternity of seculars in the
Church of Rome, founded by some Roman
citizens. Henry III. commenced one at Paris
in 1583, and assisted himself in one of the pro
cessions, clad like a. penitent, the Cardinal of
Guise carrying the cross.
Conference. — The term has been peculiarly
appropriated to meetings for theological debate.
Among the most celebrated of these are that of
Ratisbon, in 1601, between some Lutheran doctors
and three eminent Jesuits, assembled at tbe
desire of Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, and
Philip Louis, Elector Palatine ; that of Neuberg,
in 1615, appointed by the Prince Palatine, him
self a Papist, between Heilbronnet, a Lutheran,
and Keller, a Jesuit; that of Thorn, in 1645,
summoned by Ladislaus IV., King of Poland,
generally known as the charitable conference,
from its intentions rather than its effects ; that
at Rheinfeldt, about the same time, between
Valerianus Magnus, a Capuchin, and Habercom,
a Reformed minister, called by the Landgrave of
Hesse; and that of Cassel, in 1661, at the desire
of the same Landgrave, between Musseus and
Henichius, Lutherans, and Curtius and Heinsius,
of the Reformed Church. A conference of a
more private nature was held in 1683, between
Claude, the most learned of the Reformed divines,
and Bossuet, not less celebrated among the
Romanists. Each of them has published an
account of this dispute. In England a conference
was called at Hampton Court by James I., in
1604. It assembled before the privy council,
the king himself presiding. The objections ad
vanced by the Puritans the conference frowned
upon as futile. These were, that the rite of con
firmation should be considered, and plurality of
benefices and sacerdotal vestments discontinued ;
that the Apocrypha should no longer be read in
Churches, nor the sign of the cross used in
baptism, &c. It originated our present transla-
66

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tion of the Bible. In 1660, immediately after
the restoration, another conference was agreed
upon at the Bijhop of London's lodgings at the
Savoy  Conferences are likewise held by the
Swedenborgians ; and perhaps by other sects 
See Hampton Court Conference, Savoy
Conference. The term conference in our days is now chiefly
confined to the annual meetings of preachers in
the Wesleyan Methodist connection, for the
regulation of their stations, and other matters of
internal government and discipline. " The first
conference of the Wesleyan Methodists (says the
Eev. Thomas Jackson, in his Centenary of Wes
leyan Methodism) was held in London in the
year 1744. It was attended only by six persons,
five of whom were clergymen. By them the
characters of the preachers were examined, dif
ferences of theological opinions repressed, the
stations of the preachers determined, and their
hearts warmed and cheered by mutual consulta
tion and prayer. As Mr. Wesley declined into
the vale of years the perpetuity of that system of
doctrine and discipline, which had been so signally
owned of God in the conversion and salvation of
men, became a matter of anxious concern both
to himself and his people. The appointment of
the preachers to the various chapels, and to the
consequent pastoral charge of the societies, pre
sented the greatest difficulty. The preachers
felt the importance of the case, and requested Mr.
Wesley to consider what could be done in this
emergency ; so that, in the event of his death, the
connection might not be dissolved. He took
legal advice, and drew up the ' deed of declara
tion,' constituting one hundred preachers by name,
'the Conference of the people called Methodists ; '
at the same time defining their powers, and
making provision for the filling up of all vacan
cies occasioned by death, superannuation, or ex
pulsion. This deed he caused to be enrolled in
the High Court of Chancery, in the year 1784.
Thus, the power of government which Mr.
Wesley possessed during his life, by his appoint
ment devolved upon the conference after his
decease, he having nominated its members, pro
vided for its perpetuity, and defined its powers,
by the ' deed of declaration.' " To prevent any
abuse of this instrument on the part of the " legal
hundred," Mr. Wesley left a letter, to be read by
the conference at its first assembling after bis
death, of which we subjoin an extract: — "I
beseech you, by the mercies of God, that you
never avail yourselves ofthe ' deed of declaration '
to assume any superiority over your brethren;
but let all things go on, among those itinerants
who choose to remain together, exactly in the
same manner as when I was with you, so far as
circumstances will permit. Have no respect of
persons in stationing the preachers, in choosing
children for Kingswood school, in disposing of
the yearly contribution, and the preacher's fund,
or any other public money. But do all things

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with a single eye, as I have done from the be
ginning." When this letter was read after Mr.
Wesley's decease, the conference unanimously
resolved, that all the preachers who are in full
connection with them shall enjoy every privilege
that the members of the conference enjoy, agree
ably to the above-written letter of our venerable
deceased father in the Gospel. How far the
present successors of those men have acted, and
are acting out the spirit of this resolution, our
readers must determine for themselves. The
conference of the preachers of the Methodist
societies is held annually in some one of the prin
cipal cities and towns in the kingdom. Represen
tatives from the Irish conference, whose sittings
precede the English conference by a few weeks,
regularly attend. This year (1850), the English
conference sat in London, and was remarkable
fbr its stern and haughty refusal to consider the
applications of several of the preachers, and very
many of the members of the denomination, who,
feeling aggrieved by certain of its acts, had peti
tioned for " Reform." On this subject it is not
our province to speak ; but those of our readers
who may be curious to inquire into this contro
versy, which has raged within the Methodist
body, and which threatened a serious disruption
among them, will find the causes exposed, and
the "case stated," in the celebrated Fly Sheets,
and similar publications. — See Methodists.
Confession. — See Auricular Confession.
Confessions of Faith. — See Creeds.
Confessor originally was the title bestowed
on one who, after openly confessing Christ, had
endured martyrdom; afterwards one who during
torture had maintained the integrity of his faith,
though not at the expense of life. Afterwards
the title was given indiscriminately to persons of
pious life. The last Anglo-Saxon Edward ob
tained this distinction, by which he is most gene
rally known, by a bull of canonization, from
Alexander III., about a century after his de-

Confirmation is in its origin a
imitation of the apostles' imposition of hands on
persons newly baptized. It was not a uniform
practice; but it was uniformly accompanied by
the impartation of spiritual gifts. Neither the
"unction" nor the "seal" seem to have originally
belonged to it : both terms in Scripture are spi
ritual. But in the age of Tertullian and Cyprian,
confirmation followed baptism even in the case of
infants, and it was not formally separated from
baptism till the thirteenth century. At length,
as superstition grew, it was numbered by the
Church of Rome among the seven sacraments.
It also forms, under the name of xs'"^x> 0I
<r<P£ay'is, one of the seven sacraments of the
Greek Church. The subject of the administra
tion of the chrism was one of the points in dis
pute in the ninth century between the Latin
Church under Pope Nicolas I., and Photius, the
Patriarch of Constantinople (see Dupin, voi

le?

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vii., ch. x., edition 1696). In the Greek Church
the chrism, which is supposed to correspond with
confirmation, is generally administered by a
presbyter (the confection of the oil being the
privilege of the bishop), immediately after bap
tism. And upon this ground some of the Latins
charged the Greeks with not observing confirma
tion, it being necessary, in their opinion, to the
validity of confirmation, that it should be ad
ministered by a bishop. That it is in the power
of bishops in the Greek Church to administer
the chrism after baptism, is evident from the
elder liturgies, and from a practice which existed
of persons baptized by a bishop in the church of
Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, being afterwards
confirmed by him in a neighbouring church.
The history of confirmation is then briefly this: —
In the earliest ages bishops were wont to lay
their hands upon persons who had been baptized,
and who were then required to make profession
of their faith. The ceremony by degrees degen
erated into a superstition, and a sacramental
virtue was ascribed to the chrism. In the Greek
Church, about the year 870, Photius, the Pa
triarch of Constantinople, established the custom,
which must, however, have been previously in
troduced, of presbyters giving the chrism, instead
of the bishop. In the darker ages the chrism
of confirmation was made a sort of appendage to
baptism, and administered to infants, until, at
the Reformation, the ancient rite was restored
at the remonstrance of the Reformers. The
Church of Rome still, however, continued it
amongst the number of her sacraments, though
in some degree amended in its use ; whilst the
Church of England contented herself with pre
serving the imposition of hands; and requir
ing that it should be given only to persons who,
being properly instructed, were willing in the
face of the church, publicly to renew the vows
made for them at their baptism. The rubric
thus directs : — " Upon the day appointed, all
that are to be then confirmed being placed, and
standing in order, before the bishop, he (or some
other minister appointed by him) shall read this
preface following. To the end that confirmation
may be ministered to the more edifying of such
as shall receive it, the church hath thought good
to order, that none hereafter shall be confirmed
but such as can say the Creed, the Lord's Prayer,
and the Ten Commandments ; and can also answer
to such other questions as in the Short Catechism
are contained : which order is very convenient to
be observed; to the end, that children, being
now come to the years of discretion, and having
learned what their godfathers and godmothers
promised for them in baptism, they may them
selves, with their own mouth and consent, openly
before the church, ratify and confirm the same ;
and also promise, that by the grace of God they
will evermore endeavour themselves faithfully to
observe such things as they, by their own con
fession, have assented unto. Then shall the

CON
bishop say, Do you here, in the presence of God,
and of this congregation, renew tbe solemn pro
mise and vow that was made in your name at
your baptism ; ratifying and confirming the same
in your own persons, and acknowledging your
selves bound to believe and to do all those things
which your godfathers and godmothers then un
dertook for you ? And every one shall audibly
answer, I do."
Confirmation by the archbishop ofthe province,
in the English ecclesiastical polity, immediately
succeeds the election of a bishop by the king's
conge d'elire. On confirmation the new bishop
obtains jurisdiction in his diocese.
Confiteor (/ confess), the first word of the form
prescribed to every penitent at the confessional:
" I confess to Almighty God, to the blessed Mary
ever Virgin, to blessed Michael the Archangel, to
blessed John Baptist, to the Holy Apostles Peter
and Paul, to all the saints, and to you, father,
that I have sinned exceedingly in thought, word,
and deed, through my fault, through my fault,
through my most grievous fault. Therefore I
beseech the blessed Mary ever Virgin, the blessed
Michael the Archangel, blessed John Baptist, the
Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the
saints, and you, father, to pray to our Lord
God for me." Before uttering this last sentence,
the penitent goes over his sins, or at least those
for which he means to ask absolution.
Conformity, Declaration of, taken by all
Anglican clergy in these terms : — " I, A. B., do
declare that I will conform to the liturgy of the
United Church of England and Ireland, as it is
now by law established." — See Nonconformist.
Conge d'elire, the writ for the election of a
bishop. If the chapter refuse to choose the
person nominated by the queen, they are liable
to the penalty of a praemunire. — See Bishop,
Pr^munire.
Congregation, in its ecclesiastical applica
tion, ordinarily means an assembly of people
met together for divine worships though it also
signifies a company or society of religious, taken
out of some particular monastic order, and con
stituting a kind of inferior order. Such are the
Congregations of Saint Maur, of Cluny, of the
Oratory, &c. In the constitution of the papal
court the term congregation is applied to certain
assemblies of cardinals, instituted for the direction
and control of Roman affairs, both temporal and
spiritual, under the supreme government of the
pope. The number of cardinals varies in dif
ferent congregations ; but each of them has its •
chief, or president, and a secretary, who registers
the proceedings of the congregation, and writes
letters in pursuance of their decrees. The in
struments which are to be despatched, are
signed by the president, and the seal of the con
gregation is affixed by the secretary. 'Not fewer
than sixteen different congregations have been
instituted by different popes, which take their
denominations from the peculiar business which
168

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is submitted to their consideration. The principal
of these assemblies are, the congregations of rites
and of relics, of bishops and regulars, of the
holy office or inquisition, of the index, and the
congregation de propaganda fide. 1. The Con
gregation of Rites was founded by Pope Sixtus
V., for regulating the ceremonies of the Romish
Church. It has authority to explain the rubrics
of the Missal and Breviary, whenever any diffi
culty arises concerning the construction of them ;
and also to regulate the ceremonies and rites of
the new offices of saints, which are added to the
calendar of that church when any person is
canonized. In cases of dispute respecting the
precedency of churches, the sentence of this con
gregation is definitive. 2. The Congregation of
Relics superintends the relics of ancient martyrs
which are found in the catacombs of Rome ; and
distinguishes their bones, shrines, and tombs
from those of the heathens, who were buried in the
same subterraneous caverns. — See Catacombs.
3. The Congregation of Bishops and Regulars was
instituted by Pope Sixtus V., for tbe purpose of
regulating disputes between bishops and the mon
astic orders. In connection with this, we may
notice the three congregations whose functions
are sufficiently designated by their appellations,
viz. : — The Congregation for the Examination of
Bishops, instituted by Pope Gregory XIV., for
the investigation of the qualifications of such
ecclesiastics as are nominated to bishoprics;
The Congregation of the Morals of Bishops,
instituted by Pope Innocent XL, for inquiring
into the morals of those who are recommended
to ecclesiastical dignities ; and the Congregation
for the Residence of Bishops, which has the
power of enjoining, or dispensing with the resi
dence of the Italian bishops, and of obliging all
abbots to reside with their respective communi
ties. 4. The Congregation ofthe Holy Office, or
Inquisition, was instituted by Pope Paul IIL, at
the suggestion of Cardinal Carafa ; by whom,
on his subsequent elevation to the papal chair
under the name of Paul IV., the privileges of
this congregation were greatly enlarged. To
these, Sixtus V. added statutes. This tribunal
takes cognizances of heresies, and all novel
opinions ; as well as of apostacy, magic, witch
craft, the abuse of the sacraments, and the cir
culation of pernicious books. With the cardinals,
who compose this congregation, are associated
many prelates and divines of different orders,
both regular and secular, who are called con
sulters and qualifieators of the holy office. 5.
The Congregation of the Index. The popish
clergy present at the council of Trent, alarmed
at the circulation of the Reformed doctrines, and
considering the number of pernicious and here
tical books, as they were pleased to term them,
deputed certain cardinals and other divines to
compile an index of works to be prohibited.
This was afterwards approved by Pius IV. in
1564 ; and certain general rules relative to

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prohibited books were drawn up and sanctioned
by papal authority (see a translation of them in
Townley's lUustrations of Biblical literature,
vol. ii., p. 478-485). Succeeding pontiffs greatly
enlarged the tridentine index ; and the rules of
the index were also modified or enlarged by
explanations and additions. The deputation, or
committee, which had originally been appointed
by the council of Trent, was erected into a
special court or congregation at Rome, for the
examination of the index, by Sixtus V., who ob
tained the papal tiara in 1 585 ; and it is known by
the appellation of the Congregation of the Index.
6. The Congregation de Propaganda Fide was
founded in 1622, by Pope Gregory XV., for the
purpose of taking cognizance of all affairs rela
tive to the propagation of the Roman Catholic
religion throughout the world ; of superintend
ing all missions ; and of appointing and chang
ing the ministers necessary for that purpose.
This congregation consisted of thirteen cardinals,
two priests, one monk, and a secretary, who
were required to refer the most weighty matters
to the decision of the pope, but who were to
decide in all other cases according to their
judgment. The revenues of this congregation
were greatly augmented by the liberality of
individuals, as well as of the succeeding pontiff,
Urban VIII., who, in 1627, instituted the apos
tolic college or seminary for the propagation of
the faith, for the education of young men to be
employed under the direction of the congregation
de propaganda fide, to whose superintendence
this seminary is entrusted. When the students
have completed their education, they are em
ployed either as missionaries, bishops, or vicars
apostolic, in foreign parts, according to the
exigency of the occasion, and the abilities of the
individuals. In the palace of the congregation
there is a printing office, furnished with types in
most languages, and with able printers and
correctors, who are continually employed in
works for the propagation of the tenets of the
Church of Rome.
Of the other congregations but few parti
culars are necessary. The Pope's Congrega
tion takes cognizance of the erecting of new
sees and cathedral churches, the reunion, sup
pression, and resignation of bishoprics, and all
matters relative to the revenues of the church.
The Congregation for explaining the Council of
Trent originated in the appointment, by Pope
Pius IV., of certain cardinals who had assisted at
that council, to put an end to all doubts which
might arise concerning its decrees. Sixtus V.
fixed this congregation, and empowered it to
interpret all points both of discipline and of
faith. The Congregation of Immunities takes
cognizance of all ecclesiastical immunities and
exemptions, in suits against ecclesiastics,
whether civil or criminal. The Congrega
tion for such Monasteries as are to be sup
pressed was instituted by Innocent X., to

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inquire into the state of' the Italian monasteries,
and to suppress those whose temporalities were
so far reduced that the remainder was not suffi
cient for the maintenance of six inmates. This
assembly regulates the pretensions of founders
and benefactors, and their heirs, and disposes of
the remains of the temporalities of abandoned
and ruined houses. It likewise examines the
petitions of such communities or cities as are
desirous of founding anew or rebuilding any
monastery, for which it despatches the proper
instruments. The Congregation of the Apos
tolical Visitation is composed of a certain number
of cardinals and prelates, whose business it is to
visit, in the name of the pope, as Archbishop of
Rome, the six bishops who are suffragans to
the metropolis of Rome. The Congregation of
Indulgences investigates the applications of those
who sue for indulgences ; and to the Congrega
tion for the building of Churches is confided the
charge of superintending the repairing and
beautifying of St. Peter's Church, for the build
ing of which it was originally founded by
Clement VIII. This congregation is said to
have the peculiar privilege of altering the
wills of testators who bequeath sums to pious
uses, and of applying the money to the support
of the fabric of Saint Peter's. There is also a
Congregation of Hydraulic Works and the Pon
tine Marshes, — one of economics, and another of
extraordinary affairs.
Congregationalists. — See Independency.
Congregational Lecture, a series of
annual lectures instituted in 1834, and delivered
in London by noted Congregational ministers.
The lecture is after the example of the famous
Bampton and Boyle lectures in the national
church. Congruity. — See Grace.
Consecration, the devoting or setting apart
of any persons, things, or places, to the worship
and service of God. Churches, churchyards,
the sacred vessels, and other utensils belonging
to the worship of God, are consecrated things ;
but the Church of Rome consecrates almost
everything, as bells, candles, water, oil, crosses,
pictures, &c, besides churches, chapels, monas
teries, and other religious houses. Among the
ancient Christians the consecration of churches
was performed with peculiar solemnity. In what
manner it was done for the first three centuries
we have no certain evidence. Bingham thinks
it highly probable that the Christians, during
this period, used the same ceremonies as the
Jews did, who dedicated both their private
houses and the walls of their cities (Nehemiah
xii. 27-43 ; Psalm xxx., title), as well as their
temple, with solemn thanksgivings and with
prayer, for a sanctified use of them. In the
fourth century of the Christian era, however,
under the reign of the Emperor Constantine,
churches were no sooner erected than they were
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them were celebrated with great festivity and
rejoicing. On such occasions it was usual for a
whole synod of the neighbouring or provincial
bishops to assemble. Thus, the church at
Jerusalem, which was erected by Constantine
over the supposed site of the sepulchre of our
Saviour, was consecrated in the presence of a full
synod of all the bishops of the East. The solem
nity ordinarily began with a panegyrical oration
or sermon, in commemoration of the founder,
which was followed by prayers, among which
there seems to have been one in particular for
the church which was then to be dedicated.
The act of consecrating churches was so pecu
liarly reserved to the office of bishops, that pres
byters were not allowed to perform it. Anciently
churches were always dedicated to God, and
not to saints, though they were sometimes dis
tinguished by their names, as a memorial of them.
Consecration was performed, indifferently, on
any day; but, whatever the day was, it was
usually kept and observed among their annual
festivals. To this, Pope Gregory, sumamed
the Great, added a new custom in England,
which was, that on the anniversary of the
dedication of churches, and particularly of those
which had been heathen temples, the people
might build themselves booths round the church,
and there feast themselves, in lieu of their
ancient sacrifices while they were heathens. The
wakes, which are still observed in some English
counties, are the remains of these feasts of
dedication. The consecration of a church is performed
with much ceremony in the Church of Rome,
by whose members this rite is usually termed
a dedication. As a preliminary step, the relics
which are to be deposited in the altar of
the new church, are put into a clean vessel
together with three grains of incense ; to which
a piece of parchment is added, containing the
day of the month and year, and the name of the
officiating bishop. Three crosses are painted on
each of the church walls, and over each cross a
candle is placed. On the morning appointed
for the ceremony, the bishop, arrayed iu his
pontifical vestments, and attended by the clergy,
goes to the door of the church, where they recite
the seven penitential psalms; after which he
makes a tour of the church walls, sprinkling
them in the name of the Holy Trinity. This
rite being performed, he knocks at the church
door with his pastoral staff, repeating, from
Psalm xxiii. [xxiv.], "Attolite portas, et m-
troibit Rex Glorias." A deacon, shut up in the
church, demands "Quis est iste Rex Glorias t" To
which the bishop answers, " Dominus fortis et
potens: Dominus potens in praslio!" At the
same time the bishop crosses the door, repeating
the following verse : —
" Ecce Crucis slgnum, fugiant phantasmata cunctal"
On the admission of the bishop and clergy into

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the chuTch, the Veni Creator is sung. Then
one of tha sub-deacons takes ashes, and sprinkles
them on the pavement in the form of a cross ;
next follow the litanies and other parts of divine
service. After which, the bishop with his pas
toral staff describes, as with a pen, two alphabets
in the ashes sprinkled by the deacon ; and pro
ceeds to consecrate the altar, by sprinkling it
with a mixture of water, wine, salt, and ashes,
in the name of Jesus Christ. The consecration
of the altar is followed by a solemn procession of
the relics, which are deposited under it with
great ceremony. During the whole of this im
posing solemnity the church is finely adorned, and
tapers are lighted upon the altar. Mass is after
wards performed by the bishop, or by some other
person. — See Cross Alphabet.
The law of England takes no notice of churches
or chapels until they are consecrated by the
bishop ; although the canon law supposes that,
with the bishop's consent, divine service may be
performed, and the sacraments may be adminis
tered in churches and chapels not consecrated ;
but no new churches can be consecrated without
a competent endowment The consecration may,
however, be performed, indifferently, on any day,
provided it be in the time of divine service ; and
every bishop is left to his own discretion as to
the form he may adopt for this purpose. Only,
hy the statute 21 Henry VIII., ch. xiii., which
limits the number of chaplains, it is assigned as
one reason why a bishop may retain six chap
lains, because that number is necessarily occu
pied in the consecration of churches. After the
restoration a form of consecration was drawn up
by the convocation in 1661 ; but this was neither
authorized nor published, though it is said to
have been occasioned by the offence taken at the
introduction of many popish ceremonies by Laud,
at the consecration of St. Catherine Cree Church,
a.d. 1630. Another formulary was drawn up in
the year 1712, for the consecration of churches and
chapels, and churchyards, or burial-places, by
the bishops, and sent down to the lower house of
convocation on the 2d of April. It was altered
by a committee of the whole house; and, on
being reported to the house on the 9th day of
the same month, it was agreed to with some
alteration. This form, however, not having
received the royal assent, was not enjoined to be
observed, though it is now generally used. It
is given at length in Bums' s Ecclesiastical Law,
title " Churches," sec. 2 ; and in 1799 it was
adopted, with the omission of two or three unim
portant passages, by the bishops, clergy, and
laity of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in the
United States of America. — A church once con
secrated may not be consecrated again; and
where a churchyard has been enlarged, there
has been a new consecration of the additional
part. Consecration of churches is not recognized
at all by Presbyterians. The term Consecration
is also used for the benediction of the elements

CON
in the Eucharist. The Romanists define it to
be the conversion of the bread and wine into
the real body and blood of Christ; and that
this is the sentiment of that church is evident
from the priest's elevating the Host immedi
ately after consecration, for the people to adore
it. — See Adoration of the Host, Host.
Consistentes (bystanders), a fourth class of
penitents, who might look on, but not join in, the
ordinances of the church. — See Penitents.
Consistory. — The consistorium of tbe latter
Roman emperors was first applied to the place
in which their privy council met, and thence to
the council itself. So, in the Romish Church,
the consistory is the place in which the college
of cardinals meet, with the pope at their head,
and also the meeting itself, which assembles for
the reception of princes or their ambassadors,
for the canonization of saints, for the promotion
of cardinals, and other important affairs. Among
the Reformed Churches on the Continent, both
Lutherans and Calvinists, the consistory is an
assembly of ministers, appointed to regulate their
affairs, discipline, <fec. In England the consis
tory is a spiritual court, formerly held in tbe
nave of the cathedral church, or in some chapel,
aisle, or portico, belonging to it, in which the
bishop presided, and had some of his clergy for
assessors and assistants. This court is at pre
sent held by the bishop's chancellor or commis
sary, and by archdeacons or their officials,
either in the cathedral church or other con
venient place in the diocese, for the hearing
and determination of matters and causes of eccle
siastical cognizance, which may happen within
such diocese. Consistory is the name given in
some Presbyterian churches to the meetings of
elders, usually called the session, or kirk-session.
Consolamentum (comfort), the name given
among the Cathari of the twelfth century to a
mode of baptism accompanied by imposition of
hands, and hy means of which a believer entered
into fellowship with the Spirit. The term was
applied as well to the rite of initiation as to a
last species of select confirmation on a death-bed.
Those who underwent the rite were named from
it "consolati," — comforted.
Constitutions and Canons, Book of, the
code of 141 rules which regulates the order and
worship of the Church of England. The preface
thus describes itself: " Constitutions and canons
ecclesiastical, treated upon by the Bishop of Lon
don, president of the convocation for the province
of Canterbury, and the rest of the bishops and
clergy of the said province ; and agreed upon
with the king's majesty's licence, in their synod
begun at London, Anno Domini 1603, and in
the year of the reign of our sovereign lord James,
by the grace of God, King of England, France,
and Ireland, the First, and of Scotland the
Thirty-seventh : and now published for the due
observation of them, by his majesty's authority,
under the great seal of England."

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Consubstantial, the word employed by the
fathers at the councils of Antioch and Nice in
opposition to the Arians, to denote the co-essen
tiality of the Son with the Father. The Arians
contended that the Son was only " a/noikmos "
— of like, but not of same nature. — See Ari
anism. Consubstantiation or Xmpanation, a
doctrine introduced into the Church by John,
sumamed Pungens Asinus, a doctor of Paris,
about the close of the thirteenth century, and
now professed by the Lutherans. His work was
published by Affix in 1686. Determinate F.
Joannis Parisiensis de modo existendi Corpus
Christi in' Sacramento Altaris. This doctrine
teaches that after consecration the body and
blood of our Saviour are substantially present
together with the substance of the bread and
wine. The Lutheran doctrine is not unlike this.
Luther held a real and corporeal presence of
Christ in, under, or along with the bread and
wine, so that, after consecration, the bread was
both bread and the flesh of Christ, and the wine
both wine and the blood of Christ. The ubiquity
of Christ's glorified body was a necessary conse
quence of this sacramentarian tenet. — See Real
Presence. Convent, applied to an assembly of religious
persons, monks or nuns. — See Abbey, Monas
tery. Conrentical Brethren. — See Francis
cans. Conventicle (place of meeting). — The word
conventiculum was known to the primitive
Church to designate a house of prayer : convenli-
cula ubi summus oratwr Deus (Arnob., iv. ; see
also Lactant., v., 11 ; Orosius, vii., 12). In after-
times it denoted a secret assembly of part of the
monks of a convent, to make a party in the
election of an abbot or superior. The term con
venticle is said to have been first applied in Eng
land to the schools of Wiclif ; but in the reign
of Charles II. it was given contemptuously to
the meetings for religious worship of Protestant
dissenters from the Church of England, which
were not at the time sanctioned by law. Yet
conventicle is only, after all, a good Latinized
synonym of the Greek word church, and points
to the promise, " Where two or three are met
together in my name." By the statutes 16
Car. II. , c. 4, which were in force for three years,
where more persons than five were assembled for
worship, they should for the first offence pay £5,
for the second, £10 ; £100 for the third, or be
banished to America, and if they returned, to suffer
death. By 22 Car. II., c. 1, commonly called
the Conventicle Act, various severe penalties were
again enacted against persons who were either
present at a conventicle, whether as preachers or
hearers, or who suffered meetings to be held in
their houses. Any person above sixteen years
of age, a subject of the kingdom, present at any
conventicle where five or more were assembled,

CON
forfeited 5s. for the first offence, and 10s. for the
second. Every preacher in such conventicle
forfeited £20. Any person allowing a conven
ticle in his house forfeited £20. Justices of
peace had power to enter and search houses.
The severity of this last mentioned statute, how
ever, was much mitigated by the Act of Tolera
tion (1 William and Mary, c. 18) ; but Protest
ant dissenters dare not meet in a house with the
doors locked ; and officers of government, if pre
sent at a conventicle of ten persons or more,
where the royal family is not expressly prayed
for, forfeit 40s., and fall under disability. In
the year 1812 the Conventicle Act, so harsh and
intolerant, was repealed by the statute 52 George
III., c. 155, sec. 1. — See Act, Puritans.
Conversi, the lay-brethren belonging to a
monastery. Conviria baptisnialia, banquets held in
connection with baptism as early as the fourth
century. Convocation, an assembly ofthe clergy of the
Church of England, by their representatives, for
the purpose of consulting on ecclesiastical matters.
It is composed of an upper and lower house. In
the upper house sit the archbishops and bishops,
and in the lower house, the inferior clergy, who
are represented by their proctors, — in all 144
members. Each house chooses its prolocutor
or speaker, and that of the lower house ,is
presented to tbe archbishops and bishops of
the upper house: his duty is to care that
the members attend, to collect their debates and
votes, and to carry them to the upper house.
Formerly, the lower house of convocation was
convened by two distinct writs. The first was
the parliamentary or king's writ, directed to the
bishops of every diocese, and summoning them to
parliament ; which writ contained a clause re
quiring that each chapter should send one of
their body, and the clergy of each diocese two
proctors, to represent them in parliament. Hence
some writers have imagined that both the clergy
and the laity sat together in parliament until the
reign of Henry VIII., when the former fell under
^praemunire, by submitting to Cardinal Wolsey's
legatine power, and forfeited their seats. It is
clear that the lower house of convocation appre
hended that they had a right to seats in parlia
ment; and therefore they petitioned the upper
house to intercede with King Edward VI. and
the Protector for the restoration of that right.
A similar application was made toward the
close of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and again
in that of James I., but without success. The
second writ by which the clergy were assembled
together was called the provincial writ By the
first writ they were merely a state convention
(the duty of which was to consult concerning
their civil rights, and to grant a portion of their
estates towards the support of the government),
and not an ecclesiastical synod. The clergy,
however, not considering themselves obliged to

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obey this lay summons, Archbishop Winchelsea
prevailed with Edward II. to discharge them
from it; and from that time, when the king
issued his parliamentary writ to the bishops, he
sent another to the archbishops, to summon all
their provincial bishops to the convocation. This
second writ was designed to secure their obedience
to the former, and to make the assembly more
canonical, as meeting by virtue of a summons
from the archbishops.
The two houses are composed of a convoca
tion from each province, distinct and independ
ent of each other. All deans and archdeacons
are members of the convocation of their pro
vince. The precentor of St, David's, which
chapter has no dean, supplies the place of
that officer: each chapter sends one proctor or
representative, and the parochial clergy in each
diocese of Canterbury, two proctors; but, on
account of the small number of dioceses in the
province of York, each archdeaconry elects two
proctors. In York the convocation consists of
only one house; but in Canterbury there are
two houses, of which the bishops form the
upper house (Blackstone's Comm., i., p. 279).
By the statute 8 Henry VI., c. 1, the clergy,
in their attendance on the convocation, have
the same privilege in freedom from arrests
as is enjoyed by the members of the House of
Commons, in their attendance on parliament.
The clergy, when assembled in convocation, had
the power of giving away their own money, and
taxing themselves. This power they continued to
exercise from the Reformation until the act 13
Car. II., c. 4, was passed, when they gave their
last subsidy, it being then judged more advan
tageous to continue the taxing of them by a land
and poll-tax, in the same manner as had been
practised in the time of the long parliament,
during the civil wars. And in the year 1664,
by a private agreement between Archbishop
Sheldon and the Lord Chancellor Clarendon,
and others of the king's ministers, it was con
cluded that the clergy should silently wave the
privilege of taxing their own body, and permit
themselves to be included in the money-bills pre
pared by the House of Commons, in considera
tion of their being in future allowed to vote as
freeholders in the election of knights of the
shire, or county members, which privilege they
had not before enjoyed.
The power of convocation is limited both
by common and statute law. A convocation
may make canons or constitutions, which shall
be obligatory on the clergy, because these are
present either by representation or in person;
but such canons do not bind the laity with
out an act of parliament. And by the act of
25 Henry VIII., c. 19, which has been deter
mined to be declaratory of the old common law
of England, the convocation cannot make any
canons, constitutions, or ordinances, without the
king's license: nor, when permitted to make any,

CON
can they put them into execution, but under the
following restrictions, viz. : — 1. Such canons must
not be contrary or repugnant to the king's
prerogative royal. 2. They must not contradict
any statute, or the common law. And 3. They
must not alter any known custom of tbe realm.
The convocation has the power of examining and
censuring all heretical and schismatical books
and persons &c. ; but an appeal lies from it to
the king in chancery, or to his delegates. Al
though the convocation continues to meet on the
second day of every session of parliament, yet
this assembly, for upwards of a century, has not
been permitted to transact any business, in con
sequence of the unliappy disputes which were
carried on at one time with great acrimony be
tween the High and Low Church parties — See
Bangorian Controversy.
Towards the close of the reign of Queen Anne,
the attention of the convocation was, by a royal
license, directed to investigate the excessive
growth of infidelity and heresy, as well as of
other abuses, in order that necessary measures
might be taken for a reformation. The prolocu
tor of the lower house, Dr. Atterbury, undertook
to draw up an account to be delivered to the
queen, which he did, with severe reflections on
the administration. The house of bishops ordered
anotherrepresentation to bedrawn in more general
and modest terms. But neither the one nor the
other met with the approbation of both parties.
In the same year (1714) the revival of Arian
tenets was attempted by Mr. Whiston, for which
he was expelled from the university of Cam
bridge. His vindication he dedicated to the
convocation itself. A censure was passed, but
remained unnoticed by the queen. In the same
year the lower house of convocation complained of
the publication of Dr. Samuel Clarke's Scripture
Doctrine ofthe Trinity, an extract from which was
subsequently laid before the bishops by that house.
Dr. Clarke addressed to them, first, an exculpa
tory paper, and secondly, an explanation, which
being accepted by the bishops, no further pro
ceedings were had in the upper house. But the
lower house not being satisfied with it, passed a
resolution that the paper subscribed by Dr.
Clarke, and communicated to them by the
bishops, did not contain any recantation of the
heretical assertions and offensive passages com
plained of in their representation, and afterwards
produced in their extract ; and that it did not give
such satisfaction for the great scandal occasioned
thereby, as ought to put a stop to any further
examination and censure thereof. Here the
matter terminated. For a full and authentic
account of which, see An Apology for Dr. Clarke,
containing an account of late Proceedings in Con
vocation, upon his Writings concerning the Trinity,
(London, 1714, 8vo). The contentions between
the two factions in the convocation were renewed
in the reign of George I. Shortly after the sup
pression of the rebellion of 1715 a very violent

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literary controversy took place, which has been
distinguished by the name of the " Bangorian
Controversy," as it originated in two publications
by Dr. Hoadley, who had then recently been
advanced to the bishopric of Bangor. The first
of these pamphlets was entitled A Preservative
against the Principles and Practices of the Non-
Jurors ; which, shortly after, was followed by a
sermon on The Nature ofthe Kingdom of Christ,
which he had preached beforethe king. Dr. Snape,
provost of king's college, replied to the sermon,
and the convocation appointed a committee to
examine the bishop's two performances. The
representation of this committee conveyed a severe
censure on the opinions of Dr. Hoadley ; and, as
before, the disputes in convocation became very
violent. Government soon stopped the proceed
ings by a prorogation, which, however, did not
put an end to the controversy. Drs. Snape and
Sherlock were removed from the office of king's
chaplains ; and since the year 1717 the convoca
tion has not been permitted to transact, business.
It has continued to be regularly summoned to
meet, but it is as regularly adjourned on the day
of meeting. (For other particulars relative to
this assembly, see Burn's Ecclesiastical Law,
title "Convocation;" Lathburv's History of the
Convocation ofthe Church of England, London,
1842, 8vo. ; and Dr. Cardwell's Synodalia: a
collection of articles cf ReUgion, Canons, and
Proceedings of Convocation in the Province of
Canterbury, from 1547 to 1717, London, 1842,
2 vols. 8vo ; Joj'ce's Sacred Synods.)
Cope, a ministerial habit in use in the
Anglican Church: it is copied from the Latin
cohbium, or the Greek iraxxus, which at first was
the common habit of civilians, but was retained
by ecclesiastics when, in the progress of fashion,
it grew into national disuse. The twenty-fourth
canon prescribes that in all cathedral and colle
giate churches the holy communion shall be ad
ministered upon principal feast days, on which
occasions the bishop and the principal minister
shall wear each a decent cope. Copes are for
bidden to be worn at all other services of the
church, by an act passed in the 7th year of
Queen Elizabeth. — See Casula, Chasible.
Copiata;. — See Fossap.ii.
Coptic Church. — This term is supposed by
some to be a corruption of 'Aiyusvio;, pronounced
by the Arabs kupti or gupti, and by others to
be derived from a town named Coptos. This
is the Egyptian branch of the Monophysite
Church — that is to say, those who hold the doc
trine that in the person of Christ the two natures
are in reality but one — the human being absorbed
by the divine. This heresy was first promulgated
by Eutyches. In this he was abetted by Dios-
corus, Patriarch of Alexandria, who, when ex
pelled from the orthodox communion, had suffi
cient influence to carry the Egyptian Church along
with him, and so to found the community there
after known as the Coptic Church. This opinion

COR
is likewise held by the Syrian and Abyssinian
Churches, while the Armenian Church has
fallen into the opposite error of supposing that in
the person of the Mediator there are not only two
natures, but even two distinct persons. The
head of the Coptic Church is the Patriarch of
Alexandria, whose residence, however, 'is at
Cairo. It has, besides, a bishop of Jerusalem,
who also usually resides in the Egyptian capital.
Its churches and convents number together about
125, the latter considerably predominating over
the former. It has carried the monastic system
to an extreme length, as in the orders of St.
Anthony, St. Paul, and St. Macarius. It has
also abbots or archimandrites. The spiritual
and intellectual condition of this church is very
low, the priests, sprung from the lowest of
the people, and the people themselves being
about equally ignorant. The church services
are still, as a whole, conducted in the old Coptic
tongue, which the people do not now understand.
The worship of the Virgin, and other innovations
upon apostolic simplicity, are here to be met
with. Of late years Protestant missions have
been commenced among the members of this
church. The Coptic Church was originally of
pure Egyptian blood, and stood in contrast to
the Melkites, who were Greeks in creed and in
origin. Priests and the inferior ministers are
allowed to marry before ordination ; but a bishop
must have practised celibacy.
Corban (Gr. xc^liav, Mark vii. 11 ; Hebrew,
a gift). — The Jews frequently consecrated them
selves, or their possessions, or part of them, to
God ; and Moses recognizes this dedication in
various forms, (Leviticus xxvii). An abuse of
this vow is reprehended by our Saviour in the
above passage in St. Mark, and the parallel to
it, Matthew xv. 5. Corbana is used, Matthew
xxvii. 6, for the treasury of the temple. Among
the Copts the Eucharist is called corban. (Junii,
Acta S.S., v., 72).
Cordelier, a name given to Franciscan monks,
in allusion to their girdle tied with three knots.
Cordicoles, the name of numerous Catholic
devotees who worship the heart of Jesus and
Mary. Cor Episcopi (heart of the bishop), a name
of the archdeacon, as he was often called
" oculus episcopi" — the eye of the bishop. But
some think that cor episcopi is a corruption of
chorepiscopus. — See Archdeacon, Chore
piscopus. Cornarists, followers of Theodore Cornhert
in Holland, who wrote against all sects, asserting
that no one who could not work miracles had any
warrant to be a religious reformer, and that it
was not necessary for salvation to be a member
of any church.
Cornua Episloke, Coiiiim Evaiig<lii,the
names of the south and north side of the ambo or
reading desk,— the epistles being read from the
first and the gospels from the second.  See Ambo.

174

COR
Corona.— See Crown.
Coronation. — We find that this ceremony
was at a very early date associated with religious
services. The rites are most clearly akin in all
countries, and have suffered little alteration in
the course of time. The earliest authentic record
we have of this ceremony is in the case of Leo
the Emperor, who was crowned by the Patriarch
of Constantinople. The practice of anointing the
king on this occasion was soon added; in the
sixth or seventh century it was introduced into
Spain. Pepin was the first king of France so crown
ed ; and in England this union of civil and sacred
services has existed since the Saxon Heptarchy.
As regards the Eastern Empire, the salient points
of the service were: the emperor first presented a
written creed, and promised to reign justly, &c. ;
he was then, amidst the acclamations of the
people, raised on a shield, and taken to the church
of St Sophia ; during the liturgy, and before com
mencing the hymn " Trisagios," the patriarch and
bishops prayed from the ambo on his behalf; the
former then anointed him in the form of a cross,
uttering the word " ayus " — holy ! and the clergy
responded thrice the same word, which was then
taken up by the people. Next, as the patriarch
placed the crown on his head, having brought it
from the sanctuary, he said "afios" — worthy!
which was repeated as the former expression. The
patriarch next uttered the benediction, when the
emperor crowned the empress. This is peculiar
to the Eastern service. In the remaining part of
the ritual, the emperor, in his robes of office,
assisted the patriarch. The coronation form of
the Western Empire was shorter. The Bishop of
Ostia anointed, and the Roman Patriarch crowned
the emperor in the basilica of St. Peter. The
services of France and England are nearly alike,
and much longer than the above, though derived
from the ordo Romanus. The Liber Regalis, a
MS. of the time of Richard I. is the autho
rity as to all the English services. For the
older forms under the heptarchy, see Marteni
De Antiq. Ecclesiae Ritibus; for the English
service generally, Dr. Silver on " The Corona
tion Service, or Consecration of the Anglo-Saxon
Kings. After the presentation to the people
of the king by the archbishop, the king offers
as a gift an altar cloth of gold, and an ingot of
gold ; then follow the liturgy, and the communion
service, after which the oath is solemnly ad
ministered. The archbishop next proceeds
solemnly to anoint the king, the Dean of West
minster removing the ampulla and spoon from
the altar, and pouring therein the oil, which is
applied to the crown of the head in the form
of the cross, and also to the palms of the
hands. The various insignia of royalty are
next presented, with suitable remarks, enforcing
the discharge of the duties of which each respec
tively is emblematic. They are presented in this
order: the super tunica, spurs, sword, armillae, the
royal robe, orb and cross, ring, sceptre, gloves,

COR
and the rod with the dove upon the top of it.
Then the archbishop comes to the coronation
proper, the king sitting on St. Edward's chair ;
he reverently places on his head the crown, and
admonishes him. Then a Bible is presented,
and the archbishop solemnly blesses him. Various
anthems are sung during the service. After a
final exhortation from the archbishop, the peers
present publicly do homage, individually stretch
ing forth their hands and touching the crown on
his head. Then the queen with similar cere
monies is crowned by the archbishop ; but there
is this difference — she only receives the ring,
sceptre, and rod, before the crown. The commun
ion service, which was interrupted by these rites,
is now resumed and finished. The whole cere
mony is performed in Westminster Abbey. The
seat of St Edward's chair contains an old black
stone, on which the ancient kings of Scotland
were crowned at Scone ; it was carried to Eng
land by Edward I., and by him placed in West
minster Abbey, in the seat since used at all
English coronations. About this curious relic
there is a very ancient Scotch prophecy, wbich
has proved true. (Palmer's Origines Liturgicae.)
Corporate, the cloth upon which the Euchar
ist is deposited, and which is an object of great
reverence in the Romish and Greek Churches ; it
is known by tbe names KaXupfuiriav, palia,
sindon, antimensia. Some give as a reason why
it should be of pure white linen, that it was in
such a substance that Joseph of Arimathea
wrapped our Lord's body. For the same reason
the Romanists forbid any decoration to it : the
Greeks, on the other hand, embroider a Calvary in
the centre, bearing three crosses, and the corpse
of our Saviour recumbent at the foot; at the
four comers, also, they insert the four mystical
beasts of the evangelists. The folding and un
folding of the corporale by the priest at the altar
was accompanied with great ceremony, and was
supposed to involve some very high mysteries.
(Durandi, Rationale; Du Cange, Glossarium.)
Corpus Christi, a festival of the Romish
Church, instituted by Urban IV. a.d. 1264, in
honour of the Eucharist, and observed on the
first Thursday after Trinity Sunday. Thomas
Aquinas was employed to draw up the service
for this commemoration. Before the Reforma
tion, on the day of the feast, and those succeed
ing it, mysteries were represented in many parts
of England. One, the Ludus Coventrim, acted
by the minorites or mendicant friars, is still
extant ; and a copy of it exists in the Cotton
Library in the British Museum. On this day,
also, the host was carried about in procession,
magnificently enshrined.
Correspondences, the nameof a peculiar and
baseless kind of interpretation which characterizes
the followers of Swedenborg, depending upon the
harmony supposed to exist between the visible
and the invisible world. The universe is be
lieved to be made after a peculiar pattern, that

175

cou
being the human form. A spirit dwelling in
that portion of it which corresponds to the heart
or liver made his influence felt in the region of
Swedenborg's heart and liver before the eye can
discern him. Thus the inhabitants of Mercury
correspond to memory in the " Grand Man," and
those of the Moon to the sword-shaped cartilage
at the bottom of the breast-bone, while space and
time are states of thought and love. In this way
Swedenborg easily and cheaply travelled through
the universe from planet to planet, by bringing
his own mind into a condition similar to that
which he supposed to belong to the star which
he wished to visit. The same visionary applied
a similar principle to the interpretation of Scrip
ture. Thus the first chapter of Genesis, record
ing the creation of the universe and the fitting
up of this globe for the abode of man, is declared
by the doctrine of correspondence to have no such
meaning, but to describe how a man rises out of
ruin, and ascends, stage after stage, to spiritual
perfection. The interpreter of the Book of inspira
tion by such crazy fancies, would require himself
a second inspiration.— See Swedenborgians.
Council, in ecclesiastical history, is a con
vention of pastors, assembled together for the
regulation of ecclesiastical affairs. It may
reasonably be supposed that, as Christianity
spread, circumstances would arise which would
make consultation necessary among those who
had embraced the Gospel, or at least among
those who were employed in its propaga
tion. Not long after the ascension of the
Saviour, in consequence of a dispute whether
the yoke of the law should be imposed on the
Gentile converts, an assembly of the " apostles
and elders" (Acts xv. 4, 23) was convened ;
who, after consultation, having decided the
point in question, sent their decree, which they
declared to have been made under the direction
of the Holy Ghost, to all the churches, and
commanded that it should be the rule of their
conduct. This is generally considered to be
the first council ; but it differed from all others
in this circumstance, that it was under the
especial guidance of the Spirit of God. Al
though the Gospel was soon after propagated in
many parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, there
does not appear to have been any public meeting
of Christians, held for the purpose of discussing
any contested point, until the middle of the
second century. From that time councils be
came frequent ; but as they consisted only of
those who belonged to particular districts or
countries, they are usually termed provincial
or national councils, in contradistinction to oecu
menical or general councils, which were com
posed of delegates or commissioners from all the
Churches in the Christian world, and which
consequently represented the Church universal.
The number of councils which, according to
chronologers and historians, have been held at
various times, is very great Dr. Playfair

COU
reckons 1504 in all countries between the
years a.d. 33 and 1549; Baxter computes 481
provincial councils ; and M. Du Fresnoy a much
larger number. Authors are by no means agreed
concerning the number of general councils. The
Papists usually reckon eighteen ; but Protestant
writers will not allow that nearly so many had a
right to that name. Bullinger reckons only
six; Dr. Prideaux, seven; and Bishop Beve
ridge, eight.
The following are the principal councils
noticed in ecclesiastical history. 1. The CouncU
of Nice derives its name from Nicse or Nice,
a city of Bithynia, at which it was convened,
a.d. 325, by order of the Emperor Constantine,
who was present during its deliberations. The
bishops assembled, who were 318 in number,
condemned the Arian heresy, and framed the
creed, which is hence called the Nicene. %
The Second General Council was that held at
Constantinople a.d. 381, by order of the Em
peror Theodosius the Great In it were con
demned the Macedonian heretics, who denied the
divinity of the Holy Ghost. Though usually
termed a general council, this assembly was
actually composed of only 150 bishops of the
Eastern Empire. 3. The CouncU held at
Ephesus a.'d. 431, under the Emperor Theo
dosius the Younger, is the third general council.
Two hundred bishops who were convened at this
council, condemned the heretical tenets charged
upon Nestorius, and declared that Christ was one
divine person, in whom two natures were most
closely and intimately united, without being
mixed or confounded. 4. The Fourth, General
Council, called a.d. 451, by order of the Emperor
Marcian, was summoned to assemble at Nice,
but was afterwards held at Chalcedon, in
Bithynia. This council, which was composed of
600, or (according to some writers) 630 bishops,
established the catholic faith concerning the
mystery of the incarnation of Jesus Christ, in op
position to the errors of Eutyches, who had affirmed
that there was but one nature in Christ. 5. The
Fifth^ General Council, and the second of Con
stantinople, was held a.d. 553, by command of
the Emperor Justinian. The principal transac
tion of this council was the condemnation of the
" three chapters."— See Chapters, Three. 6.
The Sixth General Council and the third of Con
stantinople, was assembled by order of the
Emperor Constantius Pogonatus. This council
condemned the heresy of the Monothelites, who
allowed only one will to Christ. 7. The Seventh.
General Council was convened to compose the
disputes which had arisen on the subject of
image-worship. It met at Constantinople in
786 ; but its deliberations being disturbed by the
violence of the Iconoclasts or image-breakers, the
Empress Irene desired its members to disperse for
the present. In the following year it resumed
its deliberations, whence it is called the second
of Nice. It determined that a relative honour

176

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was to be given to holy pictures and images, and
denounced severe punishments against all who
maintained that God was the only object of
religious adoration. 8. The Eighth General
Council, or fourth of Constantinople, was held at
that city in 869. In it the worship of images
was confirmed; and the disputes between the
Latin aud Greek Churches were concluded, or at
least suspended. These are all the councils
reputed by Protestant writers to be oecumenical
or general ; but the Church of Rome has added
nine others, whose decrees she pronounces to be
obligatory upon the consciences of all men. Of
these the most memorable is the Council of
Trent, which was convoked and opened under
the pontificate of Paul IIL, in December, 1545,
and continued under Julius III.; and which,
after sitting, with some interruption, eighteen
years, was brought to a close in 1563,. This
council, though termed by Romanists a general
council, was so far from being general that only
196 popish bishops were present : they unani
mously condemned the Reformation, and con
firmed all the doctrinal corruptions of Popery.
The first four councils, it will be seen, were con
voked by the emperors of the East, whose
dominions included the whole, or nearly the
whole of Christendom; and they continued to
exercise the same power for several centuries
afterwards. But at length the popes of Rome,
among other usurpations, assumed to themselves
the right of summoning general councils ; and
the first which met by their authority was the
first Lateran Council, in the year 1123. Abstracts
of the proceedings of general councils will be
found in the ecclesiastical histories of Mosheim,
Du Pin, and others. In Dr. Cave's Historia
Literaria there are extant several collections
of their canons ; and in Dr. Grier's Epitome of
the General Councils of the Church, from the
Council of Nice to the conclusion of the Roman
Council of Trent, (Dublin and London, 1828,
8vo.) The two most celebrated of these are — 1.
The Concilia Generalia, edited by Severinus
Binius, of which there are three editions; one
printed at Cologne in 1606, and again in 1618,
in four volumes folio, and another in Paris in
1638, in nine volumes folio; and 2. edited by
Philip Labbe' and Gabriel Cossart, (Paris, 1671,
1672), in seventeen closely printed volumes, to
which Stephen Baluze published a supplement,
in 1683, in one volume. These, and some other
collections by popish editors, are confessedly
works of great labour and learning; but they
must be consulted with suspicion, on account of
the fraudulent alterations introduced into them ;
which have been ably exposed by our learned
countrymen, Thomas James, in his Treatise of
the Corruption of Scripture, Councils, and
Fathers, by the Prelates, Pastors, and Pillars of
the Church of Rome, for maintenance of Popery
(London, 1688, 8vo.) ; and by Dr. Thomas
Comber, Dean of Durham, in his Roman For- 177

COU
geries in the Councils, during the first four
centuries ; together with an Appendix concern
ing the Forgeries and Errors in the Annals of
Baronius, (London, 1689, 4to.) The following
is a chronological list of the more famous of the
councils: —
A.D.215 Africa, under Agrippinus.
240 Africa, under Donatus.
251-256 Africa, several under Cyprian.
265 Antioch 1.
269 Antioch 2.
313 Rome, against tbe Donatists.
313 Elvira (al. 305, al. 324.)
314 Ancyra, in Galatia.
314 Aries 1.
316 Neocsesarea.
324 Gangra, in Paphlagonia
325 Nicaa 1 (first general council).
344 Sardica.
348 Carthage 1.
359 Ariminum, or Rimini.
361 Laodicea.
362 Alexandria.
381 Aquileia.
381 Constantinople 1 (second general council).
381 Saragossa.
390 Carthage 2.
393 Hippo.
397 Carthage 3.
399 Carthage 4.
400 Toledo 1.
401 Carthage 5.
402 Turin.
402 Milevi 1.
416 Milevi 2.
419 Carthage 6.
419 Carthage 7.
431 Ephesus (third general council).
441 Orange 1.
442 Vaison 1.
451 Chalcedon (fourth general council).
452 Aries 2.
455 Aries 3.
461 Tours 1.
465 Rome, under Hilary.
494 Rome, under Gelasius.
499 Rome, under Symmachus.
506 Agde.
511 Orleans 1.
516 Tarracona.
517 Epone.
524 Lerida.
529 Orange 2.
529 Vaison 2.
531 Toledo 2.
533 Orleans 2.
538 Orleans 3.
553 Constantinople 2 (fifth general council).
561 Braga 1.
567 Tours 2.
572 Braga 2.
578 Auxerre.

N

COU
A.D. 581 Macon 1.
585 Macon 2.
589 Narbonne.
589 Toledo 3.
590 Seville 1.
619 Seville 2.
633 Toledo 4.
636 Toledo 5.
638 Toledo 6.
646 Toledo 7.
653 Toledo 8.
655 Toledo 9.
656 Toledo 10.
670 Autun.
675 Toledo 11.
680 Constantinople 3 (sixth general council).
681 Toledo 12
692 Constantinople, Trullan.
786 Nicasa 2 (seventh general council).
788 Aix-la-Chapelle.
815 Mentz.
869 Constantinople 4(eighth general council).
Couriers (tidh'gSftoi), messengers sent out to
give notice of the day and hour of religious
meetings, doing the work of modem bells.
Courts, Ecclesiastical or Spiritual. —
Court of Augmentation, a court, created 27
Henry VIII., for determining suits and contro
versies relating to monasteries and abbey lands.
This court was dissolved by parliament, 1 Queen
Mary; the Augmentation Office, however, still
exists, in which there are a variety of valuable
records, connected with lands formerly belong
ing to monasteries and abbeys.
Court of High Commission, originated in the
Act of Supremacy passed 1559, which empowered
Queen Elizabeth to choose commissioners who
might exercise supreme jurisdiction in spiritual
or ecclesiastical matters. The court so formed
claimed a pre-eminence over the ordinary courts
of the bishops. The rack and other means of
torture were weapons confided to them. They
were bound by no rules or precedents in receiving
evidence or in imposing penalties, but acted as
they pleased, and soon became odious as a terrific
and lawless inquisition. In 1610 a court of this
nature was erected by James VI. in Scotland,
and re-erected in 1664, the last consisting of
nine prelates and thirty-five laymen. It was
armed with highest authority, and had a military
force at its command. It had also an organized
espionage, with agents everywhere. Its deeds
were high-handed and summary. The fines im
posed ruined many — many were imprisoned till
life was despaired of — many were banished to un
healthy districts, and some were even sold for slaves.
On suspicion of being antiprelatic in opinion and
act, hosts of people were arraigned before this op
pressive tribunal ; and of all who appeared no
one is said to have escaped a severe punishment.
Accusation was usually equivalent to swift
conviction.

178

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Court of Archdeacon is the lowest court in the
ecclesiastical polity of the Anglican Church. Its
jurisdiction is sometimes in concurrence with,
and sometimes in exclusion of the bishop's
diocesan court.
Tlie Court of Arches (so called because it used
to be held in Bow Church, Sancta Maria de Arcu-
bus), is the chief consistory court belonging to the
Archbishop of Canterbury, for the debating of
spiritual causes. The judge of this court is called
the dean of the arches ; he hath jurisdiction in
all ecclesiastical causes, except those which he-
long to the prerogative court, and also in all
matters of appeal from bishops, or their chancel
lors or commissaries, deans, and chapters.
Court, Bishop's, or Consistory Court, is held in
the cathedral of each diocese, for the trial of
ecclesiastical causes within that diocese.
The Court of Conscience, or Court of Requests,
Curia Conscientios, was erected in the 9 Henry
VIII. in London, and an act of common council
then appointed commissioners to sit in the court
twice a-week, to determine all matters between
citizens and freemen of London, in which the
debt or damage was under 40s. This act of com
mon council was confirmed 1 James I. By
this the court issues its summons, the commis
sioners examine on oath, and decide by summary
process, making such orders touching debts " as
they should find to stand to equity and good
conscience." The commissioners may commit to
prison for disobedience of their summons. Va
rious subsequent acts have regulated and ex
tended these powers.
Court of Faculties belongs to the Archbishop
of Canterbury ; its power is to grant dispensa
tions for the marriage of persons without the
publications of banns, to ordain a deacon under
canonical age, to enable a son to succeed his
father in a benefice, or one person to hold two or
more benefices incompatible with each other.
Court of Peculiars is a spiritual court, an
nexed to the Court of Arches, held in such
parishes as are exempt from the jurisdiction of
bishops, and are peculiarly belonging to the Arch
bishop of Canterbury.
Court of Prerogative, held at Doctors' Com
mons in London, in which all wills and testa
ments are proved, and administrations granted
on the estates of persons dying intestate, &c.
Court of Teinds, that portion of the judges of
the Court of Session that administer the law
as to the revenues of the Scottish Established
Church. Meetings of session, presbytery, synod, and
general assembly are usually termed courts.
Cousins, Marriage of. — See Marriage.
Covenanters of Scotland, known also by
the name of Cameronians : their former name is
derived from the covenant they subscribed, the
latter from one of their leaders. They formed a
numerous body of men, who exerted a powerful
influence in moulding the religious character of

COV
their country, and by it their memories are still
cherished and revered. Their history is that of
Scotland at a very important period, and to under
stand their position and conduct aright we require
to bear in mind some events of an earlier date.
On December 3, 1557, we find the first example
in Scotland of covenanting. On that day the
Lords of the Congregation drew up and signed a
covenant, which embodied a declaration of their
religious belief, and their determination to secure
for it a complete toleration. On the 30th May,
two years later, another covenant was signed by
them, in which they more distinctly bound them
selves to give mutual aid in arms against all
attacking them for the sake of religion. In spite
of persecution and intestinal wars Scotland soon
became a Protestant country, and when, in 1581,
James VI. was thought to be too much under
the influence of popish favourites, the country,
jealous of its dearly purchased religious freedom,
became very excited. To tranquillize their
minds King James caused Mr. John Craig, an
Edinburgh minister, to draw up a confession,
abjuring Popery, which, on January 28, 1581,
he subscribed. It is hence called indiscriminately
Craig's Confession, or the King's Confession. But
as by the king's orders, it was sent through the
country to be universally subscribed, it ultimately
came to be known as the First National Covenant,
of Scotland. In accordance with the recom
mendation of the king and council, the General
Assembly at Edinburgh, soon after formally gave
to the Church of Scotland a Presbyterian con
stitution. Attempts on the part of Arran, Len
nox, and others of the nobility, to re-establish
bishops, roused the country to a solemn renewal
of the covenant in 1590 ; and as the king con
tinued to give indications of a bias towards pre
lacy, this was repeated by the General Assembly
in 1596. After his accession to the English
throne, this bias became quite apparent, and his
feelings gradually deepened into a hatred of
Presbyterianism and covenanting. He soon began
to carry things with a high hand. In 1606,
having failed to overawe the assembly, he tried
the parliament, and induced it to restore the office
and honours of the various bishoprics. This was
followed in four years by his appointing bishops to
the sees of Glasgow, Brechin, and Galloway.
They, after their arrival, appointed an Archbishop
of St. Andrew's, and various other bishops. To
obtain their recognition by the ministers and
people, coercive measures were employed, and the
prisons were filled with numbers of the Presby
terian clergy and others. The country was
highly excited, and still further disturbances
arose when the attempt was made by the king
to introduce the English service and forms. The
liturgy was peculiarly obnoxious, and the
churches where the bishops or conforming clergy
preached were the scenes of frequent uproar.
On Sabbath, 23d July, 1637, the dean of Edin
burgh attempted to read the liturgy in St. Giles's,

COV
when Jenny Geddes threw her stool at his head,
as she vociferated, " Villain, dost thou say mass
at my lug ? " The uproar created an alarm which
rapidly increased through the country. The fol
lowing year (1638) the covenant was nationally
renewed, thus organizing opposition more firmly to
episcopal innovation. The assembly, too, which
tie king had allowed to meet, in spite of his pro
hibition of further proceedings, at a certain stage
tried and condemned the bishops. It firmly
protested against all prelacy, and any claims of
spiritual supremacy advanced by the king, declar
ing, " That it is unlawful itself, and prejudicial to
the privileges that Christ has left his Church, for
the king to dissolve or break up the assemblies of
this kirk, or stay their proceedings ; for it would
then follow that religion and church government
depended absolutely on the pleasure of the
prince," &c. Henceforward the Presbyterians
are more particularly known as Covenanters.
The opposition to which they had committed
themselves concerned principles peculiarly dear
to the pious Scotch. It was to be one of long
continuance, and one in which they were to
undergo great persecutions. From contempora
ries we leam that they were most scrupulous in
permitting persons to sign the covenant. Men of
note were refused, if it was supposed they were
influenced more by " the fear of men " than by
"love for the cause." The supporters of the
covenant were not therefore "men of unquiet
spirits and broken fortunes," as some say.
Everywhere the covenant was ratified with the
greatest enthusiasm. A supplication they sent
to the king was contemptuously rejected ; and
an attempt was made to arrest one of their
deputies in London. The privy council report
ed the cause of the disturbances arose from " fear
of innovations in religion, and their forcible in
troduction, contrary to the laws of the realm."
Traquair admitted the same, and advised pre
tended concessions for the time, to allay the dis
turbances, and these to be afterwards recalled.
The lawyers, when consulted, informed the
king of the legality of the conduct of the Cove
nanters. If Traquair recommended an insincere
policy he was better than the Bishops of Ross and
Brechin, who advised persecuting, coercive mea
sures. The country was highly excited, and
extensive preparations were made by the cove
nanting party for its defence ; nearly all the for
tresses of any strength were seized by them, and
they had amongst them many able officers, as
Leslie, Monro, Argyle. The king's deceitful at
tempts on the ecclesiastical courts had already
failed ; and when Charles found himself unable to
cope with them by force, under the able general
ship of Leslie, a treaty of peace was signed be
tween the two armies, the Royal and the Presby
terian, on the 18th June, 1629 ; and a declaration
on the part of the king was made, conceding all
that the Covenanters required. But in the fol
lowing year war was renewed. Amongst tha

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leading divines of the Covenanters were Alexander
Henderson, Samuel Rutherford, D. Dickson, and
G. Gillespie. These attended to the spiritual wants
of their army, which in this respect was as re
markable as Oliver Cromwell's. On the 21st of
August, by invitation, they entered England ; and
as Charles was unable to meet them in the field,
a truce was concluded, October 26. As this war
becomes now almost entirely political in charac
ter, we pass on to 1643, when we find that the
covenant was renewed in the slightly altered
form proceeding from the Westminster assembly.
Montrose, from being a friend of the covenant,
became one of its most violent enemies. At the
head of a small but gallant band, he carried fire
and sword through the counties of Perth, Aber
deen, and Argyle. When Charles II. came
over to Scotland, 1650, he signed the cove
nant before landing. In 1651, at his corona
tion at Scone, he again signed it ; but, on his
restoration, he soon showed his dislike to Pres-
byterianism. On various pretexts he began
imprisoning their most distinguished ministers.
In 1661 the Scottish parliament were induced to
pass an act rescinding the covenant. The same
year Argyle was arrested on various charges —
one blaming him with the formation of the
Solemn League and Covenant with England — and
he was condemned and executed. Prelacy was to
be restored. Sharp, a renegade from Presbyter-
ianism, became Archbishop of St. Andrew's. The
persecution in Scotland began to be general. The
more noted covenanting ministers, as Gillespie,
Guthrie, &c, and leaders, as Govan and others,
besides Argyle, were tried and executed first. In
1664 the court of high commission was revived
in Scotland. On Sharp the blame of its restora
tion and most of its atrocities must lie. The
commissioners were authorized to call before
them "all obstinate contemners of the discipline
of the churches — all keepers of conventicles — all
who preached in private houses, or elsewhere,
kept fasts, or administered the Lord's Supper — all
who spoke, preached, wrote, or printed to the
scandal or detriment of the government in church
or state — all absentees from public worship, — and
to punish them by fine or imprisonment, &c.,
according to law." This reservation the king
craftily contrived to over-ride and nullify iu the
commission, by further " authorizing and em
powering them to do and execute wliatever they
shall find necessary for his majesty's service."
Torture — as by the thumbkins and the boot —
was constantly made use of, and death was a not
less frequent punishment. As a consequence,
there were risings at Dumfries and elsewhere : at
Pentland they were easily suppressed by the
royal troops ; and these risings afforded a pretext
for fresh cruelties towards the Presbyterian Cove-
vanters. Open-air conventicles soon became not
uncommon, and military interference was as fre
quent. Attempts were made on Sharp's life ; but
none of these succeeded till May 3, 1679, when

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he was killed travelling near St. Andrews. All
government attempts to discover who did it
failed, though the persons were well known to
their party. The Act of Indulgence in 1669
divided the Covenanters into two bodies, and the
party headed by Cargill and Cameron adopted
extreme views. Renewed risings followed re
newed cmelties. Drumclog was fought, and
then came the melancholy termination at Both-
well Bridge, 1679. Claverhouse and others like-
minded, now ravaged the country for six years,
killing, without form of trial, all who even hesi
tated to abjure the covenant; for such hesitation
was proclaimed a capital offence by parliament,
acting under the pressure of the government.
Under James II. things continued much the
same, and it was not till the glorious Revolution
of 1688 that the Covenanters were freed from
persecution. The Covenanters have impressed
themselves on the heart of Scotland by their
courage and enthusiasm, their piety and their
patriotism, — by the dangers which they encoun
tered and the trials they endured. An air of
romance is thrown around their history ; and the
Scottish imagination ever pictures them as saints
and soldiers. It is impossible rightly to under
stand the characters ofthe individual men without
perusing their memoirs. The Scottish Worthies,
by Howie, is the Martyrology of Scotland. Many
other interesting collections of lives of individual
Covenanters exist. At various periods since
1688 Presbyterian Churches in Scotland have
renewed the covenant engagement. — For the
Reformed Presbyterians or Cameronians, who
regard themselves as representatives of the old
Covenanters, see Scotland, Churches in, Re
formed Presbyterians. (Taylor's Pictorial
Hist, of Scotland; Marsden's Diet, of Christ.
Churches and Sects, &c.)
Covenants, two very extraordinary docu
ments in the ecclesiastical history of Scotland
and of the United Kingdom : —
The National Covenant was "subscribed at first
by the King's Majesty, and his household, in the
year 1580 ; thereafter by persons of all ranks in
the year 1581, by ordinance of the Lords of
secret council, and acts of the General Assembly ;
subscribed again by all sorts of persons in the
year 1590, by a new ordinance of council, at
the desire of the General Assembly, with a
general bond for the maintaining of the true
Christian religion, and the King's person ; and,
together with a resolution and promise, for the
causes after expressed, to maintain the true
religion, and the King's Majesty, according to the
foresaid confession and acts of Parliament, sub
scribed by Barons, Nobles, Gentlemen, Burgesses,
Ministers, and Commons, in the year 1638,
approven by the General Assembly 1638 and
1639 ; and subscribed again by persons of all
ranks and qualities in the year 1639, by an
ordinance of council, upon the supplication- of
the General Assembly, and act of the General

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Assembly, ratified by an act of Parliament 1640 ;
and subscribed by King Charles II. at Spey,
June 23, 1650, and Scone, January 1, 1651."
It was as follows:— "WE all and every
one of us under-written, protest, That, after
long and due examination of our own con
sciences in matters of true and false religion,
we are now throughly resolved in the truth
by the Word and Spirit of God: and there
fore we believe with our hearts, confess with our
mouths, subscribe with our hands, and con
stantly affirm, before God and the whole world,
that this only is the true Christian faith and
religion, pleasing God, and bringing salvation to
man, which now is, by the mercy of God, re
vealed to the world by the preaching of the
blessed evangel; and is received, believed, and
defended by many and sundry notable kirks and
realms, but chiefly by the kirk of Scotland, the
King's Majesty, and three estates of this realm,
as God's eternal truth, and only ground of our
salvation ; as more particularly is expressed in
the Confession of our Faith, established and pub-
lickly confirmed by sundry acts of Parliaments,
and now of a long time hath been openly pro
fessed by the King's Majesty, and whole body of
this realm both in burgh and land. To the
which Confession and Form of Religion we
willingly agree in our conscience in all points,
as unto God's undoubted truth and verity,
grounded only upon his written Word. And
therefore we abhor and detest all contrary reli
gion and doctrine; but chiefly all kind of
Papistry in general and particular heads, even as
they are now damned and confuted by the Word
of God and Kirk of Scotland. But, in special,
we detest and refuse the usurped authority of
that Roman Antichrist upon the Scriptures of
God, upon the kirk, the civil magistrate, and
consciences of men ; all his tyrannous laws made
upon indifferent things against our Christian
liberty ; his erroneous doctrine against the suffi
ciency of the written Word, the perfection of the
law, the office of Christ, and his blessed evangel ;
his corrupted doctrine concerning original sin,
our natural inability and rebellion to God's law,
our justification by faith only, our imperfect
sanctification and obedience to the law; the
nature, number, and use of the holy sacraments ;
his five bastard sacraments, with all his rites,
ceremonies, and false doctrine, added to the
ministration of the true sacraments without the
Word of God ; his cruel judgment against infants
departing without the sacrament; his absolute
necessity of baptism; his blasphemous opinion
of transubstantiation, or real presence of Christ's
body in the elements, and receiving of the same
by the wicked, or bodies of men ; his dispensa
tions with solemn oaths, perjuries, and degrees of
marriage forbidden in the word; his cruelty
against the innocent divorced ; his devilish mass ;
his blasphemous priesthood ; his profane sacrifice
for sins of the dead and the quick ; his canoniza

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tion of men; calling upon angels or saints
departed, worshipping of imagery, relicks, and
crosses ; dedicating of kirks, altars, days ; vows
to creatures; his purgatory, prayers" for the
dead; praying or speaking in a strange lan
guage, with his processions, and blasphemous
litany, and multitude of advocates or mediators •
his manifold orders, auricular confession ; his
desperate and uncertain repentance ; his general
and doubtsome faith; his satisfactions of men
for their sins ; his justification by works, opus
operalum, works of supererogation, merits, par
dons, peregrinations, and stations; his holy
water, baptizing of bells, conjuring of spirits,
crossing, sayning, anointing, conjuring, hallow
ing of God's good creatures, with the supersti
tious opinion joined therewith ; his worldly
monarchy, and wicked hierarchy ; his three solemn
vows, with all his shavellings of sundry sorts;
his erroneous and bloody decrees made at Trent,
with all the subscribers or approvers of that cruel
and bloody band, conjured against the kirk of
God. And finally, we detest all his vain alle
gories, rites, signs, and traditions brought in the
kirk, without or against the Word of God, and
doctrine of this true reformed kirk ; to the which
we join ourselves willingly, in doctrine, faith,
religion, discipline, and use of the holy sacra
ments, as lively members of the same in Christ
our head : promising and swearing, by the great
name of the LORD our GOD, that we shall
continue in the obedience of the doctrine and
discipline of this kirk, and shall defend the same,
according to our vocation and power, all the days
of our lives; under the pains contained in the
law, and danger both of body and soul in the
day of God's fearful judgment. And seeing that
many are stirred up by Satan, and that Roman
Antichrist, to promise, swear, subscribe, and for
a time use the holy sacraments in the kirk
deceitfully, against their own conscience ; mind
ing hereby, first, under the external cloak of
religion, to corrupt and subvert secretly God's
true religion within the kirk; and afterward,
when time may serve, to become open enemies
and persecutors of the same, under vain hope of
the Pope's dispensation, devised against the Word
of God, to his greater confusion, and their
double condemnation in the day of the Lord
Jesus : we therefore, willing to take away all
suspicion of hypocrisy, and of such double deal
ing with God, and his kirk, protest, and call the
Searcher of all hearts for witness, that our minds
and hearts do fully agree with this our Confes
sion, promise, oath, and subscription: so that
we are not moved with any worldy respect, but
are persuaded only in our conscience, through
the knowledge and love of God's true religion
imprinted in our hearts by the Holy Spirit, as
we shall answer to him in the day when the
secrets of all hearts shall be disclosed. And
because we perceive, that the quietness and
stability of our religion and kirk doth depend

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upon the safety and good behaviour of the King's
Majesty, as upon a comfortable instrument of
God's mercy granted to this country, for the
maintaining of his kirk, and ministration of
justice amongst us ; we protest and promise
with our hearts, under the same oath, hand-
writ, and pains, that we shall defend his person
and authority with our goods, bodies, and lives,
in the defence of Christ, his evangel, liberties of
our country, ministration of justice, and punish
ment of iniquity, against all enemies within this
realm or without, as we desire our God to be a
strong and merciful defender to us in the day of
our death, and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ ;
to whom, with the Father, and the Holy Spirit,
be all honour and glory eternally. Amen.
" LIKEAS many Acts of Parliament, not only
in general do abrogate, annul, and rescind all
laws, statutes, acts, constitutions, canons civil or
municipal, with all other ordinances, and prac-
tique penalties whatsoever, made in prejudice of
the true religion, and professors thereof; or of
the true kirk, discipline, jurisdiction, and freedom
thereof; or in favours of idolatry and super
stition, or of the Papistical kirk : As Act 3,
Act 31 Farl. 1, Act 23 Pari. 11, Act 114
Pari. 12 of King James VI. That Papistry
and superstition may be utterly suppressed,
according to the intention of the Acts of Par
liament, repeated in the fifth Act Pari. 20,
King James VI. And to that end they ordain
all Papists and Priests to be punished with
manifold civil and ecclesiastical pains, as adver
saries to God's true religion, preached, and by
law established, within this realm, Act 24
Pari. 11, King James VI.; as common enemies
to all Christian government, Act 18 Pari. 16,
King James VI. ; as rebellers and gainstanders
of our Sovereign Lord's authority, Act 47 Pari.
3, King James VI. ; and as idolaters, Act 104
Pari. 7. King James VI. But also in par
ticular, by and attour the Confession of Faith, do
abolish and condemn the Pope's authority and
jurisdiction out of this land, and ordains the
maintainers thereof to be punished, Act 2 Pari.
1, Act 51 Pari. 3, Act 106 Pari. 7, Act. 114
Pari. 12, King James VI., do condemn the
Pope's erroneous doctrine, or any other erroneous
doctrine repugnant to any of the articles of the
true and Christian religion, publickly preached
and by law established in this realm ; and
ordains the spreaders and makers of books or
libels, or letters or writs of that nature to be
punished, Act 46 Pari. 3, Act 106 Pari. 7,
Act 24 Pari. 11, King James VI., do condemn
all baptism conform to the Pope's kirk, and the
idolatry of the mass; and ordains all sayers,
wilful hearers, and concealers of the mass, the
maintainers and resetters of the priests, Jesuits,
trafficking Papists, to be punished without any
exception or restriction, Act 6 Pari. 1, Act 120
Pari. 12, Act 164 Pari. 13, Act 193 Pari.
14, Act 1 Pari. 19, Act 6 Pari. 20, King 182

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James VI., do condemn all erroneous books and
writs containing erroneous doctrine against the
religion presently professed, or containing super
stitious rites and ceremonies Papistical, whereby
the people are greatly abused, and ordains the
home-bringers of them to be punished, Act 25
Pari. 11, King James VI., do condemn the
monuments and dregs of bygone idolatry, as
going to crosses, observing the festival days cf
saints, and such other superstitious and Papis
tical rites, to the dishonour of God, contempt of
true religion, and fostering of great error among
the people ; and ordains the users of them to be
punished for the second fault, as idolaters, Act
104 Pari. 7, King James VI. — Likeas many
Acts of Parliament are conceived for mainten
ance of God's true and Christian religion, and
the purity thereof, in doctrine and sacraments of
the true church of God, the liberty and freedom
thereof, in her national, synodal assemblies,
presbyteries, sessions, policy, discipline, and
jurisdiction thereof; as that purity of religion,
and liberty of the church was used, professed,
exercised, preached, and confessed, according to
the reformation of religion in this realm : As for
instance, the 99th Act Pari. 7, Act 25 Pari.
11, Act 114 Pari. 12, Act 160 Pari. 13 of
King James VI., ratified by the 4th Act of King
Charles. So that the 6th Act Pari. 1, and 68th
Act Pari. 6, of King James VI., in the year of
God 1579, declare the ministers of the blessed
evangel, whom God of his mercy had raised up,
or hereafter should raise, agreeing with them
that then lived, in doctrine and administration of
the sacraments; and the people that professed
Christ, as he was then offered in the evangel, and
doth communicate with the holy sacraments (as
in the reformed kirks of this realm they were
presently administrate) according to the Confes
sion of Faith, to be the true and holy kirk of
Christ Jesus within this realm. And decerns
and declares all and sundry, who either gainsay
the word of the evangel received and approved
as the heads of the Confession of Faith, professed
in Parliament in the year of God 1560, specified
also in the first ParUament of King James VI.,
and ratified in this present Parliament, more
particularly do express; or that refuse the
administration of the holy sacraments, as they
were then ministrated ; to be no members of the
said kirk within this realm, and true religion
presently professed, so long as they keep them
selves so divided from the society of Christ's
body. And the subsequent Act 69 Pari. 6 of
King James VI. declares, that there is no other
face of kirk, nor other face of religion, than was
presently at that time, by the favour of God,
established within this realm : ' Which there
fore is ever styled God's true religion, Christ's
true religion, the true and Christian religion, and
a perfect religion ;' which, by manifold Acts of
Parliament, all within this realm are bound to
profess, to subscribe the articles thereof, the Con-

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fession of Faith, to recant all doctrine and errors
repugnant to any of the said articles, Act 4 and
9 Pari t, Acts 45, 46, 47 Pari. 3, Act 71
Pari. 6, Act 106 Pari. 7, Act 24 Pari. 11,
Act 123 Pari. 12, Act 194 and 197 Pari. 14,
of King James VI. And all magistrates,
sheriffs, &c, on the one part, are ordained to
search, apprehend, and punish all contraveners :
For instance, Act 5 Pari. 1, Act 104 Pari. 7,
Act 25 Pari. 11, King James VI.; and that
notwithstanding of the King's Majesty's licences
on the contrary, wbich are discharged, and
declared to be of no force, in so far as they tend
in anywise to the prejudice and hinder of the
execution of the Acts of Parliament against
Papists and adversaries of true religion, Act
106 Pari. 7, King James VI. On the other
part, in the 47th Act Pari. 3, King James VI.,
it is declared and ordained. Seeing the cause of
God's true religion and his Highness's authority
are so joined, as the hurt of the one is common
to both ; that none shall be reputed as loyal and
faithful subjects to our sovereign Lord, or his
authority, but be punishable as rebellers and
gainstanders of the same, who shall not give
their confession, and make their profession of
the said true religion : and that they who, after
defection, shal] give the confession of their faith
of new, they shall promise to continue therein
in time coming, to maintain our sovereign
Lord's authority, and at the uttermost of their
power to fortify, assist, and maintain the true
preachers and professors of Christ's religion,
against whatsoever enemies and gainstanders of
the same ; and namely, against all such, of
whatsoever nation, estate, or degree they be of,
that have joined or bound themselves, or have
assisted or assist, to set forward and execute the
cruel decrees of the council of Trent, contrary to
the true preachers and professors of the Word of
God ; which is repeated, word by word, in the
articles of pacification at Perth, the 23d of
February, 1572, approved by ParUament the
last of April, 1573, ratified in Parliament 1587,
and related Act 123 Pari. 12 of King James
VI. ; with this addition, ' That they are bound
to resist all treasonable uproars and hostilities
raised against the true religion, the King's
Majesty, and the true professors.' — Likeas, all
lieges are bound to maintain the King's Majesty's
royal person and authority, the authority of
Parliaments, without the which neither any laws
or lawful judicatories can be established, Act
130 and 131 Pari. 8, King James VI., and the
subjects' liberties, who ought only to live and be
governed by the King's laws, the common laws
of this realm allenarly, Act 48 Pari. 3, King
James I., Act 79 Pari. 6, King James IV.,
repeated in the Act 1 31 Pari. 8, King James VI. ;
which if they be innovated and prejudged, ' the
commission anent the union of the two kingdoms
of Scotland and England, which is the sole act
of the 17th Pari, of King James VI., declares,'

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such confusion would ensue as this realm could
be no more a free monarchy ; because, by the
fundamental laws, ancient privileges, offices, and
liberties of this kingdom, not only the princely
authority of his Majesty's royal descent hath
been these many ages maintained, but also the
people's security of their lands, livings, rights,
offices, liberties, and dignities preserved. And
therefore, for the preservation of the said true
religion, laws, and liberties of this kingdom, it
is statute by the 8th Act Pari. 1, repeated in
the 99th Act Pari. 7, ratified in the 23d Act
Pari. 11, and 114th Act Pari. 12, of King
James VI., and 4th Act Pari. 1, of King
Charles I. ' That all Kings and Princes at their
coronation, and reception of their princely
authority, shall make their faithful promise by
their solemn oath, in the presence of the eternal
God, that, enduring the whole time of their
lives, they shall serve the same eternal God, to
the uttermost of their power, according as he
hath required in his most holy Word, contained
in the Old and New Testament ; and according
to the same Word, shall maintain the true religion
of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his holy Word,
the due and right ministration of the sacraments
now received and preached within this realm,
(according to the Confession of Faith imme
diately preceding), and shall abolish and gain-
stand all false religion contrary to the same ;
and shall rule the people committed to their
charge, according to the will and command of
God revealed in his foresaid Word, and according
to the laudable laws and constitutions received
in this realm, nowise repugnant to the said will
of the eternal God; and shall procure, to the
uttermost of their power, to the kirk of God, and
whole Christian people, true and perfect peace in
all time coming : and that they shall be careful
to root out of their empire all hereticks and
enemies to the true worship of God, who shall be
convicted by the true kirk of God of the foresaid
crimes.' Which was also observed by his .
Majesty, at his coronation in Edinburgh, 1 633,
as may be seen in the order of the coronation.
In obedience to the commandment of God, con
form to the practice of the godly in former times,
and according to the laudable example of our
worthy and religious progenitors, and of many
yet living amongst us, which was warranted
also by act of council, commanding a general
band to be made and subscribed by his Majesty's
subjects of all ranks ; for two causes : one was,
For defending the true religion, as it was then
reformed, and is expressed in the Confession of
Faith above written, and a former large Con
fession established by sundry acts of lawful
General Assemblies and of Parliaments, unto
which it hath relation, set down in publick
Catechisms ; and which hath been for many
years, with a blessing from Heaven, preached
and professed in this kirk and kingdom, as God's
undoubted truth, grounded only upon his written

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Word. The other cause was, For maintaining
the King's Majesty, his person and estate ; the
true worship of God and the King's authority
being so straitly joined, as that they had the
same friends and common enemies, and did
stand and fall together. And finally, being con
vinced in our minds, and confessing with our
mouths, that the present and succeeding genera
tions in this land are bound to keep the foresaid
national oath and subscription inviolable, We
Noblemen, Barons, Gentlemen, Burgesses, Minis
ters, and Commons under-subscribing, consider
ing divers times before, and especially at this
time, the danger of the true reformed religion,
of the King's honour, and of the publick peace
of the kingdom, by the manifold innovations
and evils, generally contained, and particularly
mentioned in our late supplications, complaints,
and protestations ; do hereby profess, and before
God, his angels, and the world, solemnly declare,
That with our whole heart we agree, and resolve
all the days of our Ufe constantly to adhere unto
and to defend the foresaid true religion, and (for
bearing the practice of all innovations already
introduced in the matters of the worship of God,
or approbation of the corruptions of the publick
government of the kirk, or civil places and
power of kirkmen, till they be tried and allowed
in free Assemblies and in Parliament) to labour,
by all means lawful, to recover the purity and
liberty of the Gospel, as it was established and
professed before the foresaid novations. And
because, after due examination, we plainly per
ceive, and undoubtedly believe, that the inno
vations and evils contained in our supplications,
complaints, and protestations, have no warrant
of the Word of God, are contrary to the articles
of the foresaid Confession, to the intention and
meaning of the blessed reformers of religion in
this land, to the above-written Acts of Parlia
ment ; and do sensibly tend to the re-establish
ing of the Popish religion and tyranny, and to
the subversion and ruin of the true reformed
religion, and of our liberties, laws, and estates ;
we also declare, That the foresaid Confessions
are to be interpreted, and ought to be understood
of the foresaid novations and evils, no less than
if every one of them had been expressed in the
foresaid Confessions ; and that we are obliged to
detest and abhor them, amongst other particular
heads of Papistry abjured therein. And there
fore, from tbe knowledge and conscience of our
duty to God, to our King and country, without
any worldly respect or inducement, so far as
human infirmity will suffer, wishing a further
measure of the grace of God for this effect ; we
promise and swear, by the GREAT NAME OF
THE LORD OUR GOD, to continue in the
profession and obedience of the foresaid religion ;
and that we shall defend the same, and resist all
these contrary errors and corruptions, according
to our vocation, and to the uttermost of that
power that God bath put in our hands, all the

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days of our life. And in like manner, with the
same heart, we declare before God and men;
That we have no intention nor desire to attempt
any thing that may turn to the dishonour of
God, or to the diminution ofthe King's greatness
and authority ; but, on the contrary, we promise
and swear, That we shall, to the uttermost of our
power, with our means and lives, stand to the
defence of our dread Sovereign the King's
Majesty, his person and authority, in the defence
and preservation of the foresaid true religion,
liberties, and laws of the kingdom ; as also to the
mutual defence and assistance every one of us of
another, in the same cause of maintaining the
true religion, and his Majesty's authority, with
our best counsel, our bodies, means, and whole
power, against all sorts of persons whatsoever ;
so that whatsoever shall be done to the least of us
for that cause, shall be taken as done to us all in
general, and to every one of us in particular.
And that we shaU neither directly nor indirectly
suffer ourselves to be divided or withdrawn, by
whatsoever suggestion, combination, allurement,
or terror, from this blessed and loyal conjunction ;
nor shall cast in any let or impediment that may
stay or hinder any such resolution as by common
consent shall be found to conduce for so good
ends ; but, on the contrary, shall by all lawful
means labour to further and promote the same :
and if any such dangerous and divisive motion be
made to us by word or writ, we, and every one
of us, shall either suppress it, or, if need be, shall
incontinent make the same known, that it may
be timeously obviated. Neither do we fear the
foul aspersions of rebellion, combination, or what
else our adversaries, from their craft and malice,
would put upon us ; seeing what we do is so well
warranted, and ariseth from an unfeigned desire
to maintain the true worship of God, the majesty
of our King, and the peace of the kingdom, for
the common happiness of ourselves and our pos
terity. And because we cannot look for a bless
ing from God upon our proceedings, except with
our profession and subscription we join such a life
and conversation as beseemeth Christians who
have renewed their covenant with God; we
therefore faithfully promise for ourselves, our fol
lowers, and all others under us, both in public,
and in our particular families, and personal car
riage, to endeavour to keep ourselves within the
bounds of Christian liberty, and to be good ex
amples to others of all godliness, soberness, and
righteousness, and of every duty we owe to God
and man. And, that this our union and conjunc
tion may be observed without violation, we call
the LIVING GOD, THE SEARCHER OF
OUR HEARTS, to witness, who knoweth this
to be our sincere desire and unfeigned resolution,
as we shaU answer to JESUS CHRIST in the
great day, and under the pain of God's everlast
ing wrath, and of infamy and loss of all honour
and respect in this world ; most humbly beseech
ing the LORD to strengthen us by his HOLY

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SPIRIT for this end, and to bless our desires and
proceedings with a happy success ; that religion
and righteousness may flourish in the land, to the
glory of GOD, the honour of our King, and peace
and comfort of us aU. In witness whereof, we
have subscribed with our hands all the pre-

" The article of this covenant, wbich was at
the first subscription referred to the determina
tion of the General Assembly, being now deter
mined; and thereby the five articles of Perth,
the government of the kirk by bishops, and the
civil places and power of kirkmen, upon the rea
sons and grounds contained in the Acts of the
General Assembly, declared to be unlawful
within this kirk, we subscribe according to the
determination aforesaid."
Covenant, Solemn League and, "for refor
mation and defence of religion, the honour and
happiness of the King, and the peace and safety
of the three kingdoms of Scotland, England, and
Ireland, was agreed upon by commissioners from
the Parliament and assembly of divines in
England, with commissioners of the convention
of estates, and general assembly in Scotland,
approved by the General Assembly of the Church
of Scotland, and by both houses of Parliament
and assembly of divines in England, and taken
and subscribed by them, Anno 1643 ; and there
after, by the said authority, taken and sub
scribed by all ranks in Scotland and England
the same year ; and ratified by act of the Parlia
ment of Scotland, Anno 1644: And again re
newed in Scotland, with an acknowledgment of
sins, and engagement to duties, by all ranks,
Anno 1648, and by Parliament 1649 ; and taken
and subscribed by King Charles II. at Spey,
June 23, 1650; and at Scone, January 1,
1651." It ran thus :—
" We Noblemen, Barons, Knights, Gentlemen,
Citizens, Burgesses, Ministers of the Gospel, and
Commons of aU sorts, in the kingdoms of Scot
land, England, and Ireland, by the providence
of GOD, living under one King, and being of
one reformed religion, having before our eyes the
glory of GOD, and the advancement of the
kingdom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ,
the honour and happiness of the King's Majesty
and his posterity, and the true publick liberty,
safety, and peace of the kingdoms, wherein every
one's private condition is included : And calling
to mind the treacherous and bloody plots, con
spiracies, attempts, and practices of the enemies
of GOD, against the true religion and professors
thereof in all places, especially in these three
kingdoms, ever since the reformation of reUgion ;
and how much their rage, power, and presumption
are of late, and at this time, increased and exer
cised, whereof the deplorable state of the church
and kingdom of Ireland, the distressed estate of
the church and kingdom of England, and tbe
dangerous estate of the church and kingdom of
Scotland, are present and public testimonies ; we

COV
have now at last (after other means of supplica
tion, remonstrance, protestation, and sufferings),
for the preservation of ourselves and our religion
from utter ruin and destruction, according to the
commendable practice of these kingdoms in for
mer times, and the example of GOD'S people in
other nations, after mature deliberation, resolved
and determined to enter into a mutual and
solemn League and Covenant, wherein we all
subscribe, and each one of us for himself, with
our hands lifted up to the most High GOD, do
swear, —
" I. That we shall sincerely, really, and con
stantly, through the grace of GOD, endeavour,
in our several places and callings, the preserva
tion of the reformed religion in the Church of
Scotland, in doctrine, worship, discipline, and
government, against our common enemies ; the
reformation of reUgion in the kingdoms of Eng
land and Ireland, in doctrine, worship, discipline,
and government, according to the Word of GOD,
and the example of the best reformed Churches ;
and shall endeavour to bring the Churches of God
in the three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction
and uniformity in religion, confession of faith,
form of church-government, directory for wor
ship and catechising ; that we, and our posterity
after us, may, as brethren, live in faith and love,
and the Lord may dehght to dwell in the midst
of us.
" II. That we shall in like manner, without
respect of persons, endeavour the extirpation of
Popery, Prelacy, (that is, church-government by
Archbishops, Bishops, their Chancellors, and
Commissaries, Deans, Deans and Chapters, Arch
deacons, and all other ecclesiastical Officers de
pending on that hierarchy), superstition, heresy,
schism, profaneness, and whatsoever shaU be
found to be contrary to sound doctrine and the
power of godliness, lest we partake in other men's
sins, and thereby be in danger to receive of their
plagues ; and that the Lord may be one, and his
name one, in the three kingdoms.
"III. We shaU, with the same sincerity,
reality, and constancy, in our several vocations,
endeavour, with our estates and lives, mutually
to preserve the rights and privileges of the Par
liaments, and the liberties of the kingdoms ; and
to preserve and defend the King's Majesty's per
son and authority, in the preservation and defence
of the true religion, and liberties of the kingdoms ;
that the world may bear witness with our con
sciences of our loyalty, and that we have no
thoughts or intentions to diminish his Majesty's
just power and greatness.
" IV. We shaU also, with aU faithfulness, en
deavour the discovery of all such as have been
or shall be incendiaries, malignants, or evil
instraments, by hindering the reformation of
religion, dividing the king from his people, or
one of the kingdoms from another, or making any
faction or parties amongst the people, contrary to
this League and Covenant; that they may be

185

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brought to publick trial, and receive condign
punishment, as the degree of their offences shall
require or deserve, or the supreme judicatories of
both kingdoms respectively, or others having
power from them for that effect, shall judge con
venient. " V. And whereas the happiness of a blessed
peace between these kingdoms, denied in former
time to our progenitors, is, by the good provi
dence of GOD, granted unto us, and hath been
lately concluded and settled by both Parlia
ments; we shall each one of us, according
to our place and interest, endeavour that they
may remain conjoined in a firm peace and union
to all posterity ; and that justice may be done
upon the wilful opposers thereof, in manner ex
pressed in the precedent article.
" VI. We shall also, according to our places
and caUings, in this common cause of religion,
liberty, and peace of the kingdoms, assist and
defend all those that enter into this League and
Covenant, in the maintaining and pursuing
thereof; and shall not suffer themselves, directly
or indirectly, by whatsoever combination, persua
sion, or terror, to be divided and withdrawn from
this blessed union and conjunction, whether to
make defection to the contrary part, or to give
ourselves to a detestable indifferency or neutraUty
in this cause which so much concerneth the
glory of GOD, the good of the kingdom, and
honour of the King ; but shall, all the days of
our lives, zealously and constantly continue
therein against all opposition, and promote the
same, according to our power, against all lets and
impediments whatsoever ; and, what we are not
able ourselves to suppress or overcome, we shall
reveal and make known, that it may be timely
prevented or removed : All which we shaU do as
in the sight of God.
" And, because these kingdoms are guilty of
many sins and provocations against GOD, and
his Son Jesus Christ, as is too manifest by our
present distresses and dangers, the fruits thereof ;
we profess and declare, before GOD and the
world, our unfeigned desire to be humbled for our
own sins, and for the sins of these kingdoms :
especially, that we have not as we ought valued
the inestimable benefit of the Gospel ; that we
have not laboured for the purity and power
thereof; and that we have not endeavoured to
receive Christ in our hearts, nor to walk worthy
of him in our lives ; which are the causes of other
sins and transgressions so much abounding
amongst us : and our true and unfeigned purpose,
desire, and endeavour for ourselves, and all others
under our power and charge, both in publick and
in private, in all duties we owe to GOD and man,
to amend our lives, and each one to go before
another in the example of a real reformation ;
that the Lord may turn away his wrath and
heavy indignation, and establish these churches
and kingdoms in truth and peace. And this
Covenant we make in the presence of AL-

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MIGHTY GOD, the Searcher of all hearts, with
a true intention to perform the same, as we shall
answer at that great day, when the secrets of all
hearts shall be disclosed ; most humblj' beseech
ing the Lord to strengthen us by bis Holy
Spirit for this end, and to bless our desires and
proceedings with such success as may be deliv
erance and safety to his people, and encourage
ment to other Christian churches, groaning
under, or in danger of, the yoke of antichristian
tyranny, to join in the same or like association
and covenant, to the glory of GOD, the enlarge
ment of the kingdom of Jesus Christ, and the
peace and tranquillity of Christian kingdoms and
commonwealths." In the Westminster assembly when this
instrument was adopted, Mr. PhiUp Nye made
the exhortation, Mr. John White prayed before,
and Mr. Dr. Gouge after the exhortation ; besides
which Mr. Alexander Henderson made an
elaborate and lengthy speech. " Then the cove
nant was read, notice being first given to the
assembly, that, after the hearing of it, each
person should immediately, by swearing, worship
the great name of God, and testifie so much
outwardly, by lifting up of their hands ; which
was all done very solemnly, and with so much
joy seen in the countenances, and manifested by
clapping of the hands, as was suitable to the
gravity of such a worke, and the sadnesse of the
present times." After the Restoration, the cove
nant was put down by parliament, 14 Ch. II., 4,
and in 1661 was burned by the common hangman.
Creatianisnt. — See Original Sin.
Credence Table, a small table in one of
the recesses of the bema, near the great altar, on
which oblations were laid or prepared before the
consecration, — sometimes on that account called
paratorium, and sometimes " <ragar(sWi£ai>," or
side table. The word is from the Italian "cre-
denziera," — a cupboard or sideboard, on which
meat was placed before it was served up, as
a precaution against poisoning  See Secbe-
TARIUM. Creed is a form of words comprising the
substance of the Christian belief. These sum
maries of Christian belief were distinguished by
various appellations. Thus, in the Western
Church, they are termed Creed; but in the
Eastern Church they were variously called " Ma-
dn/ta," or the lesson, because catechumens were
obliged to learn them ; " T^a/pn," or tbe writing;
and " Kavav," or the rule, because the creed was
the standard or rule by which the orthodox
faith was to be discriminated from the novel
and erroneous inventions of false teachers. But
the most common name in the Eastern Church
was " Si/^aXov," the symbol, from the Greek verb
" evpfiiiXXuv," to put together ; either because it
was a collation or epitome of Christian doctrine,
or, which is the more probable opinion, because
the word 2vp/3<x<v, and its Latin equivalent
symbohm, signify a watchword or sign, Uke the

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tessera militaris, or military badge among the
Romans, the object of creeds having been to
distinguish true Christians from heretics and
infidels, (Bingham's Origines Eccles., book x., ch.
iii.) Numerous ancient formularies of faith are
preserved in the writings of the early fathers
of the Christian Church, particularly Irenseus,
Tertullian, Cyprian, Origen, Gregory Thauma-
turgus, the author of the pseudo- apostolical
constitutions, and others. These have been
coUected by Bingham (Origines Eccles., book x.,
ch. iv.) ; and it is worthy of observation, that
they all perfectly agree in substance, though
there is a diversity of expression in them. There
are three creeds which have been adopted by the
Anglican Church. These are the Apostles' Creed,
the Nicene Creed, and the Athanasian Creed. 1.
The Apostles' Creed is a formulary or summary
of Christian faith, so called, not from the fact of
its being composed by the apostles themselves,
but because it contains a brief statement of the
doctrines which they taught It is nearly the same
with the creed of Jerusalem, which appears to be
the most ancient formulary of faith that is extant.
At this distance of time it is impossible to deter
mine the true author of this summary, though
its great antiquity may be inferred from the fact
that the whole of it is to be found in the works
of Ambrose and of Ruffinus, both of whom lived
in the fourth century. Although it was always
used before the administration of baptism, when
the catechumen made an open profession of his
faith, and sometimes also in private devotions;
yet, in the earlier ages, it constituted no part of
the pubUc liturgy. The constant repetition of it
was introduced into the daily service of the
church at Antioch towards the close of the
fifth century; and from the Eastern Churches
this custom has been brought into the West
(see Lord King's History of the Creed). 2.
The Nicene Creed, which is recited in the
communion service of the Church of Eng
land, is so called because it was adopted by
the bishops convened at the countil of Nicsea
or Nice, in Bithynia, which was held a.d. 325,
to oppose the Arian heresy. This creed, as far as
the words " Holy Ghost," was drawn up and
agreed to at this council; and fifty-six years
afterwards it was completed in its present form
at the council of Constantinople (held a.d. 381,
or 382), except the words " and the Son," which
were inserted in 447, after the clause "whopro-
ceedeth from the Father." The addition made
at Constantinople was caused by the denial of
the divinity of the Holy Spirit by Macedonius
and his followers ; and the creed thus enlarged
was immediately received by aU orthodox Chris
tians. The insertion of the word3 ' '¦filioque " — and
the Son, was made by the Spanish bishops ; and
they were soon afterwards adopted by the Chris
tian Churches in France. The bishops of Rome
for some time refused to admit these words into
the creed : at length, however, they were allowed

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in the year 883, since which time they stood in
the Nicene Creed in all the Western Churches ;
but they have never been received by the Greek
Church. 3. The Creed of Athanasius, was framed
in the century after the Nicene Creed. Though
it bears the name of Athanasius, this composition
is now known not to have been written by him,
but was probably composed by Hilary, Bishop
of Aries, for the use of the Gallican clergy, espe
cially those of his own diocese. About the year
570 it had acquired sufficient celebrity to be
commented upon; and before the year 670 the
name of Athanasius was added, to commend
and adorn it, being in itself an excellent system
of the doctrines of Athanasius concerning the
Trinity and the incarnation of Christ, principally
in opposition to the Arians, Macedonians, and
Apollinarians. Before the close of the tenth
century the Athanasian confession was generally
received in the Western Church, though it is
doubtful whether it was ever admitted into the
Eastern Church. At the Reformation it was
received in its fullest extent by all Protestant
Churches: Luther, Calvin, and Beza, made it
their profession of faith. And, finally, it was
received by the framers of the liturgy of the
Church of England, not upon the authority of
its compiler, for they have not determined any
thing concerning either its age or author, but
simply because the truth of the doctrines con
tained in it may be " proved by most certain
warrants of holy Scripture;" and also as a bul
wark of the Christian verity against the possible
revival of similar errors.
Other creeds may be considered under four
heads, viz. — The confessions of the Greek
Church, of the Romish Church, of the Church of
the Waldenses, and of the several Protestant
Churches. I. The Oriental or Greek Church has several
important documents of her faith, subsequent to
her separation from the Church of Rome, three
of Which are entitled to particular notice, viz. —
1. The Confession of the true and sincere Faith
was presented to Mohammed II., in 1453, by
Gennadius, Patriarch of Constantinople, on the
capture of that metropolis by the Turks. It was
favourably received, and Mohammed delivered
into the patriarch's hand the crosier or pastoral
staff, as an emblem of his investiture with the
patriarchal see, and authorized him to assure
the Greeks, in. his name, of their lives, their Uber-
ties, and the free exercise of their religion. 2.
The Confession, drawn up in the name of the
Oriental Church, in 1621, by Cyril Lucar, then
Patriarch of Constantinople, was originally writ
ten in Latin ; and, being delivered to C. Vander
Haga, the Dutch ambassador at the Porte, was
by him published in 1629. It was afterwards
translated into Greek, and enlarged by the addi
tion of copious scriptural authorities. It consists
of eighteen short chapters or articles, and is
remarkable for its almost entire conformity with

187

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the doctrines of the Reformed Protestant
Churches, and for its avowed hostility to Popery,
in condemning purgatory, transubstantiation,
and the Apocrypha, and in reducing the number
of sacraments to two. 3. The Orthodox Con
fession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek
Church was composed by Peter Mogila, or
Mogislaus, Metropolitan of Kiow, in the Ukraine,
and was put forth with the approbation of three
Russian bishops suffragan : it was afterwards
altered and enlarged by Michael Syrigo, a
Cretan; and in 1643 it was approved, with
great solemnity, by the Patriarchs of Constan
tinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and
by several Bishops and other chief officers of the
Greek Church of Constantinople. This is con
sidered to be the most authentic document of the
modern Greek Church : it is written in the form
of a catechism. There are several editions of
this confession, but the most correct is reputed to
be that published at Breslau, in octavo, in 1751.
in the Greek, Latin, and German languages, by
Carl Gottlob Hoffmann, who prefixed an interest
ing history of this confession. But this creed ap
pears to have been superseded, first, by — 4. The
Catechism of Theophanes, Archbishop of Ples-
koff, wliich was published by the holy legislative
synod in 1766 ; and, secondly, by — 5. The Or
thodox Learning ; or, a Summary of Christian
Divinity, composed in 1765, in the Sclavonian
language, by Platon, Metropolitan of Moscow,
for the instruction of the Emperor Paul, then a
youth. This last- mentioned treatise has gone
through numerous large editions, and has been
introduced into almost every place of education
in the Russian empire : it has also been translated
into French and German; and in 1814 an
English version of it was published at Edin
burgh, entitled The Present State of the Greek
Church in Eussia ; or, a Summary of Chris
tian Divinity, by Platon, late Metropolitan
of Moscow, translated from the Sclavonian, by
Robert Pinkerton, in octavo. Tbe confessions
of the other branches and sects of the Greek
Church, which are scattered in Asia and in
Egypt do not appear to have been printed;
but tbe Rev. William Jowett has translated
two confessions of the Abyssinian Church,
viz. — 1. That of the Emperor Claudius in 1555,
which exhibits the faith of that church in the
sixteenth century ; and 2. The Instructions of
Mark, Patriarch of A lexandria, addressed to
the Abyssinian Churches on points of Religion at
present controverted in Abyssinia. This confes
sion is of recent date, and abounds with subtle
distinctions and refinements, which are compara
tively of little interest to enlightened European
Christians : it is, however, important, as showing
the state of religious opinions and feelings in
Abyssinia (Jowett's Christian Researches in
the Mediterranean, pp. 176-194). In 1848
Dr. Ernst Julius Himmel published at Jena, in
two octavo volumes, Mommenta Fidei Ecclesios

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4
Orientalis. This work contains a collection of
the several confessions of faith received by the
Oriental or Greek Church. An appendix to it
was published also at Jena, in 1849, by H. J,
C. Weissenborn, in one volume octavo.
II, The Church of Rome has in every
age received the Apostles', the Nicene, and the
Athanasian Creeds ; yet her faith has frequentlv
changed, notwithstanding the strong assertions of
her members to the contrary: nor was it ever
fixed by any public authoritative symbol until
the council of Trent. A succinct and explicit
summary of the doctrine contained in the canons
of that council is expressed in the creed publish
ed in 1564, by Pope Pius IV., in the form of a
bull, which usually bears his name. It is intro
duced with the Nicene Creed, to which it adds
twelve articles, containing those doctrines which
the Church of Rome finally adopted after her
controversies with the Reformers. To all and
every one of the articles contained in this symbol
of the Romish faith, every person who is admit
ted into the Romish Church must publicly pro
fess his assent. An English translation of this
confession is given in Butler's Historical and
Literary Account of the Confessions of Faith
of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and Principal
Protestant Churches, pp. 9-11. — See Popery.
III. The Waldenses, who inhabit the val
leys of Piedmont, profess the Protestant faith,
and have not inappositely been styled- the
Protoprotestants. They protested, indeed,
against the errors of the Romish Church
long before the term "Protestant" existed,
in the sense in wbich it is commonly used,
their doctrines having been traced as far
back as the year 1100, if not earlier. Two
ancient confessions of faith are extant, of these
virtuous and persecuted Christians, one dated in
the year 1120, and the other in the twelfth cen
tury: they are given by Paul Perrin in his
Histoire des Vaudois (Geneve, 1619), and in
the second volume of Monastier's Histoire de
I'eglise Vaudoise (Toulouse, 1847) ; and they
are translated in Jones's History of the Chris
tian Church, &c, vol. ii., chap, v., sec. 3. A
third confession was presented by them, in 1544,
to the King of France, to remove the prejudices
and calumnies which had been urged against
them ; this confession is translated in the same
work. _ Since the year 1630, when they lost all
their ministers, except two superannuated men,
by a pestilence that ravaged the valley of Pied
mont, which in that year again became subject
to the King of France, the Waldenses having sup
plied the vacancies of their ministry by French
men, and chiefly by Genevese, their churches
have conformed to the system of Geneva,
IV. The confessions of faith of the Protestant
Churches are numerous. A copious abstract of
their literary history and contents will be found
in Butler's Account of Confessions of Faith; in
Walch's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta, vol. L,

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ch. iii., sec. 2, 3 ; and in Koecher's Bibliotheca
Theologia! Symbolical. 1. Confessions of the
Lutheran Church. The Lutherans call the
standard books which contain their articles
of faith and rales of discipline Libri Symbo-
lici Ecclesice Evangelical, or the Symboli
cal Books of the Evangelical Church ; and to
these books aU professors of divinity and candi
dates for the sacred office are required to sub
scribe. Besides the Apostles', the Nicene, and
the Athanasian Creeds, they contain, first, the
Augustan Confession, or the confession of Augs
burg; having been presented to the Emperor
Charles V. in 1530, at the diet of Augusta, or
Augsburg. This confession is divided into two
parts, the former of which, in twciiy-one arti
cles, was designed to represent with truth and
perspicuity the religious opinions of the Re
formers ; and the latter, in seven articles, is
employed in pointing out and confuting the
seven capital errors and abuses which occasioned
their separation from the Church of Rome, viz.,
communion in one kind, the forced celibacy of
the clergy, private masses, auricular confession,
legendary traditions, monastic vows, and the
excessive power of the church. To the Augs
burg Confession is subjoined an Apology for it,
which was drawn up by Philip Melanchthon, in
reply to the attempted refutation of it by certain
doctors of the Church of Rome. Next follow
the Articles of Smalcald, which were drawn up
by Luther on occasion of a meeting of the Pro
testant princes in that oity, with the design of
presenting them to the council then convened at
Mantua, and afterwards held at Trent. They
state specifically what the Lutherans would
receive or concede, and what they would neither
accept nor give up. The Smaller and Larger
Catechisms of Luther, though placed after the
Augsburq Confession, and the Articles of Smal
cald, were prior in point of date: both were
first printed in the year 1529. To the preceding
books most of the Lutheran Churches add the
Form of Concord, also called the Book of Tor-
gau, from the place where it was composed. The
object of this was to effect an amicable adjust
ment of the differences among the Lutherans,
and to preserve' their churches against the
opinions of the Reformed (or Calvinistic)
Churches on the subject of the Eucharist. The
Lutheran confession of faith is in use among all
the churches of that communion in various parts
of the world. The Augsburg confession is also
received by the Episcopal Church of the
Moravians or United Brethren, who consider
it as being founded on the Scriptures, and
the only rule of their faith and practice.
The editions of the symbolical books of the
Lutheran Church are numerous ; one of the most
correct, is that published by Professor Tittmann
at Leipzig, in 1817, but there is a better by Miil-
ler, at Stuttgart, 1848. The Saxon, Wirtemberg,
Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldtian, and Copen-

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hagen confessions generally agree with the
symbolical books of the Lutherans, by whom
they are greatly respected ; but, except in coun
tries or districts whence they are respectively
denominated, they do not possess the authority of
symbolic books. The Saxon confession was
composed by Melanchthon, and that of Wirtem
berg, by Brentius. 2. Confessions of the Re
formed Churches ore the Continent. The Re
formed Church, in the largest sense of that
expression, comprises all the religious communi
ties which have separated from the Church of
Rome ; but, having been used by the Freneh
Protestants to describe their church, it after
wards became the appellation of all the Calvinis
tic Churches on the Continent The following
are the principal confessions of these churches :
(1.) The Helvetic Confessions are three in num
ber, viz., that of Basle, composed and printed in
the German language in 1530, or, according to
some writers, in 1532, and subsequently trans
lated into Latin ; the Summary and general
Confession of Faith of the Churches in Helvetia,
or Switzerland, composed at Basle in 1536, for
the purpose of being presented to the council of
Trent, and published in Latin in 1671 ; and the
Confessio et Expositio Simplex Orlhodoxae Fidei
et Dogmatum Catholicorum Sinceras Religions
Christianai, concorditer ab ecclesias ministris,
qui sunt in Helvetia, Tiguri, Berni, Scaphusii,
Sangalli, Curim Rhwtorum, et apud confederates,
Mylhusii, item et Biennm, quibus adjunxerunt,
se et Genevensis Ecclesice Ministri, edita. This
was pubhshed in 1566, and, according to Walch,
was composed by the Elector Palatine, but others
ascribe it to Bullinger: it has been translated
into the Polish, Hungarian, French, Arabic, and
other languages. (2.) The Tetrapolitan Confes
sion is generaUy attributed to Bucer ; it derives
its name from the four cities of Strasburg, Con
stance, Memmingen, and Lindau, by the depu
ties of which it was signed. It was published in
Latin at Strasburg, in 1531, and also in German,
in the same year, together with an apology or
defence of it, in reply to the confutation which
the Emperor Charles V. had commanded Faber,
Eckius, and Cochlseus to write against it. This
confession differs from the symbolical books of
the Lutheran Churches in the doctrine of the
sacraments, and especially in the exposition
which it gives of the Eucharist. (3.) The
Palatine, or, as it is most commonly termed, the
Heidelberg Confession, was framed by the order
of John Casimir, Elector Palatine, and published
at Heidelberg in 1575, whence it derives its
name. As the authors of it asserted that it was
approved by Luther, the Wittemberg divines
denied their assertion, and an angry controversy
was the result. (4.) Although the doctrines of
Luther soon penetrated into France, yet the
creed and discipline of Calvin (after their
establishment at Geneva) gradually made their
way, and at length were almost universally

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adopted by tbe French Protestants. The Con
fession of Faith of the Gallic Churches was pro
posed and accepted at the first synod held by the
Reformed at Paris in 1559. In the following
year it was presented to Francis IL, and in 1561
it was also presented to Charles IX., King of
France, by Theodore Beza. This confession has
been repeatedly printed, and in various forms,
both separately and together, with Bibles, Psal
ters, catechisms, and other ecclesiastical publica
tions of the Reformed French Church, (5.) The
Confession of Faith ofthe Reformed Churches in
Belgium was drawn up in 1559, by Guido de
Bres, Adrian Saravia, and others, and does not
appear to have been intended at first for pubUc
adoption; but it was approved in 1561 by
several Protestant divines, who did not think it
advisable that they should go to Geneva for a
confession of their faith. In 1562 it was trans
lated from the Walloon dialect into the Dutch
language ; and in the following year, being cir
culated through the Reformed Churches in the
Netherlands, it began to be received as a stan
dard of their doctrines. This confession was sub
sequently translated into French and Latin.
The doctrinal decisions of the synod of Dort are
received as of paramount authority in aU the
Dutch Reformed Churches. In or about the
year 1620 the Arminians or Remonstrants,
whose doctrine on five controverted points of
theology had been condemned by the Calvinists
at the synod of Dort in 1618, published a confes
sion of their faith, intitled Confessio sive Decla-
ralio Sententice Pastorum, quiin Foederato Belgio
Remonstrantes vocantur, super prcecipuis articulis
Religionis Christiana!. It consists of twenty-
five chapters, and was drawn up by Simon Epis
copius, professor of theology among the Remon
strants, who subsequently vindicated it from the
censures of four professors of the university of
Leyden. This confession of faith is printed in
the works of Episcopius (voL i., part u., pp.
69-94): and the history of it is given in
Calder's Memoirs of Simon Episcopius, chapters
xiv. and xv., (London, 1825, 8vo.) 3. The
Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scotland,
which, from the commencement of the Re
formation in that country, adopted, to a gi'eat
extent, the ecclesiastical polity and doctrine of
the church at Geneva. In 1560 "the
Barrones and Ministers" of this church pre
sented to the parliament then sitting at
Edinburgh, "the confession of faith professit
aud believeit be the Protestantes within the
realme of Scotland. Published be thaim in
parliament, and be the Estates thereof ratifeit
and appreuit, as hailsome and sound Doctryne
groundit vpon the infallible treuth of Goddes
Word." A copy of the first and very rare
edition of this confession of faith, printed by
John Scott, at Edinburgh, in 1561, is in the
Grenville Library, in the British Museum.
This confession was read, and its several articles

190

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were ratified by the three estates ofthe realm of
Scotland in parliament assembled, on the 17th of
July, 1560. It consists of twenty-five articles,
which are reprinted in Knox's Historic ofthe Re-
formalioun in Scotland (pp. 239-253, Edin
burgh, 1732), and also in Calderwoods True
History of the Church of Scotland (pp. 14-24,
Edinburgh, 1678). " Although only four days
were employed in its preparation, it is evident
that this confession of faith embodied the results
of much previous study and consultation.
. . . On most essential points it approaches
infinitely near, and in many instances uses,
the very words of the Apostles' Creed, and
the Articles of the Church of England as
established by Edward VI." (Ty tier's History
of Scotland, vol. vi., p. 212). In 1581 King
James, with all his family, and the whole
Scottish nation, subscribed "A General Confes
sion of the true Christian Faith and Religion ac
cording to God's Word," together with a Solemn
League and Covenant; in which they obliged
themselves to maintain and defend the Protestant
reUgion and Presbyterian government — See
Covenant. 4. The Westminster Confession is
one of the clearest and compaotest documents of
the kind. It was compiled by the famous West
minster assembly which had been appointed by
the EngUsh parUament. At the Revolution in
1688 this confession was received as the stan
dard of the Scottish national faith ; and the same
acts of the Scottish parliament which settled
Presbyterian church-government in Scotland,
ordain that no person should be admitted, or con
tinued as a minister within that church, unless
he subscribed this confession, and at the same
time declared it to be the confession of his faith.
By the Act of Union with England in 1707 the
same was, up tUl very recently, required of all
principals, professors, and other ofiicers of the
four Scottish universities. But the test is now
abolished for universities. The Westminster
Confession, therefore, together with the Larger
and Shorter Catechisms of the assembly of
divines, which are generally bound up with it,
contain the public and avowed doctrines of the
present Kirk of Scotland, and of the several
Secession Churches which have branched off from
it ; as weU as of the several bodies of Presby
terians in the United States of America. These
formularies are decidedly Calvinistic. 5. Con
fession ofthe United Church of England and Ire
land. In conformity with the practice of the
Reformed Churches on the Continent a confession
of faith was prepared for the Anglican Church, on
the establishment ofthe Reformation in England.
So early indeed as 1536, Henry VIII. had pub
lished articles of religion, in which some popish
doctrines are disclaimed, but others are retained.
Edward VI., the first Protestant monarch of this
country, caused to be published, by bis royal
authority, forty-two " Articles, agreed upon by
the bishops and other learned and good men, hi

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the convocation held at London in the year
1552, to root out the discord of opinions, and
establish the agreement of true religion." These
articles were repealed soon after the accession of
Queen Mary to the English throne; but, in the
beginning of her reign, Queen Elizabeth gave
her royal assent to "Thirty-nine articles,
agreed upon by the archbishops and bishops of
both provinces, and the clergy in the convoca
tion holden at London in the year 1562, for
avoiding diversities of opinion, and for the estab
lishing of consent touching true religion."
These articles were revised, and some small
alterations were made in them, in the year 1671,
since which time they have continued to be the
criterion of the faith of the members of the
Church of England. The articles of 1562 were
drawn up in Latin only ; but in 1571 they were
subscribed by the members of convocation,
both in Latin and English, and therefore the
Latin and English copies are to be considered as
equally authentic. The origmal manuscripts,
subscribed by the two houses of convocation,
perished in the fire of London in 1666 ; but from
a collation of the oldest printed copies now
extant, it appears that there are no variations of
importance. It is generally beUeved that Arch
bishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley were chiefly
concerned in framing the. forty-two articles, on
which the thirty-nine are founded ; and they
followed principally the Augsburg Confession,
which was drawn up by Melanchthon. Bishop
Burnet has preserved these forty-two articles in
his History of the Reformation (vol. ii. Collec
tions, No. 55), and has pointed out in what
respect they differ from the thirty-nine ar
ticles which are now in force. Of both sets of
articles it may be truly said that " caution and
moderation are no less conspicuousin them than
a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures, and of
the early opinions and practice of the first Chris
tians." The thirty-nine articles became the
standard confession of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Ireland in 1634, which from 1618
until that year had had a confession of its own.
In 1801 they were adopted by the bishops,
clergy, and laity of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in the United States of America, assem
bled in general convention, without material
alteration, further than change of circumstances
and situation had rendered necessary, excepting
that the confession commonly caUed the Creed
of Athanasius is rejected from the eighth article.
And on the 24th day of October, 1804, upwards
of twelve years and nine months after the time
(July 1, 1792) fixed by the act of 32 George III.,
o. 63., § 2, a meeting or synod of " the bishops
and pastors of congregations ofthe Episcopal com
munion in Scotland," as they are termed in that
act, was held at Laurencekirk, in the county of
Kincardine : at which meeting, as required by it,
they adopted the thirty-nine articles ofthe Church
of England, " as the public test or standard of |
191

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their church." A declaration was further signed
by them, that they "did willingly and ex animo
subscribe to the Book of Articles of Religion
agreed upon by the archbishops and bishops of
both provinces of the realm of England, and the
clergy thereof, in the convocation held at London
in the year of our Lord 1562 ;" and they did
thereby " acknowledge all and every the articles
therein contained, being in number thirty-nine,
besides the ratification, to be agreeable to the
Word of God." And the subscribing bishops
resolved in future " to require from all candidates
for holy orders in their church, previously to
their being ordained, a similar subscription."
The bishops and clergy present immediately
subscribed, (Skinner's Annals of Scottish Episco
pacy, from 1788 to 1816, p. 349, Edinburgh,
1818, 8vo.) From a letter of Sir WilUam For
bes, dated October 21, 1804, and printed at
length in Skinner's Annals (pp. 340-343), it ap
pears that he recommended, " that the articles
be subscribed agreeably to the act of 1792, as
they stand in the service-book ofthe Church of
England, and prefaced as they are with the royal
declaration — every subscriber explaining them to
(Ibid., pp. 342, 343.)
By the law of England all persons are required
to subscribe these articles previously to entering
into holy orders, or to undertaking any eccle
siastical cure or benefice; in order that those
who are employed in the ministry of the church
should unfeignedly believe the truth of the doc
trines which they contain. In this respect the
practice of aU Reformed Churches on the Con
tinent is foUowed; and, though it has been
arraigned on various pretexts, tbe wisdom and
propriety of the measure are abundantly justified
by experience. See Waterland's Case of Arian
Subscription considered, with the Supplement
(Works,vd. iu., pp. 279-401), and Archdeacon
Randolph's charge delivered to the Clergy of the
diocese of Oxford in the year 1771, on the
Reasonableness of requiring Subscription to Arti
cles of Religion. The authority of the thirty-
nine articles, as a test of doctrine, defended
in the Rev. W. Goode's Defence ofthe Thirty-
nine Articles, as the legal and canonical
test of doctrine in the Church of England, in
all points treated of in them ; and in his
Vindication of the Defence, (London, 1848,
8vo.) An account of the literary history of
these articles is given in Dr. Bennet's Essay
on the Thirty-nine Articles; and for a sketch
of the history of the controversy respecting
the authentic edition of them, Butler's His
torical Account of Confessions of Faith (pp. 75-
80), may be consulted. But the best and fullest
literary and ecclesiastical history of them is
that published by the Rev. Dr. Lamb, entitled
An Historical account of the Thirty-nine Arti
cles, from the first promulgation of them, in
1553 to their final establishment in 1571; with
exact copies of the Latin and English manu-

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scripts, and facsimiles of the signatures of the
Archbishops and Bishops, &c. (Cambridge Uni
versity Press, 1829, 4to.)
All the confessions of faith above enumerated,
together with several others of minor importance,
which are here necessarily omitted, are comprised
in a volume entitled Corpus et Syntagma Confes-
sionum Fidei, &c. Of this collection, which com
prised thirteen of the more important and in
teresting confessions of faith, two editions were
printed at Geneva in 1612, and again in 1654,
in quarto ; and from them the delegates of the
University Press at Oxford published a selection
of the principal confessions in 1804, and again in
1827, entitled Sylloge Confessionum sub tempus
Reformandce Ecclesice editarum, in octavo.
This Sylloge contains seven confessions of faith.
More copious than either of the preceding pub-
Ucations is the Corpus Librorum Symbolicorum,
qui in Ecclesia Reformatorum ancteritatem
publicam obtinuerunt, published at Elberfeld, in
1827, in octavo, by Dr. J. C. G. Augusti, who
has prefixed an historico-literary disputation.
But the most complete collection of confessions
of faith is that edited by Dr. H. A. Niemeyer at
Leipzig in 1840, in octavo : it comprises twenty-
eight confessions of faith, besides a copious
bibliographical preface. There is also extant a
harmony of the confessions of faith of the ortho
dox and Reformed Churches : Harmonia Con
fessionum Fidei orthodoxarum et Reformatorum
Ecclesiarum, (Geneva, 1584, 4to.) This com
pilation is ascribed principally to Theodore Beza.
An English translation of it appeared at Cam
bridge in 1586 in duodecimo, and again at
London in 1643 in quarto. But the best and
most accurate edition is that published by
the Rev. Peter Hall, M.A., at London, in
1842, by whom it has been revised and con
siderably enlarged. This harmony is compiled
from twelve several confessions. In an appendix
the editor has added the articles of the Church
of England, the articles of the Church of Ireland,
the chapters of the synod of Dort, and the
chapters of the confession of the assembly of
divines at Westminster.
The preceding confessions of faith comprise
those which were published by, or in the name
of, national churches, principally in the six
teenth century. Various other confessions of
faith have been published by different Chris
tian societies, of which the foUowing claim
to be noticed: — 1. The Brownists, or followers
of Robert Brown (from whom descended the
Independents of the seventeenth century), in
1596 published A true Confession of the Faith,
and humble acknowledgement of the allegiance,
which wee hir Maiesties subjects, falsely called
Brownists, do hould towards God, and yield to her
Maiestie, and all other that are over us in tlie Lord.
— See Brownists. 2. Several confessionsof faith
have been published by the Particular (or Cal
vinistic) Baptists. The earliest is the Declara-

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tion of Faith of English people, remaining at
Amsterdam in HoUand. It was printed about
the year 1611, and it consists of twenty-seven
articles. In 1643 the Baptists in England issued
a confession of faith ; and in 1646 the Baptist
congregation in London published another con
fession. In 1677 the Baptists, finding it neces
sary to issue another statement of their tenets,
published A Confession of Faith, put forth by,
the elders and brethren of many congregations
of Christians, baptized upon profession of their
faith, in London and the country. This was
reprinted in 1689, and again towards the close
of the eighteenth century in a Narrative ofthe
Proceedings of the General Assembly of divers
Pastors, Messengers, and Ministers, brethren of
the Baptist Churches met together in London,
September 3-12, 1689, from divers parts of Eng
land and Wales. Besides these more general con
fessions of faith of the Baptist denomination, two
provincial confessions were published, viz. : — First,
In 1656, by several congregations in the county of
Lincoln and the adjacent counties; ahd, Secondly,
In 1678, by "fifty-four ministers and messengers
of the churches in the several counties of Bucks,
Hertford, Bedford, and Oxford." Copies of all
the confessions above specified are printed in the
appendices to the several volumes of Crosby's
History of the Baptists. In 1660 the Arminian
or General Baptists published a brief confession
of their faith, which was presented to King
Charles II. It was reprinted in 1691, and
will also be found in the appendix to Crosby's
History, vol. ii. 3. In 1658 the English
Independents published A Declaration of the
Faith and Order owned and practised in the
Congregational Churches in England, agreed
upon, and consented unto, by their elders and
messengers at tlie Savoy, October 12, 1658.
This is frequently called the Savoy Confession
of Faith, from the palace in which it was pre
pared. In 1659 it was translated into Latin by
Professor Hoornbeeck, at Leyden. This confes
sion follows the method of the Westminster Con
fession of Faith (Neale's History ofthe Puritans,
vol. iv., ch. 3, pp. 189, 190). In 1680 the elders
and messengers of the Congregational Churches
assembled at Boston, New England, issued a
confession of faith in thirty-two chapters. It
will be found in The Cambridge and Saybrook
Platforms of Church Discipline, &c, (Boston,
Massachusetts, 1829, 8vo.) A new confession
of faith was published by the English Congrega-
tionalists or Independents in 1833, in duodecimo,
entitled A Declaration of the Faith, Church
Order, and Discipline of the Congregational or
Independent Dissenters, as adopted at the third
General Meeting cf the Conqregational Union
of England and Wales, held in London, May
7th, 8th, 10th, 1833. The " principles of reli
gion," in the confession, are comprised in twenty
articles; and the "principles of church order and
discipline" consist of thirteen articles. 4. In

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1673 the Society of Friends, or Quakers, pub
lished their confession of faith, entitled A
Catechism and Confession of Faith, approved
of, and agreed unto, by the General Assembly
ofthe Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles, Christ
himself being the chief speaker in, and among
them. Which containeth a true account of the
Principles and Doctrines which are most surely
believed by the Churches of Christ in Great
Britain and Ireland, who are reproachfully
called by the name of Quakers. This catechism
and confession were translated and published in
the Latin language in 1727. The English edi
tion has been often reprinted. Fully to appre
hend the tenets of the Society of Friends, with
this confession of faith should be studied Robert
Barclay's Apology for the true Christian Doc
trine, first printed in Latin at Amsterdam in
1676, and translated into EngUsh in the same
year. 5. Twenty-five " Articles of Religion,"
selected, and in part abridged, from the thirty-
nine articles of the United Church of England
and Ireland, are printed at the end of the Sunday
Service of the Methodists. They treat of faith
in the Holy Trinity, the Word or Son of God,
who was made very man ; tbe resurrection of
Christ ; the Holy Spirit ; the sufficiency of the
Holy Scriptures for salvation (the apocryphal
books are rejected); the Old Testament ; original
or birth-sin; free-wUl; the justification of man;
good works ; works of supererogation ; sin after
justification; the church; purgatory; speaking
in the congregation in such a tongue as the
people understand ; the sacraments ; baptism ;
the Lord's Supper ; of communion in both kinds;
the one oblation of Christ finished upon the
cross ; the marriage of ministers ; the rites and
ceremonies of churches ; the rulers of the British
dominions; Christian men's goods; and a Chris
tian man's oath. From the Form and Manner of
Ordaining Candidates for the Wesleyan Metho
dist Ministry we learn, that they further declare
their belief that "the system of doctrine . . .
contained " in " the first four volumes of Mr. Wes
ley's Sermons, and his notes on the New Testa
ment," . . . " is in accordance with the Holy
Scriptures." Although the primitive Methodist
connection have no formal confession of faith, yet
in effect they have printed one in their Consoli
dated Minutes (p. 1, London, 1849), from which
the foUowing heads of doctrine are extracted:—
"This connection is composed of Protestant
Christians, who hold the following doctrines : —
The innocence of our first parents when they
came from the hands of their Creator; their
subsequent fall, and that of their posterity;
general redemption by Jesus ; repentance ; jus
tification ofthe ungodly by faith, on then* turning
to God ; the witness of the Spirit ; sanctification
by the Holy Spirit, producing inward and out
ward holiness ; the doctrine of the Trinity ; the
divinity of Jesus Christ ; the resurrection of the
dead ; and eternal rewards and punishments.''

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This connection further teaches the " system of
religious doctrines which was laid down and
established by John Wesley, .... and
which was set forth by him in certain notes on
the New Testament, . . . and in the first
four volumes of sermons, commonly called his
sermons, and reported to be written and published
by him." — Extract from the Deed-Poll enrolled
in the Court of Chancery. 6. On the acces
sion of certain ministers of the Church of Eng
land, who had officiated in the chapel erected
by Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, and the
ordination of others to the ministerial office, a
confession of faith was adopted, and afterwards
published in An Authentic Narrative of the
Primary Ordination held in the Countess of
Huntingdon's Chapel at Spa-Fields, London,
March 9th, 1783, (London, 1784, 8vo.) It
consists of fifteen articles, treating of God ; tbe
Holy Scriptures ; creation ; the fall of man from
original righteousness ; original sin ; predestina
tion and election ; Christ the mediator ; the
Holy Ghost ; free-will ; justification ; sanctifica
tion and good works; works before justification ;
the church ; baptism ; and the Lord's Supper.
This confession of faith is also printed in The
Life and Times of Selina, Countess of Hunting
don, vol. ii., pp. 440-443. 7. The Evangelical
Union in Scotland, a recent semi- Arminian sect,
published at Glasgow, in 1858, a Doctrinal
Declaration, in which Calvinism is often first
caricatured, and then, of course, denied. 8.
In the year 1647 a confession of faith
was published in the name of the Socinian
Churches in Poland, without any date or indica
tion of the place where it was printed. It is
entitled Confessio Fidei Christiana!, edita in
nomine Ecclesiarum, quae in Polonia unum Deum,
etfilium ejus unigenitum Jesum Christum, et
Spiritum S. profitentur. The author of this
confession of faith was Jonas Schlichtingius, an
eminent writer among the Polish Socinians,
who was proscribed for publishing it, by the
diet of Warsaw in 1647, and banished from
Poland. His book was ordered to be burnt by
the hands of the common hangman, (Rees's
Translation of the Racovian Catechism, Introd.,
p. xxxv.) A copy of the second edition of this
confession of faith, printed in 1651, is in the
Bodleian Library at Oxford. All communities
of professing Christians in the United States of
America are commonly termed churches. Up
wards of forty confessions of faith, or other
statements of the doctrines held by them, are
printed in Rupp's Original History of the
Religious Denominations at present existing in
the United States, (PhUadelphia, 1844, 8vo) —
[T. H. H., with some modification and abridg
ment]. Cresselle, a wooden instrument used instead
of a bell in some places, to warn the people to
service during Passion Week. The instrument
itself has a secret meaning ; for it represents

193

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Christ praying on the cross, and inviting the
nations to his Gospel. — See Rattles.
Cris Cros. — See Cross, various epithets
(Cross Row). »
Crosier. — The origin of the crosier has been
traced to the lituus of the Roman augurs, which
in some degree it resembles. The Greek name
is (laxrngix. In middle Latin, besides crocia,
it is occasionally termed cambuta, pedum, and
baculus pastoraUs, under which last head Du
Cange may be consulted for many particulars
relating to it. At first it appears to have been a
simple staff, and then gradually was enriched
and ornamented to the height of magnificence
which may be seen in the crosier bequeathed by
William of Wykeham to New College, Oxford.
From the excess of splendour lavished in later
times upon this instrument, occasion was given
for the following satirical lines : —
" Au temps passe* du siecle d'or,
Crosse de bois, evesque d'or.
Maintenant changent les loix,
Crosse d'or, evesque de bois."
" In ancient times, as I have been told,
The cross was wood, and the bishop gold;
But now I perceive, without being told,
The bishop is wood, and the crosier is gold."
The form ofthe crosier was that of a shepherd's
crook, curved at the upper end, and pointed at
the foot. It was bome before archbishops,
bishops, abbots, and abbesses. An archbishop
was entitled to display his crosier anywhere
within his province, a bishop within his diocese,
and an abbot within his abbey ; but as the spi
ritual jurisdiction of each of these respectively
was confined within the abovenamed limits, so
was the badge of their authority. Abbots and
abbesses affixed a veil, fashioned like a pendant,
and bore the crook inwards, to show that their
authority was of * private nature. The pope
does not use a crosier, because, as Innocent III.
has stated in his Acta, St. Peter sent his baculus
to Eucharius, the first Bishop of Treves, whom
he destined to preach the Gospel to the Germans
conjointly with Valerius and Maternus. The
last of these succeeded Eucharius in his see, and
was raised to life by the touch of the baculus,
which is therefore preserved with great venera
tion in the cathedral at Treves.
Cross. — The cross (eravtfis in Greek, gaba-
lus or patibulum in Latin) was at first, perhaps,
nothing more than a tree, and next, a plain
upright stake. It afterwards assumed different
forms, as X T T1 +i an^ •' -9 on tne -ast
that our Saviour is uniformly believed to have
died. The traditional superstitions about the
cross exceed aU beUef. Thus, before the suf
ferer was exposed upon the cross, it was cus
tomary to scourge him; and the column to
wliich our Saviour was fastened, during this
cruel infliction, is stated by St. Jerome (Epist.
nd Eustochium) to have existed in his time iu
the portico of the holy sepulchre, and to have

194

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retained marks of the blood of our Lord. Bede
places this column within the church, where we
believe it is still shown ; and Gregory of Tours
dilates on the miracles wrought by it The
criminal carried the instrument of his punish
ment, or most probably only the transverse part
of it, to the place of execution. Here he was
fastened naked upon the cross, which occasion
ally was not raised from the ground till after his
affixion, by cords, or more frequently by nails
driven through the hands, and sometimes also
feet. But the number of nails by which our
Saviour was thus fastened has been a subject
of very learned dispute. Nonnus affirms that
three only were used, both feet having been con
fined by the same one. And in this notion he is
followed by Gregory Nazianzen. The more re
ceived belief, however, has always assigned four
nails as the smallest number employed ; and this
opinion is supported at much length by CorneUus
Curtius, an Augustine friar, who wrote a treatise
De Clavis Dominicis, in the beginning of the
seventeenth century. But it seems that while
some admit three nails only, others again greatlv
multiply this number. Calvin enumerates four
teen ; the}' are respectively one in Milan and Car-
pentras ; two at Rome, in the church of Sta.
Helena and that of Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme ;
one at Sienna and Venice ; three in Germany,
at Cologne, at tbe church of the Three Marys,
and at Treves; three at Paris, in the Chapel
Royal, at the Cannes, and in St. Denis; one
at Dragnigne, and another at Tenaille ; but in
this statement it is plain there are numerous
blunders. The churches of Sta. Helena and Sta.
Croce are the same. It is positively denied that
Sienna, Venice, Cologne, Draguigne, the Cannes,
and the Chapel Royal at Paris make any
such claim ; tbe nail in St. Denis is said only
to have affixed the title to the cross; and no
such place as Tenaille is known to exist. Out
of the four original nails the Emperor Helena
threw one into the Adriatic, when it was furi
ously raging, and thereby produced an instant
calm. The second was inserted by Constantine
either in his helmet, his crown, or one of his
statues at Constantinople; for on this point
authors differ. Ambrosius, in his Oratio ad
Theodosium ; Gregory of Tours, in bis De glor.
Mart, 1 ; Eusebius, in his Hist, x. 8 ; Ruffinus,
ii. 8; and others, espouse the helmet; Baronius,
the crown ; and Lipsius, in his work De Cruee
(ii. 9), cites Zonaras in behalf of the statue.
Be this as it may, the naU, wherever placed at
first, was afterwards to be found, although con
siderably mutilated, in the church Sta. Croce in
Gerusalemme at Rome.— See Cross, Holy. In
the cathedral of Milan is a third nail, which Eutro-
pius affirms was fixed through one of our Saviour's
hands, and which Constantine used as a bit (Ruf
finus, Ecc. Hist, iv.), thereby intending, as has
been said, to verify the prophecy of Zechariah
(xiv. 20)_" In that day shaU be upon the bells,"

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or bridles, as the margin of our Bible gives it,
" of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord." Treves
possesses the fourth and last nail, which is
thought to have been driven through our Sa
viour's right foot. Lipsius supposes that the
cross of our Saviour was made from such wood
as happened to be nearest at hand, and that this
was oak, which grew most plentifully in Judea,
and which, it is said, the relics now exhibited
closely resemble. But on this point again a
subtle controversy has arisen ; and there have
been some who maintain that four different
woods were used in tbe composition of the cross,
viz., cedar, palm, oUve, and cypress.
The invention or discovery of the true cross
by the Empress Helena, is assigned by the
ecclesiastical historians to a.d. 326, the twenty-
first year of the reign of her son Constantine,
the thirteenth of the pontificate of St. Sylves
ter, and the first after the council of Nice.
Eusebius alone is silent as to the event; yet
he makes copious mention of the discovery of
the holy sepulchre, and of the other transac
tions of Helena whUe at Jerusalem. By the
remaining annalists we are informed that this
devout princess, in her seventy-ninth year, in
flamed with holy ardour, resolved to visit the
scenes of our Saviour's passion. The hatred
which the Pagans bore against the Christian
name, had induced them to obliterate, as much
as possible, all those marks which might recall a
memory of their great Master: Calvary had
been heaped up with huge stones and piles of
earth, and on the summit of this new formation
had been erected a temple of Venus. The em
press, however, heard of a Jew, curious in anti
quities, who had carefully treasured up such
memorials of the holy spot as tradition had
conveyed to him ; and from bim tbe desired
secret was extorted, either by bribes or torture.
Durand affirms that he bore the name of Judas,
that he afterwards was converted to . Chris
tianity, and became Bishop of Jerusalem, under
the name of Quiriacus. The spot to which
the Jew pointed was carefully excavated, and
within it were found three crosses, and the title
which Pilate had written as the superscription
for that of Jesus, apart by itself. St Ambrose
maintains, indeed, that this title was attached
to one of the crosses, which thereby was deter
mined to be that which had borne our Saviour ;
but the other historians state that Helena had
no guidance to the real cross till, by the sugges
tion of Macarius, at that time Bishop of Jerusa
lem, certain sick and infirm persons were touched
by each of the tbree. One only produced mira
culous cures ; and in some cases it resuscitated
even the whoUy dead (Sulpicius Severus, ii.) ; so
that no doubt could be permitted to remain that
this was the so much coveted treasure.
A church was built by Helena over the hallowed
spot, and within it was deposited the real cross.
A large portion of it, however, was conveyed by

CRO
the empress to Constantinople; there a part of
it was inserted by Constantine into the head of
one of his own statues ; and the remainder was
transmitted to Rome, where the church of Sta.
Croce in Gerusalemme was erected for its re
ception. A festival to commemorate the inven
tion of the cross was ordered to be celebrated
annually, on the 3d of May; and on Easter
Sunday the Bishop of Jerusalem exhibited to
the longing eyes of uncounted pilgrims, the
great object of their devotion, which was en
trusted to his charge. Small pieces, richly set in
gold and gems, were presented to such as could
afford to purchase them ; and that no check
might be imposed upon this profitable traffic, it
was boldly asserted, and blindly believed,' that
the holy wood possessed a miraculous power of
self reproduction, and therefore could never be
diminished, however largely it was distributed.
St. Cyril also, who was Patriarch of Jerusalem,
and an eye-witness, affirms the same miracle, and
likens it to that of the five loaves which supplied
5,000 persons. The capture of Jerusalem by the
Persians in a.d. 614, placed the remains of the
true cross in the hands of the second Chosroes,
who bore them in triumphant mockery to his
capital. Fourteen years afterwards, on the
murder of the Persian king by his son, Hera-
clius, in the treaty which he imposed upon the
invaders, whom he had then vanquished, stipu
lated for the restoration of the cross, and it was
convej'ed with all the pomp of Byzantine magni
ficence to Constantinople. The Emperor re
solved to transport it once again to its original
abode ; and the same stately procession accom
panied him in his progress. When arrived at
tbat gate of the Holy City wbich opened upon
Mount Calvary, he found it, to his astonishment,
impenetrably barred. A voice from heaven,
or as others more modestly affirm, the voice of
the Patriarch Zachariah, or of his deputy
Modestus, at the same moment warned him,
that it was not thus, arrayed in such temporal
splendour, that the King of kings had entered
Jerusalem. Heraclius understood the admoni
tion. Dismounting, barefooted, and carrying
the cross on his shoulders, he once more ap
proached the gate. The hinges then readUy
obeyed his touch, and he placed his holy burden
once again beneath the dome of the sepulchre.
It was on this occasion that the festival of the
exaltation of the holy cross, on the 14th Sep
tember, was first instituted. Nicephorus, how
ever, contends that the exaltation and tbe
invention are both equally ancient ; that the
invention commemorates the day on which the
cross was found; the exaltation, the day on
wliich it was first publicly exhibited ; and that
the latest date has been mistakenly assigned to
this last, only because it was celebrated with
additional pomp after the pilgrimage of Hera
clius, The evidence upon which the imposture
of the discovery of the true cross rests is weighed

195

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by Jortin with his usual sagacity (Remarks,
vol. iii. ; Works, ed. 1805., u., 219), and from the
time of Heraclius we hear no more of the holy
cross. Perhaps it was destroyed by the Saracens,
on their conquest of Jerusalem in a.d. 637.
The wooden title, however, is still preserved at
Rome. This title, when sent by Constantine to
Rome, was deposited, for the sake of security, in
a leaden chest above the vaulted roof of the church
of Sta. Croce, in a Uttle window, and then
bricked into the walk Its position was recorded
in a mosaic inscription without. This inscrip
tion had become almost illegible from lapse of
time; and during some repairs of the church in
the pontificate cf Innocent VIII., a.d. 1492, by
the carelessness of the workmen, the window
was broken open and the holy title was dis
covered. Such is the history recorded on a wall
within the church, encircling a staircase which
leads to a subterraneous chapel of St. Helena.
The discovery and the verity of the title were
authenticated by a bull of Alexander VI., four
years afterwards. It appears that much more
was remaining of the inscription when it first
came to light, than was to be seen when Ni-
cetus wrote. The veneration which had been
expressed for the cross itself was soon extended
to everything which bore relation to it ; and
marvellous effects were ascribed even to its sign.
Such were some of the futile and ridiculous
legends which superstition created and believed
in darker times ; and such the Romish Church has
adopted and inculcated even to the present hour.
Crosses, various. — Architectural Crosses.
— The cross was adopted very early as a
favourite form in architecture. Wherever druid-
ical monuments were found, they were sup
posed to be purified from -the contamination
of heathenism by being carved with the
figure, or altered in the shape of the cross. We
find that in England crosses were sometimes
erected, before the Conquest, previous to a battle
or great enterprise, as an anticipatory offering to
heaven. Thus, in the seventh century,. Oswald,
King of Northumberland, before he fought with
Cadwallo, set up a cross of wood, himself hold
ing it till it was fixed in the earth, while his
soldiers kneeled around (Bede, Eccl. Hist, iii., 2).
Market Crosses were to be found in most towns
possessing the privilege of a market ; the tolls of
these markets generally belonged to some neigh
bouring monastery, and the crosses were erected
by the friars as a token of their right. Speci
mens may be seen in Malmesbury, Salisbury,
Chichester, &c.
Crosses of Memorial were built wherever the
bier of a distinguished person rested on its way
to the place of interment. The most celebrated
of these crosses in England were erected by
Edward I. in memory of his queen Eleanor, in
1290. West Cheap and Charing are the others
best known. The first of these stood a little
westward of Bow Church, in the middle of the

196

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street, and was rebuilt in 1441. It escaped
destruction at the Reformation, but the Puritans
voted its fall in 1643. The second has left its
name to the most frequented thoroughfare in
London. Crosses of memorial also commemor
ated battles, murders, and other events of note.
Preaching Crosses, a beautiful specimen of
them is left among the remains of the Black-
friars monastery, at Hereford. It is a hexagon,
open on all sides, and approached by a flight of
steps around it. In the centre is a hexagon
base, from which branch trefoil arches, forming
the roof of the pulpit. St. Paul's cross was
probably erected for the same purpose ; though
in many great occurrences of our history it was
abused to secular ends. It stood on the north of
the churchyard. Stowe acknowledges that its
antiquity was unknown to him ; it was de
molished by the lord mayor, Sir Isaac Penning
ton, in 1643. Spitalfields had also a preach
ing cross, the memory of which remains in the
annual Spital Sermons, still preached before the
corporation of London at St. Bride's Church.
Stump Crosses were used as landmarks. Among
these may be numbered the Shire Cross Stone,
dividing Cumberland and Westmoreland, on the
Wrynose mountain, near the river Duddy;
Stainmore Cross, dividing Yorkshire and Cum
berland ; Mugdrum Cross near Lindores in Fife-
shire, dividing Fife and Strathearn ; and numer
ous others, especially in Cornwall, where they
abound, concerning which even tradition, in
many cases, is silent. Crosses are also to be
met with in churchyards, and as stations on the
highways, which last bad the privileges of sanc
tuary (Archaeol., viii., 28). These were erected,
doubtless, by the piety or the remorse of indivi
duals. Two other causes may be mentioned for
which crosses of a less durable nature were some
times placed on tbe roofs of houses ; first, to
claim the privileges of Templars, to defend them
selves against their rightful lords ; and again, to
mark a family infected with the plague.
Weeping Crosses were those before which a
penance was performed. A penance termed
creeping to the cross will be found described in
a very ancient volume cited by Bishop Percy, in
one of his notes on the Northumberland House
hold Book, (436).
Cross of Glory, a jewelled cross or crucifix
placed on the altar. Cross of Shame, a plain
cross laid on the same place.
Cross, Adoration and Unveiling of. —
Mr. Seymour, in his pilgrimage to Rome, de
scribes it from actual observation : "A cross made
of wood stands upon the altar. It is enveloped
in a black veil. The deacon hands it to the of
ficiating cardinal. He, standing with his back
to the altar and his faoe to the people, holds the
cross before the eyes of the congregation ; then
loosening the black veil which envelopes it, he
uncovers one arm of the cross, pauses, holds it
conspicuously before the congregation, and ex-

CRO
claims with aloud voice, 'Behold the wood of
the cross!' And the response bursts from the
choir — 'Come, let us adore it!' And imme
diately the pope, the cardinals, and all present
kneel and adore it, and then resume their seats.
Again the officiating cardinal uncovers the second
arm of the cross, pauses, exclaims, as before,
'Behold the wood of the cross!' And the re
sponse again bursts from the choir — ' Come, let
us adore it!' And as before, the pope, the cardi
nals, and all present kneel and adore it, and
then resume their seats. Again the officiating
cardinal uncovers the whole cross, pauses, and
exclaims, as before, 'Behold the wood of the
cross !' And the response again bursts from the
choir — ' Come, let us adore it! ' And immediately
the pope, the cardinals, and all present kneel
and adore it a third time."
Cross, various epithets and applica
tions. — Cross Alphabet has reference to a
ceremony in the popish dedication of churches.
A pot of ashes is strewed in the form of a cross,
and the pontiff, with his pastoral staff, scores
or scrawls the Greek alphabet on the one
limb, and the Latin alphabet on the other,
during the chanting of the benediction. — See
Consecration. Cross-bearer. — A cross is always borne be
fore the pope, wherever he goes (crux gesta-
toria). Patriarchs, in Uke manner, had them
bome everywhere, save in Rome. So also
primates and metropolitans, within their own
provinces. Gregory XI., however, forbade
these last to carry them in the presence of a
cardinal. The cross of the pope has three bars,
that of the patriarch two, and that of the arch
bishop one only. From the distinction between
the two last, most probably is derived the archi
tectural difference between the forms of the
Greek and Latin cross. — For the crux collaria,
see under Bishop.
Cross, Holy, of Jerusalem (croce santa di
Gerusalemme), one of the seven great basilicas of
Rome, referred to in the article Cross. This
church is remarkable for the number of its relics ;
and its high festival is the fourth Sunday in Lent,
when, with solemn ceremonial, are exhibited a
finger of St. Thomas, two thorns from the crown
of thorns, the tablet which was over the cross,
one of the nails, and some pieces of the wood,
&c. Cross, incensing of, the ceremonial fumiga
tion administered to crosses meant to be set up
on roads or public places.
Cross Row, or as it is corrupted, Cris Cros,
an abbreviation of Christ Cross Row, in French,
Le Croix de par Dieu, is the alphabet ; so called,
either because in old primers a cross was prefixed
to the alphabet, or because the alphabet was
sometimes written in the shape of a cross.
Cross, Sign of: — See Baptism. — The sign
is common in the Greek and Romish Churches,
accompanying every sacerdotal blessing. It was

CRU
used in the ancient Church in the admission cf
catechumens and ordination of presbyters, as
well as in baptism ; in prayer also, and in tbe
consecration of the Eucharist.
Crouched 'Friars (crulched or crossed friars).
— To crouch, in Chaucer, is to sign with the
cross. They were also called crosiers, and were
founded in honour of the discovery of the cross
by the Emperor Helena. They came to Eng
land in the thirteenth century, and had monas
teries in London, Oxford, and Reigate. Crouched-
mas-day is held on the 14th September by the
Greek Church, and on that day the ecclesiasti
cal year commences.
Crowns, various applications. — Crown,
clerical (corona clericalis, or sacerdotalis), a
name given to the clergy, as some say, from
their shaven crown, or as others sajT, with
more probability, from the shape of the tonsure,
which cut the hair away somewhat from the
crown, and left a circle hanging over, circuli
corona. The clergy were called coronaii, or
crowned. It may be, however, that the name
originated as ». term of honour, taken from a
crown as a symbol of dignity ; so bishops were
saluted per coronam, just as we say, "your
honour," " your worship."
Crown days (dies coronati), a name anciently
given to twelve church festivals, because the
emperors on these days went in royal state to the
Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople.
Crown, funeral (corona funeralis), a garland
for the brow of the dead, a practice condemned
by the fathers, as Tertullian and Minucius. — See
Burial. Crown, nuptial (corona nuptialis), tbe crown
worn by a newly-wedded pair as a mark of
honour and a reward of previous virtue. It was
usually made of myrtle or olive. — See Mar
riage. Crown of oblations (corona oblationum), a
name given to thecommunion loaves in the early
Church, showing certainly that they were not
wafers. Crown of Presbytery (corona presbyterii), a
name given to a presbytery because they sat on
each side ofthe bishop, in the form of a semicircle.
Crown and Rosary. — See Rosary.
Crown of virgins (corona virginum), a rib
band or coronet worn by the virgins who bad
devoted themselves to ecclesiastical service.
Crowning ofthe Virgin. — See Mariolatry.
Crucifix, the name given to a cross with a
figure of Jesus upon it. Its origin is usually
traced to a council held at Constantinople to
ward the end of the seventh century. On Maun
dy Thursday, the Thursday of Passion Week,
and on Good Friday, the ceremony of kissing the
crucifix is gone through at Rome by eager and
excited crowds of devotees, who throw them
selves on it, and kiss it as if they would devour
it. Crusades, the wars waged for the possession

197

CRU
of the holy sepulchre in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, by European armies, who marched
under the banner of the cross. The first crusade,
in 1096, was, to a great extent, the result of
the fanatical eloquence of Peter the hermit,
backed by two councils under Pope Urban II.
Jerusalem was besieged and taken by the great
European host, and Godfrey de Bouillon, the
famous leader, chosen king. The second crusade
in 1 144 was headed by the Emperor Conrad III.
and Louis VII. of France. The Turks had
rallied, and succour was asked from Europe.
This expedition, through treachery and disunited
councUs, proved unsuccessful, and the Christian
army was forced to raise the siege of Damascus.
Knights Templars and Hospitallers were insti
tuted for the special defence of the holy city.
The third crusade was in 1188, after the famous
Saladin had retaken Jerusalem. Richard, King
of England, joined this crusade after it had
landed, and the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa
was at its head. But the French and English
sovereigns quarrelled, Philip Augustus, King of
France, returned to his own country, and Richard,
after prodigies of valour, concluded a peace with
Saladin. Thefourth crusade was in 1195, after
Saladin's death, and was fitted out by the Em
peror Henry VII. After several successes, and
the capture of several towns, the emperor died,
and his army returned. The fifth crusade was
in 1198, and was originated by Pope Innocent
III. It had varying fortunes. The crusading
army took possession of Constantinople, and put
Baldwin, their chief, upon the throne; but he
was dethroned and murdered in a few months,
and the army was defeated in 1204 by the
Sultan of Aleppo. The sixth crusade was in
1228, when the Christian host took the town of
Damietta, but could not retain it. In the follow
ing year the Emperor Frederick concluded with
the sultan a peace for ten years, by which he
secured the possession of the holy city and
sepulchre, with Nazareth and Bethlehem. The
seventh crusade, in 1249, was headed by Louis
XI. of France, commonly called St. Louis.
Four years were spent in preparation before the
king, his queen, his three brothers, and all the
knighthood of France set sail for Palestine.
Damietta was taken ; but the army was over
taken by sickness, attacked by the enemy, and
scattered, the king and his lords being made
prisoners ; at length a truce of ten years was con
cluded. The eighth and last crusade was under
taken in 1270 by the same prince, who devoutly
believed that heaven had anointed him for the
work. It was directed against the Moors in
Africa. Louis took Carthage, but soon died of
the plague, and his army was destroyed. Peace
had been concluded when Prince Edward of
England landed, but immediately sailed for
Ptolemais. The crown of England devolving
upon him, he soon returned. The final result
was that in 1291 Ptolemais was taken by the

CUL
Sultan of Egypt, and the Christians driven out
of Syria. Subsequent popes tried to stir up
crusades, but failed, such as Nicholas IV. in 1292
and Clement V. in 1311. Nigh two millions
of men perished in these expeditions. The Em
perors of Constantinople were naturally jealous
of the crusading hosts ; nay, they often quarrelled
among themselves on points of personal and
national honour, and the petty kingdoms which
they created made war on one another. Yet
these marches to the East had an indelible effect
on the manners and social progress of Europe.
Ciypto-Calvinists, (Hidden Calvinists), a
name given to those Lutheran divines who, in
the controversy which arose about 1570 respect
ing the bodily presence of Christ in the Eucharist,
maintained a doctrine closely resembling that of
the Reformed Churches. The most eminent of
the party was Peucer, son-in-law of Melanchthon,
who was imprisoned for his opinions by the
Elector of Saxony, after the convention at Tor-
gau in 1 574, and cruelly confined for ten years.
The Form of Concord, published in 1580, was
designed to put an end to the Crypto-Calvinistic
controversy. — See Form of Concord.
Crypts, sometimes called Crofts. The most
remarkable in Britain are, that at Canterbury
cathedral, still used by the descendants of the
French and Walloon refugees, who came over to
England in the time of Edward VI. and Eliza
beth ; that of St. Faith under St Paul's ; and
that of the cathedral at Glasgow. From their
position, for the most part under the eastern
extremity of the nave, it has been conjectured
that their original purpose was, by an additional
elevation, to keep that portion of the church near
which tbe high altar was placed, more than
usually dry.
Cubicula. — See Cells.
Culdees, Iona. — Dr. Johnson in his Journey
has said in reference to the home ofthe Culdees,
" We were now treading that illustrious island
which was once the luminary of the Caledonian
regions, whence savage clans and roving bar
barians derived the benefits of knowledge and
the blessings of religion. . . . That man is
little to be envied whose patriotism would not
gain force upon the plains of Marathon, or whose
piety would not grow warmer among the ruins
of Iona." Iona, I, Hy, Icolmkill, or by what
ever other name it is called, is a scene encircled
with many hallowed associations. Its physical
appearance bas, indeed, few interesting features.
It has neither the unique assemblage of caves
and basaltic columns which form the neighbour
ing islet of Staffa — one of the marvels of our
western seas — nor is it marked by that wild and
rugged sublimity so often admired on the sur-
rouuding coasts. It is a low, tame, and sombre
island, three miles in length and one in average
breadth, its shores whitened in many parts with
decomposed felspar, and its general monotony
scarcely relieved by a few scattered eminences,

198

CUL
consisting of gneiss with dark compact slate,
intersected by several small granitic veins. The
name I or Hy signifies, in Celtic, an island ; and
its emphatic application to this island shows the
honour set in early times on its learned residents.
Iona is the more euphonious Latinised appella
tion, and Icolmkill, "the island of St Colme's
cell," is the more correct and expressive. Col
umba is evidently a Latinised name. The
original Celtic name of this missionary must
have been shorter — was probably Colm. The
modern "Columba" and "Iona" have been
formed, by some mystic fancy, to suit each other ;
as the one in Latin and the other in Hebrew
signifies a " dove."
Tbe great attraction of Iona is its venerable
ruins. They are not, it is true, of very great
extent, and tliey cannot be traced to the age
of Columba. St Oran's chapel is character
ized by many of the peculiarities of Saxon
architecture, and the cathedral exhibits a mix
ture of styles, the works of various periods.
The oldest tombstone has for its date the year
1489. The buildings are principally of granite,
which must have been brought from the op
posite shores of Mull. Standing amidst these
hoary desolations, in that graveyard where
repose, each "in his narrow cell," so many
kings of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway, the
memory runs back to a time when this soli
tary spot was a precious sanctuary — an asylum
of learning and piety, and the nursery of mis
sionary zeal and enterprise. The remains of
eight Norwegian, four Irish, and forty-eight
Scottish kings, were interred in the island. But
the terms abbey, nunnery, and cathedral, now
given to various portions of this dilapidated
structure, speak of an age long posterior to the
lifetime of the great apostle of Scotland, and
when Popery had won its baleful victory over
truth and freedom. Buildings to any extent
Columba could not raise: his original college
must have been a rude and homely fabric. For
two hundred years after his death Iona was a
bishopric under the kings of Norway. When
the papal power was established it became a
Benedictine abbey ; and in 1507 it was appended
to the dioceseof the isles. In 1561 the buildings
were demolished, and, upon the overthrow of
Episcopacy, the monastic revenues were appro
priated by the Lord of Argyle. By order of his
reforming synod the majority of those 360
crosses which once studded the island were
pitched into the sea.
It was in the year 563 that Columba settled
in Iona. How he should have selected such
a spot of sterility and tempests we know
not His heart's desire was to regenerate
Scotland, and give it that pure and primitive
Christianity which his own country, Ireland,
then "the island of saints," had for many
years been enjoying. Ireland pitied Scot
land, and sent it the message of saving truth.

CUL
Missionaries from Iona spread everywhere, and
the disciples of Columba founded seminaries in
many parts of the country, as at Abernethy, St.
Andrews, Brechin, Dunkeld, Monymosk, and the
Isle of St. Serf in Lochleven. It is impossible
now to estimate the manifold blessings of such
educational and missionary labours. In an age
of darkness and barbarity these devoted men
diffused the humanising influences of the Gospel,
and scattered the elements of civilization among
the ferocious and restless Caledonians. Each of
their institutions was a seat of learning — a centre
whence radiated light and refinement. They
rejoiced in their mission — wearied not in their
vocation — sought out the scattered hamlets in
the lonely glen or dreary moor — taught them
the Gospel of the kingdom — exacted no tithes,
and enjoined neither mass nor penance, confes
sion nor purgatory. Theirs was a church pure
and apostolic, prior to the popish domination —
simple in its rites, and presbyterian in its govern
ment and discipline. We have, therefore, a
pecuUar interest in these ancient Culdees. This
name is Celtic, and means " servants of God."
From the Culdees we learn somewhat of the
character and organization of the primitive
Church in Scotland, before she was corrupted
and enfeebled by secular honours and forbid
den wealth. And, 1. They took Scripture as
their sole authority. The Word of God they
revered as their only guide. Columba was a
diligent student himself, and enjoined the earnest
reading of tlie Bible on aU his disciples. His
only appeal was " to the law and to the testi
mony," and so long as his followers preserved
their integrity, they adhered to the same sacred
and vital principle. Traditions and decrees they
regarded not. Their rule of faith was Scripture
alone. Simply, humbly, and reverentially tbey
sought to ascertain the meaning ofthe "lively
oracles." The copying of the Scriptures was
then an important and responsible task. Colum
ba laboured also in this department; and the
Book of Durrow, now belonging to Trinity
College Library, Dublin, is a copy of the Gos
pel believed to be in the handwriting of the
venerable saint of Iona, and as one of the
rarest of literary curiosities, was shown to her
Majesty on her visit to Ireland. 2, They
opposed all popish superstitions. They detested
image worship. Neither the Virgin nor any of
the saints shared in their adoration. Their
monasteries and churches were dedicated to the
Holy Trinity. They gave no homage to the
dead, and offered no supplication for them.
They condemned auricular confession and pen
ance, and were guilty of none of the monstrous
tyrannies which such customs have necessarily
created. To God alone, who can forgive sin
and absolve from its guilt, did tbey enjoin con
fession. They claimed no priestly power over
the consciences and destiny of men. The doc
trine of transubstantiation was a refinement of

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impious absurdity of which they never dreamed ;
and they administered baptism simply by water,
without salt, chrism, or crucifix. They not
only practised none of those innovations by which
Popery is characterized, but were ever noted for the
decided and peremptory rejection of them. They
were, in short, hearty Protestants before Luther
made a bonfire of papal bulls, or flung protests
in the face of amazed and malignant councils.
And these were the original ministry of Christ
in Scotland. 3. Their theology was sound. It
Could not be otherwise, since it was based on
Scripture. They beUeved in the election of
grace — as who does not who feels that, if God
had not chosen him, he had never chosen God?
Justification by faith alone was a primary and
pervading tenet of their creed; salvation by
works was an error which they steadfastly repu
diated — grace was the trust of their souls and
theme of their preaching. The religious truths
which they inculcated were a species of Calvin
ism, current long before the great reformer of
Switzerland published his Institutes or composed
his Commentaries. The Culdees had their creed
" not of man : " their theological school traced
its origin at once to apostles and prophets,
and not through a succession of creeds and
councils, prelates and popes. 4. Though the
Culdees lived in monasteries and colleges, they
did not enjoin or practise celibacy. They formed
societies, and lived as brethren, encouraging one
another in periods of turbulence and anarchy.
Such societies were necessary for mutual defence,
and for the purposes of clerical education. Each
Culdee missionary passed through eighteen years
of preparatory study, ere he set out on his labour
of love. Iona is said to have possessed an ex
tensive classical library, which, as Gibbon in
timates, at one time " afforded hopes of an entire
Livy;" but this collection has long since dis
appeared, thanks to Danish pirates, the royal
Edward of England, and the fugitive monks,
who carried such literary treasures to the Con
tinent, and even to the Vatican. And while the
Culdees lived together, not like popish drones,
" eating the fat and drinking the sweet," but
earning their own subsistence, all of them who
chose might marry. They attached no higher
degree of purity to clerical celibacy. They
rightly judged "forbidding to marry" to be one
of the signs of the great apostacy. These
"Pure Culdees
Were Albyn's earliest priests of God,
Ere yet an island of the seas
By foot of Saxon monk was trod,
Long ere her churchmen, hy bigotry,
Were barred from wedlock's holy tie."
In so many respects did tbe Culdees diverge
from the Church of Rome, and resist its influence.
Not only in such things, but also in regard to
the time of keeping of Easter, the tonsure of the
priests, and many other popish usages, did they
oppose the dominant heresy. Their enemies
unite in extoUing their character and their de-

CUL
voted consistency. Bede saj'S that though they
followed not the tenets of mother church, " they
preached such works of charity and piety as they
are able to learn from the writings of the pro
phets, evangelists, and apostles." Their great
sin lay, as Bede and others imagined, in their
refusing to bow their necks to Romish thraldom.
They loved their own simple forms and indepen
dent position, and would not betray them to the
wily Man of Sin. And so we learn their creed,
character, and discipline, from the accounts of
their enemies — those who wished to seduce them
into supineness and thraldom, and who, failing in
such an attempt, cursed their obstinacy, but
were forced to do homage to their virtues. 5.
The government they maintained was mixed in
its nature, but fully more presbyterian than epis
copalian. This position has been fiercely disputed
by many supporters of Episcopacy. Yet even
Bede affirms that the head of a Culdee establish
ment was a "monk or presbyter, but not a
bishop." There was an abbot in Iona, a general
prefect of the establishment ; but he had no
episcopal honour or prerogative. The members
of their synod were caUed seniors or elders, and
it was their collective prerogative to ordain their
brethren to any special function or province of
labour. The persons so set apart were called
"bishops" — overseers of the peculiar work to
which they had been consecrated. They could
not be bishops in the episcopal sense ; for they had
been ordained by presbyters, and these presbyters
could impart no office which they did not possess
themselves. The " bishops " ordained by them
remained subject to them, and kept up a corre
spondence with them. And those Culdee digni
taries were chosen without any royal mandate
either compelling or warranting their election.
It was not till the year 1109 that the right of
election was taken from them and conferred on
the Primate of St. Andrews. It was then the
midnight of the dark ages ; the sky was covered
with gloom ; scarcely did a star twinkle before
an envious cloud obscured it; and among the
dispersed and expiring race of the Culdees some
aged spirit, faint and overborne, might be heard
renewing the ominous inquiry — "Watchman,
what of the night ? "
Such is a brief and imperfect sketch of the
theology and government of this early church.
We wUl not say, with the Culdees themselves,
that their faith and worship came directly from
the apostle John, yet we believe them to have
been a section of the primitive Church, and re
taining not a little of its pristine fidelity and
purity. They were not the first to bring the
Gospel to Scotland or Britain ; for even in the
days of Tertullian it had penetrated to the north
ward of the great Roman wall. Druidism was
not wholly gone when Columba commenced his
mission, and the Culdees only vanish from history
nigh to the time when Wycliffe lifted his testi
mony in England. But at length Popery sub-

200

CUR
dued Culdeeism both in Ireland and Scotland.
Every means was taken to overthrow these wit
nesses for the truth. Craft and power were on
all sides employed. They were cajoUed, and
some bowed to the flattery ; they were threatened,
and some trembled and yielded to the menace.
King David I. used all his royal prerogative
against them, and dispensed all his patronage so as
to scatter and uproot them. The canons regular
became their rivals in sanctity, and allured the
multitude by a pompous worship. Force was
sometimes employed to dispossess them of their
lands ; and on one occasion, when a portion of
their territories in Fife was wantonly invaded,
Macbeth, Thane of Falkland, armed himself on
their behalf, to do battle against their oppressors.
Even as early as 716 papal cunning had found
its way into Iona, and many refractory monks
were expelled, and sent across Drum-Albin, that
is, over the highlands of Breadalbane down into
the eastern lowlands. Weakened and dispirited,
in the course of centuries, they gradually faded
and perished, and when the last Culdee died, the
shadow of death settled down upon Scotland,
and lay thick, heavy, and pestilential, till the
flames of Fatrick Hamilton's martyrdom, shoot
ing athwart the gloom, proclaimed that the dark
ness was breaking, and that the morning was at
hand. Some few persons, retaining tbe name
of Culdee, were to be found in Scotland at the
commencement of the fourteenth century, and
Iona held a kind of supremacy over Ireland as
late as the tenth century. Usher speaks of the
existence of Culdees in his own time, and says
that in many of the churches of Ulster, persons
so named, celelebrated divine worship in a man
ner peculiar to themselves. These were the
feeble relics of a noble army — the old man in the
decrepitude of a second infancy. On the point
of the Culdee polity, see the antagonistic Works
of Bishop Lloyd and Dr. Jamieson.
Cumberland Presbytery. — See Scot
land, Churches in, and Daughter Churches
in America ; Presbytery.
Cup. — See Chalice, Eucharist.
Curate is h word variously applied, some
times, and most properly, to the incumbent in
general, who has the cure or charge of souls ; but
more frequently to the person of lowest degree
in the church, being the officiating temporary
minister, representing the incumbent of a church,
and taking care of Divine service in his absence.
By a canon, James I., 1603, it was provided,
that if a bishop ordain a person not having
ecclesiastical preferment, unless he is a fellow or
chaplain of a college, or a master of arts of five
years' standing, who lives at the university at
his own expense, the bishop shall support him
till he prefer him to a living. Bishops, there
fore, require before they confer orders, either
proof of such a title as is described in the canon,
or a certificate from a rector or vicar promising
to employ the candidate for orders, bond fide as

CUR
a curate at a salary. It was also provided by
the same canon that no curate should be permit
ted to serve in any place without examination
and admission of the bishop of the diocese, or
ordinary of the place having episcopal jurisdic
tion ; and that if he remove from one diocese to
another, he must have testimonials from the
bishop or ordinary, of his honesty, ability, and
conformity to the ecclesiastical laws of the Church
of England ; and that none should serve more
than one church or chapel upon one day, except
that chapel be a member of the parish church, or
united thereto, and unless such church or chapel
where such minister should serve in two places
be not able, in the judgment of the bishop or
ordinary, to maintain a curate. Curates are the
objects also of particular statutes, namely, 28
Henry VIII., ch. 11, by which it was enacted,
that such as serve a church during its vacancy
should be paid such stipend as the ordinary
thought reasonable, out of the profits of the
living during such vacancy, and, if those profits
should be insufficient, by the successor, within
fourteen days after he took possession. By the
12 Anne, ch. 12, the bishop or ordinary had the
power of appointing the curate's stipend at the
time of granting his license — that is, admission to
the curacy — such stipend not to exceed £50 per
annum or to be less than £20. By the 36
George III., ch. 18, the miserable pittance was
increased to £75 per annum; and in certain
cases the curate was allowed the use of the par
sonage-house, or an allowance of £15 per
annum in lieu of it. By the 53 George IIL, ch.
149, the powers of the bishops or ordinaries
were much enlarged: they were authorized to
appoint and license curates with salaries, in the
event of non-resident incumbents neglecting to
appoint, and the salary so made payable was not
limited, as theretofore, to the sums of £50 or
£75 per annum, but was to be in proportion to
the value of the benefice and population of the
parish. Other regulations were also made as to
curates having possession of the parsonage-
bouse. Curate, Perpetual. — Besides the curate
who officiates for a rector or vicar, there is the
perpetual curate, wherever there is in a parish
neither spiritual rector or vicar, but a clerk is
employed to officiate there by the impropriator.
The origin of perpetual curacies was this : by the
statute 4 Henry IV., ch. 12, it is enacted, that in
every church appropriated there shall be a
secular person ordained vicar perpetual, canoni
cally instituted and inducted, and covenably
endowed by the discretion of the ordinary. If
the benefice was given ad mensam monachorum,
and so not appropriated in the common form,
but granted by way of union plena jure, it was
served by a temporary curate belonging to the
religious house; when, however, such appro
priations, together with the charge of providing
for the cure, were transferred, after the dissolu-

201

CUR
tion of the religious houses, from spiritual
societies to single lay persons, who were not
capable of serving them by themselves, and
who, consequently, were obliged to nominate
some particular person to the ordinary, for his
license to serve the cure, the curates by this
means became so far perpetual as not to be
wholly at the pleasure of the appropriator, nor
removable but by due revocation of the license of
the ordinary.
Curia Papalis (papal court), a collective
appellation for the various authorities at Rome
who exercise their functions in behalf, and under
the direction, of the holy see. The first of
these authorities is the pope's vicar-general, who is
chosen from among the cardinal bishops. His
office is for life, and the emoluments arising from it
are considerable ; for, besides his salary of 1,200
crowns of gold per annum, he has the power of
deciding on all matrimonial differences — a privi
lege which renders his office extremely lucrative.
The profits arising from his various courts are
also very considerable. He is the proper judge
of ecclesiastics; he confers and confirms all
sacred orders ; and he inspects all pious houses,
monasteries, hospitals, and churches. He is as
sisted by a bishop in his episcopal duties, and
by a layman as judge of all crimes committed by
clerks and regulars. 2. The apostolic chancery :
This court includes the chancellor, whose duty it
is to write in the pope's name all the receipts,
doubts, and scruples respecting matters of faith ;
the vice-chancellor, who issues all apostolical let
ters and bulls ; the regent of the apostolic chan
cery, who submits all appeals to the court of re
ferendaries and auditors of the rota ; the twelve
referendaries, who are also styled the registrars
of the high court, and whose office it is to draw
up the minutes of aU bulls from the petitions
signed by the pope. All the above offices are
purchased, and they yield considerable profits. 3.
The secretaries of state : They are in number
eleven — the principal secretary, who is the cardi
nal-nephew of his holiness, should he have one,
and ten other secretaries, between whom the pro
vinces of the ecclesiastical state is divided. The
cardinal secretary signs all letters directed to
kings, governors, legates, &c, as well as the
state patents of all who are appointed for the
government and administration of justice in the
Papal States. The office of superintendent of
the state belongs to the cardinal secretary by
virtue of his higher office. These united offices
are sometimes bestowed and sometimes pur
chased: they produce an annual revenue of about
20,000 crowns. 4. The prefect of the briefs,
who revises and despatches all briefs, and signs
those that are assessed. This is a most lucrative
office, arising chiefly from the large sums received
as bribes. The prefect of the briefs assists in the
signature of grants made by his holiness. This
office is for life, and is purchased at a price not
much under 25,000 crowns. 6. The prefects of

202

CUS
the signatures, consisting of the cardinal prefect,
twelve cardinals, and twelve prelates referen
daries. This court decides on all appeals made by
persons who conceive themselves injured by the
sentences of the ordinary judges. 6. The pope's
datary, whose duty it is to receive aU petitions
respecting benefices. He is authorized also to
dispose of all benefices not producing an annual
income of twenty-four ducats, without informing
the pope ; but for those benefices which amount to
more he is obliged to get the provisions thereof
signed by his holiness, for which purpose he has
an audience with him daily. The datary re
ceives a salary of 2,000 crowns, besides the fees
and bribes paid to him by those who apply for
benefices. 7. The major domo and other officers
of the pope's household. 8. The prefect of the
sacristy, who has the charge of all the holy ves
sels, crosses, and other valuables of the pope's
sacristy. He assists the pope to robe and un
robe, prepares the host, distributes the holy
relics, and signs the petitions of pilgrims who
apply for indulgences for themselves and rela
tives. 9. The pope's librarian, who is assisted
by two sub-librarians. 10. The masters of the
ceremonies, six in number, two of whom are
called assistants, and four supernumeraries. 11.
The tribunal of the rota, which consists of
twelve bishops : they take cognizance of aU suits
and appeals respecting benefices ; but their sen
tences are not necessarily final, appeal to his
holiness being permitted, in case of any dissatisfac
tion being felt with the decisions of this tribunal.
12. The council of the apostolic chamber: this
court embraces the cardinal great chamberlain,
several other officers, and twelve clerks. The
jurisdiction of this council extends to all things
relating to the pope's demesnes, especially the
revenues arising therefrom, whicli are styled the
revenues of the apostoUc chamber. The posts of
treasurer general, and auditor of the chamber, as
well as those of the twelve clerks, are each pur
chased at a sum varying from 70,000 to 80,000
crowns ; and they yield at least to each officer
8,000 crowns annually (D Bouix, Tractatus de
curia Romano, Sua. Paris, 1859.)— See Con
gregation. Curiae tradi. — See Secular Power.
Curse. — See Anathema, Bell, Book, and
Candle. CustosArchivoruin  See Ceimeliarcils.
Custos Spiritualium, the person who exer
cises spiritual or ecclesiastical jurisdiction in any
diocese, during the vacancy of the see. By the
canon law the appointment is vested in the
dean and chapter ; but by prescription, in the
archbishop of the province. If the archiepis
copal see is vacant, the spiritual jurisdiction
is committed to the dean and chapter; the
guardian of the spiritualities may be either
guardian in law, jure magistrates, as the arch
bishop is of any diocese in his province, or
guardian by delegation, being the person whom

cus
the archbishop or vicar-general doth for the
time appoint Gustos spiritualium, the person
who has full ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the
courts ; power of granting licenses and dispensa
tions, probate of wills, &c., during the vacancy ;
and of admitting and instituting clerks presented ;
but cannot consecrate, ordain, or present to any
benefice. Custos Temporalium, the person to whose
custody a vacant see or abbey was committed
by the king as supreme lord, who, as a steward
of the goods and profits, was to give accounts to

DAY
the escheator, and he into the exchequer ; his
trust continued till the vacancy was supplied by
a successor, who obtained the king's writ, De
Restitutione Temporalium, which was commonly
after, though sometimes before, consecration.
Cutty Stool, a prominent seat placed in
Scottish kirks two hundred years ago, as a kind
of pillory for offenders against chastity. There
they sat during service, and at its conclusion
were called up to have a formal rebuke adminis
tered to them before the congregation.
Cycle of Easter. — See Easter.

D

Daily Prayers. — The preface to the Book
of Common Prayer enjoins thus: — "All priests
and deacons are to say daily the morning and
evening prayer either privately or openly, not
being let by sickness, or some other urgent cause.
And the curate that ministereth in every parish
church or chapel, being at home, and not being
otherwise reasonably hindered, shall say the same
in the parish church or chapel where he minister
eth, and shaU cause a bell to be tolled thereunto a
convenient time before he begin, that tbe people
may come to hear God's Word, and to pray with
him." Dalmatic, a part of clerical dress first gene
rally used by the Dalmatian priests (Isidore,
, Orig., xix., 22 ; Durand, Rat, ui., 1). It is de
scribed as a vestment made in the form of a
cross, with fringes on the left side, without
seam, and with spacious sleeves. It had some
times purple stripes, like the robe of senators.
It was worn as early as the time of Cyprian, and
Pope Eutychianus, a.d. 275, ordered that no
martyrs should be buried without a dalmatic.
It was not, however, introduced as a part of
priestly attire, in Ueu of the colobium, which
had not any sleeves, till the papacy of Sylvester,
a.d. 314. Gregory the Great, a.d. 590, found
that its adoption at funerals had been so far
abused to superstitious purposes, that he forbade
its employment even in the burial of popes them
selves. Bishops at first were not permitted to
wear it, but at last it descended even to deacons
on high solemnities. A robe of the same name,
although the dalmatic was in after times esteemed
a grave habit becoming to priesthood, was worn by
some of the Roman emperors, not without great
scandal ; because the concealment of the arms was
considered to be effeminate. The dalmatic con
tinued in use among the emperors ofthe East, and
in the tenth century it was adopted by Charles
the Bald of France, as part of the regal dress.
Edward the Confessor introduced it among the
English regalia. Walsingham, in his account
of the coronation of Richard II., says that he
was invested primo tunica Sancti Edvardi et
postea dalmaticd. In a manuscript preserved
in the college of arms, Henry VI. is said to 20

have been arrayed at his coronation "as a
bishop that should sing mass, in a dalmatic
like a tunic." When the tomb of Edward I., in
Westminster Abbey, was opened in 1774, next
to the fine linen cerecloth, which enwrapped the
bod}', was found a dalmatic of red silk damask.
Damianists, followers of Damian, Bishop of
Alexandria, in the sixth century. Another name
given them was Angelites. — See Angelites.
Dancers, a sect that rose in Flanders about
1373. As the name implies, they danced under
strong excitement, and faUing into convulsions,
enjoyed dreams and visions of the spiritual
world. In their fanaticism they treated the
ministers and ordinances of the Church with
great contempt.
Datary, an officer in the papal court, usually
a bishop, but sometimes a cardinal, who receives
the petitions concerning benefices, and presents
them to the pope. Of his own power he can grant
all benefices which do not produce more than
twenty-four ducats a-year. When a person gets
a benefice from the pope the datary writes under
the petition annuit sanctissimus, the pope having
previously written fiat ut petitur. The document
is then registered, and a bull is grounded on it,
which is said to paSs through fifteen different of
fices, each officer having his fee or perquisite.
The datary's salary is 2,000 crowns, with not a
few fees, and the sub-datary, commonly a
bishop, has a salary of 1,000. The name is from
datum, the Latin word usually prefixed to the
time when the documents are written (" Given
this 20th April," for example); hence also our
term date for a fixed period of time.
Davidists, fbUowers of David George, a
wretched fanatic of Delft, who, in 1525, pro
claimed himself the Messiah, denying angels and
a judgment, rejecting marriage, laughing at
sin, scorning all self-denial, and even ordinary
decency. Escaping from Delft, he fled to Fries-
land, and thence to Basle, where he changed his
name into John Brack, and died in 1556. The
magistrates of Basle, coming to the knowledge of
his doctrines, ordered his corpse, three years after
his death, to be dug up and burned.
Day (dies), with various appellations. Thus,

DEA
dies Camce Dominicae, day of the Lord's Supper ;
dies lucis, day of light; dies mandati, day ofthe
command ; dies natalis Eucharistiae, natal day of
the Eucharist ; dies panis, day of bread ; dies
viridium, an allusion, probably, to spring. All
these were titles given to the day before Good
Friday  See Maundy Thursday. Thus, too,
dies absolulionis, Good Friday; dies cinerum, of
ashes — Ash Wednesday; dies salutaris, Good
Friday; dies solis, Sunday; dies luminis, Epi
phany ; dies neophytorum, of new converts — Low
Sunday; dies indulgentice, eve of Good Friday,
when penitents were re-admitted.
Deacon. — By the writers of the New Testa
ment deacon is sometimes used to denote any
one who ministers in the service of God. — See
Biblical Cyclopaedia. In the ages immediately
succeeding that of the apostles, the deacons, who
were originally only stewards of a poors' fund,
were regarded as a sacred order, though the
appellation of priests was not generally given
to them. They were commonly distinguished
from presbyters or priests by the names of
ministers and Levites. Certain it is that the
ordination of a deacon differed from that of a
presbyter both in its form and manner, as well
as in the gifts and powers conferred thereby.
The ordination of a deacon might be performed
by the bishop alone ; because, as the council of
Carthage words it (can. 4), he was ordained,
not to the priesthood, but to the inferior services
of the Church. These services are not mentioned
in the form of ordination remaining in what are
called the Apostolic Constitutions; but the bishop
prayed, generally, tbat God would cause his
face to shine upon his servant who was then
chosen to the office of a deacon, and fill him
with his Holy Spirit and power, as he did
Stephen the martyr, that he, behaving himself
acceptably, uniformly, and unblamably, in his
office, might be thought worthy of a higher
degree. (Const. Apost., 1. viii., u. 18.)
The most common office of a deacon was to
assist the bishop and presbyters at the holy table,
of which he was to take care, together with the
ornaments and utensils belonging to it. He was,
further, to receive the offerings of the people, and
to hand them to the presbyter, by whom they
were presented to God upon tbe table ; after
which the deacon publicly repeated the names
of those who made the oblations. In some
churches, though not in all, the deacons read
the Gospel, both before and during the com
munion service: and in tbe administration of
tbe Lord's Supper, they were to distribute the
bread and wine to the people present, and also
to carry them to such as were absent; but they
could not consecrate the elements. In some
cases they had the power to administer baptism.
Another office of deacons was to direct the
people in the exercise of their public devotions
in the church, by giving them notice when each
part of the service began, and exciting thein to

204

DEA
join therein by certain forms of words appointed
for that purpose. The}' used the forms, " let us
pray," "let us attend," " lift your hearts," sursum
corda, or " withdraw, the service is over," ite,
missa est, &c. They were also to give notice to
the catechumens, penitents, and energumens,
when they were to come up and offer their
prayers, and when to depart; and in several
prayers they repeated the words before them, in
order to teach them what they were to pray for;
and, if Ucensed by the bishop, but not otherwise,
they were allowed to preach, and were empowered
to reconcile penitents to the church, and to re
buke any irregularities which they mightobserve
during the celebration of Divine service. They
might be deputed by their bishops to be their
representatives and proxies in general councils,
in which case they sat and voted, not as deacons,
but as proxies, in the room and place of their
principals ; and in provincial and consistorial
synods they were sometimes allowed, as well as
presbyters, to give their voice in their own
names. During the first two centuries of the
Christian Church the deacons performed various
inferior offices, which were afterwards discharged
by readers, sub-deacons, catechists, exorcists,
&c. To them, as the bishop's sub-almoners,
were confided the care of the poor, and the
superintendence of the morals of the people ; and
such evils as they could, they were to redress,
but those which were beyond their power, they
were to report to the bishop. In consequence of
the multifarious duties wbich thus devolved
upon deacons, it was usual to have several iu
the same church. In some churches they were
precise in the number seven, in imitation of the
first church at Jerusalem, though this rule was
not universaL Deacons were ordained by the
bishops by imposition of hands, and it was law
ful for them to have wives; but no one could be
ordained until he was twenty-five years of age.
(Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book ii., ch. xx.;
Suiceri Thesaurus Eccles., voce Aiaxstis). In the
United Church of England and Ireland, as also
in the Episcopal communions in Scotland and
North America, a deacon receives ordination by
the imposition of hands of a bishop ; in conse
quence of which he can preach, assist in the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and, generally,
may perform any sacred office except consecrat
ing the elements and pronouncing absolution.
By the statute 44 George III., c. 43, it is enac
ted, that no person shall be admitted until he
shall have attained the age of twenty-three years
complete ; but this act is declared not to affect
the right of granting faculties, exercised by the
Archbishops of Canterbury and Armagh, re
spectively, viz., to admit atearlier ages ; and by
59 George III., c. 60, sec. 1, the two arch
bishops of the realm, or the Bishop of London,
or any bishop authorized by any or either of
them, may ordain deacons any persons whom he
or they shall deem duly qualified, especially for

DEA
the purpose of officiating in his majesty's colonies
or foreign possessions. But no person so or
dained can afterwards hold any living or other
benefice in the United Kingdom, without the
previous consent in writing, under hand and seal
of the bishop in whose diocese such benefice,
&c, shall be locally situated ; nor without Uke
consent of the archbishop or bishop by whose
consent he was originally ordained, or of the
successor of such archbishop or bishop, in case
of his demise or translation ; nor without pro
ducing a testimony of his good behaviour during
his residence abroad, from the bishop in whose
diocese he has officiated, or (if there be not any
such bishop), from the governor in council of tbe
colony wherein he may have resided, or from the
colonial secretary of state (sec. 2). At the time
when the liturgy of the Church of England was
composed, it was the deacon's office, " where
provision is so made, to search for the sick,
poor, and impotent people of the parish, and to
intimate their estates, names, and places where
they dwell, unto the curate" (that is, to the
rector or vicar having the cure or care of souls),
" that by his exhortations they may be relieved
with the alms of the parishioners or others"
(Rubrick in tlie form of Ordination). This was
the more ancient office of a deacon, and this rule
was made in England before the estabhshment
of the poor laws, in pursuance of which that
care has now devolved upon the churchwardens
and overseers of the poor, which last office was
speciaUy created for that purpose.
The Second Book of Discipline, ch. viii., says,
"The word Aidxovos sometimes is largely taken,
comprehending all them that beare office in the
ministerie, and spirituall function in the kirk. But
now, as we speake, it is taken onely for them unto
whom the collection and distribution of the almes
of the faithfull and ecclesiastical! goods doth be
long. The office of the deacons so taken is an or-
dinarie and perpetuall ecclesiasticall function in
the kirk of Christ. Of what properties and duties
he ought to be that is called to this function,
we remit it to the manifest Scriptures. The
deacon ought to be called and elected, as the
rest of the spirituall officers, of the which election
was spoken before. Their office and power is to
receive, and to distribute the whole ecclesiasticall
goods unto them to whom they are appointed.
This they ought to doe according to the judge
ment, and appointment of the presbyteries, or
elderships (of the which the deacons are not)
that the patrimony of the kirk and poore be
not converted to private men's uses, nor wrong
fully distribute."
Deacons in Congregational churches, besides
attending to the poor, assist the minister with
their advice. In some Presbyterian congrega
tions, and in the Free Church, there are dea
cons regularly ordained to have charge of the
funds of the church. In other Presbyterian
churches the office is merged into tbat of rul-

DEA
ing elder. There are eighteen cardinal dea
cons in Rome, who have charge of the revenues
and temporal interests of the Church.
Deaconess. — The office of deaconess also
was known in the ancient Christian Church.
This was a female minister employed in those
duties which could not with propriety be exer
cised by the deacons themselves. This order
existed in the apostolic age ; for St. Paul
makes mention of Phoebe, a servant or dea
coness (Atdxovav) of the Church at Cenchrea,
which was a haven of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 1).
Pliny in his famous letter, quoted on page 142,
seems to speak of two of them whom he put
to the torture, quae minislrce dicebantur. They
were ordained by imposition of hands, and were
commonly chosen out of the widows of the
Church, who had been married once only ; it was
further required, that they should be at least
forty years old, which age was subsequently ex
tended to fifty or sixty years. Sometimes, how
ever, this office was discharged by virgins. The
duties of a deaconess consisted in the instruction
of female catechumens, and assisting at their
baptism; in visiting sick persons of their own
sex; and in conveying messages from the
bishops to women that were in health, whom the
deacons could not with propriety visit, for fear
of the scandalous imputations which the heathens
might cast upon them. In times of persecution
they were employed in ministering to the mar
tyrs in prison, because they could obtain a more
easy access, and with less suspicion of danger
than the ministers of the church could do. In
the Greek Church they had the charge of the
doors, though, probably, it was only in those
churches where a distinction was made between
the men's gate and the women's gate. Lastly,
it was the business of tbe deaconesses to assign
to aU women their places, and regulate their
behaviour in church ; to preside over the rest of
the widows; and to introduce any woman
having a suit to prefer to a presbyter or bishop.
This order of ecclesiastical officers ceased to exist
in the Latin Church in the tenth or eleventh
centurj', and in the Greek or Oriental Church
about the end of the twelfth century (Bingham's
Orig. Eccl., book ii., ch. 22). It was revived
among the Reformed Churches in France about
the middle of the nineteenth century.
Dead.— The superstitious custom of giving
the Eucharist to dead persons had crept into
France, and was condemned by the councils
of Auxerre in 578 ; and it had found its
way into Africa, and was condemned by
the third council of Carthage. The stranger
custom of burying the Eucharist in the coffin was
begun by Benedict, the monk, and continued
long in the Popish Church. Dr. Whitby,
in his Idolatry of Host-worship, p. 26, relates
that he had seen the chalice dug out of the
graves of several bishops buried in the Church
of Sarum.

205

DEA
Dead, Baptism of and for. — See Bap
tism. Dead, Burial of. — See Burial.
Dead, Prayers for. — See Burial, Prater.
Deadly Sin. — See Sin.
Dean (French doyen; Latin decanus).
Minshew derived this title from the Greek
" Vtxa," or Latin " decern " — ten, because a
dean is an ecclesiastical magistrate, and hath
power over ten canons at the least. In the Eng
lish Church tbe dean is the next ecclesiastical
officer to the bishop, and in cathedral establish
ments he is the president of the chapter, and
their acts run in the name of the dean and
chapter. The deaneries in England are of two
kinds — those existing before the Reformation,
and those translated by Henry VIII. from
priories and convents. The new deaneries to old
bishoprics are Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham,
Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Winchester, and Wor
cester ; the new deaneries to new bishoprics are,
Bristol, Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, and Peter
borough. To all of these new deaneries the
king appoints at once by letters patent, without
election or confirmation. In appointing to old
deaneries, the form is similar to that by which
a bishopric is given. The king issues a conge*
d'eiire, and at the same time recommends a
particular candidate. The chapter elects, the
king approves, and the bishop confirms him. In
tbe Welsh cathedrals the Bishop of St. David's
and Llandaff are quasi decani, that is both bishops
and deans, and St. Asaph and Bangor have the
patronage of their respective deaneries. In Ire
land the king appoints by letters patent.
Deans in peculiars. — The title of dean is also
used in some collegiate and other institutions with
out implying any diocesan jurisdiction, as in
Battel, Booking, Brecon, St. Buriens, Middleham,
Southwell, Westminster, Windsor, and Wol
verhampton. There are also deans in some of
the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, having
special academic superintendence ; and there are
honorary deans, such as the dean of the chapel
royal, St. James's Palace. Rural deans formerly
exercised jurisdiction over ten .parishes as the
bishop's deputies. The office still exists ; but the
duties, for the most part, are performed by the
archdeacon and chancellor of each diocese. In
Scotland there are deans of the chapel royal, who
enjoy certain emoluments as royal chaplains.
The term is also used in Scotland in a civil
sense, as dean of guild, dean of faculty, these
being the heads of such institutions.
Death, Brothers of, a name often given to
the order of St Paul, the first hermit, because of
the figure of a death's head which they carried
with them, to remind them ever of their mor
tality. Dccnnicum, the name given to a prison
attached to many of the ancient churches, pro
bably for the correction of the inferior office
bearers.

DED
Decretals. — Tbe decretals are letttrs of the
pope, or of the pope and cardinals, for ordering
or determining some matter of controversy. In
the Roman Catholic Church they rank as canon
ical epistles, and have the authority of law in
themselves. The first collection of the decretals
appeared about the year 760, under the name of
Isidore, and was brought from Spain into Ger
many by Riculphus, Bishop of Mayence. Both
tbe authenticity and the authority of this col
lection is disputed and in great measure given
up, even by the Roman Catholics themselves;
and it is generally admitted that no part of it is
genuine anterior to a letter of Pope Siricius to
Himerus, Bishop of Tarragona, in 385. The
proofs of the forgeries contained in this collection
are given by Moreri (Decretales). This was
followed in 845 by the Capitularies of Adrian ;
in 906 by the collection of Rheginon, Abbot of
Prumia; in 1000 by the collection of Burchar-
dius, Bishop of Worms, known as the Magnum
Decretorum seu Canonum volumen ; in 1100 by
the Decrelum Canonum et Pannomia of Ivo.
The Western Church in 1150 adopted the cele
brated work of Gratian, a benedictine monk of
Bologna, Concordia discordantium Canonum,
which is an epitome of canon law, drawn from
decrees of councils, letters of pontiffs, and writ
ings of ancient doctors. This work was fre
quently republished with large additions and
corrections, and for many centuries was the
text book of canonists. Innocent III. and
Honorius III. published their own letters. Ray-
nal of Pennafort, a Dominican, formed a new col
lection at the desire of Gregory IX., which bears
the name of that pontiff, Libri quinque Decretal-
ium Gregorii Noni. It appeared in 1230, and
is sometimes called the Pentateuch. Boniface
VIII. added to it a Liber Sextus DecretaMum in
1298, containing the decretals of Gregory Ii,
and those subsequent, down to his own papacy.
To this again was appended Liber Septimus Be-
eretalium or dementis Papas Constitutiones, by
Clement V., in 1313. The Extravagantes
Joan n is XXII. were compiled in 1 340 ; the Ex
travagantes Communes (containing decrees from
Urban VI. to Sixtus IV,), in 1483. Neither of
the last bear any authority; for John XXII.
never approved or sanctioned the collection pass
ing under his name ; and the author of the other
is unknown. Peter Matthsei published a col
lection in 1590, sometimes styled the Liber
Septimus Decretalium, and with this the legiti
mate decretals end. (Butler's Horas Juridica
subsecivoe.) — See Canon Law.
Dedication of Churches. — In the fourth
and fifth centuries of the Christian era festivals
were celebrated, under the title of encomia,
(feast of inauguration), lyxxivia i»{T», on
the anniversary of the dedication of any parti
cular church. Sozomen (11, 26) mentions the
encomia of the church built by Constantine at
Jerusalem, in honour of our Saviour. Henco

206

DEF
arose the German kirkweiches, and our English
church wakes; for Bede (i. 30) states, that
Gregory the Great, in his letters to Austin and
Mellitus, the first Saxon bishops in England,
ordered him to allow the people liberty on these
anniversaries to buUd booths, and feast round
their churches, in lieu of the ancient heathen
sacrifices These meetings were very different
from the old love-feasts (Bingham, Orig. Eccl.,
xx., 7, 1). In many places, on account of the
multiplicity of holidays thus occasioned, the
church wakes were transferred to the Sunday
following the day of dedication ; and by an in
junction of convocation in 1536, 21 Henry VIII.,
they were ordained to be kept in all places
throughout the realm on the first Sunday in
October. This injunction was never wholly
conformed to, and the Puritans complained of
those scenes of revelry. — See Consecration.
Defender of the Faith. — Chamberlayne
in his Magnae Britt. Not (1. 2), affirms that the
title Defender of the Faith belonged to the kings
of England long before tbe formal grant made
by Leo X. to Henry VIII., and appeals to seve
ral charters recorded by the university of Oxford
in confirmation of this assertion. Chamber
layne, however, has not cited his authorities.
One of the fullest accounts extant of the received
origin of the title, is given by Lord Herbert of
Cherbury, in his Life and Reign of Henry VIII.
(94) ; from which it appears, that at one time
the chances were greatly against the title having
been such as any of Henry's Protestant succes
sors could have retained. Dr. John Clark, Dean
of Windsor, was sent as ambassador to the pope,
to deliver the volume De Septem Sacramentis
against Luther, which, we believe, still exists in
the Vatican Library, very splendidly bound, and
bearing an inscription in the king's own hand
writing, Anglorum Rex Henricus Leoni mittit
hoc opus ad Fidei teslem et amicitiai. On his
" appearing in fuU consistory, the pope, knowing
the glorious present he brought, first gave him
his foot and then his cheeks to kiss ; then re
ceiving the book, he promised to do as much for
approbation thereof to all Christian princes
(which our king much desired) as ever was done
for St. Augustine's or Hierome's works ; assur
ing him withal, that at the next consistory he
would bestow a public title on the king, which
having been heretofore privately debated among
the cardinals, and those of protector or Defensor
Romance ecclesice, or Sedis apostolicce, or Rex
apostohcus, or orthodoxus, produced, they at
last agreed on Defensor Fidei." The original
bull of Leo X., in 1521, bestowing this title,
is in theCottonian Libraiy in the British Museum,
but in a very damaged condition. It is printed
by Lord Herbert (he. cit.), and by Selden, in
liis Titles of ' Honour. It contains some passages
which the pope very speedily must have been in
clined to revoke. The pope recalled this title at
the time at which he excommunicated Henry

DEG
for suppressing the religious houses; but the
king was by no means willing to relinquish it ;
and in the thirty-fifth year of his reign he ob
tained the confirmation of it by parliament. It
appears to have been a very favourite badge of
majesty. The Emperor Charles V., by virtue
of part of his coronation oath, was invested with
the title of Defensor Ecclesice ; and in compli
ment to the two monarchs, the following distich
was blazoned in golden letters over the council
chamber at Guildhall, when Charles visited
England : —
"Carolus, Henricus, vivant Defensor uterque;
Henricus Fidei, Carolus Ecclesise."
Both titles probably were derived from the primi
tive Church, which appointed numerous defen-
sores; as ecclesice, regni, civitatum, plebis. In
later days the defensor ecclesios was called ad-
vocatus. Defensor. — The defensores pauperum looked
after the poor, and, as their advocates, brought
cases of oppression before the magistrates, and
demanded redress. The defensores ecclesios had
no spiritual jurisdiction, but maintained the
rights of the church against aggressors, and at
length they heard criminal causes in the
bishop's name. They had a sort of external
superintendence over the copiatw, or those who
managed funerals. They might be clergymen or
advocates at law. They thus became law advisers
to the Church, and some suppose them to be
almost the same as chancellors. They were
called in the Greek Church h^txot and
IxxXwixlixoi — names suggested by their office.
— See Advowee, Patron .
Degradation, the ecclesiastical censure
by which a clergyman is divested of his holy
orders. The ceremonies attendant upon which
punishment consist chiefly in stripping him, one
by one, of his clerical vestments. In the Bomish
Church the person to be degraded is presented to
the officiating priest appointed to perform this
ceremony, robed in his sacerdotal vestments, if
he be in priest's orders; or with those of dea
con's, if in deacon's orders ; and so of the other
orders. Then the officiator, in the presence of
the secular judge, to whom the party to be de
graded is to be consigned, with a piece of glass,
or with a pen-knife, publicly scratches, but
slightly, so as not to fetch blood, those parts of
his hands which had been anointed in the confer
ring of orders. After which he divests the
criminal, successively, of all the insignia or
sacred ornaments which he had received at the
time of his taking orders, and finally strips him
of his clerical habit, putting on him a lay habit,
and pubUcly telling the .secular judge, who is
present, to take him under his jurisdiction if he
chooses, since he is thus deposed, degraded, and
divested of authority. This is the general form.
There are also forms for degrading the several
orders in the Romish Church, from archbishops

207

DEI
and bishops down to the very door-keepers. On
the arrival in England of the decree of Pope
Paul IV., which, among other things, command
ed Cranmer to be degraded, Strype says, " They
apparelled the archbishop in all the garments
and ornaments of an archbishop, only in mockery
everything was of canvas and old clouts. And
the crosier was put into his hand. And then
he was, piece by piece, stript of all again.
. . When they came to take his crosier, he
held it fast, and would not deliver it, but pulled
an appeal out of his left sleeve under his wrist,
and said, 'I appeal unto the next general
Council' " (Strype's Memorials of Archbishop
Cranmer). The church also had the right of in
flicting temporary degradation on a knight, as
appears from the following sentence issued by
John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury, to
gether with the Bishop of Salisbury, as dele
gates in the year 1285, 13 Edward I., against
Sir Osbert Gifford, for stealing two nuns out of
the Abbey of Wilton. He was never to enter a
nunnery, nor to be so much as in the presence of
a nun without an especial license from his dio
cesan ; he was to go thrice nudus in camisid et
femoralibus, into Wilton church, and there "fus-
ligari" — to be beaten with rods. So likewise
in Salisbury market and in Shaftesbury church.
Deists, those who deny the existence of a
written divine revelation. Deism has taken many
shapes — sometimes being only coarse profanity,
at other times a refined and poetical pantheism.
Sometimes it objects to the historical truth of the
record, at other times to the doctrines contained
in it. At one period it has denied the possibility
of a revelation, or the necessity of it ; at another,
it has held that the divine origin of it cannot
be proved. Thus Hume denies the credibility
of a miracle, and Strauss its objective reality.
The deism of the last century wore a cold and
withered aspect Its touch was rough and frosty.
It had no sympathies. Its sorcery was coarse
— unrelieved by the glitter of sophism or the
witchery of song ; and its dark and malignant
scowl chilled the very orgies into which its dis
ciples had been initiated. It tore hope and love
from man with a rude and unpitying snatch,
and " grinned horribly a ghastly smile," if its
victims at any time trembled under the sudden
consciousness of the robbery and cruelty which
had been practised upon them. It covered the
heaven with a pall of darkness, whose frown
was reflected in ominous gloom on the earth. So
it could not prevail. It gave nothing in ex
change for what it took away. It left man an
outcast without shelter, and an orphan without
a home. It gave no aim to life but a sensual
pleasure, and sought no relief from death but a
dreary annihilation. We are not afraid of the
grosser forms of unbelief bringing havoc and
ruin into the midst of the people. Their very
hideousness is repulsive. The fantastic disbelief
of Christianity, urged by such men as Fourier,

DEI
St. Simon, Owen, and even the Abbs' Lamen
nais, is rejected and loathed by the moral instincts
of our nature. Their communism owes its spread
to maddened passions and political desperation,
and had its birth in a visionary and Quixotic
attempt to remedy the disorders of society by the
summary act of overturning it, and erecting a
new fabric — a second Babel — whose wretched
existence, when tried in miniature, has always
been so brief as scarce to warrant the name of
an experiment, and whose promise of good is
only as the momentary verdure of the gourd,
" which came up in a night, and perished in a
night." Seduction from Christianity, to be suc
cessful, must present a fairer and more attractive
appearance ; and in such aUuring guise it has at
length come among us. Its insinuations are preg
nant with menace and danger; its pretensions
are coincident with the claims of the loftiest ideal
philosophy; and it sometimes arrogates the charms
of a poetical pantheism. There is nothing rnde
or vulgar about it. It does not seek to brand the
Bible as a forgery, but only to modify or explain
away its claims. It allows the inspired books
much in Uterary glory, and esthetic brightness,
but denies them a monopoly of such qualities.
It brings Scripture down to the level of common
treatises ; for it speaks of " Minos and Moses as
equally inspired to make laws ;" David and
Pindar " to write poetry ;" and affirms that
Newton and Isaiah, Leibnitz and Paul, &c.,
have in them " various forms of the one spirit
from God most high." Such inspiration is
limited to " no sect, age, or nation; for it is wide
as the world, and common as God." This new
theory so generalizes the doctrine of inspiration,
that whatever is precious and solacing in it, is
obscured or lost. Old terms are boldly put for
ward with a new sense attached to them ; the
hallowed phraseology usually applied to the
Book of God is quietly appropriated to ordinary
forms of thought and fancy. The new infidelity
drinks wine out of the temple vessels, but not
in the temple courts. Its brilliant ideas are
exalted into "a revelation" — its poets are
" prophets" — its admiration of nature is offered
as its " worship" — the shrine where it presents
such homage is its " sanctuary," — and the ardour
and excitement of its advocates are dignified by
the name of " inspiration." It is not to a
figurative or secondary use of such words we
object, but to the serious and literal employment
of them under the belief that identical pheno
mena are described — that the writers of Scrip
ture, even in the message they conveyed, had
nothing different from " millions of hearts stout
as theirs, as full of God." It is surprising that
men professing to honour Scripture, insult it at
the same time, by scorning its veracity. It pro
fesses to be a special revelation, and it authenti
cates its pretensions by numerous and convincing
proofs. — See Rationalism. Old Scottish sta
tute took high ground on this subject: "By

208

DEL
the 11th act of King William, pari. 1695, it is
ordained, that whoever shaU, in their writing or
discourse, deny, impugn, or quarrel, argue, or
reason, against the being of God, or any of the
persons of the blessed Trinity, or the authority
of the Holy Scriptures, or the providence of God
in the government of the world, shaU, for the
first fault, be punished with imprisonment, ay
and while they find bail to give public satisfac
tion in sackcloth to the congregation within
which the scandal was committed ; and, for the
second fault, the delinquent shall be fined in one
year's valued rent, and the twentieth part of his
free personal estate, besides his being imprisoned,
ay and while he give satisfaction again ut supra;
and for the third fault, he shall be punished with
death as an obstinate blasphemer. All judges
and ministers of the law are enjoined to execute
this act for the first fault; and all inferior magis
trates of shires, regalities, stewarties, and their
deputies, and magistrates of burghs are to execute
this act as to the second fault ; and. as to the
third fault, the execution thereof is remitted to
the lords of justiciary." — Steuart of Pardovan's
Collections, p. 142. — See Blasphemy.
Delegates, Court of, persons who sat on
certain ecclesiastical causes of appeal, under com
mission from the great seaL By certain acts
. passed in the reign of William IV., the court of
delegates is transferred to what is now called
the judicial committee of the privy council, con
sisting of the lord president, lord chancellor, and
the chief judges of the various courts of law.
Demission, the name in Presbyterian
Churches for the act by which a minister resigns
bis charge. He can only resign it into the
hands of the presbytery ; for they ordained him.
The court judges of the grounds of demission,
and may refuse or comply. An old form in the
Church of Scotland was as foUows : — " I, Mr. A.
B., minister at C, for such causes, demit my
ministry at the said parish of C, purely and
simply into the hands of the presbytery of D.,
declaring, that for my part, the said parish shall
be held vacant, and tbat it shaU be free to the
parish and presbytery, after due intimation here
of, by warrant of the presbytery, to call and
plant another minister therein; and consents
that this be recorded in the presbytery books,
ad futuram rei memoriam. In witness whereof
I have subscribed these presents at  &c."
The demission being accepted, the church is
declared vacant
Demiurge, the maker of the world  See
Manicileism. Demoniacs.— See Energumens.
Denarii de Caritate. pennies offered of old
at the Eucharist, and which might be given to
the poor, or devoted to any sacred purposes.
Denmark, Church of. — It is not certainly
known from what country Denmark was origi
nally peopled; but the probability is that it was
first colonized by Scythian tribes, dwelling to

DEN
the north of the Euxine Sea. The earliest
Danish records do not go back farther than the
arrival of Odin, a.d. 70. There is nearly as
much difficulty in arriving at an accurate know
ledge of its primitive reUgious belief, as in ascer
taining tbe origin of the nation itself. The re
ligion of tbe early inhabitants of Denmark seems
to have been similar to that of the majority of
Gothic races. Their simple system of religion be
came much altered after the time of Odin. A much
larger number of deities were now recognized ;
and the chief divinity, instead of ruling over all,
was now viewed as presiding over only one pro
vince — that of war. Thus we have the hero as
divinity ; for Odin seems to have been nothing
more than a successful adventurer, coming with
a large army from the provinces lying between
the Euxine and the Caspian, and conquering
large portions of the north of Europe, one of
which was Denmark, over which he installed his
son Skjold as king. Probably soon after his
death he would be deified. The accounts of
him, being preserved merely by tradition, would
grow more and more fabulous by repetition, until
at last be was exalted in imagination to the highest
pitch of power, and was viewed as the supreme
ruler of the world, or at least of the country.
There were twelve inferior gods and goddesses,
who, though entitled to divine honours, were
bound to yield obedience to Odin.
The first efforts to introduce Christianity into
Denmark were made by Willibrord, an English
presbyter, who was consecrated Archbishop ofthe
Frisias in a.d. 696. These efforts were not suc
cessful. Having offended tbe inhabitants by
slaying some of the sacred animals, he was ex
pelled from the country. It was not till the be
ginning of the ninth century that Christianity
obtained anything like a permanent footing. In
822, feuds having arisen in regard to tbe succes
sion to the throne, Harald Krag, a prince of
Jutland, besought the interposition of Lewis the
Pious, Emperor of Germany. The latter sent to
Denmark, as his ambassador, Ebbo, Archbishop
of Rheims, his favourite statesman, who had the
interests of the church as weU as of the empire
at heart, and who had previously cherished an
earnest desire to engage in a mission to the
Danes. He succeeded in gaining over Harald
and those around bim to Christianity, though
probably political motives may have had some
thing to do with the conversion. Harald and
his queen accompanied the ambassador back to
the court of his imperial master ; and there they
received the rite of Christian baptism — the
emperor standing godfather for the king, and
the empress as godmother for the queen. When
Harald was about to take his departure, tlie
emperor desired to find a pious ecclesiastic who
might accompany him, in order to reside per
manently in his dominions, and to instruct the
people in the faith which their sovereign had
embraced. Having made inquiries, he selected

209

DEN
Anschar, a monk of Picardy, belonging to the
convent of Corbey, and who had previously
formed one of a company who had established a
missionary convent of the same name among the
northern heathen. Anschar, frequently called
the "Apostle of the North," was the child of
many prayers, and, like Samuel, had been
devoted to the service of God from his mother's
womb. Like him, too, he had, in his early years,
been favoured with, or at least supposed that he
had been favoured with, special revelations from
God. He was undoubtedly a sincerely pious
man. He readily undertook to accompany the
Danish king, upon whom, during the voyage, he
seems to have produced a most favourable im
pression. When they reached Denmark, Ans
char at once commenced his labours. He com
menced, after a somewhat peculiar fashion, by
purchasing a number of native boys, whom he
intended to instruct in the principles of Chris
tianity, and so to qualify them for becoming
preachers of the gospel to their countrymen.
He opened his training institution with twelve
pupils. He was, however, soon interrupted in his
beneficent labours. The affections of Harald's
subjects were alienated from bim by his adoption
of Christianity and by the German alliances
which he had formed. He was accordingly driven
from Denmark in 828. By thus preferring his
faith to his crown, Harald clearly showed that,
whatever may have been hismotives for originally
adopting the Christian religion, he was now at
least sincerely attached to it. Deprived of his
powerful patron, Anschar deemed it expedient to
leave Denmark. He did not betake him anew
to the indolent retirement of the convent, but, in
compliance with the invitation of the Emperor
Lewis, went into Sweden, where a door of useful
ness had just been opened, and where he met
with considerable success. After his departure
the Danish mission was conducted by Gislema,
who was much impeded in his efforts by the op
position of Horick, who had succeeded Harald.
But Anschar, now become Archbishop of Ham
burg, and still mindful of the Danish mission, and
solicitous for its welfare, opens a correspondence
with Horick, and succeeds in conciliating him ; so
that Gislema and his coadjutors are permitted to
proceed with the work of the mission, and to erect
churches, — among others, one at Hadeby, now
Schleswig. Horick was succeeded by Horick
II., who checked the progress of Christianity.
The check, however, was only a temporary one,
and the churches were re-opened ; and the work
of the mission proceeded vigorously, still under
the fostering supervision of the pious and devoted
Anschar, who, from his dying bed, besought the
emperor zealously to prosecute the Danish and
Swedish missions. Rimbert succeeded Auschar
in the archiepiscopate, and endeavoured to copy
Wis example, making several dangerous journeys
into Denmark and Sweden. The position ofthe
Scandinavians, who were at this time constantly 21

DEN
engaged in predatory incursions into other coun
tries, was not favourable to the spread of Chris
tianity among them. Still, on the other hand,
the Danes were brought to a considerable extent
under its influence, by means of the intimate
relations which they, at this time, had with Eng
land. For a considerable time Christianity met
with a series of rapid alternations of favour and
disfavour from the ruling princes. In the first
half of the tenth century King Gurm, a bitter
opponent of Christianity, commenced a violent
persecution of the Christians. But in 934 the
German emperor interposed, and not only stop
ped the persecution, but also made Gurm cede the
province of Schleswig to the German empire.
It was taken possession of by a colony of Chris
tians. Gurm still continued opposed to Chris
tianity. It was favoured and adopted by his
son Harald, who in due course ascended the
throne. His son Sueno again banished tbe
Christian religion, and re-estabUshed the ancient
faith. The son of the latter, Canute the Great,
was won to the side of Christianity by the in
fluence of the English Church. He earnestly
strove to give to Christianity a firm foundation
in Denmark. In tbe eleventh century the
Danish Church received much royal favour,
first from Sweyn II. , and afterwards from
Canute IV. We may see the power which the
church had by this time attained, from the fact
that a bishop ventured to visit with the censures
of the church the first of these kings, whose con
duct was not at all times in perfect accordance
with the teachings of the religion which he fos
tered. The king did not resist, but humbly be
sought forgiveness. Having obtained it, he ever
after remained a faithful son of the Roman
Catholic Church. Canute IV. went so far inhis
devotion to the interests of tbe church as to pro
pose to give ecclesiastics a voice in the governing
council of the nation. This so enraged the
people that they rebelled against him, and took
his life. He was succeeded by Eric III., sur-
named the Good, who also fostered the church.
Denmark had now become, to a great extent, a
professedly Christian country. In the thirteenth
century tbe power of the church was so great,
that in consequence of an infringement of its
privileges, Christopher I. was excommunicated,
and his kingdom laid under an interdict, which
continued for some time. There were continually
recurring contests between the prerogative of
the crown and the privileges of the church until
the reign of Eric VIII., when a compromise was
effected. After this tbe church held undisturbed
sway, until the time of the Reformation. Den
mark was happily one of those European
countries in which the Reformation was destined
to take deep root, and to acquire for itself a
permanent position. From ils proximity to Ger
many, the doctrines of Luther were early pro
claimed among its inhabitants. Christian, the
heir of the thrones of Denmark and Norway, so

DEN
far favoured the opinions as to call in mission
aries to proclaim and expound them to the people.
He, however, afterwards withdrew his coun
tenance. But Frederick I., the reigning sovereign,
encouraged the preaching of Protestant doctrines.
The assembled states decreed, that there should
be perfect liberty of conscience — that the clergy
should be allowed to marry — and that the
bishops should no longer be appointed by the
pope, but should be elected by the chapters, sub
ject to the confirmation of the crown. Many of
the religious establishments were forsaken, and
their revenues confiscated. The Lutheran doc
trines spread rapidly in the towns, and also to
some extent in the rural districts. During the in
terregnum which foUowed the death of Frederick,
the bishops made efforts to recover their supre
macy, and succeeded in obtaining several conces
sions. These were soon revoked by Christian
III. He deprived the bishops of their seats in
the senate, and of all temporal authority. By
taking prompt and energetic measures, he com
pleted the overthrow of Romanism, and definitely
established Protestantism as the national re
Ugion of Denmark. It was not till 1683, in the
reign of Christian V., that the constitution of
the Danish Church was fully settled as it at pre
sent exists. The Danish ritual was first pub
hshed in 1685. The government of the Church
of Denmark is episcopal. In the whole country,
including Iceland and its dependences, there are
nine bishops and one superintendent-general.
These are aU appointed by the king. The
Bishop of Zealand, who resides at Copenhagen,
is the metropolitan. By him aU the other
bishops are consecrated ; and he himself is con
secrated by the Bishop of Fyhn, his nearest epis
copal neighbour. The church patronage is chiefly
in the hands of the king. The feudal proprietors
are allowed to name three candidates for vacant
benefices on their own estates ; and from these
three, the king selects one. The bishops are
bound to send to the king an annual report of the
state of matters in their dioceses. The synod of
Zealand meets twice a-year : the other diocesan
synods only once. The clergy are, to some
extent, civil as weU as ecclesiastical officers,
being charged with the collection from their
parishes of certain taxes. Their salaries are
very Umited ; and even the bishops are not over
paid. Since the Reformation, only one-third of
the tithes is devoted to ecclesiastical purposes.
The church service is chiefly liturgical ; and the
attendance upon public worship is not so general
among the Danes as among the Norwegians.
In the dispensation of baptism the Danish
Church uses exorcism. They make the sign of
the cross on the head and breasts of the recipient,
using also the imposition of the hands. There
are at baptism five sponsors or witnesses ; but
they do not assume any responsibility as to the
up-bringing of the child. Lay baptism is, in
some cases, held to be valid. Confirmation 21

DEP
must always take place before admission to the
Lord's Supper. It is also required that all can
didates for civil and military situations shall
have been confirmed. Indeed, a certificate of
confirmation is indispensably requisite iu order to
obtain any situation whatsoever. Great educa
tional preparations are made for tbe examina
tions for confirmation. While this is so far well,
inasmuch as it secures that almost every inhabi
tant ofthe country shall have a competent know
ledge of the doctrines of Christianity, it cannot
be doubted that it wiU also have an evil tendency,
by engendering the opinion that religion is
merely intellectual, and does not enter into the
province of the heart. The consequence of this
making a civU test of a religious ordinance is,
that dissenters, of whom there are very few, are
obliged to live in communities by themselves.
The Lord's Supper is celebrated in towns weekly,
in rural parishes monthly, and even more rarely.
In receiving the wafer and the cup the com
municants kneel, the males on the right and the
females on the left. The minister does not
kneel during any part of the service. Tbe festi
vals of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost are kept,
each for two successive days. They also observe
the fast of Lent.
Denominations, Three, the name com
monly given to an association of about 150
ministers in and about London, Presbyterian,
Independent, and Baptist, who have the privilege
of presenting addresses at court, having voted such
addresses at royal births or demises. At the acces
sion of a new sovereign they are introduced with
their congratulatory address, and kiss hands.
At other times they send a deputation, which is
received in the royal closet. Their meetings
are held in Dr. Williams's library, Red Cross
Street. Fully a half of them are Congregationa-
lists. Deodand (to be given to God), a thing or
personal chattel so forfeited as being the cause of
death. In England, deodands were forfeited to
the king for pious uses by the royal almoner.
An act to abolish them was passed in 1846.
Deo gratia* (thanks to God), a form of
salutation anciently used by Christians.
Deposition, a term used in Presbyterian
Churches to signify tbe final deprivation of a
minister from office and all its functions. On
the other hand, suspension from office is usually
for a limited period, or until satisfactory proofs of
penitence are given. — See Discipline.
Deprecation. — See Litany.
Deprivation, a term in the Church of Eng
land, denoting the censure by which a clergyman
is deprived of his living. It can be pronounced
by the bishop only, and must be preceded by a
monition, a charge, and a proot The 122d canon
says : " When any minister is complained of in
any ecclesiastical court belonging to any bishop
of his province, for any crime, the chanceUor,
commissary, official, or any other having eccle-
1

DES
siastical jurisdiction, to whom it shall appertain,
shall expedite the cause by processes and other
proceedings against him : and upon contumacy
for not appearing, shall first suspend him ; and
afterwards, his contumacy continuing, excommu
nicate him. But if he appear, and submit hun-
self to the course of law, then the matter being
ready for sentence, and the merits of his offence
exacting by law either deprivation from his
living, or deposition from the ministry, no such
sentence shall be pronounced by any person who
soever, but only by the bishop, with the assist
ance of his Chancellor, the dean (if they may
conveniently be had), and some of the preben
daries, if the court be kept near the cathedral
church, or of the archdeacon, if he may be had
conveniently, and two other at the least grave
ministers and preachers, to be called by the
bishop when the court is kept in other places."
Desk, Beading, the name given to the pulpit
in which morning and evening prayer is read in
the Church of England. Originally this service
was read at the upper end of the choir or chan
cel. Objections were made to this custom, and
desks were formally appointed in the reign of
James I. Desk in Scotland is the place occupied
by the leader of the psalmody.
Destruction.— See Annihilation.
Deus misereatnr (God have mercy), the
Latin name of the sixty-seventh psalm, derived
from its first words, which, in the Church of Eng
land, may be used in the evening prayer, after the
second lesson, instead of the nunc dimittis, except
on the twelfth day of the month, on which it
occurs among the psalms for the day.
Deutero-Canonical (belonging to the se
cond canon), an epithet given to certain books,
usually called apocryphal by Frotestants, but
which were read in the church, and sometimes,
on that account, termed ecclesiastical. They are
so named by writers belonging to the Church of
Rome, to distinguish them from some books
which even she styles apocryphal — such as the
Prayer of Manasseh, the Fourth Book of Ezra,
and the Third Book of Maccabees.
Development, the name given to that form
of proof by which some few Romanists vindicate
their system. The theory is, that the revelation
contained in the New Testament was intention
ally incomplete ; that these doctrines, imperfectly
given at first, were to be developed in course of
ages, and under infallible guidance ; and that the
present belief of the Roman Catholic Church is
the ripened and final result. Mr. Newman has
given fame and prominence to this theory, though
others, such as Mohler and De Maistre, had
hinted it before him. It is certainly true that
the errors of Popery were introduced gradually,
and sprang from small seeds. But Mr. Newman's
theory in defence of Popery is opposed to the
commonly received dootrine of his church. Thus
the council of Trent decreed, session 4 : " The
sacred and holy, oecumenical and general synod of

DEV
Trent, lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the
same three legates of the apostolical see presiding
therein, — keeping this always in view, that, errors
being removed, the purity itself of the Gospel be
preserved in the Church ; which [Gospel], before
promised through the prophets in the Holy Scrip
tures, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
first promulgated with his own mouth, and then
commanded to be preached by his apostles to
every creature, as the fountain both of every
saving truth, and discipUne of morals ; and per
ceiving that this truth and discipline are con
tained in the written books, and the unwritten
traditions which, received by the apostles from
the mouth of Christ himself, or from the apostles
themselves, the Holy Ghost dictating, have come
down even unto us, transmitted as it were from
hand to hand ; [the synod] following the examples
of the orthodox fathers, receives and venerates
with equal affection of piety, and reverence, all
the books both of the Old and of the New Tes
tament, — seeing that one God is the author of
both, as also the said traditions, as well those
appertaining to faith as to morals, as having
been dictated, either by Christ's own word of
mouth, or by the Holy Ghost, and preseived by
a continuous succession in the CathoUc Church."
The theory, moreover, would be a plain surrender of
the claim of antiquity on the part of the Catholic
Church; for she has invariably pointed to the
unanimous consent of the fathers, and apostolical
tradition. There is development in personal reli
gious life, and in personal conception of the
unity and relations of divine truth — the blade, the
ear, and then the full corn in the ear ; but New
man's theory, espoused also by Cardinal Wise
man, is vague and inconsistent Protestants
hold by Scripture as a perfect rule of faith. The
late Professor Archer Butler's letters are a sweep
ing and powerful reply to Newman. Thus he
says : "Or again — to come somewhat nearer the
favourite region of false and spurious ' develop
ment' — when we remember the divinity of
Christ, combined in one personality with his
manhood, at his incarnation through the Holy
Virgin, we can readily deduce (with the angel)
that she was indeed eminently ' blessed among
women,' or (with herself) that she ought fitly to
be 'called blessed' by 'all generations.' We
cannot deduce by exactly the same process, that
that blessed person has been for eighteen centuries
the 'Queen of Heaven,' exalted above every
created thing, and to be worshipped with the
veneration due to a being possessing all of God
head, except its absolute infinity, as Mr. New
man proclaims (p. 406), that she is (as the pre
sent Bishop of Rome not long since declared, from
the inmost sanctuary of infallible truth) 'Our
greatest hope, yea, the entire ground oiomhonsV"
And again, "Mr. Newman delivers himself as
follows, which is the only distinct reference I can
remember to the subject in his entire volume: —
' The holy apostles would know, without words,

212

DIA
all the truths concerning the high doctrines of
theology, which controversialists after them have
piously and charitably reduced to formulse, and
developed through argument.' — p. 83. And he
then proceeds, as if somewhat afraid of so delicate
an inquiry, to talk about the knowledge St.
Justin and St. Irenaeus 'might' have of (it is
one of the usual artifices of his rhetoric to class
such things together) purgatory or original sin.
Meanwhile the above sentence affords all the
light Mr. Newman is pleased to furnish us as to
his views of St. Paul's knowledge of the propriety
of invoking, in religious worship, St. James after
his martyrdom; or St. John's conceptions of
the duty of depending for his 'entire hope,' with
Pope Gregory XVI., upon the boundless influence
in heaven of her whom he ' took unto his own
home;' or St. Peter's notions of the absolute
supremacy of himself, and of a line of prelates
professing to occupy his place ; or St. Matthew's
thoughts about the utility of bowing in ' relative
adoration' before wooden images of deceased
men and women. The apostles would know all
these things 'without words.' But now, if the
apostles not only ' would know ' — a form of
expression which I do not pretend precisely to
understand — but reaUy did know these things, it
may be permitted me, without presumption, to
ask, on what conceivable ground is their silence
regarding them to be explained ? Their love of
souls was unquestionable ; the practical impor
tance of the doctrines in question, if true, was
equally so. If souls, elect, saved, forgiven, are,
after death, to be tortured for thousands of years
in purgatorial flames, and depend for their sole
chance of alleviation or release upon masses on
earth, how incomprehensible was the abstinence of
earnest, loving Paul (knowing all this thorough
ly) from any allusion to the necessity of such
helps for these wretched spirits ! If the invoca
tion of the blessed Virgin be one of the chief
instruments of grace in the Gospel, how inexpli
cable that, in aU the many injunctions of prayer
and suppUcation, no syllable should ever be
breathed of this great object of prayer; on the
contrary, that numerous apparent implications
should occur of the sole and exclusive right of
the Deity to such addresses ! If the bishop and
church located at the city of Rome were, by
Divine appointment, ever to carry with them a
gift of infallible guidance to itself and all churches
in their communion, — how utterly inconceivable
that the apostles, knowing this — above aU, that
St. Peter himself, the conscious fountain of all
this mighty stream of living waters ordained to
flow to the end of time, should, while constantly
predicting the growth of heresies, the prevalence
of false knowledge, the glory of steadfastness in
the faith, never, even by incidental allusion, refer
to this obvious, safe, immediate security against
error ! "
Diacsnismus Qtd and xaivos, new), the name
anciently given by the Greek Church to the

DIL
week after Easter, the period of spiritual renewal.
Diaconate, the office of a deacon.
Diaconicum, the chancel or sanctuary of the
ancient churches, according to some writers ; but
more probably tbe vestry where the sacred ves
sels and vestments were deposited. None but
the clergy were permitted to enter it. — See In
ferior Clergy.
Diaconi regionarii (district deacons), the
original name of the cardinals at Rome, and in
dicating their original office.
Dies. — See Day, Lent.
Diet, the name given to an assembly in Ger
many. Some famous ones were held at the period
of the Reformation. 1. Diet of Worms, in 1521,
at which Luther refused to recant. 2. Of Nur
emberg, in 1523, where the nuncio demanded the
publication of the bull of Leo X., and of the
edict of CharlesV. against Luther. 3. Of Nurem
berg, in 1524, at which it was resolved to call an
assembly at Spires, which the emperor prohi
bited. 4. Of Spires, 1526, at which tbe Duke of
Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse demanded
the free exercise of the Lutheran faith, and it was
resolved to call a general council. 5. Of Spires,
in 1529, in which a decree was issued, abrogating
that of the first diet, against which six princes
and fourteen deputies from imperial towns
protested, hence the party was called Protestants.
6. Of Augsburg, in 1530, convoked by Charles
V., and to which the celebrated Lutheran Con
fession of Faith was presented.
Diet, in Scottish presbyterian nomenclature,
is a public service, as in the phrase, " diet of
public worship," " an evening diet or sermon."
Digamy  See Marriages, Second.
Diggers, a name given apparently to the
Waldenses, because they were obliged to form
caverns for their safety, as they met in secret for
Divine worship.
Dilapidation, in law, a wasteful destroying,
or letting those things which a beneficed person
has the burden and charge of reparation — such
as the chancel, parsonage house, enclosures,
hedges, and ditches — fall to ruin and decay for
want of reparation. Actions for dilapidation
may be brought either in the spiritual court by
the canon law, or in the courts of common law ;
and they lie as well against an incumbent if re
moved to another preferment, as against his ex
ecutors or administrators, in case of his death.
It is said to be good cause of deprivation if the
bishop, parson, vicar, or other ecclesiastical
person, dilapidates the buildings, or cuts down
timber growing in the patrimony of the church,
unless for necessary repairs; the woods being
called the dower of the church. By the 13
Elizabeth, c. 10, if any ecclesiastical person
makes over, or alienates his goods or chattels,
with intent to defeat his successor of his remedy
for dilapidations, such successor shall have the
same remedy in the ecclesiastical court against
the alienee as if he were the executor or ad-

213

DIM
ministrator of the person so alienating his goods
and chattels. By the 14 Elizabeth, c. 11, all
moneys recovered for dilapidations shall within
two years be employed upon the repairs in re
spect whereof such moneys are paid, on pain of
forfeiting double as much as shall be received,
and not employed, to the crown. By the 17
George III., c. 53, it is enacted, with a view to
prevent dilapidations, that clergymen may mort
gage the glebe, tithes, and other profits of their
livings, for the purpose of building, or improving
the buildings belonging to their benefices — the
ordinary and patron giving their consent, and
other forms in the act specified being complied
with. The governors of Queen Anne's bounty
may lend money for the like purpose, not
exceeding £100, without interest, in respect of
a living under £50 a-year; and where the
annual value exceeds £50, they may lend any
sum not exceeding two years' income, at £4 per
cent, interest Colleges, also, or other incor
porate bodies, having the patronage of livings,
may lend money for the same purposes without
interest. Diminntos (defective), persons were so
called whose confessions before the Inquisition
were imperfect, that is, such as accused them
selves before sentence but incompletely, that the
sentence, might be lenient ; or such as did so after
sentence, and were tortured to gain further dis
closures ; or such as made no confession till de
livered up to the confessor, and obliged to name
aU who were in complicity with them.
Dimissory Letters, are letters given by a
bishop to a candidate for holy orders, having a
title in his diocese, directed to some other bishop,
and giving leave for the bearer to be ordained
by him. In the canons of many councils these
letters are called ivriffToXa.) avoXunxai. At
first dimissory letters were given to all Chris
tians on their removal from one place to another,
a practice still most scrupulously observed by
the various Protestant dissenting communities
in this country ; but when persecution ceased,
and the numbers of the Christian Church were
greatly increased, the formality of a bishop's
introduction fell into disuse, except in the case
of clergymen desiring to remove from one diocese
to another. Presbyters, confessors, and all others,
were forbidden to write those letters ; but the
chorepiscopi had power to grant them to the
country clergy. "No clergymen of whatever
degree," says the council of Trullo, "shall be
entertained in another church without the dimis
sory letters of bis own bishop." These he might
grant or refuse as he saw proper ; for there was
no law to compel him to grant them.
Diocese, a district of an inhabited country.
Constantine and his successors divided their empire
into thirteen dioceses, which comprehended 120
provinces, and were governed by twelve vicars
or sub-prefects. Eome and its neighbourhood
had one prefect to itself, exclusive of the one

DIO
appointed over Italy at large. About the latter
end of the fourth century the church appears to
have been divided in a similar manner with the
empire, having an exarch or patriarch in each of
the thirteen great dioceses, and a metropolitan
or primate in every province. The lesser diocese,
used as the word is now, included the episcopal
city itself, and all the region round about it,
with its numerous congregations under the
bishop's jurisdiction ; hence it was caUed the
bishop's xagoixia, which in its original applica
tion meant the bishop's whole diocese, though
the word parish, or a single congregation, has
flowed from it in later days. The estabhshment,
distribution, and extent of ecclesiastical dioceses,
is most learnedly and copiously examined in the
ninth book of Bingham's Orig. Eccl, in which
the counter-arguments of Lord King are stated
and impugned.
The civil diocesan division of the old Roman
empire in the days of Arcadius and Honorius
was as follows :— I. Praefectus Prcetorio per
Orientem: Five dioceses were subject to his
jurisdiction, namely, — 1. The Oriental diocese,
properly so called ; 2. The diocese of Egypt ;
3. The diocese of Asia ; 4. The diocese of Pontus;
5. the diocese of Thrace. — II. Profectus Proetorio
perHlyricum: Only two dioceses were committed
to his superintendence, namely, — 1. The diocese
of Macedonia; 2. The diocese of Dacia. — III.
Praefectus Prcetorio Italice: Three dioceses were
subject to tbe jurisdiction of this governor,
namely, — 1. The diocese of Italy ; 2. The diocese
of Illyria ; 3. The diocese of Africa  IV. Pra-
fectus Praitorio Galliarum : He had the command
of three dioceses, namely, — 1. The diocese of
Spain ; 2. The diocese of Gaul ; 3. The diocese
of Britain. The diocese of Britain included five
provinces, namely, — 1. Maxima Csesareensis ;
2. Valentia; 3. Britannia Prima; 4. Britan
nia Secunda; 5. Flavia Csesareensis. Or thus—

Exarch of York, if ast.
Metropoles.

Diocese of Britain.
Provinces.
1. Maxima Csesareensis, i. e., )
at first, all from the ( _. _„ , ,
Thames to the northern ( Eboracum (York).
borders,  J
2. FJavia Csesareensis, taken S
out of the former, andf
containing all from thef Eboracum.
Thames to the Humber, . J
3' SMISSSni*1.*1!] Londinum (London).

4. Britannia Secunda, i. e., allf rnrioninm fPnerieoni
_ beyond the Severn, ._ . .j ^arleolum (Caeiieon).
> Eboracum.

5. Valentia, beyond the Picts'
wall.

The following statement occurs in Gardner's
Faiths ofthe World under the word " diocese," —
" The average population in March 1851, when
the last census was taken, of each diocese in Eng
land and Wales, was 645,383. This appears to
be a higher average than is to be found in any
other country of Europe. From a report of a
recent commission in France, on the subject of
episcopal sees, we learn the following facts as to
214

DIP
the average population of each diocese in various
Roman Catholic and other countries in Europe.
France reckons a bishop or archbishop for about
400,000 souls of Roman Catholic population.
Bavaria has eight dioceses for 3,000,000 souls, or
in other words, the average amount of a single
diocese is 375,000. Austria has seventy-eight
bishops or archbishops for 28,000,000 souls,
that is, one diocese for 358,000. Ireland has
twenty-nine dioceses for 6,500,000 Roman
CathoUcs, which makes about 224,000 in each
diocese. Spain has fifty-nine dioceses for
12,000,000 souls, that is, a diocese for 203,000
souls. The dioceses in Spain have recently
undergone a slight reduction to fifty-six. Por
tugal has twenty-two episcopal or metropolitan
dioceses for 2,500,000 souls, that is, a diocese for
113,000 souls. The two Sicilies have eighty
dioceses for 8,500,000 souls, or one diocese for
106,000 souls. Sweden, with about 3,000 000
souls, has thirteen dioceses. Greece, with a
population of less that 1.000,000, has twenty-
four episcopal dioceses. The Protestant Episco
pal Church in the United States of America has
about 1,800 clergy, and thirty-two episcopal
dioceses." Dippers. — See Ddnkers.
Dipsalma (double psalm), that form of sing
ing in which the clergy sung one portion and the
people chanted the responses. Thus, in Psalm
cxxxvi., the clergy sung the first clause of each
verse, and the people added the refrain, " for his
mercy endureth for ever."
Diptychs (S/Vtk^oj from tis, and 1?™%*,
a fold). — The Roman diptycha were folding
tablets employed as memorandum books. The
diptychs of the ancient Church were registers
— some for the dead and some for the Uving.
They were under the care of an officer appointed
for the purpose. These ecclesiastical registers
were of three kinds: Diptycha mortuorum,
in which the names of all such as died in the
odour of sanctity were enrolled ; Diptycha vivo-
rum, containing the living officers and benefac
tors of the Church; Diptycha episcoporum, a
catalogue of canonized bishops. Portions of
these were read during the celebration of mass.
It was the custom in some churches for the
deacon to rehearse from these books the names
of eminent bishops, saints, or martyrs, before
they made oblation for the dead. It was also
customary when the oblation had been made,
to mention the names of those that had offered,
after which they were enroUed among the
living benefactors of the Church, by the proper
officer. The original intention of this practice,
which soon became corrupted into occasions
of vain-glory and ostentation, will be evident
from the following extract of a letter from
Cyprian to the .churches of Numidia concern
ing a collection that had been made for them at
Carthage, for the redemption of some Chris
tian captives :— " I have sent you the names of

DIR
every brother and sister that had contributed
willingly to so necessary a work, that you might
remember them in your prayers, and requite
their good work in your sacrifices and solemn
supplications." The names of those excommuni
cated were erased from the diptychs, and again
restored upon their repentance and admission to
church fellowship ; and whenever a discovery of
crime deserving of excommunication was made,
after the death of an individual who retained his
connection with the visible Church to the last,
his name was expunged from the diptychs, which,
of itself, was tantamount to an excommunica
tion after death. The diptychs were read from
the ambo, or reading desk (Gorio, Thesaurus
veterum Diptychorum Consularium et Ecclesiasti-
corum, Florence, 1759).
Directory. — When the assembly of divines
sat at Westminster, in 1 643, the liturgy of the
Church of England had been laid aside, and no
office had been substituted in its room. A com
mittee, therefore, was appointed to agree on
certain general heads for the guidance of minis
ters. These heads having passed through the
assembly, were sent to Scotland for approbation,
and in the end were authorized by an ordinance
of parliament, bearing date 3d January, 1644,
under the title of a Directory for the Public
Worship cf God throughout the three Kingdoms
of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The same
ordinance repealed the acts of Edward VI. and
Elizabeth, by which the liturgy was established,
and forbade the use of it within any church,
chapel or place of public worship in England
or Wales, appointing the use of the directory
in its stead. This ordinance, indeed, never
received the royal assent, and it was a long
time before it succeeded in abolishing tbe estab
lished worship. In some parts the directory
could not be procured, in others it was rejected;
some ministers would not read any form, others
read one of their own. The parliament, there
fore, in the ensuing summer, called in all the
Books of Common Prayer, and imposed a fine
upon such ministers as should read any other
form than that imposed by the directory. The
penalty for reading the liturgy was £5 for the
first offence, £10 for the second, and a year's
imprisonment for the third ; for non-observance
of the directory, 40s. Any one who should
preach, write, or print anything in derogation
of the directory, was to forfeit not less than £5,
nor more than £50, to the poor. All Common
Prayer Books remaining in parish churches
or chapels were ordered to be carried to the com
mittee of the several counties, within a month,
there to be disposed of as the parliament should
direct (Rushworth, Hist Coll., p. iv., i., 295).
The king, in return, forbade the use of the direc
tory, and enjoined the continuance of the liturgy,
by a proclamation from Oxford, dated 13th IS o-
vember, 1645, in which he observed that, "The
Book of Common Prayer being a most excellent

215

DIR
form of worship, grounded on the Holy Scrip
tures, is a great help to devotion, and tends to
preserve an uniformity in the Church of England;
whereas the directory gives liberty to ignorant,
factious, and evil men, to broach their own
fancies and conceits, and utter those things in
their long prayers which no conscientious man
can assent to; and, be the minister never so
pious, it breaks in upon the uniformity of public
service." In opposition to the ordinance of
tbe parliament, this proclamation strictly enjoins
the liturgy to be used, " And that the directory
be in no sort admitted, or received, or used ; and
whensoever it shall please God to restore us to
peace, and the laws to their due course, we shall
require a strict account and prosecution against
the breakers of the said law. And in the mean
time, in such places where we shall come and
find the Book of Common Prayer suppressed and
laid aside, and the directory introduced, we shall
account all those that are aiders, actors, or con
trivers therein, to be persons disaffected to the
religion and laws established" (Id. Ib. 207).
Warrants also were issued, under the king's own
hand, to the same purpose, addressed to the
heatls of the university; and Charles assured the
peers at Oxford that he was still determined to
live and die for the privileges of his crown, his
friends, and church government. When the
parliament visitors went down to Oxford in
1647, the vice-chancellor, Dr. Fell, summoned
a convocation, in which it was agreed not to
submit to them. At the same time Dr. Sander
son drew up a Paper entitled, Reasons of the
present Judgment of the University of Oxford
concerning the Solemn League and Covenant, the
Negative Oath, and the Ordinance concerning
Discipline and Worship, approved by general
consent in a full convocation, 1st June, 1647.
The utmost concessions which could be ob
tained from Charles, even when his fortunes
were almost at their lowest ebb, and he was im
prisoned in the Isle of Wight, were those which
he proposed in the conference at Newport, to
wards tbe close of 1648, that he would confirm
the use of the directory in all churches and
chapels, and would repeal so much of all statutes
as concerned the Book of Common Prayer, only
provided the use thereof might be continued in
the royal chapel for the king and his household ;
and that the directory should be confirmed by
act of parliament for three years, provided a con
sultation be had in the meantime with the
assembly of divines. These propositions were
voted unsatisfactory by the two houses. Tbe
various heads of the directory are — of the assem
bling of the congregation ; of public reading of
the Holy Scriptures ; of public prayer before the
sermon ; of the preaching of the Word ; of prayer
after sermon ; of the sacrament of baptism ; of
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; of the
sanctification of the Lord's Day ; of the solem
nization of marriage ; of the visitation of the sick ;

216

DIS
of the burial of the dead; of public solemn
fasting; of the observation of days of public
thanksgiving ; of singing of psalms ; an appen
dix touching days and places of public worship.
The most characteristic parts of this document
will be found under the articles treating of these
subjects. The directory has been frequently re
printed since its first appearance in 1645. It
may be found in the fifth volume of Neale's
History ofthe Puritans, and is usually appended
to The Confession of Faith.
Disciples of Christ. — See Campbellites.
Disciplina Arcani. — Besides what is said
under Arcani Disciplina, it may be further
observed, that this secret discipline has been a
great weapon in the popish controversy. When
Catholic apologists were pressed with the fact
that their peculiar dogmas are not found in the
writings of the early fathers of the Church, it
was replied, as by Schelstrate and Scholliner,
that such dogmas belonged to the secret disci
pline. But of these there is not the shadow of
proof. The things about which there was re
serve were baptism, confirmation, ordination, the
Eucharist, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the
Trinity. — See Catechumens; Church, Mem
bers of ; Development.
Discipline. — The right which every church
has to exclude from its fellowship notorious
offenders in morality or doctrine is essential to
purity and self-preservation. The severity of it
was, indeed, soon carried to an undue extent in
the early Church, as the power of the clergy rose
to be supreme, and penance and penitence were
confounded. — See Penitents. Before the
eleventh century the discipline of the lash (the
word is used in the Romish Church both for the
instrument and the penance itself) had been
confined to only a few severer individuals; but
about that time the custom was sanctioned by
authority, and a code was framed estimating
the precise value of each separate infliction as a
commutation for sin. A year of penance
amounted to three thousand lashes ; and the cele
brated ascetic, Dominicus Loricatus, the cuirassei,
so named because, except while undergoing dis
cipline, he always wore a shirt of mail next his
skin, frequently performed a, penance of 100
years, and would continue flogging himself
without cessation while he repeated the psalter
twenty times over; "which," says his friend
and biographer, Cardinal Peter Damiano, "filled
me with trembling and horror when I heard it."
The self-tormenting achievements of St. Dominic
may be found in Fleury, Hist. Eccl, xiii.,
96. His usual accompaniment to each single
psalm was 100 lashes ; so that the whole psalter,
with 15,000 stripes, equalled five years' penance.
St. Dominic's allowance, therefore, amounted
to the 100 years. If he was prevented bv any
accident from flogging himself as he wished, he '
used to beat his head and legs unmercifully.
Sometimes discipline was carried to an excess

DIS
more extravagant than that of St. Dominic him
self, if we may judge from the laws of the Visi
goths, one of which (lib. vi., tit. 5, sec. 8) bears
the following formidable heading: "Si indiscreta
disciplina percussum mori de fiagello conligerit "
— if death should happen from undue severity.
Sometimes it might be received by deputy, as
we learn from a wicked story which Michael
Scot has recorded in his Mensa Philosophica, 18 :
" Quidam vir zelotypus uxorem suam, ad confes-
sion-.m euntem, sequebatur; quam cum Sacerdos
retro altare duceret ad Disciplinandum, hoc
videns maritus ait, 0 Domine tota tenera est, ego
pro ipsa recipio Disciplincim: quoflectente genua.,
dixit mulier, Percute fortiter, Domine, quia
magna peccatrix sum" — that is, a certain man
had followed his wife to confession, and when she
retired behind the altar to be whipped, he cried
to spare her, for she was tender, and he would
take the flagellation in her room ; whereupon, as
he bowed himself to the rod, she cried, " Strike
hard, father, for I am a great sinner." It was thus
also, namely by proxy, that Henry IV. of France
was permitted to be reconciled to the church when
he abjured the errors of Protestantism. D'Ossat
and Du Perron, both of whom afterwards ob
tained cardinal's hats, were deputed to suffer the
discipline from the pope himself, who gave them
each one lash at every verse of the Miserere.
They were allowed to keep their coats on, and
they reported that his hoUness struck lightly. The
narrative of this transaction was not inserted in
the bull of absolution, perhaps on account of
some compromise between the pope's pride and
the king's honour ; but it is recorded in a written
process of the ceremonial. An account of the
discipline undergone by our Henry IL, after the
murder of & Beckett, is given by Matthew Paris.
(Sigonius, de Regn. Hal., xix. ; Du Pin. Bibl.,
xiii., siecle; Boileau, Hist, Flag.) — See also
Arcani Disciplina.
In Congregational churches the power of
discipline is vested in the entire membership ; but
in Presbyterian churches it is exercised by the
session — an appeal lying to the presbytery, and
from that to the synod or general assembly.
No civil pains or penalties follow in Scotland from
an act of discipline. No power is exercised in
Presbyterian churches similar to that of eccle
siastical courts in England. Among Quakers
there are monthly and quarterly meetings held
for the exercise of discipline. — See Moravians.
In the Church of England, though the canons
provide for discipline, it has almost ceased to be
exercised. The churchwardens are under obliga
tion to return the names of scandalous livers to
the ecclesiastical courts once a-year ; and, if they
neglect their duty, the minister himself may pro
secute. The offender, if convicted, is not ad
mitted to the sacrament, and Contumacy may
expose him to the greater excommunication,
which debars him from civil communion with
the members of the church. If he continue obsti-

DIS
nate for forty days longer, he may be put into pri
son by the writ de excommunicato capiendo, and
kept till he give satisfaction to the church. An
appeal lies in the most of such cases to the civil
courts. A spiritual sentence is declared in Scot
land to be beyond review by a civil court, and
the Court of Session has usually refused to enter
tain a plea for redress. A general view of dis
cipline which, in theory at least, is the same in
all Presbyterian churches, may be seen in the fol
lowing excerpts from the Forms of Procedure of
the United Presbyterian Church: — "1. The proper
ground of discipline, or church censure, is scandal.
Nothing can be tbe subject of church censure
which is not condemned by the law of God ; but
everything which is in itself sinful, does not ne
cessarily fall under the denomination of scandal,
or form the proper subject of discipline. For those
sins which are not publicly known, private admo
nition, counsel, and reproof, are in general the pro
per remedies. Church censure is only to be ad
ministered when, by the publicity which attended
the commission of sin, or which has been subse
quently given to it, it is calculated to bring a re
proach on religion, or to mar edification; and
when it cannot be overlooked without incurring
the danger of hardening the individual, embold-
eningiOthers to follow his example, and grieving
the minds of the godly. 2. In the exercise of
discipline there ought to be no officious inter
meddling with matters which are purely civil,
or, indeed, with any matters wbich do not involve
scandal, as above defined. And while watchful
ness is exercised over the flock, no undue solici
tude should be discovered to pry into the private
conduct or family concerns of individuals, to in
terfere officially in personal quarrels, or to engage
in the investigation of secret wickedness. 3.
The proper subjects of discipline are church
members. It embraces not only members in full
communion, but also baptized children who are
hearers in the church, and have arrived at an
age at which they are responsible to society.
Inquiry into scandal can be made only by the
session, or, in the case of a minister, by the
presbytery to which he belongs at the time of its
becoming known ; and if, during the lapse of five
years, no judicial notice has been taken of it, it
is improper then to revive it, by making it the
subject of public censure. 4. The ends contem
plated by discipline are, in subordination to the
glory of God, the maintenance of the church's
purity, respect for the authority of the institutions
of her Divine Head, and the spiritual benefit of
church members, by affecting the consciences of
transgressors, and leading them to repentance,
and by causing others to fear. It is not of the
nature of a penance or punishment ; but is to be
regarded as a precious privilege — one of the or
dinances of the New Testament, appointed by our
Lord Jesus Christ, and blessed by the Spirit, for
the edification of his people, and their growth, in
grace. 5. In order to effect these important ends,

217

DIS
no case is to be rashly made a matter of sessional
inquiry. The conduct of church rulers should be
uniformly guided by prudence, kindness towards
offenders, and anxiety for their spiritual welfare.
Rash and uncharitable judgments, undue sever
ity, and respect of persons, are carefully to be
avoided, and the whole proceedings are to be dis
tinguished by gentleness and long-suffering, by
impartiality and faithfulness. 6. The censures
of the church are admonition, rebuke, suspension,
deposition from office, and excommunication. 7.
Admonition is the lowest degree of church cen
sure. It consists in solemnly addressing the of
fender, placing his sin before him, warning him
of his danger, and exhorting him to greater cir
cumspection. In the case of a private member
or elder, this is done in tbe session ; in the case
of a minister, in the presbytery. In both cases
it is done by the moderator of the court, — should
be administered with all solemnity and serious
ness, as well as fidelity and kindness, — and
should be wisely adapted to the peculiar circum
stances of the case. 8. Rebuke is a higher form
of censure, resorted to after conviction or confes
sion of scandalous sins. It is administered by
the moderator, in the name of the Lord Jesus
Christ, as the only King and Head ofthe Church ;
it is to be given with the utmost seriousness, and
accompanied with a suitable address. Circum
stances may render it necessary, owing to the
aggravations or publicity of the offence, that re
buke should be administered publicly before the
congregation, but in all other cases rebuke in the
session or presbytery will he found sufficient. 9.
Suspension from the privilege of full communion,
or, as it has been improperly called, the lesser ex
communication, in like manner follows conviction
or confession of guilt, and is more or less extend
ed in its continuance according to circumstances.
Its object is more deeply to impress the mind of
the offender, to afford opportunity of judging of
his professions of repentance, and to give a public
testimony against the offence to the church and
to the world. The suspension is accompanied
with rebuke, and the restoration with solemn ad
monition. 10. While under suspension, the in
dividual ought to be the object of peculiar solici
tude and care on the part of the rulers of the
church. Every seasonable opportunity of deal
ing with his conscience, impressing him with
right views of his sin, and leading him to
genuine repentance, should be diligently im
proved by them. When satisfactory proofs of
penitence are exhibited, he is restored iu presence
of the court by whom the sentence was inflicted.
li. Suspension from office is an interdict against
tbe exercise of the office with which the party
falling under censure is invested, and is inflicted
either for a limited time, or till cause appears for
its being removed. Suspension of an office
bearer from the privilege of full communion is
uniformly accompanied with suspension from
office ; but there may be cases in wbich the lat-

DIS
ter is expedient while no grounds exist for the
former; and, in like manner, restoration to the
privileges of the church may take place, while
good reason exists for continuing suspension from
office. 12. Suspension from both fellowship and
office may take place in some cases during the
investigation of a scandal ; but in this view, it is
not to be regarded as a censure, but a mere con
sequence of the unhappy situation in which the
individual is placed. 13. Deposition can take
place only in the case of an office-bearer, and con
sists in depriving him of the office with which he
was previously invested, in consequence of con
viction or confession of some gross immorality or
dangerous heresy. Contumacious resistance of
the authority of the church courts may also war
rant a sentence cutting off the offender from, or
declaring him to be no longer an office-bearer in,
the church. 14. Excommunication is the highest
censure of the church, and is not to be resorted to
till all other means of reclaiming the offender
have failed, — in cases, namely, of peculiar ag
gravation, where the offence is obstinately
denied, although fully proved, or if acknowledged
is justified, and where the individual continues
impenitent and contumacious. It consists in
solemnly casting the offender out of the church.
Tbe sentence, in all cases, is to be publicly in
timated to the church, that her members may
avoid all familiar intercourse with the person ex
communicated, although it does not dissolve
natural or civil bonds, or exempt from the duties
of common humanity or Christian kindness.
Because it involves no civU pains, the world and
the individual himself may ridicule the sentence,
and regard it with indifference ; but to a mind pro
perly impressed with its solemnity, it will be
viewed in a very different light ; and it is cal
culated, by the blessing of God, and by its opera
tion on the conscience, to lead to the happiest
results, being the institution of infallible wisdom
' for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit
may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus.'"
Discipline, First Book of, was drawn up
by the Scottish Reformers in 1560, and con
tained the order and government of the Church
of Scotland. It was prepared by Knox, Winram,
Spotswood, Rosse, and Douglas. Though ap
proved by the assembly, it was not ratified by
the privy councU.
Discipline, Second Book of, was sanc
tioned by the assembly in 1578. Though not then
ratified formally by parliament, it is regarded as
the standard book of the Scottish Kirk, and is
held in high estimation for its views of adminis
tration and order, by all Presbyterians. The
Second Book of Discipline was inserted in the
registers of assembly, 1581, sworn to in the na
tional covenant, revived and ratified by the
assembly, 1638, and by many other acts of
assembly, and according to which the church
government is established by law, A.D 1592
and 1690.

218

DIS
Dismes (decimal or tenths) are the tenth
part of the yearly value of all spiritual benefices
anciently paid, together with the first-fruits
(annates, primitiai, the whole profit of the first
year), throughout all Western Christendom to
the pope, who, as pastor pastorum, claimed "deci-
mas decimarum " — a tithe of the tithes. This
claim was founded jure divino on the precedent
of the Jewish high priest, who received tithes
from the Levites (Numbers xviii. 16). Con
cerning the date of their origin authorities differ.
Thierri de Niem, secretary to Gregory XL, and
to several of his successors, says that Boniface
IX. first received them about the year 1399.
In this statement he is followed by Platina, in
his life of this pontiff. Nevertheless, he admits,
and Polydore Vergil (De Inv. rer, viii., 2) agrees
with him, that it is doubtful whether the custom
may not be carried back to John XXII. ; so
also Thomas of Walsingham (Edw. IL, 84),
and Rainulphus of Chester (vii., 42). The
English kings felt much dissatisfaction at this
drain from tbe revenues of the church. Edward
III. once discharged the pope's nuncio from
gathering them, and many prohibitions against
the papal coUectors, on complaints made by the
commons in parliament, may be found in Lord
Coke's Jurisdiction of Courts (14). In the
statute 1 Richard II., this payment is termed a
"very novelty;" and in 2 Henry IV., 1, still
more strongly, a "horrible mischief," and a
"damnable custom." Occasionally, however,
the see of Rome quieted these outcries by assign
ing the tribute for a certain time to the kings
themselves; thus Urban VI. gave them to
Richard II. during the war with France. At
the Reformation they were annexed for ever to
the crown by Henry VIII., 3 ; and a subse
quent statute, 32 Henry VIII., 46, erected a
court for ordering them. This was dissolved in
the first year of Mary's reign, who did not, how
ever, restore them to the pope, but entirely dis
charged the clergy of them. They were revived
on Elizabeth's accession, and again being appro
priated to the crown, were placed under the con
trol of a remembrancer belonging to the court of
exchequer. By 2 Anne II. these tenths and
first-fruits of large benefices were granted for the
augmentation of poor livings, and all under £50
annual value were discharged of such payments.
The number of livings which partook of Queen
Anne's bounty at its commencement were 5,597,
the average annual value of which did not
exceed £23 each. The valor beneficiorum by
which the clergy are rated, was made in the
king's books by Henry VIII., although an older
taxation, 20 Edward I., exists in the exchequer.
Stavely, Romish Horseleech, ch. ii._See An
nates, Bounty.
Dispensation. — The right of the papal see
to grant dispensations was rested on the follow
ing grounds : — That the church being empowered
to make laws, was also empowered to abrogate

DIS
them, and a fortiori, therefore, to dispense with
obedience to them in such cases as it thought fit ;
that the pope being above the law, can therefore
dispense with the law ; and that in every oath
which is sworn, a tacit exception and reservation
is made respecting his power. The admission of
this doctrine was a fertile source both of revenue
and of influence to the holy see ; and there was
scarcely any law, either natural or conventional,
permission for the legal violation of which might
not be obtained by the timely tender of a suffi
cient bribe. Dispensations were granted for
holding pluralities of bishoprics or minor bene
fices ; to make infants competent to hold civil or
ecclesiastical offices; to legitimate bastards; to
intermarry within prohibited degrees; to revert
from the religious to tbe secular state; to lay
aside rules, orders, and discipline once professed ;
to avoid the observance of oaths ; to waive the
performance of vows ; to rescind contracts, mar
riages, and covenants ; and once for all, to afford
any license which the appUcant had enough
purse or power to purchase. Stavely, in his
Romish Horseleech, has collected a few instances
of the gross abuses whicb from time to time have
been sanctioned by papal dispensations. Thus,
Henry III. was dispensed from the oath which he
had taken to maintain Magna Charla and Charla
de Foresta. The dispensation to marry his bro
ther's widow, granted to Henry VIII. by Julius
IL, was reversed by Clement VII., as contrary to
Scripture. Francis I. of France was dispensed
from fulfilling the oath which he had sworn to
Charles V. on his release from the captivity to
which his defeat at Pavia had subjected him.
Charles VIII. of France was allowed by dispen
sation to repudiate the daughter of MaximiUan,
King of the Romans, who for many years had
shared his bed and crown, and to marry Anne of
Brittany, already previously married to the same
Maximilian, his father-in-law.
In the Anglican Church the Archbishop of
Canterbury has power to grant dispensations
in any case formerly granted by the see of
Rome, with this marked and important reser
vation, that they be not contrary to ihe law of
God. In all new and extraordinary cases the
king and his council are consulted (25 Henry
VIII., 21 ; 28 Henry VIII., 16, see. 6). Upon
this dispensing power is founded the archbishop's
authority to grant special licenses for the celebra
tion of marriage at any place or time ; dispensa
tions for clergymen to hold pluralities ; and the
right of conferring degrees, in prejudice of the
two universities, which degrees, however, are
not qualifications, of themselves, for such graduate
to hold two livings. The archbishop has autho
rity to grant dispensations to this effect ; but they
must be confirmed under the great seal. The
same act of Henry VIII. contains a clause, that
nothing in it should be prejudicial to the Arch
bishop of York, or any bishop of the realm ; but
that they may lawfuUy dispense in all cases in

219

DIS
which they were wont to dispense by common
law. The canonists are much divided about the
power of bishops in this respect ; but the common
opinion is, that a bishop may dispense whereso
ever it is not found to be prohibited. These
dispensations appear to refer chiefly to canonical
defects. Dispensations for , pluralities may be
granted to doctors and bachelors of divinity aud
law; to all spiritual persons, members of the
king's privy council; to the chaplains of the
king, queen, prince, and princess, or of any of the
king's children, brethren, sisters, uncles or aunts ;
of noblemen, bishops, the chancellor, knigbts of
thegarter, widowed peeresses, treasurer and comp
troller of the household, king's secretary, dean of
his chapel, almoner, master of the rolls, warden of
the cinque ports ; and to sons and brothers of tem
poral lords and knights. All these clergy may take
two benefices, with cure of souls ; and the king's
chaplains as many benefices, in the king's gift,
as the king thinks fit to bestow on them, without
dispensations, even in addition to any which they
hold from a subject ; but a king's chaplain being
beneficed by the king, cannot afterwards take a
living from a subject otherwise than by dispensa
tion. By the forty -first canon of 1603 the two
benefices must not be farther distant from each
other than thirty miles, and the person obtaining
the dispensation must at least be M.A. in one of
the universities. The temporal courts do not
regard these provisions.
Dissenters, a general name given to those
who are without the pale of the Established
Church. In Scotland the oldest class of dissen
ters took the name of seceders, as they neither
dissented from the doctrine, discipline, or govern
ment of the Established Kirk, but they left it
because they believed it to be unfaithful to its
own constitution and standards. The Free Church
holds itself to be the Church of Scotland dis
lodged from its rightful position, and claims on its
own terms to be restored. Dissent, in England, is
from the Episcopalian form and government, and
usually takes the shape of Independency, as far
as administration is concerned. Methodism
scarcely allows itself to be called dissent. Ac
cording to Buck, in his Dictionary, dissenters
object to the Church of England on the follow
ing, among other grounds: — "1. That the church,
as by law established and governed, is the mere
creature of the state, as much as the army, the
navy, the courts of justice, or the boards of
customs and excise. 2. That she professes and
asserts that the church hath power to decree
rites and ceremonies, and authority in matters
of faith. 3. That she has a multiplicity of
offices and dignities which are utterly at variance
with the simplicity of the apostolic and primitive
times. 4. That the repetitions in her liturgy
are numberless and vain ; that, in many respects,
it abounds in antiquated references and allusions,
and, in others, is miserably deficient. 5. That
the Apocrypha is read as a part of the public ser- 220

DIS
vices. 6. That the creeds which she acknow
ledges and repeats contain unwarrantable meta
physical representations and speculations relative
to the doctrine of the Trinity. 7. That every
one who is baptized is considered to be thereby
regenerated and really received into the family
of God. 8. That this rite, together with con
firmation, the visitation of the sick, and the
burial service, have a most manifest tendency
to deceive and ruin the souls of men. Lastly,
and more urgently than any other, that no
distinction is made between the holy and the
profane; the ordinances of reUgion being ad
ministered, without discrimination, to all who
present themselves to receive them. — See
Independency, Nonconformist, Puri
tans. Dissidents, the name usually given to those
sects in Poland who were allowed the free exer
cise of their own worship. Anabaptists, Socinians,
and Quakers did not enjoy this toleration, while
it was possessed by Lutherans, Calvinists, Ar
minians, and Greeks. A pax dissidentium was
concluded in 1573, and Lutherans, Calvinists,
and Bohemians became one body, and had the
same rights with the Catholics. But numerous
bloody contests intervened, till in 1718, under
Augustus II., the dissidents were so far disfran
chised that they could not vote in the diet In
1736 an old law was revived, requiring every
King of Poland to be a Catholic. Under the last
king, Stanislaus Poniatowsky, the dissidents
brought their grievances before the diet in 1766,
Russia, Prussia, and England supporting them.
The neighbouring states took advantage of these
intestine broils, and the country was at length
dismembered, once and again, by Russia, Prussia,
and Austria. In 1795 the dissidents regained
somewhat of their former privileges. These re
ligious quarrels — the struggle by the dissidents
to possess rights, and the proud desire to monopo
lize them by the Catholic party — helped, with
other causes, to weaken the nation, invited the
mediation of foreign powers, and created facili
ties for the infamous partition.
Distaff Day — The morrow after 'Twelfth
Day was formerly known as St. Distaff Day, or
St. Rock Day. It terminated tlie sports of
Christmas; and the origin of its name is ex
plained in the following lines, which may be
found in Herrick's Hesperides, 374, descriptive of
some of the boisterous pleasantries of England : —
" Partly worke and partly play
You must on St. Distaff Day :
From the plough soon free your tearoe.
Then come home and fother them.
Ifthemaidesa spinning goe,
Burne the flax and fire the tow;
Scorch their plackets, but beware
That ye singe no maiden's haire.
Bring in pales of water then,
Let the maides bewash the men.
Give St. Distaff all the right:
Then bid Christmas-sport good night,
And next morrow every one
To his owne vocation."

DIV
Divisive Courses, a name common at one
period in Scotland, denoting those practices that
tended to infringe on the unity of the C hurch.
Various acts of the General Assembly had this in
view, and at a period long prior to the first seces
sion. Thus Steuart of Pardovan, in his Collec-
tions, says — "9. By the 21st act of assembly,
1696, and by the 12th and 18th acts of assem
bly, 1704, all ministers and members of this
church are discharged to publish or vent, either
by speaking, writing, or printing, by teaching
or preaching, any doctrine, tenet, or opinion,
contrary unto any head, article, part or proposi
tion of the Confession of Faith of this church,
and particularly the venting any Arminian or
Socinian errors ; and church judicatures are or
dained to advert to any who shaU teach or vent
such errors, and proceed to censure them for the
same. And also all presbyteries are enjoined to
censure such persons within their bounds who
do carry on divisive courses, and withdraw from
communion with this church, under a pretext of
zeal to her doctrine, worship, discipline, and
government, and that aU means be used for re
claiming such misled people. 10. By the 6th
act of assembly, 1690, it is recommended to
presbyteries to take notice of all ministers,
whether the late conforming incumbents or
others, who shall not observe fast and thanks
giving days, indicted by the church, or who shaU
be found guilty of administering the sacraments
in private, or celebrating clandestine marriages
without proclamation of banns, and to censure
them accordingly." Edwards, in his Gangrama,
enumerates 176 sectaries of his day. Richard
Baxter, speaking of his own time, says — " These
are they who have been most addicted to church
divisions and separations, and sidings and parties,
and have refused all terms of concord and unity ;
who, though many of them were weak and raw,
were yet prone to be puffed up with high
thoughts of themselves, and to overvalue their
little degrees of knowledge and parts, which set
them not above the pity of understanding men.
The sectaries (especiaUy the Anabaptists, Seekers,
and Quakers) chose out the most able, zealous
ministers, to make them the marks of their re
proach and obloquy ; and all because they stood
in the way of their designs, and hindered them in
the propagation of their opinions. They set
against the same men as tie drunkards and
swearers set against, and much after the same
manner, only they did it more profanely than
the profane, in that they said, ' Let the Lord be
magnified ' — ' Let the Gospel be propagated.'
And aU this began but in unwarrantable separa
tion, and too much aggravating the faults of the
churches, &c. They thought that whatever
needed amendment required their obstinate sepa
ration, and that they were allowed to make
odious anything that was amiss, &c."
Divorce. — The facUity of divorce in the latter
days of the repubUc, and in the whole course of

DIV
Imperial Rome, may be traced in every con
temporary writer. The rights of the two sexes
became equal. Augustus for a time endeavoured
to check this license, and required the presence
of seven witnesses, before whom the marriage
contract should be torn. If a marriage had been
contracted by confarreatio, or the solemn offer
ing of bread, the ceremony diffurreatio was
necessary for its dissolution. If by coemptio,
or a mutual purchase, in which the bride and
bridegroom delivered to each other, with certain
forms, a small piece of money, remancipatio
was required. The common forms used before
the above-named witnesses, after the hearing
of the contract, were the surrender of the keys
by the wife, and her dismissal, in some such
words as these : "Res tuas Ubi habeto." " Tuas res
libiagito" — take your own. "Vadeforas, Iforas,
Mulier." "Cede domo " — begone. If it were tbe
wife who divorced the husband, she said, " Valeas,
tibi habeas tuas res, reddas meats " — good-bye ;
take your own and give me mine. In the repu-
dium, which was an annulment of betrothing before
consummation, the form was condiiione tua non
utar. The Theodosian code (tit. de Repudiis)
enumerated the foUowing as legitimate causes for
divorce : — If the husband could prove the wife to
be an adulteress, a witch, or a murderess; to
have bought or sold to slavery any one freeborn ;
to have violated sepulchres; committed sacrilege;
favoured thieves and robbers ; been desirous of
feeding with strangers, the husband not knowing
or not wUIing; if she lodge forth without a just
and probable cause; or frequent theatres and
sights, he forbidding ; if she be privy with those
that plot against the state ; or if she deal falsely,
or offer blows. And if the wife can prove her
husband guilty of any of those forenamed crimes,
and of frequenting the company of lewd women
in her sight, or if he beat her, she has the Uberty
to quit him, — with this difference, that the man
after divorce may forthwith marry again, the
woman not till a year after, lest she may chance
to have conceived. Christianity put an end
to this capricious dissolution of the nuptial bond,
which had become so common both in the Jewish
and pagan world at the time of the appearance
of our Saviour. When the Pharisees tempted
our Lord, by inquiring from bim whether it was
lawful for a man to put away his wife for every
cause, he showed them from the first institutions
of nature that God had forbidden polygamy ;
and then, as a consequence, that divorce ought
not to be permitted unless on account of adultery ;
although the Jews, from the hardness of their
hearts, were not prepared to receive this doctrine
in the time of Moses, (Matt, xix.) Our Saviour's
declaration naturaUy became the foundation of
the law of divorce in all Christian countries ; but
when the Romish Church exalted marriage into
a sacrament, divorce, considered in its legitimate
meaning, was abolished ; and the canonists as
serted tbat it was altogether impious and hnpos-

221

DIV
sible. Hence arose the distinction still main
tained in our English law : certain causes subse
quent to marriage, and among these adultery,
might give rise to a legal separation, in which,
however, neither party was permitted to contract
a new alliance in the life-time of the other ; and
certain other causes, existing at the time of
marriage, might render it void ab initio ; but in
neither of these cases could divorce, strictly
speaking, be said to take place. Thus, therefore,
divorce in our law is of two kinds, a vinculo
matrimonii and a mensd et thoro. The former ab
solutely dissolves the marriage, and makes it
void from the beginning, tbe causes of it being
precedent to the marriage, as consanguinity or
affinity within the Levitical degrees, precontract,
impotency, &c. By this the parties are separated
pro salute animarum, and are allowed to marry
again, the wife receiving back all she brought
with her, and the issue of such marriage being
bastardized (Coke On Lit, 235). The latter
separates the parties a mensd et thoro for some
cause arising subsequent to marriage, as Ul-
treatment or adultery in either of the parties ;
but does not permit them to contract a second
marriage whilst either party is living ; for which,
since it refuses that which our Saviour assigned
to be the only fit cause for divorce, the best
reason that can be given is, that if divorce were
allowed to depend upon a matter within the
power of either of the parties, they would pro
bably become extremely frequent (Blackstone,
i., 15, 2). The court allows alimony to the
wife, unless in case of elopement with the adul
terer. This divorce does not debar the woman
of her dower, nor bastardize the issue. The dis
solution a vinculo matrimonii might, however, be
obtained by an act of parliament specially for the
purpose, after the sentence of divorce a mensd et
thoro has been pronounced in the spiritual court
The bill generally originated in the House of
Lords. On tbe petition for it an official copy
of proceedings, and sentence of divorce a mensd et
thoro in the ecclesiastical courts, at tbe suit of
tbe petitioner, must be delivered at the bar ; and
upon the second reading the petitioner must at
tend the house, to be examined at its pleasure at
the bar relative to collusion, &c. A clause must
be contained in the bill, preventing the inter
marriage of the offending parties ; and when it
arrives at a committee of the House of Commons,
evidence must be given that an action for
damages has been brought against the seducer,
and judgment obtained thereon, or a sufficient.
reason assigned for the contrary. Till the forty-
fourth of Elizabeth a divorce for adultery was
considered to be a vinculo matrimonii ; but then,
in the case of Foliambe in the star chamber, that
opinion was changed, and Archbishop Bancroft,
having advised with the leading divines, held
that adultery was only a cause of divorce a
mensd et thoro (3 Salk., 138.) A new court
has recently been erected for the trial of conjugal

DOC
disputes, and the old legal machinery just
described is superseded. Various alterations on
the law of divorce have also been made; for
example, as to the re-marriage of any of the
parties. By the law of Scotland divorce may pro
ceed upon the ground either of adultery or of
wilful desertion. In both instances an action
before the Court of Session is necessary, in which
the pursuer must make oath that there is no
collusion between the parties, and evidence of the
adulterous acts must be given, although the case
is not defended. The divorce will be barred, ;,
first, by cohabitation after knowledge of the
offence ; and second, in an action at the instance
of a husband, by his having pandered to his
wife's guilt in any way. This is styled lenodn-
ium. Mutual guilt or recrimination, although
a bar to divorce by the Roman and canon law,
is not so by the law of Scotland ; but mutual
guilt may affect pecuniary consequences. De
sertion, as a ground of divorce, must be wilful
and without cause, and for a continuous period
of four years. The effect of a decree of divorce
is to entitle the innocent party to aU the benefits
accruing from the marriage ; while on the other
hand, the guilty party forfeits all such rights.
Both parties are at liberty to contract other
marriages, excepting that the adulterers are pro
hibited from marrying each other. The expense
of such an action, if undefended, may amount to
from £30 to £40, but if opposed, it might be
several hundreds of pounds. Where the husband
sues, he is obliged to furnish his wife with the
means of defending. A marriage may be set aside
also on the ground of impotency; but this is not
properly divorce, as the marriage is not declared
dissolved, but to have been from the beginning
null and void.
Docetism Qoxia, I seem), a term used to
denote the opinion, common to several sects, that
the body of Christ was merely a phantom, or
appearance. — See Gnostics. A distinct sect
called Docetse, or Phantasiasts, arose in the
middle of the second century, but they were of
no great importance.
Doctor. — The following are some of the chief
doctors among the schoolmen, to whom distinc
tive epithets were assigned, in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries: —
Thomas Aquinas,  Angelicus.
Johannes Bonaventura,  Seraphicus.
Johannes Duns Scotus, ... SubtUis.
Raimundus Lullius  Illuminatus.
Alanus de Insulis (de ITsle), Universalis.
Durandus de S. Pourfain, . . . Resolutissimus.
Gregorius de Rimini  Authenticus.
Johannes Taulerus,  Illuminatus.
Johannes Gersonus,  Christianissimus,
Alexander Hales,  Irrefragabilis.
" Bacon,  Admirabilis.

222

The order of doctor was thought to be distinct

DOG
from pastor in Scotland. The Second Book of
Discipline says — " One of the two ordinary and
perpetuall functions that travell in the Word, is
the office of the doctor, who may bee also called pro
phet bishop, elder, catechiser— that is, teacher of
the catechism and rudiments of religion. His office
is to open up the minde of the Spirit of God in the
Scriptures simply, without such applications as
the ministers use, to the end that the faithfull
may be instructed, and sound doctrine taught,
and that the purity of the Gospell be not corrupted
through ignorance, or evill opinions. Hee is
different from the pastor, not onely in name, but
in diversity of gifts. For to the doctor is given
the word of knowledge, to open up by simple
teaching the mysteries of faith, to the pastor the
gift of wisdome, to apply the same by exhorta
tion to the manners of the flock, as occasion
craveth. Under the name and office of a doctor
wee comprehend also the order in schooles, col-
ledges, and universities, which hath been from
time to time carefuUy maintained, as well among
the Jewes and Christians, as also among the pro-
phane nations. The doctor being an elder, as
said is, should assist the pastor in the govern
ment of the kirk, and concurre with the elders
his brethren in all assemblies; by reason the
interpretation of the Word, which is onely judge
in ecclesiastical matters, is committed to his
charge. But to preach unto the people, to min
ister the sacraments, and to celebrate marriages,
perteine not to the doctor, unlesse he be other
wise called ordinarily : howbeit the pastor may
teach in the schooles, as he who hath the gift
of knowledge, oftentimes meet for that end,
as the examples of Polycarpus and others
testifie," &c.
Dogma (opinion or article of belief), Dog-
matik, Dogmatics, a common name for systematic
theology. Twesten, Ebrard, Martensen, Nitzsch,
and Hofmann, have published such volumes.
History of Doctrine (Dogmengeschichte), is an
other branch of study pursued on the Continent,
and with great advantage, the volumes of Baum-
garten-Crusus, Augusti, Hagenbach, and Nean
der being specimens. There is a chair for it in
the theological seminary of the United Presby
terian Church. It occupies quite a distinct
sphere from that of church history, and is the
best preparation for the study of dogmatic theo
logy- Dominations, as applied by the schoolmen
to the first company of the second ternion of
angels, is the same as dominions, by which the
translators of the English Bible have rendered
xv^iirnrBs in St. Paul's epistle to the Colossians,
i. 16. St. Paul uses the same words (Eph. i. 1);
but here our translators have adopted the con
crete instead of the abstract Milton has intro
duced them in that fine and favourite line which
he has so often Homerically repeated —

'Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers;'

DOM
and Bishop Newton has remarked upon it (Par.
Lost, x., 460), that by his artful management
he has given it new beauty on each repetition.
It is first used by God the Father, when he de
clares his Son Messiah, and appoints him head
over the angels (v., 600) ; next by Satan on his
revolt, alluding to this speech, and questioning
whether these dignities were more than titular
(v., 772); then by the seraph Abdiel, who, on
the other side, repeats it after God the Eather,
and extols his goodness for so having named the
angels (v., 839); and lastly, by Satan again,
who declares his bad spirits at length endowed
with these titles, not only in right, but by pos
session (x., 460).
Dominica in Albis, the first Sunday after
Easter. — See Alb, Easter.
Dominicale, the veil (usually white) which
was wont to be worn by women at the time of
receiving the Lord's Supper.
Dominical Iietter. — To each day of the
week one of the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, is
prefixed, A being always placed before the first
of January. If there were fifty-two weeks ex
actly in the year, then Sunday would always be
represented by the same letter. But since a year
consists of fifty- two weeks and one day more, the
same letter, A, is used for tbe 1st of January and
the 3 1st of December also; therefore, to meet this,
a change is made in the Sunday letter in a
backward order, i. e., supposing G to be the
Sunday letter one year, F will be so the next,
and so on. In leap-year, however, another
change takes place, in a similar manner, at the
end of February, when the Sunday letter F be
comes E ; so that the cycle of weekly letters does
not proceed in its regular course until seven
times four years have elapsed. The rules for
finding the Dominical or Sunday letter for any
given year are inserted in the Book of Common
Prayer. Dominican or Dominical (of or belong
ing to the Lord, that is Christ), an epithet given
by the ancient fathers, such as Cyprian and
Jerome, to the Lord's Supper, the Lord's Day,
the Lord's Prayer, and the Lord's House.
Dominica Nova, the first Sunday after
Easter. Dominica Palmarum, Palm Sunday.
Dominicans, an order of monks founded by
Dominic de Gusman, at Toulouse, in the year
1206, by the bounty of the bishop of the place
and the celebrated Simon de Mountfort. The
principal employment of these friars, according to
the design of their founder, is that of propagating
and defending Christianity, by preaching and by
public discussion ; hence they are called "Preach
ing Friars." They are under the rule of St.
Augustine ; they observe almost perpetual silence
in their convents ; they abstain from flash ; they
practise many austerities with rigour; and they
have garments of wooL They also wear a white
garment and a, scapular, and a black mantle

223

DOM
with a hood ending in a point. The nuns of this
order owe their foundation to the indefatigable
Dominic himself, who, while labouring for the
conversion of the Albigenses, was so shocked at
learning that many of the faithful at Guienne
had been compelled, by straitened circumstances,
to send their daughters to be brought up by
heretics, obtained tbe assistance ofthe Archbishop
of Narbonne to establish a monastery at Brouille
for their support and education. The habit of
the Dominican nuns is a white robe, a yellow
mantle, and a white veil. They work a certain
number of hours daily; they are forbidden ani
mal food, except in sickness, also the use of linen,
and their beds are of straw. Owing to the zeal
ous and unwearied labours of Dominic, his order
was soon established in various places ; so that
at his death the number of monasteries bearing
his name amounted to sixty. He died at Bo
logna, August 4, 1221, in the fifty-second ySar
of his age; and thirteen years afterwards (1234)
be was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. After
Dominic's death the order rapidly spread, extend
ing itself into all parts of the world, notwith
standing the sturdy opposition of their brethren,
the Franciscans, whose deadly hate against Fa
ther Dominic's followers is not yet altogether
extinct. It is said that his mother dreamed,
during her pregnancy, that she had given
birth to a little dog, with a flambeau in his
mouth, with which he illuminated the whole
world. The " little dog," in the person of Do
minic, began to display the power of his genius
when only six years old, at which early period
he applied himself to the study of humanity,
under his uncle, the archpriest of the church of
Gumyel de Ystan. His spare time he devoted
to various religious services; and he employed
himself in singing in the churches, and otherwise
assisting at the altars, which he was passionately
fond of adorning. At the age of thirteen he
went to the university of Palenza, where he
studied philosophy and divinity for six years.
After leaving the university he gave himself up
to a religious life, observing many austerities,
and labouring earnestly for the conversion of
heretics and the reclamation of the ungodly.
Soon the attention of the Bishop of Osma was
attracted towards him, whereupon he invited
Dominic to become a canon, for the purpose
of introducing a reformatory spirit, among the
canons of his cathedral. From this time his
eminence as a religious reformer commenced. In
1221 the first Dominican monastery was founded
in England, at Oxford, by Gilbert du Fresney,
with twelve brothers; in 1276 they laid their
foundation in London, two streets having been
given them by the mayor and aldermen near
the Thames. Other establishments sprung up
in Brecknock, Chelmsford, Dulwich, Exeter,
Guildford, Langley, Ipswich, Norwich, Stam
ford, and Thetford.
Domino is described by Du Cange as a

DON
sacerdotal cloak for the head and shoulders, used
during the winter.
Dominns vobiscum (the Lord be with you).
This form of salutation, taken from the Book of
Ruth, together with the response of the people—
" et cum spiritu tuo," and with thy spirit — seems
to have formed part of the earUest ritual of the
Christian Church. A canon of the first council
of Braga, in 563, directed against a custom
which the FriscilUanists had adopted, of assign
ing one form of salutation to the bishops and
another to the presbyters, enjoins all to use the
same form, "Dominus dt vobiscum" — the Lord
be with you ; and the people reply, " Et cum
spiritu tuo, sicut ab ipsis apostolis traditionem
omnis retinet oriens," — and with thy spirit, accord
ing to apostolic and Oriental custom.
Domus (house), a name, with varying epi
thets, applied to the church — as, " domus colum-
bm " — house ofthe dove ; " domus Dei" — house of
God; "domus ecclesice" — house of the church,
sometimes apparently the bishop's house ; where
as " domus divina" — divine house, was the name
ofthe royal palace, the emperors themselves being
called divi. From domus, so used, came the word
dome, il duomo in Italian, domkirche in Ger
man, to signify a cathedral. It was in such
buildings, too, that the architectural dome, cupola,
or inverted cup, first appeared. — See Basilica,
Church. Donaria. — See Anathemata.
Donation of Constantine, a forgery
which was published toward the end of the eighth
century, professing to contain a gift from Con
stantine, in the year 324, of Rome and Italy to
Sylvester, then pope. The document exists both
in a Greek and Latin text, and was first produced
in a letter of Pope Adrian I. to Charlemagne.
Baronius defended its genuineness; but its
spuriousness is now generaUy admitted. Its
purpose will at once be seen when we quote it,
with a few words of Gibbon's comment on it:—
"We give as a free gift to the Holy Pontiff the
city of Rome, and all the western cities of Italy,
as well as the western cities of the other countries.
To make room for him we abdicate our sove
reignty over all these provinces ; and we with
draw from Rome, transferring the seat of our empire
to Byzantium, since it is not just that a terrestrial
emperor should retain any power where God has
placed the head of reUgion." " According to the
legend," says Gibbon, "the first ofthe Christian
emperors was healed of the leprosy, and purified
in the waters of baptism, by St. Sylvester, the
Roman bishop ; and never was physician more
gloriously recompensed. His royal proselyte
withdrew from his seat and patrimony of St
Feter ; declared his resolution of founding a new
capital in the East ; and resigned to the popes the
free and perpetual sovereignty of Rome, Italy,
and the provinces of the West. This fiction was
productive of the most beneficial effects. The
Greek princes were convicted of the guilt of

224

DON
usurpation ; and the revolt of Pope Gregory was
the claim of his lawful inheritance. The popes
were delivered from their debt of gratitude ; and
the nominal gifts of the Carlovingians were no
more than the just and irrevocable restitution of
a scanty portion of the ecclesiastical State. The
sovereignty of Rome no longer depended on the
choice of a fickle people; and the successors of
St Peter and Constantine were invested with the
purple and prerogatives of the Csesars. So deep
was the ignorance and credulity of the times,
that this most absurd of fables was received with
equal reverence in Greece and in France, and is
still enrolled among the decrees of the canon
law. The emperors and the Romans were in
capable of discerning a forgery that subverted
their rights and freedom ; and the only opposition
proceeded from a Sabine monastery, which, in the
beginning of the twelfth century, disputed the
truth and validity of the donation of Constantine.
In the revival of letters and liberty this fictitious
deed was transpierced by the pen of Laurentius
Valla, an eloquent critic, and a Roman patriot.
His contemporaries of the fifteenth century were
astonished at his sacrilegious boldness ; yet such
is the silent and irresistible progress of reason,
that before the end of the next age the fable was
rejected by tbe contempt of historians ; though,
by the same fortune which has attended the
decretals and the SibyUine oracles, the edifice has
subsisted after the foundations have been under
mined." — See Papacy.
Donatists, an important body of schismat
ics, who separated from the Church in the fourth
century, and took their title from one or both of
two African bishops named Donatus. The
schism appears to have originated in the jealousy
of the Numidian bishops at not being consulted
in the appointment of Ccecilianus to the bishop
ric of Carthage, a.d. 311. They immediately
assembled, to the number of seventy bishops, and
alleging that Ccecilianus had taken part against
some of the persecuted Christians, and that Felix,
one of them who ordained him, was a traditor,
they declared the see of Carthage vacant, and
proceeded to elect a new bishop, whose name
was Majorinus. Both parties then appealed to
the Emperor Constantine, and in two councils
which he summoned to try the question, the first
at Rome, and the second a more numerous one at
Aries, decisions were given against the Dona
tists, and in favour of Felix and Ccecilianus.
The Donatists were not at aU disposed to accept
an adverse decision, and immediately renewed
their complaints ; and having been defeated before
various tribunals, they resolved to set their op
ponents at defiance, and acknowledge no authority
that might be hostUe to their claims. The con
sequence was that, for many years, every diocese
in Africa had a Donatist as well as a Catholic
bishop. There was no pretence of any difference
in point of doctrine ; but simply on the ground
of greater purity in the channel through which

DON
their bishops received ordination, they claimed to
be the one true Church, and excommunicated not
only their direct opponents, but all who consented
to hold any communion with those who differed
from them. They rebaptized all proselytes to
their cause, and re-ordained those clergy who
joined them. The sect seemed to increase under
the persecution of Constans, as well as under the
toleration of Julian ; and at the close of the fourth
century they numbered no fewer than 400
bishops. But about that time they had to en
counter a more formidable warfare than the sword
of persecution, in the zeal, talent, and learning of
the great Augustine. He became bishop of
Hippo in 395, and was present at a great con
ference of the bishops of both parties held at
Carthage in 411, when the questions in dispute
were argued for three days before the representa
tives ofthe Emperor Honorius. The decision
was again in favour of the Catholics, and was fol
lowed by vigorous measures on the part of the
civil authorities to put down the contumacious
Donatists. But, though overpowered by spirit
ual as well as temporal weapons, the sect strug
gled on. They revived under the Vandals, and
when Belisarius recovered Africa in 534, they
stUl existed there as a separate communion, and
probably continued to do so even down to the
first triumph of the Saracens. Connected with
their history is that of a lawless body called Cir-
cumcelliones, men who profited by the strife and
confusion of the times, and professing to fight the
battles of the persecuted Donatists, indulged their
own love of rapine and murder. They were in
reality men of no sect, and perhaps of no faith ;
but their savage atrocities brought gi'eat reproach
on the cause they espoused, and went far to
convert schism into rebellion. — See Circumcel-
lians. Donative, in ecclesiastical law, is a benefice
given by the patron to his incumbent, without
presentation to the ordinary, and not requiring
his institution or order for induction. As the
king may found a church, and exempt it from
the jurisdiction of the ordinary, so also he may
grant his license to any person to do the same,
and hence the origin of donatives. Incumbents
of such benefices cannot be deprived by tbe
bishop, but may be so by the founders or their
heirs : tbey are in full possession immediately on
nomination ; but they must be properly quaUfied,
like other clerks. Resignation is to the patron.
If the patron neglect to present, there is no
lapse, but the bishop may proceed against him
by ecclesiastical censures. If, however, a dona
tive has been augmented by Queen Anne's
bounty, it lapses like other livings (1 George I.,
ii., 10). If the patron once presents his clerk to
the ordinary by whom he is instituted and in
ducted, the donative thenceforth ceases. The
presentation does not devolve to the crown if the
incumbent be consecrated a bishop. A donative,
if taken last, may be held with any other prefer-

225

Q

DON
ment without dispensation, because the words
of the statute of pluralities, " instituted and in
ducted to any other," cannot here apply ; never
theless, as the first benefice, though not void by
the statute, is voidable by the canon law, the in
cumbent must have the consent of the patron.
All bishoprics, being of royal foundation, were
originally donatives. Donatives are said to be
the oldest benefices in England, institution not
having commenced till the time of Thomas a
Beckett. (Selden On Tithes, xii., 2).
Donellan Lecture, founded by the pro
vost and senior fellows of Trinity college, Dublin,
in fulfilment of a legacy of £1,243, left by will,
dated 22d February, 1794, to that college, by
Mrs. Anne Donellan, for the encouragement of
religion, learning, and good manners. The lec
turer is to be elected annually on the 20th of No
vember — the subject to be determined at the time
of election by the board — and to be treated of in
six sermons, which shaU be delivered in the col
lege chapel after morning service.
Donnm. — See Regium Dontjm.
Door. — See Church.
Doorkeepers or Ostiarii, belonged to the
lowest order of sacred persons. They were set
apart by having the keys delivered to them, with
the injunction — "Conduct thyself as one who
must give account to God of the things that are
kept locked under these keys." Their other
duties were to separate the catechumens from
believers, and to keep out or put out disorderly
persons. The ornaments were under their care,
with the graveyards, the bells, and the holy oil.
They formed one of the five orders in the
Romish Church; but they are never heard of
till the third and fourth centuries. What was
called the women's gate in the Greek Church
was kept by deaconesses.
Doron QZ^ov, gift), a name given to baptism
by the Greek fathers, as Basil and Gregory of
Nazianzen, because, probably, of the gift of the
Spirit connected with it, as recorded in the Acts of
the Apostles.
Dorrellites, a strange sect founded during last
century by a person named Dorrell, at Leyden,
in the State of Massachusetts, and holding a
species of extravagant spiritualism, as, that
Christ died and never rose ; that there is no re
surrection of the body ; that Christ is a Spirit ;
that the substance of revelation is God in the
soul, of which revelation the Bible is only a
type ; that prayer and worship are unnecessary ;
and that there is no future judgment
Dort, Synod of, a famous assembly con
vened at Dort, on the Rhine (Dordrecht), in
1618. It was called by authority of the states-
general, and was attended by eminent divines
from the united provinces, Switzerland, Hessia,
the Palatinate, Bremen, England, and Scotland.
The controversy to be determined was that be
tween Arminians and Calvinists. The Arminian
party wished to begin the debate by condemning

226

DOX
the Calvinistic tenet of reprobation ; but, as they
were themselves accused of departing from the
faith, it was decreed that they should, in the first
instance, justify themselves. They would not
submit to this order of procedure, and were
banished from the council. The synod then pro
ceeded to condemn in order the Arminian tenets.
— See Arminianism, Calvinissi. The Remon
strant or Arminian party was civilly proscribed,
and otherwise cruelly persecuted. Oldenbarnevelt
was executed, and Grotius condemned to per
petual imprisonment. The authority of the synod
was not fully acknowledged either in England or
in Holland; Friesland, Groningen, Utrecht, Zea
land, and Guildreland would not accept all its
decisions. Bishops Hall and Davenant attended
from England, and Walter Balcanqual from
Scotland. (Letters and Memoirs of Sir Dudley
Carlton ; The Golden Remains of John Hales of
Eaton. Hales was chaplain to Sir Dudley Carl
ton, who was ambassador at the Hague.)
Dositheans, the foUowers of Dositheus, a
Samaritan, who, somewhere about the time of
our Saviour's public ministry, gave himself out
to be the prophet promised in Deuteronomy
xviii. 18. A strict ascetic life and an over
scrupulous observance of the Sabbath are said to
have been peculiarities in his system. A con
troversy between the Dositheans and Samaritans
on that text in Deuteronomy is recorded to have
taken place in Egypt as late as a.d. 588.
Dove. — In the symbolism of the early Chnrch
this bird is frequently found, signifying the de
scent of the Spirit ; and by and by, they had
doves formed of gold and silver, in which the
Eucharist was kept. The dove was made so as
to appear hovering over the baptistery, and also
over the altar, which, on that account," was called
perislorium, from mfimgi, the Greek name of a
dove. The dove also occupies a prominent place
among the old ecclesiastical legends. Thus, a
dove was said to have come out of the bodv of
the martyr Polycarp when he was dying at the
stake, and another out of the mouth of the
virgin Eulalia when she was put to death.
When the Christians at Rome were assembled
for the election of a bishop, a dove is said to have
descended on Fabian's head, pointing him out
for the office. Ephraim Syrus saw a dove sit
ting on Basil's shoulder when he was preaching.
Doxology (Sita, glory, kiyos, word), a form
of words in which we give glory to God, The
form "Gloria Patri," i. e., " Glorv be to the
Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost,"
was anciently called the lesser doxology. Its
repetition at the close of each psalm, Remigius
thinks, was introduced into the Romish Church
by St Jerome. During the rage of Arianism,
those heretics introduced a pseudo-doxology, "2«J
t£ IIar;2 n n/ih xal ¦>. So|a, S;i nZ puwyam; H'«
Vita, in r« ay'm UnifLari " — To thee the Father
be honour and glory, through thy only begotten
Son in the Holy Ghost (Basil, de Spir. Sanct, 25).

DRE
The angelic hymn "Gloria in excelsis" was
styled the greater doxology. The doxology con
tained in the concluding paragraph of the Lord's
Prayer has been the subject of much controversy.
It is not found in the Vulgate, nor in the Latin
fathers, nor in the most of the Greek fathers,
nor in the oldest Greek manuscripts. The re
searches of modern critics seem to leave but little
doubt that it was added to the prayer, perhaps
from the Apostolical Constitutions, in which it first
appears. — See Angelic Hymn.
Dress of the Clergy. — See Apparel of
Ministers. Dualism, a term commonly used to designate
the opinion, derived from Oriental philosophy, of
tbe independent existence of two principles, one
of good and the other of evil. It appears more
or less prominently in almost all the Gnostic
systems, and forms the very foundation of Mani-
chaiism. — Se Original Sin.'
Duchobortzi (wresilers with the Spirit), a
small sect of Russian dissenters, living on the
right bank of the river Moloshnaia, not far from
the Sea of Azof. They resemble Quakers in some
of their notions, — such as their cherishing of an
inner light, and their rejection of rites and cere
monies. They are out and out mystical, and
esteem every day alike.
Dulcinists, followers of Dulcinus, a layman
of Novara, in Lombardy, about the commence
ment of the fourteenth century. He taught that
the law of the Father had expired, and so had
that of the Son, and that the reign of the Holy
Ghoit began with himself in 1307. He also
cast off the authority of the pope. Many peo
ple followed him to the Alps, where his wife
and he were taken and burnt, by command of
Clement IV.
Dnlia (hvkiia, service), the worship ren
dered in the Catholic Church to angels, saints, and
images, opposed to latiria (Xar^na), given to
Christ or the Trinity. It is a name, therefore, or
disguise for idolatry. Hyper-dulia is offered to
the Virgin. An image of a saint gets relative
dulia, and an image of the Virgin relative hyper-
dulia. Dunkers, a sect of Baptists which originated
in Germany in 1708. It sprung from tbe Pie-
tistic controversy which was carried on in the
Protestant Churches of Germany and Holland at
the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of
the eighteenth centuries. Persecution drove the
members of this sect from their "fatherland."
The great body of them took refuge in Friesland,
whence they ultimately, between 1718 and
1730, emigrated to America, and there their after
history is to be sought. The first company of
tbem, consisting of about twenty fam'ilies, landed
in Philadelphia in 1719. Scattering over the
country, they would probably have soon become
extinct as a sect, had not some of them founded a
church at Germantown,- in Pennsylvania, under

DUT
the ministry of Peter Becker. This church pros
pered, and others holding the same opinions were
speedily formed. Among these was one at Mill
Creek, in Lancaster county. To this community
belonged one Conrad Beissel. In 1725 he pub
lished a pamphlet, in which he maintained that
the Sabbath binding upon Christians was the
seventh day of the week, and not the first, as
this sect had, in common with most Christians,
previously held. The publication of this opinion
created a great sensation among the "Brethren;"
and the new tenet seems to have been adopted by
the majority; hence they are frequently styled
the German Seventh Day Baptists. Beissel
and his followers retired into a solitary place,
and in 1733 founded a kind of monastic society
at a place called Ephrata. The members of this
society adopted the dress of the white friars ; and
received monastic names, though they did not
take any monastic vows. They were not, on
entering, required to surrender their property;
but what they afterwards gained by their in
dividual labour went into the common treasury.
With regard to their creed, it does not seem to
have deviated very widely, or to any very serious
extent, from orthodox Christianity. They hold
the fundamental doctrines of the divinity of
Christ, and salvation by faith in him ; and
acknowledge the Scriptures as the only infallible
rule of faith and practice. Their chief peculiari
ties are with regard to baptism and the Sabbath.
They agree with those generally known as Bap
tists, in holding that baptism ought to be dis
pensed to an individual only on his making an
intelligent profession of his faith in Christ. In
the administration ofthe ordinance they practise
triple immersion, and likewise the laying on of
hands and prayer. They consider that the
seventh day is still the day which ought to be
observed as the Sabbath, holding that to accom
plish such an important matter as a change of
the day, nothing short of an explicit declaration
of the will of God could avail. They observe
the Lord's Supper in the evening. This they do
in imitation of our Lord ; and for the same rea
son, upon such occasions, they wash one another's
feet. This, indeed, is but in accordance with a
general principle held by them, and wbich has
been thus stated: — "They do not admit the
least license with the letter and spirit of the
Scriptures, and especially the New Testament —
do not allow one jot or tittle to be added or re
jected in the administration of the ordinances,
but practise them precisely as they are instituted
and set forth by Jesus Christ in his Word."
This sect seems to have been characterized by
extreme simpUcity, and by great harmony and
brotherly love. It still exists, in scattered rem
nants, chiefly in Pennsylvania.
Dutch Reformed Church. — See Ne
therlands, Churches in the.

227

EAG

E

EAS

Eagle, in Episcopalian churches, a common
form of the desk from which the lessons are read,
borrowed, perhaps, from the usual appearance Of
this bird as (he accompanying symbol of the
apostle John.
Early English, the name often given to that
plainer order of Gothic architecture which ap
peared in England in succession to the Norman,
towards the end of the twelfth century. Its
arches are lancet-shaped, and its roofs of high
pitch. Its windows (when not circular, as may
be seen in York and Lincoln cathedrals) are long
and narrow, and the doorways divided by a
central shaft. It merged into what is called the
decorated Gothic at the end of the thirteenth
century. It is sometimes called Gothic-Saxon,
and sometimes the " First pointed."
Ears, Touching of, an old and obsolete
ceremony in the Greek Church. The ears of
the catechumen were touched, and the word
" ephphatha " — be opened, was at the same time
pronounced, in imitation of Christ (Mark vii. 34).
East. — Churches were usually built from east
to west, the most sacred portion of the buUding
being towards the east. — See Bowing towards
the East.
Easter, the festival kept in memory of our
Lord's resurrection. According to Bede it "had
its name from a goddess called Eostre, to whom
tbey used to celebrate festivals at that time."
But more probably the word may be traced, like
the corresponding German Ostern, to the old
Teutonic form of "Auferstehi," " Auferstehung,"
i. e., resurrection. The term pascha, vdir%a,
from the Hebrew word for passover, which has
been used as synonymous with Easter, was
anciently applied to the whole period of fifteen
days from Palm Sunday to Low Sunday inclu
sive, the first seven of these days being dis
tinguished as " 9Tair^a trrav^uatfi.tl" — the pasch
ofthe crucifixion, and the remainder as "va.irx,a
a>a<rra<rift,m " — the pasch ofthe resurrection. At
a later period, i. e., after the council of Nice,
pascha was used for our Easter day ; and then
again, subsequently, it denoted the whole period
of the Eastern festival. The earliest record we
possess of the celebration of such a festival is
connected with a difference^of opinion between
the Eastern and Western Churches as to the
time and manner of keeping it. The Churches
of Asia kept the paschal feast on the 14th day
of the first Jewish month, whatever day of the
week it might happen to be ; and some writers
suppose that they also commemorated the resur
rection on the third day after that paschal feast.
Gieseler says, " There is no trace of a yearly
festival of the resurrection among them." The
Churches of Europe and Africa commemorated
the resurrection on the Sunday that followed the

Jewish passover, regarding the preceding Friday
as the dies paschae. So Gieseler ; but Mosheim
says, " They kept the paschal feast on the night
that preceded the anniversary of Christ's resur
rection." When Polycarp visited Rome, about
the year 160, he discussed these points of differ
ence with Anicetus, who was then bishop of the
imperial city; and he is Said to have defended the
Asiatic custom by referring to the authority of
the apostle St. John, with whom, in his youth,
he had been acquainted. But as tbe Roman
bishop also considered that he had apostolical
authority on his side, they parted without either
being persuaded to adopt the other's opinion.
They parted, however, without such angry feel
ings as were stirred up a few years later by dis
putes on the very same subject. Before the end
of the century, Victor, Bishop of Rome, had ex
communicated the Christians of Asia for adhering
to their ancient custom, and had endeavoured to
persuade other churches to do the same. But
he failed altogether in his attempt, which is
chiefly memorable for the remonstrance called
forth from Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, and for the
evidence afforded that, in those days at least, no
particular deference was paid to the judgment of
the Bishop of Rome. The churches continued,
from that time forward, to retain their several
customs, till the council of Nice, in 325, decided
in favour of the Western rule. After that time
those who persisted in adhering to the Asiatic
custom were generally regarded as heretical or
schismatical. They were called Quartodedmani,
or " nir<ra%i<rxaiitxarirai" — fourteeners, and are
censured under this latter title by the councils of
Constantinople and Laodicea. There still re
mained the difficulty of determining the particu
lar Sunday on which the festival should be kept;
and from the various methods of computing the
time of the paschal fuU moon, differences of a
week, and even of a month, would sometimes occur
between the Easter days of different churches.
The Alexandrian canon, which eventually pre
vailed, was not brought into full use in the Eo
man Church before the year 525, and the British
Churches resisted its introduction till it was
sanctioned by a council at Whitby in 664. But
those who differed as to the time of celebrating
Easter, all agreed in keeping it as the most
solemn and joyful of all the Christian festivals.
The day was ushered in with appropriate saluta
tions and other demonstrations of joy; the
Lord's Supper was solemnly celebrated; catechu
mens were baptized ; slaves were set at liberty;
and criminals, with the exception of those who
had committed very heinous offences, received
their pardon from the Christian emperors. Reli
gious assemblies for prayer, and preaching, and
communion, were held daily through the Easter

228

EAS
week. All public games and shows, both of the
theatre and the circus, were forbidden, not only
by the decrees of councils, but also by tbe laws
of the emperors ; and the prohibition extended
to Jews and Pagans, that they might not offend
the feelings of those who desired to do honour
to this holy season. Even the courts of law
were closed through the week, except for busi
ness of extreme urgency. As Easter day, or
the evening before it, was the most solemn and
important of the times appointed for the baptism
of catechumens, so the neophytes, or newly
baptized, used to wear the white garments then
given them throughout the following week,
which obtained from this custom the name of
Septimana in albis. The octave, or first Sunday
after Easter, on which they appeared in these
robes for the last time, was called Dominica in
albis. It was also called Dies neophytorum
(though Augustine gives that name to all the
days of Easter week, Ep., cxix., ad Januar., c.
17), and Octava infantium, and by the Greek
writers xaivh xvgtaxh, or New Sunday, all with
reference to the same custom. Its more modern
title among the foreign Protestants of Quasimo-
dogeniti is taken from the first words of the
Latin version of 1 Peter ii. 2 ; and its English
name, Low Sunday, is supposed by some to be
a corruption from tie Latin title, which alludes
to its being the close of the paschal feast (pascha
clausum). It has also borne the Greek name of
' Avriva<r%a. — See Alb.
Eastern Church, as opposed to Western
Church, is the general name for the Churches of
Monophysite faith, and the Church in Greece and
Russia. The genius of the East and West soon
came into sharp antagonism, first, as to a point
of chronology about the keeping of Easter, as we
have just said in the preceding article ; then,
secondly, as to a jealous adjustment about the
respective prerogatives of the bishops of Con
stantinople and Rome ; thirdly, upon the subject
of image- worship, the Eastern Church being op
posed to such innovations ; and, fourthly, as to
the procession of the Holy Ghost, — the addition
of the viordfilioque (and from the Son) to the
Nicene Creed leading to a complete severance. —
See Creed, Nicene ; Greek Church.
Ebionites, a sect concerning which the an
cient writers have left rather confused accounts.
Their existence, as a sect, may perhaps be dated
from the time when one Thebutis is said to have
begun to corrupt the church, i. e., soon after the
martyrdom of Symeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, in
107. The Ebionites are supposed to have then
separated from the Nazarenes, who adhered to the
apostolic doctrines. They taught that the law
of Moses was binding in all cases, and that Jesus
was the son of Joseph and Mary. They rejected
aU the New Testament, and especially the
epistles of St. Paul using only what they called
the Gospel according to the Hebrews, which was
probably a mutilated copy of St. Matthew. Of

EOT
the Old Testament they acknowledged only the
Pentateuch, and of that only so much as fell in
with their peculiar views. Their name has been
derived from Ebion, an imaginary founder of the
sect. It more probably came from a. Hebrew
word signifying poor, either given them in deri
sion, as Origen and Eusebius say, or assumed
by themselves to mark their profession of poverty.
Ecclesia (Church), used with various epithets
and additions, and various adjective and com
pound forms. Ecclesia apostolica, apostolic
Church, a name given very early to the Church in
Rome.— See Apostolical, Church. Ecclesice
advocati. — See Advowson. Ecclesiae defenso
res. — See Defensores. Ecclesia matrix,
the mother church or cathedral. — See Cathe
dral, Mothering Sunday. Ecclesia) casi-
ded, or ecclesiecdid, church lawyers. — See
Chancellor. Ecclesiastic, Ecclesiastical, belonging fo
the Church. The word comes from the Greek
" IxxXturia" — an assembly, — and this again from
the verb "ix-xaXia" — to caU together. The
Athenian sxxXnvia (ecclesia), was a public as
sembly of the citizens caUed together, according
to law, to consult about the affairs of the com
monwealth. Applied to the Christian Church, the
word means an assembly called or summoned by
the proclamation of the Gospel to eternal life.
Though the term ecclesiastical is now chiefly, if
not exclusively, applied to the priesthood, and to
all matters pertaining thereto, it was not so
limited in ancient times ; for we find it used to
denote Christians in general, as distinguished from
Jews — those who worshipped in the synagogue ;
and from heathens — those who attended the ser
vices of the temples.
Ecclesiastical Books. — See Deuteko-
CANONICAL. Ecclesiastical History, — See History OF
the Church.
Eclectics. — See Ammonians.
Economical, a term employed in theology to
denote what happens by voluntary arrangement,
and is not necessary or according to nature.
Thus, the subordination of the Son to the Father
in the scheme of mercy, is said to be economical,
since, in essence, the Son is one with the Father ;
but he of his own will humbled bimself, and
became the Father's servant
Ecstacy, a species of trance, in which vision
aries held intercourse with saints and angels,
and especially tbe Virgin, and occasionally re
ceived in their flesh lasting marks of their spirit
ual intimacy, such as the print of the nails, and
other stigmata of the passion.
Ecthesis (proclamation), an edict issued by
the Emperor Heraclius in the year 639, for the
purpose of composing the troubles occasioned by
the Eutychian heresy. This ecthesis, or confes
sion of faith, prohibited all controversies on the
question, Whether in Christ there were one or
two operations? though in the same edict the-

229

ECT
doctrine of one will was plainly inculcated. A
considerable number of the Eastern bishops de
clared their assent to this law, which was also
submissively received by Pyrrhus, the new Patri
arch of Constantinople. In the West the case
was quite different. The Roman pontiff, John
IV., assembled a council at Rome, a.d. 629, in
which the ecthesis was rejected, and the Monothe-
lites were condemned. (Mosheim's Eccles. Hist,
voL ii., pp. 33, 34.)
Ectypomata (lx.rvirup.a^a, figures or im
ages cut in relief), gifts made to churches in
token of a cure, consisting of a figure of the
organ which has been healed. — See Anathe-
MATA. Ecumenical (universal). — See Councils.
Edict, the technical name of a paper read in
Presbyterian churches, as a species of guard on
the purity of the Christian ministry. It is a
pubUc invitation to all who can say anything
against the minister elect, to come forward for
the purpose. The form of the document author
ized hf the United Presbyterian Church is as
follows: — "Whereas the presbytery of 
of the United Presbyterian Church have received
a call from this congregation, addressed to A. B.,
preacher (or minister) of the Gospel, to be their
minister, and the said call has been sustained as
a regular Gospel call, and been accepted of by the
said A. B., and he has undergone trials for ordi
nation ; and whereas the said presbytery having
judged the said A. B. quaUfied for the minis
try of the Gospel and the pastoral charge of this
congregation, have resolved to proceed to his ordi
nation on the  day of  , unless some
thing occur which may reasonably impede it, notice
is hereby given to all concerned, that if they, or
any of them, have anything to object why the
said A. B. should not be ordained pastor of this
congregation, they may repair to the presbytery,
which is to meet at ¦ — ¦  on the said 
day of  ; with certification, that if no
valid objection be then made, the presbytery will
proceed without farther delay. By order of the
presbytery." Edict of IVantes. — See Nantes.
Effrontcs, an obscure Transylvanian sect of
the sixteenth century, who not only denied the
Holy Ghost, but, among other fooleries, cut
their foreheads and anointed them with oU, as a
mode of initiation. Hence their name " ex-
frons ''¦ — out of the brow.
Elccsaites, a party wbich arose among the
Jewish Christians, about the time of Trajan, in
the countries lying eastward of the Dead Sea.
They united, with the asceticism of the Essenes,
the peculiar opinions that the Spirit of God had
associated himself from time to time with in
dividual men (Adam, Enoch, Noah, Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Jesus), in order that, as the
true prophet, he might constantly proclaim the
same truth, and restore it when obscured. This
party became known beyond their own country,

230

ELD
towards the end of the second century, by means
of the Clementines, (q. v.) They were some
times called Sampsceans, sometimes Ebionites,
which latter was the general appellation of here
tical Jewish Christians. Epiphanius ascribes their
origin and their name to one Elxai. But it is
very doubtful whether he was a more real person
than Ebion. Gieseler derives their name from
'P5 ^H Svvapis xixaXvp.u.k\n, which, in fact, is
their own interpretation of their supposed foun
der's name. (Epiphan. Haer., i., 19.)
Elders, in the Presbyterian Church, are cer
tain ecclesiastical officers, who, in conjunction
with the ministers, constitute the kirk-session in
Scotland. The " Form of Church Government"
annexed to the Confession of Faith asserts, that
" as there were in the Jewish Church elders of
the people, joined with the priests and Levites in
the government of the Church, so Christ, who
hath instituted government and governors ec
clesiastical in the Church, hath furnished some
in his Church, besides the ministers of the Word,
with gifts for government, and with commission
to execute the same when called thereunto, who
are to join with the minister in the government
of the Church, which officers Reformed Churches
commonly caU elders." The number of elders
is proportioned to the extent and population of a
parish, or size of a congregation. These elders
are chosen from among the members in fuU com
munion, and are usually persons of prominence
in the church — of tried character and Christian
excellence. After their acceptance of office, the
minister, in the presence of the congregation, sets
them apart to their office by prayer, and some
times by imposition of hands, and concludes the
ceremony of ordination with exhorting both elders
and people to discharge their respective duties.
This office, in many respects, resembles that of
churchwardens in the Church of England; but
the elders possess more spiritual jurisdiction than
churchwardens have in their respective parishes.
They have no right to teach or to dispense the
sacraments. " They generally discharge the
office, which originally belonged to the deacons,
of attending to the interests of the poor. But
their peculiar function is expressed by the name
'ruUng elders;' for, in every question of jurisdic
tion, they are the spiritual court of which the
minister is officially moderator, and in the pres
bytery — of which the pastors within the bounds
are officially members — the elders sit as the re
presentatives of the several sessions or consis
tories" (Hill's Theolog. Inslit, part ii., sec. 2,
p. 171). The term lay elder, used even by
Dr. Hill, is an improper designation, if the theory
of ordination be admitted to have any weight
As ordained persons, the epithet lay'does not
strictly apply to elders; for they have been taken
out of the people, and solemnly set apart over the
people. In the Established Church of Scotland
elders are nominated by the session ; but in un-
established bodies they are freely chosen by the

ELD
people. To give those at a distance a sample of
procedure in the election of such office-bearers,
we quote the following rules acted on in the
United Presbyterian Church : — " 1. The right
of electing elders is vested solely in the members
of the congregation who are in full communion.
2. No fixed number of elders is required, but the
number is regulated by the circumstances of the
congregation. Two, however, along with the
minister, are required to constitute a. session.
The number of elders to be chosen is fixed by the
session, if there is one, or if there is none, by the
presbytery. 3. When the session judge it expe
dient" that an addition should be made to their
number, the first step is to intimate their desire to
the congregation, and to caU a meeting of the
members of the congregation, for the purpose of
electing the required number. This meeting can
only be held after public intimation of the time
and purpose is made from the pulpit on the two
Sabbath days preceding the day of its being held.
It is desirable that the congregation should be
apprized of the wish of the session to have an
addition to their number some weeks before a
meeting for election is held, in order that the
members may look out for the best qualified in
dividuals to fill the office. 6. At the meeting for
election a discourse is generally delivered suita
ble to the occasion. The moderator of the session
presides at this, as well as the previ ms meeting
for nomination (where one is held), and the
session-clerk officiates as clerk. Where there has
been no previous meeting for nomination, full
opportunity is first of all given to the members to
propose candidates, and when all the names pro
posed have been taken down, the leet is declared
closed. The names of all on the leet, whether
made up at a previous meeting or at this, are
then read over, and, after prayer for the Divine
direction, the votes are taken, either by show of
hands, by calling the roll, by ballot, or other
wise ; and the individuals, to the number previ
ously fixed upon, having the greatest number of
votes, are declared to be duly elected. 7. After
tne election the caU of the congregation is inti
mated to the elders elect, a declaration of their
willingness to accept of the office is asked, and
the session deal with them as to the propriety of
their accepting it. Their wUlingness to accept
being expressed, the session, at a meeting ap
pointed for the purpose, proceed to satisfy them
selves in regard to their religious knowledge,
piety, and prudence, and their knowledge of the
government and discipline of the church, and the
duties of their office : And on the session being
satisfied on these points, an edict is appointed to
be publicly read in the congregation. 8. At the
time mentioned in the edict, which must be read
in the congregation on two Sabbath days, the
session meets, the elders elect being present.
After the session is constituted, if no objections
are brought forward, the day of ordination is
fixed for as early a day as possible. If objec-

ELE
tions are made, the session proceeds to inquire
into the grounds cf them, and decides on them,
after leading evidence if necessary. 9. On the
day of ordination, which may either be a Sab
bath or week-day, as thought most suitable, the
session being constituted and sermon being con
cluded, the moderator gives a short narrative of
the previous proceedings ; which being done, he
calls on the elders elect to stand forward, and puts
to them the questions of the formula. Satisfac
tory answers being given to these questions by
them, the minister proceeds to ordain or set them
apart by prayer to the office of ruling elder, and
to take part with their brethren in the inspection
of the congregation, and commends thein to the
grace of God for comfort, aid, and countenance
in the exercise of their office. Immediately
afterwards the right hand of fellowship is given
to the persons thus ordained, by the minister and
by the other elders present, and the whole is fol
lowed by suitable exhortations." (See Millar,
M'Kerrow, and King on the Eldership.)
Electi, the last class of catechumens ready
for baptism. — See Competentes. In early
times Christians generally received the same
name, while the ascetics called themselves more
elect than the elect — ixXtxraiv ixXexreT^ei.
Election, the theological name of God's eter
nal and sovereign choice of sinners to eternal
life. — See Predestination. The men who
framed or revised the thirty-nine articles were
Calvinists in theology, and the meaning of the
articles on this and other points may be gathered
from their writings.
Election of Pastors. — In such an appoint
ment a special revelation was sometimes claimed,
as when Gregory Thaumaturgus proposed Alex
ander as Bishop of Comena. In early times the
bishop was chosen by the suffrages of the clergy
and the people, or by a common vote, as Socrates
says of Chrysostom. Ambrose w as chosen by
acclamation, and, as in the case of St. Martin of
Tours, the voice of the people prevailed against
the opposition of some of the clergy. Various
modes of election were resorted to. The Apos
tolical Constitutions say, that the demand must
be made three times whether the candidate be
worthy, and sometimes tbe whole body cried,
" altts or ava^ios," " dignus or indignus " — that
is, worthy or unworthy. Sometimes, if the
people opposed a candidate, tbey shouted with
violent clamour, and brought accusations against
him. Persons called interventors went round,
under the metropolitan's commission, and tried to
secure unanimity for a candidate; but this
method, which was patronized by Gregory the
Great, soon became unpopular. Augustine and
Faulinus were made presbyters against their wfll.
Such scenes of popular elections occasionally be
came tumultuous, as Chrysostom on the priest
hood, iii., 15, testifies : — " Go witness a popular
assembly convened for the election of ecclesiasti
cal officers. Hear the complaints against tha

231

ELE
minister, manifold and numerous as the indivi
duals of that riotous multitude, who are the sub
jects of church government. All are divided
into opposing factions, alike at war with them
selves, with the moderator, and with the presby
tery. Each is striving to carry his own point ;
one voting for one, and another for another, and
all equally regardless of that which alone they
should consider — the qualifications, intellectual
and moral, of the candidate. One is in favour
of a man of noble birth ; another of a man of
fortune, who will need no maintenance from the
church ; and a third, one who has come over to
us from the opposite party. One is wholly en
listed for some friend or relative, and another
casts his vote for some flatterer. But no one re
gards the requisite qualifications of the mind and
the heart." But such power on the part of the
people was gradually restricted. The council of
Laodicea (canon 23) took the suffrage from the
multitude, " nTs t^Xtis," and restricted it to the
people, " t? XaZ," probably taking it from the
congregation and confining it to the church, to use
a modern distinction. Justinian carried the re
striction still farther, and gave the suffrage to
the " sr^Srti " — first men, or aristocracy of tbe
city. One of his Novels provides — " That when
a bishop was to be ordained, the clergy and chief
men of the city should meet and nominate three
persons, drawing up an instrument, and swear
ing, in the customary forms of an oath, upon the
Holy Bible, that they chose them neither for
any gift, nor promise, nor friendship, nor any
other cause, but only because they know them to
be of the catholic faith, of virtuous life, and men
of learning. Of these three, the ordaining per
son was required to choose, at his own discretion,
that one whom he judged best qualified." The
council of Paris, 657, protested against such en
croachments, decreeing, "No bishop should be
consecrated contrary to the will of the dtizens,"
alleging in vindication of this measure the
neglect of ancient usage, and of the ordinances
of the Church. " Nor should he attain to that
honour who had been appointed by the authority
of the rulers, and not by the choice of the people
and of the clergy, and whose election had not
been ratified by the metropolitan and other
bishops of the province." Thus the people
gradually lost their ancient right. The rulers had
it alone, or in alliance with the civil powers for a
season, till in the end the state absorbed the entire
prerogative. It may be added that a bishop oc
casionally nominated his successor, but the con
currence of the people was apparently requisite
to its validity. In 503 the Church of Rome
conceded that right ; but the council of Antioch,
in 441, had protested against it. The exceptions
to the exercise of popular right were, when the
majority of the Church was infected with heresy,
as among the Donatists in Northern Africa, or
when a missionary was sent to distant countries,
as when Athanasius at Alexandria ordained Fru- 2

ENC
mentius Bishop ofthe Indies, "«<"l»Sai." If abishop
took possession of a see in any irregular manner,
the unanimous choice of the people was at once to
be disallowed. In cases of division or faction the
will of the people was not regarded, and a person
named by none of the contending parties was
sometimes selected and ordained ; or the emperor
interposed his authority, and made a selection.
Lastly, the bishops sometimes nominated a leet
of three, of whom the people were to choose one;
or the clergy and the people appointed three, and
the bishops cast lots for the successful candidate.
— See Patronage. "
Elements. — See Chalice, Communion
Elements, Eucharist.
Elevation of the Host. — See Host.
Emanations, a term of constant occurrence
in the Gnostic philosophy. Out of the divine ful
ness or pleroma, there are perpetual outflowings,
which at length return to their source. Various
ranks of iEons and worlds are among such eman
ations, so that the distinctive doctrine of crea
tion is set aside, and a species of pantheism in
troduced. — See Gnosticism.
Ember Days, Ember Weeks. — The Em
ber Weeks are those weeks during which the
Ember Days fall. They were fixed by the coun
cil of Placentia, a.d. 1095, to be the Wednes
day, Friday, and Saturday after the first Sunday
in Lent, Whitsunday, September 14 — Holy Cross,
and December 13 — St Lucy (Labbe, Condi.,
x., 502, B). The Sundays immediately following
these " quatuor tempora jejunii " — four seasons of
fasting, are more especially appointed, by the
thirty-first canon of the Church of England, for
the ordination of ministers.
Einbolns. — The side aisles of a church, into
which two small doors, from the portico, opened,
and which were placed on each side of the larger
door in the centre. The embolus opened into the
nave by doors on the north and south.
Eminence, a title given of old by the popes
both to the emperors and the kings of France.
Anselm attributes it to the pope himself (iii. Ep.
37). Till the pontificate of Urban VIII. cardi
nals were addressed as illuslrisdmi. A buU of
this pope in 1530 ordained that their style should
be changed into that of eminentia tua, which was
also ascribed to the three ecclesiastical electors
and the grand master of Malta, but forbidden to
aU other persons whatsoever.
Encomia. — See Consbcration.
Encratiles (abstinents), this name (from the
Greek word iyx^aris) may have been given to
various sects, to denote their rigid abstinence; but
it especially belongs to tlie Gnostic sect of which
Tatian, and after him Severus, were the leaders.
They held marriage to be unlawful, as well as
the eating of flesh and drinking of wine. And
from this last tenet was probably derived
their custom of using water instead of wine
at the Lord's Supper, for which they are con
demned by Augustine as Aquarii, and called
32

ENE
by Theodoret Hydroparastatm, or offerers of
water. Energici, a religious party in the sixteenth
century who held that the Eucharist was the
energy or power of Christ — not his body, nor
even a representation of it.
Energumens, Gr. hii>ytvp<.voi, the possessed,
sc. in a restricted sense by an evil spirit, called
also, in the primitive Church, dai/wi^S/tim,
xavt%Sftsyti, x'.ift-aZjitiAivot, or xXvouvt^eplvot —
names all describing the nature or results of that
awful malady with which they were supposed to
have been seized. They were committed to the
especial care of exorcists, who were instructed to
pray for them, to employ them in innocent busi
ness, as sweeping the church, and similar occupa
tions (Cone. Carthag.,iv., 91), "to prevent more
violent agitations of Satan, lest idleness should
tempt the tempter," and also to provide
their food while they were in the church, which
was their chief residence. An especial form of
prayer for them was assigned in the public ser
vice, and may be found in the Apostolical Canons.
It was addressed to Christ, and is as follows : —
" 0 thou only-begotten God, the Son of the
great Father; thou that bindest the strong one,
and spoilest his goods ; that givest power unto us
to tread on serpents, scorpions, and over all the
power of the enemy ; thou hast delivered up the
murdering serpent unto us a prisoner, as a spar
row unto children ; thou, before whom all things
shake and tremble at the presence of thy power ;
that makest Satan to fall from heaven to the
earth as lightning, not by a local fall, but by a
fall from honour to disgrace, because of his
voluntary malice ; thou whose looks dry up the
deep, and threatenings make the mountains
melt; whose truth endures for ever; whom in
fants praise, and sucklings bless, and angels
celebrate and adore ; that lookest upon the earth,
and makest it tremble ; that touchest the moun
tains, and they smoke ; that rebukest the sea,
and driest it up, and turnest the rivers into a
wilderness; that makest the clouds to be the
dust of thy feet, and walkest upon the sea as
upon a pavement ; rebuke the evil spirits, and
deliver the works of thy hands from the vexation
of the adverse spirit : for to thee belongs glory,
honour, and adoration, and, by thee, to thy
Father, in the Holy Spirit, world without end.
Amen." During service they occupied the lower
part of tbe church. The council of Eliberis per
mitted them to be baptized in cases of extremity,
and under visible appearances of death. The
first council of Orange extended this permission
as necessity required, or opportunity allowed.
So during intermission they might receive the
Eucharist. The councU of Orange enjoined also
that they should not be ordained; and that if
any of them had been so admitted into the
priesthood, they should be immediately deposed.
— See Exorcist.
England, Chnrch of. — Our sketch of the 233

ENG
early history of the Church in England will be
very short, and. is only intended to introduce
more clearly the period which commences with
the latter part of the reign of Henry VIII., at
which time the Church of England as .now con
stituted began to exist. As to the ancient
British Church, its origin is lost in the mists of a
remote antiquity. Bishops from the southern
part of the island shared in the deliberations of
such early councils as those of Aries, Sardica,
and Ariminum, in the fourth century, and the
prevalence of Christianity in Britain is attested
by Tertullian and others. Here, too, Pelagian
ism took its rise: the teaching of the British
monk initiated a controversy which, under some
guise or other, since first it was crushed by the
writings of Augustine, has, from time to time,
re-appeared to trouble the Christian world. The
hostility of pagan Rome caused Christianity to
retire to the inaccessible fastnesses of Wales, and
the remote parts of the island, where it continued
to exist while all round lay under the darkness
of Roman and then Saxon idolatry. Mis
sionaries from Rome, a.d. 597, in one of these
pagan parts of the island, the kingdom of Kent,
replanted Christianity. Their leader, Augustine,
then an abbot, was made by the pope, soon after
his arrival, Archbishop of Canterbury, the capital
of the kingdom in which he had landed, and Pri
mate of England. London and York were both
created archiepiscopal sees at the same time, with
a number of suffragan bishops in each see.
Augustine's haughty and overbearing conduct
prevented the union of the newly-founded Saxon
Church with the remnant of the ancient British
Church which still existed in Wales, but which,
by a cruel massacre, was very soon after exter
minated. To Augustine himself some of the
blame of instigating this deed is perhaps to
be referred. Christianity now rapidly spread
through England, till all the greater kingdoms
had submitted to it. Northumbria, indeed, being
conquered by a heathen prince, completely re
lapsed into paganism under his sway, but soon
after was re-Christianized by the teaching of
missionaries from Scotland. The Northumbrian
Church long resisted the claims of supremacy
which Rome advanced, and from the time, a.d.
664, that Oswy, the king of the country, submit
ted, and compelled his clergy to do the same, dates
the commencement of the domination of Rome
over the whole of England. From this time to
the Norman conquest, if we except the appearance
of a few great men, such as Bede, Alcuin, and
King Alfred, who, though not an ecclesiastic,
may not be omitted, there is scarcely anything in
the history of the Church which calls for atten
tion. The laws of Ina, instituting church shot
or rats (see Rates, Church), and recognizing
tithes as payable to the clergy (see Tithes),
date back to a.d. 693. Alfred held out special
inducements to landowners to build churches on
their estates. Religious houses began to increase

ENG
rapidly in numbers and wealth; but, in spite of
these circumstances, William of Malmesbury as
sures us that, at the time ofthe Conquest, learning,
morality, and religion, were at an extremely low
ebb. There were then two archbishops, thirteen
bishops, and the number of parishes was nearly
the same as now. As regards the constitution of
the Church of England, it is of the utmost impor
tance to know that " Elfric, one of the latest
writers of the Anglo-Saxon Church, a.d. 1014,
is careful to inform us that between the presby
tery and the episcopate there is no other differ
ence but that of office, bishops being especially
charged with certain duties which might inter
fere with the regular engagements of ordinary
priests. These duties are stated to be, ordina
tion, confirmation, tbe consecrating of churches,
and the care of God's rights. The ecclesiastical
orders in the Church he pronounces to be seven,
— ostiary, reader, exorcist, acolyte, subdeacon,
deacon, and priest" — Marsden.
William the Conqueror, though it was re
served to a later age for the King of Eng
land to be theoretically recognized as the
supreme head on earth of the English Church,
yet realized that position more thoroughly than
almost any other English sovereign, and in
augurated those struggles for superiority in the
government of England between the crown and
the pope, which terminated, under Henry VIII.,
in the complete withdrawal of the English
Church from the Roman communion, and the
final rejection of papal authority. This rejection
of external domination was also prepared for
and accompanied by such an internal reforma
tion and remanlfestation of the truth, as made
the Church of England a true Church of Christ,
and notable defender of sound doctrinal theology.
William's first act of insubordination to the
pope was a refusal to acknowledge him as
his feudal superior ; next, the declaration of his
purpose to retain in his own hand all those rights
of investiture of bishops and abbots which the
early Saxon kings had possessed. His succeed
ing step was even more daring : he prohibited the
publishing and admitting into the kingdom all
papal buUs and letters of advice, till such had
been submitted to, and approved of by him ; and
further, he denuded the clergy of the right of
excommunicating any of his nobles, except with
his express permission. To compensate for this,
we find that " he confirmed by charter a law of
Edward the Confessor, granting to the clergy
tithe of cattle and profits, in addition to the an
cient tithe of produce." But his policy of in
dependence was vitiated by one error, the effects
of which neutralized, if they did not overbalance
that liberty his former acts tended to secure. The
error lay, not in the general principle of bis con
duct, but in the existing circumstances of the
times, and in the character ofthe Roman Catholic
religion. He created distinct, independent, irre
sponsible ecclesiastical courts for the trial of re-

ENG
ligious cases, and in these the bishops alone were
judges. Hitherto all causes had been decided in
the county courts by the sheriffs and bishops
acting jointly ; but now this was to cease. The
power which this gave to the Church is easily
conceived when we remember that the English
bishops were nearly all foreigners, Italians, and
as such more strongly attached to the greatness
of Rome than that of England.- The reason of
this is to be found partly in the wiles of Roman
policy, securing these offices for her more imme
diate children, partly because the Saxons were
despised by William and his Norman barons, and
many of them would not take the oath of alle
giance ; whilst, on the other hand, the Normans
themselves cared more for tbe camp than the
Church. These bishops decided, not by Saxon
laws and precedents, but ruled in accordance with
the principles and practices of tbe papal court :
by them in after times the canon law was
brought into England ; whilst, for a long period,
the respective provinces of causes, religious and
non-religious, were so far from being sharply de
fined that, by skilful casuistry, stretching a point
when necessary, these courts managed to absorb
nearly every judicial function. Their usurpation
of temporal authority and their boundless tyran
ny long made the name of spiritual courts hate
ful to Englishmen, and the curse of their existence
helped to rouse the people to shake off the burden
of Rome. It is remarkable that it was not till
the councU of Winchester, 1076, that ceUbacy was
made imperative on the English clergy. Eufus
kept the primacy vacant, for six years, and
various wealthy sees for protracted periods, in
order to replenish his coffers with their rich en
dowments : with such guardianship the Church
could not prosper. Under his successor, Henry
Beauclerc, a synod met at Westminster, 1102,
which passed various reforming measures, the
nature of which attest the existing depravity and
degradation of the Church. This synod prohibited
simony, and the pope ruled that lay investi
ture was simony ; and on this question a rupture
between the pope and the king soon occurred.
After a struggle to maintain the rights of investi
ture, which he bad received with the crown,
Henry felt himself compelled to relinquish them
to the pope, and only got permission from the
pope for bishops to do homage to him, if they
chose, without being on that account removed
from their sees. None of the proposed measures
of reform accomplished any result. The morals
of the clergy were thoroughly relaxed; murder by
a person in holy orders was quite a usual occur
rence ; against such offenders there was no resort
to common law, and ecclesiastical courts rarely in
terfered with them. A case of this kind, but mark
ed by circumstances of peculiar atrocity, gave
rise to the protracted struggle between Thomas,
a Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury, on the
side of the pope, and Henry II., for himself and
people. But tbe struggle, properly speaking,

234

ENG
commenced when, under the guidance of the
king, parliament drew up that stern document,
in January, 1164, which is known as "The Con
stitutions of Clarendon." — See Clarendon,
Constitutions of. With varying success it
was carried on ; but a rash expression of anger
by Henry led to the murder of Beckett in his own
cathedral by some of the king's knights, and
turned thereby the scale completely in favour of
priestly domination. The terrors of interdict
and excommunication, which were now hanging
over his head, at once compelled him to tender a
most humble submission.
The history of the Church of England, on
till the time of Edward III., is marked by
a continuation of the same struggles for supe
riority between the temporal and the ecclesi
astical power. At one time we find Stephen
boldly rejecting papal authority, and the coun
try for two years experiencing the effect of an
interdict; at another, abjectly submitting to
do fealty for his kingdom. Next we find the
king, though supported by aU the power of tlie
Church, unable to resist the demands of the
barons, and granting the Magna Charta. An
element of power was soon to begin to work
amongst the masses, which ultimately would sup
ply the needed strength to the temporal power, to
effect its release from ecclesiastical thraldom.
The birth of Wycliffe brings us to the com
mencement of new and enlightened notions of
Christian truth and discipline. Wycliffe bears
a relation, not only to tbe internal regeneration,
but also to the external freeing of the Church of
England. The influence of the pious Bradwar-
dine's writings upon bis mind was most salutary.
His own observation compelled him to perceive
existing abuses ; his acquaintance with common
law showed him the great and unjust aggressions
of the Church. He became penetrated with the
love of Uberty and Gospel truth. Henceforward he
was a vehementenemy ofthe friars — an exposerof
their rapacity, ignorance, and vice ; as a profes
sor in the university of Oxford, a propagator of
sound religious truth and liberal views upon such
vital questions as the pope's supremacy and
authority in England. He became a most pro
minent man in the country, and as one of the
king's chaplains, wrote a tract in defence of the
conduct of the king and parliament in refusing to
pay tribute to the pope as feudal superior of the
realm, or even to acknowledge him as such. At
this time also Edward refused the payment of
Peter's pence. — See Peter's Pence. Wycliffe
began soon after this to write tracts in English.
It was by the circulation of these amongst
the common people that a tangible form was first
given to their indefinite longings after reform.
Such a tract as A Short Rule of Life ; or
another on Why poor Priests have no Benefices,
whilst delighting the people, must have cut the
priests and monks to the quick, by the contrast
between the morality they inculcated and the

ENG
habits of life which the priests practised. There
are three measures, emanating exclusively from
the state, which greatly contributed to the free
ing of the Church : they are known as the statutes
provisors, prajmunire, and mortmain (which see).
The first was passed in 1350, to prevent the pope
conferring English benefices on any one without
the consent of the king. It was rendered neces
sary by the modein which he had long been dis
posing of the richest EngUsh sees and benefices on
foreign and most frequently non-resident clergy.
In 1353 thestatute praemunire was enacted, to pre
vent the carrying of appeals from English civil
courts to the pope at Rome — a practice which
tended to weaken law and order in the realm.
The last of these three acts was designed to pre
vent the mortification of any further property to
ecclesiastical uses. This was absolutely essential ;
'for it seemed as if the whole country would pass
into the hands of the clergy. In the reign of
Edward I., when this was first enacted, out of
53,000, the number of knights' fees connected
with the landed property of the country, 28,000
had already passed into the hands of the clergy.
This statute was, from time to time, made more
stringent. But, despite all these barriers, the
resources of the country were daily being drained
by Borne. To return to Wycliffe ; in other ways
besides his lectures, scientific treatises, and tracts,
Wycliffe influenced the public mind : one was by
his preaching himself, and sending his followers,
" the poor priests," to do the same throughout
the country ; another by the origination of tbat
noble conception of translating the whole Bible
into English, and circulating it amongst the
people, both which he was enabled to effect.
Through the powerful influence of John of Gaunt,
Duke of Lancaster at first, then of the queen
mother, and latterly by the opportune existence
of the papal schisms, the malice of his enemies
never was able to silence or kill Wycliffe,
though about forty years after his death they
dug up and burnt his bones, to attest their hatred
of him. But the leaven of his doctrine was in
troduced into the public mind, and slowly but
surely the fermentation went on, and never after
could persecution eradicate it. Hia followers ap
pear under the name of Lollards, gradually
growing in numbers and courage ; and many are
the instances, from Lord Cobham and William
Sautre onwards, of the martyrdoms which they
endured with Christian fortitude.
But the pride and power of Rome seemed
never greater, nor the magnificence of the Church
of Rome more impressive than just before its fall
in England, under the rule of that most remark
able man, Cardinal Wolsey, one of the ablest
and most unprincipled statesmen that England
has ever given birth to. Henry VIII. was, by
his father, betrothed to his brother's widow, the
Infanta of Spain, to save the repayment of her
dowry, and to prevent the possible alliance of
Spain with any other country, so as to weaken

235

ENG
England. Such a marriage Archbishop Ware-
ham, the primate, protested against, as obnoxious
to God's law ; and to Henry VIII. himself it was
then distasteful. Against it he formally protested ;
but after his accession to the throne he did marry
her. Tears after Wolsey revived this subject,
and suggested the dutifulness of a divorce, to
revenge himself on Charles V. for having disap
pointed him of the papacy, but after the king
began to look with favour on Anne Boleyn, one
of a house from whom Wolsey had everything
to fear, he adopted a covert policy of opposition
to the divorce he had suggested. When at last
he was pressed on every side, with no open way
before him, and his own ruin imminent, his
course became tortuous, and was marked by a
constant endeavour to protract the proceedings,
and delay any sentence being pronounced on
this question by the pope. The issue was,
in consequence of the advice of Cranmer, an
appeal to the universities, and to the learned
men of Christendom, for their opinion on this
point, which was given in favour, for the
most part, of Henry. The disgrace of Wolsey
followed thereon. Henry's quarrel with the
pope daily became more palpable. Convocation
was summoned in 1531, and charged with break
ing the statutes of provisors, praemunire. They
humbly offered to pay a fine. The first step to
wards a schism was made by this convoca
tion ; but it was under the pressure of the court.
They proclaimed the King of England " only
and supreme lord, and as far as the law of Christ
permits, even the supreme head of the Church of
England." In 1533, on the elevation of Cranmer
to the see of Canterbury, he pronounced sentence
of divorce between Henry VIII. and Catherine;
and the marriage of Anne Boleyn to Henry was
publicly notified. The pope declared this illegal,
and threatened, unless these doings were undone,
that he would pronounce excommunication on
Henry. To prevent any such proceedings affect
ing the stability of his throne, and his succession,
in the following year Henry caused parliament to
abolish all papal authority in England, and to
stop all payments to the Roman exchequer.
From 1534 the Church of England was once
more free. After this came, under Thomas
CromweU, acting as vice-regent, a blow upon
popish power in England from which it never re
covered — namely, first a visitation and then, as a
consequence, the suppression of the monasteries,
because "they had long and notoriously been
guilty of vicious and abominable living."
Amongst the bishops there were two parties; one
whose sympathies were with the pope, the other
with reform ; to the former belonged Bonner and
Gardiner, to the latter Cranmer and Latimer. But
it was necessary to have some authoritative de
claration of what the Church of England held since
it had rejected the pope; and hence, in 1536,
the king, as head of the Church, issued a proclam
ation on this subject, and in 1539 parliament

ENG
passed an act for establishing the creed, under the
rather characteristic title, "An act for abolishing
diversity of opinions." By this the doctrine of
Transubstantiation was taught, and the penalty
of death by burning was attached to the denial
of it. All who stood out for " the necessity of the
communion in both kinds, or for the marriags
of priests, or against the observance of vows
of chastity, or the propriety of private masses,
or the fitness of auricular confession ; all priests
who shall marry after having advisedly made
vows of chastity, shall suffer the pains of
death as felons; and aU those who maintain
the same errora under any other manner may
be imprisoned during the king's pleasure"
(Macintosh). Such is the first constitution of
the Reformed English Church; and it shows that,
so far as the Church of England was concerned,
its first origin was a political one, and it differed
only in substituting a lay for an ecclesiastical
head — the king for the pope. But to secure
the permanency of the change which political
circumstances required, Henry felt compelled to
go on, and increase the distance which separated
him from Rome. There was in the Church
a powerful party, headed by those whom
Henry most loved, and to whom he was most in
debted for the accomplishment of the divorce ;
such were Cranmer and Latimer, and many
others of less note, that were of decidedly pro
gressive tendencies ; and to this party Thomas
Cromwell, during his continuance in power, lent
all his influence. His favour shown to the
Protestant cause was one ground of his fall.
About this time, too, several editions of the Eng
lish Bible were printed and circulated with tbe
permission of Henry, and were productive of good
results. — See Bible. They were based upon
Coverdale's translation. To Cranmer and Crom
weU the permission to circulate them is due, and
the command to place them in the cathedrals for
public use, and for ministers to instruct their
people in them. . But the tide of political power
now turned in favour of the Romanist party, and
these permissions were withdrawn : the Bible
became again for a time a prohibited book, and
many who had received enlightened views of
truth suffered bitter persecution. In 1540 Cran
mer persuaded Henry to appoint a commission, of
which he was made a member, to draw up a formal
confession. This appeared under the title, The
Erudition of a Christian Man. It indicates some
progress, since it only recommends prayers for the
dead as " good and charitable ; and because it is
not known what condition departed souls are in,
we ought only to recommend them to the mercy
of God." It affirms justification by faith, thouga
it modifies this declaration so far as to add, " Yet
man, prevented by grace, is by his free consent
and obedience a worker toward the attaining of
his own justification." It forbids the worship of
images, though it allows their use to excite devo
tional feeling. It altered some minor matters also

236

ENG
in the service. Such was the character of the
Church of England's first confession. The re
formers were gaining strength, and under Ed
ward VI., and the Protector Somerset, their
triumph was undoubted. Thirty commissioners
were sent through the country to abolish super
stitious practices. Cranmer drew up twelve
homuies, which were appointed to be read in the
churches where the ministers could not preach.
This was one of the provisions made for the dif
fusion of sound religious knowledge. This step,
and the sermons themselves, eUcited the unquali
fied approbation of the continental reformers.
Cranmer wrote also a catechism, which was
generally circulated. Such theologians as Bucer
and Peter Martyr were invited to come and
lecture in the English universities ; and the most
strenuous exertions were made to provide preach
ing ; " one sermon every quarter of the year at
least " in every church, being imperative. But
such was the state of the Romish clergy that
even this much they could hardly accomplish.
In 1547 parUament repealed the variouspersecut-
ing acts of Henry VIII. and earlier reigns, leveUed
against the new opinions, as they are often called.
As convocation was inclined in favour of the
Romish party, parUament assumed to itself the
task of reforming the Church. It passed that
year acts " concerning the sacrament," ordaining
" the communion to be received in both kinds,"
forbidding the priest to communicate alone, and
requiring him to prepare the people for worthUy
communicating, by an exhortation on the day
preceding its celebration. In 1548 there was a
commission appointed for the revision of the offi
ces of pubUc worship. One of its first fruits was
a new communion service. Confession was no
longer made imperative. At the, same time a
new liturgy was compiled. At the end of it occurs
the petition—" From the tyranny of the Bishop of
Rome and all his detestable enormities, good
Lord, deUver us." — See Prayer, Book of
Common. In 1551 a further series of emenda
tions was made in the prayer book : in it very
few alterations have since been introduced. The
same year the articles, then forty-two in number,
were published. — See Articles, Thirty-nine.
The commission appointed in 1552, to prepare a
canon law, in consequence of the death of Edward
was discontinued before its work was done.
Under his reign the progress of reformation had
been rapid ; but it was to be sorely tried. Mary
ascended the throne, and re-established Roman
ism. Her bitter persecutions accompUshed this,
that Romanism was made more odious in the
eyes of Englishmen than it otherwise could have
been ; and the reaction to Protestantism under
Elizabeth was aU the more decided and perman
ent. Lord Burleigh asserts that under Mary's
reign " two hundred and ninety were burned."
Under Elizabeth Protestantism was again in the
ascendant ; and by the various measures which
were taken, the Reformation in England was com-

ENG
pleted as it at present stands. The episcopate was
then adorned with many great and good men, such
as Jewel, Grindal, &c, whose vigorous writings as
weU as faithful sermons were productive of great
good. The convocation of 1562, besides drawing
up the thirty-nine articles, published two volumes
of homilies by Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, and
caused the learned Nowel, Dean of St. Paul's, to
draw up a catechism for general use — a task he
admirably fulfilled. It is so closely akin to that
by Calvin that it is questionable whether it
ought not to be regarded only as a translation,
altered so as to adapt it to the requirements of
the English Church, rather than as an original
work. About this time the more extreme re
forming party began to appear (for a full account
of them, see Puritans), and to exert their in
fluence speciaUy in all the questions which arose
about the various ceremonies of the Church.
Elizabeth's extreme jealousy of her supreme
authority often obstructed the plans for reform
which the more zealous clergy contrived — a
jealousy which brought her into collision with
the primate himself, as on the subject of "The
prophesyings." The works of the great con
tinental divines, as Calvin and Bullinger, were
studied in England ; and the great standard
work of Richard Hooker on Ecclesiastical Polity
— which may be styled the apology of the
Church of England — was published 1594-97.
At this period the doctrine of the Church of
England was most decidedly Calvinistic. When
this form of doctrine was impugned in Cam
bridge, the country was in a blaze; and to
appease the excitement, the famous Lambeth
articles were drawn up by Whitgift, the pri
mate. These were designed as an authoritative
interpretation of the thirty-nine articles. Here
Elizabeth again interfered to prevent the ex
treme views of either party being promulgated
in sermons or debates.
When James ascended the throne, both the
Puritans and the Church party calculated on
having his support The Puritans hastened to
present to him the famous Millenary Petition,
which embodied a statement of those things in
the Church which they desired to see amended.
This eUcited from the universities a counter-
petition, and James held a conference with
both parties at Hampton Court, January, 1604.
It resulted in no good to the Puritans ; for
King James now thought Episcopacy was most
conformable to monarchy; and the reply to
their arguments he pithUy put in the form,
" No bishop, no king." One advantage which
ensued from this conference was the revision of
the translation of the Bible, instituted at the
suggestion of the leader of the Puritans, and
the result was the present authorized version.
During the reign of James the famous synod of
Dort met, and four able EngUsh divines were
sent thither by James, to share in their deli
berations. Of these the most famous was Daven-

237

ENG
ant, afterwards Bishop of Salisbury. — See Dort,
Synod of. Henceforward the Calvinistic party
in the Church of England began to decline,
and curiously enough King James himself turned
against it. Under Bancroft and Laud the
Arminian party took most decided steps; and
we have the authority of Baxter and others
in asserting that a decline of piety soon be
came apparent throughout England after the
ascent of this party to power. James first
issued the Book of Sports in 1618, and offended
very many, because he thereby legally sanc
tioned certain amusements on the Sabbath day.
Under Charles it was republished in 1663, the
declaration affirming that it was done "out
of a pious care for the service of God ....
. . and the ease, comfort, and recreation of our
well-deserving people." It was received with
manifest disgust ; and many of the clergy refused
to obey the ordinance requiring its publication in
the churches. In 1644 the House of Commons
caused it to be burnt by the hangman. — See
Sports, Book of. Under Charles the Ar
minian party, with Laud at their head, rose
to the highest power. We may judge of their
zeal for the Protestant religion, when Laud
records in his diary, " Aug. 17, Saturday. I
had a serious offer again to be a cardinal."
As a recent writer says, " The offer itself was in
famy to an Anglican archbishop." Laud endea
voured to close the mouths of the Calvinists, and
in part succeeded. He caused Charles to proclaim
at the commencement of the articles — " We will
that all curious search into these things be laid
aside, and these disputes be shut up in God's
promises, as they be generally set forth to us in
Holy Scripture, and the general meaning of the
articles according to them." Against this the Cal
vinistic divines of London boldly petitioned, and
were supported by tbe House of Commons.
But the court threw all their weight into the scale
of the Arminian party, and in the end Charles
dissolved the parUament. The court of high com
mission and the star chamber (which see) never
had more constant employment, and their hate
ful tyranny most thoroughly roused the people.
The severity of Laud occasioned the greatest dis
content; and the Puritan party, as they could not
maintain themselves in the Church, began to
found special lectureships ; but, on Laud's advice,
the king issued instructions to the bishops to
suppress all such. Forbearance at last came to
an end. Then came the great rebellion and civil
war, which led to the putting down of Episcopacy,
and the establishment of Presbyterianism on the
basis of the Westminster Confession, though
afterwards Independency took the lead. Laud was
condemned the day after the House of Commons
established Presbyterianism, and executed on
the ground of treason, January 10, 1645. With
the restoration of Charles II. occurred the resto
ration of Episcopacy in England. The Sunday
after his return heard the liturgy read in almost

238

ENG
every parish church. The Puritans, who are hence
forward known as Presbyterians, having greatly
contributed to the restoration, were treated at
first by Charles with kindness, and several of their
number were offered high ecclesiastical prefer
ments. In 1661 the famous Savoy Conference
met, with Baxter as leader of the Presbyterian
party, and Sheldon as that of the bishops, to try,
if possible, to unite both sides. As might have
been expected the plan failed. The Episcopal
party were determined on making their late
masters feel the rod, and in 1662 the Act of
Uniformity was passed ; and rather than take
the test it prescribed, 2,000 Puritan clergy
left the Church of England. Then, in quick
succession, followed those persecuting acts, the
Corporation, Conventicle, and Five Miles Acts.
Still further grievances were inflicted by the
Test Act of 1672.— See Acts. The piety by !
which she was distinguished seemed now to have
gone altogether from the Church of England,
and her ministers scarcely ventured to speak
against the fashionable vices of the day. Next
arose another school of divines — " Christian phi
losophers rather than divines." Their Uves were
moral, but they eviscerated the Gospel of all that
was characteristic of it. When a plan for " com
prehension" was revived in 1668, the House of
Commons prohibited such a measure being intro
duced. When James, Duke of York, professed
Roman Catholicism, Charles at once proclaimed
complete toleration. This was in 1672; but the
Commons the year foUowing compelled him to
withdraw his indulgence. Fopery they were
determined to resist. When James came into
power he proclaimed similar indulgences, and for
bade preaching against Romanist errors ; nay, in
defiance of the enactment of 1 65 1 , he recreated the
court of high commission. These measures the
clergy resisted. In consequence of his resistance,
the Bishop of London was suspended for a time.
The university of Cambridge came into collision
with the king, and also Magdalen college, Ox
ford. Rather than do what might advantage
Rome, the Nonconformists did not avaU them
selves of the royal indulgence. But James re
newed his declaration, and commanded that it
should be published in the churches. Eighteen
out of twenty-five bishops refused to do so, and
nearly all tbe clergy. The bishops were com
manded to cite the recusants; but they refused.
Seven of them even drew up a remonstrance, and
as a consequence, were sent to the Tower. Their
committal to it had rather the appearance of a
triumphal entry, from the enthusiasm displayed
by the people on their behalf. They were tried
at Westminster Hall, and the news of their ac
quittal were received with rapturous delight on
all hands ; for aU felt that they were committed to
a struggle against an insidious attempt to restore
Popery. The royal career of James was now
ending, and his further schemes were not de
veloped ; for that very year the Prince of Orange

ENG
landed. One of WUliam' s earliest acts was the
passing of a toleration bill in 1689; but an act of
comprehension was rejected in the Commons. In
September of that year a commission was ap
pointed to revise the liturgy and canons, and reform
ecclesiastical abuses ; but all their proposals were
rejected by convocation. — See Convocation.
Three of the seven bishops mentioned above re
fused the oath of allegiance to William and
Mary. Tbey headed the party known as the Non
jurors, which ceased to exist as an independent
Episcopalian Church in 1780; but many of their
faction became attached to the Scottish Episcopa
lians. In 1698 the Church of England gave birth
to two noble philanthropic schemes : the Society
for the promotion of Christian knowledge, which
circulates Bibles, prayer books, and tracts ; and in
1704 the Society for the propagation of the Gospel
in foreign parts was chartered. This was the be
ginning of her foreign missionary enterprise,
now so widely extended, and the instrument of so
much good. The Church of England has min
isters belonging to her communion wherever
British consuls reside, is established by law in
very many of our colonies, and many of her
ministers are employed as chaplains in the
army and navy. Colonial Bishops are in the
following places: — Adelaide, Antigua, Barba
does, Bombay, Brisbane, British Columbia, Cal
cutta, Cape Town, Colombo, Christchurch,
" Fredericton, Gibraltar, Graham's Town, Guiana,
Huron, Jamaica, Kingston, . Labuan, Madras,
Mauritius, Melbourne, Montreal, Natal, Nelson,
Newcastle, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Nova
Scotia, Perth, Quebec, Rupert's Land, St.
Helena, Sierra Leone, Pydney, Tasmania, Tor
onto, Victoria, Wellington, Whaiapu. Though
the Church of England is united under one creed,
form of worship, and body of canons, there are in
it three great parties, often and significantly called
High Church, Low Church, and Broad Church —
the last comprising some of the best minds of the
country (See Conybeare's Essays). Ecclesiasti
cally, England is divided into two provinces —
York, with seven dioceses ; and Canterbury, with
twenty-one. At the head of each of these pro
vinces is an archbishop, he of Canterbury
being primate. There are in the Church
of England 463 rural deaneries, 871 arch
deaconries, and 14,077 places of worship.
The benefices are 11,728, and the clergy about
1,800. Of those benefices 1,144 are in "the gift
of the crown, 770 in that of universities and
colleges, 1,853 in that of the bishops, 938 in
that of the several chapters, 931 in that of the
ministers of mother churches, and 6,092 in that of
private individuals.
The revenues of the Church of England, esti
mated at about three miUions and a-half a-year,
come chiefly from land and tithes, to which are
added church-rates, pew-rents, fees, Queen Anne's
yearly bounty of .£14,000, and the funds set
apart by the ecclesiastical commissioners from

ENG
the surplus of episcopal and capitular estates.
The following tables will show the division of
this revenue. The episcopal revenues may be
approximately stated as follows :-

Canterbury,

. £15,000

York,

10,000

London,

10,000

Durham, .

8,000
Winchester,
7,000
Ely,
5,500
St. Asaph,
5,200
Worcester,
5,000
Bath and Wells,
5,000
19 other sees (£4,000)
. 76,000
Total, £146,700
By a recent act the cathedral incomes have been
reduced, so that henceforth, as the prebendaries
die off, each cathedral establishment will consist
of a dean, whose average income is to be £1,680 ;
of four canons, whose average incomes are to be
£800; and six minor canons, with £150 each.
So that the cathedrals, excluding the minor
canons, wiU stand nearly thus : —
26 deans at £1,680, . . £43,680
104 canons, at £800, . . 83,200
156 minor canons, at £150, . 23,400
Total, £150,280
The revenues of the inferior clergy are —
954 from . . . £500 to £750
323 „ . . . 750 to 1,000
134 „ . . . 1,000 to 1,500
32 „ . . . 1,500 to 2,000
13 „ . . . 2,000 to 3,000
3 „ . . . 3,000 to 4,000
1 „ . . . 4,843
1 „ . . . 7,306
Thus 1,461 have incomes varying from £500
to £3,000 and upwards; and, if we take their
average income as £700, the aggregate will be
£1,022,700. These three items, if added together, wiT be —
28 prelates, . . £146,700
286 deans and canons, . 150,280
1,461 incumbents, . 1,022,700
1,619 bishops and clergy, £1,319,680
There are 830 incumbents, with incomes from
£400 to £500 ; 1,326, with incomes from £300
to £400; 1,979, with incomes from £200 to
£300 ; and thus there are 4,135 whose incomes
vary from £200 to £500. If we take the aver
age of their incomes at £300, their aggregate
amounts to £1,240,500. If we add to this the
aggregate incomes of the three previous classes,
which together amount to £1,319,680, these
sums together make £2,560,180, and subtracting
this amount from £3.439,767, which is a low
estimate of the income of the establishment,
the remaining sum to be distributed among
the rest of the clergy is £879,587. There
remain 4,882 incumbents, among whom the
239
ENT
sum of £879,587 is to be divided, which
would yield to each an average income of £180.
But this is indeed above the real average ; for
297 have beneath £50 per annum, 1,629 have
beneath £100, and 1,602 have beneath £150,
while 1,354 alone have between £150 and
£200. The average of even £150 must be
beyond the truth. To these poor incumbents
must be added 5,230 poorer curates, whose sala
ries average £81, the aggregate being only
£423,630. These two classes together amount
to 10,112 ; and as the whole number of working
clergy is only 12,923, they compose more than
three-fourths of the working clergy. These
together receive about £732,300 + £423,630
= £1,155,930. But, as we have seen, 1,619
clergymen receive £1,319,680, i. e., 1,691
clergymen receive more from the state than
10,112, who do nearly all the work. 1,619
clergymen, who have got the great prizes of the
establishment, have an average of £808; and
10,112 of the working clergy have an average
of £114. With regard to convocation, bishops, deans,
canons, and the other hierarchical degrees and
courts, see under the respective words. For
Episcopalianism in Ireland, see Irish Church.
(Marsden's Diet of Sects ; Waddington's, Ne-
ander's, Stebbing's Church Hist; Macintosh,
Froude, Macaulay Hist, of Eng.; D'Aubigne
on the Reformation; Vaughan's Wycliffe; Noel's
Essay; Vowler Short's Hist of Church of Eng
land ; Burnet's Hist, ofthe Reformation ; Masing-
bred's Hist ofthe Reformation; Soames's Eliza
bethan Religious History, and his Anglo-Saxon
Church ; Joyce's England's Sacred Synods, &c.)
Enthronization, the ceremony of placing a
bishop on the throne of his cathedral. Anciently
the bishop who did this kissed the new bishop,
and he delivered a. discourse suited to the occa
sion. Allusion is often made by early writers
on church history to this sermo enthronisticus.
Eonians, followers of a fool or fanatic named
Eon d'EtoUe, a rich nobleman in the province
of Bretagne, in the twelfth century. Because his
name resembled " eum" (Him, that is, Christ),
in the Latin form of exorcism, he concluded
that he was the son of God. He was condemned
at Rheims in 1148, by a council presided over by
Pope Eugenius III., and died in a prison. His
followers, in spite of every form of punishment,
maintained their faith in him for some time after
his death. (Mosheim, Neander, Schroeckh).
Epact. — The epact is a number of eleven
days, by which the common solar year of 365
days exceeds the lunar year of 354; and there
fore eleven days are added every year to the lunar
year, to make them equal. These days are called
the epact, from " Israya," " intercalo," " addo" —
I add, &c. Thus, if we suppose the new moon to be
on the first of March in any year, in the next year
the corresponding new moon will be on the 18th
February, in the next on the 7th February; so

240

EPI
that we must add eleven and twenty-two days'
respectively to each. But in the third year, when
the number of intercalary days is 33, we reckon
the year to consist of thirteen months, by adding
thirty of these days, so that the epact is only
three days  See Dominical Letter.
Eparchy, a diocese in the Russian Greek
Church, of which there are thirty-six, the
eparch being the ecclesiastical president or ruler.
— See Russian Church.
Epefauotschins, a modern Russian dissent
ing sect, originating in 1724, headed by a monk,
who, by clever forgeries and other unscrupulous
means, procured his consecration as a bisliop.
On his detection he was sent to prison, where he
died. His followers, who are not many, venerate
him as a martyr, and make pilgrimages to his
tomb at Kief.— See Starobradsi.
Epigonaton (reaching to or over the knees),
a small maniple or hand-napkin, worn on the
right side, and suspended, from the girdle. In
the Greek Church it is used by the bishops, and
in the Romish Church by the pope only. It is
supposed to represent the towel with which, at the
last supper, Jesus girded himself as he proceeded
to wash the disciples' feet.
Epimanicia, the maniple or bracelet worn
by the Greek priests on both arms, and supposed
to represent the bonds of Christ. The Romish
priesthood wear it on the left arm only. — See
Maniple. Epiphany (Wiipavsia, from lo*/, and tpaiv
e«, apparere, an appearance, a manifestation).
Wheatley (on the Common Prayer) argues, that
the manifestation of Christ in the flesh on Christ
mas Day, which was first termed Epiphany, and
his manifestation to the Gentiles, which is now
known by that name, were always distinct festi
vals (Aug. Serm. 102 ; Greg. Naz. in S. Imm.
Oral, 39). Bingham, however, throws into the
opposite scale a greatly preponderating weight
of authorities ; and we may really believe that
in the primitive Church the Nativity of our
Lord and his Epiphany were both celebrated on
the same day — the 6th of January. The service
of the Church of England for the Epiphany has
reference to these three events : the collect and the
Gospel point to the star that led the wise men ;
the second lesson at morning prayer, to the
manifestation of the Trinity at our Lord's bap
tism ; and tbe third lesson at evening prayer, to
the miracle at Cana. The Greek Church, in the
celebration of the Epiphany, appears to have
dwelt more strongly upon the baptism of Jesus.
Hence it is termed by Gregory Nysseaus, " n
9ip,i%& tbv $a>ruv " — the day of lights, and by
others, " ra ipZra," or "ayia fSra," — the lights,
or holy lights, because baptism itself was gene
rally called tfu; and Qarit-fta, from the en
lightenment produced by it. Thus the Eastern
Churches made the Epiphany a solemn season of
baptism, while the Nativity was not so. The
Latin Church, on the other hand, has directed

EPI
its ceremonials much more to commemorate the
visit of the Magi, which is symbolized both in
religious ceremonials and in many popular cus
toms. The custom of offering, on the Epiphany,
gold, frankincense, and myrrh, at the altar in the
chapel royal in St James's, by the king or his
proxy, is still preserved in England. It com
memorates the traditionary offerings of the three
kings, of whom (as they are described in the
Festa Angh-Romand) Melchior, an aged man
with a long beard, presented gold ; Jasper,
a beardless youth, frankincense ; Balthasar, a
black with a large spreading beard, myrrh.
Their tombs are said to be in the cathedral
of Cologne, and an oath by the three kings was
reckoned very sacred in the Middle Ages.
But it is chiefly by the family merriments of
Twelfth Day (the twelfth from the Nativity)
that the Epiphany is still celebrated. In the
universities in England Candlemas is reputed
as the termination of the Christmas hplidays,
but Twelfth Day is generaUy so accounted
elsewhere; and Collier states (Eccl. Hist, i.,
173), that it is so in consequence of a law
passed as early as the reign of Alfred. The
custom of choosing king and queen has been
traced with much probabiUty to a similar prac
tice of the Romans during tbe Saturnalia. In
England Twelfth Day is celebrated by a pecuUar
kind of cake. Le Roux (in his Dictionnaire
Comique, Roi de la feve) recounts a similar
French custom on the Eve of the Epiphany. In
tlie cake which was then used, a bean was sub
stituted for the penny ; and if this remained in
the portions set aside for the poor, those named
La part de bon Dieu, or de la Sainte Vierge, the
company then drew tickets for the honorary
royalty. Indeed, it appears that among per
sons of high rank — for the custom was general
among all orders — the kingship was always
thus decided. Various ceremonies on the
Eve of the Epiphany will be found illus
trated in Brand's Popular Antiquities (i., 21),
where a notice is also inserted from Le
Monde Primitif of Gebelin (iv., 280), that
in many parts of England it was customary
on the night of the Epiphany to light fires on
the hills. This most probably must have been a
relic of the ayia ipura, although we are aware
that it is pertinaciously claimed by some anti
quaries as a druidical superstition. " In Glou
cestershire," adds Brand, " there is a custom on
Twelfth Day of having twelve small fires and
one large one in many parishes. These, doubt
less, were symbolical of our Saviour and his
apostles." Episcopacy, church government by means
of bishops, as a third order of clergy. The
usual argument we shall take from two weU-
known authors, Dr. Hinds, the late Bishop of
Norwich, and Dr. Isaac Barrow. Dr. Hinds, in
his Early Christianity, says, " The order of
bishops, therefore, only remains to be accounted

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for. At the period of St. Paul's summons to
the Church of Ephesus no such order could have
existed there ; and, if not in so large and im
portant a church, probably nowhere. The title
cannot imply it, for it is one used for all the
presbyters of Ephesus ; and their number proves
that he was not addressing bishops, for they
came from one church. Again, although the
word occurs elsewhere in St. Paul's epistles, it
cannot mean an order of men in whom the chief
authority was vested ; because his epistles are ad
dressed to the churches, as to assemblies in whom
such authority was vested. The term bishop be
came afterwards appropriated to an order of which
we cannot infer the existence, certainly from any
expression of St. Luke. How such an order
should have arisen it is not difficult to discover.
St. Paul's epistles to Timothy and Titus present
us with at least its embryo form. Not only are
both commissioned to ordain ministers, to deter
mine matters left undetermined, and to inflict
ecclesiastical punishments, even to excommuni
cation; but their respective dioceses are distinctly
marked out Ephesus was assigned to Timothy,
Crete to Titus. At the same time it would cer
tainly seem that, in Timothy's case especially,
the appointment was rather that of locum ienens
for the apostle, and so far a temporary office.
But this, far from being an objection to the
apostolic authority of episcopacy, reaUy supplies
us with the clue to trace its origin and object.
What was needed for a time, at Ephesus or Crete,
in the temporary absence of the presiding apos
tle, would be permanently requisite when death
for ever deprived these churches of apostolical
superintendence. The same cause, in short,
which produced the appointment of presbyters,
continued, as the number of congregations in
each church increased, to render the rise of a new
order equally necessary. A small presbytery,
occasionally visited by an apostle, might not re
quire a head ; but a large one, especially as the
apostles were removed by death or accident,
would soon feel this want. That such an order
was required before the close of the apostolic era,
the then state of Christianity would render of
its.elf nearly certain. Although at the time of
the appointments of Titus and Timothy they
may not have been general, yet when St. John
wrote his Revelations, each of the seven Churches
of Asia had its own bishop. And if this were so
in that district, which then alone enjoyed the
guidance of an apostle, much more was it likely
to have been the case elsewhere. St. John, we
know, addressed them as angels ; but whether by
a figure of speech, or because such was at that
time their only designation, no candid mind can
doubt that an episcopal order is intended, and
that to them, as such, commands and revelations
were given by God through his last apostle.
Thus, episcopacy would seem to be the finishing
of the sacred edifice which the apostles were
commissioned to build. Until this was com-

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pleted and firm, they presented themselves as
props to whatever part required such support.
One by one they were withdrawn ; and at length,
the whole building having ' grown together into
an holy temple,' the Lord's promise was fulfilled
to the one surviving apostle. He only tarried
until God's last temple was complete, and the
Lord's second 'coming' unto it had been an
nounced by an especial vision. There is still
another point to be settled. Was this form of
church government intended to be perpetual and
universal? — is it enjoined on all Christian
societies in every age ? On the one hand, it may
be maintained that this arrangement having
been originally made by the Holy Spirit, through
which his office as governor of the Church was
to be exercised, we have no right to alter it, any
more than we are authorized to alter the means
of grace, unless some positive permission can be
shown ; and that it is, moreover, a wicked pre
sumption to suppose that any other means (how
ever humanly probable) would more truly obtain
the object of church government. As a reason
why this form of church government was not
positively enjoined, it may be suggested, that it
was not like an abstract doctrine or precept, the
only safe mode of recording which is ' the written
Word,' but a matter which is its own record.
Like the mysteries of the heathen, it was a prac
tical document ; the daily and continual practice
of the Church, perpetuated from one age to
another, superseded all need of other record.
On the other hand, it may be urged, that as the
constitution of the Church was only what was
then most convenient for the support and propa
gation of religion, whenever that end may be
better attained by any alteration or deviation,
the innovators are acting up to the spirit of the
original institution, and thereby are more truly
followers of the apostles than those who sacrifice
the object to the observance of the means, which
are only valuable as regards that object. And
certainly, had it been intended that we should
regard episcopacy as indispensable to a church,
we should have had some scriptural record of the
institution, and some scriptural declarations of
its being essential, as in the case of baptism and
the Lord's Supper. We are not bound, by any
Divine authority, to retain episcopacy under all
circumstances ; but neither may we depart from
it, as if the question was simply one of temporary
convenience. The apostles did not leave the
Christian world to determine how the churches
were to be modelled and governed : they founded
episcopacy, and handed over the Christian com
munities so ordered to succeeding times. Those
of other generations had not to form an ecclesi
astical polity for themselves : they found one
already settled. Now, considering how impor
tant the form of governing a church may be to
its efficiency as the channel of our Gospel privi
leges, how important, too, uniformity of govern
ment to a certain extent is, to the free iuter-

EPI
communion of Christians belonging to different
churches, those who have altered existing ar
rangements have incurred a weighty responsi
bility. But we may neither condemn them nor
acquit them. Thejudgment belongs to a higher
tribunal than that of man. Still less may we
say, that those who by birth or accident have
become members of a church so remodelled, are
not justified in adhering to it, or that it is not a
church, and a genuine portion of Christ's king
dom. Some departure in the form of govern
ment from the pattern of the primitive Church
has necessarily taken place in every community;
nor does this departure of itself imply presump
tion. A very large community, for instance, has
everywhere required a new order above bishops
themselves ; and this need being manifest, the
appointment of tbe archiepiscopal office is as
purely consonant to the apostolical views as that
of subordinate bishops. It has arisen in the
same way, and in compliance with a similar need,
to that which gave rise to the episcopal order in
the apostolical Church; namely, the increased
extent and more complicated government of each
church. Thus, too, the appointment of catechists,
once a branch of every church establishment, was
properly discontinued as soon as they ceased to
be required ; and as properly has been revived iu
our colonies, where their services are once more
applicable. The chorepiscopi served, in like
manner, to meet another occasional emergency.
No church has ever more anxiously and con
scientiously shaped its course by the spirit, and
by the very letter of the apostolic precedents than
has the Church of England. And yet even tbat
Church has found circumstances powerful enough
to justify a deviation scarcely less momentous,
in the transfer of supreme ecclesiastical authority
to the civil magistrate. It is not merely a
variation from the original architecture of
Christ's holy building that constitutes dispropor
tion and deformity. We must look also to the
changing features of the scene around, and see
whether these have not demanded corresponding
alterations, and let these be the measure of our
judgment." Dr. Isaac Barrow thus argues, — " Of the
distinction among the governors of the Church
there was never in ancient times made any
question; nor did it seem disputable in the
Church, except to one malcontent, Arius, who
did indeed get a name in story, but never made
much noise, or obtained any vogue in the world.
Very few followers he found in bis heterodoxy.
No great body even of heretics could rind causs
to dissent from the Church in this point. But all
Arians, Macedonians, Novatians, Donatists, &c,
maintained tbe distinction of orders among them
selves, and acknowledged the duty of the inferior
clergy to their bishops. And no wonder, seeing it
standeth upon so very firm and clear grounds,—
upon the reason of the case, upon the testimony
of Holy Scripture, upon general tradition, and

242

EPI
unquestionable monuments of antiquity, upon the
Gommon judgment and practice of the greatest
saints, persons most renowned for wisdom and
piety in the Church. Reason doth plainly re
quire such subordinations. This all experience
attesteth ; this even the chief impugners of epis
copal presidency do by their practice confess,
who for prevention of disorders have been fain, of
then- own heads, to devise ecclesiastical subordi
nation of classes, provinces, and nations ; and to
appoint moderators or temporary bishops in their
assemblies. So that reason hath forced the
dissenters from the Church to imitate it. Tbe
Holy Scripture also doth plainly enough counte
nance this distinction. For therein we have re
presented one ' angel ' presiding over principal
churches, which contained several presbyters
(Rev. ii. 1), <&c. ; therein we find episcopal
ordination and jurisdiction exercised, — we have
one bishop constituting presbyters in divers cities
of his diocese (Tit i. 5 ; 1 Tim. v. 1, 17, 19, 20,
22), &c. ; ordering all things therein concerning
ecclesiastical discipline ; judging presbyters ; re
buking ' with all authority,' or imperiousness, as
it were (Tit. ii. 15), and reconciling offenders,
secluding heretics and scandalous persons. In
the Jewish Church there were an high priest,
chief priest, a sanhedrim, or senate, or synod.
The government of congregations among God's
ancient people, which it ia probable was the
pattern that the apostles, no affecters of needless
innovation, did follow in establishing ecclesiasti
cal discipline among Christians, doth hereto
agree ; for in their synagogues, answering to our
Christian churches, they had as then- elders and
doctors, so over them an ' ag%iruvdyuycs ' — the
head of tbe eldership, and president of the syna
gogue. The primitive general use of Christians
most effectually doth back the Scripture, and in
terpret it in favour of this distinction, scarce less
than demonstrating it constituted by the apos
tles. For how otherwise is it imaginable that
all the churches founded by the apostles in several
most distant and disjointed places, — at Jerusa
lem, at Antioch, at Alexandria, at Ephesus, at
Corinth, at Rome, should presently conspire in
acknowledgment and use of it ? How could it,
without apparent confederacy, be formed — how
could it creep in without notable clatter — how
could it be admitted without considerable oppo
sition, if it were not in the foundation of those
churches laid by the apostles ? How is it likely
that in those times of grievous persecution, fall
ing chiefly upon the bishops, when to be eminent
among Christians yielded slender reward, and
exposed to extreme hazard ; when to seek pre
eminence was in effect to court danger and
trouble, torture and ruin, an ambition of irregu
larly advancing themselves above their brethren
should so generally prevail among the ablest and
best Christians ? How could those famous mar
tyrs for the Christian truth be some of them so
unconscionable as to affect, others so iriesolute

EPI
as to yield to, such injurious encroachments?
And how could all the holy fathers, persons of
so renowned, so approved wisdom and integrity,
be so blind as not to discern such a corruption,
or so bad as to abet it ? How, indeed, could all
God's Church be so weak as to consent in judg
ment, so base as to comply in practice with it ?
In fine, how can we conceive that all the best
monuments of antiquity down from the begin
ning, tbe acts, the epistles, the histories, the
commentaries, the writings of all sorts, coming
from tlie blessed martyrs and most holy confes
sors of our faith, should conspire to abuse us ; the
wbich do speak nothing but bishops — long cata
logues and rows of bishops succeeding in this and
that city — bishops contesting for the faith
against pagan idolaters and heretical corrupters
of Christian doctrine — bishops here teaching
and planting our religion by their labours, their
suffering, and watering it with their blood ? " —
For arguments on the other side, and an account
of Usher's plan of modified episcopacy, see
Presbytery. (See the following works : —
Sage on Episcopacy; Boyd on Episcopacy;
Percival on Apostolical Succession; Jewel's
Apology; Bishop Hall on Episcopacy; Bishop
Sanderson on Episcopacy; and the German
Treatises of Baur and Rothe.)
Episcopalianism. — I. In England, see Eng
land, Church of.
II. In America. — It owes its origin to the
English Church. When King James chartered
the colony of Virginia in 1606, it wa3 enjoined
to establish religion in conformity with the doc
trines and rites of the English Church. The
churches were placed under the jurisdiction
of the Bishop of London. In 1643 the gov
ernment of Virginia first independently legis
lated on the subject : their first act was levelled
against all nonconformity to the English Church ;
and it virtually gave the right of presentation to
the parishes. The license of the Bishop of Lon
don was formally necessary, but this they evaded
by a practice, quite common in 1703, of engaging
the minister from year to year. This placed
their churches, however, at a disadvantage com
pared with the dissenting clergy ; and conse
quently the Church of England in the colony
seemed to languish. Governor Oglethorp, through
the aid of the Society for tbe Propagation of the
Gospel in foreign parts, introduced episcopacy
into Georgia in 1735, and it gradually extended
to other parts, as Maryland, &c. At tbe conclu
sion of the War of Independence the episcopal
ministers of Connecticut sent over to England one
of their number to receive consecration. Being
refused by the English bishops, he obtained it
from the Scottish bishops in 1784— a step not
altogether approved of in America. Various
conventions were held by the episcopalian
ministers in the States between 1783 and 1786, and
at last a constitution and offices were agreed on,
which ultimately gave satisfaction to the Eng-

243

EPI
lish bishops, and at the request of their brethren
in America, they conferred episcopal ordination on
three clergymen sent from America to London,
the bishops having obtained authority to do so by
act of parliament in 1787. In all respects the
American Episcopal Church is closely allied to the
English Church. " The chief particulars in which
their service book differs from that ofthe Church
of England are as follows : — 1 . A shorter form of
absolution is allowed. . . 2. The Athanasian
Creed is omitted. 3. In the administration of
baptism the sign of the cross may be dispensed
with, if requested. 4. The marriage service is
abridged. 5. In the funeral service some ex
pressions, considered as liable to misconstruction,
have been altered or omitted. 6. There has
been a change, of course, in the prayers for
rulers. 7. It is allowed to omit in the commu
nion service tbe prayer called ' oblation,' and the
invocation. 8. It is permitted to change the
words, ' He descended into hell,' which occur
in the Apostles' Creed, into 'He descended into the
world of departed spirits,'" or equivalent words."
They recognize as of apostolical institution only
the three ranks of ministers — bishops, priests,
and deacons. Each State is a separate diocese ;
but » parish is not a topographical word, it
" consisting of all in any given place who em
brace the episcopal form of worship and govern
ment, and who associate themselves in conformi
ty with certain fixed rules." They have three
courts : The standing committee in each diocese,
consisting partly of clergymen and partly of
laymen : it can perform no purely spiritual
functions. Above it is the diocesan convention,
consisting of the bishop and clergy ofthe diocese,
and lay delegates : it is legislative in character.
Above all is the general convention, which meets
triennially: the upper house, consisting of all
the bishops, with the oldest in office as president;
the lower house, of the clergy and lay delegates
from each diocese. Its condition as a church is
very flourishing, having several colleges : in 1850
it numbered 1,420 churches, and has extensive
missionary operations. But it is exclusively the
church of the wealthy: it supports the pro- slavery
party ; and in it of late Tractarianism has been
making progress. (Bishop Wilberforce's History
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America.)
III. In Scotland. — As it at present exists
it may be said to date from 1661, the previous
line of bishops having died out In that year
Charles II. caused Sharp, Fairfbul, Hamilton,
and Leighton, to be consecrated by the Bishop
of London and others, as Bishops of St.
Andrew, Glasgow, Galloway, and Dunblane.
In 1662 they and others whom they had conse
crated to other Scottish sees, took their seats by
invitation in the Scottish parliament Sharp
obtained a proclamation prohibiting the meeting
of the presbyteries " till such time as the bishop
should appoint." This at once brought on a
6torm : their other steps were marked by equal

EPI
folly. They occasioned the ejection of the pres
byterian ministers. Next came the Conven
ticle Act of 1663, and other severe measures,
which soon roused the old covenanting spirit
It could only be suppressed by torrents of
blood. Through Leighton's influence, in 1667,
milder measures were adopted, and numerous
concessions made. But the Presbyterians were
firm in their resistance, and would accept no
compromise. In 1679 Sharp was assassinated.
Under James the persecution of the Covenanters
did not abate. Scotland welcomed the Prince of
Orange, and the Presbyterians sternly retaliated
on the Episcopalians. The principal part of the
Scottish Episcopalians sided with the English
Non-jurors, and became, for a time, obnoxious to
the suspicions of the government. On the acces
sion of Queen Anne the government attempts to
procure toleration for them gave great dissatisfac
tion in Scotland. As late as 1709 the use of the
English liturgy in Scotland was visited with
civil penalties. The favour which, as a party,
they manifested to the Pretender in 1715 again
brought them into trouble. But by law, in 1719,
they were permitted, after taking the oath of al
legiance, to use the English service in public, '
In 1720 a split occurred amongst the English
Non-jurors on the question of a new communion
service, which is papistical in its tendency, and
closely approximates to the form given in the first
prayer book of Edward VI. This dispute exr
tended to Scotland, and the party adopting this
form acquired the supremacy. The RebeUion of
1745 again brought them into difficulties: from
the restriction then laid on them, they were not set
free till 1760. In 1765 the present communion
office was fixed on ; and in 1817 a synod of their
bishops and clergy drew up a body of canons.
In 1840 an act of parliament gave permission to
clergymen of this communion to preach, but for
not more than two consecutive Sundays, in epis
copal churches in England, and only when they
obtained a special written license from the
bishop of the diocese to do so. In 1853 they
numbered seven bishops and 139 presbyters.
They have two fine coUeges, one at Glen Al
mond in Perthshire, the other in one of the Cum-
bray Islands. Their ministers would, many of
them, be but poorly off, were not their stipends
supplemented by a society in Edinburgh for this
purpose, called " The Church Society." They
are at present distracted by an eucharistic con
troversy; and what are called High Church
principles are very prevalent among them. Be
sides this church there are numerous separate
churches in Scotland which are in connection
with the English Church.
Episcopns -(bishop), used in a variety of
ways. Episcopi episcoporum, an old name of
bishops, probably dei'ived from their function of
making others bishops by means of ordination.
Episccpissai (bishopessesj, a title of deacon
esses. — See Deaconess. Episcopus Judaorwn

244

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(bishop of the Jews), an officer who, under the
first Norman kings of England, dispensed law
among resident Jews, and was appointed to the
office by the crown. Episcopus ozcumenicus (uni
versal bishop), a title assumed by John, the
Bishop ol Constantinople, in 588, and vigorously
opposed by Gregory the Great ; but his succes
sor, Boniface, obtained the same title from the
Greek Emperor in 606, and it has since been
held by all the Popes of Rome. Episcopi senatus
(bisbops of the senate), a name sometimes given
in the canon law to the chapter or governing
body of a cathedral. Episcopus regionarius, a
bishop at large, with no fixed diocese.
Epistemonarch (master of knowledqe), an
officer in the Greek Church, who watches over
purity of doctrine and matters of faith.
Epistle, a name often given to the first lesson
in the communion service. The epistles placed
in the Liturgy are of ancient selection, and have
been used from time immemorial.
Epistles. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Epistolae (letters), with various epithets. —
See Letters.
Epistoler, an officer who, in the injunctions
of Queen Elizabeth, was to read tbe epistle in
cathedral churches, and he is also mentioned in
the twenty-fourth canon.
Epitaphs (iTiraipia, orations in praise of
those who had died)  As specimens of such eulo
gies, we have that of Eusebius for Constantine,
of Gregory Nazianzen for his father, his brother,
and his sister, and that of Ambrose for Theodo-
sius and Valentinian.
Epitrachelion (neck-piece), a portion of
dress worn by the Greek clergy. It is not
thrown round the neck as a scarf, but is so
joined together that an orifice is left for its pass
ing over the head. The material is brocade,
richly gemmed and ornamented.
Erastianism. — The original name of Erastus
was Liebler or Lieber, which, according to the
fashion of his day, he changed into the Greek
equivalent, " Erastus" — dear or beloved. He was
born in 1524, became a student at Basle, then tra-
veUed into Italy, and spent nine years of diligent
study at Padua and Bologna. In 1558 he be
came court physician to the Elector of the Pala
tinate and professor of medicine in the university
of Heidelberg. He felt strongly attached to the
views of ZwingU, preferred the Reformed to the
Lutheran creed, and was mainly instrumental in
bringing to Heidelberg the famous Calvinist
theologians, Olevianus and Ursinus. He with
stood, however, the introduction of the Calvinis
tic platform of government and discipline into
Heidelberg; for he affirmed that church courts
and censures were an intolerable inquisition. From
various reasons connected with this theory, and
the agitation which it gave birth to, he left
Heidelberg in 1580, and died at Basle, as
professor of moral philosophy, in 1583. His
opposition to ecclesiastical discipline had been 245

EUC
notorious during his life ; but he published no
thing on the subject. Castelvetro, who had
married his widow, found a Latin thesis among
his papers, and published it. Explicalio gravis-
simas questionis, utrum Excommunicato mandato
nitalur Divino an excogitata sit ab Hominibus f
— That is, whether excommunication be of divine
or human authority ? Erastus stoutly maintained
that there is no warrant in Scripture for excom
munication. An ignorant man he admits, or a
heretic and an apostate should be excluded from
the Lord's Table as long as tbey remain so; but no
one, being a member of the church, and who is
none of these, ought to be excluded on account of
immorality of any sort That is, no member ofthe
church can be excluded by the church as a pun
ishment for sin; and Erastus adds, that such sins
are to be punished by the civU magistrate, "whose
special duty and office this is." His argument
in defence is often ingenious, but very inconclu
sive. His notion was that the Church is a
species of theocracy, that the magistrate holds a
function in it similar to what he held under the
Hebrew Commonwealth, and that civil and reli
gious affairs are parts of one administration, and
belong not to two distinct and co-ordinate courts.
Beza replied in two tracts ; and the dispute was
soon transferred to England in its broader and
ultimate form. The original theory of Eras
tus identifies to some extent the church with
the state — nay, so far as government and dis
cipline are concerned, subordinates the church to
the state. It was not a wide step in advance to
deny autonomy or self-government to the Church
altogether — the theory which is now commonly
known by Erastianism, and which was virtually
maintained by the Erastian party, which was for
a season prominent in England and in the West
minster Assembly. Selden, Lightfoot, Cole
man, and Whitelocke, belonged to it. On the
other hand, the spiritual independence of the
Church is essential to its life and administration.
The origin, nature, jurisdiction, functions, dis
cipline, and design of the Church, are totally
different from those of civU government. (Wee
Fergusson on Erastianism; Gillespie's Aaron's
Rod Blossoming; Samuel Rutherford's Divine
Right, &c- ; Erastus, &c, translated by Dr. Robert
Lee, Edinburgh, 1844.)
Eremites (dwellers in the desert). — See An
chorites. Espousals. — See Marriage.
Esto tTlihi (be with me), a name sometimes
given to Quinquagesima Sunday, because of the
first words of the introit taken from Psalm
lxxi. 3  See Introit.
Etcrnales, a sect which arose about 260,
and upheld tbe eternity of the world. Little is
known of them.
Ethiopian Church. — See Abyssinian
Church. Eucharist (Lat. eucharistia; Gr. sj^aj-
irria, a giving of thanks) ; a term especially ap-

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plied to the Lord's Supper, as a thankful remem
brance of his death. Of the various appellations
given to this holy ordinance, the most ancient
appears to be that of the breaking of bread. In
the Acts of the Apostles it is said of the first
disciples (ch. ii. 42), that "they continued
steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine ....
and in breaking of bread, and in prayers." In
Acts xx. 7 we also have an indisputable in
stance of the application of this name to the
Lord's Supper. It appears, however, to have
been discontinued at rather an early period, as
it occurs but rarely in the writings of the primitive
fathers. The appellation Communion was un
questionably taken from St. Paul's account in 1
Cor. x. 1 6, where he teaches that the effect of this
service is " the communion of the body and blood
of Christ." Over the emblems of Christ's holy
suffering humanity believers hold communion
with bim and with one another. — Eucharist is
one of the most ancient names given to the Lord's
Supper: it signifies, properly, thanksgiving or
blessing, and fitly denotes this holy service, con
sidered as a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiv
ing. — The Lords Supper is by the majority
of Protestants considered as the most proper
name for the Eucharist (1 Corinthians xi.
20). It was also called the Lord's Table and
the Blessing (ibxiyix, or benedictio) — Another
name was the Oblation or Sacrifice. These
two terms are somewhat similar in mean
ing, and are both of Levitical origin. They
have no foundation in the New Testament,
but were very frequently employed in the
early ages. The ordinance, from commem
orating the oblation or sacrifice of Christ,
came to be spoken of, first vaguely and then
seriously, as a sacrifice itself. Dr. Water-
land refers the use of the word oblation, as de
noting the Eucharist, to the year 96, and that
of sacrifice, to the year 150. The Eucharist was
termed a sacrifice among the primitive Christians,
first, because it took the place of the paschal
lamb, which all acknowledge to have been an ex
piatory victim ; and, secondly, because it repre
sented the atonement made by the passion and
death of Christ for the sins of mankind. How
much this notion of it has been abused by the
Romish Church it is scarcely necessary to state
in this place. — The name of Passover was
anciently given to the Eucharist; for as bap
tism was thought to be the Christian circum
cision, so the Eucharist, in the estimation of
the Church was the Christian Passover. —
Another common appellation was the Sacra
ment This appellation, as applied to the
Eucharist, though not of scriptural origin, is
nevertheless of great antiquity. The younger
Pliny, in his celebrated epistle to the Emperor
Trajan, speaking of the Christians from the depo
sitions of apostate informers, says, that " they
affirmed that the whole of their error or fault
was this: that they were accustomed to meet

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together on a certain day," stato die, which da.v1
we know, from the collateral testimony of
Christian writers, was the Lord's Day "before
daylight, and to sing among themselves, alter
nately, a hymn to Christ as God, and to bind
themselves by a solemn oath (sacramenlo), not
to the commission of any wickedness," &c. (Epist.,
lib. x., ep. 97). In this passage Fliny is by
many understood to refer to the Eucharist,
though some learned men are of a different
opinion. — The phrase Sacrament of the Altar
was also given to the Eucharist as late as the
time of the early English Reformers. — Cow-
memoraiion or Memorial was another title of the
Eucharist— It was also named the Mystery, the
Public Service, the Solemn Assembly. Lastly, it
was termed the Mass. Mass (Missa) is an
appellation of Latin origin, and peculiar to the
Western Churches. Original]}', it imported
nothing more than the dismission of a church
assembly : but, by degrees, it came to be used
for an assembly for church service, and ulti
mately for the communion service in particular.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, is supposed to be the
earliest writer (Ep. 20, ad Marcellin.) who men
tions the mass in this last and most emphatical
sense. The word Missa was thus used by the
Latin Church in another sense than that which
does obtain at this day among the Papists. For
the ancient Latins said, Ite Missa est, as the
Greeks used the word atpiets, meaning thereby
mission or dismission : as they used the word
remissa for remissio. Hence it came to pass,
that from this onty and last act, tbey called
the whole complication of actions in the Eucha
rist by the name of Missa. Missa is used for
dismissionm the eighty-fourth canon of the fourth
council of Carthage, and in the first canon of
the council of Valentia, in which mention is
made of the Missa Catechumenorum ; for as
heretofore the dismission was twofold, so the
service was likewise double — that which belonged
to the catechumens, and that which belonged
to the faithful. The catechumens' Missa reached
to the offertory, but they were obliged to depart
before the offering was made : the Missa of the
faithful began with the offertory ; for each of
these offices followed immediately one after the
other, only that the dismission of the catechu
mens and penitents came between them.— See
Catechumens. But the word Missa, as it is used
at present among the Papists, for a true andpro-
per sacrifice of Christ offered in every celebration
for the living and the dead, is never so used among
tbe ancients. And for this reason the name of
Missa or Mass is rejected by the Church of
England, which, having abandoned the sacrifice
of the Mass, does disclaim the use of the word
Missa in the modern, though not in the ancient
sense of the word. Indeed, in the first edition
of the Common Prayer Book under Edward VI.,
the name of the Mass, as the liturgy was then
commonly called, was retained. But it was

246

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left out in the second edition of the Liturgy. In
course of time many other epithets had been given
to the Eucharist. Thus, Corpus Christi, body
of Christ; Cibus Dei, s. Domini, food of God, or
the Lord; Cibus caslestis, heavenly food; Cibus
angelorum, angels' food ; Cibus viatorum, morta-
lium, mgrolontm, food of travellers, mortals, the
sick, &c; Manna cwlestis, heavenly manna;
Panis supersubstantialis, equivalent to living
bread, or bread indeed ; Panis Dei, s. Domini,
bread of God; Panis vitas, bread of life; Panis
ccelestis, heavenly bread; 'Bfiiiav, viaticum, —
provisions for a journey, it being an ancient
custom to administer the sacrament to the
sick in the last stages of life, and also to
put tbe sacred elements in the coffin of the de
ceased; MiraXy^is, participation, communion —
«. e., with saints, or with Christ, &c. ; 'A'pfaSuv,
appaSwv ns ft'-XXtons %ms, pledge, pledge of
etentallife (2 Cor. i. 22; v. 6 ; and Eph. i. 14) ;
&agp&axty aQavaeias, avriStTos rtd fin asradavuv,
mendicamentum, medicina corporis et mentis, pur-
gatorium amulelum, and other phrases, expressive
of medicinal properties for the soul; Sacramenlum
pads, the reconciling ordinance, a favourite ex
pression of Chrysostom. The terms applied to bap
tism were often transferred to the Lord's Supper,
such as U^v^yla, fiva-T^itv, already mentioned ;
Tttpais,fi %a,h, h e-eurn^ia, ZilXvris, a xaSa^ifffzis, 'n
wofatris vvts irappytrixs, light, life, salvation, hope,
purification, access to the Father by Christ, the
assurance of adoption.
The materials or elements, as they are com
monly termed, are bread and wine. The br>ad
broken represented Christ's body, and the wine
poured forth prefigured his blood shed for
our salvation. The bread, indeed, could not
be his natural body while he was alive;
for it was his body that performed the action
of breaking and giving the bread: nor could
the wine in the cup be his blood ; for that
was still flowing in his veins. By no natural
construction can the words of institution sup
port the doctrine of Transubstantiation main
tained by the Romish Church, viz., that "In
the sacrament of the Eucharist there is really
and substantially the body and blood, together
with the soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus
Christ; and that there is a conversion of the
whole substance of tbe bread into his body, and
of the whole substance of the wine into his blood,
which conversion the Roman Catholic Church
calls Transubstantiation ;" for the words, when
uttered by the priest, cannot signify more than
they intended when they were uttered by Christ
himself; and he evidently alluded to the ap
proaching sacrifice of himself upon tbe cross, on
which his body was to be broken and pierced,
and his blood to be shed by the nails and by the
spear. The term " Transubstantiation" was not
invented until the thirteenth century ; the first
idea of the real presence of Christ in the Eucha
rist was started in the beginning of the eighth

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century ; the earliest writer who maintained the
novel and extraordinary doctrine was Paschasius
Radbertus, in the ninth century; and tbe first
public assertion of it was at the third Lateran
Council, which was held in the year 1215,
after it had been for some time "avowed by
the popes, and in obedience to their injunctions
generally inculcated by the clergy. But the
term "Transubstantiation" itself was invented
by Stephen, Bishop of Autun, in the thirteenth
century. (Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, cent, xiii., ch.
iii. ; Archbishop Tillotson's Discourse against
Transubstantiation; Bishop Taylor's Dissuasive
from Popery; Home's Romanism Contradictory
to Scripture, pp. 29, 30.)— See Mass, Tran
substantiation. The command for all to drink of the cup was
positive and express, and is directly opposed to
the practice in the Romish Church of giving tbe
cup to the clergy only, and not to the laity. The
council of Constance, held in the year 1416,
was the first that deprived the laity of the cup
in the Eucharist, in direct contradiction to the
command of Christ, and to the practice of the
primitive Church. The testimonies of the fathers
and ecclesiastical writers, for thirteen or fourteen
hundred years, are collected by Bishop Beveridge,
(On the Articles, Art. xxx.) It is material to
notice the reason, assigned by Jesus Christ, why
aSthe apostles were to drink of the cup, viz.,
" For this is my blood of the new covenant,
which is shed for many for the remission of
sins." All, therefore, who stand in need of re
mission of sins are to drink of the cup — that
is, all mankind, laity as well as clergy. By a
doctrine called Concomitance, employed first by
the scholastic divines of the thirteenth century,
it was maintained that the whole of Christ was
included under each species — that the symbol of
his body comprehended also that of his blood —
and the refusal of the cup to tbe laity was in
this fallacious way vindicated. The Eucharist
being thus instituted by Jesus Christ, was adopted
by all the primitive Christians, with few excep
tions ; and no modern denomination rejects it,
except the Society of Friends or Quakers (whose
reasons for rejecting it are considered b)' Dr. Ben
net, in his Confutation of Quakerism), and some
mystics, who make the whole of religion to consist
in contemplative love. At Corinth several
abuses of the institution had occurred. But
it is worthy of attention, that while St. Paul
points out these abuses, and calls upon the
Church to correct them, he gives not the
most distant hint that they were wrong in tbe
whole affair ; or that it was altogether a corrup
tion and mistake ; or that, instead of eating and
drinking in any way, they ought to feed spirit
ually on Christ, and cease from this beggarly
observance. Instead of this he solemnly repeats
the account which he had received of the manner
of celebrating the ordinance, and calls upon tbe
Church thus to keep it.

247

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Of the practice of the first Christians, in the
ages immediately succeeding that of the apos
tles, we have certain and ample information.
The persons administering were the ordinary
pastors and governors of the church — those
who were set apart for the administration
of holy offices. The institution was begun by
Jesus Christ himself; and the administration of
it was by him committed to his apostles, and to
their ordinary successors to the end of the world.
Tertullian (De Cor. Mil, c. 3) states that they
never received it from any but the hand of the
president, which must be understood either of the
particular custom of that church where he lived,
¦ or of consecration only. Otherwise, the custom
was, when the bishop or president had, by solemn
prayers and blessings, consecrated the sacramental
elements, for the deacons to distribute them to the
people, as well to those who were absent as to
those who were present (Justin Martyr, Apol ii.,
p. 97). The communicants were at first the
whole church or body of Christians within a
certain space, who had embraced the doctrine of
the Gospel, and who had been baptized into the
faith of Christ. As Christians multiplied, and a
more exact discipline became necessary, none
were admitted to this ordinance until they had
arrived at the degree of the faithful, " Hurrai" or
believers, (Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book i., ch.
iii.) Catechumens — that is, those who were
under instruction previously to baptism — and
those who were under the censures or suspension
of the church for any crime, and who had not
passed through the several stages of penitents,
weie excluded. The Eucharist being the highest
and most solemn act of religion, they thought
that they could never take sufficient care in dis
pensing it. Accordingly, some were debarred
from it for different periods, varying in propor
tion to the magnitude of the offence of which
tbey had been guilty, and some were not admit
ted to the communion of the church until they
had continued their repentance to their death
bed. It was customary to send tbe Eucharist, or
little pieces of the consecrated bread, dipped in
the sacramental cup, by the deacons or other
inferior ecclesiastical officers, to those who were
sick, or absent from any other just cause ; in cases
of great necessity it might be carried and given
by other persons (Eusebius, Eccl. Hist, 1. vi.,
c. 44) ; but this was prohibited by the canons in
ordinary cases. A custom also arose of giving the
Eucharist to the dead, in order that they might
give some kind of evidence that they had died in
the peace and communion of the church; but
this usage was afterwards abrogated by niariy
councils, and at length laid aside. Newly bap
tized infants were admitted to the Eucharist in
the early ages of the Church; and this practice
was not wholly discontinued in the Latin Church
in the twelfth century. In some few places, as
among the Helvetians, it even appears to have
subsisted to the commencement of the Reforma-

EUC
tion. In the Greek Church the Eucharist is still
given to children; and in the early part of the
eighteenth century some attempts were made to
revive this practice in England ; but the argu
ments alleged in its support were ably refuted by
Dr. Waterland, in his Inquiry Concerning the
Antiquity of the Practice of Infant Communion;
(Works, vol. ix.) In some cases the Eucharist
was celebrated in private houses, in order to con
firm the faith of Christians in times of persecution,
and also to strengthen kindness and amity with
one another. Special preparation was made for
tjhe reception of the Eucharist, such as self-ex
amination, absolution, if one were under censure,
fasting, and abstinence from sensual pleasures.
Communicants usuaUy washed their hands ; the
men wore often white apparel, and the women white
veils. Beautifully and searchingly does Chry
sostom say, — " I observe many who are partakers
of the Lord's body inconsiderately, and at all
adventures, more out of custom, than by any
rule or reason and understanding. If the holy
season of Lent comes, or the day of Christ's
Epiphany, or Nativity, then they partake of the
holy mysteries, whatever their condition may be.
But Epiphany is not the time of approaching ;
neither does Lent make men worthy to come;
but the sincerity and purity of their souls. With
this come at all times ; without it, come never.
Consider those who were partakers of the sacri
fices under the old law; what abstinence did
tbey not use — what did they not do and per
form — to purify themselves in every respect?
And dost thou, when thou comest to the sacri
fice at which even angels are amazed and
tremble, measure the business by the revolutions
and periods of certain times and seasons ? How
wUt thou stand before the tribunal of Christ who
darest to touch his body with polluted hands and
lips? Thou wouldst not presume to kiss the.
king with impure breath; and dost thou kiss
the King of Heaven with an impure and noisome
soul? That is the highest affront which can
really be offered to him. Tell me, wouldst thou
choose to come to the sacrifice with unwashan
hands? I suppose not ; — I suppose thou wouldst
rather not come at all than with unclean hands.
Since, therefore, thou art so scrupulous and
religious in a small matter, how darest thou to
come and touch the sacrifice with a polluted
soul? And yet thy hands only bold it for a
time, but it is wholly dissolved into thy soul.
At other times ye come not to it, though ye
be clean; but at Easter ye come, although
ye be defiled with sin. Oh custom! oh pre
judice! "
The lime of administering the Eucharist was,
in general, at their public assembUes, on the Lord's
Day, or first day of the week, as we read in
the Acts of the Apostles, but also on other days,
especially Saturday, on which day all the
churches in the world, except those of Eome
and Alexandria, were accustomed to celebrate

248

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this sacrament (Socrates, Eccl. Hist, 1. iv., e.
22). The exact time of the day was uncertain.
Jesus Christ and his apostles celebrated it at
night, at the time of the Jewish Passover, the
apostles calling it a supper, Chrysostom thinks,
not because it was done in the evening, but more
effectually to remind them of the time when
Jesus Christ himself instituted these holy mys
teries. During times of persecution, we learn
from Pliny (Epist, lib x., ep. 97), they solem
nized it in the morning before day. Various
forms of nocturnal celebration long prevailed,
and to this ancient practice is to be traced the
burning of tapers on the altar. By the fifth
century, nine o'clock in the morning became
the fixed or canonical hour for communicating.
Afterwards the hour of nine was restricted to
Sundays and festivals, and twelve o'clock ap
pointed for other days. At first it is probable
that they communicated every day, or as often
as they came together for public worship.
Cyprian, who flourished in the middle of the
third century, states that they received the
Eucharist every day. In the following cen
tury, according to Basil, they communicated
four times a-week, — on the Lord's Day, Wed
nesday, Friday, and Saturday, and also upon
festival days. Afterwards, as the power of reli
gion began more sensibly to decline, it came to
once or twice a-week ; afterwards to once a-
month; and then to three times in the course of a
year, viz., at the three great festivals of Christ
mas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. In the Russian
Greek Church the bulk of the laity rarely com
municate more than once a-year, which is always
in the great fast before Easter ; though many of
the more serious partake more frequently (Pin-
kerton's Present State of the Greek Church in
Russia, p. 183).
The place where the Eucharist was cele
brated was always that in which their public
assemblies for religious worship were held. It
was instituted by Jesus Christ in a private
house, on account of its analogy to the Jewish
Passover, and also on account of the necessity of
the time : by the apostles and first Christians it
was solemnized in the houses of believers, gene
rally in an upper room, set apart for the use of
the church. During persecutions they fled to
the mountains, or to subterraneous crypts or
vaults, and celebrated the sacrament at the
tombs of martyrs, and over the ashes of the dead.
Afterwards, when churches assumed some degree
of beauty and regularity, particular places there
in were assigned to several parts of the divine
offices ; and tbe communion service, being re
moved to the upper or east end of the church,
was there celebrated upon a table of wood, which
was subsequently changed into one of stone,
sometimes metaphoricaUy styled an altar; the
Eucharist itself, in later times especially, being
termed the sacrament of the altar. This place
was fenced in with rails, within which, in course

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of time, the clergy received the sacrament, as the
laity did without.
The manner of celebrating the Eucharist
in the primitive Church was as follows: —
After the service of the catechumens, and be
fore the commencement of the Missa fidelium,
or communion service of the faithful, it was the
custom to present their offerings, every one ac
cording to his ability, which were by the minister
laid upon the altar or communion table. These
oblations were designed for the uses of the church,
for the maintenance of the ministry, and the
relief of the poor ; out of these oblations also,
they probably took provisions to furnish the com
mon feast, which in those days they constantly
had at the celebration of the sacrament, where
the rich and the poor feasted together at the same
table. These were called agapcc or love feasts, and
they continued for some ages, until, great incon
veniences being found to result from them,
they were by several councils prohibited to be
kept in churches. — See Agap.e. The bread
and wine being prepared, the deacons brought
water to the bishop and presbyters, to denote the
purity which ought to be in those who draw nigh
to God ; and then he directed them mutually to
embrace and kiss one another. After this,
the whole congregation united with the minister
in prayer, which Justin Martyr terms the com
mon prayer, for the universal peace and welfare
of the Church, for the tranquillity and quietness
of the world, for the prosperity of the age, for
wholesome weather and fruitful seasons, for all
sorts of persons, for kings and emperors, and all
in authority, for soldiers and armies, for believers
and unbelievers, for friends and companions, for
the sick and distressed, and, in short, for all who
stood in need of help. This was followed by the
mutual salutation of minister and people ; the
minister saying, The Lord be with you ; and the
people replying, And with thy spirit. The minister
then said, Lift up your hearts ; to which the people
answered, We Eft them up unto the Lard. The
minister proceeded, Let us give thanks unto the
Lord; to which the people responded, It is meet
and just so to do. The minister then proceeded
to the prayer of consecration, in which he ex
pressed great thankfulness to God for the death,
resurrection, and ascension of his Son, for the
shedding of his blood for us, and the celebration
of it in this sacrament; for condescending to
admit them to such great benefits, and praying
for a closer unity to one another in the Eame
mystical body; concluding with the Lord's
Prayer, and the hearty and universal acclama
tion of Amen by all who were present. Next,
the minister said with a loud voice, Holy things
to holy persons ; to whom the people answered,
There is one holy, one Lord Jesus Christ Then
he exhorted them to a due participation of the
holy mysteries. After this the bishop or presby
ter took the sacramental elements ; and, having
sanctified them by a solemn benediction, he first

249

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broke the bread, which he delivered to the deacon
by whom it was distributed to the communi
cants ; and after that, the cup, which was like
wise delivered to them. Their sacramental wine
was generally diluted and mixed with water, for
what reason it is now impossible satisfactorily
to determine.
The posture in which the communicants
received the Eucharist was not always the
same. At its first institution by Jesus Christ,
the apostles received it in a reclining pos
ture, agreeably to the custom of the Jews at that
time, lying on their left sides, on couches, around
the table. Afterwards the custom was to stand
at the Lord's Table ; and other gestures were
subsequently introduced, such as the prudence
and piety of the governors of the church judged
to be most decent and suitable for so solemn an
occasion. The bread and wine were put into the
hands of communicants, and not thrown into
their mouths, as was superstitiously done in suc
ceeding ages. It was usual for the communicants
to bring presents of bread and wine, the former
wrapt in a linen cloth, fano, and the latter carried
in an ama or amula  See Ama. The custom
ceased about the twelfth century. Kneeling was
introduced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
and soon became general. The kiss of charity
was often given on the same occasion as one of
the rites of the services, but omitted on Gcod
Friday, in memory of the treacherous salute of
Judas Iscariot. The two sexes were not allowed
to interchange kisses. Incense began to be used
during the celebration in the sixth century, and
the signing of the cross was also an early practice.
During the time of administration, which in
large congregations required a long period, thej'
sang hymns and psalms, particularly Psalms
xxxiii. (xxxiv. in our division), xlv., cxxxiii.,
and cxlv., according to the choice of the precen
tor, or the varying rules and usages of different
churches. When all the people had communi
cated, the service was concluded with a solemn
prayer and thanksgiving, that God had thought
them worthy to partake of such sacred mysteries ;
and the congregation being blessed by the
bishop or officiating minister, and having saluted
each other with a kiss of peace, the assembly
broke up, and the people returned to their own
houses. (Cave's Primitive Christianity, part i.,
ch. xi. ; Bingham's Origines, book xv., ch.
i.-vi.) To sum up what has been said we present
the account given by Justin Martyr : — " After
the believer is baptized, and so incorporated
or made one with us, we lead him to the con
gregation of the brethren, as we call them,
and then with great fervency pour out our
souls in common prayers, both for ourselves, for
the person baptized, and for all others the whole
world over; that, having embraced the truth, our
conversation might be as becomes the Gospel,
and that we may be found doers of the Word, and

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so at length be saved with an everlasting salva
tion. Prayers being over, we salute each other
with a kiss: after this, bread and a cup of
water and wine are brought to the president of
the brethren, which he takes, and offers up praise
and glory to the Father of all things, through the
name of his Son and the Holy Spirit ; and this
thanksgiving to God, for rendering us worthy
of these his creatures, is a prayer of more thaa
ordinary length. When he has finished the
prayers and the thanksgiving, all the people
present conclude with an audible voice, saying
Amen. Now Amen, in the Hebrew tongue, is, so
be it. The Eucharistic office being thus per
formed by the president, and concluded with the
acclamation of all the people, those whom we call
deacons distribute to every one present of this
Eucharistic bread, and wine, and water, and then
they carry it to the absent The food we call tha
Eucharist, of which none are allowed to be par
takers but such only as believe the truths taught
by us, and have been baptized in the laver for
the remission of sins and to regeneration, and
live according to Christ's precepts ; for we do not
take this as common bread and common drink.
But as Jesus Christ our Saviour was made flesh
by the Logos of God, and had real flesh and blood
for our salvation, so are we taught that this food,
which the very same Logos blessed by prayer
and thanksgiving, is turned into the nourishment
and substance of our flesh and blood, and is the
flesh and blood of the incarnate Jesus. For the
apostles, in their Memorabilia called the Gospels,
have left this command upon record, 'That Jesus
took bread, and when he had given thanks, he
said, Do this in remembrance of me, for this is
my body : and in like manner he took the cup,
and when he had given thanks, he said, this is
my blood' (Matt. xxvi. 26 ; Mark xiv. 22 ; Luke
xxii. 19, &c.), and delivered it to them only.
And this very solemnity, too, the evil spirits
have introduced into the ' Mysteries of Mithra;'
for you do or may know, that when any one is
initiated into this religion, bread and a cup of
water, with a certain form of words are made use.
of in the sacrifice. After this sacrament is over,
we remind each other of the obligations to his
duty, and the rich relieve the poor, and we
have this intercourse with one another always.
And in every Eucharistic offering we bless the
Maker of all things, through bis Son Jesus
Christ, and through the Holy Spirit ; and upon
the day called Sunday, all that live either in
city or country meet together at the same place,
where the memoirs of the apostles and prophets
are read, as much as time will allow; when
the reader has done, the president makes a
sermon to the people, and animates them to the
practice of such lovely precepts. At the con
clusion of this discourse, we all rise up toge
ther and pray ; and, prayers being o%'er, as I now
said, bread, and wine, and water are brought,
and the president as before sends up prayers and.

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thanksgivings, according to his best ability, and
the people conclude all with the joyful acclama
tion of Amen." The first of these two accounts
seems to refer to communion after baptism, and
the second to the usual communion observed on
the Lord's Day.
The earliest form of celebration is found in
the Apostolical Constitutions, whieh we present
also, abridging some of the prayers. It is given
as under the sanction of the apostle James (Ap.
Con., Ub. viii., 12, p. 206, ed., Gltzen. 1853): —
" The deacon shall say,
" Let none of the catechumens, none of the
hearers, none of the unbelievers, none of the he
terodox stay. You who have prayed the former
prayer, depart. Mothers, take up your children.
Let no one have aught against any man. Let us
stand upright, to present unto the Lord our
offerings with fear and trembling.
^f " When this is done, let the deacons bring the
gifts to the bishop at the altar; and let
the priests stand on his right hand, and on
his left, as disciples by their Master. But
let two ofthe deacons, on each side of the
altar, hold a fan made up of thin mem
branes, or peacock's feathers, or fine cloth;
and let them silently drive away flies and
gnats, that they may notfallinto the cups.
Then the bishop, after having prayed
secretly (and likewise the priests), and
having put on his splendid vestment, and
standing at the attar, and signing himself
with the sign cf the cross upon his fore
head, let him say,
" The grace of Almighty God, and the love of
our Lord Jesus Christ, and the fellowship of the
Holy Ghost, be with you all.
" And let allwith one voice say, And with thy
Spirit
" Bishop. Lift up your mind.
" People. We lift it up unto the Lord.
" Bishop. Let us give thanks to the Lord
" People. It is meet and right so to do.
" Bishop. It is indeed meet and right to sing
praises to thee, the true God from everlasting, of
whom the whole family in heaven and earth is
named; who alone art unbegotten, without begin
ning, the supreme Lord, Almighty King, and self-
sufficient ; the author and giver of all good things,
without cause, without generation, self-existing;
the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever. . .
. . For all these things, glory be to thee, 0
Lord Almighty; thee the innumerable hosts of
angels, archangels, thrones, dominions, princi
palities, authorities, powers, thine everlasting
armies adore. The cherubim and seraphim with
six wings, with twain they cover their feet, with
twain their heads, and with twain they fly, and
say, together with thousand thousands of arch
angels, and ten thousand times ten thousand of
angels, crying incessantly with uninterrupted
shouts of praise ; and let all tbe people say with
them,

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u Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of Sabaoth, hea
ven and earth are full of his glory. Blessed be
he for evermore. Amen."
" After this, let the bishop say,
"Thou art indeed holy, and most holy; the
highest, and most highly exalted for ever. Holy
is also thine only-begotten Son Jesus Christ,
our Lord and God. Who always ministering to
thee, his God and Father not only in the va
rious works of the creation, but in the providen
tial care of it, did not overlook lost mankind.
But after the law of nature, the admonitions of
the positive law, tbe prophetical reproofs, and
the superintendeney of angels, when men had
perverted both the positive and natural law, and
had forgotten the flood, the burning of Sodom,
the plagues of the Egyptians, the slaughter of
the Philistines, and were now ready to perish
universally ; He, who was man's Creator, was
pleased with thy consent to become man ; tbe
priest to be himself the sacrifice ; the shepherd a
sheep, to appease thee, his God and Father, to
reconcile thee to the world, and deliver all men
from the impending wrath. He was incarnate
of a virgin, God the Word, the beloved Son, the
first-born of every creature; and, as he him
self had foretold by the mouth of the prophets, of
the seed of David, and of Abraham, and of the
tribe of Judah. He who forms all that are born
iu the world, was himself formed in the womb of
a virgin, and became flesh ; and he who was be
gotten from eternity was born in time. He was
holy in his conversation, and taught according
to the law ; he cured diseases, and wrought
signs and wonders amongst the people. He who
is the feeder of the hungry, and fills every living
creature with his goodness, became partaker of
his own gifts, and ate, and drank, and slept
amongst us ; he manifested thy name to them
that knew it not ; he dispelled the cloud of
ignorance, restored piety, fulfilled thy will, and
finished thy work whicli thou gavest him to do.
And when he had regulated all these things, he
was seized by the hands of a disobedient people,
and wicked men abusing the office of priests and
high priests, being betrayed to them by one who
excelled in wickedness ; and when he had suffered
many things from them, and been treated with
all manner of indignity, he was by thy permis
sion delivered to Pilate the governor ; the Judge
of all the world was judged, and the Saviour of
mankind condemned ; although impassible, he
was nailed to the cross ; and although immortal,
died. The giver of life was laid in the grave,
that he might deliver those from the pains of
deatb, for whose sake he came; and that he
might break the bands of the devil, and rescue
mankind from his deceit. He arose from tha
dead the third day ; and after continuing forty
days with his disciples, he was taken up into
heaven, and is set down on the right hand of
thee, his God and Father.
" Calling, therefore, to remembrance those

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things which he endured for our sakes, we give
thanks unto thee, 0 God Almighty, not as we
ought, but as we are able, to fulfil his institution.
For in the same night that he was - betrayed,
taking bread into his holy and immaculate
hands, and looking up to thee, his God and Fa
ther, and breaking it, he gave it to his disciples,
saying, this is the mystery of the New Testa
ment ; take of it— eat ; this is my body, which is
broken for many for the remission of sins. Like
wise also having mingled the cup with wine and
water, and blessed it, he gave it to them, saying,
this is my blood, which is shed for many for the
remission of sins ; do this in remembrance of me ;
for as often as ye eat of this bread, and drink of
this cup, ye do show forth my death till I come.
" Wherefore, having in remembrance his pas
sion, death, and resurrection from the dead, his
return into heaven, and his future second appear
ance, when he shall come with glory and power
to judge the quick and the dead, and to render to
every man according to his works, we offer to
thee, our King and our God, according to this
institution, this bread and this cup; giving thanks
to thee through him, that thou hast thought us
worthy to stand before thee, and to sacrifice unto
thee. And we beseech thee, that thou wilt look
graciously on these gifts now lying before thee,
O thou self-sufficient God ; and accept them to
the honour of thy Christ. And send down thy
Holy Spirit, the witness of the sufferings of the
Lord Jesus, on this sacrifice, that he may make
this bread the body of thy Christ, and this cup the
blood of thy Christ. That all who shall partake
of it may be confirmed in godliness, may receive
remission of their sins, may be delivered from the
devil and his wiles, may be filled with the Holy
Ghost, may be made worthy of thy Christ, and
may obtain everlasting life; thou, 0 Lord Al
mighty, being reconciled to them.
" We farther pray unto thee, O Lord, for thy
holy Church, spread from one end of the world
nnto the other, which thou hast purchased by the
precious blood of thy Christ, that thou wilt keep
it steadfast and immovable unto the end of the
world ; and for every episcopate rightly dividing
the word of truth. Farther, we call upon thee
for my unworfhiness, who am now offering ; and
for the whole presbytery; for the deacons, and all
the clergy ; that thou wouldst endue them with
wisdom, and fill them with the Holy Ghost.
Farther, we call upon thee, 0 Lord, for the king
and all that are in authority, for the success of
the army, that they may be kindly disposed to
wards us ; that leading our whole life in peace
and quietness, we may glorify thee through Jesus
Christ our hope. Farther, we offer to thee for all
the saints, who have pleased thee from the be
ginning of the world ; the patriarchs, prophets,
righteous men, apostles, martyrs, confessors,
bishops, priests, deacons, sub-deacons, readers,
singers, virgins, widows, laymen, and all whose
names thou knowest. We farther offer to thee

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for this people ; that for the glory of thy Christ
thou wilt render them a royal priesthood, an holv
nation; for the virgins, and all that live
chastely ; for the widows of the church : for those I
that live in honourable marriage, and child-bear
ing ; for the young ones among thy people ; that '
thou wilt not permit any of us to become cast
aways. Farther, we pray unto thee for this city,
and the inhabitants thereof; for the sick; for
those that are in slavery ; for those that are in
banishment ; for those that are in prison ; for
those that travel by land or by water ; that thou
wilt be to all of them an helper, strengthener, and
supporter. "We farther beseech thee also for those who
hate us, and persecute us for thy name's sake ;
for those that are without, and wander in error;
that thou wouldst convert them to that which is
good, and appease their wrath against us. Far
ther, we pray unto thee for the catechumens of
the church ; for those who are under possession,
and for those our brethren who are in the state of
penance : that thou wouldst perfect the first in
thy faith, deliver the second from the power of the
wicked One, accept the repentance of the last, and
grant unto them and to us the remission of our sins.
Farther, we offer unto thee for seasonable wea
ther, and that we may have plenty of the fruits of
the earth ; that receiving the abundance of thy
good things, we may incessantly praise thee who
givest food to all flesh. Farther, we pray unto
thee for aU those who are absent upon a just
¦cause ; that thou wilt preserve all of us in godli
ness, and gather us together in the kingdom of
thy Christ our King, the God of every sensible
and intelligent being. And that thou wilt keep
us steadfast, unblamable, and unreprovable. For
to thee is due all glory, adoration, and thanks
giving, honour, and worship, to the Father, and
to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, both now and
ever, and world without end.
Tf " And let all the people say, Amen.
If " And let the bishop say, The peace of God
be with you all.
If " And let all the people say, And with thy
Spirit If" And let the deacon again proclaim,
" Let us farther pray to God through his Christ,
in behalf of the gift that is ofiered to the Lord
God; that the good God will receive it through
the mediation of his Christ at his heavenly altar
for a sweet-smelling savour. Let us pray for
this church and people. Let us pray for every
episcopate, for the whole presbytery, for all the
deacons and ministers in Christ, for the whole
congregation; that the Lord wiU preserve and
keep them all. Let us pray for kings and all
that are in authority, that they may be peaceable
towards us ; so that enjoying a quiet and peacea
ble life, we may spend our days in all godliness
and honesty. Let us commemorate the holy
martyrs, that we may be deemed worthy to be
partakers of their trial Let us pray for all those
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who have died in the faith. Let us pray for the
good condition of the air, and the ripening of the
fruits. Let us pray for those that are newly bap
tized, that they may be confirmed in the faith,
that aU may be mutually comforted by one an
other. Raise us up, 0 God, by thy grace ; and
being raised up, let us devote ourselves to God
through Jesus Christ.
Tf " And let the bishop say,
" 0 God, who art great, great in name and
counsel, powerful in thy works, the God and
Father of thy holy Son Jesus Christ our Sa
viour, look upon us and upon this thy flock,
which thou hast chosen through him to the
glory of thy name; sanctify us in body and
soul ; and grant that we, being purified from all
filthinejs of flesh and spirit, may partake of tbe
mystic blessings now lying before thee; and
judge none of us unworthy of them, but be thou
our supporter, our helper, and defender, through
thy Christ, with whom glory, honour, laud,
praise, and thanksgiving be to thee and the
Holy Ghost for ever. Amen.
Tf "And after all have said, Amen, let the
deacon say,
" Let us attend.
Tf "And the bishop shall speak aloud to the
people in this manner :
" Holy things are for holy persons.
"And let the people answer: There is one
Holy, one Lord, one Jesus Christ, to the glory of
God the Father, blessed for evermore. Amen.
Glory be to God in the highest, and on earth
peace, good-wiU towards men. Hosanna to the
Son of David. Blessed be he that cometh in the
name of the Lord ; he is our God and Lord, and
hath appeared to us. Hosanna in the highest.
Tf " After this, let the bishop receive, then the
presbyters, and deacons, and sub-deacons,
and readers, and singers, and asceticks,
and ofthe women the deaconesses, virgins,
and widows. Afterwards the children,
and tlten all the people in order, with fear
and reverence, without tumult or noise,
And the bishop shall give the oblation,
saying,
"The body of Christ.
Tf " And let him that receives say, Amen.
Tf " And tlie deacon shall hold the cup, and when
he gives it, let him say,
"The blood of Christ, the cup of life.
TT " And let him that drinks say, Amen," &c.
Some few things demand additional notice.
One early and prime dispute related to the kind
of bread to be used. The Greek Church con
tended for leavened, and the Western or Latin
Church for unleavened bread. What kind of
bread Jesus used is not certain, it was probably
the unleavened bread of the Passover. But as
afterwards the bread was supplied from the
offerings of the communicants, common bread
was in all likelihood employed. It was not till
the middle of tbe eleventh century that the great

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controversy on this subject arose. — See Azr-
mites. But the matter rests among things in
different, as indeed the Western Church seems to
have regarded it. In the Romish Church the bread
after consecration is called "hostia" — the host,
and consists of thin cakes or wafers, and this form
came into use about the middle of the eleventh cen
tury. — See Host. Thewineof Palestine is usually
red or dark, and probably the wine used by our
Lord was of this colour. This colour has been
generally preferred from its resemblance to that
which the wine symbolizes. White wine is, how
ever, used in the Greek Churches, and in some
continental Protestant Churches. It was common
in the ancient Church to mix water with the wine,
and some of the fathers speak of this mixture
as an express command of Christ, and tbe coun
cil of Trent describes it as enacted by ecclesiasti
cal law. The Armenians used wine only as if it
symbolized the unity of Christ's nature, and
were on that account severely condemned, while
on the other hand the Encratites used only water,
and were justly censured. There is neither proof
nor likelihood that the paschal wine was mixed
with water, and there is no divine warrant for the
practice. The proportions of water mingled with
the sacramental wine varied at different times ;
sometimes a fourth of water was added, sometimes
a third, and occasionally only a few drops were
deemed sufficient. The Latin Church mixes cold
water, the Greek Church uses first cold water
before consecration, and then warm water before
distribution. The bread was carried at first in
osier baskets, which were supplanted, in course of
time, by platters of gold, silver, and marble, on
which eveiy variety of art was lavished. The
cup or chalice was also originally plain and
simple, but soon came to be costly in material, and
rich in ornament. — See Chalice. Two cups
were used, one by the clergy, and the other by
the laity. Sometimes the cup had a pipe or
spout attached to it, out of which the wine was
sucked, in order to prevent tbe waste of any drop
of the consecrated fluid. Besides the implements
for carrying the bread and wine there are other
things in the Romish Church always associated
with the Eucharist, such as the ama or stoup,
the corporale or cloth, representing the winding
sheet of our Lord, the ciborium or pyx ; and in
the Greek ChuTch there are the sacred spear, tho
sponge, the spoon, fans to keep off the flies, and
a golden star. As to the symbolic meaning of
those practices, some of them unscriptural, and
all of them indifferent, Dr. Puseysays, " Formerly
the faithful used a somewhat larger loaf in the
Eucharist, that all who partook of it might be
shown to be ' one bread,' and to be made par
takers of the communion of the broken body of
the Lord. Then it became the practice to use
wafers, but the mystical meaning is not lost ; for
they represent the pieces of silver, the price of
the body of the Lord. St. Chrysostom, in one of
his epistles, relates that the holy Eucharist was

253

Eye
St first celebrated by the Lord at night, nor
was this without a mystery; but he sub
joins, 'but we in the morning celebrate the
resurrection ofthe Lord;' whence also that will
appear, that 'we wish to walk in the light of
Christ' Again, by the decree of Eugenius, the
Roman pontiff, it is ordained that water be
mingled with the cup to be consecrated, in
'small quantity;' and so, by the superabun
dance ofthe wine al ove the quantity of the water,
is signified the superabundance of the merits of
Christ our Lord and his dignity above the
human nature and the sins of the human race.
Yet not less suitably by the use of wine alone is
it shown that we are saved by the merits of
Christ alone, and by his blood. In like way the
Greeks pour warm water into the consecrated
cup, to signify (as Balsamon explains in Can.
32, Cone. Trull.) 'that what flowed from the
holy side of our Lord Jesus Christ are life-
giving.' Tbe Latins use cold water, in witness
that Christ really died, and that we are saved
only by his death."
The doctrine of the Church of England on
the Eucharist is contained in Articles 28, 29,
SO, and 31:— "The Supper of the Lord is
not only a sign of the love that Christians ought
to have among themselves one to another,
but rather is a sacrament of our redemption by
Christ's death : insomuch that to such as rightly,
worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the
bread which we break is a partaking of the
body of Christ ; and likewise tbe cup of blessing
is a partaking of the blood of Christ. Transub
stantiation (or the change of the substance of
bread and wine), in the Supper of the Lord, can
not be proved by holy writ ; but is repugnant to
the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the
nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to
many superstitions. The body of Christ is given,
taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an
heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean
whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten
in the Supper is faith. The sacrament of the
Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance re
served, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped. —
The wicked, and such as be void of a lively faith,
although they do carnally and visibly press with
their teeth (as Saint Augustine saith) the sacra
ment of the body and blood of Christ, yet in no
wise are they partakers of Christ, but rather, to
their condemnation, do eat and drink the sign or
.sacrament of so great a thing  The cup of the
Lord is not to be denied to the lay-people : for
both the parts of the Lord's Sacrament, by
Christ's ordinance and commandment, ought to
be ministered to all Christian men alike — The
offering of Christ once made is that perfect re
demption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for all the
sins of the whole world, both original and actual;
and there is none other satisfaction for sin, but
that alone. Wherefore the sacrifices of masses, in
the which it was commonly said that the priest

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did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to
have remission of pain or guilt, were blasphemous
fables, and dangerous deceits."
At the Reformation there were many disputes
both as to the language and forms of the sacra
mental service. One dispute was as to the use of
the term altar or table. Thus we find in Bishop
Overall's Collections the following: "In King
Edward's first Service Book, the word altar was
permitted to stand, as being the name that
Christians for many hundred years had been ac
quainted withal. Therefore, when there was such
pulling down of altars and setting up of tables, at
the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, she
was fain to make an injunction to restrain such
ungodly fury ; (for which St. Chrysostom says,
the Christians in his time would have stoned a
man to death that should have laid his hands on
an altar to destroy it, Hom. Iiii., ad Pop. Antioch.
Si quis vellet hoc Altare subruere, nonne ilium
lapidibus obrueretis f) and appointed decent and
comely tables, covered, to be set up again, in the
same place where the altars stood ; thereby giving
an interpretation of this clause in our communion
service. For the word table here stands not ex
clusively, as if it might not be called an altar,
but to show the indifferency and liberty of the
name ; as of old it was called Mensa Domini,
the one having reference to the participation, the
other to the oblation of the Eucharist There
are who contend now it was the intent and pur
pose of our church at this reformation, to pull
down and wholly extinguish the very name of
an altar ; but all their reason being only the
matter of fact, that altars were then pulled down,
and this place of the liturgy, that here it is
called a table ; we answer that the matter of
fact proves nothing, being rather the zeal of the
people, that were newly come out of the tyranny
that was used in Queen Mary's time 
But if this were not by order of the church, oi
according to the intent and meaning of the
church and state at the Reformation, how came it
to pass then, that from that day to this, the altars
have continued in the king's and queen's house
holds, after the same manner as they did before?
They never dreamt there of setting up any tables
instead of them ; and likewise in most cathedral
churches  And it will be worthy
the noting that no cathedral church had any
pulling down, removing, or changing the altar
into a table, no more than iu the court ; but in
such places only where deans and bishops and
prelates were preferred, that suffered themselves
more to be led by the fashions which they had
seen at Strasburg in Germany, and Geneva in
France, and Zurich in Switzerland, than by the
orders of the Church of England established, and
continued in her majesty's family ; the likeliest
to understand the meaning of church and state
of any other place. Therefore, they that will
not either endure we should have, or they who
will not believe we have anv altar allowed and

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Continued in our church (howsoever as it is here,
and as it is in most of the fathers, sometimes
called a table) let them go to the king's court,
and to most of our cathedral churches, and
inquire how long they have stood there, and kept
tbat name only, as being indeed the most
eminent, and the most usual among the Chris
tians." Again, " The sacrament of the Lord's
Supper they [i. e., the first reformers] called the
Sacrament of the Altar, as appears plainly by the
statute, 1 Edward VI., entitled ' AnAct against
such as speak unreverently against the sacrament
ofthe body and blood oi Christ, commonly called
the Sacrament ofthe Altar.' For which consult
the body of the act itself. Or, secondly, by Bishop
Ridley (one of the chief compilers of the Com
mon Prayer Book), who doth not only call it the
Sacrament ofthe Attar, affirming thus, ' that in
the Sacrament of the Altar is the natural body
and blood of Chr st,' &c. , but in his reply to an
argument of the Bishop of Lincoln's, taken out of
St. Cyril, he doth resolve it thus, viz., ' The word
"Altar" in the Scripture signifieth as well the
altar whereon the Jews were wont to offer their
burnt sacrifice, as the table ofthe Lord's Supper;
and that St. Cyril meaneth by this word altar,
not the Jewish altar, but the table of the Lord,'
&c. (Acts and Mon., part 3, pp. 492, 497).
Thirdly, by Bishop Latimer, his fellow-martyr,
who plainly grants ' that the Lord's table may
be called an altar, and that the doctors called it
so in many places, though there be no propitiatory
sacrifice, but only Christ' (Part 2, p. 85).
Fourthly, by the several affirmations of John
Lambert and John Philpot, two learned and
religious m^n, whereof the one suffered death for
religion under Henry VIII., the other in the
fiery time of Queen Mary — -this sacrament being
called by both, ' ihe Sacrament of the Altar ' in
their several times : for which consult the Acts
and Monuments commonly called the Book of
Martyrs." — Heyliu's Life and Death of Abp.
Laud, p. 21. With regard to the oblation, Mede
says, " If all this be so, how is not our celebra
tion of the Eucharist defective, where no such
oblation is used ? I answer, this concerns not us
alone, but all the churches of the West of the
Roman communion, who, as in other things, they
have depraved this mystery, and swerved from
the primitive pattern thereof, so have they for
many ages disused this oblation of bread and
wine, and brought in, in lieu thereof, a real and
hypostatical oblation of Christ himself. This
blasphemous oblation we have taken away, and
justly, but not reduced again that express and
formal use of the other. Howsoever, though we
do it not with a set ceremony and form of
words, yet in deed and effect we do it, so often
as we set the bread and wine upon the holy
table, for whatsoever we set upon God's Table is,
ipso facto, dedicated and offered unto him
according to that of our Saviour (Matt xxiii.
19), 'the altar sanctifies the gift,' that is, conse-

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crates it to God and appropriates it to his n«e.
In which respect it were much to be wished, that
this were more solemnly done than is usual j
namely, not until the time of administration, in
tbe name and sight of the whole congregation
standing up, and showing some sign of due and
lowly reverence." — Christian Sacrifice, p. 477,
folio, 1664. On the mixture of water with the
wine, too, we extract the subsequent remarks: —
" It must be confessed, that the mixture has, in
all ages, been the general practice, and for that
reason was enjoined, as has been noted above, to be
continued in our own church by the first reformers.
And though iu the next review the order for it
was omitted, yet tbe practice of it was continued
in the king's chapel, all the time that Bishop
Andrews was dean of it. How it came to be
neglected in that review I have not yet been
able to discover. I am apt to suspect tbat it was
thrown out upon some objection of Calvin or
Bucer. . . But whatever maj' have been the
cause of laying it aside ; since there is no reason
to believe it essential, and since every church has
liberty to determine for herself in things non
essential; it must be an argument sure of a very
indiscreet and over-hasty zeal to urge the omis
sion of it, as a ground for separation." — Wheat-
ly, p. 281. " In the Roman missal, as soon
as the offertory is said, and the priest has put the
bread upon the paten and the wine into tbe cup,
he is ordered to pour a little pure water into the
cup also  And I do not remember
to have met with any other, besides the Arme
nians, that excluded water from the Eucharistical
cup, till Calvin and his followers began the prac
tice at Geneva, by whose interest the water was
also excluded from the sacramental cup in the
English liturgies." — Brett's Dissertation on ihe
Ancient Liturgies, p. 194. new ed. " It is
certain three of the Evangelists do intimate that
the cup offered by Christ was wine, or the fruit
of the vine ; and since tbe Scripture makes no
mention of water, I hope all learned, charitable
Christians will judge favourably ofthe Church of
England for using none. And on the other side,
we of the Church of England ought hy no means
to censure others, who put water into the cup,
for they have the consent of the Cnurch Catholic
of all ages with them in this particular." — John
son's Unbloody Sacrifice, part ii., p. 58. " It
is probable that the cup which our Saviour
blessed at the last supper, contained water as well
as wine, since it appears that it was generally the
practice of the Jews to mix the paschal cup,
which our Saviour used in instituting the sacra
ment of his blood. It has, however, been long
decided by theologians, that the mixture of water
is not essential to the validity of the sacrament.
Bona, presbyter-cardinal of Rome, refers to Ber
nard as speaking of some persons who thought
that water was essential; 'but,' he adds, 'the
judgment of theologians is certain, that consecra
tion is valid, even U' water be omitted, though he

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¦who omits it is guilty of a serious offence.' '' —
Palmer's Origines Liturgicas, vol. ii., p. 75. In
the Roman service prayer was made for the dead,
and the form was preserved in the English ser
vice book in the reign of Edward VI. But it
was changed under Queen Elizabeth, but not
without opposition. For Thorndike, in his Epi
logue, argues, " I will not here allege, that the
Church of England teacheth to pray for the dead,
where the litany prays for deliverance 'in the
hour cf death and in the day of judgment ;'
or, when we pray after the communion, that ' by
the merits and death of Christ, and through faith
in his blood, we and aU the whole church may
obtain remission of our sins, and all other benefits
of his passion. But it is manifest, that in the
service appointed in the time of Edward VI.
prayer is made for the dead both before the com
munion and at the burial, to the same purpose as
I maintain. It is manifest also, that it was
changed in Queen Elizabeth's time to content the
Puritans, who now, it appears, could not be con
tent with less than breaking of the church in
pieces. And, therefore, since unity hath not been
obtained by parting with the law of the Catholic
Church, in mine opinion, for the love of it I con
tinue the resolution to bound reformation by the
rule of the Catholic Church. Allowing that
it may be matter of reformation, to restore the
prayers which are made for the dead, to the origi
nal sense of the whole church, but maintaining
that to take away all prayer for the dead, is not
paring off abuses, but cutting to the quick."
And Palmer adds, " These facts being certain, it
becomes a matter of some interest and importance
to ascertain the reasons which justified the omis
sion of these prayers in the liturgy of the
English Church for the first time in the reign of
King Edward VI. Some persons will perhaps
say that this sort of prayer is unscriptural ; that
it infers either the Romish doctrine of purgatory,
or something else which is contrary to the re
vealed wUl of God, or the nature of things. But
when we reflect that the great divines of the
English Church have not taken this ground, and
that the Church of England herself has never
formally condemned prayers for the dead, but
only omitted them in her liturgy, we may per
haps think that there are some other reasons to
justify that omission. The true justification of
the Church of England is to be found in her zeal
for the purity of the Christian faith, and for the
welfare of all her members. It is too well known
that the erroneous doctrine of purgatory had
crept into the Western Churches, and was held
by many of the clergy and people. Prayers for
the departed were ¦ represented as an absolute
proof that the Church had always held the doc
trine of purgatory. The deoeitfulness of this
argument can only be estimated by the faot, that
many persons at this day, who deny the doctrine
of
¦pray

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tory. If persons of education are deceived by
this argument, which has been a hundred times
refuted, how is it possible that the uneducated
classes could ever have got rid of the persuasion
that their church held the doctrine of purgatorv,
if prayers for the departed had been continued in
the liturgy ? Would not this custom, in fact,
have rooted the error of purgatory in their minds ?
If, then, the Church of England omitted public
prayer for the departed saints, it was to remove
the errors and superstitions of the people, and to
preserve the purity of the Christian faith."—
Palmer Origines Lit, vol. ii., p. 94.
There were also other questions of keen dispute
between the puritan and anti-puritan parties,
which need not be recorded. Nor need we refer
to the service of the holy communion, as found in
the Book of Common Prayer, save to give the
order of celebration.
Tf " When the priest, standing before the table,
hath so ordered the bread and wine, that he
may with the more readiness and decency
break the bread before the people, and take
Hie cup into his hands, he shall say the prayer
of consecration, as followeth: —
" Almighty God, our Heavenly Father, who of
thy tender mercy didst give thine only Son Jesus
Christ to suffer death upon the cross for our re
demption ; who made there (by his one oblation
of himself once offered) a full, perfect, and suffi
cient sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction, for the
sins of the whole world : and did institute, and
in his holy Gospel command us to continue, a
perpetual memory of that his precious death, until
his coming again ; hear us, O merciful Father, we
most humbly beseech thee ; and grant that we,
receiving these thy creatures of bread and wine,
according to thy Son our Saviour Jesus Christ's
holy institution, in remembrance of his death and
passion, may be partakers of his most blessed
body and blood : who, in the same night that he
was betrayed, took bread ; and when he had
given thanks, he brake it, and gave it to his dis
ciples, saying, Take, eat, this is my body which
is given for you ; Do this in remembrance of me.
Likewise after supper, he took the cup ; and when
he had given thanks, he gave it to them, saying,
Drink ye all of this ; for this is my blood of the
New Testament, which is shed for you and for
many for the remission of sins: Do this, as
oft as ye shaU drink it, in remembrance of me.
Amen. Tf " Then sliall the minister first recdve the
communion in both kinds himself, and then
proceed to deliver the same to the bishops,
priests, and deacons, in like manner (if any
be present), and after that to the people also,
in order, into thdr hands, all meekly kneeling.
And, when he delivereth the bread to any
one, he sludl say,
" The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which

purgatory, assert positively that the custom of was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul
ay ing for the departed infers a belief in purga- 1 unto everlasting life. Take and eat this in. re-

256

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membrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on
him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving.
Tf " And the minister that delivereth the cup to
any one shall say,
" The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, which
was shed for thee, preserve thy body and soul
unto everlasting life. Drink this in remembrance
that Christ's blood was shed for thee, and be
thankfu'. Tf " If the consecrated bread or wine be all
spent before all have communicated, the
priest is to consecrate more, according to the
form before prescribed; beginning at [Our
Saviour Christ in the same night, &c.J for
the blessing ofthe bread; and at [Likewise
after supper, &c] for the blessing of the cup.
Tf When all have communicated, the minister
shall return to the Lord's Table, and rever
ently place upon it what remaineth ofthe
consecrated elements, covering the same with
a fair linen cloth."
The theology of the Westminster Confession on
the subject of the Eucharist is contained in the
eight following propositions which form Chapter
xxix : — " Our Lord Jesus, in the night wherein
he was betrayed, instituted the sacrament of his
body and blood, called the Lord's Supper, to be
observed in his Church unto the end of the world,
for the perpetual remembrance of the sacrifice of
himself in his death, the sealing all benefits
thereof unto true believers, their spiritual
nourishment and growth in him, their further
engagement in and to all duties which they owe
unto him, and to hi a bond and pledge of their
communion with him, and with each other, as
members of his mystical body. 2. In this sacra
ment Christ is not offered up to his Father, nor
any real sacrifice made at all for remission of sins
of the quick or dead ; but only a commemoration
of tbat one offering of himself, by himself, upon
the cross, once for all, and a spiritual oblation of
all possible praise unto God for the same ; so that
the popish sacrifice of the mass, as they call it, is
most abominably injurious to Christ's one only
sacrifice, the alone propitiation for all the sins of
the elect 3. The Lord Jesus hatb, in this ordi
nance, appointed his ministers to declare his word
of institution to the people, to pray, and bless the
elements of bread and wine, and thereby to set
them apart from a common to an hol_v use ; and
to take and break the bread, to take tbe cup, and
(they communicating also themselves) to give
both to the communicants; but to none who are
not then present in the congregation. 4. Private
masses, or receiving this sacrament by a priest,
or any other, alone — as likewise the denid of the
cup to the people— worshipping the elements, the
lifting them up, or carrying them about for
adoration, and the reserving them for any pro
tended religious use— are all contrary to tho
nature of this sacrament, and to the institution of
Christ. 5. The outward elements in this sacra
ment, duly set apart to the uses ordained by

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Christ, have such relation to him crucified, as
that truly, yet sacramentaUy only, they are some
times called by the name of the things they re
present, to wit, the body and blood of Christ ;
albeit, in substance and nature, they still remain
truly and only bread and wine, as they were
before. 6. That doctrine whicli maintains a
change of the substance of bread and wine into
the substance of Christ's body and blood (com
monly called transubstantiation) by consecration
of a priest, or by any other way, is repugnant not
to Scripture alone, but even to common sense and
reason ; overthroweth the nature of the sacra
ment ; and hath been and is the cause of mani
fold superstitions, yea, of gross idolatries. 7.
Worthy receivers, outwardly partaking of the
visible elements in this sacrament, do then also
inwardly by faith, really and indeed, yet not car
nally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and
feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his
death : the body and blood of Christ being then
not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the
bread and wine ; yet as really, but spiritually,
present to the faith of believers in that ordinance
as the elements themselves are to their outward
senses. 8. Although ignorant and wicked men
receive the outward elements in this sacrament,
yet they receive not the thing signified thereby ;
but by their unworthy coming thereunto are guilty
of the body and blood of the Lord, to their own
damnation. Wherefore all ignorant and ungodly
persons, as they are unfit to enjoy communion
with him, so are they unworthy of the Lord's
Table, and cannot, without great sin against
Christ, while they remain such, partake of these
holy mysteries, or be admitted thereunto."
The form and order of service enjoined by the
Directory is brief and simple : " The communion,
or Supper of the Lord, is frequently to be celebrated ;
but how often may be considered and determined
by the ministers and other church-governors of
each congregation, as they shall find most con
venient for the comfort and edification of the
people committed to their charge. And, when it
shall be administered, wo judge it convenient to
be done after the morning sermon. The ignir-
ant and the scandalous are not fit to receive tbe
sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Where thia
sacrament cannot with convenience be frequently
administered, it is requisite that public warning
be given the Sabbath day before the administra
tion thereof: and tbat either then, or on some
day of that week, something concerning that ordi
nance, and the due preparation thereunto, and
participation thereof, be taught ; that, by the
diligent use of all means sanctified of God to that
end, both in public and private, all may eome
better prepared to that heavenly feast. When
the day is come for administration, the minister,
having ended his sermon and prayer, shall make
a short exhortation, expressing the inestimable
benefit we have by this sacrament, together with
the ends and use thereof, &c. After this ex-
257 S

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hortation, warning, and invitation, the table
being before decently covered, and so con
veniently placed, that the communicants may
orderly sit about it, or at it, the minister is to be
gin the action with sanctifying and blessing the
elements of bread and wine set before him (the
bread in comely and convenient vessels, so pre
pared that, being broken by him, and given, it
may be distributed amongst the communicants ;
the wine also in large cups), having first, in a few
words, showed that those elements, otherwise
common, are now set apart and sanctified to this
holy use, by the word of institution and prayer.
Let the words of institution be read out of the
Evangelists, or out of the First Epistle of the
apostle Paul to the Corinthians, chap. xi. 23.
I have received of the Lord, &c, to the twenty-
seventh verse, which the minister may, when he
seeth requisite, explain and apply. Let the
prayer, thanksgiving, or blessing of the bread
and wine, be to this effect: ' With humble and
hearty acknowledgment of the greatness of our
misery, from which neither man nor angel was
able to deliver us, and of our great unworthiness
of the least of all God's mercies; to give thanks
to God for all his benefits, and especially for that
great benefit of our redemption, the love of God
the Father, the sufferings and merits of the Lord
Jesus Christ the Son of God, by which we are
delivered ; and for all means of grace, the Word
and sacraments ; and for this sacrament in parti
cular, by which Christ, and all his benefits, are
applied and sealed up unto us, which, notwith
standing the denial of them unto others, are in
great mercy continued unto us, after so much and
long abuse of them all,' &c. AU which he is to
endeavour to perform with suitable affections,
answerable to such an holy action, and to stir up
the like in the people. The elements being now
sanctified by the Word and prayer, the minister,
being at the table, is to take the bread in his
hand, and say, in these expressions (or other the
like, used by Christ or his apostle upon this oc
casion) : ' According to the holy institution, com
mand, and example of our blessed Saviour Jesus
Christ, I take this bread, and, having given
thanks, break it, and give it unto you (there
the minister, who is also to himself communi
cate, is to break the bread, and give it to the
communicants) ; Take ye, eat ye ; this is the body
of Christ which is broken for you : do this in re
membrance of him' In like manner the minister
is to take the cup, and say, in these expressions
(or other the like, used by Christ or the apostle
upon the same occasion) : ' According to the insti
tution, command, and example of our Lord Jesus
Christ, I take this cup, and give it unto you
(here he giveth it to the communicants) ; This
cup is the new testament in the blood of Christ,
which is shed for the remission of the sins of
many : drink ye all of it.' After all have com
municated, the minister may, in a few words,
put them in mind ' of the grace of God in Jesus

258

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Christ, held forth in this sacrament ; and exhort
them to walk worthy of it.' The minister is to
give solemn thanks to God ' for his rich mercy,
and invaluable goodness, vouchsafed to them in
that sacrament ; and to entreat for pardon for
the defects of the whole service, and for the
gracious assistance of his good Spirit, whereby
tbey may be enabled to walk in the strength of
that grace, as becometh those who have received
so great pledges of salvation.' The coUection for
the poor is so to be ordered, that no part of the
public worship be thereby hindered." This form,
with few trifling variations, is observed, we
believe, by almost all non-episcopal churches.
The posture of communicants was debated in the
Westminster Assembly, as Lightfoot records in
his Journal: — "Then fell we upon the sitting
about the table at the receiving of the sacrament ;
and the Scots' commissioners professed, they
could not take it in any sense but sitting to the
table, and that they are so engaged from Scot
land to take it so ; and therefore, they either de
sired a recommitment of this passage, or that
their sense might be expressed in the margin,
which cost a long and large debate. At last it
was concluded thus to have it in the text,
' About the table ; or at it, as in the Church of
Scotland : ' and so they retain their custom, and
we of England are left at liberty ; and so it was
the sense of the assembly, that we might, at
liberty, either cause the communicants to sit at
the table, or at some distance about it."
It is foreign to our immediate purpose to re
view the questions which have been raised as to
the benefits of this sacrament, and the kind of
efficacy which belongs to it. What may bo
called the Lutheran, the Calvinistic, and the
Zwinglian theories on the nature of the sacra
ment wiU be found under Sacrament, and the
notorious theory of some Anglican divines may
be seen under Tractarianism. — See the Works
of Durand, Hospinian, Duranti, Bingham, Cole
man, Augusti, Siegel, Rheinwald, Bulley, Taylor,
Palmer, Scuddamore, Cudworth, Warburton,
Hoadley, Waterland, Henry, &c, &c.
Euchclaion (from tbxfi, prayer, and tXaitv,
ou), or the sanctified oil, is one of the seven
mysteries or sacraments of the Greek Church,
" in which the servant of the church, anointing
tbe sick with oU, prays to God for his recovery
from sickness, and for the forgiveness of his sins.
It is founded on the exhortation contained in
the General Epistle of St. James v. 14, 15.
Pure and unmixed oil alone is used for this pur
pose. It is consecrated on the Wednesday in
the Holy or Passion Week, and in a quantity suffi
cient to last for a whole year. This service is,
by the Latins, considered equivalent to, or the
same as, the extreme unction of the Church of
Rome. But though the Greek Church reckons
it in the number of her mysteries, yet it is cer
tain that there is nothing throughout the office
appointed for this purpose, which implies that it

EUC
should not be administered to any but persons
who are dangerously iU, or in the article of death,
as is prescribed in the Romish ritual. On the
contrary, the Greek Church holds that it may
be used in any Ulness as a pious and charitable
work, but not as a work of necessity. Accord
ing to the ritual appointed for this purpose, seven
priests are required to perform this rite or mys
tery, each of whom, in the course of the prayers,
with a twig, upon the end of which there is a
Uttle cotton, anoints the sick person with oil on
different parts of the body. In doing this they
make use of seven small twigs, one for each
priest. At present this mystery is administered
by a smaller number of priests, it being diffi
cult to coUect the full number specified in the
regulations of the Greek Church. (Pinkerton,
Present State of the Greek Church, pp. 193,
194.) Euchcloginm (prayer book), name of a
liturgical book of the Greek Church. In the
time of Pope Urban VIII. an attempt was made,
but in vain, to bring it into conformity with the
Romish ritual.
Euchites (iu^Jj, prayer), called also Massa-
lians, or Messolians, from a Hebrew word of the
same signification, were fanatics who first appeared
in Mesopotamia about A. d. 360, and who removed
thence into Syria and Pamphylia. We find
mention of them here and there in each of the
six foUowing centuries ; and in the eleventh cen
tury they openly appeared in Thrace, and at
tracted much notice. The basis of their doctrine
was tbe opinion that a demon dwells in every man
from his birth, who can only be expelled by
unceasing prayer. They despised pubUc worship
and the sacraments, professed to spend all their
time in secret prayer and in mystical contempla
tion, and imagined thus to gain the victory over
sin. Fanaticism, in many cases, along with con
ceit and self-delusion, was the result. They
forgot that activity is essential to spiritual health,
and is the result of Divine grace — that indolent
and morbid brooding only produces dreams
which may please and startle — and that evU is
best subdued, not in solitary retreats, but in
doing the wiU of God with heart and soul. A
sect of the same name arose in the twelfth
century among the Greek churches, and were
also called Enthusiasts. The name was by and
bye given in reproach to any earnest rehgious
party. E Hoists, a congregation of missionary priests
named after Eudes, established at Caen in 1643.
They made no vows and had no peculiar habit,
but were placed under a superior deriving
his power from the bishop in whose diocese they
laboured. They were under the patronage of
Jesus and Mary.
Eudoxians, a name given to the Arians
after the death of Arius, from Eudoxius, raised
by Constantius, in 360, to the patriarchate of
Constantinople. For a period he was the power-

EUT
ful head of the Arian party  See Arianism.
The Eudoxians held that the Son was created,
and had a will distinct from the Father.
Eulogium. — See Antidoron.
Eulogy (suXoyia, blessing), a name given
anciently to the Lord's Supper; then, after the
fifth century, to the consecrated bread set apart
for the poor.
Eunomians, named after Eunomius, the most
famous disciple of Aetius, were an Arian sect of
the fourth century. Cave's account, in his
Historia Literaria, is as follows: — " There is one
God, uncreated and without beginning; who
has nothing existing before him, for nothing can
exist before what is uncreated ; nor with him,
for what is uncreated must be one ; nor in him,
for God is a simple and uncompounded being.
This one simple and eternal being is God, the
creator and ordainer of all things ; first, indeed,
and principaUy, of his only begotten Son ; and
then through him of all other things. For God
begat, created, and made the Son only by his
direct operation and power, before all things,
and every other creature ; not producing, how
ever, any being Uke himself, or imparting any of
his own proper substance to the Son ; for God is
immortal, uniform, indivisible, and therefore.
cannot communicate any part of his own proper
substance to another. He alone is unbegotten ;
and it is impossible that any other being should
be formed of an unbegotten substance. He did
not use his own substance in begetting the Sou,
but his will only ; nor did he beget him in the
likeness of his substance, but according to his
own good pleasure; he then created the Holy
Spirit, the first and greatest of all spirits, by his
own power, in deed and operation mediately ;
yet by the immediate power and operation of the
Son. After the Holy Spirit, he created all other
things, in heaven and in earth, visible and in
visible, corporeal and incorporeal, mediately by
himself, by the power and operation of the
Son." Eusebians, an name given to the Arians
from the patronage of Eusebius, Bishop of
Csesarea. — See Akians. Athanasius was con
demned through their influence at the councU of
Antioch, 341, and the adverse decree of Cassarea
and Tyre against him, confirmed.
Eustathians, followers of Eustathius, Bishop
of Antioch, deposed from that see by Arian in
fluence in 327. A majority of the people, how
ever, clung to him, refused to recognize the
Arian bishops, and met peacefully for worship
by themselves. The schism lasted for a con
siderable period, till Cbrysostom reconcUed both
parties. Eustathius probably was a semi-Arian.
There seem to have been two persons of the
name — one of them a great patron of monkery
and asceticism.
Eutuchites (good fortuners), a sect of the
third century, who held that souls are given to
bodies in order to honour the angels who made

259

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them, and that nothing happens which ought to
annoy or distract.
Entychians, those who adopted the opinions
ofthe heretic Eutyches with respect to the nature
of Christ. Eutyches was abbot of a large
monastery near Constantinople, in which he had
resided nearly fifty years, when he came out to
exert himself in behalf of Cyril, deposed by Theo-
dosius after the council of Ephesus. His vehement
opposition to the unfortunate Nestorius betrayed
him into statements of doctrine which were made
the foundation of a charge of heresy ; although it
is remarkable that the phrase in which he stated
his belief in "the one incarnate nature of God the
Word," had been used both by Cyril and Athana
sius, without offence, in days when the truth on
this point was less accurately defined and under
stood. However, Eutyches would not distinctly
deny the charge, and he was condemned by his
bishop, Flavian, at a. synod held in 448. Leo,
Bishop of Rome, approved of tbe proceedings, in
a celebrated epistle addressed to Flavian. The
next year Dioscurus, the successor of Cyril, pro
cured the summoning of a general synod at
Ephesus, iu which, by most violent measures, he
compelled the bishops to condemn Flavian as a
Nestorian, and to pronounce in favour of Euty
ches and his doctrines. But Marcian, succeed
ing just at this time to the imperial throne, was
induced to summon a general council, which as
sembled at Chalcedon in 451. This council, the
last of the four generally acknowledged by Protes
tants, deposed Dioscurus for his many misdeeds,
and adopted Leo's letter to Flavian as a correct
statement of the Catholic faith ; or, more briefly,
in Mosheim's words, " that in Christ two distinct
natures were united in one person, without any
change, mixture, or confusion." Tbe council
decreed, therefore, " that the one Son of God, our
Lord Jesus Christ, is of one substance with the
Father according to the Godhead, and of one
substance with us according to the manhood — like
to us in all things except sin ; one and the same
Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten, in two natures,
without confusion, without conversion, without
division, without separation, — the difference of the
natures not being taken away by reason of the
unity, but the propriety of each being preserved
and joined together to form one person." And
thus Eutychianism, which confounded the God
head and manhood in one nature, and Nestorian-
ism, which divided them into two persons, were
alike condemned. The word htrixts was in
troduced into the decree as an epithet of the
mother of Christ The decision of the council
was far from restoring peace. It was regarded as
Nestorian, and fiercely opposed by many Eastern
and Egyptian teachers, and the tedious Mono-
physitic controversies loug continued to distract
the Eastern Church. — See Monophysites.
Eulyrhian Tenets, the distinguishing
tenet of the Eutychian or Monophysite sect was,
that in Christ there was but one nature — that of

EVA
the Incarnate Word. This tenet was modified
by Barsumas ; and having rejected the Eutychian
definition, that the human nature of Christ was
absorbed by the Divine, he framed the following
proposition : — That in the Son of God there was
one nature, which, notwithstanding its unity,
was double and compounded. The definition of
Leo, which is still esteemed to be the orthodox
doctrine, is to this effect : That in Christ two dis
tinct natures were united in one person, without
any change, mixture, or confusion. Of this
heresy there were several modifications : — 1. The
Monophysite, a term synonymous with Euty
chian. 2. The Acephali. Certain Eutychians,
looking on the conduct of Mongus, Patriarch of
Alexandria, as highly criminal, because he had
subscribed the Henoticon, formed themselves into
a new faction, under the title of Acephali, or
headless, since by the submission of Mongus they
were deprived of their chief. 3. Subdivisions
of this branch took place into Anthropomor-
phites, Barsanumorphites, and Essaianists. 4.
'Ihe Jacobites, who derived their name from
James Baradaeus or Zanzalus, although the sect
affect to derive their origin from James the
apostle. 5. The Severites, called from one
Severus of Antioch. 6. Maronites, from Maron,
the founder; and Monothelites, because they as
serted a unity of will. 7. Agnoetse, because
they maintained that Christ was ignorant of the
day of judgment. 8. Armenians, who, by
the instigation of Ethanius, rejected the council
of Chalcedon, and who have always maintained
the Monophysite or Eutychian doctrine. — See
Acephali, Agnoet-e, Armenian Church.
Evangel (good news), the Gospel of God's
grace. Evangelical Alliance. — See "Church,
Unity of," in Biblical Cyclopaedia. The Evangeli
cal AUiance reaUy originated in the bicentenary
commemoration of the Westminster Assembly,
held at Edinburgh July 12 and 13, 1843. A
volume of Essays on Christian Union was tbe re
sult of that meeting, — a result brought about
chiefly by the liberality and enterprise of John
Henderson, Esq., of Fark — a name now widely
known in connection with all philanthropical and
missionary agencies. A preliminary meeting was
soon after held in Liverpool, and the Alliance
was formally organized in London in the year
1846. Branches now exist, not only in the
United Kingdom, but also in France, Germany,
Switzerland, Sweden, and Turkey ; in America,
Africa, East and West Indies, Australia, New
Zealand, and in the city of Jerusalem. The
great object of the Alliance is clearly set forth in
the following resolutions of the Conference held
at Freemasons' Hall in 1846:  I. That this con
ference, composed of professing Christians of dif
ferent denominations, rejoice in making their
unanimous avowal of the glorious truth that the
Church of the living God, while it admits of
growth, is one Church, never having lost, and

260

EVA
being incapable of losing, its essential unity.
Not, therefore, to create that unity, but to confess
it, is the design of their assembling together.
One in reality, they desire also, as far as they
may be able to attain it, to be visibly one : and
thus both to realize in themselves and to exhibit
to others that a living and everlasting union
binds all true believers together in the fellowship
of the Church of Christ — '¦ which is his body,
the fulness of him that filleth all in all." II.
That this conference, while recognizing the essen
tial unity of the Christian Church, feel constrain
ed to deplore its existing divisions, and to express
their deep sense of the sinfulness involved in tbe
aUenation of affection by which they have been
attended, and of the manifold evils which have
resulted therefrom ; and to avow their solemn
conviction of the necessity and duty of taking
measures, in humble dependence on the Divine
blessing, towards attaining a state of mind and
feeUng more in accordance with the spirit of Jesus
Christ III. That, therefore, the members of
this conference are deeply convinced of the desir
ableness of forming a confederation on the basis
of great evangelical principles held in common by
them, which ma}' afford opportunity to members
of the Church of Christ of cultivating brotherly
love, enjoying Christian intercourse, and promot
ing such other objects as they may hereafter
agree to prosecute together ; and they hereby
proceed to form such a confederation under the
name of the Evangelical Alliance. In further
ance of this object the Alliance receives such in
formation respecting the progress of vital religion
in all parts of the world as Christian brethren
may be disposed to communicate ; and correspon
dence is opened and maintained with Christian
brethren in different parts of the world, especially
with those who are engaged amidst peculiar diffi
culties and opposition in the cause of the Gospel,
in order to afford them all suitable encourage
ment and sympathy, and to diffuse an interest in
their welfare. In subserviency to the same great
object, the Alliance endeavours to exert a benefi
cial influence on the advancement of evangelical
Protestantism, and on the counteraction of Infi
delity, Fopery, and other forms of superstition,
error, and profaneness, especially the desecration
of the Lord's Day.
The parties composing tbe Alliance are to be
such only as hold and maintain what are usually
understood to be evangelical views in regard to tbe
matters of doctrine understated, viz : — " 1. The
divine inspiration, authority, and sufficiency of
the Holy Scriptures. 2. The right and duty of
private judgment in the interpretation of the
Holy Scriptures. 3. The unity of the Godhead
and the trinity of persons therein. 4. The utter
depravity of human nature in consequence of the
falL 5. The incarnation of the Son of God, his
work of atonement for sinners of mankind, and
his mediatorial intercession and reign. 6. The
justification of the sinner by faith alone. 7. The

EVA
work of the Holy Spirit in the conversion and
sanctification of the sinner. 8. The immortality
of the soul, the resurrection of the body, the
judgment of the world by our Lord Jesus Christ,
with the eternal blessedness of the righteous, and
the eternal punishment of the wicked. 9. The
divine institution of the Christian ministry, and
the obligation and perpetuity ofthe ordinances of
Baptism and the Lord's Supper." It being, how
ever, distinctly declared, that, this brief summary
is not to be regarded, in any formal or ecclesiasti
cal sense, as a creed or confession, nor the adop
tion of it as involving an assumption of the right
authoritatively to define the limits of Christian
brotherhood, but simply as an indication of the
class of persons whom it is desirable to embrace
within the Alliance. In this Alliance, it is also
distinctly stated, that no compromise of the views
of any member, or sanction of those of others, on
the points wherein they difi'er, is either required
or expected ; but that all are held as free as be
fore to maintain and advocate their religious con
victions, with due forbearance and brotherly love.
It is not contemplated that this Alliance should
assume or aim at the character of a new ecclesias
tical organization, claiming and exercising the
functions of a Christian Church. Its simple and
comprehensive object, it is strongly felt, may be
successfully promoted without interfering with,
or disturbing the order of, any branch of tbe
Christian Church to which its members may
respectively belong.
It is required that in their conduct, and espe
cially in the use of the press, the members of the
Alliance abstain from bitterness, wrath, anger,
clamour, and evil speaking, with all malice ; that
they discourage envyings, strifes, and divisions ;
that they keep in mind the great duty of obeying
their Lord's " new commandment " to " love one
another," and thus strive to promote a spirit oi
peace and unity among all true believers in tbe
Lord Jesus Christ. It is also a duty incumbent
on the members of the Alliance, while regarding
it as an important step towards the increase of
Christian union, carefully to abstain from pro
nouncing any uncharitable judgment upon those
Christian friends who do not feel themselves in a
condition to give it their sanction. As the
Christian union which this Alliance desires to
promote can only be obtained through the blessed
energy of the Holy Spirit, it is recommended to
all the members to make this matter the subject
of simultaneous weekly petition at the Throne of
Grace, in their closets and families ; and the fore
noon of Monday is suggested as the time for that
purpose. And it is iurther recommended, that
the week beginning with the first Lord's Day in
January in each year, be observed as a season for
concert in prayer on behalf of tbe grand objects
contemplated by the Alliance.
In the admission of members, regard is to be
had, not simply to an intellectual assent to the
summary of doctrines enumerated in the basis,

261

EVA
but also to the practical exhibition of their in
fluence upon the conduct of the individual,
in relation to the forementioned objects and
duties. Among the results already attained by the Al
liance, as incidental and secondary to its great
object, may be mentioned : — The supply of an
obvious want — namely, the existence of an organ
ized body with and by whom correspondence and
co-operation may be easily and effectually carried
on between Christians in different parts of the
world, and which may greatly aid in uniting
Christians in this country, separated by ecclesias
tical differences and other causes — the holding
of conferences of Christians from all parts of the
world, for devotion and mutual consultation, in
London, Paris, Berlin, and other cities — aiding
in the revival of religion, both at home and
abroad — the convening of very many meetings
for united prayer for the outpouring of the
Spirit ; and in reference to passing events of im
portance — the communication of much informa
tion as to the religious condition of Christendom
— the encouragement of Christians exposed to
trials and difficulties, by the expression of sym
pathy, and in several instances by eliciting pe
cuniary aid — successful interference on behalf of
Christians and others, when persecuted in Roman
Catholic and Mohammedan countries — the miti
gation or removal of the persecution of Protes
tants by their fellow-Protestants in Germany
and elsewhere — the presentations of memorials
to tbe sovereigns of Europe, including the sultan
himself, on behalf of liberty of conscience for
Mussulmen — the encouragement and assistance
of tbe friends of pure evangelical doctrine in aU
Protestant countries in their struggle with Ration
alism or Infidelity — the uniting of evangeUcal
Christians in different countries for fraternal in
tercourse, and for mutual protection — opposition,
in common with other bodies, to the progress of
Popery — the resistance of projects which would
lead to the desecration of the Lord's Day — the
origination and extensive circulation of prize
essays on the Sabbath, and on Popery and Infide
lity — and the origination of societies established
on the principle of united action among evangeli
cal Christians ; such as the Turkish Missions Aid
Society, the Continental Committee for Religious
Liberty, Christian Vernacular Education Society
for India, and German Aid Society. Although
these practical results are thus referred to, yet it
is to be understood that, even if no such secondary
objects had been accomplished or attempted, the
great value of the Alliance would still remain,
in its adaptation to promote and manifest union
among Christians. The preceding is from an
authoritative statement made by the Alliance.
Evangelical Association, a body which
arose in the United States of America in 1800.
Its founder was Jacob Albrecht, a German
Lutheran of Pennsylvania. He was their first
ordained elder. Their services were at first

EVA
wholly in German, but they are now conducted
in English also. The government is episcopa
lian, the bishops being elected every four years.
The body has an annual and quarterly confer
ence, with a general conference of delegates also
once in four years. They devote themselves
much to missionary labour, especially among the
German population ; and, save on the point of the
imputation of Adam's first sin, their creed is the
same as that of evangelical churches. In 1843
they had 15,000 communicants, and since that
time have been making constant progress in
various parts of the country.
Evangelical Union. — This body, more
generally known as Morisonians, from the name
of their founder, though such a title they repu
diate, arose in Scotland under the following cir
cumstances : — Mr. James Morison, the son of a
minister of the United Secession Church of Scot
land, when a Ucentiate of that church, promul
gated certain forms of doctrine, wliich he after
wards brought forward in a tract bearing the
title, The Question, What must Ido tobe Saved?
answered by Philanthropos, and which was widely
circulated. Having received a caU (see Call)
to a church in Kilmarnock, several members of
presbytery, before his ordination in 1840, ex
pressed their dissatisfaction with some statements
in the above tract. On giving explanations of
some phrases, and promising to suppress the
further circulation of the tract, he was ordained
to the pastoral charge of that congregation. But
after several new editions of this tract had been
sent forth, in consequence of his giving a dis
tinct assurance to those desiring to publish such
editions that they might do so without any fear
of legal proceedings being taken against "them,
and also in consequence of the prominence of
certain forms of doctrine in his regular ministra
tions, he was summoned to the bar of the pres
bytery of Kilmarnock, to answer to charges pre
ferred against him of heresy in doctrine and dis-
ingenuousness of conduct On both counts of
the indictment he was found guilty, and conse
quently was suspended from his office in 1841.
The justice of the latter charge he substantially
admitted, as he expressed regret at not having
summarily prevented a republication of the
tract But against the decision come to he pro
tested, and appealed to the synod. At tne meet
ing of this ecclesiastical court in June 1841, held
that year in Glasgow, the case was brought up
and argued at great length. The trial lasted
eleven days, and ended, on the motion of Dr.
Heugh, in a confirmation of the sentence of the
presbytery. The charges on which Mr. Morison
was by the presbytery found guUty of erroneous-
ness in doctrine were : — " 1. That he taught
that the object of saving faith to any person
was, that Christ made atonement for the sins of
that person, as he made atonement for the sins
of the whole world, and that the seeing this
statement to be true was in itself saving faith.
262

EVA
2. That all men were able of themselves to be
lieve the Gospel. 3. Tbat no person ought to be
directed to pray for grace to help him to believe.
4. That repentance in Scripture meant only a
change of mind, but not godly sorrow for sin.
5. That justification is not pardon, but that it
is implied in pardon. 6. That election comes in
the order of nature, after the purpose of atone
ment. 7. That there were in his publications
many unwarrantable expressions regarding the-
atonement And 8. That he taught that men
could not be deserving of eternal death on ac
count of Adam's sin." The following is a
synodical statement of Mr. Morison's fundamen
tal error : — " By the party accused it was held,
that our Lord in dying bore no special relation
to the elect, but was alike the substitute of tbe
whole human race ; that his atonement was made
equally and in every sense for all men ; that it
secured no saving blessings to any, but solely re
moved all obstructions from the character and
law of God to the salvation of mankind — thus
rendering salvation possible to aU men, without
certainly securing it for any ; and removing all
obstructions to the salvation of all men, except
those which exist in their own hearts, which, as
will afterwards appear, it was held aU men are
able to remove of themselves." Mr. Morison
protested against the finding of the synod in the
following terms : — " Seeing the supreme court has
given sentence against me, even to my suspen
sion from the ministry, on most inadequate
grounds, I protest against the decision, and I
shall hold myself at Uberty to maintain and
preach the same doctrines, as if no such, decision
had been come to." Mr. James Morison's
father, the Rev. Robert Morison of Bathgate,
also dissented. He was tried by the synod in
1842, and cut off on this ground, tbat he like
wise denied that the death of Christ bore a special
reference to his people. This, indeed, was the
great point at issue in this controversy. In 1843
two other ministers, Rev. A. C. Rutherford of
Falkirk and Rev. John Guthrie of Kendal, were
suspended on the same ground. Mr. Rutherford
has been readmitted to the United Presbyterian
Church. This controversy agitated the country,
and the press sent forth numerous tracts and
letters on the points at issue. It spread speciaUy
amongst the students of the Independent
Church studying at their hall in Glasgow, and
in 1844 nine were expelled. In the same
year five Independent churches near Glasgow,
and in 1845 four others in the north of Scot
land declared their adherence to the views of
Mr. Morison, and they were joined by one or
two ministers from the ReUef and Free Churches
respectively. AU these ministers and churches
entered into friendly relations with one another,
ultimately uniting as a body under the designa
tion Evangelical Union. Their polity is that
of the Independents, as regards their complete
individual freedom, but the internal organiza

EVA
tion of each church differs, according as it gives
a preference to a government in which the whole
church as a body judges, or prefers to remit these
functions to a body of elders (see Elders)
elected by themselves. Their numbers now ex
ceed forty churches, and they have in Glasgow a
theological hall for the training of their students.
As may be supposed, from the want of any
judicial control of the union over its members,
there exists amongst them many varying shades
of theological sentiment. As nearly as can be
asserted, these are the characteristic differences
of their theology, by wbich it is distinguished
from that taught in the Westminster Confession ;
" The world-wide universality of the atonement,"
in the sense of the absence in it of any special
reference to Christ's people ; in short, that Christ
died alike for all men. The universality of the
Spirit's influence and the resistibility of the
Spirit's influence — that he is not ultimately in
vincible. They hold an " essential and inde
structible freedom of the will of man." Election
is regarded as depending on, and arising out of
man's own faith, and that this faith is in man's
own power. They deny "such an imputation of
Adam's sin as would render men liable to eternal
punishment on account of it, and such a view of
the corruption of our fallen natures as would
warrant the application of the epithet 'sinful'
to infant children," &c. (See " Morisonianism,"
by Rev. Fergus Ferguson, in Griffin's Cyclop, of
Relig. Denominations; Morison's Exposition of
Romans IX. ; Dr Heugh's Irenicum; and The
Statement of Prindples.)
Evangelisnius, the feast of commemoration
as the day of the Gospel. — See Annuncia
tion. Evangelist, one who proclaims the Gospel,
and an order of ministers in the early Church.
That they were the composers of our historical
gospels, is an untenable opinion, wbich Chrysos-
stom deemed possible, but which CEcumenius
stoutly asserts. On the other hand, Theodoret
is more correct in his description " *t%fl'nns
Ixngvrrtm" — going about they preached. The
word is used only thrice in the New Testament,
as the designation of Philip in Acts xxi. 8, and
as descriptive of one element of the vocation of
Timothy (2 Tim. iv. 5). In one sense apostles
and prophets were evangelists, for they all
preached the same holy evangel (1 Cor. i. 17.)
But this official title implies something special
in their function, inasmuch as they are distin
guished also from " teachers." These gospellers
may have been auxiliaries of the apostles, not
endowed as they were, but furnished with clear
perceptions of saving truth, and possessed of
wondrous power in recommending it to others.
Inasmuch as they itinerated, they might thus
differ from stationary teachers. While the pro
phets spoke only as occasion required, and their
language was an excited outpouring of brilliant
and piercing thoughts, the evangelists might be

EVA
more continuous, and tamer, too, in their work.

EXC

They passed from place to place with the won
drous story of salvation and the cross; for their
characteristic function was didactic in its nature.
Entering into the society of such as frequented
not the places of Christian worship, they pressed
Christ on their acceptance, and their hands were
freed all the' while from matters of detail in re
ference to organization, ritual, and discipline.
The prophet had a revelation as the immediate
basis of his oracle, and the evangelist had " the
word of knowledge" as the ultimate foundation
of his lesson. Were not the seventy sent forth
hy our Lord a species of evangelists, and might
not Mark, Luke, Silas, A polios, Tychichus, and
Trophimus, merit such a designation ?
Evangelista, the name of the deacon in the
Greek Church who reads the gospel.
Evangclistarium, a book in the Greek
Church, containing thirty-five canons for finding
the gospel for each Sunday.
Evangelists. — Under last census four congre
gations in England returned themselves as
worshipping under that name.
Evangeliuni, the book of the four gospels
used in the Greek service.
Evening Service. — According to the Apos
tolic Constitution, the order said to be appointed
by St. James was as follows : — " The hundred
and forty- first psalm is first read ; then this
psalm having been said, the deacon shall say : —
' Help us, and raise us up, 0 God, through thy
Christ. Having been raised up, let us entreat
tbe grace and mercy of the Lord, and pray for
the angel of peace, for all things which are good
and convenient for us, and that we may make a
Christian end. Let us pray that this evening
and night may pass in peace and without sin ;
and that the whole course of our life may be
blameless. Let us commend one another to the
living God through his Christ'
" Then the bishop shall pronounce thisprayer: —
1 0 God, who art without beginning and with
out end, the maker and governor of all things
through Christ, the God and Father of him
before all things, the Lord of the Spirit, and key
of all things visible and invisible, thou hast
made the day for works of light, and the night to
give rest to our weakness. The day is thine,
and the night is thine; thou hast prepared the
light and the sun. Do thou now, O most
merciful and loving Lord, graciously accept this
our evening thanksgiving. Thou hast led us
through tbe day, and hast brought us to the
beginning of the night ; O do thou preserve us
by thy Christ ! Grant that this evening may be
passed in peace, and that the night may be with
out sin; and make us worthy of eternal life,
through Christ; through whom be unto thee
glory, honour, and adoration, in the Holy Spirit,
for ever. Amen.'
"After this, the deacon having bidden the
people to bow down aud receive the benedic

tion with imposition of hands, the bishop pro
nounces over them the following prayer:—
'0 God of our fathers, and Lord of mercy,
who by thy wisdom hast created man a rational
being, of all thy creatures upon earth most dear
unto thee, who hast given him dominion overi
the earth, and of thy good pleasure hast made
us to be kings and priests ; the one to secure our
lives, and the other to secure thy lawful wor
ship: be pleased now, 0 Lord Almighty, to
bow down and show the light of thy countenance;
upon this people, who bow the neek of their
heart before thee ; and bless them by Christ, by
whom thou hast vouchsafed unto us the light of
knowledge, and hast revealed thyself unto us ;
with whom is due unto thee and the Holy
Ghost, the Comforter, all adoration from every
rational and holy nature for ever. Amen.' The
deacon then dismissed the congregation with
the usual form, ' depart in peace !'" An even
ing hymn is also spoken of, one form of
which is found in the Alexandrian Codex of
the Septuagint. — See Morning Service.
Evens. — See Vigils.
Evil. — See Original Sin.
Exaltation of the Cross. — See CROSS,
p. 195, sec. col.
Examination of Candidates for Holy
Orders. — See Ordination.
Exarch (?£*;%«, first or chief), at first a civil
title, but afterwards appropriated by the early
ecclesiastics. Gibbon says, "After the recovery
of Italy and Africa by the arms of Justinian, the
importance and danger of those remote provinces
required the presence of a supreme magistrate ; he
was indifferently styled the exarch, or the patri
cian." Tbe title was adopted in the early Church,
also by the principal bishops of every province.
Primates or metropolitans were styled i\a%X,a
<rris la-agx'ias -, and the patriarchs were called
'ia££w i-tis 'Sitixviffius. The duty of the exarch
in the Greek Church at the present day is to visit
the provinces placed under his inspection, to in
form himself of the lives and manners of the
clergy, and to make general inquiry into all
things pertaining to ecclesiastical discipline; but
especially to take account of the revenues ac
cruing from the several churches to the patriar
chate. The exarch not unfrequently rises to
the dignity of patriarch; for, having enriched
himself in his exarchate, he is generally able
to pay the price required by the Turkish em
peror before the instalment of the patriarch
elect— viz., 25,000 crowns.— See Patriarch,
Fkimate. Excommunication is the excluding of a per
son from communion with the church. In the
discipline of the primitive Church, according to
the apostolic injunction, recourse was not had
to excommunication until " after the first and
second admonition." If the offender proved
refractory after the time granted for repent
ance, which sometimes was Umited to ten davs;
264

EXC
he was visited with the greater or lesser ex
communication. The lesser (atpagnrpis) excluded
from participation in the Eucharist and prayers
of the faithful, but did not expel from the
church ; for the person under its sentence might
stay to hear the psalmody, reading of the
Scripture, sermons and prayers of the catechu
mens and penitents, and then depart as soon as
the first service, called the service of catechu
mens, was ended (Theod. Ep., 77 ; ad Eulal.
797). This punishment was commonly inflicted
upon lesser crimes, or if upon greater, upon
such sinners only as showed a wUlingness to
repent — upon those who had lapsed rather
through infirmity than maliciousness. The
greater excommunication (stxmXiis aipogitrfios,
avakpa) was a total expulsion from the church,
and separation from communion in all holy offices
with it The council of Paira, in 850, which
established this distinction, decreed that such
anathema should not be pronounced against any
one, without the concurrence of the metropolitans,
and the common decree of all the provincial
bishops. The several churches mutually in
formed each other of their own separate excom
munications, . in order that they might be
mutually confirmed ; so that he who was excom
municated by one church was so by all ; and any
church which received him was held deserving of
similar punishment. He who was guilty of any
intercourse with an excommunicated person,
himself incurred a like sentence ; which deprived
him of Christian burial, and insertion in the
diptychs or catalogues of the faithful. No gifts
or oblations were received from the excommuni
cated. No intermarriages might take place with
them. Their books might not be read, but were
to be burned. Tbe primitive Church was very
cautious in exercising its power of excommunica
tion. No man could be condemned to it in his
absence, or without being allowed liberty to
answer for himself. Legal conviction was always
required, i. e., by his own confession, by credible
evidence, or by open notoriety. Minors were
subjected to corporal discipline, rather than to
this censure (Bingham, Orig. Eccl.,^v\., 2, &c. ;
Cave, Primitive Christianity, iii., 5). But on the
erection of the papal dominion, the support which
excommunication offered to ecclesiastical supre
macy was too great to be neglected. By frequent
use the right became abused ; so that in the end,
under the pontificate of Gregory VII., the
Romish see assumed to itself the power of sentenc
ing sovereign princes to excommunication, and
through the virtue of such a decree, of deposing
them from their thrones, absolving their subjects
from their allegiance, and disposing of their king
doms at will. The Pontificate Romanum recog
nizes three degrees of excommunication, major,
minor, sind anathema. The minor is contracted
solely by communion with an excommunicated
person: oratione, locutione, bibendo, comedendo
— praying, speaking, drinking, eating; and 265

EXC
absolution may be given by any priest on con-.
fession. Tbe major requires a written sentence
from a bishop, after three admonitions. To
free himself from this, the penitent must first
swear to obey tbe commands of the church, and
to make all necessary atonement for his special
offence ; he must then be reconciled by kneeling,
bareheaded and stripped to his shirt, before the
bishop sitting at the church gates. Here he
again repeats his oath, and the bishop reciting
the psalm Deus misereaiur, strikes him with a
rod duringeach verse. Then aftercertain prayers
he absolves him, and leads him into the church.
In the anathema, the bishop must be attended by
twelve priests, each of whom, as well as himself,
bears a lighted candle. He then sits before the
high altar, or any other public place which he
prefers, and delivers his sentence, which adjudges
the offender to be anathemizatum et damnatum
cum diabolo et angelis ejus et omnibus reprobis
in ceternum ignem — cursed and damned with the
devil and his angels and all the reprobate to
eternal fire. The candles are then dashed
down. The ceremonials of absolution from this
sentence are not very different from the last,
although the form of prayer is varied. — See Apho
rismos; Bell, Book, and Candle; Discipline.
The Romish Church not unfrequently thun
dered its excommunications against noisome
beasts and reptiles, "facta tamen prius ipsis moni-
tione" — a monition having been previously made.
A specimen of such a decree is given by Du
Cange as a sententia officialis trecensis, so late as
the year 1516. Broughton states, without citing
his authority, that the Jews had similar excom
munications for beasts : he adds also, from the
Voyage to North America of the Baron de la
Hontan, tbat a bishop of Quebec once excom
municated all the turtles of his diocese on
account of some disorder committed by them ;
and that a Spanish bishop having excommuni
cated all the rats of his diocese, and appointed
a particular island for their retreat, they all
flocked thither immediately. The Greek Church
has not been more backward than that of
Rome in the usage of this formidable weapon
of excommunication. Sir Paul Rycaut, who
wrote his observations on tbe state of that
communion in 1678, has given, in the original
Greek, the form of an excommunication issued
against an unknown thief, whom the authorities
were seeking to discover. It runs as follows : —
" If they restore not to him that which is his
own, and possess him peaceably of it, but suffer
him to remain injured and damnifyed ; let him
be separated from the Lord God Creatour, and
be accursed, and unpardoned, and undissolvable
after death in this world, and in the other which
is to come. Let wood, stones, and iron be dis
solved, but not they : may they inherit tbe le-
prosie of Gehazi and the confusion of Judas ; may
the earth be divided, and devour them like
Dathan and Abiram; may they sigh and tremble

EXC
on earth like Cain, and the wrath of God be
upon their heads and countenances ; ¦ may they
see nothing of that for which they labour, and
beg their bread all the days of their lives ; may
their works, possessions, labours, and services be
accursed ; always without effect or success, and
blown away like dust ; may they have the curses
of the holy and righteous patriarchs Abram,
Isaac, and Jacob; of the 318 saints who were
the divine fathers of the synod of Nice, and of
all other holy synods; and being without the
Church of Christ, let no man administer unto
them the things of the church, or bless them, or
offer sacrifice for them, or give them the 'Arriiufn,
or the blessed bread, or eat, or drink, or work
with them, or converse with them; and after
death, let no man bury them, in penalty of being
under the same state of excommunication ; for so
let them remain until they have performed what
is here written." No doubt was entertained
by any class that these several maledictions
would certainly fall on the devoted head ; and
especially it was believed that the body of a
person who should die under excommunication
was incapable of dissolution until the sentence
was remitted ; for that it was possessed in the
grave by an evil spirit, which animated and pre
served it from corruption ; that it fed and per
formed all animal functions by night ; and that
many such corpses, after forty days' interment,
had been found ruddy in complexion, and yield
ing to the lancet blood as plentiful, fresh, and
quick, as that which issues from the veins of the
young and sanguine. Hence, doubtless, arose
the numerous eastern legends of Goules and
Vampires. By old English law an excommunicated
person was disabled from doing any act required
to be done by one that isprobus et legalis homo.
He could not serve on juries, nor be witness in
any court, nor bring an action real or personal
to recover lands or money due to him. By stat.
5 and 6 Edward VI., c. 4, striking, or drawing
a weapon to strike, in a church or churchyard, in
curred ipso facto excommunication ; ipso facto
excommunication, or latce sentential, meaning
some act so clear or manifest that no sentence
is requisite, in contradistinction from sententia
ferendae, i. e., when sentence must be passed be
fore the offender be considered excommunicated.
The offences which in the reign of Edward III.,
1373, were punished by ipso facto excommunica
tion, are enumerated in some articuli issued
when Wittlesey was Archbishop of Canterbury ;
most of them are such as might be injurious to
the persons or properties of the clergy. The do
cument may be found in Cone. Magn. Britt, iii.,
95. By 3 James I., c. 6, every popish recusant
convict stands to all intents and purposes disabled,
as a person lawfully excommunicated. The
ecclesiastical law denies Christian burial to those
excommunicated majori excommunicatione, and
an injunction to the ministers to that effect will 266

EXC
be found in the sixty-eigbth canon, and in the
rubric of the burial service. The law acknow
ledged two excommunications : the lesser excluded
the offender from the communion of tbe church
only; the greater from that communion, and
also from the company of the faithful, &c. The
sixty-fifth canon enjoins ministers solemnly to
denounce those who stand lawfully excommuni
cated every six months, as well in the parish
church as in the cathedral church of the diocese
in which tbey remain, " openly in time of divine
service, upon some Sunday," " that others may
be thereby both admonished to refrain their
company and society, and excited the rather to.
procure out a writ de excommunicato capiendo,
thereby to bring and reduce them into due order and
obedience." Tbe thirty-second article also states,
that " That person which, by open denunciation
of the church, is rightly cut off from the unity of
the church, and excommunicated, ought to be
taken of the whole multitude of the faithful as an
heathen and publican, until he be openly recon
ciled by penance, and received into thechurch by a
judge that hath authority thereto." By statute 52
George III., c. 127, excommunications, and the
proceedings following thereupon, are discontinued,
except in certain cases specified in the act ; which
may receive definitive sentences as spiritual cen
sures for offences of ecclesiastical cognizance;
and instead of sentence of excommunication,
which used to be pronounced by the ecclesiastical
courts, in cases of contumacy, the offenders are to
be declared contumacious, and to be referred to
the court of chancery, by which a writ de contu-
mace capiendo is issued instead of the old writ de
excommunicato capiendo. Formerly this writ de
excommunicato capiendo was issued by the court
of chancery, upon it being signified by the
bishop's certificate that forty days have elapsed
since sentence of excommunication has been
published in the church, without submission of
the offender. The sheriff then received the writ,
called also a significavit, and lodged the culprit
in the county jail till the bishop certified his re
conciliation. A similar method of proceeding to
that now adopted was recommended by a report
of a committee of both houses of parliament, as
far back as March 7, 1710, and again on AprU 30,
1714. No person excommunicated for such of
fences as are still liable to the punishment, can
now be imprisoned for a longer term than six
months, (Burns, Eccl. Law, by Tyrwhit, ad v.)
In Scotland, when the lesser excommunication, or
exclusion from the sacraments, has failed, the
minister pronounces a form by which the impeni
tent offender is declared "excommunicated, shut
out from the communion of the faithful, debarred
from their privileges, and delivered unto Satan
for the destruction of his flesh, that his spirit may
be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." The
people are then warned to avoid aU unnecessary
intercourse with him. Anciently, in Scotland, an
excommunicated person was incapable of holding

EXE
feudal rights, but at present the sentence is un
accompanied by any civil penalty or disqualifica
tion. — See Discipline.
Exedra or Exhedra (sgeSja), in ancient
architecture, a part of an open portico fitted up
with seats. In the early Christian churches
there was commonly at the upper end of the
chancel a semicircular building, called, from its
figure and position, apsis, conchula, bema, or
exedra; and it is this to which we think St.
Augustine alludes, when he speaks of the steps
of the exedra in gradibus exedrae. Bingham
would refer this passage to the ambo or reading
desk, wbich he says, upon the strength of it, was
sometimes called exedra. But it is not improb
able that the exedra was frequently approached
by steps, and therefore was in itself a locus
superior — a place reached by steps. Besides this,
such buUdings as were distinct from the main
body, and yet within the bounds of the church,
were called by the general name of exedrae.
These buildings appear chiefly to have belonged
to the baptistery. In his life of Constantine
(in., 50) Eusebius describes the church of An
tioch, built by that emperor, as surrounded with
exedrae. (Bingham, viii., 7, 1.) — See Apsis,
Bema, Church.
Exocatacoeli, officers in the early Church
of Constantinople, not unlike the college of cardi
nals at Rome. The name is said to be derived
from the manner of their sitting on either side of
the patriarch's throne.
Exocontians. — See Arians.
Exorcist, an expeUer of demons. Our Lord
cast out devils " bv the finger of God " (Matt.
vni. 28-34 ; ix. 32-34 ; xv. 22, 28 ; xvU. 14-18) ;
and to his disciples he communicated the Uke
power (Luke ix. 1; x. 19, 20). Indeed, there
is nothing more certain than that in the apos
tolic age, and the age next following, the
practice of exorcism greatly prevailed among
both Jews and Christians ; nor was it confined
in its exercise to the teachers of religion, nor to
any special order either in the synagogue or the
church. . Josephus narrates the successes of
several Jewish exorcists ; one of whom, named
Eleazar, cured persons demoniacally possessed, by
means of a root set in a ring, applied to their
nostrils ; as soon as the devils smelted the exor
cist's charms they immediately departed. These
practitioners were no doubt a class of conjuring
impostors. Though the miraculous gift of casting
out devils was not conferred exclusively, nor
generaUy, upon the first pastors of the Christian
Church, yet in process of time, as its decidedly
miraculous character began to wane, it gradually
fell into their hands ; until at length those who
practised it were constituted into a special and
distinct order. A few extracts from the early
fathers relating to this subject may not be un
interesting : Origen informs us that laymen by
their prayers and adjurations (see Mark ix. 25)
dispossessed devus ; of Gregory Thaumaturgus it

EXO
is recorded, that whilst he was a layman he cast
out many devils, by sending letters to" the possessed
party only; Tertullian challenged the heathen,
that, if they bring those possessed with devils
into open court before a magistrate, any ordinary
Christian would make him confess he was a devil
and not a god ; Cyprian and Firmilian speak of
persons endowed with a divine power to discern
and then to expel demons. Tertullian in his
Corona Militis intimates that every man was, or
might be, his own exorcist ; for among other
arguments which he urges to dissuade Christians
from adopting the military profession, he says,
that as they would be placed to guard the idol
temples, they must then defend those devils by
night whom they had put to flight by day by their
exorcisms or prayers.
Cornelius, who lived in the third century,
enumerates exorcists among the inferior officers
of the Church of Eome ; and we learn from
one of the canons of the councU of Antioch,
held in the year 341, that the order of exor
cists was settled in the Greek as well as in
the Latin Church at that time ; for the said
canon gives permission to the chorepiscopi to
promote sub-deacons, readers, and exorcists.
Cardinal Bona's opinion is doubtless correct, that
the order was gradually introduced upon the
withdrawal of the miraculous power, which did
not cease in all places at the same time ; but at
the close of the third century it was certainly
established, inasmuch as in the writings of this
period the exorcists are regularly classed among
the established orders. It does not appear that
imposition of hands formed part of tbe cere
mony of ordaining exorcists, either in the
Greek or Latin Churches; nevertheless, no one
was permitted to practise exorcism, publicly or
privately, without having first obtained tbe
bishop's license or appointment. The candi
date, kneeling before the bishop, received from
his hands a book containing the various forms
of exorcism, the bishop saying to him at the
same time, " Receive thou these, and commit
them to memory, and have thou power to lay
hands upon the energumens, whether they be
baptized or only catechumens." The forms of
exorcism were certain prayers and adjurations in
the name of Christ, commanding tbe demon to
quit the person possessed. Paulinus says the
exorcist's office was " to adjure evil spirits, and
to drive them out by certain holy words."
Exorcism was accompanied with the laying on of
hands. Thus reads a canon of the councU of
Carthage: " Heretics and schismatics are first to
be exorcised with imposition of hands, and then
to be baptized, before they can be admitted as
true members of the Catholic Church." In
sufflation and marking with the sign of the cross
were next added. Cyril of Jerusalem exhorted his
catechumens to "receive exorcism with diligence,
in the time of catechising ; for whether it was
insufflation or exorcism it was to be esteemed

267

EXO
salutary to the soul." Gennadius of MarseUles
states, that not only in the French Church, but in
all other churches, " exorcisms and exsufflations
were uniformly used, both to infants and adult
persons, before they were admitted to the sacra
ment of regeneration, and the fountain of life."
Nevertheless, the virtue of exorcism was not
supposed to reside in any of the attendant cere
monies, but chiefly, if not exclusively — at least
in the first ages — in the prayers and adjurations.
Cyril speaks of fire in connection with the exor
cisms of his time; but it is evident that his
language is to be understood metaphysically. He
says, " As mixed metals cannot be purged with
out fire, so neither can the soul be purged with
out exorcisms, which are divine, and gathered
out of the Scriptures." The prayers were
selected from the Scriptures, and they be
sought God to break the dominion and power
of Satan in the new converts, and to deliver
them from his slavery, by expelling the spirit
of error and wickedness from them. The
main business, therefore, of an exorcist was the
energetic use of certain prayers suited to the
condition and circumstances of the subject.
Exorcism is still practised in the Greek and
Roman Churches; and was formerly recognized
in the Anglican Church. In the first liturgy of
Edward VI., a form of exorcism at baptism is
given. The priest, looking upon the children, was
to say, " I command thee, unclean spirit, in the
name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost,
that thou come out and depart from these infants,
whom our Lord Jesus Christ has vouchsafed to
call to his holy baptism, to be made members of
his body and of bis holy congregation. There
fore, thou accursed spirit, remember thy sentence,
remember thy judgment, remember the day to be
at hand wherein thou shalt burn in fire everlasting,
prepared for thee and thy angels ; and presume
not henceforth to exercise any tyranny towards
these infants whom Christ hath bought with his
precious blood, and, by his holy baptism, calleth to
be of his flock." — See Baptism. Bucer's remon
strance against the indiscriminate use of the form
of exorcism, on the ground that it would be un
charitable to suppose that all were demoniacs
who came to be baptized, was listened to by the
Reformers; for in their review of the Prayer Book,
in the 5th and 6th of Edward VI., they decided
on omitting it altogether. Tbe seventy-second
canon of the Church of England forbids any
minister attempting to expel a devil or devils,
under pain of the imputation of imposture, and
cosenage, and deposition from the ministry,
except he first obtains the license of the bishop
of his diocese, had under his hand and seal. In
the Greek Church exorcism is employed previous
to baptism : the priest having received the child
at the church door, marks him with the sign of
the cross on the forehead, then carries him to
the font, where, before his immersion (trine im
mersion is practised in the Greek Church) he

268

EXS
blows upon him — thus dispossessing him of the
devil, and delivering him from his power and
malice. The priest also blows upon the water,
to expel from it the angels of the evil one.
These practices are, however, understood symboli
cally, not as assertions of their actual possession.
Exorcism is also practised in the Church of
Rome. In baptism, after some preliminary
prayers and ceremonies at the church door, the
priest breathes three times upon the child's face,
saying, " Come out of this child, thou evil spirit,
and make room for the Holy Ghost," the priest
carefully observing all the time not to let the child
breathe upon him ; other ceremonies then follow,
after which the priest puts on his cap, and again
exorcises the child, commanding the prince of
darkness to come forth out of him. Prayers and
ceremonies succeed this second exorcism, and at
their conclusion the priest takes hold of the
swaddling clothes of the child and brings it into
the church,— the godfather and godmother follow,
repeating the Lord's Frayer and the Creed.
Arrived at the font, the devil is again exorcised,
and then the child is anointed and baptized.
When a house is infested with evil spirits, the
priest is sent for, who, on his arrival, sprinkles
the place plentifully with holy water, repeats
some prayers, and then pronounces the form of
exorcism, whereupon, it is supposed, the devils
depart. Should they again return, the ceremony of
exorcism is repeated, and again, if necessary, until
at length the church proves itself victorious over
the powers of hell. When an adult possessed with
a demon is brought to the priest he is made to
kneel down, and a copious shower of holy water
is let fall upon him ; he is next marked with
the sign of the cross, and litanies, psalms, and
prayers follow ; after which the priest demands
of the devil to confess his name ; but without
waiting for an answer he adjures the evil spirit,
by the mysteries of Christianity, not to afflict the
patient evermore. The priest then lays his hand
upon the head of the person possessed, and pro
nounces over him this form of exorcism, — " I
exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of
Jesus Christ ; tremble, 0 Satan ! thou enemy of
the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast brought
death into the world, who hast deprived men of
life, and hast rebelled against justice ; thou se
ducer of mankind, thou root of all evil, thou
source of avarice, discord, and envy." The devil
is then supposed to depart — See more on this
subject in the volume on the " Occult Sciences,"
re- issue of Encyclopaedia Metropolitana.
Exotmoumenoi (placed without), the first or
lowest class of catechumens, who were instructed
outside the church — hence their name.
Expectation Week, the week between
Ascension Day and Whitsunday, the period
during which the apostles expected the fulfil
ment of the Master's promise as to the outpour
ing of the Comforter.
Exsufflation, a rite in ancient baptism, in

EXT
which the candidate for the ordinance spat de
fiance thrice on Satan. — See Exorcism.
Extravagants. — See Decretals. Those
decretal epistles of the popes after the Clemen
tines were so named because they were not
ranged with tbe other papal constitutions,
but appeared to be detached from them. The

FAN
first Extravagants were those of John XXII.
The collection of decretals in 1483, though in
corporated with the canon law, was still called
the "common Extravagants."— See Canon
Law. Extreme Unction. — See Unction, Ex
treme.

Faculty, in legal acceptation, is a special
privUege or dispensation granted by favour and
indulgence, to enable a person to do that which
he is not permitted to do without it. There is a
court of the faculties, the chief officer of which
is master of the faculties, under the Archbishop
of Canterbury. It has power, by 25 Henry
VlIL, 21, to grant dispensations ; and in it are
registered the certificates of peers to their chap
lains, to qualify them for pluralities and non-
residence. Eago, a white linen cloth in which communi
cants used to bring to the church their oblations
of bread and wine for the Lord's Supper.
Faith, Articles of. — See Articles.
Faith, Confessions of. — See Creed.
Faithful (full of faith), the early and com
mon name of Christians, after their distinctive
principle, which separated them from Jew and
heathen. — See Church, Members op ; Cate
chumens, Penitents.
Faith Implicit, faith reposed when the
grounds of it are not given ; opposed to faith
explicit, or when the grounds of it are distinctly
set forth and understood.
Faith, Rule of. — The only rule of faith is
the Word of God ; but the Popish Church adds
tradition, oral and written, as of equal authoritj'.
Confessions of faith are properly termed subordi
nate rules or standards, explanatory only of the
sense in which the Word of God is understood.
— See Development, Tradition.
Faldistory, a portable scat for a bishop when
he officiated in any but his own cathedral church.
It was made like a camp-stool, and was placed
within the choir.
Fald-stool (from falda, a low Latin term), a
name often, but erroneously, given to a small
desk at which the litany is to be said or sung,
placed in the middle of the choir or near the
steps of the altar.
Fama Clamosa (general bad report), in the
judicial procedure of Presbyterian Churches, is a
ground of action before h presbytery or synod
against a member of the church, independently
of any formal charge by a regular accuser. Any
one who is of good character may prefer to the
court a complaint against another; but the court
is not bound to proceed to the citation of the
accused until the accuser shall lodge the com
plaint, with some evidence of its probability, and

undertake to make out the libel, under the pain
of being considered as a slanderer. But when
such an accusation is brought, the members are
necessitated to examine into it. Besides, the
court considers itself obliged to proceed against
any of its members, if the fama clamosa is such
that he cannot be vindicated unless they begin a
process. This they can do without any special
accuser, after they have made inquiry respecting
the origin, occasion, and authors of this report
In the case of a minister, after the report raised
against him is considered, they then order bim
to be cited, and draw out a full copy of what has
been adduced, with a list of the names of the wit
nesses to be produced for proving the allegation.
He is then formally summoned to appear before
them ; and he has notice served upon him at
least ten day3 before the time of his appearance,
to give iu his answers to what is technically called
the libel. If at the time appointed the accused
appear, the libel is read to him, and his answers
are also read. If the libel be found relevant,
then the court endeavours to bring him to a con
fession. If a minister absent himself by leaving
the place, and prove contumacious, without
making any relevant excuse, a new citation may
be given him, and intimation is made at his own
church, when the congregation is met, that he is
to be holden as confessing, since he refuses to
appear, and accordingly he is deposed from office.
— See Discipline, Libel.
Familiars of the Inquisition, titular
officers of this celebrated tribunal. Their office
consists in apprehending accused or suspected
persons, and conveying them to prison, under
the instructions of the inquisitor. Being assis
tants to the inquisitor, and forming a part of his
family, they are hence called familiars. When
several persons are to be apprehended at the
same time, these officers so arrange their move
ments that their victims are taken up and placed
in prison individually, without their being aware
of one another's incarceration. — See Inquisi
tion. Familists. — See Love, Family op.
Fanaticism (from fanum, a temple). — Fana
tic was a name given to divines in the ancient
Church, but is now applied to unreasoning
and wild visionaries. Many lamentable in
stances are on record, and we give one, not
usually known, from the history of Scotland.

269

FAN
We extract it from Chambers's Domestic Annals
of Scotland, vol. ii., pp. 414-415:— "Feb. 21,
1681. A company of distracted people was
this day brought into Edinburgh, under the
guardianship of a troop of dragoons. They
were commonly known as the Sweet Singers of
Borrowstounness, from their noted habit of fre
quent chanting of psalms. The religious exas
perations of the times, the execution of a Bo'ness
man named Stewart, with two others, on the
preceding 1st of December, and perhaps, in addi
tion to these causes, the terrors diffused by the
comet, had now produced in that little town an
epidemic mania of a type only too weU known.
They ran up and down the town in a furious
manner, sometimes uttering prayers, which con
sisted chiefly of curses invoked against indivi
duals, more frequently singing psalms of lamen
tation (74th, 79th, 80th, 83d, and 137th) for
the sins of the land. Such of the females as were
married deserted their homes and husbands, and
if the husband, in his endeavours to win his wife
back to rationality, took hold of any part of her
dress, she indignantly washed the place, as to
remove an impurity. They followed a gigantic
fellow, commonly called Muckle John Gibb, but
who passed among them under the name of King
Solomon, and at length, 'leaving their homes
and soft warm beds and covered tables,' six-and-
twenty of them went forth from their native
town, notwithstanding the entreaties of weeping
husbands, fathers, and children, calling on them
to stay ; ' some women taking the sucking chil
dren in their arms to desert places, to be free of
all snares and sins, and communion with all
others, and mourn for their own sins, the land's
tyranny and defections, and there to be safe from
the land's utter ruin and desolation by judg
ments; some of them going to the Pentland
Hills, with a resolution to sit there to see the
smoke and utter ruin of the sinful, bloody city of
Edinburgh. . . . Immediately after they came
to these desert places, tbey kept a day of fasting
and confessing of their sins one to another ; yea,
some of them confessed sins which the world had
not heard of, and so not called to confess them
to men.' — Pat. Walker. Even the Whig clergy
men who had gone to the wilderness rather than
own an uncovenanted king, were surprised at
the more extreme feelings of the Sweet Singers.
Walker teUs how he was with the Rev. Mr.
Cargill at Darmead Muirs, when the Gibbites
were ' lying in the Deer Slunk, in the midst of a
great flow-moss betwixt Clydesdale and Lothian
about » mile distant' Gibb and another man
came armed, and held a conference with Mr.
Cargill in a barn, but it led to no good. After
resting awhile, the chief of the Sweet Singers
rose in haste, and went to the muir all night.
' I well remember,' says Walker, ' it was a cold
easterly wet fog.' Cargill was shocked by the
state of mind he had found them in. They were
afterwards all taken by a troop of dragoons at the 2

FAS
Woolhill Craigs, betwixt Lothian and Tweeddale,
a very desert place, and carried to Edinburgh,
where the men were put into the Canongate
tolbooth, and the women into the correction-
house, where they were soundly scourged. After
a little time, these poor people cooled down
somewhat, and were one by one set at liberty.
Walker says the most of them ultimately re
turned to their right mind, and he had had some
edifying conversations with them since."
Fans. — See Flabellum.
Farnovians, a Polish Socinian sect of the
sixteenth century, originated by Stanislaus
Farnowski, who held a species of Arianism, main
tained the supremacy of the Father, and warned
against worship being paid to the Spirit. Far-
novius died in 1615, and the sect soon became
extinct. Farse. — Before the Reformation, an addition,
in the vernacular, to some part of the Latin ser
vice received this name.
Eastern's Eve. — See Shrove Tuesday.
Fasting, Fasts. — Occasional abstinence from
food has been observed as a religious duty among
various nations from very early times. The
only fast appointed by the law of Moses was
that on the great day of atonement in the seventh
month (Lev. xvi. 29 ; xxiii. 27). But as an
act of humUiation in times of danger or of
affliction, we have many instances of fasting
being practised both by tbe nation of the Jews
and by individuals, with evident tokens of the
Divine approbation. Zechariah (vUi. 19) men
tions four fasts in the year, as if they had been
generally observed during the captivity. At a
later period the Jewish fasts were very numerous,
and Lewis, in his Antiquities of the Hebrew Re
public (iv., 15), has given from the Rabbi
Maimonides many particulars concerning them.
The two days in the week on which the Phari
see (Luke xvui. 12) boasted that he fasted were
the second and the fifth (Maimonides, Taanith.,
i.) — Monday, in memory of the ascent of Moses
to Sinai ; Thursday, of his descent. Our Sav
iour neglected the observance of those stated
fasts which had been superadded to the Mosaic
law, and represented such observances as incon
sistent with the genius of his religion (Matt. ix.
14-18, and paraUel passages). The practice of
voluntary and occasional fasting he neither pro
hibited nor expressly enjoined ; but he warned his
disciples against ostentatious and hypocritical ob
servances of this kind. The teaching of the apos
tles was to the same effect ; and in their practice
they joined fasting with prayer on certain solemn
occasions (Acts xiii. 2, 3 ; xiv. 23). It does not
appear that much value was attached to fasting
in the age immediately following that of the
apostles. In the Shepherd of Hermas it is
spoken of disparagingly : " Nothing is done,
nothing is gained for virtue by bodily absti
nence: rather so fast, that ye do no wrong,
and harbour no evU passion in your heart."
70

FAS
We learn from Justin Martyr, that fasting was
joined with prayer at Ephesus, in the adminis
tration of baptism. In the second century,
before the time of Victor and Irenseus, it had
become usual to fast before Easter; and Cle
ment of Alexandria, about the same time, speaks
of weekly fasts. Tertullian, when a Montanist,
in his treatise De Jejuniis, about 200, complains
of the little attention paid to the practice of fast
ing by the Catholic Church. Origen, in the
third century, in his voluminous writings, adverts
to the subject only once, viz., in his tenth homily
on Leviticus. And then he speaks in accordance
with the apostolical doctrine. It appears, how
ever, from his observations that, at Alexandria,
Wednesdays and Fridays were then observed as
fast-days, on the ground that our Lord was
betrayed on a Wednesday, and crucified on a
Friday. The custom of the Church at the end of
the fourth century may be collected from the
following passage of Epiphanius : — " In the
whole Christian Church the following fast-days
throughout the year are regularly observed.
On Wednesdays and Fridays we fast untU the
ninth hour (i. e., until three p.m.), except during
the interval of fifty days between Easter and
Whitsuntide, in which it is usual neither to kneel
nor to fast at all. Besides this, there is no
fasting on the Epiphany or Nativity, if these
days should faU on a Wednesday or Friday.
But those persons who especially devote them
selves to religious exercises fast also at other
times when they please, except on Sundays and
during the fifty days between Easter and Whit
suntide. It is also the practice of the Church to
observe the forty days' fast before the sacred
week. But on Sundays there is no fasting
even during the last mentioned period." At
this period, however, there was no universal
agreement in the practice of the Church in
this matter ; neither had fasts been established
by law. The custom had been introduced
silently into the Church, and its observance was
voluntary. But by the second canon of the
councU of Orleans in 541, it was decreed that
any one who should neglect to observe the stated
times of abstinence should be treated as an offender
against the laws of the Church. The eighth
councU of Toledo, in 553, condemns any one
who should eat flesh during the fast before
Easter, and says that such offenders deserve to
be forbidden the use of it throughout the year.
In the eighth century fasting began to be re
garded as a meritorious work, and the breach of
the observance of it at the stated seasons sub
jected the offender to excommunication.
The foUowing are the fasts which most
generally prevailed in the Church: — 1. That of
Quadragesima, or £«««.— See Lent. 2. The Fasts
of the four seasons, Jejunia quatuor Temporum,
or of the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth months.
Of these, the spring fast was kept in Lent ; the
Bummer fast, for the most part, in the week after

FAS
Whitsuntide ; the autumnal fast in September ;
the winter fast, from the festival of St. Martin
(November 11) till Christmas Day, on Mondays,
Wednesdays, and Fridays in each week. These
fasts, though not at first so intended, afterwards
coincided with the Ember Weeks or ordination
fasts. 3. In the fifth century three days were
set apart in France, immediately before Ascen
sion Day, under the name of Rogation fasts.
But as the whole of Pentecost had formerly
been observed as a festival, these days were never
generally received, and the council of Toledo in
684 finally declared that such Rogation fasts
should be kept once every month. 4. There
was also a fast of three days before the Epiphany,
appointed for the purpose of restraining the ex
cesses into which the people were used to run in
celebrating the return of the year. 5. In some
places monthly fasts were observed, excepting in
July and August, because of the sickliness of that
season, and because, also, in the latter month
almost every day was dedicated as a festival to
some martyr. 6. Weekly fasts on Wednesdays
and Fridays, called also stationary days (Sta-
tiones), half fasts (Semijejunia), fasts of the
fourth and sixth days, were early decreed. These
days were chosen because Wednesday was the
day on which the Jews took counsel to put
our Lord to death ; Friday, that on which he
actually suffered. They were not observed
during the fifty days between Easter and Pente
cost, neither were they attended with as severe
abstinence as the Quadragesimal fast. It was
sufficient if food was not tasted before three in
the afternoon. Hence, the three degrees of fast
ing have been distinguished by Tertullian, as
they might be kept, per nullas, vel aridas, vel
seras escas, that is, real fast, or eating very dry
victuals, or eating very late in the day. Fast
ing on the Lord's Day was considered highly
criminal, because many early heretics, as the
Manichees, Cerdonians, Marcionites, and Priscil-
lianists, had impiously adopted this practice in
derogation of our Lord's human nature. The
Apostolical Canons sentenced tbe clergy to
deposition for this offence, and more than one
council anathematized it. — See Emeer Days,
Rogation Days.
The Church of Rome distinguishes between
days of fasting and of abstinence. On the former
but one meal, and that not of flesh, is tasted dur
ing twenty-four hours; on the latter, flesh only is
abstained from. — See Abstinence. The follow
ing is the present distribution given in Bishop
Chal loner's Garden ofthe Soul: —
Fasting Days. — 1. The forty days of Lent
2. The Ember Days, being the Wednesday, Fri
day, and Saturday of the first week in Lent ; of
WhitsunWeek; ofthe third week in September;
and of the third week in Advent. 3. The
Wednesdays and Fridays of the four weeks in
Advent 4. The vigUs or eves of Whitsuntide ;
of the feasts of St. Peter and St. Paul; of

271

FAS
tbe assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary;
of All Saints; and of Christmas Day. When
any fasting day falls upon a Sundaj-, it is
to be observed on the Saturday before. Absti
nence Days. — 1. The Sundays in Lent. 2.
The three Rogation Days, being the Monday,
Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension Day.
3. St. Mark, April 25, unless it falls in Easter
week. 4. The Fridays and Saturdays out of
Lent, and the Ember Weeks, or such as happen
to be vigils ; but should Christmas Day fall upon
a Friday or Saturday, it is not of abstinence.
In the Practical Catechism upon the Sundays,
Feasts, and Fasts, the reason assigned for ob
serving St. Mark's Day as a day of abstinence, is
that bis disciples, the first Christians of Alexan
dria, under his own conduct were eminent for their
mortification ; moreover, that St. Gregory the
Great, the apostle of England, first set it apart
in memory of the cessation of a mortality in his
time at Rome.
The Greek Church observes four principal
fasts. That of Lent, commencing according to
the old style ; one, beginning in tbe week
after Whitsuntide, and ending on the 29th of
June, so that it varies in length, and is called
the fast of the holy apostles; one, for a fort
night before the Assumption of the Virgin
(August 15), which is observed even to the pro
hibition of oil, except on the day of the Trans
figuration (August 6), on which day both oil
and fish may be eaten; and one, forty days before
Christmas. The fixed days appointed by the Church of
England for fasting and abstinence, between
which no difference is asserted, are the fol
lowing: — 1. The forty days of Lent. 2. The
Ember Days at the four seasons ; being the
Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after the first
Sunday in Lent, the feast of Pentecost, 14th
September, and 1 3th December. 3. The three
Rogation Days, being the Monday, Tuesday, and
Wednesday before Holy Thursday, or the As
cension of our Lord. 4. All the Fridays in the
year, except Christmas Day. These days are
mentioned in 2 and 3 Edward VI., c. 19, and
in 5 Elizabeth, c. 5 ; and by 12 Charles IL, u.
14, the 30th of January is ordained to be a day
of fasting and repentance for the " martyrdom "
of Charles I. But an act passed last year
(1859), or 22 Victoria, repeals all enactments
requiring special church service to be observed
on the 30th of January, 29th of May, 5th No
vember, and 23d October. Other days of fasting
are occasionally appointed by royal proclamation.
But no ecclesiastical directions are given by the
Church of England respecting fasting, and even
tbe ordinance prohibiting meat on fast days in 2
and 3 Edward VI., c. 1 9, is framed politically for
the increase of cattle and the encouragement of
fisheries and navigation, not on religious grounds.
The act itself, however, is recommended in one
of the homilies (Of Good Works, and first of

FAT
Fasting), where it is declared to be " a withhold
ing of meat, drink, and all natural food from the
body for the determined time of fasting ;" aud its
ends are rationally and piously noted: "The
first is, to chastise the flesh, that it be not too
wanton, but tamed and brought in subjection by
the spirit ; the second, that the spirit may be
more fervent and earnest in prayer ; the third,
that our fast be a testimony and witness with us
before God of our humble submission to his high
majesty, when we confess and acknowledge our
sins unto him, and are inwardly touched with
sorrowfulness of heart, bewailing the same in the
affliction of our bodies."
Fathers, the name given to the early writers
in the Church — often divided into Greek and
Latin fathers — those who flourished before the
council of Nice, in 325, being called Ante-Nicene
fathers. Opinions as to their value have been
very extravagant on both sides. As to the customs
and histories of their own time they are competent
witnesses ; and as the language of the New Tes
tament was the mother-tongue of many of them,
they are to be judiciously consulted in interpre
tation. In matters of theology they are not to
be unreservedly followed. (See on this subject
Jortin, Daille, Fober, Isaac Taylor.) The chief
fathers of the first six centuries were as fol
lows : —
Clement of Rome succeeded Anacletus (or
Cletus) as Bishop of Rome, about a.d.
91 or 93 ; wrote some epistles, still ex
tant — one especially to the Church of a.d.
Corinth; died about  100
Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, has left also
some epistles; but several under his
name are spurious; suffered martyr
dom at Rome, some say as late as
a.d. 116, but more probably  107
Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome
a.d. 158; wrote an epistle to the Philip
pians; suffered martyrdom about 160 or 167
Justin Martyr ; born probably about A.D.
100 ; left Palestine 132 : presented his
first Apology to Antoninus about (1 40
or) 148 ; wrote his second Apology in
the reign of Marcus Aurelius, prob
ably about 162-4; has left a variety
of other works, and a Dialogue with
Trypho the Jew; suffered martyrdom
at Rome about  165
Hermias wrote his work, Derision of tlie
Heathen Philosophers, probably about 170
Dionysius of Corinth wrote some epistles ;
all lost, except a very few fragments ; fl. 170
Hegesippus, originally a Jew, wrote His
tory of the Church, of which only a
few fragments survive, about  ..... 175
Tatian wrote an Oration against tlie
Greeks, which has been preserved ; died
probably about  176
Athenagoras wrote an Apology for the
Christians, and also on the resurrec-

272

FAT
tion, both of which have been trans
lated into English, 
TheophUus, Bishop of Antioch, wrote his
work on religion to Autolycus, about
180; died, 
Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, a.d. 177, wrote
his work Against Heresies in the reign
of Commodus, i. e., after the year 180 ;
died about 
Clement of Alexandria succeeded Pantas-
nus in the catechetical school of that
city, a.d. 188 or 189 ; quitted Alex
andria, 202 ; has left an address to tbe
Greeks, Paidagogus, or a treatise on
Christianity; Stromata, or a miscel
lany, in eight books; died about 
TertuUian became a Montanist about the
year 200 ; his Apology was composed
(198 or) 205 ; his work against Mar-
cion, 207; has left a great variety of
tracts on the vices and customs of his
age — as on the theatre, the dress of
females, idolatry, second marriages,
the soldier's crown, and on flight in
persecution, &c ; died about 
Minucius Felix wrote his Octavius, or de
fence of Christianity, about 
Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus Romanus,
wrote, besides many other pieces, Phi-
losophoumena, or confutation of all
heresies, a work long ascribed to
Origen, but which Bunsen has shown
belongs to Hippolytus; died about 
Origen, born a.d. 185 ; head of the cate
chetical school at Alexandria, 204;
went to Rome, and returned to Alex
andria, 213; went to Caesarea in Pales
tine, 215 ; ordained at Csesarea, and
afterwards settled there, about 230 ;
retired to Cappadocia, 235; returned
to Csesarea, 239 ; was a most labori
ous scholar and critic ; compiled a
Hexapla, or polyglot Bible ; wrote com
mentaries on Scripture, some of which
survive ; a treatise on prayer ; and a
defence against Celsus; thrown into
prison, 250; died, 
Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, a.d. 248 ;
fled from Carthage, 250 ; returned,251 ;
banished, 257; author of some beauti
ful epistles, addresses, and tracts ; suf
fered martyrdom, 
Dionysius, surnamed the Great Bishop
of Alexandria, a scholar of Origen, a.d.
247 or 248; died 
Gregory (Thaumaturgus), Bishop of Neo-
cajsarea, flourished a.d. 245; com
posed a creed, an oration in praise of
Origen, and a paraphrase on Ecclesias
tes; died about 
Arnobius wrote his treatise of seven books
Against the Gentiles about A.D. 305 ;
died probably about 

A.D. 176

181

202

218

220

208

230

254

258

2G5

270

325

FAT
Lactantius, finished his Institutes about
a.d. 320 ; wrote also on The Death of
Persecutors, and on The Wrath of God;
composed a symposium or banquet, a d.
and an itinerary, both in verse; died, 325
Eusebius (Pamphili), born about a.d.
270 ; Bishop of Csesarea in Palestine,
315 ; was a learned and laborious
writer; wrote, besides many other
things, the Evangelical Preparation, in
fifteen books ; Evangelical Demonstra
tion, in twenty books — the half of
which is lost — but both works refer
to tbe evidences ; an Ecclesiastical His
tory, in ten books; died  340
Julius Firmicus Maternus, who wrote on
the error of profane religions ; flourished
about  340
Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers, born A.D. 305 ;
banished to Phrygia, 356 ; wrote on
the Trinity, on Councils, against the
Arians, with a Commentary on tbe
Psalms and Matthew; died,  368
Athanasius, born at Alexandria about
a.d. 296 ; present, as deacon, at the
council of Nicaea, 325 ; Bishop of Alex
andria, 326 ; fled to Rome, 341 ; re
turned to Alexandria, 346 ; fled to the
deserts of Egypt, 356; wrote a discourse
against the Gentiles, on the Incarna
tion ; against the Arians, on the Incar
nation ; against Apollinaris, &c. ; died, 373
Basil, surnamed the Great, born a.d. 329 ;
Bishop of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, 370 ;
wrote homines, expositions, panegyrics,
Hexcemeron, and letters; died,  379
Ephraim the Sj'rian, Deacon of Edessa;
published a variety of commentaries,
polemical treatise, and smaller works ;
died about  379
Cyril of Jerusalem, born a.d. 315 ; Bishop
of Jerusalem, 350; wrote catechetical
discourses; died,  386
Gregory of Nazianzen, born a.d. 328 ;
ordained deacon, 361 ; Bishop of
Suzima, 372; Bishop of Constantin
ople, 381 ; wrote discourses, poems,
and letters; died about  390
Gregory of Nyssa, born a.d. 351 ; Bishop
of Nyssa, 372 ; wrote a Hexoemeron,
life of Moses, on prayer, along with
orations, panegyrics, tracts, and letters;
died about  395
Ambrose, born a.d. 340 ; Archbishop of
Milan, 374 ; published annotations on
Scripture, discourse, and miscellaneous
treatises; died about  397
Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, born about
A.D. 330; wrote a Pannarium, or a
treatise on heresies, &c. ; died  403
Chrysostom, born at Antioch about a.d.
344 ; ordained presbyter in that church,
386 ; Bishop of Constantinople, 398 ;

273

FAT
deprived and restored, 403 ; banished,
404; was a most eloquent preacher
and voluminous writer; wrote many
commentaries, homilies, orations, with
several controversial pieces; died, 
Ruffin, Presbyter of Aquileia, engaged in
controversy with Jerome, a.d. 394 ;
published a great many Latin transla
tions, as well as original works ; died,
Jerome, born a.d. 331 ; in Rome, 363 ;
ordained presbyter about 378 ; trans
lated or revised the Latin Vulgate;
wrote commentaries on most of the
books of Scripture, controversial tracts,
an Onomasticon, and lives and works
of preceding ecclesiastical writers; died,
Theodoras, Bishop of Mopsuestia, in
Cilicia, about a.d. 392; wrote com
mentaries, in which he expounded tbe
grammatical sense; but only a few
brief fragments remain; died about 
Augustine, born a.d. 354; baptized, 387;
ordained presbyter at Hippo, 391 ;
coadjutor of Valerius, Bishop of Hippo,
395 ; began his work, De Civitate Dd,
402; published confessions; engaged
in controversy with the Pelagians,
Donatists, and Manichaeans ; composed
a great variety of tracts, bearing on
systematic theology and prevalent
errors; wrote his Retractationes, or
reviews of his own work, 426; died,...
Cyril of Alexandria, Bishop of Alex
andria, 415 ; an ambitious and tur
bulent defender of orthodoxy ; wrote
on the Pentateuch, on adoration in
spirit, some commentaries on portions
of the Old and New Testaments, on the
Trinity, against the Emperor Julian,
and against Nestorius; died, 
Vincent of Lerins (Vincentius Lirinensis)
wrote his Commonitorium, or admoni
tion againstprofane novelties of heretics,
a.d. 434; died about 
Isidore of Pelusium ; wrote tracts on Scrip
ture, on doctrines, on discipline, and on
monachism; died, 
Sedulius, poet, and Scotsman by birth,
wrote several hymns, and a Paschal
Work, in verse; flourished about 
Theodoret, born a.d. 386 (or 393);
Bishop of Cyrus, in Syria, 423 ; de
prived, 449 ; restored, 451 ; wrote ques
tions on Scripture, commentaries, and
a church history, extending from 325
to 429 ; a religious history, and an
epitome of heretical fables ; died 
Petrus Chrysologus, wrote a letter to Eu
tyches and some sermons j died about
Leo I., surnamed the Great, to whom are
ascribed letters and sermons ; wrote on
morals, on the pastorate, and left also
homilies, dialogues, and letters; died,...

a.d. 407

410

420

428

430

444

44S

449

449

456

456

461 274

FEA
Vigilius, Bishop of Thapsus, wrote against
the heresies of Arius, Nestorius, and a.d.
on the Trinity; flourished about  480
Boethius, author of the Consolation of
Philosophy ; put to death  525
Procopius of Gaza, a commentator on
Scripture; flourished about  525
Aretas, a commentator on the Apoca
lypse; flourished about  549
Gregory, Bishop of Tours; died,  596
Gregory I., surnamed the Great, Bishop
of Rome, 590; died,  604
To these may be added Bernard of Clair-
vaux ; the last of the fathers ; the pious
and able opponent of Scholasticism ;
who wrote an immense variety of homi
lies, letters, and tracts ; and died,  1157
Fathers, with various references. Fathers
of the Christian Doctrine, a monkish order in
France, enrolled by Clement VIII. in 1597, and
much employed in the tuition of the young.
Another order in Italy was approved by Pius V.
and Gregory XIII. Fathers of the Oratory, an
order of monks founded in Italy by St. Philip
Neri, and sanctioned by Gregory XIII. in 1557,
and deriving their name from the chapel which
Neri built in Florence. The three great champions
of the Church, and its historians, belonged to this
order — Baronius, Raynaldus, and Laderchi. The
order has made noise in England of recent years.
Fathers of ihe Oratory of the Holy Jesus, a
monkish society in France, instituted in 1613 by
Peter de Berulle ; intended to oppose the Jesuits,
and co-operate with the Jansenists. They had
no churches in wbich sacraments were adminis
tered, but only chapels, in which prayers were
made and sermons delivered. Fathers of the
Faith, an order founded by Paccanari, a Tyrolese,
composed of Jesuits, and intended to put Jesuitry
into a new form. But the superiors of the
ancient Jesuits did not, it is said, recognize them,
or allow them to claim kindred.
Feast of Asses. — See Asses, Feast of.
Feasts. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. Several
of the early Christian feasts had their origin in
an imitation of the Jewish festivals. Other cir
cumstances soon rose which gave occasion to ad
ditional feasts. The Lord's Day, with Easter and
Whitsuntide, was first observed. Good Friday
and Christmas were afterwards introduced. — See
Sabbath, Easter. A festive day among the
early Christians was a holy day, no business being
done, and all amusements suspended. Public
worship was attended, the churches were adorned,
the worshippers were attired in their finest apparel,
and prayers were said by the people standing.
Love feasts were held in the morning, and alms
were through the day distributed to the poor.
Many causes contributed to the multiplication
of festivals, such as tbe commemoration of
martyrs, and the superstitious imitation, not only
of Jewish ordinances, but even of heathen cere
monies. As the simplicity of the Gospel was

FEA
graduaUy lost, a complex and gaudy ritual gra
dually crept in. The Popish Church has double
feasts, half double, and simple feasts, measured
from the amount of the solemnities employed in
them. Festivals or holy days are usuaUy divided into
movable and immovable. The Movable feasts
are — Advent.Septuagesima. Sexagesima- Quinquagesima.
Ash Wednesday.
Quadragesima, and the four foUowing
Sundays.
Palm Sunday.
Maunday Thursday.
Good Friday.
Easter Day.
Easter Eve.
Sundays after Easter.
Ascension Day.
Whitsunday.
Trinity Sunday.
The Immovable feasts and holy days are —
January.
1. The Circumcision of our Lord Jesus
Christ.
6. The Epiphany.
25. The Conversion of St. Paul.
February
2. The Presentation of Christ in the Temple ;
or, the Purification of St Mary the
Virgin.
24. Saint Matthias's Day.
March.
25. The Annunciation of the blessed Virgin
Mary. April.
25. Saint Mark's Day.
May.
1. Saint PhUip and Saint James's Day.
June.
11. Saint Barnabas the Apostle.
24. Saint John Baptist's Day.
29. Saint Peter and Saint Paul's Day.
July.
25. Saint James the Apostle.

24

Saint Bartholomew the Apostle.
September.
Saint Matthew the Apostle.
Saint Michael and all Angels.
October.
Saint Luke the Evangelist.
28. Saint Simon and Saint Jude, Apostles.
November.
1. All Saints' Day.
30. Saint Andrew's Day.

21

18.

21. Saint Thomas the Apostle.
25. Nativity of our Lord, or Christmas Day

FIE
26. Saint Stephen's Day.
27. Saint John the Evangelist's Day.
28. The Innocents' Day.
The more important of these feasts are ex
plained under their respective names.
Feather's Tavern Association, a society
of 300 clergymen and others, who met at this
tavern about the end of last century, to agi
tate for tbe reformation of the liturgy, and for
relief from subscription to the articles. A keen
controversy ensued, and the association did not
long survive.
Fellowship. — See Communion.
Fencing the Tables, the name given in
Scotland to a special address before the Lord's
Supper. The address bears on the nature of the
ordinance, and the character of those who should
engage in it Of old it was called the debarrings,
because the ministers pointed out the qualification
of such as were worthy, and solemnly debarred
those who had not the requisite character.
Fete de Dieu (feast of God), a solemn festi
val in the Romish Church, instituted for the pre
sentation of a peculiar worship to the Saviour, in
the Eucharist. It is observed on the Thursday
after the octave of Whitsuntide. It originated
with Pope Urban IV. in 1264, and the office was
drawn up by the famous Thomas Aquinas. The
Church being, at that time, disturbed by the fac
tion of the Guelfs and Ghibelins, Pope Urban's
bull for this festival was not promptly nor univer
sally obeyed. Afterwards, at the general councU
of Vienna in 1311, under Pope Clement V.,
the Kings of England, France, and Arragon
being present, tbis bull was confirmed, and
ordered to be everywhere observed. In 1316
Pope John XXII., to increase the solemnity,
added an octave to it, and commanded the host
to be carried in procession.
Feuillians, a reformed branch of the
Cistertian order of monks, who practised the
most incredible austerities : they went barefoot,
and lived only on herbs. Pope Urban VIII.
divided the French from the Italians in the
year 1630, making two distinct congregations of
them. The Feuilliantines are nuns of the same
order. Fide-jussores (sureties), a name borrowed
from the Roman law, and appUed to sponsors at
baptism  See Baptism, Godfathers.
Fideliuni Missa. — See Missa.
Fidelium ©ratio (prayer of the faithful). —
See Prayer.
Field-Preaching, or preaching in the open
air ; a plan adopted by reformers in every age,
in order to propagate more extensively and effec
tually their peculiar sentiments among the great
masses of the people. Christ and his apostles
not only availed themselves of the privileges
which the synagogues afforded of making known
the " Gospel of the Kingdom " to those who
assembled therein from Sabbath to Sabbath,
they also proclaimed the doctrines and precepts
75

FIE
of the new dispensation on the highways and
hedges, on the sea-shore and on the barren glade,
on the mountain's side and in the streets of the
teeming city. Wherever men were found, and
under whatever circumstances they were placed,
if their ears could be reached, there the voice of
the first teachers of Christianity was heard, warn
ing sinners of coming danger, and pointing out
the only way of escape — the only medium of access
unto God. So was it, too, with other reformers,
whose labours our limits forbid our noticing,
as we desire to add a few words on the field-
preaching of Whitfield and Wesley. The
practice was commenced by the former, and
that without any misgivings as to the "irre
gularity " of such a strange proceeding ; whereas
the latter, though a man of more highly culti
vated intellect, and who, on that account,
ought to have risen superior to the prejudices
of his order, was, with much reluctance, in
duced to follow in the course so heroically
opened up by the eloquent Whitfield. But
having once commenced, there was no drawing
back; he had taken to the field, and no man's
face or frown should cause him to retire. John
Wesley was not a man of a weak and shrinking
spirit, as his whole life testifies ; but he was a man
who proved himself on all occasions to be a good
soldier of Jesus Christ. When Whitfield was
refused the pulpits of the London and Bristol
churches, and after he had been threatened by the
chancellor of the diocese of the latter place with
suspension and excommunication if he persisted
in preaching in his diocese without a license, he
resolved in his mind whether it might not be
his duty to preach in the open air. Indeed, he
bad thought of this before he was refused per
mission to preach in the pulpits of the establish
ment, when he saw that thousands who sought
to hear him could not gain admittance into the
churches. He mentioned his thoughts to some
friends, who pronounced the idea to be a mad
one; but now, he believed that in Bristol his duty
in this respect was no longer doubtful. Moreover,
many persons said to him, " What need of going
abroad ? Have we not Indians enough at home?
If you have a mind to convert Indians, there are
colliers enough at Kingswood." To these, there
fore, he determined to preach the message of
reconciliation. The colliers at Kingswood were
without any means of religious instruction ; they
had no church in which to worship, no minister
to teach them the duties of religion, or to pray
with them ; hence they were notorious for their
brutality and wickedness, and in times of excite
ment were a terror to all around them. On the
17th February, 1739, Whitfield proceeded to
Rose Green, Kingswood (his first field pulpit),
where he preached to as many as the novelty of
the scene collected, which were about 200. " The
ice being now broke " — to use his own observa
tion on this first open-air sermon — he determined
to persevere in the same course. Accordingly, he

FIE
visited Kingswood frequently, and every time he
went there the number of his hearers increased ;
for, besides the colliers, thousands of all ranks
flocked from Bristol and the neighbourhood, and
the congregation was sometimes computed at
20,000. With gladness and eagerness many of
these despised outcasts, who had never been in a
church in their lives, received the instruction of
this eminent follower of Him who "went about
doing good." " The first discovery," says he,
" of their being affected, was to see the white
gutters made by their tears, which plentifully fell
down their black cheeks, as they came out of
their coal pits  Sometimes, when
20,000 people were before me, I bad not, in my
own apprehension, a word to say, either to God
(in prayer) or to them (by preaching). . . .
The open- firmament above me, the prospect of
the adjacent fields, with the sight of thousands and
thousands, some in coaches, some on horseback,
and some on the trees, and at times all affected
and drenched in tears together, to which some
times was added the solemnity of the approaching
evening, was almost too much for, and quite over
came me." Whitfield was then requested to
preach in a bowling-green in the city; and he
complied. Many of the audience sneered to see
a stripling with a gown mount a table on uncon-
secrated ground ; for field-preaching, since com
mon enough in England, was then unknown, and
therefore obloquy was poured upon it. Hisengage-
ments so increased that he sought the help of Mr,
Wesley. Without delay Mr. Wesley proceeded to
Bristol ; and on his arrival was invited to preach
in the open air. " I could scarce reconcile myself
at first," says he, " to this strange way of preach
ing in the fields, of which he (Whitfield) set me
the example on the Sunday, having been all my
life, till very lately, so tenacious of every point
relating to decency and order that I should have
thought the saving of souls a sin, if it had not
been done in a church." However, on the fol
lowing day, Mr. Wesley preached from a little
eminence in an open ground adjoining the city
to about 3,000 people. In the days of Whitfield
and the Wesleys field-preaching was not unfre
quently attended with danger. Though they often
met with a kind reception from the multitudes,
yet at other times they experienced the rudest
and most determined opposition, and often their
lives were in imminent perU from the violence
of an ignorant, depraved, and excited populace.
In his Earnest Appeal, Mr. Wesley asks,
" Who is there among you, brethren, tbat is
willing (examine your own hearts) even to
save souls from death at this price? Would
not you let a thousand souls perish, rather than
you would be the instrument of rescuing them
thus ? I do not speak now with regard to con
science, but to the inconveniences that must
accompany it. Can you sustain them if you
would? Can you bear the summer sun to beat
upon your naked head? Can you suffer the

276

FIE
wintry rain or wind, from whatever quarter it
blows ? Are you able to stand in the open air,
without any covering or defence, when God
casteth abroad his snow like wool, or scattereth
his hoar frost like ashes? And yet these are
some ofthe smallest inconveniences which accom
pany field-preaching. Far beyond all these are
the contradiction of sinners, the scoffs both of the
great vulgar and the small; contempt and re
proach of every kind; often more than verbal
affronts — stupid, brutal violence, sometimes to the
hazard of health, or limbs, or life. Brethren, do
you envy us this honour? What, I pray you,
would buy you to be a field-preacher ?" When
Mr. Wesley bad been accustomed to field-preach
ing for more than twenty years, he made the
following remarks : — " One hour in Moorfields
might convince any impartial man of the expe
diency of field-preaching. What building, except
St. Paul's church, could contain such a congre
gation ? And if it would, what human voice
could have reached them there? By repeated
observations I find I can command thrice the
number in the open air that I can under a roof.
And who can say the time for field-preaching
is over, while — 1. Greater numbers than ever
attend ; 2. The converting as well as the con
vincing power of God is eminently present with
them ?" One extract more, and this article must
close. Mr. Weslej' thus describes these open-air
services : — " I cannot say I have ever seen a
more awful sight, than when, on Rose-Green,
or the top of Hannan-Mouut, some thousands
of people were calmly joined together in solemn
waiting upon God, while —
'They stood, and under open air adored
Tlie God who made both air, earth, heaven, and sky.'
And whether they were listening to his word with
attention still as night, or were lifting up their
voice in praise as the sound of many waters,
many a time have I been constrained to say in
my heart, 'How dreadful is this place!' This,
also, 'is no other than the house of God!
This is the gate of heaven !' " (See Memoirs of
Wesley, by Coke, Southey, and Watson ; also,
Jackson's Centenary of Wesleyan Methodism.)
Having now once adopted this mode of imparting
instruction to the neglected classes of the com
munity, Mr. Wesley never abandoned it to the
end of his life ; and in a short time his brother
Charles followed his example in the same self-
denying labour of love, being urged thereto b v t he
indeiatigable Whitfield. Mr. Charles Wesley's
first field sermon was preached at Moorfields, on
the 24th June, 1739, his congregation amounting
to about 1,000, and in the evening of the same
day he preached to multitudes on Kennington
Common. A few weeks afterwards, he preached
to about 10,000 people in Moorfields; and for
several years he followed with equal steps, both his
brother and Mr. Whitfield in laborious zeal and
pnbUc usefulness. It is not to be supposed that

FIF
Mr. Wesley had not preached in the open air till
tbe time he was induced by Mr. Whitfield to do so
at Bristol. He had done so in Georgia before Mr.
Whitfield was ordained ; but he had no intention
of resuming the practice in England, until com
pelled to do so by the necessities of the case. He
says, " Wherever I was now desired to preach (in
churches), salvation by faith was my only theme.
. . . Things were in this posture when I was
told I must preach no more in this, and this, and
another church; the reason was usually added
without reserve, ' Because you preach such doc
trine.' . . . After a time I determined to
do the same thing in England which I had often
done in a warmer climate— to preach in the open
air." " Be pleased to observe," he adds, " 1.
That I was forbidden to preach in any church 'for
preaching such doctrine.' 2. That I had no de
sire nor design to preach in the open air till after
the prohibition. 3. That when I did, as it was
no matter of choice, so neither of premeditation.
There was no scheme at all previously formed
which was to be supported thereby. 4. Field-
preaching was therefore a sudden expedient — a
thing submitted to rather than chosen ; and there
fore submitted to because I thought preaching
even thus better than not preaching at all."
Field-preaching, or, as it was called, tent- preach
ing, that is, preaching from a tent, was common
in Scotland on summer sacramental occasions up
till a very recent period. The practice still sur
vives in some parts of the highlands. Thousands
from neighbouring parishes used to assemble on
the brae or in the quiet hollow, and listen to the
word of life. But unhallowed scenes sometimes
occurred, of which Burns's Holy Fair is an ex
aggerated picture ; and such gatherings have
been discontinued. Of late, however, field-
preaching has been resorted to for a different
purpose — that of evangelization, — so that the
masses may be reached which have given up
attendance at the house of God. Everywhere
the result seems to be satisfactory, and the prac
tice is every year more and more extensively
followed by aU denominations in the three king
doms. Fifth Monarchy Men, a band of miUen-
narian enthusiasts who, in Cromwell's days, and
afterwards, expected the personal appearance
of Christ, to found a new or fifth monarchy
— a fifth, because the Babylonian, Persian,
Grecian, and Roman monarchies had preceded
it The sect rose to arms to bring about the de
sired epoch, urged by the preaching of Venner
in his conventicle in Coleman Street. Carlyle
(Life of Cromwell, vol. iii., p. 228) thus, in his own
style, describes the first rising : — " Thursday, 9lh
April, 1657. The fifth monarchy, headed mainly
by one Venner, a wine-cooper, and other civic
individuals of the old Feak-and-Powel species,
whom we have transiently seen emitting soot
and fire before now, has for a long whUe been
concocting under-ground ; and Thurloe and his

277

FIL
highness have had eye on it. The fifth monarchy
has decided that it will rise this Thursday, ex
pel carnal sovereignties, and call on the Christian
population to introduce a reign of Christ — which,
it is thought, if a beginning were once made, they
will be very forward to do. Let us rendezvous
on Mile-End Green this day, with sword and
musket and assured heart. Perhaps General
Harrison, Colonel Okey, one knows not who, will
join us, — perhaps a miracle will be wrought,
such as Heaven might work in such a case, and
the reign of Christ actually take effect. Alas,
Heaven wrought no miracle! Heaven and his
highness sent a troop of horse into the Mile-End
region early in tbe morning, seized Venner and
some twenty ringleaders just coming for the
rendezvous, seized chests of arms, many copies
of a flaming pamphlet or war manifesto, with
title A Standard set up, seized also a war-flag
with lion couchant painted on it, Lion of the
Tribe of Judah, and this motto, ' Who shall
rouse him up ?' 0 reader, these are not fictions,
these were once altogether solid facts in this brick
London of ours. Ancient, resolute individuals,
busy with wine-cooperage and otherwise, had
entertained them as very practicable things !
But in two days' time these ancient individuals
and they are all lodged in the Tower. Harrison,
hardly connected with the thing except as a well-
wisher, he and others are likewise made secure ;
and tbe fifth monarchy is put under lock and key.
Nobody was tried for it. Cooper Venner died
on the scaffold for a similar attempt under
Charles Second, some two years hence."
Filioqnc (and from the Son), the addition
made by the third council of Toledo to the Nicene
Creed, describing the procession of the Holy
Spirit, which still separates the Greek and Latin
Churches, and produced fierce controversy in
earlier times. Pope Leo III. and John VIII.
disapproved of the addition, but it was finally
adopted under Pope Nicholas I. The divinity
of the Holy Ghost is a cardinal truth, but the
passages usually quoted by the advocates of the
jilioque refer to official, not personal procession.
— See Creed, Greek Church.
Fillcs Dieu (daughters of God), an order of
French nuns devoting themselves to the care of
the sick. They repeat the penitential psalms
once a-week.
Fire, Holy, of the Greek Church, an
annual imposture practised in the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Stanley in his
Palestine thus describes it : — "In every direction
the raging mob bursts in upon the troops, who
pour out of the church at the south-east corner
— the procession is broken through, the banners
stagger and waver. They stagger, and waver,
and fall, amidst the flight of priests, bishops,
and standard-bearers, hither and thither before
the tremendous rush. In one small but compact
band the Bishop of Petra (who is on this occasion
the bishop of ' the fire,' .the representative of the

.2.78

FIR
patriarch) is hurried to the chapel of the sepul
chre, and the door is closed behind him. The
whole church is now one heaving sea of heads,
resounding with an uproar which can be com
pared to nothing less than that of the Guildhall
of London at a nomination for the city. One
vacant space alone is left ; a narrow lane from
the aperture on the north side of tbe chapel to
the wall of the church. By the aperture itself
stands a priest to catch the fire ; on each side of
the lane, so far as the eye can reach, hundreds
of bare arms are stretched out like the branches
of a leafless forest — like the branches of a forest
quivering in some violent tempest. Silent,
awfully silent, in the midst of this frantic up
roar, stands the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre.
If any one could at such a moment be convinced
of its genuineness, or could expect a display of
miraculous power, assuredly it would be that its
very stones would cry out against the wild fana
ticism without and wretched fraud within, by
wbich it is at that hour desecrated. At last the
moment comes. A bright flame as of burning
wood appears inside the hole — the light, as
every educated Greek knows and acknowledges,
kindled by the bishop within — the light, as
every pilgrim believes, ofthe descent of God him
self upon the holy tomb. Any distinct feature
or incident is lost in the universal whirl of ex
citement which envelops the church as slowly,
gradually, the fire spreads from hand to hand,
from taper to taper, through that vast multitude,
till at last the whole edifice from gallery to
gallery, and through the area below, is one wide
blaze of thousands of burning candles. It is
now that, according to some accounts, the bishop
or patriarch is carried out of the chapel in
triumph, on the shoulders of the people, in a
fainting state, ' to give the impression that he is
overcome by the glory of the Almighty, from
whose immediate presence he is believed to come.'
It is now that a mounted horseman, stationed at
the gates of the church, gallops off with a lighted
taper, to communicate the sacred fire to the lamps
of tbe Greek church in the convent at Bethle
hem." First-Frnits  See Annates, Dismes. The
¦valor beneficiorum, commonly called the value in
tlie King's Books, was made at the same time as
the statute 26 Henry VIII., c. 3, by which these
payments were transferred to the crown. A
former valuation had been made," 20 Edward I.,
whicli still exists in the exchequer. By this
statute and one subsequent, 1 Elizabeth IV,
every spiritual person admitted to a benefice
must pay his first-fruits within three months
after induction, in proper proportion : if he does
not live half a-year, or be ousted before the
expiration of the first year, only one quarter is
required ; if he lives the year, or be ousted before
eighteen months, one half; if a year and a-half,
three quarters ; if two years, the whole. Arch
bishops and bishops have four years allowed

FIS
them, and shall pay one quarter everv year, if
they live so long on the see. Other dignitaries
pay as rectors and vicars. By several statutes
of Anne, all livings under £50 per annum are
discharged of the payment of first-fruits and
tenths. The following notice of the valuation in
the King's Books, and the former payments to
the pope as primituE^ is taken from Godwin's
work Be Prcesulibus Angl. The florin was
4s. 6d., the ducat 8s., English : — To the Pope.
10,000 florins.

Canterbury, 
For a pall, 
London, 
Winchester, 
Ely, 
.Lincoln, 
Litchfield and Coventry,
Salisbury, 
Bath and Wells, 
Exeter, 
Norwich, 
Worcester, 
Hereford, 
Chichester, 
Rochester, 
Oxford 
Gloucester, 
Peterborough, 
Bristol, 
St. David's, 
Llandaff, 
Bangor, 
St. Asaph, 
York, 
For a pall, 
Durham, 
Carlisle, 
Chester, 

King's Books.

£2,662 12

2

1,000 0

0

2,873 18

H

2.134 18

.,',

828 14

!'l

559 17

4

1,385 5

n

533 1

3

500 0

«

834 11

H

929 13

3

768 11

0J

677 1

»

358 4

*H

381 II

0*

315 7

1

414 19

Si Of

294 11

426 2

1

154 14

2

131 16

3

187 11

8

1,610 0

0

1,821 1

3

531 4

u

4211 1

8

5,000 3,000 —
12,000 ducats.
7,000 _
5,000 —
1,733 —
4,500 —
430 florins
6,000 ducats.
5,000 _
2,000 florins.
2,000 —
333 ducats.
1,300 florins.

1,500 florins.
700 —
126 —
126 —
10,000 ducats.
5,000 —
9,000 _
1,000 —

It will be observed that the bishoprics of
Oxford, Gloucester, Peterborough, Bristol, and
Chester, as creations or revivals by Henry Till.,
are not included in the above catalogue as pay
ing to the pope.
Fish, a common symbol in the early Church.
The Greek l%4os represents the first letters of
"'Inntus Xgnrris QstvTios lur'y,^' — Jesus Christ,
Son of God, Saviour. Hence Christians were
sometimes called "pisriculi" — little fishes, and
the vessel holding baptismal water was called
"piscina " — fish-pond.
Fisherman's Ring, the pope's signet, the
impression being St. Peter holding a line with
bait in the water. — See Bull.
Five Articles. — See Articles, Five.
Five Points. — See Aeminiahism, Cal
vinism. Flabcllnni, a kind of fan for driving away
insects from the sacramental cup, &c. The
Apostolical Constitutions mentions the use of such
an instrument as part of the deacon's office at
the time of the oblation. The Greek term was
pwriSiav. Flagellanf.es. — About the year 1260 public
associations sprang up in Italy for the purpose of
discipline, under the name of Flagellantes. In
an edict of the Marquess of Este and the
people of Ferrara, for their suppression, they
are termed Le Compagnie de' Rattuti, and Sod-

FLA
alilas Scopes sive Fustigationis. Their discipline
also is termed batimentum. Muratori has given a
plate of the fearful weapon which they employed
against themselves (Antiq. Hal. med. cevi, vi.,
469). Multitudes of all sexes, ranks, and ages,
fanatically practised this mortification in the
open streets; and little regard was paid to
decency, iri the hope of obtaining divine mercy,
by these ferocious and often licentious exhibi
tions. Perugia was the first scene of this mad
ness, and a hermit named Rainier, the instigator.
In the Chronicle of a monk of Sta. Justina, of
Padua, printed by Wechel in 1585, will be found
ample pictures of' the enormities which were en
gendered by this superstitious folly. The Flagel
lantes were almost forgotten, when, during a
plague in Germany in 1349, the sect arose
afresh, with increased enthusiasm. They wan
dered through several provinces, whipping them
selves, and propagating the most extravagant
doctrines ; namely, that flagellation was of equal
virtue with the sacraments ; that the forgiveness
of all sins was to be obtained by it, exclusive of
the merits of Christ ; that the old law of Christ
was soon to be abolished, and that a new law, en
joining the baptism of blood, to be administered
by whipping, was to be substituted in its place.
Clement VII. issued a bull against them, and in
many places their leaders were burned. They
are again mentioned in the beginning of the
fifteenth century, as venting yet stranger and
more mystical tenets in Thuringia and Lower
Saxony. They rejected every branch of ex
ternal worship ; entertained some wild notions
respecting the Evil Spirit; and held that the
person who believes what is contained in the
Apostles' Creed, repeats frequently the Lord's
Frayer and the Ave Maria, and at certain times
lashes his body severely, as a voluntary punish
ment for the transgressions he has committed,
shaU obtain eternal salvation. The infec
tion spread rapidly, and occasioned much dis
order ; for by travelling in such numbers, they
gave rise to seditious disturbances, and to very
many excesses. The shameful exposure of their
persons, and their extortion of alms, rendered
them so obnoxious to the higher clergi-, and to the
more respectable classes, that several princes in
Germany and Italy endeavoured to suppress their
irregularities; and the kings of Poland and
Bohemia expelled them from their territories.
A numerous list of these fanatics, who were
condemned to the flames, is preserved by the
German ecclesiastical historians. At Sanger-
hausen, in the year 1414, no fewer than ninety-
one of these infatuated people were cruelly
burned at once. At length this sect began
to decline, active measures for their total sup
pression being adopted by the council which
assembled at Constance from the year 1414 to tbe
year 1418. A remnant of them existed till the
very close of that century. Discipline, though
condemned when thus practised by wholesale,

279

FLA
was considered wholesome if applied with dis
cretion ; and each religious house observed its
own peculiar rule in its administration of it. At
Carmes it was exercised twice a-week ; at Monte
Cassino, once; by the Ursuline Nuns, on Fri
days ; by the Carmelite Nuns, on Wednesdays
and Fridays; by the Nuns of the Visitation,
whenever they pleased ; by the English Bene
dictines, more or less, according to the season ;
by the Celestines, on the eve of great festivals ;
and by the Capuchins, every day. (See Isaac
Taylor's Fanaticism.)
Flagellation, as an atonement for sin, was
early practised among Christians ; but it was not
till the eleventh century that it became general,
being zealously recommended by Peter Damiani
of Eavenna, abbot of a Benedictine monastery
near Gubbio, and Peter, afterwards Cardinal-
bishop of Ostia, a man greatly famed for his
penance and sanctity. From this time to the
council of Constance the discipline of the scourge
was in great repute ; clergy and laity, men and
women, princes and peasants, vied with each
other in their devotion to the expiating lash, rod,
thong, whip, and chain-scourge. Three thousand
strokes and the chanting of thirty psalms ex
piated the sins of a year ; thirty thousand strokes
atoned for the offences of ten years, and so on in
proportion. Princes were whipped naked by
their father confessors ; and tbe greatest criminals
most eagerly availed themselves of this disgust
ing process as a substitute for amendment of life.
At length the lash became obnoxious, on account
of the excesses perpetrated by the followers of
Rainier, the hermit; and the rulers both in
church and state conspired to put it down, not
withstanding its formerly avowed efficacy as an
atonement for sin.— See Discipline, Elagel-
LANTES. Flagon, the vessel which contained the sac
ramental wine, the chalice being that in which
it is administered.
Flemingians. — See Wateelandians.
Flentes (weepers), the lowest rank of peni
tents in the early Church, or rather candidates
for penance. Their station was the church porch,
where they lay in prostration, and begged the
prayers of the faithful as they passed into the
church, and craved to be admitted themselves, to
do public penance in the church. — See Peni
tents, Catechumens.
Font (a fountain). — The term is particularly
applied to the vessel which holds the baptismal
water. Little is known as to the form and con
struction of fonts in the baptisteries of the
primitive Church, and they probably varied
according to the fancy of each particular builder,
and in most cases resembled baths. By the
Greek ecclesiastical writers the font is usually
called " xtXu^fii^a," or pool ; and Socrates has
expressly distinguished it from the baptistery,
with which it has sometimes been confounded,
and perhaps latterly became synonymous, as the

FON
pool of the bapistery. By the Latins it was
known as piscina ; and, both for this name and
xtXufcjirit^a, some critics, and among them no
less a scholar than Beveridge, have travelled as
far as the Pool of Bethesda ; and for the former
of tbe two, Optatus (iii., 62) has discovered a
mystical reason in the acrostic framed for our
Saviour, " }%tui " — fish, being composed of the
first letters of the following words: "'Ixres
Xjioto; Situ tUs 2aiT«g" — Jesus Christ, Son
of God, Saviour. — See Fish. Bingham has
treated these refinements as they deserve :
" But whether either of these reasons be true,
or whether the font was not rather so called
because piscina and xoXvpfiMqa are commonly
names of fountains, baths, and pools, in Greek
and Latin writers, I leave to the determina
tion of the judicious reader " (Ant., iv., 7, 4).
Besides these, the Latins call it, for equally obvi
ous reasons, " lavacrum " — place of washing, and
" natatoria " — place of swimming ; and Gregory
the Great, with more attention to the letter of
Scripture than to delicacy of language, names it
cloaca. Other names given by Durand (L, 21) are
amula, situla, aquimanile, aquamale, and mallu-
vium. It is not certain when the naxne fons was
introduced ; but this word is found in William of
Malmesbury's record of the baptism of Ethelred,
son of Edgar, written in the beginning of the
twelfth century. In the pontificale of the pseudo
Damasus, under the life of Sylvester, may be found
a description of a gorgeous font, pretended to be a
gift of Constantine to the basilica Constantiniuna,
or lateranensis, in which font himself was baptized.
Mosheim (Cent, iv., p. U., u. 4, 8, 7) says that
fonts were first erected in the porches of churches
during the fourth century ; afterwards they ad
vanced into the church itself, but remained, as
they stUl for the most part stand, near the
entrance ; a position emblematical of the admis
sion of the newly baptized into the congregation.
At first one church alone in each city possessed
the privilege of administering baptism; and
hence, as the others were in this sense subordi
nate to it, the church distinguished by the font
was known as the mother church. This title
became extended, as the bishop extended the
privilege of baptizing. A remnant of the early
custom is still to be found in our own law; for Lord
Coke (2 Inst, 363) informs us, that whenever there
was a dispute among different places of worship
in the same district as to the right of motherhood,
the issue directed to be tried was the possession
of a font. In Italy cinerary vases were fre
quently converted to this use. In the Constitu
tions of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury,
promulgated in 1236, an order is given for the
especial provision of a font instead of a basin.
The water is not to remain unchanged in them
more than seven days ; this time, by 2 Edward
VI., was extended to not more than a month.
Canon 81 of the Church of England directs that
there be a font of stone in every church and
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FON
chapel. In Scotland it is sometimes of stone,
but, usually of metal. The place of the font was
discussed at the Westminster Assembly. Thus
Lightfbot records in his Journal: — "About the
place of the font or vessel of baptizing, it was
resolved it should be in what place the people
may best see and hear. The Scots urged hard
to have it at the pulpit. Here fell in a debate
about fonts : some called to have them to be de
molished, but this was cried against : only the
Scots desired tbat the place of it might be
altered,— viz., removed from the church door.
At last a vote passed that the superstitious place
of the font should be altered."
Fontcvrand, the Order of, a monkish order,
connected with the Benedictines, named after its
first monastery, and which rose in the beginning
of the twelfth century. The founder was Robert
of Arbriscelles, who prescribed, both for his monks
and nuns, the rule of St. Benedict, and subjected
both to female rule, in imitation, as he said, of
Christ's commendation of the apostle John to tbe
matronage of the Virgin. The first abbess, Ber-
trude, had been Queen of France ; and so popular
was the honour, that among the abbesses there
have been fourteen royal princesses. This order
was brought to England by Henry II., and bad
a bouse at Eton, with other two in the shires of
Wilts and Worcester.
Fools, Feast of. — See Bot Bishop.
Forinatse liitei'sc. — See Letters.
Form of Concord, a treatise or confession
of faith published by order of the Elector of
Saxony in 1580, in the hope of putting an end
to the crypto-Calvinistic controversy. It con
tained the Three Creeds, the Augsburg Confes
sion, the Apology, the Articles of Smalcalde,
and Luther's Catechisms ; and in addition to
these, the Book of Torgau, which had been drawn
up at Torgau in 1576, and reviewed and cor
rected at Berg in 1577. All these writings were
recognized in the Form as symbola publica, and
a sentence of excommunication was added
against all who should refuse to subscribe them.
The attempt to produce harmony by thus nar
rowing the ground of communion was of course
utterly unsuccessful. It effectually shut out tbe
Reformed from the possibility of union with the
Lutherans, and at the same time displeased and
disappointed those moderate men among the
Lutherans themselves, who would have been
glad to live in concord and communion with
Christians with whom they did not in all points
agree. A full account of the Form, and of the
circumstances attending its publication, may be
found in a work by the Swiss writer Hospinian,
entitled Concordia discors.
Forms of Prayer. — See Prater.
Formula Cousensus,a document of twenty-
six articles drawn up by John Henry Heidegger
of Zurich, with the authority of the Swiss Re
formed divines, especially of Turretin of Geneva,
and Gernler of Basle. It was an effort to sup-

FRA
press such controversies as had agitated tbe
Churches, and to put an end to further discus
sions. 1. It condemned the Amyraldists and
their tenets of general grace.— See Amyraldism.
2. It condemned the views of Placaeus (Joseph
de La Place), who denied the direct imputation
of Adam's first sin to his posterity. 3. It. con
demned Piseator's denial of the active obedience
of Christ. 4. It condemned the literary opinion
of Cappell on the age and authority of the He
brew points, &c. The opinions thus reprobated
had their birthplace in the Theological Aca
demy of Saumur. Subscription to this formula
was for awhile rigidly demanded in the Swiss
Churches, and great disputes and dissatisfaction
were the result. But it gradually fell into dis
use, and by the influence of Prussia and England
was abolished in 1723.
Fossarii (grave-diggers), were called also
copiatoz, either meaning labourers or mourners,
according as it is thought to be dei'ived, and also
leclicarii, from carrying the corpse or bier. They
were'an inferior order of clergy in the primitive
Church. By their office, according to Jerome,
they wound up the body, dug the earth, built
the vault, and in this way, according to custom,
made ready the grave. The order seems to
have been first instituted under the Emperor
Constantine, and there were 1,100 ofthe fossarii
in the city of Constantinople alone — a number
afterwards confirmed by Justinian (Novel., 43).
They formed a kind of college, hence they were
sometimes called collegiati and decani. They
were exempted from certain civil offices, as they
acted gratuitously in burying the poor.
France, Churches in. — I. Galilean Church,
i. e., the branch of the Romish Church existing in
France. — This church has long enjoyed peculiar
privileges and special immunities, and has always
been more independent of the see of Rome than
any other section of the Roman Catholic Church.
This independence of the Gallican Church seems
not to have been originally granted by Rome,
but rather to have been preserved by the Church,
in virtue of its ancient constitution, in spile of
Rome. It dates at least as far back as the time
of St. Louis. Though long existing unimpaired,
the first formal and categorical enunciation of its
principles seems to have been given at the council
of Basle in 1438. By this act the council en
raged the pope, Eugenius IV, who rejected the
canons it had passed. The council retaliated, by
passing an act deposing the pope from his office.
The pope, however, triumphed, and the canons
were not agreed to. But the French king,
Charles VII., approving of them, was not to be
thus defeated. He summoned an assembly of
divines within his own dominions, and recom
mended them to adopt the regulations to which
the councU had agreed. This they did; and
their decision is usually styled the " Pragmatic
Sanction." The regulations proceed upon two
great principles : — 1. That the pope has no right

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FRA
to interfere in the temporal affairs of the nation.
2. Tbat, while his authority in spiritual matters
is acknowledged, that authority is, in France,
limited by the requirements of the ancient con
stitution, received by and acted upon in the
Church of that kingdom. The foUowing are the
principal provisions of this charter of the Church's
liberties : — " 1. The King of France has a right
to convene synods, or provincial and national
councils, in which, amongst other important
matters relating to the preservation of the state,
cases of ecclesiastical discipline are likewise de
bated. 2. The pope's legates, a latere, who are
empowered to reform abuses, and to exercise the
other parts of their legatine office, are never
admitted into France, unless at the desire or with
the consent of the king ; and whatever the legates
do there is with the approbation and allowance
of the king. 3. The legate of Avignon cannot
exercise his commission in any of the king's
dominions till after he hath obtained his majes
ty's leave for that purpose. 4. The prelates of
the Gallican Church, being summoned by the
pope, cannot depart the realm, upon any pretence
whatever, without the king's permission. 5.
The pope has no authority to levy any tax or
imposition upon the temporalities of the ecclesi
astical preferments, upon any pretence, either of
loan, vacancy, annates, tithes, procurations, or
otherwise, without the king's order, and the
consent of the clergy. 6. The pope has no
authority to depose the king, or grant away hi3
dominions to any person whatever. His holiness
can neither excommunicate the king, nor absolve
his subjects from their allegiance. 7. The pope
likewise has no authority to excommunicate the
king's officers for their executing and discharging
their respective offices and functions. 8. The
pope has no right to take cognizance, either by
himself or his delegates, of any pre-eminences or
privileges belonging to the crown of France, the
king being not obliged to argue his prerogatives
in any court but his own. 9. Counts palatine,
made by the pope, are not acknowledged as such
in France, nor allowed to make use of their pri-
vUeges and powers, any more than those created
by the emperor. 10. It is not lawful for the
pope to grant licenses to churchmen, the king's
subjects, or to any others holding benefices in the
realm of France, to bequeath the titles and pro
fits of their respective preferments, contrary to
any branch of the king's laws, or the customs of
the realm, nor to hinder the relations of the bene
ficed clergy, or monks, to succeed to their estates,
when they enter into religious orders, and are
professed. 11. The pope cannot grant to any
person a dispensation to enjoy any estate or
revenues, in France, without the king's con
sent. 12. The pope cannot grant a license
to ecclesiastics to alienate church lands, situate
and lying in France, without the king's consent,
upon any pretence whatever. 13. The king
may punish his ecclesiastical officers for misbe-

FRA
haviour in their respective charges, notwith
standing the privileges of their orders. 14. No
person has any right to hold any benefice in
France unless he be either a native of the country,
naturalized by the king, or has royal dispensation
for that purpose. 15. The pope is not superior
to an oecumenical or general council. 16. The
Gallican Church does not receive, without distinc
tion, all the canons, and all the decretal epistles,
but keeps principally to that ancient collection
called Corpus Canonicum, the same which Pope
Adrian sent to Charlemagne towards the end of
the eighth century, and which, in the year 860,
under the pontificate of Nicholas I., the French
bishops declared to be the only canon law they
were obliged to acknowledge, maintaining that
in this body the liberties of the Gallican Church
consisted. 17. The pope has no power, for any
cause whatsoever, to dispense with the law of
God, the law of nature, or the decrees of the
ancient canons. 18. The regulations of the
apostolic chamber, or court, are not obligatory to
the Gallican Church, unless confirmed by the
king's edicts. 19. If the primates or metropoli
tans appeal to the pope, his holiness is obliged
to try the cause, by commissioners or delegates,
in the same diocese from which the appeal was
made. 20. When a Frenchman desires the pope
to give him a benefice lying in France, his holi
ness is obliged to order him an instrument, sealed
under the faculty of his office ; and, in case of
refusal, it is lawful for the person pretending to
the benefice to apply to the parliament of Paris,
which court shall send instructions to the bishop
of the diocese to give him institution, which in
stitution shall be of the same validity as if he
had received his title under the seals of the court
of Rome. 21. No mandates from the pope, en
joining a bishop, or other collator, to present any
person to a benefice upon a vacancy, are admitted
in France. 22. It is only by sufferance that the
pope has what they call a right of prevention,
to collate to benefices which the ordinary has not
disposed of. 23. It is not lawful for the pope to
exempt the ordinary of any monastery, or any
other ecclesiastical corporation, from the jurisdic
tion of their respective diocesans, in order to
make the person so exempted immediately de
pendent on the holy see." These liberties were
esteemed inviolable; and the French kings, at
their coronation, solemnly swore to preserve and
maintain them.
These canons, known by the name of the " Re
gale," continued in full force until the reign of
Francis I., who was persuaded by Leo X. to
consent to the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanc
tion, the pope promising to confer upon the king
greater power in ecclesiastical matters than he
had hitherto enjoyed. Francis accordingly con
cluded with the pope a concordat, which gave to
the king tbe nomination to all the benefices in
France. This paction between Francis and Leo
gave great dissatisfaction to both the French

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FRA
people and the French clergy. Thus matters
remained until the reign of Louis XIV., who
commenced, in 1678, a controversy with Pope
Innocent XI. upon the subject ofthe " Regale."
The controversy was conducted with much acer
bity on both sides. But Louis ended it as
Charles VII. had ended the one in which he
was engaged, by summoning an assembly of his
own clergy, and so setting the pope at defiance.
This assembly, which consisted of eight arch
bishops, twenty-six bishops, and thirty-eight
other clergymen, unanimously affirmed the prin
ciples of the " Regale," announcing them in the
form of four propositions, which were registered
by the parliament of Paris on the 23d March,
1682. The "Regale" continued in force until
the revolution of 1789, when the Church was
formally abolished, and religion itself seemed
almost to have disappeared from tbe face of
France. Napoleon, however, restored the Catho
lic Church. In 1801 he concluded a concordat
with the pope ; and it is said that this was the
ene act of his life which he most regretted. In
virtue of this concordat, an alienation of church
lands, to the value of 400 millions of francs,
took place. Tbe clergy were to be paid and
appointed by the state, while the pope retained
the right of canonical institution. No monks
and no religious vows were to be permitted. On
the restoration ofthe Bourbons Pius VII. revoked
the concordat. In 1815 the Gallican Church
was placed in a state of greater dependence on
Rome than it had ever been in before. The in
fluence of the Church, which was crippled by the
revolution of 1830, continued stationary during
the reign of Louis Philippe, and has decreased
since the revolution of 1848. Of late years the
influence of the Ultramontane or Romish party
seems to have prevailed, though it wiU probably
be somewhat lessened by the relations at present
existing (March, 1860) between the Emperor
Napoleon III. and Pope Pius IX. The Gallican
Church has produced some eminent men, among
whom may be mentioned Bossuet, Fenelon, and
Pascal, who have won for themselves an en
during fame. If true piety existed to any con
siderable extent within her pale, it was prob
ably among the Jansenists, who, in the days
when the Port Royal was a literary power in
Europe, were numerous and -influential. — See
Jansenists. But they breathed too liberal a
spirit for Rome to endure, and accordingly they
fell under the smothering incubus of that pet of
the Vatican — the Society of Jesus.
II. Freneh Protestant Church. — When the
Reformation commenced in Germany and Swit
zerland, many who had been imbued with Pro
testant principles came from these countries to
reside in France, as Francis I., the reigning
sovereign, was a patron of learning. Their
principles were not, however, altogether unop
posed. The university of Paris declared against
the reformed doctrines as early as 1521. In

FRA
that year the first Protestant congregation wsis
formed in France, at Meaux. Bucer and Me
lanchthon had just visited the neighbourhood.
Briconnet, Bishop of Meaux, was one of the
converts of Lefevre and Farel, the first preachers
of the reformed faith in France ; and he laboured
to promulgate among the people of his diocese
the opinions which he had himself adopted.
The clergy complained to the Sorbonne ; and, in
1533, the parliament of Paris ordered an inves
tigation into the circumstances. The conse
quence was, that the sword of persecution was
unsheathed. The bishop recanted, and was fined.
But many of his converts in humble life were
more constant, and even submitted to martyr
dom ; and Marguerite de Valois, Queen of Na
varre, who, by his instrumentality, had become
acquainted with the doctrines of the Reformation,
continued to befriend tbe rising cause. This
noble woman exercised the great influence wbich
she possessed over her somewhat weak-minded
brother, Francis, in favour of the new faith. For
a time the Reformation spread rapidly, and France
bade fair to become a great Protestant country.
But priestcraft prevailed. Tournon, Archbishop
of Lyons, succeeded in finally determining Francis
against the Protestants ; and the whole after
part of that king's reign was one continued
bloody crusade against those who were variously
styled Huguenots, Lutherans, or " those of the
religion." Dreadful scenes were enacted through
out the whole of France, among which the mas
sacres of Merindole and Cabrieres stand out
pre-eminent for their atrocity. These were,
however, utterly powerless to prevent the spread
of principles which, founded on truth, were
sure ultimately to prevail.
During the reign of Francis, Calvin pub
lished his admirable Institutes ofthe Christian Re
ligion, with a classic dedication to the king. This
work, which, though written during a stormy
period, is still an honoured text-book with
those who have fallen upon more peaceful
times, exercised a very beneficial influence
upon the Protestant cause. Francis I. died
in 1547, and was succeeded by Henry II., who
persisted in persecuting the Protestants. The
civil courts were enjoined to proceed against
all heretics. In spite of all efforts to extermi
nate them, the reformed doctrines continued to
prosper, receiving a new impulse from the trans
lation, about this time, of the Scriptures into
French, and the turning the Psalms of David
into verse, and setting them to music. The
Protestants now came to have very considerable
influence in the kingdom. Their leaders were
the two princes of the blood, the King of
Navarre, and the Prince of Conde, along with
the illustrious Coligny. Though Faris and
the larger towns remained chiefly Catholic,
the country districts were largely infected with
the new opinions, large numbers of the gentils-
hommes de province, or country gentlemen, being

283

FRA
avowed Protestants. It was in this reign that
the professors of the reformed faith, who had
been for thirty years without any regular organ
ization, first assumed a corporate existence.
In 1555 the first avowed French reformed
church was established in Paris. All the chief
towns followed this example. The first synod of
the French Protestant Church assembled privately
in Paris on the 25th May, 1559. Owing to the
danger of the enterprise only thirteen churches
sent deputies. Nevertheless, the foundations of
an important superstructure were then and there
laid. A complete system of ecclesiastical polity
was speedily adopted; for the members of the
synod had too vivid a sense of the dangers to
which they were exposed to waste time in un
profitable discussions among themselves. The
form of government thus established was thor
oughly presbyterian in its character. It seems
to have corresponded very closely to that of the
Church of Scotland. The consistory may be
viewed as representing the kirk-session; the
colloquy, the presbytery; while the provincial
synods of each are analogous ; and the national
synod corresponds to the general assembly. Tbe
consistory was elected at first by the whole con
gregation over which it was to rule ; but vacan
cies occurring afterwards were filled up by the
colloquy. The ministers were elected by the
colloquy. A minister, on being thus elected,
was required to preach before the congregation
on three consecutive Sabbaths ; whereafter, if no
objection was made, the congregation was con
sidered as acquiescing in the appointment. If
there was any objection, the matter was referred
to the provincial synod, whose decision was final.
These provincial synods have been generally six
teen in number. The national synod has met
but seldom, owing to the severe persecutions to
which the Church has been exposed, and the
increasing restrictions which have been imposed
upon her. The Confession of Faith, adopted at
"the first synod, consisted of forty articles. Its
doctrines were strictly Calvinistic. Though
the Church was much harassed by persecution
during the reign of Henry II., still it greatly
increased: so much so, that we are told that
Beza, who died in 1605, " could count 2,150
churches in connection with the Protestant
Church of France ; and the churches were not
small or insignificant in point of strength.
In some there were 10,000 members. The
church of Orleans had 7,000 communicants,
and the ministers in such churches were propor
tionally numerous : two ministers to a church
was common ; and that of Orleans had five. At
this period there were 305 pastors in the one
province of Normandy, and in Provence there
were 60. Francis II., at the age of sixteen,
succeeded his father, Heny II., in the same year
in which the first Protestant synod was held,
During his short reign of seventeen months, the
condition of the Protestants was not a favourable

FRA
one. The kingdom was ruled by his mother,
Catherine de Medicis, a woman of much talent
for intrigue, and by the Guises. They were at
one in harassing the Protestants to the utmost
of their power. At this point commenced the
" wars of religion," which lasted for forty years,
i. e., to the publication of the edict of Nantes,
and during which, it is calculated that not less
than one million lives were sacrificed. Minutely
to trace the history of this period would exceed
the limits, as it would be foreign to the object of
this article. A few salient points can alone be
noticed. In 1560 Francis II. died, and was
succeeded by his brother, Charles IX., a boy of
ten years of age. During the first part of his
reign matters seemed to take a more favourable
turn for the Protestants. The queen-mother
seemed desirous to conciliate them, as they were
now a powerful party in the state. At one time
it almost seemed as if they were likely to gain
the ascendancy at court. It was now that an
assembly of Catholic and Protestant divines was
held at Poissy, in order to endeavour to effect a
compromise between the opposing opinions. The
attempt was futile. The horizon became again
overcast, and hostilities were resumed. Treaties
of peace were concluded more than once, and
then speedily violated. After the conclusion of
one of those treaties, in 1570, the court used
every means of lulling the Protestants into a
feeling of security and of conciliating their
leaders. Truly this was a deceitful calm be
fore a fearful storm; for it was on the evening
of the 22d August, 1572, that the massacre of
St. Bartholomew's Eve took place. The blood
thirsty Catherine, who urged on the youthful
king to the commission of this horrid crime, had
attracted to the capital large numbers of tbe pro
vincial gentry, and among them many of the
Protestant leaders, by means of the fetes conse
quent upon the marriage of Henri of Navarre
with Marguerite of Valois, sister of the king.
At midnight the work of premeditated carnage
began. About 6,000 Protestants were slain in
Paris alone. Among them was the generous and
brave, but, alas! too confiding Coligny, who was
slain in cold blood on his bed ; whUe the two
other Protestant leaders, the King of Navarre
and the Prince of Conde, being of the blood
royal, were permitted to save their lives by recan
tation. Throughout all France, the numbers
slain amounted, according to one account, to
30,000, and according to another, to 70,000.
A more detestable crime was, perhaps, never
committed under the sanction of the sacred name
of religion  See Bartholomew's Day.
Even this attempt did not succeed in utterly
exterminating the Protestants of France. A
faithful remnant was still left ; and it has been
remarked that a large proportion of the pastors
escaped — God, no doubt, preserving tbem, in
order that they might bear aloft the flicker
ing torch of truth in the days of trial yet to

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come. During the twenty-six years which
intervened between the massacre of St. Bartho
lomew's Eve and the publication of the edict of
Nantes, only six national synods were held ; and
during these years there was a constant alterna
tion of peace and war. One thing that served
to cheer the drooping hearts of tbe Protestants
during this period was the publication of a new
and improved edition of the Genevan Protestant
version of the Scriptures. But brighter days
approach. In 1589 Henry IV., a Protestant,
ascended the throne. He very speedily found it to
be for his interest to belong to the religion of the
majority. But, though become a Catholic, he
was not inclined to be a persecutor. He caused
the persecutions of the Frotestants to cease ; and,
on the 30th April, 1589, signed the celebrated
edict of Nantes. This contiuued to be for nearly
a century tbe charter of Protestant rights, though
it was strictly enforced only during the reign of
its author. Though not admitting the Protes
tants to anything like equality with the Catholics,
it yet recognized them as a party in the state.
They were allowed by it a very considerable
amount of religious liberty. The free exercise
of their religion was granted to them ; and they
were declared eligible for admission into the uni
versities, and for appointments in the public ser
vice. They were permitted to establish public
worship in particular places, within certain limits.
They also received an annual grant of 1,000
crowns. Until the assassination of Henry, in
1610, the Protestants enjoyed a period of repose.
He was succeeded by Louis XIII., a bigoted
Roman Catholic, who, during the thirty-three
years of his reign, persecuted the Protestant
Church, which notwithstanding continued to
flourish. He, in turn, was succeeded by his son,
Louis XIV., who has left a brilliant name in
history, but which has certainly not been gained
by his conduct to the Protestants. He followed
in his father's footsteps, utterly setting at nought
the edict of Nantes, which, on the 8th February,
1685, he formaUy repealed. By this act of
revocation all the protective edicts were repealed,
all sorts of religious assemblies were prohibited,
and all the Protestant clergy were banished from
the kingdom. Encouraged by this illiberal pro
ceeding, the Romish party proceeded to persecute
the Protestants with renewed zeal and increased
cruelty. The consequence of the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, and of the cruelties which
followed, was, that vast numbers of the Pro
testant population finally left a country which
was not worthy of them. The government of
the country, alarmed at the prospect of an ex
tensive depopulation, endeavoured by all means
in their power to arrest tbe fugitives. Notwith
standing all efforts to detain them, large num
bers were successful in effecting their escape,
many, in order to do so, having to assume dis
guises, and not a few having to undergo the
greatest hardships. They preferred even death 28

FRA
itself to the prospect which awaited them in the
country ruled by " the most Christian king."
It is calculated that between 30,000 and 40,000
Protestants fled from France at this time, leav
ing, perhaps, not more than one million co-reli
gionists behind them. The fugitives took refuge
in Great Britain, Switzerland, Holland, Prussia,
Denmark, Sweden, and even in America and at
the Cape of Good Hope. While by this means
France lost many of her best citizens, the countries
which gave the Huguenots a refuge have derived
much benefit from their skill and industry. In
our own country not a few honoured names can
trace back their ancestry to tbe persecuted French
Protestants. But not content with tbe whole
sale emigration which they had caused, the king
and his ministers proceeded to attempt the sub
jugation of the remaining heretics. The Pro
testants of the provinces of Lower Languedoc,
Vivarais, and Cevennes, were exposed to fear
ful persecutions. Butcheries were numerous,
the prisons overflowed, and the galleys were
crowded. These cruelties, which were protested
against by the more liberal Romanists, particu
larly the Jansenists, excited the sufferers to a
pitch of uncontrollable fanaticism. The result
was, that the bloody war of the Camisards deso-
solated tbe south of France from 1702 to 1704.
— See French Prophets, Camisards.
In the closing years of the reign of Louis
XIV., and during the regency of Philippe
d'Orleans, the Protestants were more leniently
dealt with. Though now enjoying external
peace, the Church bejran to exhibit signs of
internal declension. The chief causes produc
ing this effect were the want of trained and
educated men to fill the' office of pastor, and
the spirit of delusive fanaticism which bad
sprung up among the members of the Church.
Tbese defects were remedied mainly by the ex
ertions of Antoine Court, who has been styled
the " Restorer of the Protestantism of France."
He instituted prayer meetings wherever he could,
and also held synods or conferences of tbe minis
ters, along with a few intelligent laymen. By
thus exciting a spirit of prayer and a love of
order, he much benefited the Church. But while
the Protestant Church was gradually recovering
from its depressed condition, it was startled by
the proclamation by Louis XV, on the 14th
May, 1724, of the last great law against the
Protestants. This law reinforced the most se
vere measures of Louis XIV. It sought not so
much to intimidate Protestants into a recanta
tion, or to punisb them if they refused, but
rather sought to force them, willing or not, to
receive the ordinances of the Roman Catholic
Church. For instance, it made baptism by the
parish curate compulsory in every case, and de
clared that no marriage was valid unless per
formed by a Catholic priest. This attempt to
force people into the Church of Rome only drove
them farther from it. Antoine Court was sup-

FRA
ported by multitudes. The provincial synods,
which he had reinvigorated, multiplied; and to
meet the want of pastors he opened a school of
theology at Lausanne, which continued to sup
ply the Protestant Church with pastors until the
time of Napoleon. From 1730 to 1 744 the Pro
testants enjoyed quiet. In the latter year a
national synod was held in Lower Languedoc.
When the news of the holding of this synod
reached Paris, it caused the king and his min
isters to embark in a new crusade of horrors
against the defenceless Protestants. This caused
a new emigration. Calmer days followed the
storm, and after 1760 principles of toleration
began to prevail. The school of Voltaire, while
doing incalculable injury to the cause of religion
and morality generally, did good service in
spreading the principles of toleration and of reli
gious liberty. The nation gradually became
leavened with these principles. Louis XVI.,
though rather inclined to the opposite principles,
was ultimately obliged to yield to the spirit of
the age, and in November, 1788, he published
an edict of tolerance. The privileges granted
by this edict to those who were not Catholics
were the foUowing : — " The right of living in
France, and of exercising a profession or trade
in the kingdom, without being disturbed on
account of religion ; the permission to marry
legally before the officers of justice ; the autho
rity to record the births of their children before
the local judge." It also included a provision
for the interment of those who could not be buried
according to the Roman Catholic ritual. The
first French revolution, occurring in the follow
ing year, still further extended the privileges
enjoyed by the Protestants. They were declared
admissible to all civil offices ; and the son of a
long-proscribed Protestant pastor was actually
nominated to tbe presidency of the constituent
assembly. Animated by renewed hopes, the
Protestant Church proceeded to re-establish to
some extent its primitive external machinery.
Such schemes were speedily frustrated by the
extreme lengths to which the republican govern
ing body soon went. All religion was abolished,
and the goddess of reason was adored. The
churches were shut up, and the ministers were
prohibited from discharging their sacred func
tions. But this state of matters did not long
continue. In 1795 it was decreed that " no one
shall be prevented from exercising the worship
he has chosen, provided he conforms to the laws ;
no one can be forced to contribute to the expenses
of any creed ; tho republic salaries none." Napo
leon placed the Romish clergy and the Protestant
pastors on the same footing, with the exception
of the matter of pecuniary support The former
were paid by the state, and the latter at first
were not. Still the Roman Catholic Church was
not formally acknowledged as the religion of the
state, but only as " the religion of the great ma
jority of the French people."

FRA
Napoleon, however, was not satisfied with
this state of matters as regards the Pro
testant Church, as it left it too much beyond
his own control. He accordingly conceded
to it a modified state endowment, and at the
same time imposed upon it conditions which
deprived it of all independent action. The gov
ernment of the Church was to be by pastors,
consistories, and synods. The synods could not
meet without the consent of the government. In
point of fact, they were never allowed to meet at
all. In 1807 there were not more than 200
pastors. At the restoration of the Bourbons,
though Uberty of worship was proclaimed, the
Catholics began to exhibit signs of their desire
to persecute the Protestants. In the reign of
Louis XVIII. serious disturbances were ex
cited in the south of France. From 1817 to
1830 the Church, though not receiving state
support, was permitted to go on silently, witness
ing for the truth, and endeavouring to propagate
the principles of pure Christianity. ¦ The revolu
tion of 1830 did not much alter the position of
the Protestants, though after it they continued
steadily to increase in numbers. They expected
great advantages from the revolution of 1848,
which ended in placing Louis Napoleon on the
imperial throne. In this they have been disap
pointed. The aim of the present emperor has
been, in ecclesiastical as well as in other matters,
to carry out the Napoleonic ideas as propounded
by his uncle. Accordingly, he has adopted the
principles of the concordat of 1802. The Roman
Catholic Church is looked upon as the church of
the majority, and as such entitled to all respect
from the state. At the same time, the emperor
has repeatedly declared it to be his will that
there should be universal religious toleration
throughout his dominions. Upon the whole,
taking into account the general character of the
imperial system, a considerable measure of liberty
has been enjoyed. It is in the provinces remote
from the capital, where overbearing and priest-
ridden prefects have almost irresponsible control,
that oppression has been chiefly felt. In such
localities authorizations to open Protestant places
of worship have frequently been refused; reli
gious meetings have been dispersed, under the
pretence that they were political gatherings ; and
such occurrences as apprehensions for tract distri
bution have not been unheard of. In some cases
appeals to the central authority in Paris, which
are always, however, troublesome matters, have
obtained redress. Notwithstanding these restric
tions, a good work is being done in many parts
of France ; and here and there a few are begin
ning to see the errors of the system in which
they have been educated.
3. Union of Evangelical Churches in France.
— This body dates its separate existence from
the year 1848. The Protestants throughout the
kingdom resolved, in that eventful year, to hold
an assembly, to take into consideration the new

286

FRA
state of matters, and to concert measures for tbe
future. The first assembly was held in May ;
but its constitution not being satisfactory, it did
not issue in any result, except that of appointing
the time for a second convocation. This was
opened on the 11th of September of the same
year. Its constitution was more correct than
that of the former; but it was still only a volun
tary assembly, wanting the sanction of the law.
Eighty-nine consistories nominated members to
represent them in it, though the number of mem
bers actually present was somewhat less. Their
proceedings were not harmonious. The first
question which they came to consider was,
whether or not they should frame a confession of
faith. Upon this point they differed. The ma
jority held that it would be inexpedient to do so,
whilst a minority strenuously contended that a
confession of faith was absolutely necessary to
their proper existence as a united and harmo
nious corporate body. Refusing to give up their
opinion, the minority seceded, and formed them
selves into a separate ecclesiastical communion,
designating themselves as the " Union of Evan
gelical Churches in France." Their first synod
was held on the 20th August, 1849. Theythen
drew up a confession of faith, and adopted a form
of church government- Their synod meets only
every alternate year. Since their origin they
have been gradually increasing in numbers, and
extending the sphere of their operations. Some
time ago they had twenty-six churches, twenty-
two ministers, and nearly two thousand members.
To enable them to carry and extend their opera
tions, they are in the habit of receiving pecuniary
aid from those in other countries who sympathize
with their opinions. They are wholly uncon
nected with the state, and, so far as their limited
means allow, are zealously engaged in the pro
pagation of evangelical principles, F. Monod
being one of their most distinguished ministers
and leaders.
Francis, St. de Paula, Hermits oC — See
Minims. Francis, St., Fraternity of the Girdle
of. — See Fraternities.
Franciscans, Order of, founded in the
year 1208 by Francis, a reformed prodigal,
and son of a merchant of Assisi, near Naples.
The immediate object St. Francis had in view
in the formation of the community which bears
his name, was to subserve the best interests of
the church, by calling into active devotedness
to the moral improvement of the people, i then so
much neglected by the regular clergy, a class
of men who, having renounced the world, should
go forth unencumbered by cares of any kind, to
preach repentance and amendment of life.
Vows of absolute poverty were at first enjoined
upon the members of the Franciscan order. They
were to renounce all the pleasures of life, and the
possession of any property whatever. They were
authorized by the pope to beg and preach, and

FRA
indulgences were granted more frequently to
them than to any other order. These, with
other privileges, soon excited the envy and op
position of the secular clergy, upon whose rights
the mendicant Franciscans often made great en
croachments. For these trespasses, however, there
was no immediate remedy, as the friars refused
to acknowledge any authority whatever but that
of the pope. At length their rules became re
laxed. They were allowed to possess propertv.
Literature, which they at first despised, began to-
be cultivated within their monasteries, and many
of their austerities were greatly mitigated. Their
celebrity began to spread. Kings and princes
numbered them among their confessors, and men
of their order rose to some of the highest stations
in the church. For about 300 years, from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth century, they main
tained their honourable position; but the rising
of the Jesuits into influence soon effected a ma
terial change in the number and importance of
both Franciscans and Dominicans. The monks
of St. Francis were divided and subdivided into
several minor orders at various times, of which
the following are a few : — The Csesarinians, Cel
estines, Spirituals, the Soccolanti, or sandal-
wearers, the Observantines, Capuchins, Corde
liers, and Alcantarines : the last-named order go
with their feet quite naked. — See Celestines,
Cordeliers, Capuchins, &c. They maintained
the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the
Virgin Mary, in opposition to the Dominicans,
who asserted the contrary dogma. A branch or
sect of the Franciscans founded by Maurato and
Fossombroni in the pontificate of Celestine V.,
and known by the title of Fratricelli, were con
demned by Pope Boniface VIII., by whose
authority, and that of his successor, the terrors of
the inquisition were poured upon them. Pope
John XXII. also hunted them down with great
cruelty, on which account tbey regarded him as
Antichrist. It has been computed that no fewer
than from 2,500 to 3,000 persons were burned
to death by the inquisition from the time of
Boniface VIII. to that of Innocent VI., because
of their attachment to the tenets of the Francis
cans. The relics of this sect of the Franciscans
fell in with the Reformers in the time of Luther.
The Franciscans are not now of very great note
in Europe, though many houses still belong to
them; but they are in a flourishing condi
tion in the United States of America. In
former times the order was so famous that out
of it sprang four popes and forty-five cardi
nals. In the reign of Henry III. they came
into England, and first settled at Canterbury.
They opposed the divorce of Henry VIII., and
suffered imprisonment and dispersion, not a few
of them being put to death. They had sixty
monasteries over the country, which was di
vided into seven districts called custodies, each
governed by a superior called custos.
Ic the year 1212, nuns of the order of St.

287

FRA

Francis made their appearance. The order was
called into existence by Francis himself, and their
first settlement was in the church of St. Damien,
in the town of Assisi. St. Clare was their first
prioress, from whom they were called Nuns of
St. Clare or Clarisses. — See Clarisses. They
were also called Damiantines after the name of
their first convent. Subsequently, they were
divided into several branches, according to the
degrees of austerity which they practised. At
first they were supported by the alms ^collected
by the friars, but afterwards by the revenues
arising from their convents. These convents
numbered 600 in the eighteenth century, and
they contained 28,000 nuns.
Fratercnli Fratricelli (little brethren), the
strictest class of Franciscans, who lived solely
by begging, and regarded Pope Celestine V. as
their founder. In their zeal they often declared
against papal abuses, and were therefore dis
owned by the elder Franciscans, and condemned
bv Pope Boniface VIII. — See Franciscans.
Their Latin epithet was that with which St. Francis
usually saluted his disciples, though the name has
been often given to those who assumed a monastic
gait, without belonging to any monastic order.
Fraternities, societies in popish countries for
purposes of devotion. The more famous of them
are these: — 1. Of the Rosary, which owed its
rise to Dominic, the founder of the rosary. He
appointed it, they say, by order of the blessed
Virgin, as he was labouring for the conversion of
the Albigenses. The devotion of tbe rosary,
which had become neglected, was revived by
Alanus de Rupe, about the year 1460. This
fraternity is divided into two branches, — that of
the Common Rosary, and that of the Perpetual
Rosary. The former, every week, say the fifteen
divisions of ten beads each, confess and communi
cate every first Sunday in the month. The
brethren of it are likewise obliged to appear at
all processions of the fraternity. The latter are
under very strict engagements, the principal of
which is to repeat the rosary perpetually, some
one of them always saluting tbe bbssed Virgin
in the name of the whole brotherhood. 2. Of
the Scapulary, whom, according to the Sabbatine
bull of Pope John XXII., the blessed Virgin
has promised to deliver out of hell the first Sun
day after their death. 3. Of St. Francis's Girdle.
They are clothed with a suck of a gray colour,
which they tie with a cord, and in processions
walk barefooted, carrying in their hands a wooden
cross. 4. Of St. Augustine's Leathern Girdle,
which comprehends a great many devotees, and
the girdle is supposed to have been worn by the
Virgin. Italy, Spain, and Portugal are the
countries where are seen the greatest number of
these fraternities, some of which assume the
name of arch-fraternity. Pope Clement VII.
instituted the arch-fraternity of charity, which
distributes bread every Sunday among the poor,
and gives portions to forty poor girls on the feast 288

FRE
of St. Jerome, their patron. The fraternity of
death buries such dead as are abandoned by their
relations, and causes masses to be celebrated for
them. In Rome the trades are exercised in
fraternities, each having a patron saint, — the
shoemakers having St. Crispin, the carpenters
St. Joseph, the painters St. Luke, the curriers
St. Lawrence, and the tanners St. Bartholomew.
(Broughton's Dictionary.)
Fratres Abbati (white brethren). — See
Abbati. Free Church of Scotland. — See Scot
land, Churches in.
Freemason, probably originally a contrac
tion for freestone mason, was, in early times, one
who could work with a chisel, as distinguished
from one who could only work with an axe or
hammer, in dressing stones. Like other trades
of the Middle Ages, the masons early formed
themselves into a free guild or corporation. This
happened in Lombardy as early as the tenth
century, and in Normandy in tbe twelfth centmy.
Freemasonry is, however, traced by its votaries to
a much more ancient period. The result of such
societies was great in developing taste and skill
on the part of the workmen, who were often
designers as well as performers ; for architects, in
the proper sense of the term, were scarcely known.
Ecclesiastical edifices of great beauty and stateli-
ness being in demand, masons were patronized
by the dignitaries of the church. Their gufids
have been abrogated; but freemasonry, in a
mystic form, still survives, and is spread over
tbe world.
French Prophets, Xhe, were religious
enthusiastics or fanatics, who arose in the south
of France at the close of the seventeenth century,
Their origin has been traced by M. Gregoire to
a certain " school of the Prophets," in Dauphiny,
conducted by a Calvinist named Du Serre. This
statement, however, wants confirmation. They
seem to have been closely connected with the
Camisards, by wbich name, indeed, they are
sometimes designated. The wars of the Cami
sards were caused by the intolerant measures
taken by Louis XIV., after the revocation of the
edict of Nantes. The Camisards, so called from
the white frocks wbich they wore, took up
arms in their own defence, and were led by
young men, who assumed the joint offices of
captain and pastor, without any previous
training for either. They fought courageously
and successfully, because they fought for life
itself. The king was at last obliged to come to
terms with thein. But during the sore and pro
tracted struggle which they had had, they had
come to acquire undue notions of their own im
portance, looking upon themselves as peculiarly
favoured of the Lord, and considering their
leaders as the inspired depositaries of his will.
Thus they were prepared to acquiesce in the pre
tensions of the French prophets, who first appeared
in Dauphiny and Vivarais in 1688. They were

FRI
of both sexes, and numbered at first between five
and six hundred, though they soon amounted to
many thousands. They believed, or at least
declared themselves to be under the direct in
fluence of tbe Holy Ghost. They went into
trances, saw visions, and made the Cevennes
mountains ring with their howlings and cries for
mercy. When in this ecstatic state, every word
they uttered was received by the deluded popu
lace with superstitious awe and veneration. In
1706 a few of the prophets came over to Eng
land, where the same manifestations occurred as
in France. The great subject of their predic
tions was the speedy establishment of Messiah's
kingdom. They likewise pretended to possess
the gift of tongues and the power of working
miracles. They obtained for some time con
siderable success in Great Britain, having their
admiring foUowers not only in London, but also
in the chief provincial towns. They were even
joined by some parties of influence — such as Sir
Richard Bulkely and John Lacey, Esq. The
latter, who was originally a member of Dr.
Calamy's congregation, entered, we are told,
" into all their absurdities, except that of a com
munity of goods, to which he strongly objected,
having an income of £2,000 per annum." The
enthusiasm was at one time immense. But the
prophets were soon put to the test, and did not
stand it. They went so far as to assert that
Dr. Ernes, one of their own number lately de
ceased, would rise from tbe dead on a given day.
Tbis the doctor failed to do ; and the foUowers
of the prophets speedily found out that they had
been the dupes of their own credulity. The
influence of the prophets speedily declined ; but
their proceedings left a stigma for a time upon
the reputation of the Huguenot refugees settled
in Britain.
Friar (from the Latin frater, a brother), a
title generally appUed to a brother of a religious
order or community. As those monks who are
in holy orders are denominated fathers, the term
friar is applied only to monks not included in
the priesthood. There are four generic orders :
1. Franciscans, friars minor, or grey friars ; 2.
Augustines ; 3. Dominicans, or black friars ; 4.
Carmelites, or white friars.
Friars, Minor. — See Franciscans.
Friday, the day of weekly fast, in memory
of the crucifixion ; and also a day of public wor
ship in the early Church ; sometimes also called
half-fast, in opposition to the whole or Lent fast.
Friends of God, societies which sprang up
in Germany in the thirteenth century, formed
originally of men who, satiated with popish rou
tine and frivolity, longed for a spiritual faith, and
had not a fuU and harmonious comprehension of
divine truth. They based their name on John
xv. 15. The famous Tauler was one of them ;
but not a few of them fell into a pantheistic
quietism — a reaction from the mere externalism
of the Popish Church. Finding no peace in

FUN
ceremonial, they strove after a hidden life in
God, but forgot the necessity of a clear percep
tion of objective truth. The convictions spread
by them paved the way for the great Reforma
tion ; for thousands were pining for a purer and
simpler worship of the heart. — See Common
Lot, Brethren op the.
Friends, Society of. — See Quakers.
Fall Connection, Receiving into, a
technical phrase in use among the Wesleyans,
implying the honourable termination of the four
years' course of trial appointed to probationers
for the ministry among them. Mr. Benson gives
the following particulars of the method pursued
in the choice of itinerant preachers: — " 1. They
are received as private members of society on
trial. 2. After a quarter of a year, if they are
found deserving, they are admitted as proper
members. 3. When their grace and abilities are
sufficiently manifest, they are appointed leaders
of classes. 4. If they then discover talents for
more important services, tbey are employed to
exhort occasionaUy in the smaller congregations
when the preachers cannot attend. 5. If ap
proved in this line of duty, they are allowed to
preach. 6. Out of these men, who are called
local preachers, are selected the itinerant preach
ers, who are first proposed at a quarterly meet
ing of the stewards and local preachers of the
circuit, then at a meeting of the travelling
preachers of the district, and lastly in the con
ference, and if accepted, are nominated for a
circuit. Now those of the probationers selected
who require a course of training in theology are
sent to one or other of the academical institu
tions. 7. Their characters and conduct are ex
amined annually in the conference, and if they
continue faithful for four years are recdved into
full connection."
Fundamentals  The question as to what
are the fundamental truths of religion has often
been debated in connection with theories of
schism, heresy, toleration, and excommunication ;
but it has not been satisfactorily settled — some
latitudinarian men narrowing fundamentals to a
very few points, and other fanatical men multi
plying them to an undue extreme. Locke
thought that the one point was simply a confes
sion that Jesus is Messiah ; Samuel Clarke took
his view from Hebrews vi. 1,2; many others,
such as Usher, Chillingworth, Davenant, StUling-
fleet, and Tillotson, were content with the enu
meration of the Apostles' Creed ; while Romanists
accept the definition of the church as the only
rule. TVaterland defines fundamentals in reli
gion as things necessary to its being, or, at the
least, its well-being. Some things are only neces
sary as matters of ritual and discipline, and other
things there certainly are without belief in
which salvation is impossible. — See Evangelical
Alliance and its creed. How the strict theory
works will be seen in the following paragraph, in
which Mr. Palmer, without sigh or scruple, nn-

280

U

GAB
churches aU presbyterian parties in Scotland,
both endowed and unendowed : — "These questions,
however, are not essential in the discussion of
the presbyterian ordinations; for it is certain,
that such ordinations having been performed with
out any necessity, and im opposition to the author
ity of the bishops of Scotland, were in their
origin illegitimate and schismatical ; and the
catholic Chnrch in all ages has rejected Such
ordinations, and accounted them whoUy null;
therefore, the presbyterian establishment being
founded in schism, and destitute of an apostoUcal
ministry, constitutes no part of the visible Church
of Christ. With regard to aU the other sects in

GEN
Scotland which have seceded from the presby
terian community, such as Glassites, SandeMan-
ians, Seceders, Burghers, Antiburghers, Constitu
tional Associate Presbytery, ReUef Kirk, Scottish
Baptists, Bereans, Independents, &c, the same
observations apply to them all. Their predeces
sors, the Presbyterians, voluntarily separated
themselves from the cathoUc Church of Christ;
and they, in departing from the presbyterian
communion, have not yet returned to that of the
true Church, consequently, they form no part of
the Church of Christ."
Funeral or Funeral Rites or Service.
—See Burial.

Gabriel, St., Congregation of, was
founded at Boulogne by Branchetti, in 1646,
for religious improvement. Gabriel, St., Feast
of, is observed by the Greek Church on the
twenty-sixth of March. A joint festival of St
Michael and St. Gabriel is also celebrated by
the same church on the first of November.
Gaianites, a party of Monophysites which
took its name from Gaian, Patriarch of Alexan
dria, in the sixth century. They denied that
Jesus was subject to any human infirmity, hold
ing that his body was so permeated by his di
vinity as to be incorruptible, thus taking an
erroneous view of that physical perfection which
belonged to him.
Gnlenists.— See Waterlandians.
Galilaetun, the name given to the oil for
catechumens in the Greek Church.
Galilean, a name often given to the early
Christians, as Christ and his apostles had a
close connection with Galilee (Acts ii. 7). Julian
the Apostate scarcely used any other term to ex
press his malignant scorn. Jesus he called " the
Galilean God ;" and when he was on the eve of
death he is said to have cried, as he con
temptuously addressed the Saviour, "Galilean,
thou hast conquered."
Galilee, a species of inner porch at the west
end of many old churches, and stiU attached to the
three cathedrals of Durham, Ely, and Lincoln,
which were erected about the end of the twelfth
century. It seems to have been connected with
purposes of discipline. Excommunicated persons
sat there, and the women also assembled there at
certain seasons. The name is supposed to be
derived from the words of the angel to the wo
men — " He goeth before you into Galilee, there
shall ye see him." The Galilee at Durham has
five aisles and three altars, and the consistory
court is held in it; that of Lincoln is at the
south-west corner of the south transept, and is
cruciform in shape; while that of Ely differs
little from an entrance porch.
Gallican Church.— SeeFRANCE,CHURCHES
in.

Gate, Holy, the name given in the Greek
Chnrch to the folding doors in the centre of the
screen which divides the nave of the church from
the most holy place. They are opened and shut
several times during service.
Gates, Holy. — See Jubilee.
Gazares, a sect which rose at Gazarre, in
Dalmatia, about 1197. They held as a special
point that capital punishment was unlawful, and
that no civU power had any right to inflict it
Their other opinions were not different from those
of the Albigenses.
Gazopbylacinin (treasury). The diaconicum
magnum was so called (which see). It was also
called sceuophylacium, or repository of sacred
vessels. — See CeimeliarchjE, Church.
Gemara, or completeness, the elaborate com
mentary on the Mishna, text and commentary
together making the Talmud. One commentary
was compiled at Jerusalem, another at Babylon,
which is the more highly esteemed, and has been
printed in twelve folio volumes. It is fuU of
miserable superstition and fables. — See Mishna,
Talmud. Gematiia. — See Cabala.
General Assembly.— See Assembly, and
Scotland, Churches in.
General Baptists. — See Baptists.
General Councils. — See Councils.
Generation, Eternal, the name often ap
plied in theology to describe the relation of the
Son to the Father, — a relation beyond human
analogy and comprehension.
Genethlia (ymSxia hpi;a, birthday), a feast
of nativity, such as Christmas, or rather the an
niversary of a martyr's death, being, as TertuUian
says, his nativity to a glorious crown.— See
Christmas. Genevieve, St., Feast of, celebrated on the
third of January in Paris, in honour of the
patroness saint. Congregation of, an order of
canons regular, originating in 1615 — the Abbot
of St. Genevieve being superior of all their monas
teries. Nuns of two orders of nuns, one founded
by Miramion, in Paris, in 1615 ; and another in

290

GEN
1636 by Blosset, and united under Miramion in
1665. Their office was to educate the young,
visit the sick, and do other deeds of charity. A
sister underwent two years of probation, and
when admitted, was clothed in black wooUen,
and repeated the oflice ofthe Virgin every day.
Genuflectentes (kneelers), the third class
of catechumens or penitents, so caUed because
they received the benediction on their knees.
They continued in this class for three, and occa-
sionaUy for seven years.
George, St., Festival of, is observed in the
Greek and Roman Churches on the twenty-third
of April. St. George is the patron saint of
England, and is famed in Romish legend for
vanquishing the dragon. He was born in
Cappadocia, and in 290 died a martyr under
Diocletian, in whose army he had held a
high command. When Robert, son of WiUiam
the Conqueror, was besieging Antioch, St.
George, with a red cross on his banner, appeared,
with a countless host clad in white, as if descend
ing the hills to reinforce the Christian army
against a threatened assault of the Saracens.
The enemy fled in dismay at the strange and
supernatural sight, and St. George, to whom
Justinian had already dedicated a church, be
came patron saint of England. — See Knights.
Georgian Church. — Georgia, which is an
Asiatic province on the southern slope of the Cau
casus, and was anciently called Iberia, originally
belonged to Persia, but is now a part of the
Russian empire. The primitive religion of the
Georgians was probably a modification of that
of the Persians. They were converted to Chris
tianity in the fourth century, chiefly through the
instrumentality of a Christian female captive,
whose prayers were beUeved to have effected
cures which aU other means had failed to pro
duce. A door of entrance being thus opened,
preachers were sent from the Roman empire to
instruct the people in the principles of the Chris
tian religion, to which they have ever since
remained faithful. The Georgian Church, from
its proximity to Armenia, was led to join in the
secession made by the church of that country
from the orthodox Eastern Church. In fifty
years, however, it returned to the communion of
the latter, of which, since that time, it has formed
an integral part. Though nominaUy subject to
the Patriarch of Constantinople, to whom a
tribute was paid, it possessed for fifteen centuries
patriarchs of its own. In 1801 Georgia was
conquered by Russia from Persia. The Georgian
Church was then easUy incorporated with the
Russian Greek Church, and became subject to
the Archbishop of Tiflis. The single peculiarity
which distinguishes it from other branches
of the Oriental Church is that it delays the
baptism of children untU their eighth year.
There are in Georgia a large number of monas
teries and nunneries. In the latter the women
are so efficiently educated that it has been

GER
remarked that the female population is better
instructed in the doctrines of Christianity than
the male, or even than the priests themselves.
Germany, Churches in — The first explicit
mention of the spread of Christianity into Ger
many is made by Irenseus, who was Bishop of
Lyons in the latter half of the second century.
The earliest period at which regularly organized
Christian churches seem to have existed in Ger
many was towards the close of the third century.
The knowledge of Christianity seems to have
been carried simultaneously to the banks of the
Rhine and to those of the Danube. The German
invaders of the Roman empire, in the fifth cen
tury, were either Christians before their invasion,
or became so immediately afterwards. In the end
of the sixth century a number of new churches
were founded in Germany, chiefly through the
zealous efforts of Columbanus, an Irish monk.
StUl the great mass of the German tribes re
mained under the influence of paganism. In the
eighth century the cause of Christianity in Ger
many received a powerful impulse through the
labours of Winifred, an English Benedictine
monk, afterwards known by the name of Boni
face. Towards the end of the eighth century
Charlemagne succeeded in establishing an out
ward form of Christianity throughout Saxon
Germany. At the commencement of the thir
teenth century Prussia was still almost entirely
pagan. The Knights of the Teutonic Order of
St. Mary succeeded, after a fifty-three years'
war, in subduing it to the Christian faith ; and
it has thenceforth been » professedly Christian
country. In the course of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries Christianity took deep root in
aU the German countries. The power of the
papacy grew, and the Church seemed Ukely to
monopolize aU authority. The doctrines that
the priest is the only true channel of communi
cation with heaven, and that there is no salva
tion beyond the pale of the Catholic Church,
were stoutly maintained. Men of reflection be
gan to see that these principles were absurd and
pernicious ; but it was reserved for an humble
yet earnest German monk to inaugurate the
movement which resulted in the glorious Refor
mation. Germany nobly responded to the call
of Luther, and has since been to a large extent
a Protestant nation. Ever since the peace of
Westphalia, in 1648, Germany has been almost
equaUy divided between Protestantism and Ro
man CathoUcism — the north having been predo
minantly Protestant, and the south predominantly
Catholic. In Austria and Bavaria the Catholics
are in a large majority. In Prussia the Protes
tants are in the majority. In Hanover, Wiir-
temberg, Baden, Hesse Cassel, and Hesse Darm
stadt, Nassau, Oldenburg, and the four free
cities, the Protestants also predominate. The
Protestant Church in Germany is split up into a
large number of separate sections, each petty
state having its own distinct church organization.
91

GER
Thus, territorially considered, there are no less
than thirty-eight distinct Protestant Churches
in Germany. _ TheologicaUy considered, how
ever, there are but three, viz., the Lutheran
Church, the Reformed Church, and the Evan
gelical United Church. These three we now
proceed to notice.
I. The Lutheran Church dates its origin from
the year 1520, when Luther was expelled by
Leo X. from the Romish Church. It assumed
a more definite shape on the publication, in 1530,
of the Augsburg Confession. This confession,
the composition of Melanchthon, assisted by
Luther, consists of twenty-eight articles, twenty-
one of which contain an explanation of the
chief Protestant doctrines, the remaining seven
being occupied with an enumeration of the va
rious abuses which had caused Luther and his
foUowers to forsake the Church of Rome. The
Lutheran Church was finally estabUshed in 1552,
when Maurice, the Elector of Saxony, formed a
religious pacification with Charles V. at Passau.
The standards of the Lutheran Church are — the
Augsburg Confession; the Apology for it, pub
lished in 1531; the Larger and Shorter Cate
chisms of Luther; the Articles ofSmalcald; and
the Formula of Concord. The Lutheran and the
Reformed Churches both recognize the Word
of God as the only binding rule of faith and
practice, but the Reformed Church considers that
in ecclesiastical affairs nothing ought to be per
mitted to have place for which there is not
a direct warrant in the Scriptures; while the
Lutheran Church, on the other hand, holds that
certain forms of worship, of which the Scriptures
say nothing, and which are in themselves suit
able, may be legitimately admitted. Accordingly,
"the Lutheran Church, while it has removed
the grosser elements of the Romish ritual, such
as the mass, the adoration of saints and relics,
and the use of the vernacular in conducting
divine service, adheres much more closely to the
stated liturgical and sacramental system of Ro
manism than the Reformed Church, which has
adopted the utmost simplicity of worship." The
great leading principle which Luther strenuously
proclaimed was the doctrine of justification by
faith; and in so doing, he maintained what
has ever since been considered the fundamental
principle of Protestantism. There are, how
ever, points with regard to which he, and the
Lutheran Church following in his footsteps,
occupy a position midway between Popery and
genuine Protestantism. The chief of these regards
the nature of the Lord's Supper. Luther, though
denying that there is any sacrifice in the mass,
or any atonement made thereby, yet held the
real presence of Christ's humanity in, and with,
and under the material elements in the Lord's
Supper. This opinion the Lutherans have always
persistently maintained. Luther was so much
occupied in reforming theological opinions, that
he had but little time to bestow upon the secular

GER
affairs of the Church. He paid little attention
to the theory of church government. Thus the
Lutheran Church, emancipated from the thraldom
of the pope, submitted uncomplainingly to the
sway of temporal princes; and spiritual inde
pendence is unknown in Germany. Notwith
standing this state of matters, there always
existed in the Lutheran Church, down to the
union with the Reformed Church, in 1817, a
considerable amount of genuine religious life.
A party of strict Lutherans refused to join
the union, and they constitute the Luther
ans proper of the present day. They are char
acterized by a spirit of exclusive bigotry, and
an inordinate love of the formaUties of religion.
They correspond very much to the English Pusey-
ites. As the Puseyites seem to imagine that
there can be no salvation to any who have not
received the ordinances of the Church from the
hands of a successor of the apostles, so the
Lutherans act as if none could rank as a Chris
tian brother unless he pledged himself to the
Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord.
They wUl hold no communion with those who
deny a real andi objective presence of Christ's
humanity in the eucharistic elements. They
are consequently strenuous opponents of the prin
ciples of the EvangeUcal Alliance. It is gene
rally found that where a strict, Lutheranism
prevails, there the light of genuine Christianity
burns but feebly, and the standard of morality is
unusually low. The countries iu which, at the
present time, Lutheranism is most powerful are,
— Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg, Thuringia,
Saxony, Brandenburg, the Hanseatic towns,
Pomerania, Silesia, and Prussia. The form of
government of the Lutheran Church in Germany
is presbyterian; but in Denmark and Sweden,
where Lutheranism is more powerful than in
Germany, it is episcopal.
An extensive branch of the German Lutheran
Church exists in the United States of America.
It arose from emigrations from Europe at various
periods, commencing with 1680. For a long
time its condition was weakly, and its prospects
were the reverse of encouraging. But it grew
and flourished by degrees, until it now stretches
over all the Middle and Western States and some
of the Southern, numbering, according to late
accounts, nearly 900 ministers, and perhaps
thrice as many congregations, with eight theolo
gical seminaries and five colleges. Though form
ing but one church, it includes within its pale
three parties, - the Old Lutheran, the New
Lutheran, and the Moderate or Melanchthonian
party. Though great diversities exist among
the members of this church, both in doctrine
and in ceremonial observances, tbe church is
making rapid progress, and its influence for good
or evil must be very great, owing to the large
numbers of German emigrants yearly arriving
in tbe United States.
II. The Reformed Church owes its origin to

292

GEE
Ulrich ZwingU, the reformer of German Switzer
land. Zwingli had, by the study of the works
of Euss, Wycliffe, and others, obtained a know
ledge of the reformed opinions. Though con
temporary with Luther, he worked out his sys
tem altogether independently of the German re
former, declaring that he did not care though
men called him a heretic like Luther, but refus
ing to be called a Lutheran. The fundamental
principle upon which Zwingli proceeded, and
which has ever been maintained by the Re
formed Churches was, that the Bible is the sole
standard by which the doctrines and ceremonies
of the church are to be regulated. Accordingly,
whUe Luther and the Lutheran Church retained
such of the Romish ceremonies as they looked
upon as matters of indifference, Zwingli and the
Reformed Church sternly rejected them as being
devoid of Scriptural authority. But the ques
tion which kept Luther and Zwingli farthest
apart was that relating to the nature of the
Lord's Supper. Luther's doctrine of consubstan
tiation virtuaUy involved the dogma of a real
material presence. Zwingli contended that the
sacramental elements were merely symbols. It
was this point alone which prevented Zwingli
from adhering to the Augsburg Confession. A
controversy was carried on upon this subject be
tween Luther and Zwingli from 1527 to 1529 ;
and a public discussion took place between
Luther and Melanchthon on the one side, and
ZwingU and CEcolampadius on the other. It
ended, however, without any satisfactory result.
Though the Reformed Church was founded by
Zwingli, its character and constitution have been
much modified by the influence of Calvin. After
the death of Zwingli, Calvin's influence in the
Helvetic Church became paramount. The points
upon which Calvin and Zwingli differed were
the nature of the Lord's Supper and the form of
church government. In contradistinction to the
opinion of ZwingU upon the first of these sub
jects given above, Calvin held that in the sacra
ment there is a real presence, not material, but
spiritual. With regard to church government,
ZwingU assigned considerable ecclesiastical in
fluence to the civU magistrate, while Calvin held
that the Church ought to possess a government
totally distinct from that of the civil power, and
would admit of no interference of the latter with
the affairs of the former. Accordingly, on the
death of Zwingli, the Church laid aside his view
of the Eucharist in deference to that of Calvin,
and remodelled the constitution of the Church
according to the strict views of presbyterian
equality held by the latter. " The doctrine and
discipline of the Reformed Church, as modelled
by Calvin, were soon afterwards established over
a great part of Europe. In 1560 Frederic III.
removed the Lutheran teachers in Germany, and
filled their places with Calvinists, and at the
same time obUged his subjects to accept tbe rites
and discipline of the Church of Geneva. This

GER
order was annulled by his son Louis in 1576, but
again enforced in 1583 ; and Calvinism regained
a sway which in Prussia it has lost only in the
present generation." The spirit which emanated
from Geneva speedily effected a lodgment in
Germany, and showed itself in the formation of
numerous churches which took the name of Re
formed in contradistinction to the Lutheran.
These were pervaded, as to doctrine at least,
more by the spirit of Calvin than of Zwingli.
Though these two men were the chief founders
of the Reformed Church, it owed much of its
consolidation and establishment to such men as
CEcolampadius, Bullinger, Farel, Beza, Ursinus,
and Olevianus. It took its rise in German
Switzerland, and found a home afterwards in the
Palatinate, on the Lower Rhine, in Friesland,
Hesse, Brandenburg, and Prussia. The Re
formed Church in Germany, as well as elsewhere,
was characterized by a simplicity of worship and
an earnest practical godliness, which the Lutheran
Church did not exhibit. The former, too, draws
a marked distinction between sacramental signs
and sacramental grace; while the latter is but too
ready to view them as always co-existing. The
Reformed Church lays no stress upon tradition,
but discards aU for which Scripture warrant can
not be shown. The doctrine of the universal
priesthood of believers is one to which this
Church gives special prominence. The Reformed
divines of Germany of more recent times are not
strict Calvinists, especiaUy with regard to the
doctrine of predestination, but rather tend to
agree with the more moderate or Melanchthonian
Lutherans; Hence they readily acquiesced in
the scheme of union which resulted in the forma
tion of the United Evangelical Church, with
which they are now for the most part incorpor
ated. The recent attacks of the high Lutherans
upon the principles of the Reformed Church have
called the friends of these principles to the defen
sive. For some years an annual Reformed con
ference has been held in connection with the
sessions of the diet of the United Evangelical
Church. Should the extreme Lutherans succeed
in destroying the union, the Reformed Church
wiU doubtless again form the rallying point of
the defenders of evangelical Protestantism.
The German Reformed Church has also a re
presentative in the United States. The German
Reformed Church in America was founded by
emigrants, chiefly from the Palatinate, who, in
the days of Penn, took up their abode in Pennsyl
vania. They have since frequently received ac
cessions from the Rhenish provinces and the
other parts of Germany in which the Reformed
are numerous. Their congregations are most
numerous in Pennsylvania, and next in Ohio.
They have also a considerable number of churches
in Maryland and Virginia. The constitution
of the Church is presbyterian ; and they have
two synods, an eastern and a western. Accord
ing, to recent accounts they have about 300

293.

GER
ministers and nearly 100,000 communicants,
with three theological seminaries. The only
standard of the Church is the Heidelberg Cate
chism. During recent years the Church has
been agitated by keen theological discussions, and
some of the other denominations have charged
them with laxity of doctrine. Nevertheless this
Church is labouring to fulfil the great ends of a
Christian Church among the German population
of the United States, and is likewise in mission
ary work. — See Creed, Form op Concord,
Heidelberg Catechism.
HI. The United Evangelical Church. — The
first attempt to unite the Lutheran and Re
formed Churches was made, shortly after they
assumed a distinct existence, by the Landgrave
of Hesse. In 1529 he summoned to Marburg
the chief German and Swiss reformers. They
there agreed upon fourteen fundamental articles,
as expressing their common faith. The only
point upon which they could not agree was that
concerning the nature of the Eucharist. Many
other attempts to unite the two churches were
subsequently made by various individuals.
None of them was at all successful until the year
1817. During this year it was proposed to cele
brate the third centenary of the German Refor
mation, and Frederick William III., King of
Prussia, selected this occasion as a fitting one for
giving a practical iUustration of the oneness of
Protestant principles, by effecting a union be
tween the Reformed and Lutheran Churches.
On the 27th September, 1817, he issued a decree,
stating that it was the royal wish that the two
Churches should henceforth form one United
Evangelical Church. In making this suggestion,
there is no reason to doubt tbat the king was
actuated by truly Christian motives. The royal
wish was immediately and heartily acceded to
by the clergy of Berlin, and generally by the
whole clergy and people of Prussia. Of about
8,950 Protestant congregations, 7,750 are said to
have joined the union. The example of Prussia
was speedily followed throughout a large part of
Germany. It was first followed by Nassau, and
the union was effected in the Palatinate of
Rhenish-Bavaria in 1818 ; in Baden in 1821 ;
in Rhenish-Hessia in 1822 ; and in Wiirtemberg
in 1827. Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria Proper,
and Mecklenburg remained exclusively Lutheran.
In Austria the Lutheran and Reformed branches
of the Protestant Church still continue to
exist separately, under the names of the
Augsburg and Helvetic Confessions. The
king's intention in consummating this union
was not to secure uniformity of doctrine, but
uniformity in the form of worship and the mode
of church government. The great fault of the
scheme was the undervaluing of the importance
of creeds and confessions. The king proposed to
borrow the form of church government of the
new church from the presbyterian system pre
viously in use among the Reformed Churches, and

294

GER
her ritual from the liturgy of the Lutheran
Churches. A clerical commission had been ap
pointed to frame a new Uturgy, but, having
failed in the attempt, the king took the task into
his own hands, and, with the assistance of the
court chaplains and a pious layman, succeeded
in framing one, which he published in 1821. Its
reception was commanded ; but several clergy
men refused compUance. Some alterations and
additions were made, which seemed to give
pretty general satisfaction. The king com
manded that, on the twenty-fifth of June, 1830,
the third centenary of the presenting of the
Augsburg Confession, the new liturgy should be
read in all the churches. Some of the Lutheran
clergy refused to read it, and many of them
were, in that and the following year, suspended
from their offices. Driven from their churches,
they were not allowed to conduct worship else
where, for, in 1834, all Lutheran worship was
declared illegal. The outrages upon religious
liberty were most violent in SUesia and Posen,
where the Lutherans were most numerous.
Meetings for prayer were broken up by the
police, tbe property of the recusants was confis
cated, and all petitions and remonstrances ad
dressed to the government were treated with con
tempt. To such an extent were these rigorous mea
sures carried, that a considerable number of the
Lutheran inhabitants were glad to emigrate to
South Australia. In 1837, in consequence of a new
cabinet order, the Lutherans looked for freedom
from their unchristian persecution. Their ex
pectations were not realized until, in 1840, the
present king ascended the throne. He at once
put a stop to the disgraceful measures which his
predecessor had taken to insure Christian union ;
and in 1845 the Old Lutherans were permitted,
in the capacity of dissenters, to form themselves
into a separate ecclesiastical organization. In
recent years a strong Lutheran party, headed by
Hengstenberg, has arisen within the United
Evangelical Church. This party advocates the
necessity of a separate organization of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches, within the
framework of the national church. The king,
though having no sympathy with the views of
this party, has been obliged to make them some
concessions, which have had the effect of render
ing apparent the different parties of which the
united church is composed. These parties are
described by Dr. Schaff as :— (1) " The Anti-
confessional or Latitndinarian Unionists, who
base themselves on the Bible simply, without the
church symbols, and embrace a number of liberal
divines ofdifferent shades of opinion." (2.) "The
Evangelical Unionists, or the consensus party,
which takes for its doctrinal basis the Bible, and
the common dogmas of the Lutheran and Reformed
confessions." (3.) " The strict Confessionalists,
who regard the union as a mere confederation of
the two confessions under a common state-church
government." The United Evangelical Church,

GIL
like the two communions out of which it was
formed, has an American representative, calling
itself the German Evangelical Association of the
West. This Church was founded at St Louis,
Mobile, in 1841, by seven ministers of the Ger
man United Church. In 1857 it had about
thirty ministers. It was originally intended
merely for the Western States, but a branch has
since been formed iu Ohio. This Church adopts
as its standards those of both the Lutheran and
Reformed Churches ; "and where they differ"
they "hold alone to the relevant passages of
Scripture, and avaU" themselves "of that free
dom of conscience which prevails on such points
in the Evangelical Church."
Gilbertines, a monastic sect founded in the
year 1148, by St Gilbert, of Sempringham, in
the county of Lincoln. There were nuns also of
the same name. The monks followed the rule of
St Augustine, and the nuns that of St. Benedict.
Thirteen monasteries were established by GUbert
himself; four for men alone, and nine for men
and women : the houses of the women were sepa
rated by a high wall from those of the men.
Girdle. — See Fraternities,
Glasgow. — The city of Glasgow is famed
for the general assembly which met in it on
Wednesday, 21st November, 1638, the Mar
quis of Hamilton being the royal commissioner,
and the Rev. Alexander Henderson being moder
ator. It consisted of 140 ministers and 98 rul
ing elders, — 17 of whom were noblemen, 9
knights, 25 landed proprietors, and 47 burgesses.
The commissioner dissolved the assembly when
they proceeded to judge the prelates; but the
assembly, though convened by the royal author
ity, refused to be dismissed in this peremptory
manner, and continued its bold deliberations to
the 20th of December. During this busy period
it condemned the service book, the canons, and
the high commission, declared the six assemblies
held since the accession of James to the English
throne to have been " unfree, unlawful, and
null," excommunicated two archbishops and six
bishops, deposed four bishops, and suspended
two, and restored the presbyterian form of gov
ernment to its primitive integrity.
Glassitcs. — See Sandemanians.
Glebe (land belonging to a parsonage),- -In
England, every church of common right is en
titled to house and glebe: witbout such assign
ment no church at first was regularly consecrated.
The fee simple of the glebe is in abeyance. After
induction the freehold is in the parson, by
whom, nevertheless, it is not alienable without
proper consent of the bishop, and usually by act
of parliament; neither must he commit waste,
under which term the opening of mines on glebe
land is not prohibited. Glebe lands in the hands
of the parson do not pay tithe to the vicar;
nor in the hands of the vicar to the parson. But
if the vicar be specially endowed with the small
tithes of the glebe of the parsonage, then he shall

GLE
receive them, though they are in the hands of the
appropriator. If a parson lease his glebe lands,
and do not also grant the tithes thereof, the tenant
shall pay the tithes thereof to the parson; and if
a parson let his rectory, reserving the glebe lands,
he shall pay the tithes thereof to his lessee. If
any incumbent shall die, and before his death
hath caused any of his glebe lands to be manured
and sown at his proper costs and charges, with
any corn or grain ; in such case every such in
cumbent may make his testament of all the profits
of the corn growing upon the said glebe lands, so
manured and sown (28 Henry VIII., 11.) But
if his successor is inducted before tie severance
thereof from the ground, he shall have the tithe ;
though not after severance, and before carrying.
Such also is the law in cases of resignation and
deprivation. Canon lxxxvi. says, " We ordain
that the archbishops, and aU bishops within their
several dioceses, shall procure (as much as in them
lieth) that a true note and terrier of all the glebes,
lands, meadows, gardens, orchards, houses, stocks,
implements, tenements, and portions of tithes,
lying out of their parishes (which belong to any
parsonage, or vicarage, or rural prebend) be taken
by the view of honest men in every parish, by the
appointment of the bishop (whereof the minister
to be one), and be laid up in the bishop's regis
try, there to be for a perpetual memory thereof."
By 182 Vict, c. 106, the bishop may assign
four acres of glebe to the curate occupying the
house of a non-resident incumbent.
Every minister of the Established Church of
Scotland, with the exception of ministers in royal
burghs and the second minister of a collegiate
charge, is entitled by law to a glebe of four
arable acres, — and if there be no arable land
in tbe parish, to sixteen soumes of grass " ad
jacent and maist nearest to the kirk " (Statute
1606, c. 7.) A soume of grass is what suffices
to feed one cow or five sheep. The act 1663
(repeating the rescinded act 1664), directs, " that
every minister have fuel, foggage, feal, and divots,
acccording to the act of parliament, made anno
1593 ;" and it then goes on to declare, that he shall
also have pasturage, which was included with
fuel, &c, in that statute ; but, instead of doing so
in the general terms of the old statute, it speciaUy
provides, that "every minister(except such minis
ters of royal burghs, who have not right to glebes)
have grass for one horse and two kine over and
above their glebe, to be designed out of the kirk
lands, and with rgUef according to the former
acts of parUament standing in force. And, if
there be no kirk lands lying near the minister's
manse, out of which the grass for one horse and
two kine may be designed ; or, otherways, if the
saids kirk lands be arable land, in either of these
cases ordains the heritors to pay to the minister
and his successors yearly the sum of £20 Scots
for the said grass for one horse and two kine,
the heritors always being relieved, according to
the law standing, off other heritors of kirk lands

295

GLO
in the said paroch." Under this statute all
ministers entitled to glebes have right to grass
for a horse and two cows, over and above their
glebe, out of whatever church lands may be in
the parish not arable ; and where all the church
lands are arable, to £20 Scots annually in lieu
thereof. Church lands alone are liable to be desig
nated for minister's grass, so that where there
are no church lands in the parish, there can be
no designation of grass in kind. (Dunlop's Pa
rochial Law^ p. 110.)
Gloria in Excelsis.— See Doxology, An
gelic Hymn.
Gloria Patri. — See Doxology.
Glory be to thee, O Lord! — A form of
praise very anciently used at the time of the
reading of the gospel in the church. " When
we are met together in the ecclesiastical theatre,
as soon as the deacon opens the book of the
gospels, we all look upon him with silence, and
when he begins to read, we presently rise up, and
say, Glory be to thee, 0 Lord "— (" Fifty-second
Homily on the Circus," in vol. vi., p. 491, of the
Faris edition of Chrysostom.) In the English
Liturgy of 1549, there was a direction for the use
of these words immediately before the reading of
the gospel. That direction was omitted in the
Liturgy of 1552, but the custom seems to have
been retained, and is almost universal in Eng
lish churches at the present day.
Glossa Ordinaria, the expository manual
of the MiddleAges, compiled by Walafrid Strabo
out of the comments of Rabanus Maurus.
Gloves, one of the special insignia of a
bishop, along with the ring, &C' — See Bishop.
Gnosimachi (fighters against knowledge),
the professed antagonists of Gnosis, or theological
science or knowledge, in the seventh century.
The sect was a rebound from the Gnostic party.
They placed religion wholly in a right life, for
getting, to a great extent, the study of Scripture,
and shunning all insight into the deeper mysteries
of the Gospel. They forgot to add " to virtue
knowledge." Gnostic— This term, which implies the pos
session of knowledge, may be conveniently under
stood as denoting all those pretenders to superior
knowledge who associated, however variously, the
Oriental philosophy with some belief in Christ.
The basis of those wild speculations in which the
eastern philosophers indulged seems to have been
the question, What is the origin of evil? and
before the time of our Saviour's appearance, a
variety of theories had been invented to solve, as
was vainly supposed, the hopeless difficulty. With
these theories were blended, though in a strangely
perverted form, some portions of that which the
Old Testament had revealed ; for the inter
course occasioned by the captivity of the Jews,
between that people and the heathen nations
of the East, had not only caused the belief of
many Jews to be tinged with Oriental and Gre
cian notions, but seems also to have supplied the

GNO
heathen sages with some important ingredients to
work up into their fanciful systems ; and this, even
before the introduction of that Christian element
which pervaded the teaching of those who are
noted in the history of the Church as Gnostic
heresiarchs. For independently of that Chris
tian element, we find that such ideas as the
following had been very generaUy adopted by
those speculators : — In the first place, they all
acknowledged the existence of one eternal and
Supreme God. But then, finding it impossible
to attribute to him the introduction of evil into
the world, they were led to connect the origin of
evil in some way or other with matter, which also
they supposed to have existed from eternity. They
differed as to whether the evil principle in matter
was active, or only inert and passive. The Syrian
Gnostics inclined to theformer opinion— the Alex
andrian to the latter. The Alexandrian sects,
therefore, were driven to make more use than the
others of that which may be regarded as the great
Grecian element in their systems, viz., the theory
of successive emanations of intelligent beings
proceeding from the great First Cause. iEons
(alZvts) they were afterwards called. These were
supposed to lose their resemblance to their original
more and more as they were farther and farther
removed from him; and in this way there came
into existence a mighty being called the Demiurge
Qti/uou^yis), supposed to be identical with the
God of the Jews, who either ignorantly or ma
liciously — either without the sanction, or in op
position to the will, of the Supreme God — set to
work upon the inert matter already existing, and
formed out of it the world and aU things that
are therein. But the inventors of these fables
knew that there was, in some at least of our race,
something of good and holy origin, and to account
for this, they next taught that the Supreme God
inserted into the man whom the Demiurge had
formed a particle of higher and spiritual Ufe.
This divine element was in some way or other to
be rescued in due time from the material body
with which it was thus combined, and to be
brought back into the pleroma, or fulness of light,
in which the Supreme God had his habitation.
And when the preaching of the Gospel had pre
sented a new feature of which these philosophers
could avail themselves, they generally did so in
this way. They taught that to assist in the
deliverance of the spiritual soul from the defile
ments of matter and the tyranny of the Demi
urge, one of the first and purest of the jEons
— viz., Christ — came down upon Jesus at his
baptism, and remained united to him till a short
time before his crucifixion, enabling him to
impart to mankind a clearer knowledge than
they ever enjoyed before of the true nature of
God, and of the dignity and destiny of the souls
of men. Such were the general principles in
which the Gnostics for the most part agreed. But
they admitted of being combined with an endless
variety of details, and some of them may be found

296

GOD
nnder the articles Basilidians, Carpocra-
tians, Certnthians, Valentinians, &c. We
have only to add here, in the words of Gieseler,
that " the principle of the Gnostic morality,
freedom from the fetters of the Demiurge and of
matter, led to rigid abstinence and a contem
plative life. But when the pride of dogmatism
among the later Gnostics had stifled the moral
sense, they partly fell upon the expedient of
giving out the moral law to be only a work of the
Demiurge, for the sake of indulgence in several

Godfathers and Godmothers, sponsors
for chUdren at baptism in popish and episcopalian
churches. — See Baptism, p. 55. They seem
originally to have answered for sick persons, and
for such as could not answer for themselves, as
well as for chUdren. They pledged themselves
to look after the chUd's education, and to ad
monish grown-up persons of the duties which
their baptism devolved upon them. Parents
were not debarred from being sponsors tiU the
council of Mentz, 813. In the Church of Eng
land, the rubric says, " And note, that there shall
be for every male child to be baptized two god
fathers and one godmother; and for every
female, one godfather and two godmothers.
When there are children to be baptized, the
parents shall give knowledge thereof over night,
or in the morning before the beginning of morning
prayer, to the curate. And then the godfathers
and godmothers, and the people with the child
ren, must be ready at the font, either immediately
after the last lesson at morning prayer, or else
immediately after the last lesson at evening
prayer, as the curate by his discretion shall ap
point. And the priest coming to the font (which
is then to be filled with pure water), and stand
ing there shaU say." In the Church of Rome
marriage is forbidden between those who stand
in the spiritual relations of godparents and god
children, without a special dispensation.
Golden Legend, the collection of the lives
of the saints, compUed, in the thirteenth century,
by John de Voragine, vicar-general of the
Dominicans It long had credit in the Church of
Rome. Golden Number. — The golden number (so
called from its being written in gold, or from the
great value formerly set upon it) is a periodical
revolution of the moon for nineteen years, during
which the ancient astronomers thought that the
Sand the moon returned to the same aspects
' were at nineteen years before. When they
observed on what day of each calendar
month the new moon fell in each year of the
cycle, they prefixed the number ofthe year to it,
and thus obviated the use of astronomical tables.
But as the cycle of the moon is less than nineteen
Julian years, by nearly one hour and a-half, it
was found that though the new moons during
each period of nineteen years might fall on the
same day of the year, they would not fall on the

GOO
same hour of the day. Thus the new moons
having been found to fall four days and a-half
sooner than the golden numbers indicated, the
act of George II., in 1752, ordered that they
should only be placed against the twenty-first of
March and the eighteenth of April, the earliest
and latest days on which Easter can fall, and
some of the intermediate days. (Bates's Chris
tian Antiquities.)
Golden Rose, such a rose was first sent to
Joan, Queen of Sicily, in 1366, by Pope Urban
V., and one is consecrated annually by the pope
on the fourth Sunday in Lent, and being set in
precious stones, is sent as a special mark of
honour to those thought worthy of it, and often to
crowned heads.
Good Friday, the day of our blessed
Lord's crucifixion, which was originally ob
served as part of the sacred season of Easter ;
the name of wac^a being applied to the whole
period of the festival; and the Passion Week,
and sometimes Good Friday itself, being dis
tinguished as Kaff%a eravgairiptv. In the course
of the second and following centuries a separate
observance of this day was estabUshed, and the
foUowing are some of the ordinances peculiar to
it : — It was kept as a strict fast, continued by
some persons even through the following day.
The Lord's Supper was celebrated, but the ele
ments were consecrated the day before. Com
munion tables and reading-desks were stripped of
their ornaments; doxologies,introits, and the like,
were omitted ; music and bells were silent ; the
customary genuflexions were avoided, as well as
the sacred kiss and embrace, — the former because
the Jews bowed the knee in mockery (Matt.
xxvii. 29), and the latter because Judas betrayed
bis master with a kiss. In very early times St.
John's account of the passion was read instead
of that from the harmonies. The day has been
called, "Dies absolutionis " — the day of absolution,
because it was usual at this time to absolve peni
tents from ecclesiastical penalties ; "Dies salutans"
— the day of salvation ; " Ccena pura " — to ex
press the completeness of the fast ; " sragxtrxwii" —
tbe preparation, in reference to the Jewish ritual ;
Long Friday, among the Saxons, from the length
of the fasts.— See Cross.
Good Sons, Order of, was founded by a
few pious artisans in Flanders in 1615, and it
adopted, in 1626, the third rule of the Francis
cans. They practised great austerity, and were
flagellated thrice a-week. They wore a black
costume, had at least three congregations or
houses, and obtained the direction of several hos
pitals from Louis XIV.
Good Works, those works which spring
from faith and love, and are the fruits of the
grace and Spirit of God. They are thus spoken
of in Articles xU. and xiii. of the Church of
England, — " Albeit that good works, which are
the fruits of faith, and follow after justification,
cannot put away our sins, and endure the severity

297

GOO
of God's judgment; yet are they pleasing and
acceptable to God in Christ, and do spring out
necessarily of a true and lively faith ; inso
much that by them a lively faith may be as evi
dently known as a tree discerned by the fruit.
Works done before the grace of Christ and the
inspiration of his Spirit, are not pleasant to God,
forasmuch as they spring not of faith in Jesus
Christ, neither do they make men meet to receive
grace, or (as the school authors say) deserve
grace of congruity : yea rather, for that they
are not done as God hath willed and commanded
them to be done, we doubt not but they have
the nature of sin." Chapter xvi. of the West
minster Confession is not less expUcit, — " Good
works are only such as God hath commanded in
his Holy Word, and not such as, without the
warrant thereof, are devised by men, out of
blind zeal, or upon any pretence of good inten
tion. 2. These good works, done in obedience
to God's commandments, are the fruits and evi
dences of a true and lively faith : and by them
believers manifest their thankfulness, strengthen
their assurance, edify their brethren, adorn the
profession of the Gospel, stop the mouths of the
adversaries, and glorify God, whose workman
ship they are, created in Christ Jesus thereunto ;
that, having their fruit unto holiness, they may
have the end eternal life. 5. We cannot, by
our best works, merit pardon of sin, or eternal
life, at the hand of God, by reason of the great
disproportion that is between them and the
glory to come, and the infinite distance that is
between us and God, whom by them we can
neither profit nor satisfy for the debt of our
former sins; but when we have done all we can,
we have done but our duty, and are unprofitable
servants ; and because, as they are good, they
proceed from his Spirit; and as they are
wrought by us, they are defiled and mixed with
so much weakness and imperfection, that they
cannot endure the severity of God's judgment.
6. Yet notwithstanding, the persons of believers
being accepted through Christ, their good works
also are accepted in him ; not as though they
were in this life wholly unblamable and unre-
provable in God's sight; but that he, looking
upon them in his Son, is pleased to accept and
reward that which is sincere, although accom
panied with many weaknesses and imperfections.
7. Works done by unregenerate men, although,
for the matter of them, they may be things
which God commands, and of good use both to
themselves and others ; yet, because they proceed
not from an heart purified by faith ; nor are
done in a right manner, according to the Word ;
nor to a right end, the glory of God ; they are
therefore sinful, and cannot please God, or make
a man meet to receive grace from God. And
yet their neglect of them is more sinful, and
displeasing unto God." Such doctrinal teaching
is plain. Salvation is of faith, and not of
works. For 1. The statement that salvation is

GOS
of works involves an anachronism. Works, in
order to procure salvation, must precede it, but
the good works described by the apostle come
after ii, for they only appear after a man lives,
believes, and is in Christ. 2. The statement
that salvation is of works involves the fallacy of
mistaking the effect for the cause. Good works
are not the cause of salvation ; they are only the
result of it. Salvation causes them; they do
not cause it. It is this workmanship of 'God —
this creation in Christ Jesus, which is their true
source, and these preparatory means imply a
previous salvation. Thus runs the weU-known
confessional formula, — bona opera nonpraxedunt
justificandum, sed sequuntur jusiificaium. The
law says: "Do this and live;" but the Gospel
says : " Live, and do this." 3. And even such
good works can have in them no saving merit.
The power and the desire to perform good works
are alike from God ; for they are only fruits and
manifestations of Divine grace in man. They
are not self-produced, and therefore cannot en
title us to reward. Such, we apprehend, is the
apostle's argument. Still, though salvation is
not of good works, it is in order to good
works. The works termed good are the in
tended fruits of salvation and acceptance with
God, proofs of holy obedience, tokens of the en
joyment of Christ's image, elements of the imita
tion of Christ's example, and the indices of that
hoUness which adorns the new creation, and
" without which no man can see the Lord."
But there can be no productive love of God
where there is no faith in his Son, and where
that faith does exist, salvation is already pos
sessed The disputes on this point at the period
of the Reformation were truly lamentable : Soli-
fidians and Synergists battled with mischievous
fury, — Major arguing that salvation was depen
dent on good works, and Amsdorf reprobating
them as prejudicial to it ; while Agricola main
tained the Antinomian absurdity, that the law
itself was abolished, and no longer claimed
obedience from believers.
Gospel (good news), appUed sometimes to the
four inspired biographies, at other times denoting
the scheme of divine mercy. In the Church of
England it means technicaUy the portion of the
gospel read after the epistle, and during the
reading of wliich the congregation stands, the
preface being " Glory be to thee, 0 Lord."
Gospeller is the minister who stands at the north
side of the altar, and reads the gospel ; and in
some cathedrals one of the clergymen is thus
specially designated. — See Epistoler.
Gospels, Spurious, shoals of these were in
early circulation. The Evangelist Luke speaks
of "many who had taken in hand" to compose
biographies of Christ Somewhere about sixty
spurious gospels have been enumerated, eight of
which survive, nearly, if not wholly, entire; and
fragments and notices of at least fifty more are
well known to scholars. They had their origin

298

GOS
in curiosity, credulity, and pious fraud, and they
usually dweU upon those points on which the
canonical gospels are silent. Thus the Proto-
evangelium and Nativity of Mary give us events
which extend to the eighth year of our Lord's
Ufe ; the History of Joseph ends with his nine
teenth year; and the events of his condemnation
and death are found in the Acts of Pilate. In
Tischendorf s edition we have, — Protevangelium
Iacobi, Graece ; Pseudo-Matthaei EvangeUum,
Latine (altera parte ineditum) ; EvangeUum de
nativitate Mariae, Latine ; Historia Iosephi
fabri lignarii, ex Arabico Latine ; EvangeUum
Thomae, Graece A; EvangeUum Thomae,
Graece B (ineditum); EvangeUum Thomae
Latinum (ineditum) ; EvangeUum infantiae, ex
Arabico Latine; Gesta Pilati, Graece A ; Gesta
Pilati, Graece B (ineditum); Descensus Christi ad
inferos, Graece ; Gesta Pilati, Latine; Descensus
Christi, ad inferos, Latine A (xiv. Epistola Pilati
prior) ; Descensus Christi ad inferos, Latine B (in
editum) ; Epistola Pilati (altera), Latine ; Ana
phora PUati, A, Graece ; Anaphora Pilati, B,
Graece; Paradosis PUati, Graece; Mors Pilati qui
Iesum condemnavit, Latine (ineditum) ; Narratio
Iosephi Arimathiensis, Graece ; Vindicta Salva-
toris, Latine (ineditum). The Protevangelium of
James, in Greek, was published first in 1552, and
is probably the work of a Jew, dwelling on the
events of Mary's life and the wondrous birth of
her son. It gives us the name' of the Virgin's
parents as Joachim and Anna, and says she was
only fourteen years of age when married to
Joseph. The Gospel of Thomas, in two forms,
dwells on the wonders of our Lord's early youth,
as if the miracle at Cana had not been the first
wliich he wrought. The so-called miracles of
his youth are sUly legends. The Book of the
nativity of Mary and infancy of the Saviour, in
Latin, or the Pseudo-Matthaei EvangeUum is not
by any means so old as the other gospel of the
nativity of Mary, for it contains a plea for celibacy,
and virtuaUy for the worship of Mary. The Arabic
Gospel ofthe Infancy -was first published in 1697
from a manuscript purchased at Leyden, and
is taken mostly from the Protoevangel, with
many Egyptian legends. The History of Joseph
was first published in 1722, from a manuscript in
the Royal Library at Paris, and describes itself as
a history told by Jesus himself to his disciples as
they sat on the Mount of Olives. The Acts of
Pilate or Gospel of Nicodemus, the second part of
which is called the Descensus, is an account by
two men, sons of Simeon, of what happened in
Hades when Christ died, the two narrators
being among those who came out of their graves
at the crucifixion, and " went into the holy city."
As a specimen we subjoin a brief summary of a
portion of the Gospel of Thomas : — All fear
him. One day, as he is playing with other
boys on the roof of a house, one ofthe boys falls,
and is killed ; the rest flee. Jesus, when charged
with the deed, calls the dead body to life to con-

GOT
tradict the accusers. Another time he sees a
crowd round a young man, who has dropped a
hatchet on his foot, and is bleeding to death : he
heals him. His mother sends him, when six
years old, to fetch water; he breaks the pitcher,
but brings the water in the folds of his dress.
He goes with his father to sow, and from a
single grain gathers in an hundred homers, which
he gives to the poor. Again, when Joseph was
making a bed for a rich man, one piece proves
too short; Jesus lays hold of it and stretches it
to the right size. Joseph sends him to a school
master, who essays to teach him his letters.
Jesus says, as before, " Explain to me the force
of A, and I wiU explain the force of B." The
master smites him, but is struck dead. (Tischen-
dorf's Evangelia Apocrypha, Leipsise, 1853. —
See Acts. Cambridge Essays, 1856 ; Fabricius
and Thilo's Collections ; Hone's Apocryphal New
Testament). Gossip, spelled more correctly by Chaucer,
gossib, is literally god-sib, sib being a Saxon
adjective stiU common in Scotland, signifying
" of kin." The term is applied to godparents or
sponsors in baptism, as having contracted a
divine relationship to the child and one an
other — being akin in God, and so near akin that
the Romish Church debarred them from inter
marriage. — See Godfather. And because those
who became god-sib may have been given to much
idle and familiar tattle on such occasions, retail
ing the news and scandal of the district at bap
tismal feasts, gossip graduaUy acquired its pre
sent signification.
Gothic Architecture has for its leading
characteristic the pointed arch. The hypothesis
that this order originated in the imitation of an
avenue of overarching trees is not well sustained.
The pointed arch rather arose from the intersec
tion of semicircular arches in that Norman style
which preceded the Gothic in this country. In
Gothic architecture, not only is the pointed arch
prominent, but the piUars are extended far beyond
classical proportions, and shafts are placed side by
side, variously clustered and combined, the pier
being a bundle of such vertical shafts surround
ing a pillar. On the outside, buttresses of great
projection often shoot up into pinnacles symbolic
of the soul's aspirations toward heaven, and in
the interior the shafts are continued on the
arch-mouldings. The pillars and walls are
covered with leaves, blossoms, and curious
devices, and the large rose or circular window
above the entrance symbolizes the silence which
should reign in the sanctuary. Dragons and
strange forms of demons are carved so as to ap
pear crushed and writhing under pillars and
door posts. The most beautiful specimens of the
decorated style of Gothic in this country are the
nave and west front of York Minster, the choir
of Lincoln, and St. Stephen's Chapel, West
minster. Gothic architecture spread itself over
Western Europe about the close of the twelfth

GOT
century, and the cathedral of Cologne and the
minster of Strasburg, are renowned speci
mens. Of the Gothic there are various styles,
such as the early EngUsh (which see), with
acute arch and narrow windows, extending
from 1190 to 1245. By and bye the tops of
such windows were surmounted by a circular
window, while in the later decorated English, the
arch was included within an equUateral triangle.
The windows were enlarged and fiUed with
flowing tracery, and pinnacles sprang up of ela
borate beauty. This style prevaUed from about
1307 to 1377. During the succeeding epoch
the arch became blunter and more depressed, as
in the doorway of King's College Chapel, Cam
bridge, and Italian details were intermixed as
the classical orders began to be restored. For
popish worship or cathedral service the Gothic,
with its lofty roof and " dim religious light "
is well fitted, but it is not so well adapted,
by any means, to a place of Christian instruc
tion as well as devotion, and many recent and
miserable imitations of it are useless and offen
sive. Gothic Version is the Mseso- Gothic version
of the Bible made by Ulphilas, Bishop of tbe
Visigoths, in the fourth century. The four gos
pels are found in the Codex Argenteus, and frag
ments of the epistles have been collected from
various places. A useful and handsome edition
in quarto of the New Testament, with a gram
mar and dictionary, has been published by
Gabelenz and Loebe, Leipzig, 1836-1846. — See
Aroentkus Codex.
Goths, Christianity among the. — The
Goths were a barbarous race, who appear promi
nently on the page of history during the early
centuries of tbe Christian era. They originally
dwelt upon the coasts of the Baltic, but after
wards migrated to those of the Black Sea. Their
religion was a pagan one. They were divided
into two sections, — the eastern, or Ostrogoths,
and the western, or Visigoths. During the third
century, they, along with other barbarous tribes,
made frequent incursions into tbe Roman do
minions. Among the prisoners whom they made
in these incursions were not only some who had
embraced Christianity, but also, we are informed,
some Christian priests. These authorized teachers
of the Christian faith succeeded, by the excellence
of their conduct and the beauty of their characters,
in gaining the respect and esteem of their heathen
captors, and in convincing them of the truth and
worth of the Christian doctrines. More teachers
were applied for and obtained, and by their exer
tions several Christian churches were founded
among the Goths. Considerable success attended
the labours of the missionaries among the Goths.
This is evidenced by the fact, that among those
subscribing the decrees of the councU of Nice, in
a.d. 325, occurs the name of Theophilus, Bishop
of the Goths. Among the descendants of the
captives who had been the means of introducing

800

GRA
Christianity among the Goths, was Ulphilas*
who has been styled the Apostle of the Goths.
He is reported to have furnished the Goths
with an alphabet, and, about the middle of the
fourth century, he translated the Bible from the
Greek into the language which he had been
instrumental in reducing to writing. The re
mains of this translation now extant are the
Codex Argenteus, the Codex Carolinus, and the
Ambrosian Manuscripts. These, especiaUy the
first, are of much value to the student of biblical
criticism. Ulphilas attained to the dignity of
Bishop of the Mseso- Goths, and held that office
for a lengthened period. During his episcopate,
his services as mediator between the Goths and
the Romans were extremely valuable. The cele
brated Chrysostom, when, towards the close ofthe
fourth century, he held the office of Patriarch
of Constantinople, made strenuous efforts for the
conversion of the Goths. In the fifth century,
Christianity had made very considerable progress
among the Goths ; and their clergy began to study
theology as a science. To the influence which
Christianity had obtained over these hitherto
barbarians is to be attributed the respect which
they paid to the Christian churches, and the
clemency which they showed to those who had
taken refuge therein  See Argenteus Codex.
(BesseU iiber das Leben des Ulphilas, 1860.)
Grace (the divine favour), is, in theology,
used with various appellations. Thus, "gratia
prosveniens" — preventing or prevenient grace for a
person to be converted ; "gratia operans " — opera
tive grace on a person who is being converted ;
"gratia co-operans " — co-operative grace given to
a person who has been converted, to secure his
sanctification; "gratia condigna" — grace with
merit, the doctrine of the Thomists that a man
may act so as to be worthy of eternal life ; "gra
tia congrua " — grace with fitness, the doctrine of
the Scotists that man has such a fitness for
grace that God cannot refuse it Grace common,
is what, in the Arminian theory, all men have,
or may have, "gratia communis;" grace special,
what belongs to the people of God, or the elect
believers, "gratia specialis."
Graces, the name of certain concessions,
amounting to fifty-one, which Charles I. made
to his Irish subjects. Besides taking some re
striction from off the Catholics, and declaring
that Scottish settlers in Ulster should be " free
denizens " of Ireland, it was provided in relation
to the church, by the thirty-fifth grace, that
pluralities of benefices should not be conferred
on incompetent ministers, " and that such as are
invested therein are to be compelled to keep
preaching, and sufficient qualified curates, whereby
both God's glory may be advanced, poor scholars
provided for, and encouragement given to stu
dents to enable themselves for that high func
tion." By the forty-first, it was ordered, among
other matters, that " such persons as have great
rectories, whereunto there are chapels-of-ease be-

GRA
longing, somewhere six or seven miles distant
from the mother-church, are to be enjoined to
keep preaching ministers in those parts, having
competent allowance to defray the same." Aud,
by the forty-ninth, it was agreed, that " all un
lawful exactions taken by the clergy are to be
reformed and regulated," by a commission to be
appointed for this special purpose. Like the
indulgences, these graces were simply put forth
by royal prerogative, and the Irish parliament
was prevented by various means from ratifying
them. (Reid's History, vol. i.)
Gradual or Graile, a name given to the
Antiphony before the Reformation, because por
tions of it were chanted on the gradus, or steps of
the ambo. — See Ambo, Antiphony.
Grandimontans, a monastic seot which
took their name from the vicinity of Muret their
first establishment to Grandmont in the district
of Limoges. Their founder was Stephen of
Thiers, a nobleman of Auvergne, who obtained
permission to institute a new order from Gregory
VII., in 1073. His first purpose was to establish
the rule of St. Benedict, but ultimately he drew
up a rule of his own. It was very strict, en
joining poverty and obedience, denying flesh
even to invalids, commanding sUence and soli
tude, and committing the secular affairs of the
monastery to the lay brethren, so that the cleri
cal brethren might give their undisturbed atten
tion to divine things. The popularity of the
order was great for a long period after the in
stitution,, and sixty houses belonged to it. But
its glory waned when disputes took place be
tween the clerical and lay brethren, and the
rigour of the rule was greatly modified.
Graphe or Gramma (y^atp-zi or ygdpfta,
writing), a name given to the creed in the early
church. — See Creed.
Greek, a term of reproach applied to the
early Christians. — See Christians.
Greek Chnrch. — This Church can claim a
higher antiquity than any other now existing,
as it was in Palestine and Asia Minor — coun
tries included within the Umits of the Greek or
Eastern Church — that the Gospel was first pro
claimed. Christianity soon spread over the
whole Roman empire, taking, perhaps, deeper
root in the West than it ever did in the East.
From a very early period, points of difference
have existed between the Eastern and Western
Churches. The first of these we find in a con
troversy which arose in the second century re
garding the proper time for the observance of
Easter. The Eastern Churches held that it
should be observed upon the day on which the
Jews were in the habit of observing the pass-
over, — viz., on the fourteenth day of the first
month. Victor, Bishop of Rome, and the West
ern Churches maintained that " a Friday should
always be consecrated to the memory of Christ's
passion, and a Sabbath to the memory of Christ's
resurrection." This controversy, so unimpor-

GRE
tant seemingly to us, sowed the seeds of dissen
sion, which finally resulted in a complete separa
tion between the two churches. The next point
of dispute concerned the relative position and
power of the bishops of Rome and Constantin
ople. When the latter city was made the capi
tal, its bishop began to assert bis equality with,
if not supremacy over, the spiritual head of the
Western Church. This rivalry commenced in
the fourth century; and though two general
councils gave decisions on the subjeot, the con
test for supremacy continued tUl at least the
close of the sixth century. The animosity thus
engendered found new vent for itself in a con
troversy respecting the use of images, which
arose in the eighth century. The introduction of
images into Christian churches was favoured by
the Western Church and opposed by the Eastern.
About the same time a contest commenced con
cerning a matter which has ever since been one
of the leading points on which the two churches
have differed. This was the doctrine of what is
styled the procession of the Holy Spirit. The
Spanish Church had added to the Constantin-
opoliian creed, which declared that the Holy
Spirit proceeds from the Father, the words,
" and from the Son." The Latin Church
adopted the addition, and maintained the doc
trine, now acquiesced in alike by Roman Catho
lics and by Protestants, that the Holy Spirit
proceeds both from the Father and from the Son.
Tbe Greek Church refused to acknowledge the
addition ; and the doctrine that the Holy Spirit
proceeds from the Father alone is to the present
day one of the distinctive tenets of that Church.
The last general council in which the two
churches were united was the second council of
Nice in 787. Their final separation was effected
in the eleventh century, when the pope excom
municated Michael Cellularius, the Patriarch of
Constantinople. Numerous attempts, which we
do not stay to particularize, have been made at
different times to effect a reconcUiation and re
union between the Greek and Latin Churches.
The last of these was made by Pope Pius IX.
in 1848. The Greek clergy have at various
times been disposed to look with favour upon
these attempts, but the laity have generally re
sisted. The consequence is, that the union has
not yet been accomplished.
The rule of faith, according to the Greek
Church, consists of the Scriptures and the decrees
of the first seven general councils. The Greek
Church accepts the authority of tradition. It
does not claim infallibility for itself or its head,
though it refuses to tbe people the right of pri
vate judgment. It holds the doctrine of pre
destination only in a modified sense. The in
tercession of saints and angels, and of the Virgin
Mary is permitted — the latter being styled " the
Immaculate Mother of the divine Word." The
Greek Church has seven sacraments or " mys
teries." They are baptism, chrism, the Euchar-

301

GRE
ist, penance, ordination, marriage, and the
euchelaion, or holy oU. Baptism may be per
formed either by immersion or by sprinkling.
Chrism corresponds to the confirmation of the
Western Churches, inasmuch as it is viewed as
the supplement of baptism, but differs from it,
inasmuch as it (chrism) foUows immediately
upon baptism, and is not, Uke confirmation, de
layed for a period of years. The Eucharist is
administered to the laity m both kinds. The
clergy of the Greek Church are frequently low
born and ignorant, and are viewed more as the
hirelings of the state than as the true pastors of
the Christian flock. The monks generally fol
low the order of St. Basil. The higher clergy
are chosen from among the monks, and are not
permitted to marry. The inferior clergy are
allowed to marry, hut cannot contract a second
union. In the event of their becoming widow
ers, it is customary for them to retire to a mon
astery. Of the Greek Church as a whole, it has
been said that it is much more orthodox in
creed than it is pure in practice. The churches
which had a Greek origin, and are generally
comprehended in the Greek Church, are the
Russian, Georgian, Montenegrine, and Nestorian
Churches. The numbers of the adherents of the
various branches of the Greek Church are said
to be as follows:— In Russia, 50,000,000; in
Turkey, 12,000,000; in Greece, 800,000; in
the Austrian dominions, 2,800,000; in the
patriarchate of Alexandria, 5,000 ; in that of
Antioch, 150,000 ; and in that of Jerusalem,
15,000,': in all, about 65,500,000  See Russo-
Greeic Church, Eastern Church, Councils,
Euchelaion. Greeting House (receptorium or salutato-
rium), the room for receiving and saluting
strangers, attached to many of the early
churches, and referred to by many of the old
writers, such as Theodoret and Sulpitius Severus.
Gregorian Chant, the general name
given to the collection of chants compiled by
Gregory the Great about the year 600. These
chants had been in existence before the time of
this compUer, and many of them are said to
have been handed down from the period of Am
brose, who introduced them from the East.
These beautiful chants, variously modified and
harmonized, are still the basis of cathedral
music — See Ambrosian Chant.

hj:r
Grey friars, the Franciscan monks, so called
from the colour of their ordinary costume.
Groningcnists, a sect of the " Refined," or
more strict Anabaptists, so called because they
held their regular conventions at Groningen. It
is said that now they differ not from ordinary
Baptists. — See Waterlandians.
Guardian of the Spiritualities and
Temporalities. — See Custos.
Gule of August or Lammas Day (Gula
Augusti), & feast mentioned in some old statutes,
as that of West. 2, c 30. It is the feast, of St.
Peter ad Vincula, in bonds, which happens on the
1st of August, and which received its name from
the following legend of the Romish Church, as
related by Durand from Bede. The feast itself
was first instituted by Theodosia, the Empress of
Theodosius II., who, whUe on a pUgrimage to
Jerusalem, was greatly scandaUzed by observing
a festival celebrated at Alexandria on the Kalends
of August, in honour of the triumph of Augustus
over Antony and Cleopatra. Accordingly, hav
ing obtained at Jerusalem the chains with which
St. Peter had been bound by Herod, she carried
them back to Rome, where they were no sooner
produced before the other chains which had been
used for the same purpose by Nero than they
became agglutinated into one mass by some holy
attraction. Theodosius, therefore, built a church
in honour of the apostle, which was consecrated
on the Kalends of August, and in which he depo
sited the chains. The name is derived by tra-
ditionists from "gula " — the throat, because the
daughter of the tribune, Quirinus, who was
afflicted with goitre, was healed on kissing the
chains. Others derive the word from the Celtic
" Wyl," or " GwyL" signifying a festival. It thus
would not differ in meaning from yule, as some
aUege  See Christmas. Others say that the
first day of August, as the first day of the
Egyptian year, was called Gule, and Latinized
into Gula ; but there seems to be little founda
tion for the assertion. — See Lammas Day.
Gyrovagi, a set of rambling monks that
wandered from place to place, imposing on the
people, bent on self-gratification — "eating the
fat and drinking the sweet," or as St. Benedict
says of them "propriis voluplatibus et gulce il-
lecebris servientes " — slaves of pleasure and ap
petite, lazy, and gluttonous.

II

Habadim, a Jewish sect of Quietists in
Poland, giving themselves to mystical contem
plations, and shunning the external modes of
worship peculiar to their nation. Their name is
derived from the three initial letters of the three
Hebrew words signifying wisdom, discretion, and
knowledge. They are not on the increase.

Hatretico Comburcndo, an ancient writ
for the burning of heretics, who having once
renounced the heresy of which they had been
convicted, had again relapsed into it. Before
the time of Henry IV. persons convicted of
heresy before the archbishop in his provincial
synod were delivered over to the king to do

302

HAG
with them as he thought fit ; but, in the second
year of that king's reign, an act was passed
(Cap. 15), conferring upon the diocesan power
to examine and convict heretics without the in
tervention of a synod ; and, in case of their
refusing to abjure their heresy, or of their re
lapse after abjnration, the sheriff was bound to
have them burnt, on the receipt of the writ de
haerelico comburendo, signed by the diocesan
alone. This power was taken away by the
statute 29 Charles II., cap. 9 ; but the jurisdic
tion of the ecclesiastical judges and courts, in
cases of atheism, blasphemy, heresy, or schism,
was aUowed to remain in force, preserving to
them the power of excommunication, depriva
tion, degradation, and other ecclesiastical cen
sures and punishments short of the infliction of
death. Hagiographa (holy writing), the name often
given to the third great division of the Jewish
canonical Scriptures, and which is apparently
termed the " Psalms " by our Lord in Luke xxiv.
44. The Jews called them simply " the writ
ings." Neither the Greek nor the Hebrew epithet
is felicitous or discriminating.
Hagioscope (holy glimpse), openings so made
in the inner architecture of a church that those
worshipping in the aisles may see the altar.
Halcyon Chnrch, a denomination in the
United States, which arose in 1802 in Columbia.
It rejects all creeds, denies the Trinity, and be
lieves in the annihUation of the wicked. They
practise adult baptism, with great parade of music
and processions.
Half Communion, the practice of the
Romish Church in withholding the cup from the
laity. Half-way Covenant, a method that crept
into the Congregational Churches of New Eng
land between 1657-62, of administering baptism
to the infants of parents not in full communion.
Jonathan Edwards had special troubles in con
nection with it The practice is found in several
churches in this country.
Hallelujah (iT-l^n, ' AXXtiXti'ia, " Praise ye
the Lord.") — The sacredness of this word was so
great in ancient times that, as St. Augustine
informs us, the Church scrupled to translate it ;
hence the word is to be found untranslated in
nearly all, if not all, the ancient liturgies, and
many modern versions of the Scriptures. In the
first prayer book of King Edward VI. the word is
to be found in its integrity, where it was appointed
to be used in the morning service from Easter
to Trinity Sunday, after these versicles, — Min
ister, Praise ye the Lord; congregation, The
Lord's name be praised. In the next edition of
the prayer book the word was omitted, doubtless
on account of the inutility of repeating the same
sentence, the sense of wbich had just been
uttered. The word "hallelujah" is not only
retained in many of the psalms, but is found in
many of our hymns, " probably," as Buck says,

HAT
" on account of its full and fine sound, which,
together with its simple and solemn meaning, so
proper for public religious services, has rendered
it a favourite of musical composers. Its vowels
are very favourable for singers." " HaUelujah "
was known by the title " Celeusma," or word of
invitation, in ancient times. — See Call.
Hampton Court Conference. — See Con
ference. Handkerchief, Holy. — It is said that one
of the women who followed Jesus to the cruci
fixion lent him her handkerchief to wipe the
sweat and blood from his face, and that the im
press of his features remained upon it. Of course,
St. Veronica very carefully preserved the cloth , and
it is now at Rome. Jesus, according to tradition,
sent another handkerchief to Agbarus, King of
Edessa, who had requested a portrait of him.
Veronica is only a mythical personage, the name
being a hybrid compound signifying " true
image." Hands. — Hands are imposed by aU churches
in ordination, and in many churches in con
firmation. — See Imposition of Hands.
Haphtaroth, the section of the Hebrew pro
phets made or divided for the service of the
synagogue, so that the whole prophets may be
read every year.— See Bible, p. 71.
Harmony ofthe Gospels, the name given
to those tabular compUations which places the
corresponding parts of the four gospels in parallel
columns, and vindicate their agreement But
from the fact tbat the gospels are not systematic
biographies, and that each evangelist had a dis
tinct end in view, in the elucidation of which
chronology was not an essential element, it is
very difficult, if not impossible, to construct a
perfect Harmony. The best Harmonies are the
following:— That of Osiander, 1537; Calvin,
1553; Chemnitz, 1593 ; Calixtus, 1624 ; Light-
foot, 1655 ; Le Clerc, 1699 ; Bengel, 1736 ;
Macknight, 1756; Newcome, 1778; White,
1799 ; Griesbach, last edition, 1822 ; White,
1800 ; De Wette and Liicke, 1818 ; Chapman,
1836 ; Lant Carpenter, 1838 ; Reichel, 1840 ;
Wieseler, 1843; Robinson, 1845; Greswell,
1845 ; Da Costa, 1851 ; Stroud, 1853 ; Mim-
pres, 1855.
Harmony Society was founded in America
by George Rapp, and a number of foUowers from
Wurtemberg. They were seceders from the
Lutheran Church, and sought an asylum in the
United States in 1803. The pattern which they
profess to imitate is the primitive Church in Jeru
salem, especially as to the possession of all things
in common. The community amounts to 4,000 ;
and they are now located in Beaver County,
Pennsylvania. Rapp died in 1847, and a board
of nine elders rules in his stead, Jacob Henrico
being, however, supreme spiritual guardian and
adviser. Hassideans.— See Assideans.
Hattemists, foUowers of Fontianus von Hat-

303

HAT
tem, a minister in Zealand, of whom, and of
Verschoor, Mosheim says, — " If I understand
correctly the not very lucid accounts given us
of their doctrines, the founders of both sects
in the first place inferred from the Reformed
doctrine of the absolute decrees of God, this
principle, that whatever takes place neces-
sarUy and unavoidably takes place. Assuming
this as true, they denied that men are by-
nature wicked or corrupt, and that human
actions are some of them good and others
bad. Hence they concluded that men need
not trouble themselves about a change of heart,
nor be solicitous to obey the divine law; that
religion does not consist in acting, but in suf
fering ; and that Jesus Christ inculcated this only,
that we patiently and cheerfully endure what
ever by the good pleasure of God occurs or be
falls us, striving only to keep our minds tranquil.
Hattem in particular taught that Jesus Christ
did not by his death appease divine justice, nor
expiate the sins of men, but that he signified
to us there was nothing in us which could offend
God, and in this way he made us just. These
things appear to be perverse and inimical to all
virtue, and yet neither of these men — unless I
am wholly deceived — was so beside himself as
to recommend iniquity, or to suppose that a
person may safely follow his lusts. At least,
the sentiment ascribed to them, that God
punishes men by their sins, not for them, seems
to carry this import, that unless a person bridles
his lusts he must suffer punishment both in this
life and in that to come; yet not by a divine
infliction, or by the sovereign will and pleasure
of God, but by some law of nature."
Haudriettes. — See Nuns.
Hearers, the second class of catechumens,
who were permitted to hear certain portions of
the service, such as the sermons and the reading
of the Scriptures ; but they were allowed to hear
none of the prayers. They assembled in the
narthex or ante- temple. — See Catechumens.
Hebdomas Magna (great week), the week
before Easter, which was kept with special
solemnity, and honoured with peculiar usages.
Hegoumenos (ruler), same as Archiman
drite (which see).
Heidelberg Catechism. — This important
document was drawn up by Olevianus and Ursi-
nus, in 1652. It was designed primarily for the
churches of the Palatinate, but was soon accepted
by all the Reformed Churches. It is one of the
symbolical books of the Dutch Reformed Church,
and is believed to be the model after which the
Westminster Shorter Catechism was constructed.
On the other hand, the Heidelberg Confession was
prepared by Bullinger, and published in 1564,
and was translated from the original Latin into
German by its author. It was accepted also by
many churches beyond the Palatinate.
Helvetic Reformed Churches. — See
Switzerland, Churches in.

HER
Hemero-Baptists (daily baptizers).—.$ee
Mendeans. Hemiphorium (half-mantle), a short cleri
cal tunic ; the same with the coUobium, or very
like it. — See Colobium, Dalmatic.
Henoticon, the edict by which the Emperor
Zeno, in 482, attempted to extinguish dissen
sions in the Church. In this proclamation he
confirmed the established doctrines and anathe
matized alike the Arians, Eutychians, Nesto-
rians, and Phantastics, while he avoided any
particular mention of the councU of Chalcedon.
The more moderate among the Catholics and
Monophysites assented to it; but the more
violent of the one party were indignant at the
omission of the name of Chalcedon, while their
opponents were not conciliated by it. The re
sult was that, instead of composing the differ
ences among his subjects, Zeno seemed only to
have embittered the character and multiplied the
grounds of dissension.
Henricians, the followers of a monk named
Henry, who, in the twelfth century, proposed to
himself the Herculean task of reforming the
clergy, whose superstition and vices he declared
to be disgusting and intolerable. He rejected
infant baptism, treated the ceremonies and many
of the festivals of the church with contempt, and
inveighed against the immorality and hypocrisy
of the priesthood. He settled at Toulouse in the
year 1147, after having visited several places
propagating his opinions. Here he had to en
counter the opposition of Bernard, Abbot of
Clairval. The condemnation of Henry's doctrines
by Pope Eugenius III. was soon obtained; and
at a council held at Rheims in the foUowing
year (1148), a decree consigning him to a close
prison for life was quickly passed. Henry's
days were soon numbered ; for he sunk under the
discipline and confinement of his prison.
Hcpdomadarii, a name given by some of
the fathers to the monks, on account of their
weekly service.
Heracleonites, followers of Heracleon, a
Valentinian heretic of the second century. — See
Valentinians. Theirs was a refined form of
Gnosticism, at the same time denying the pro
phecies of the Old Testament, and indulging in
mystic interpretations.
Heresy (a'lgims, from aigia, to take). — The
word denotes choice — a chosen set of opinions, a
selected form of belief, and then a school or party.
"Tbe word heresy is Greek," says Hobbes, "and
signifies the taking of anything, particularly the
taking of an opinion. After the study of philo
sophy began in Greece, and the philosophers dis
agreeing amongst themselves, had started many
questions not only about things natural, but also
moral and civil ; because every man tooh what
he pleased, each several opinion was called a
heresy; which signified no more than a private
opinion, without reference to truth or falsehood."
Heresy is an opinion taken in opposition, or a

804

HER
dogma opposed to, the principles of the Christian
Church as established by law, or in opposition to
established doctrines in general. Heresy, ac
cording to Blackstone, consists not in a total
denial of Christianity, but of some ofits essential
doctrines, publicly and obstinately avowed.
Sir Matthew Hale thus defines it — " Sententia
rerum divinarum humano sensu excogitata, palam
docta etpertinadter defensa" — a species of ration
alism openly taught and pertinaciously defended.
Heresy was visited with severe penalties, both
civU and ecclesiastical, in early times. They
have been succinctly given by Broughton from
various authorities as foUows : — " The laws both
of the church and state were very severe against
those who were adjudged to be heretics. Those of
the state, made by the Christian emperors from
the time of Constantine, are comprised under one
title, De Hcereticis, in the Theodosian code.
The principal of them are, first, the general note
of infamy affixed to aU heretics in common.
Secondly, aU commerce forbidden to be held
with them. Thirdly, the depriving them of aU
offices of profit and dignity. Fourthly, the
disqualifying them to dispose of their estates by
will, or receive estates from others. Fifthly, the
imposing on them pecuniary mulcts. Sixthly,
The proscribing and banishing them. Seventhly,
the inflicting corporal punishment on them, such
as scourging, &c, before banishment Besides
these laws, which chiefly affected the persons of
heretics, there were several others wbich tended
to the extirpation of heresy: such as, first,
those which forbad heretical teachers to propa
gate their doctrines publicly or privately.
Secondly, those which forbad heretics to hold
public disputations. Thirdly, such laws as pro
hibited aU heretical meetings and assemblies.
Fourthly, those which deny to the children of
heretical parents their patrimony and inherit
ance, unless they returned to the Church. And
fifthly, such laws as ordered the books of here
tics to be burned.
" There were many other penal laws made
against heretics, from the time of Constantine
to Theodosius, junior, and Valentinian III. But
the few already mentioned may be sufficient
to give an idea of the rigour with which the
empire treated such persons as held or taught
opinions contrary to the faith of the Catholic
Church, whose discipline towards heretics was
no less severe than the civU laws. For, first,
the Church was used to pronounce a formal
anathema or excommunication against them.
Thus the council of Nice ends her creed with
an ¦ anathema against all those who opposed
the doctrine there delivered. And there are
innumerable instances of this kind to be found
in the volumes of the councils. Secondly, some
canons debarred them from the very lowest
privileges of church communion, forbidding them
to enter into the church, so much as to hear the
sermon, or the Scriptures read in the service of

HER
the catechumens. But this was no general rule;
for liberty was often granted to heretics to be
present at tho sermons, in hopes of their conver
sion ; and the historians tell us, that Chrysos
tom by this means brought over many to ac
knowledge the divinity of Christ, whUst they
had liberty to come and bear his sermons.
Thirdly, the Church prohibited all persons, under
pain of excommunication, to join with heretics
in any religious offices. Fourthly, by the laws
of the Church, no one was to eat or converse
familiarly with heretics ; or to read their writ
ings ; or to contract any affinity with them : their
names were to be struck out of the diptychs, or
sacred registers of the church ; and, if tbey died
in heresy, no psalmody or other solemnity was
to be used at their funeral. Fifthly, the testi
mony of heretics was not to be taken in any ec
clesiastical cause whatever. These are the chief
ecclesiastical laws against heretics. As to the
terms of penance imposed upon relenting heretics,
or such as were wUling to renounce their errors
and be reconciled to the Church, they were
various, and differed according to the canons
of different councils, or the usage of different
churches. The council of Eliberis appoints ten
years' penance before repenting heretics are ad
mitted to communion. The council of Agde con
tracted this term into that of three years. The
councU of Epone reduced it to two years only.
The ancient Christian Church made a distinction
between such heretics as contumaciously resisted
the admonitions of the Church, and such as never
had any admonition given them ; for none were
reputed formal heretics, or treated as such, tttl
the Church had given them a first and second
admonition, according to the apostle's rule." —
See Blasphemy, Excommunication, ILere-
tico Comburendo.
Heretics, those who originated, propagated,
defended, or followed any heretical opinion. Four
classes of heretics may be noted: 1. Such as
sought to Judaize — to combine a dead Judaism
with Christianity, — a party referred to in the
Epistle to the Galatians. 2. Those who strove to
blend with the Gospel an Oriental theosophy, — a
party referred to in the Epistle to the Colossians.
3. Those who fell away into the fanatical advo
cacy and practice of asceticism. And 4. Those
who tried to mould Christianity to their own
views, — who did not take it as revealed, but in a
blind rationalism explained it so as to harmonize
with their philosophy. The following is a brief
view of the most prominent heresies of the early
ages: —
Century I. — 1. Cerinthians and Ebionites,
followers of Cerinthus and Ebion, who denied
the divinity of Christ, and blended the Mosaical
ceremonies with Christianity.
Century II. — 2. Tbe Basilidians, followers
of BasUides of Alexandria, who espoused the
heresies of Simon Magus, and denied the reality
of the Saviour's crucifixion. 3. The Carpocra-

30S

HER
nans, foUowers of Carpocrates, who, besides ad
hering to the heresies of Simon Magus, rejected
the Old Testament, and held that Jesus was
but a mere man. 4. The Valentinians, fol
lowers of Valentinus, who corrupted the Chris
tian doctrine with the Pythagorean and Platonic
notions. 5. The Gnostics, so called from their
pretences to superior knowledge. The term
Gnostics seems to have been a general name of
all the ancient heretics. 6. The Millenarians or
Chiliasts, so called because they expected to
reign with Christ a thousand years upon the
earth. 7. The Cainites, a branch of the Valen
tinians, but particularly remarkable for paying a
great regard to Cain and aU the wicked men
mentioned in the Scripture. 8. The Quartode-
cimans, who observed Easter on the fourteenth
day of the first month, in conformity to the
Jewish custom of keeping the passover. 9. The
Cerdonians, followers of Cerdon, who held two
contrary principles, denied the resurrection ofthe
body, and threw the four gospels out of the
canon of Scripture. 10. The Marcidnites, fol
lowers of Marcion, who held three principles,
denied the resurrection of the body, and de
claimed against marriage. 11. The Cataphry-
gians or Montanists, who baptized the dead,
and held Montanus to be the Holy Ghost. 12.
The Encratites or Tatianists, followers of Ta-
tian, who boasted of an extraordinary continency,
and condemned marriage. 13. The Artotyrites,
so called because they offered bread and cheese
in the Eucharist.
Century III. — 14. The Monarchici or Pat-
ripassians, followers of Praxeas, who denied a
plurality of persons proper in the Trinity, and
affirmed that our Saviour was God the Father.
15. The Aquarians, who used only water in the
Eucharist. 16. The Novatians, who would not
allow those who had lapsed in time of persecution
to be restored, upon repentance, to communion.
17. The Origenisis, followers of Origen, who,
among other things, held that the devU, and all
the damned, will at last be saved. 18. The Sa-
bellians, followers of Sabellius, who denied the
Trinity, and affirmed that the distinction of per
sons in the Godhead was merely nominal, and
founded only upon a diversity of functions.
19. The Manichcsans, followers of Manes, who
held that two opposite principles reigned over the
world, the one good, the other bad.
Century IV. — 20. Tbe Arians, followers of
Arius, a priest of Alexandria, who believed the
Father and the Son not to be of the same nature,
substance, or essence, and that there was a time
when the Son was not. 21. The Macedonians,
who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost. 22.
The Agnoetce, so called because they denied the
certainty of the divine prescience. 23. The
Apollinarians, followers of Apollinaris, who as
serted that our Saviour, at his incarnation, as-
stimedahuman body without asoul, and that the
Word or Logos supplied the place of a soul. 24.

HER
The Collyridians, so called because they made a
kind of goddess of the Blessed Virgin, and offered
cakes to her. 25. The Seleudans, followers of
Seleucus, who held that the Deity was corporeal ;
and that the matter of the universe was co-eter
nal with God. 26. The Priscillianists, fol
lowers of Priscillian, a Spanish bishop, who held
all the errors of the Gnostics and Valentinians.
27. The Anthropomorphites, so called because
they ascribed a body to God, understanding
literally those passages of Scripture which speak
of God as having hands, ej'es, feet. 28. The
Bonosians, followers of Bonosus, who held that
Jesus Christ was the Son of God only by adop
tion. Century V. — 29. The Pelagians, followers of
Felagius, who denied the necessity of divine grace
in order to salvation. 30. Nestorians, followers
of Nestorius, who are said to have distinguished
our blessed Saviour into two persons, the one
divine, the other human. 31. The Eutychians,
followers of Eutychus, who fell into the opposite
error, and held that there was but one nature in
Jesus Christ. 32. The Theopaschites, followers
of Petrus Trullo, Bishop of Antioch, so caUed
because they affirmed that all the three persons
in the Trinity were incarnate, and suffered upon
the cross.
Century VI. — 33. The Aphtharlodocetcs or
Incorruptibiles, so called because they held
that our Saviour's body was incorruptible, and
exempt from passion. 34. The Monothelites,
who held that there was but one will in Jesus
Christ, thus denying him a perfect and distinct
humanity. Heretics, Baptism of. — It was a question
keenly agitated in the second and third centuries
whether heretics who had been baptized in their
own communion should be rebaptized on entering
the Catholic Church. In some regions, as in Asia
Minor and generaUy in Africa, the first baptism
was regarded as no baptism, and reclaimed
heretics were uniformly baptized on admission to
an orthodox community. In the Roman Church
a practice the reverse was foUowed, and the pre
vious baptism sufficed. A controversy arose on
the subject, and keen agitations took place.
Under Cyprian, in North Africa, the question was
twice discussed and settled by three synods, in
opposition to the Roman bishops. The one
party held that baptism administered in Christ's
name, no matter where or by whom, was valid;
while the other party maintained, that baptism
could not be valid unless administered in the
true church, for in it alone the efficacious influ
ences of the Spirit are enjoyed. The first party
held to an objective and independent validity,
and the second to a subjective and conditioned
validity of the ordinance. In harmony with
the earlier Western view, Roman Catholics and
Protestants at the Reformation admitted the
validity of each other's baptism. The Romish
practice had been confirmed by the council of Nice.

soe

HER
Heritors, landholders in a parish in Scot
land, or who are proprietors of land or houses Uable
in payment of public burdens. Along with the
ministers and kirk-session, they had sole charge
of the poor, tUl the passing of the new poor-law.
They are charged with the expense of building
and repairing the parish church and the parish
school; but by the 43 George III., no heritor can
vote in school matters or the election of a school
master, who is not a proprietor in the parish to
the extent of at least one hundred pounds Scots
of valued rent, " appearing in the land tax-book
of the county." Such are usually caUed quali
fied heritors.
Hermenenm (interpreters), men in the early
Church whose function was to translate the
Scriptures and sermons to persons from abroad,
and to carry on foreign correspondence.
Hermeueutics, the science of interpretation,
of which exegesis is the art, and philology one
special foundation — the grammar giving us the
forms, the lexicon the meanings, and the concor
dance the examples ; while the context guides to
the development of the train of thought or suc
cession of ideas.
Hermit. — See Anchorets.
Hermogenians, followers of the heretic
Hermogenes, who lived toward the close of the
second century, and found an able opponent in
TertuUian. Hermogenes taught two eternal
principles — God as the creative power, and chaos
as a mass of uncreated matter, from the resistance
of which to God's plastic power evU was de
veloped. Hernhutters. — See Moravians.
Hesychasts or Quictists, a sect among the
monks of Mount Athos, which was brought into
notice in the fourteenth century, and became the
occasion of a councU assembling at Constan
tinople in 1341. They fancied that by means of
intense and motionless (ntru%os) contemplation
they could attain to a sensible perception of
the divine light within them. They were de
nounced as heretics by a Greek abbot, Barlaam ;
but the council took their part, in consequence,
perhaps, of another controversy wbich arose be
tween Barlaam and the Archbishop of Thessa-
lonica, as to the nature of that divine light which
appeared at the transfiguration of Christ. Bar
laam went over to the Roman Church ; but the
dispute was continued for some years, and two
more synods were held, which both decided
against the opinion of the apostate. — See Bar-
laamites. Heterousians (cf different essence), a branch
of the Arians who held that the Son of God was
different in essence from the Father, and so dis
tinguished from the Homoiousians, or high Arians,
who held that he was of similiar (but not same)
essence with the Father. — See Arianism, Ho-
moousian. Hexapla, the edition of the Bible prepared
by Origen in six columns. Thus in the Old 307

HIG
Testament Hebrew was in the first column,
Hebrew in Greek characters in the second, Greek
of Septuagint in the third, and Aquila, Symma
chus, and Theodotion occupying the other three.
Hicksites. — See Quakers.
Hierarchy (jsjo's, sacred, and ag^ii, govern
ment), a sacred or holy government, generally
applied to an ecclesiastical establishment under
the government of bishops, priests, and deacons.
The chiefs or heads of such an establishment are
called hierarchs. According to Socrates and
other ancient church authors, bishops, priests,
and deacons, were denominated " U^u/lUu" —
holy — because of their consecration or ordination
to holy purposes; whereas the other orders, not
being ordained by imposition of hands, were
regarded as inferior (unconsecrated) officers.
Hierarchy, Angelical. — See Angel, Do
minations. Hieracites, followers of Hierax of Leonto-
polis, in the beginning of the fourth century.
This bold spiritualist denied the resurrection of
the body, inculcated celibacy and other elements
of asceticism, and adopted extravagant allegori
cal interpretations.
Hieromnemon (church remembrancer), an
officer in the Greek Church to whose care the
ritual and other church books are committed.
In the absence of the bishop it is his privilege
to ordain readers and to consecrate churches.
Anciently, he stood behind the patriarch, to keep
him in mind of the order of service.
Hieronymites, the name given to several
orders of Romish monks which sprang up in the
fourteenth century. One order was founded by
Pecha, and confirmed by Gregory XI. in 1373.
It had at first the rule of Augustine, but received
the rule of Jerome in 1424, and was in 1595
united with the other Hieronymites. An order
of the same name was founded in Italy in 1377.
They have houses in Sicily, the West Indies, and
Spanish America, and wear a white habit with a
black scapulary.
High Churchman, Xjow Churchman,
are terms in frequent use, but of very indefinite
application. They appear to refer sometimes to
a higher or lower estimate of the importance of
conformity to an existing or established church,
as compared with the circumstances that may
justify a separation from it. Sometimes they
refer to tbe higher or lower value attached to tbe
doctrines and discipline which distinguish a
particular church; but most commonly they
seem to be connected with the mistake of speak
ing of the clergy as the Church ; so that a high
churchman is one who rates highly the authority
ofthe clergy, and the privilege of receiving at
their hands those means of grace which, by virtue
of their apostolical succession, they are presumed
to have the power of dispensing. And a low
churchman is one who thinks little of their power
or their authority, as compared with that of the
written Word of God, and his grace communi-

HIR
cated directly to the believer's soul. In England
the name of high churchman was first given to
the Non-jurors, and is stUl chiefly appropriated to
that party in the church which most nearly
approaches to their views.
Hirschau, Congregation of, was estab
lished by WiUiam of Hirschau, in the diocese of
Spire, in the eleventh century, and modeUed
after that of Clugny. — See Cluniac Monks.
Histopedes (hung up by the heels), a name
given to the Eunomians, because in their immer
sion, practised at baptism, they plunged the can
didate into the water with his head down and
heels upwards, head and bust alone being sub
merged. (Gothofred in Cod. Theodos., Ub. xvi.,
lit. 5.) — See Eunomians.
History of the Chnrch. — This has been a
favourite study from the days of Hegesippus
and Eusebius downwards. It is not, or should
not be, a dry collection of annals and details
of heresies, but should show the growth of
spiritual life, or its decay, and how the Church,
¦ dependent on its Lord, has realized or wrought
out its commission in the work. Its outworks
— its rites, government, discipline and contro
versies — are not to be overlooked, but its inner
character should be fuUy developed ; for it is
Christ's representative and embodiment on the
earth. It is sad to see historians become pol
emical disputants, as Caesar Baronius, or to
find them totally blind to the spiritual rela
tion of the Church to its Head, and treat
ing it as a human institution or poUtical
machine. Modern writers have risen to a juster
conception, — such as Neander and Gieseler ; and
Mosheim is far better than he appears in Mac
hine's translation. Separate periods have been
well treated of by various authors, as in Wadding-

HIS
ton, and D'Anbigne's History ofthe Reformation.
Individual churches have had their annalists, who
usually are apologists too. Nor have ecclesias
tical biographies been wanting, as those by Cave ;
while treatises on the antiquities of the Church
occupy a prominent place, such as those of
Durand, Hospinian, Bingham, Rheinwald, Au
gusti, Siegel, Riddle, and Coleman.
Guericke divides church history into the fol
lowing nine periods : — First Period — The apos
tolic Church, a.d. 1-100. Second Period — The
Church persecuted as a sect ; to Constantine, the
first Christian emperor, a.d 100-311. Third
Period — The Church in union with the Grseco-
Roman empire and amidst the storms ofthe great
migration; to Pope Gregory I., a.d. 311-590.
Fourth Period — The Church planted among the
Germanic nations ; to Hildebrand, a.d. 590-1049.
Fifth Period — The Church under the papal hier
archy and the scholastic theology ; to Boniface
VIII., a.d. 1049-1294. Sixth Period— The de
cay of mediaeval Catholicism, and the preparatory
movements of Protestantism, a.d. 1294-1517.
Seventh Period — The evangelical reformation
and the Roman Catholic reaction, a.d. 1517-
1600. Eighth Period — The age of polemic
orthodoxy and exclusive confessionaUsm, a.d.
1600-1750. Ninth Period— The spread of infi-
deUty, and the revival of Christianity in Em-ope
and America, from 1750 to the present time.
Of the Greek histories; that of Sozomen ex
tends from 323 to 423; that of PhUostorgius,
an Arian bishop, from 300 to 425 ; that of Theo
doret from 325 to 429 ; that of Evagrius, con-
tinuator of Socrates and Theodoret, from 431 to
593. The following is a brief view of the earUer
annals of the Church, with some characteristic
events : —

70

100110120

130

Eoman Emperors.

Nero, a. 6a
Galba, a. 69.
Vespasian, d. 79.
Titus, d. 81.
Domitian, d. 96.
Nerva, a. 98.
Trajan, a. 117.

Hadrian, 0. 138.

Noted Bishops, Ecclesiastical
Officees, and Wbitebs.

Peter and Paul, martyrs at Borne.
Clement of Rome.
Ignatius of Antioch, a. 116.
Papias of Hierapolis in Phrygia,

Justin Martyr, a. 1G5.
The Gnostics Marcion and Basilides.

Antoninus Pius, tt. 161.

Historical Events.

80. Consecration to church offices
by imposition of hands.— The cel
ebration of the Jewish Sabbath by
the Jewish Christians continued.—
The yearly feasts of the Jews, as
Passover and Pentecost also con
tinue among the Jewish Christians.
— One of the presbyters usually pre-
siaes in the college of presbyters.
100. Reading of the New Testa
ment Scriptures in the churches.
110. The communion connected
with meetings for aivine service,
particularly with those on Sunday-
Catechumens.— Preparation for bap
tism by fasting ana prayer. — Grow
ing importance of the president in
the college of presbyters.
120. The celebration of marriages
brought into connection with the
Church — Voluntary offerings at the
celebration of the communion. —
Traces of a separation of aivine ser
vice into two parts.
130. In divine service tbe Scrip
tures explainea by the minister
—then simple celebration of the
Supper. — The deacons carry the ele
ments to the absent members.

308

HIS

HIS

Rohan Empbhoes.

Noted Bishops, Ecclesiastical
Officers, and "Writers.

Historical Events.

140

150

Marcus Aurelius, philosopher, d,
isa

170

Commodus, d. 192.

190

Pertinax, d. 193.
Septimius Severus, d. 211.

200

Caracal! a, d. 217.
Macrimus, <L 218.
Heliogabul us, d, 222.

Alexander Severus, d. 235.

Maximus the Thracian, d. 23a

Polycarp of Smyrna, d. 167. .

Montanus— The Montanlsts.
Anicetus, Bishop of Rome.
Hegesippus, ecclesiastical historian.
Celsus, against the Christian religion,

Claudius Apollinaris, Bishop
Hierapolis.
Melito, Bishop of Sardis.
Bardesanes, the Gnostic.

Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth.
Tbeophilus, Bishop of Antioch.
177. Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, d. 202.

Pantjenus, catechist in Alexandria.
Tertullian at Carthage, d. 220.

Victor, Bishop of Rome, d. 202.
Clemens, catechist in Alexandria.
Cains, presbyter in Rome.

Zephyrinus, Bishop of Rome, d. 218.
203. Origen, catechist in Alexandria.

Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, d.

228. Origen ordained preshyter at
Caesarea,.

Hippolitus, bishop.
Origen flees to Caesarea in Palestine.

233. Heraclus, Bishop of Alexandria.
Julius Africanus. 309

140. Scriptures and Church Fa
thers read in divine service.— Epis
tolary correspondence "between
churches.— Formula of baptism as
generally prevalent mentioned hy
Justin Martyr.
150. Laying on of hands in bap
tism. — Difference about the celebra
tion of the passover between the
Oriental and Occidental Churches.
160. First appearance of buildings
set apart for public worship. —
Polycarp has a conference with
Anicetus on the disagreement re
specting the passover — "Weekly or
monthly collections in the meetings
for public worship for the poor and
the sick.— Tlie use of the sign of the
cross in all the actions and events of
life very common.
170. Catechists. —Contest about
the passover in Asia Minor.— Dea
conesses, who are widows above sixty
years old, receive the usual ordina
tion.— In the Lord's Supper, com
mon bread, and wine mingled with
water, used.— The deaconesses con
sulted in the celebration of mar
riage. The bride and bridegroom
partake of the Lord's Supper with
each other. — More definite form
given to the confessions made at
baptism.— Easter eve and Whitsun
tide favourite times for administer
ing baptism in the whole Church. —
Celebration of Easter night by vigils.
180. The Christian custom of bury
ing the dead  Division of the form
of worship into two parts the uni
versal custom.— Tertullian opposed
to infant baptism. — Heretics, on
their entrance into the Catholic
Church, are, in Asia Minor and North
Africa, again baptized; but in Rome
treated as penitents. — Attempts to
determine the day of Christ's birth,
190. Images of Christ among the
heathen.— Symbolical rites in bap
tism.— Anoioting after it.— Use of
milk and honey.— Kiss of peace.—
The laying on of hands, as a con
cluding act, regarded as particu
larly important— Contest between
the Christians of Asia Minor and
of Rome respecting the celebra
tion ofthe passover.— Tbe college of
the presbyters still exists in subor
dinate connection with the bishop.
200. Public discussions upon the
baptism of heretics in North Africa.
—Communion in private houses in
North Africa.— The birth-day of the
martyrs celebrated. — A house of
public worship in Edessa.
210. The clergy, as a body, called
xXw, xJLugi**', ordo, in distinction
from the A*os, Unci p(ebs.—1he
catechumens divided into classes by
220. Choice of bishop by the pro
vincial bishops in connection with.
the adjacent churches.— The symbol
of baptism, the rite of baptism, tha
Lord's Prayer, and some church
songs, kept concealed from the cate
chumens. 230. Candidates for baptism exor-
ciaed  Consecration of the water.—
Houses of public worship more
frequent. — The churches provide
for the support of their clergy.
Comparison of the Christian clergy
with the Jewish priests. Episcopus

HIS

HIS

Gordianus III., d. 244.
Philip, the Arabian, d. 2
DeciusTrajanus, d. 251.

260

270

310

320

Rohan Emperors.

Dionysius, head of the catechetical
school in Alexandria.
Minucius Felix, a lawyer in Rome.
244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop
of Neocasarea, d. 270-
Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, d.
265.
248. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, d,

Trebonianus Gallus I., d.253.
Gallus Volusianus, d. 253.
Valerian, d. 260.

Gallienus, d. 268.
Claudius Gothicus, d, 270.
Aurelianus, d. 275.
Tacitus, d. 276.
Aurelius Probus, d. 282.

Aurelius Carus, regent with Cari-
nus, d. 283.
Numerianus, d. 284.
Diocletian with Maximian, from
286 to 305, regents for the em
perors Galerius and Constan
tine Chlorus.

306. Constantius Chlorus, d. 
Constantine, Maxentius, Maxi-
mianus, Galerius, Severus, and
Maximin, rulers.
307. Severus d. succeeded by
Liciniua,

Maximian, d. 
311. Galerius, d  ,
312. Maxentius, d. — -.
313. Maximinus, d.  .

LIcinius, d. 324.
Constantine, sole emperor, d. 337.

Noted Bishops, Ecclesiastical
Officers, and Writers.

Fabian, Bishop of Rome, d. 251.
Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, d. 252.
Novatian. Stephanus, Bishop of Rome, 253-257.

254. Origen, d. 
Sixtus II., Bishop of Rome, d. 258.
Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, d. 270.
Sabellius.Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch.
265-269.
Commodianus. Felix, Bishop of Rome, d. 275.
Mani, d. 277.
Methodius, Bishop of Tyre.

Pierius and Theognostus, in Alex
andria.
Caius, Bishop of Rome, d. 296.
Pamphilus, pres. in Caesarea.
Marcellinus, Bishop of Rome, d. 304.
Lucian and Dorotheus, pres. in An
tioch.

Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, d. 31L
Mareellus, Bishop of Rome, d. 309.
Arnobius, orator in Sicca,

Eusebius, Bishop of Rome, 311.
Melchiades, Bishop of Rome, d. 314.

Lactantius.Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria,
Sylvester, Bishop of Rome, d. 335.
Arius, in Alexandria, d. 336.
Eusebius, Bishop of Cassarea in Pal
estine, d. 340.
Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia.
Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch.
Alexander, Bishop of Constantinople.
Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, d.
373.

Historical Events.

310

= Summus sacerdos, Presbyteri =
Sacerdotes, Diaconi, or Clerici (gen
erally) = Levitse.
240. Infant communion in Africa,
afterwards also in the East— Clinic
baptism.— The laying of hands on
the newly baptized regarded as the
appropriate act of none but the
bishop — The communion extended
to the sick and dying. — Frequent
and large ecclesiastical edifices.
—Provincial synods common in
Africa and proconsular Asia—the
whole body of the clergy and the
people participate in them.— Con
tests of the bishops and presbyters
in Rome and Africa.— Sub-deacons.
Acolyths. Exorcists. OstiaTii. —
Doctores audientium in Africa,—
Sometimes the advice of the whole
church asked on ecclesiastical affairs.
250. Easter Sabbath a common
fast-day in the Church.— The people
take part in the elections to the
Church offices, particularly in the
election of bishopB and presbyters,—
Pope, the title of illustrious bishops.—
Gregory Thaumaturguspermits ban
quets to he introduced into the festi
vals in honour of the martyrs.— 252.
Infant baptism at the council of
Carthage declared to be necessary.
Anointing at baptism required by
Cyprian. 260. The practice of cheering the
preacher during the delivery of Ms
sermon.— The Lord's Supper a rite
more complicated and splendid.
270. Fixed formularies for the ad
ministration of this rite are made.
—Catalogues of the members of the
church and of Christians that have
died are kept
280. Infant baptism common
among the Persian Christians.
290. Pamphilus establishes a theo
logical school in Caesarea. — The
ecclesiastical year begins with Easter
festival. — Attempt to introduce im
ages into the churches.
300. Peculiar dress ofthe clergy.—
Beginning of sacred hermeneutics.
—The beginnings of the school of
Antioch.— 305. The council of Elvira
forbids images in churches, enjoins
sabbatical fasts, censures the ir
regularities in the keeping of vigils,
and limits the festival of Whitsun
tide to one day.— In the Romish
Church the beginning of an eighty-
four years' Easter cycle.— The sub
terranean vaults in Rome (cata
combs) used for Christian burial-
places. 310. The order of rural bishops In
most placeB suppressed.— Regular
division of the penitents into classes.
— Easter cycle of nineteen years.
320. Establishment ofthe canoni
cal age for bishops and of seven as
the number of deacons. — Exclusion
of such as had received clinic bap
tism from the rank of clergy.— (Ecu
menical synods. — Altars mostly of
wood.— Constantine and his mother
very active in building churches in
Asia and Europe.— The church of St
Sophia built— Law for the religious
observance of Friday— 325. The Ni
cene council ordains a uniform cele
bration of the passover for the
churches, and commits to the Alex
andrians the calculation of I

AD. 330

340

HIS

Roman Emperors.

Noted Bishops, Ecclesiastical
Officers, and Writers.

HIS

Historical Events.

Constantine IL, d. 340.
Constans, d. 350.

Marcus, Bishop of Rome, d. 336.
Julius L, Bishop of Rome, d. 352.
Macariusy sen. et j uu.

Julius Firmicus Maternus.
Gregorius, Bishop of Alexandria.
342. Macedonius, Bishop of Constan
tinople.
Eusebius, Bishop of Emesa, d. 360.
Leontius, Bishop of Antioch.
Hilarius, Bishop oi Pictavium, d. 368.

Libenus, Bishop of Rome, 352-55,
and 58-66.
Felix, Bishop of Rome, 355-58.
Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem, d. 3S
Zeno, Bishop ofVerona.
Hilary the Deacon.

361. Constantius, d.  .
Julian the Apostate, d. 363.
Jovian, d. 364.
Valentinian I., in the west, d. 375.
Valens in the Bast, d. 378.

.Gratian, d. 383.
Valentinian II., d. 392.
Theodosius in the East.

JSrius, presbyter in Sebaste.
Ephrsem, the Syrian, Deacon of
Edessa, d. 378.
Jerome, d. 420.
Rufinus of Aquileia, d. 410.
Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia,
d. 403.
Damasus, Bishop of Rome, d. 384.

390

392. Theodosius, Bole emperor, d
395.

Division of the Empire.
Western Bom. Eastern Bom.
Empire. Empire.
Honorius, d, 423. Arcadius,d.408, Empress Eudo-
cia.

330. Arch-presbyters. Arch-dea
cons.— Favourite division of churches
into three parts— ante-temple, nave,
and bema, or sanctuary — The Orien
tal eighth of Whitsuntide a general
martyr festival.— Supplications for
the repose of the souls of the dead.
340. Bishops and emperors exert
an important influence upon church
elections.— Images in many Oriental
churches. — 341. Decision in Antioch
upon the celebration of the passover.
— Anniversary festival in commem
oration of the dedication of churches.
—Celebration of the festival of the
birth of Christ in Rome (on the 25th
of December). — Anointing before
and after baptism. The changing of
the name at baptism practised.

350. Church singers.— In tne East
the emperors allowed to go into
the bema. — Responsive singing in
troduced by the monks into the
church of Antioch.— Preparatory ex
orcism on the davs previous to bap
tism by Cyril of Jerusalem.

Optatus, Bishop of Milevi
Basil, Bishop of Cassarea in Cappa
docia, d. 379.
Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa, d. after
394.
Martin, Bishop of Tours, d. after 400.
Amphilochius, Bishop of Iconium, d,
after 394.
Diodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, d. about
390.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, d. 397.
Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Con
stantinople, d. 391.
Dydimus, president of the catecheti
cal school at Alexandria, d. 395.
Jovian, monk in Rome.
Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea.
Siricius, Bishop of Rome, d. 398.
Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria, d.
412.
Chrysostom. 386. Pres. in Antioch.
398. Bishop of Constantinople, d.
407.
Asterius, Bishop of Amasia,
Severianus, Bishop of Gahala, d.
after 408.
Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, d. 430.
Theodorus, Bishop of Mopsuestia, d.
429.
Palladius the Younger, Bishop of
Aspona, d. before 431.
Gaudentius, Bishop of Brixia.
Anastasius I., Bishop of Rome, d
402.
Sulpitius Severus, presb., d. 420.
Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, d. 431.
Innocent I., Bishop of Rome, d. 417.
AtLicus, Bishop of Constantinople.
Prudentius. 311

360. Theological school at Edessa,
—The teaching of heathen literature
in Christian schools forbidden by
Julian. — Altars built of stone, —
Church laws for the celebration of
bunday, the Sabbath, and the Quad
ragesima, Martyr- festivals, with
vigils, very frequent— The practice
of crowning newly-married people
with wreaths, of veiling the bride,
<fcc, retained.
370. Heathen temples converted
into Christian churches.— Epiphany
the time for baptism in the East. —
Ambrose transfers responsive sing
ing to the churches ofthe West and
composes hymns for the church.

380. Poor-houses and hospitals in
Italy. — Baptisteries in or near the
church.— Disagreement of Rome and
Alexandria as to the celebration of
Easter. — Images of the cross very
frequent, and images of Christ still
opposed. 390. Missions promoted by Chry
sostom. — Laws of the empire to sus
pend ordinary business eight days
before and eight days after Easter.

390. The Donatists oppose the
festival of Epiphany .—The birth-day
of Christ, as determined at Rome,
generally adopted in the West — Re
pasts for the poor take the place of
the old love-feasts.— The custom of
employing mourning women in
troduced into the Church.— Alms
distributed in memory of the dead.
—Images allowed in the East

400-407, Defensors of the Church
established. — Bishops interred in the
churches.— Feasts at the graves of
the dead, with many abuses accom
panying them.

HIS

HOL

Roman Emperors.

Noted Bishops, Ecclesiastical
Officers, and Writers.

Historical Events.

West.

East.
Theodosius IL,
d. 450.

414. Pulcheria
Augusta,

450

480490

Valentinian III.,
d.455.

Riclmer, d. 472.

Anthemius.

Pulcheria, died
453.
Marcian, d. 457
457. Leo I. the
Thraeian.

474. Leo II. soon
475. Romulus Au- succeeded by
gustulus. his father
Zeno.
The Western Empire divided
into several new states.
476. Odoacer,
king of Italy
and Noricum.

Vigilantius, presb. in Barcelona.
Victor of Antioch.
Nilus the monk.
Pelagius and Cselestius.
Joannes Cassianus, d. after 432.
Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, d. 444.
Isidorus of Pelusium, d. about 440.
Zosimus, Bishop of Rome, d, 418.
Boniface I., Bishop of Rome, d. 422,
Possidius, Bishop of Calama,
Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais.
Philostorgius, ecclesiastical writer.
Ccelestinus, L, Bishop of Rome, d.
432.
Vincentiusof Lirinum, d. before440.
Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople,
d. about 440.
Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus in Syria,
d. 457.

John, Bishop of Antioch.
Proclus, Bishop of Constantinople.
d. 446.
Hilary, Bishop of Aries, d. 449.
Sixtus IIL, Bishop of Rome, d. 440.
Peter Chrysologus, Bishop of Ra
venna, d. 458.
Barsumas, Bishop of Nisibis to 489.
Leo I., Bishop of Rome, d. 461.
Salvianus, presb. in Massilia.
Socrates the historian.
Sozomen the historian.
Dioscurus, Bishop of Alexandria,
Symeon 8tylites, d. 460.
Maximns, Bishop of Turin.
Gennadius, Bishop of Constantinople.
Arnobius the Younger.
Hilary, Bishop of Rome, d. 468.
Simplicius, Bishop of Rome, d. 483.
Peter the Fuller.
Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Cler
mont.
Acacius, Bishop of Constantinople.
Peter the Monk, Bishop of Alex
andria,
Victor, Bishop of Vita,
Gennadius, presb. of Masillon, d.
after 493.
Vigilius, Bishop of Tapsus.
Macedonius, Bishop of Constantin
ople.
Felix III, Bishop of Rome, d. 492.
Flavian, Bishop of Antioch.
Gelasius I., Bishop of Rome, d. 496.
Anastasius IL, Bishop of Rome, d.
498.

410-416. Office of the parabolani
in Constantinople.— 418. Increase of
the parabolani to six hundred.—
Paulinus favours the use of images
in churches and baptisteries, particu
larly for the instruction of the coun
try people. — Contest in North Africa
about the sabbatical fast— In the
Oriental churches candles lighted
while the gospels are read.
420. In the East the people still
take part in the church elections.—
Votive offerings in the churches,
particularly in the chapels of the
martyrs. — 425. Theatrical exhibi
tions on Sunday and on the high
church festivals forbidden by the
emperor.— In Egypt a separate cele
bration of the festival of Chrises
birth. 430. Office of the Apocrisiarii.—
The celebration of the Quadragesi
mal fasts still different in different
ecclesiastical provinces.
440, 441. The appointment of dea
conesses forbidden in the West —
Crosses upon the altar. — Altars
richly ornamented. — Councils held;
in the baptisteries. — Contentions
about the Easter festival of the year
444. 450, 45L The office of oeconomus
established by law. — The bishops
bave the spiritual oversight of the
cloisters.— Lectionarii in the Gallic
churches. 460. Canon Paschalis of VictoriuB
Aquilanus introduced into Rome in
465.— Leo allows penitents the privi
lege of private confession previous to
their being received again into the
Church.— 461. Council of Tours de
crees that the bread be dipped in
wine in the communion of the sick.
— Burial-places in churches, particu
larly in those of the martyrs, con
sidered as peculiarly holy.
470. Peter Fullo makes an addition
to the Trisagion. — The North African
Church holds strictly to a particular
form of prayer.— Parents sponsors for
their own children.— Rogation Days
instituted at Vienna.
480, 489. Gelasius of Rome active
in behalf of liturgies.
490. A special office instituted In
Constantinople for enrollingthe cate
chumens in the church books.—
Council of Agde orders that on Palm

481. Clovis I., Avitus, Bishop of Vienna,
d. 511. Symmachus, Bishop of Rome, d. 514.1 Sunday the catechumens shall pub-
491. Anastasius Boethius, d. 525. licly repeat the creed. — Consecration
emperor until Epiphanius, the historian of the of altars.
518. Church. j 600. Romish bishops bear, by way
of eminence, the title of POPE.
See Appendix to Coleman's Christian Antiquities,

Holy, with, various applications.
Holy Ashes, the ashes used at the old cere
monial in Lent. — See Lent.
Holy Candles, the tapers consecrated at
Candle-mas.— See Candlemass.
Holy Cross-Day.— See Holt Rood.
Holy Days, the festivals of the Church.— See
Calendar, Feasts.
Holy Fire, the fire annually lighted at the
holy sepulchre.— See Fire, Holy.
Holy Font, the vessel containing the baptis
mal water.— See Font, Baptism.

Holy dates.— See Jubilee.
Holy Ghost. — See Creed, Nicene; FlLl-
oqce ; Macedonians.
Holy Handkerchief. — See Handker
chief, Holt.
Holy, Holy, Holy, the name ofthe Trisagion
(thrice holy) or cherubic hymn. — See Cheeubio
Hymn. Holy Innocents. — See Chtldermass.
Holy M.*»i'tar, that mortar used in cementing
altar stones, and made with holy water.
Holy Oil. — See Chrism, Galilaecm.

312

HOL
Holy Orders, applied to the clerical office. —
See Induction, Institution, Ordination.
Holy Rood (rode or rod), the name of the
cross so often erected in churches. — See Church,
Cross, Rood.
Holy Rood Day, the 14th of September, or
the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross, the In
vention or finding of the Holy Cross being cele
brated on the 3d of May. — See Cross.
Holy Saturday, in some places the Satur
day before Easter is so called.
Holy Scriptures.— See Bible.
Holy Synod, the name of the highest govern
ing body in the Greek and Russo- Greek Church.
Holy Table, that on which the elements of
the Eucharist are set out — See Eucharist,
Table. Holy Thursday, the Thursday before Eas
ter. — See Maundy Thursday.
Holy Wars, the name of the Crusades.
— See Crusades.
Holy Water. — The use of holy water was
instituted by Pope Alexander I. The vessels in
which this water was to be kept fixed in churches
were to be made either of metal or marble, and
any porous substance which could suck it up was
carefully to be avoided. That in which it was
carried abroad was termed ama, or amula, a
sense and a derivation neither of which are to be
found in the pages of Du Cange. He recognizes
aspersol, aspergillum, and aspersorium, as the
vessels from which the priests sprinkled the
water, and guadalerium as that which contained
it. The first three are plainly the same as the
a-sj/f/jot»T»'j<ov of paganism, to the lustral water
of which institution the modern holy water may
be traced. — See Water, Holy.
Holy Week, another name for Passion
Week (which see). — See Lent.
Holy Wells, sacred springs in popish coun
tries — scenes of pilgrimage and expected miracles.
Homilies, Books of. — At the time of the
Reformation in England, as there could not be
found a sufficient number of preachers to instruct
the whole nation, and as those who complied with
the changes which were then made were not uni
versally well affected to them, it was not safe to
commit so important a trust as that of public
teaching to the capacity of the one or to the in
tegrity of the other. In order to obviate these
difficulties, two books of homilies were prepared.
The first book was published in the reign of
King Edward VI., a.d. 1547 ; it contains twelve
discourses, most of which are supposed to have
been written by Archbishop Cranmer, with the
assistance of other prelates and divines, though
it is still uncertain to whom the authorship
of this latter part of these homilies is to be
assigned. The second Book of Homilies (which
are twenty-one in number) was published in
Queen Elizabeth's reign, a.d. 1562, and is gener
ally attributed to Bishop Jewel. The design
of both books was to combine doctrinal instruc-

HOM
tion with practical benefit ; and by placing the
purity of the Gospel before the eyes of the people,
to reform them from the unscriptural and anti-
scriptural errors in doctrine and in practice which
had been introduced by Popery. The thirty-fifth
article of religion of the Church of England
asserts that the homilies " contain a godly and
wholesome doctrine, and necessary for these times
. . . . and therefore we judge them to be read
in churches by the ministers diligently and dis
tinctly, that they may be understood of the
people." Homily (SpiXia, a sermon or sacred dis
course). — In modern acceptation, homily is often
restrained to a discourse read out of a book
but not composed by the reader. But in the
earlier days of the Church sermon and hom
ily appear to have been used indifferently for
any discourse or instruction addressed to the
people. This was delivered hy the bishop, or
some one whom he appointed, immediately after
the reading of the psalms and lessons, before
the catechumens withdrew (Bingham, Antiq.,
book xiv., c. iv., sect 1). St. Augustine plainly
uses the word homily as synonymous with
sermon in the following passage : " Sermones
qui prqferuntur in populum quos Greed hpiXias
vocant" — popular addresses, which the Greeks
call homilies (In Psalm exviii., Preface). But
Photius distinguishes the two, making the
homily a familiar conversation, in which the
bishop (who alone was allowed to preach before
the fifth century) interrogated the people and
received their answers. A very celebrated collec
tion of homilies (Homiliarium) from the writings
of the early Christians, was compiled by Paulus
Diaconus and Alcuin in the eighth century, at
the command of the Emperor Charlemagne. In
France the second provincial council of Vaison
(canon ii.), and the second provincial council of
Rheims (canon xv.), permitted deacons to read
homilies of the fathers when a presbyter wa3
prevented from preaching a sermon. The example
set by Charlemagne in the eighth century was
followed in that and the following age, when
the collections of homilies, written or compiled
by Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt, and Rabanus
Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz, were particularly
celebrated, and were subsequently often printed
(Mosheim, Eccles. Hist., cent, viii., partii., c. iii.,
sect. 6). At the Reformation on the continent of
Europe, Calvin's homilies upon the Book of Job
were read, both publicly and privately, with great
benefit, in many of the reformed churches in
France, where they supplied the place of pastors
when these were wanting ; and in Holland and the
rest of the Belgian churches, Bullinger'a Duads
of Sermons were ordered to be read by public
authority, from the beginning of the Reformation,
in those places where ministers were wanting to
preach to the people. (Bingham's French Church
Apology for the Church of England, book ii., c. xi.;
Works, vol. ix., p. 80).

313

HOM
Hommes d'lntclligeuce (men of under
standing), u, religious party founded by a Car
melite friar, William of Hildesheim, in the fif
teenth century. Its place was the Netherlands,
and it carried on a spirited protest against salva
tion by works or penance, against the necessity
of sacerdotal absolution, and other dogmas of
Popery. These men were not therefore very
different from the Brethren of the Free Spirit,
and other classes of awakened men, who, by
their spiritual earnestness, paved the way for
the Reformation.
Homoiism. — After the Arian party had
triumphed for a season under Constantius, it soon
began to divide. — See Aetians, Anomoeans,
Exocontians. The extreme parties so designated
were opposed by the High Arians, or Homoious-
ians. A second council was held at Sirmium,
when it was resolved to discard the term " tbttia"
— being, which had created so many and bitter
discussions, and to declare that the Son was simply
like God — Upotos (homoios), hence the name.
Two exiled bishops subscribed this very vague
formula, and returned to their sees. The death
of Constantius, 361, put an end to the hollow
truce. Homoiousian (similar nature), the name of
the high Arians, who held that Christ was of
similar, but not same nature with the Father. —
See Arianism, Heterousians.
Homologoumena (SpoXtytvp-tva, universally
acknowledged), the name given by Eusebius to
those books of the New Testament, of the canoni
cal authority of which no doubts had been ex
pressed. Eusebius includes under the term the
four gospels, the Acts, the fourteen epistles of
Paul, and the first epistles of Peter and John,
while the epistle of James, the second epistle of
Peter, and the second and third epistles of John,
and the epistle of Jude, were placed among the
Antilegomena. In a third or lower class some,
he says, placed the Apocalypse, though others
placed it among the acknowledged books. It,
therefore, properly belonged to the Antilego
mena. — See Antilegomena.
Homoousian (same nature), the name of the
orthodox holders of Christ's true divinity.
Honey, a portion of honey and milk was some
times given to newly baptized persons, in allusion
to the name anciently given to Canaan, and in
token that they belonged to the spiritual Israel.
Honey and milk had a distinct consecration.
Hood, a monastic covering for the head.
The habit was borrowed from the Roman cucul-
lus, which was a coarse head dress, broad at the
part where the head went in, and then lessening
gradually till it ended in a point. The old
monks and ascetics chose this article as being
most suitable to " that strict reservedness whicli
they professed;" for when it was drawn over
their faces it at once prevented them from gazing
at others or being stared at themselves. When
not used as a covering, it was suffered to fall be-

HOS
hind on their back, being suspended by a cord,
which, passing, round the neck, was affixed to the
hinder point of the hood. After the same man
ner the hood is now used in England, being
generally hung at the back. In the course of
time different orders adopted some trivial peculia
rity in the cut and fashion of the hood, to indi
cate their several communities. Soon the hood
was adopted by the regular clergy, and from
them it passed into use in colleges and universi
ties, the materials, colour, and fashion being
varied according to the degree of the wearer.
The seventeenth canon of the Church of England
prescribes the wearing of hoods by masters, fel
lows, scholars, and students in the universities,
on all proper occasions, the hoods heing such
" as do severally appertain unto their degrees j"
the twenty-fifth canon enjoins their use in
canons, masters, &c. ; and finally, the fifty-eighth
canon provides that ministers who are undergra
duates shall not wear hoods under pain of sus
pension; but they are allowed " to wear upon their
surplices, instead of hoods, some decent tippets of
black, so they be not silk."
Hopkinsians, the followers of Samuel Hop
kins, a Calvinist minister of Newport, Rhode
Island, died in i803. Among other metaphysical
tenets, and besides the denial of imputation, Hop
kins held that holiness consisted in universal
benevolence; and that the love of man to God, if
genuine, must be disinterested, so that a saint
should be content to be lost for ever, and yet
love God, and wholly approve of God's proce
dure towards him. The theory is a transcenden
tal speculation, unfitted for man's nature, and
unwarranted by any Scriptural text or declara
tion. Hosanna (atrami), the word hosanna, a con
traction of "m ni"4)in," owov Sii— save, I beseech
thee. A form of acclamation which the Jews
were wont to use in their feasts of tabernacles, in
which also they used to carry boughs in their
hands, and also on public procession. In the
ancient Church the hosanna formed part of the
great doxology in the public service: it was
also frequently used in the service of the Euchar
ist, during which the great doxology was also
sung. — See Angelic Hymn, Doxology.
Hospitallers. — See Knights.
Hospitals. — Such receptacles for the poor
and rich were built and kept up in connection
with the early churches, and placed under the
charge of certain of the clergy.— See Xeno-
DOCHIA. Host (from the Latin hostia, a sacrifice), a
name given by the Roman Catholics to the con
secrated wafer of the Eucharist, in the belief that
in the celebration of the mass the elements of
flour and water are changed into the body and
blood of Christ, which the priest offers as a
sacrifice for the sins of the living and the dead.
—See Adoration op the Host, Eucharist,
Mass, Transubstantiation.

314

HOU
Hours of Prayer. — The book ofthe Greek
Church, containing its prayers or hours, is called
horologium. — See Canonical Hours, Com
pline, Evening Hymn, Lauds, Matin, Morn
ing Hymn, Nocturns, Prime, Vespers.
Housel, the old Saxon name for the Euchar
ist, supposed by some to be from the Gothic
" hunsa" — a victim.
Huguenot, a name given to the Protestants
of the French Reformed Church, and variously
derived. From Mezeray we learn that the
French, till the year 1560, were called Imlhi-
riens, though in many points they differed from
Luther. Others called them Sacramentaires,
from their denial of the real presence. At the
time just named they received the name of
Huguenots, because, as is said below, and as
D'Aubigne takes it, they met by night at the
gate Hugon, in Tours ; or because they ventured
out only in the dark, like a certain Lutin, or mid
night spirit, le Roy Hugon, which is commonly
believed to haunt the streets of that city; or
from the first words of their protest, " Hue nos
venimus " — hither are we come. Others prefer a
Swiss word, "Eidgenossen" — confederates, which
was first corrupted at Geneva, and then intro
duced into France by the Reformed themselves,
not as a term of reproach but as a dis
tinctive title. Eidgenossen was the title used
by those Genevese who allied themselves with
the Swiss Cantons against the tyranny of
Charles III. of Savoy. Maclaine, in a note on
Mosheim, speaks much to the same purpose ;
and adds, that the Count Villars, in a letter
written to the King of France from the province
of Languedoc, where he was lieutenant-general,
and dated the eleventh of November, 1560, calls
the riotous Calvinists of the Cevennes Hugue
nots ; and this is the first time that this term is
found in the registers of that province applied to
the Protestants, (Note a., Cent, xvi., sec. 3, p.
2, ch. ii.) Garnier (Hist de France, xiv., 434)
states, that the Reformed assembled by night at
the gate of the evil-minded Hugon, who rode on
horseback in that quarter, and beat every one
whom he met, so that he had become a bugbear
used by mothers for naughty children. The Re
formed adroitly adopted the soubriquet, and de
prived it of its injurious application by founding
it on their attachment to the descendants of
Hugh Capet. Thuanus also has recognized
King Hugo. Pasquier has an entire chapter on
the origin of the name (Recherches de la France,
viii., 53), in which he adduces most of the above
statement, and adds, on mere conjecture, that
Huguenot is a corruption of the Swiss Henes
quenaux, which tallies with the French Gens
seditieux. Pere Daniel, in his Histoire de
France (v., 666), has recounted the customary
derivations without offering any new one.
Moreri, to the derivations given above, adds the
following, that the Calvinists having embraced
the errors of John Huss, were named " les Guenons

HUN
de Huss " — Huss's Monkeys, or as Skinner gives
it, " les Guenots de Hus " — John Huss's Imps ;
or, that they espoused the pretensions of the
line of Hugh Capet to the crown, in opposition
to the house of Guise ; or, that they followed the
teaching of one Hugues, here'lique sacramentaire,
in the reign of Charles VI. ; or, that in re
ference to a small piece of money, a hvguenote,
struck in the time of Hugh Capet, and current
for a maille (half a denier), the Protestants
were so called in contempt, as " ne valiant pas une
maille " — not worth a penny ; or, by another ver
sion of an origin before mentioned, that a Ger
man, who was arrested and questioned concern
ing the conspiracy of Amboise before the Cardi
nal of Lorraine, stopped short in his defence
after he had uttered the words Hue nos venimus ;
whence the bystanders, not understanding Latin,
said the prisoners were people who came from Hue
nos. It is unfortunate for the author of this
story that he forgot that, in order to verify it, it
was necessary his bystanders should at least
understand the meaning of venimus. (Brown
ing's Huguenots.) — See France, Churches in.
Hulsean Lecture, a course of eight lectures
delivered at Cambridge, under the will of the
Rev. John Hulse, which will is dated 12th July,
1777. The lectures did not commence, however,
till 1820 ; and they are upon the evidences of
Christianity or the difficulties of Holy Scripture.
The Christian Advocate is remunerated from
the same source.
Humanism, Humanity. — At the revival
of learning, literary culture was eagerly sought,
and from its benign influence it was called Uteres
humaniores. The study of Latin is still called in our
colleges the study of Humanity. Many humanists
in their pride, however, swerved from the Gos
pel. Italy was the first scene of revived literary
cultivation by such men as Emanuel Chryso-
loras, Bessario, Laurentius Valla, and Picus
Mirandola. Humanitarian, a name sometimes given to
Socinians, who believe in the mere humanity of
Jesus — that is, that he was a mere man, son of
Joseph and Mary, by ordinary generation. — See
Socinians. Hungary, Protestantism in. — Though
Popery be the dominant faith, Protestantism has
long existed in Hungary. The Hussites had
prepared the way for the Reformation, and by
1521 Lutheranism had many adherents in Hun
gary. Violent edicts were fulminated against
the Lutherans under King Louis, but Devay and
others, at a subsequent period, laboured and
suffered with signal success. The Fopish Church
felt the benefit of King Ferdinand's firmness and
liberality, and a bull was procured authorizing
communion in both kinds, — a practice which was
inaugurated under his son, Maximilian. At
Silein in 1610 and Kirchdorf in 1614, the dif
ferent seniorates holding the Augsburg Confes
sion were united, and the Calvinistic congrega-

315

HUN
tions were similarly incorporated at the synod
of Gotthmar in 1641. At the peace of Vienna,
in 1606, the churches in Hungary enjoyed a
brief respite from the persecution which they
had endured under Rudolph, the bigotted son
of Maximilian. But harassing years followed,
and Rome, becoming more and more exasper
ated, used every effort to extirpate Hungarian
Protestantism. The Jesuits reigned supreme
for a season; and seceders from the Church
of Rome had to hide their heads in rocks and
caves. In 1711 some freedom was granted them
by treaty, but much of it was only in name.
Conventions at Pesth and Presburg led to no good
result, and the Popish tyranny waxed so strong
that many churches were confiscated, and Protes
tant children were forced to attend Popish schools.
Under Maria Theresa there was little improve
ment ; but in 1773, under her enlightened son
Joseph, the Jesuits were banished from the empire.
Then Protestantism breathed more freely; and
in 1781 an edict of toleration was proclaimed.
Leopold II. reigned for a brief period, but fol
lowed in the steps of his predecessor; but after his
death the old desire to put down Protestantism
revived in full force. Metternich, in his day,
promised some relief to the harassed remnant,
but did not secure it for them. An edict of
Baron Haynau, in 1851, stript them of liberty
and self-government; but on an earnest protest,
an imperial decree was issued in 1859, which
restored somewhat of their privileges. Probably
revived and cheered by the late revolution, both
the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, with more
than two millions of adherents, have lifted their
heads, and demanded liberty for an ecclesiastical
constitution, in which they shall enjoy self-
government both in churches and schools, with
out a hierarchy, but with elders and superin
tendents, and provincial and general synods.
Cut off by position so long from Continental and
British Protestantism, those Hungarian churches,
" faint, yet pursuing," have a special claim on
their co-operation and sympathy. Much has
been done of late years to raise the standard of
education in the lower and higher schools as
well as the theological colleges. National
jealousies, which formerly often divided the
Helvetic and Augsburg communions, have van
ished to a great extent, and on all important
questions delightful harmony prevails between
the two denominations, the idea of a formal and
outward union having been abandoned only on
account of difficulties of a practical and local
nature. The extensive circulation of Hungarian,
Slavonic, and German Bibles, and of excellent
Christian publications — among which those issued
at Guns, under the superintendence of the inde
fatigable Pastor Wimmer, occupy a prominent
place— has been accompanied with important
and blessed results; and the influence exerted
by the ministers of the Free Church of Scotland,
who, in the providence of God, lived and laboured

816

HUS
in Pesth for several years, has been also con
siderable and beneficial. Not a few of the Hun
garian Protestant pastors preach the Gospel fully
and clearly. In the capital itself, men like pas
tors Zorok, Banhofer, Szekacz, Professor Balogy,
&c, ably and zealously teach the pure doctrines
of the Word. According to statistics published
in Pesth a few months ago, the Lutheran Church
in Hungary has 552 congregations, numbering
818,894 souls; the Reformed or Calvinistic
Church, 1427 congregations, or 1,511,842 souls;
the total number of Protestants, being 2,331,736.
A large proportion of these numbers belong to the
educated classes. The Reformed Protestants
are almost exclusively Magyars, while the
Lutheran community consists of Slavonic, Ger
man, and Magyar elements.
Huntingdon's Countess of, Connex
ion, a party of Christians which originated in
the zeal and liberality of Selina, Countess of
Huntingdon. She was deeply interested in the
missionary labours of Whitfield and Wesley;
and Whitfield was so much prized by her as to
be made her chaplain. The six ministers and
four preachers who attended the first Methodist
conference in London, June, 1744, were invited
to her house and hospitality. When Wesley
and Whitfield separated, she clung to the latter,
and founded a college at Trevecca, in South
Wales, which was afterwards removed to Ches-
hunt. Several chapels were also built and en
dowed by her liberality ; and such proceedings
as an action at law against some of her ministers,
and the refusal of the bishop to ordain her
students, at length severed the tie which bound
her and her friends to the establishment. Lady
Huntingdon's Connexion has 109 chapels, with
accommodation for 38,727 persons. They are
sometimes called English Calvinistic Methodists.
The liturgy is generally used in their churches,
and sometimes also the episcopalian vestments.
Their confession of faith is in substance the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England.
Hussites, the party in Bohemia who followed
the teaching of John Huss, and who, after his
martyrdom in 1415, were driven to take up
arms against their persecutors. They encamped
on a hill, to which they gave the name of Ta
bor, assuming for themselves the appellation of
Taborites; while they stigmatized the nations
around as Idumeans or Moabites, Amalekites
or Philistines. Animated with deep religious
enthusiasm, and led to battle by Ziska, a man
of great military genius, they gained many sig
nal triumphs over Sigismund and the armies of
the Church. But Ziska died in 1424, and dis
sensions immediately arose among his followers.
Two parties, called Orebites and Orphans, divided
them, though they united on occasions of common
danger; and especially in 1431 they completely
routed their enemies, who were led by the cele
brated Cardinal of St. Angelo. In 1433 they
sent deputies to treat with the council of Basle;

HUT
but the attempt at an accommodation failed.
In 1434 a civil war broke out between the more
violent portion of the reformers, who still re
tained the title of Taborites, and those who, from
confining their demands to the concession of the
cup to the laity, were called Calixtines. The
Calixtines were supported by the Catholic party,
and the war was carried on with much atrocity
on both sides, till it was terminated by the com
pact made at Iglau in 1436. It was kindled
again in 1466, through the arbitrary measures of
Paul II. ; but during the discords of almost
thirty years that followed, the names of Ta
borites, Orphans, and even Hussites, gradually
disappeared, and the open resistance to the
Catholic authorities became fainter and fainter.
And yet the principles of the Hussites were not
expiring. They came out purer from the con
flict ; and under the name of the United Brethren
of Bohemia, those who may be regarded as their
representatives formed in the next century a
regularly organized body, inheriting from their
ancestors many of those views of divine truth
which Luther then began to teach, and ready to
unite with the great reformers in throwing off
the fetters of Rome. — See Bohemian Breth
ren, Calixtines, Moravians.
Hutchinsonians, a name given to a few
pious and worthy philosophers and interpre
ters, followers of John Hutchinson. He was
born at Spennythorpe, Yorkshire, 1674; received
a good education ; became an enthusiastic natu
ralist and collector of fossils ; was steward to the
Duke of Somerset, and ultimately master of the
horse to George I. In 1724 he published his
Mosis Principia, designed to overthrow the
Prindpia of Newton. The second part was pub
lished in 1727. His subsequent publications
were numerous; and after his death in 1737, his
works were published in twelve volumes 8vo,
1748. Beside other philological peculiarities in
regard to the typical and radical meaning of
certain Hebrew words, he found a scheme of
natural philosophy taught in Scripture. This
general theory was, — That the Hebrew Scrip
tures nowhere ascribe motion to the body of the
sun nor fixedness to the earth; that they re
present the created system to be a plenum with
out any vacuum at all, and that gravitation, at
traction, or any such occult qualities is not neces
sary to the stated operations of nature, for they
are carried on by the mechanism of the heavens,
in their three-fold condition of fire, light, and
spirit, or air, the material agents set to work at
the beginning ; — that the heavens, thus framed
by Almighty wisdom, are an instituted emblem
and visible substitute of Jehovah Aleim, the
Eternal Three, the co-equal and co-adorable
Trinity in Unity ; — that the unity of sub
stance in the heavens points out the unity of
essence, and the distinction of conditions, the
personality in Deity, without confounding the
persons or dividing the substance; — and that

HYP
from their being made emblems, the heavens are
called in Hebrew shemim, the names, represent
atives, or substitutes ; thus expressing by then-
names that they are emblems, and by their con
ditions or offices what it is they are emblems of.
Hutchinson also imagined that the Hebrew
Scriptures have some capital words, which he
endeavours to prove contain in their radical
meaning the greatest and most comfortable
truths. Thus, the word Elohim he reads Aleim,
and refers it to the oath by which the eternal
covenant of grace among the persons in Jehovah
was and is confirmed. The word berith, which
our translation renders covenant, he construes to
signify, 'he or that which purifies,' — the Purifier,
or the purifications/or, not with, man. The cher
ubim he explains to have been an hieroglyphic
of divine construction, or a sacred image to
describe, as far as figures could go, the Aleim
and man, or Humanity united to Deity. Hut
chinson's philological theories taint the pages
of Bates's and Parkhurst's Lexicons. His
views were espoused by Bishop Horne, by Ro-
maine, Jones, Spearman, Cattcott, and Lord
President Forbes of Culloden, in Scotland. But
they have long ceased to maintain any credit
with scholars or divines.
HydroparaslataD (offerers of water). — See
Aquarii, Encratites.
Hyemantes (winterers or tossed by a winter
blast), a name given by the Latin fathers to de
moniacs. — See Energumens, Exorcist.
Hymn. — The hymns of the early Church
were simple and expressive ; and the psalms of
the Old Testament were usually sung. Few of
the hymns have been preserved to us. The
whole subject will be treated under Praise, Psal
mody. The oldest hymn on record is found in
Clement of Alexandria, in the third book of his
Pcedagogue, and is a direct act of homage to
Christ. Literally, it is at the commencement : —
" Bit for unbroken colts ;
"Wing of unwandering birds;
True helm of infants;
Shepherd of royal lambs,
Thine own simple ones;
Gather the youths,
To praise holily,
To hymn sincerely,
With innocent mouths,
Christ, the leader of youths.
0 King of saints.
World all-subdumg
Of the most High Father."
— See Angelic Hymn, Cherubic Hymn,
Doxology, Psalmody, Trisagion, &c.
Hypapante (meeting), an old name of Can
dlemas or the Purification of the Virgin, taken
from the circumstance that Simeon met the child
Jesus in the temple when Mary presented her
offering. The festival is not earlier than the
reigns of Justinian or Justin.
Hyperdulia (over-service), worship offered
to the Virgin. — See Dulia, Idolatry, Image.
IHypopnalma (responsive psalm), much the
same as Dlpsalma (which see). The gloria patri

317

HYP
repeated at the end of a psalm seems sometimes
to have borne that name.
Hypostatical Union (from hypostasis,
substance or person), the personal union of the
divine and human natures in Christ — one person
with two natures— not two persons with two
natures or one nature. The word hypostasis was
employed to denote a personal subsistence or per
son in the Godhead, and the word essence to
signify the being which is common to Father,
Son, and Spirit. — See Person of Christ.
Hypothetical Baptism is thus described and
warranted in the Book of Common Prayer, — " But
if they which bring the infant to the church do
make such uncertain answers to the priest's ques
tions, as that it cannot appear that the child was
baptized with water, in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost (which

ICO
are essential parts of baptism), then let the priest
baptize it in the form before appointed for public
baptism of infants; saving that at the dipping of
the child in the font, he shall use this form of
words, — ' If thou are not already baptized, N.,
I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.' "
Hypothetical Universalism. — See Amt-
raldism, Formula Consensus.
Hypsistarians (Supremists, that is, worship
pers of the Supreme), a small sect of the fourth
century, which worshipped God the Supreme
alone. Their worship appears a combination of
Jewish and Pagan or Parsee elements. Gregory
Nazianzen says that they worshipped fire (pro
bably as allied to the Supreme), and held sacred
the seventh day.

Iberian Church. — See Georgian Church.
Ichthus (!%4is, fish). — See Fish.
Iconastasis, the screen covered with images,
which, in the Greek Church, separates the holy
table from the body of the church, and within
which none enter but the clergy.
Iconoclast (from ti'xwy, an image, and xXatr-
rns, a breaker), a breaker of images : a name
given by the Church of Rome to all who con
demn the worship of images. The title was first
given to a party of the eighth century, which,
in conformity with an edict of Leo the Isaurian,
undertook to demolish all images and pictures
in churches as idolatrous. Their opponents, who
were supported by the popes Gregory I. and
II., received the name of Iconoduli or Iconola-
trce. In 726 Leo published a severe edict against
this species of idolatry, in which he prohibited
any kind of worship and adoration to be offered to
images, and commanded them to be removed from
the churches. However, the successful struggle
of Leo for the demolition of idolatry in the im
perial city did not influence the conduct of his
subjects in the other parts of the empire, nor
render his measures acceptable to the Roman
see. The horrors of civil war raged in the
islands of the Archipelago, in Asia, and in
Italy. Gregory II., the Roman pontiff, opposed
with great vehemence the attempts of the em
peror respecting image-worship, and absolved
the people of Rome from their allegiance to Leo.
This measure was the signal of revolt : the Ro
mans and other Italian provinces, subject to
the Grecian empire, rose in arms, massacred or
banished the imperial officers, and, refusing to
acknowledge the authority of the emperor, chose
new magistrates. Leo, however, opposed the
worship of images with reiterated fury, and en
forced his prohibition by threatening the op
posers of his laws with severe and exemplary

318

punishment. The death of Leo and that of Gre
gory III., who died the same year, and whose
attachment to image-worship had not been less
decisive than that of his predecessor, did not
restore tranquillity to the church and the empire.
Leo was succeeded by his son Constantine Copro-
nymus, who renewed his father's edict, and, in
754, convened at Constantinople a council, in
which not only the worship but the use of images
was unanimously condemned. The decrees of
this assembly, which the Greeks regarded as the
seventh general council, were received by great
numbers, though not universally, even in the
Eastern Churches, but were utterly rejected at
Rome. Leo III., who succeeded Constantine in
775, was not more favourable to idolatry than
his progenitors. He openly declared his abhor
rence of image-worship, and punished with seve
rity those who had presumed to pay any kind of
adoration to the saints, to the Virgin Mary, or
to their images. The infant son of Leo, who
was only ten years of age, was the nominal suc
cessor of his father; but the reins of govern
ment were assumed by the ambitious empress,
Irene, who transacted all the affairs of the empire.
Under her administration the Iconolatrse enjoyed
not only a respite from their sufferings, but the
utmost protection and favour. New images
decorated the walls which had lately been de
prived of their ornaments ; and she adopted the
popular measure of annulling the edicts of former
emperors against the worship of idols. In 786,
in concert with Adrian, Bishop of Rome, a council
was convened at Nice, in Bithynia, where the
impiety of the image-breakers was severely con
demned, the adoration of images and of the cross
re-established, and severe punishments were
threatened against the daring transgressors of tha
established rites. Charlemagne ordered a judi
cious divine to compose Four Books concerning

ICO
Images, which refuted the absurd decrees of the
Nicene assembly with judgment and spirit.
These books were sent, in 790, to the Roman
pontiff, Adrian, who attempted to answer and
refute the objections of Charlemagne. The prince,
however, in 794, assembled a council at Frank
fort, in which the opinion supported in the Four
Books, of the lawfulness and expediency of
placing pictures in churches, either as ornaments
to the building, or as useful in refreshing the
memory, was allowed ; but the worship of them
was absolutely forbidden. According to the tes
timony of Roger Hoveden and other English
writers, the British Churches assented to this
decision. After the banishment of Irene the con
troversy concerning images was renewed among
the Greeks, and was carried on by the contend
ing parties, during the half of the ninth century,
with various and uncertain success. The emperor
Nicephorus seems, upon the whole, to have been
an enemy to that idolatrous service. His suc
cessor, Michael Curopalates, surnamed Rhangabe,
pursued very different measures, and persecuted
the adversaries of image- worship with the greatest
rancour and cruelty. The scene again changed
on the accession of Leo, the Armenian, to the
empire; for he abolished the decrees of the Nicene
council relating to the use and worship of images,
in a council assembled at Constantinople in 814.
His successor, Michael, surnamed Balbus, or the
Stammerer, disapproved of the worship of images ;
and Theophilus, the son of Michael, opposed the
worshippers of images with much violence, and
treated them with great severity. On the death
of Theophilus, the regency was entrusted to the
empress Theodora, during her son's minority.
This superstitious princess assembled, in 842, a
council at Constantinople, in which the decrees
of the second Nicene council were reinstated in
their lost authority, and the Greeks were indulged
in their corrupt propensity to image-worship by
a decisive law. The council held at the same
place under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by
the Greeks the eighth general council, added
force and vigour to idolatry, by maintaining the
sanctity of images, and approving, confirming,
and renewing the Nicene decrees. The Latins
were generally of opinion that images might be
tolerated as the means of aiding the memory of
the faithful, and of calling to their remembrance
the pions and virtuous actions of the persons
they represented ; but they detested all thoughts
of paying them the least degree of religions
homage or adoration. The council of Paris,
assembled by Lewis the Meek, in 824, allowed
the use of images in churches, but sternly for
bade to treat them with the smallest marks of
religious worship. In time, however, the Euro
pean Christians gradually departed from the
observance of this injunction, and fell impercep
tibly into a blind submission to the decisions of
the Roman pontiff, whose influence and authority
grew daily more formidable. Towards the con- 319

IDO
elusion, therefore, of the ninth century, the Gal
lican clergy began to pay a certain degree of
religious homage to the sacred images ; and then-
example was followed by the Germans and other
nations. Yet the Iconoclasts were not destitute
of adherents among the Latins. The most emi
nent of these was Claudius, Bishop of Turin,
who, in 823, ordered all images, and even the
cross itself, to be cast out of the churches and
committed to the flames. He also composed a
treatise, in which he declared against the use as
well as the worship of images. He denied that
the cross was to be honoured with any kind of
worship ; treated relics with the utmost contempt,
as absolutely destitute of the virtues attributed
to them ; and censured with much freedom and
severity the frequent pilgrimages to the Holy
Land, and the offerings at the tombs of saints.
In the eleventh century the controversy concern
ing the sanctity of images was revived among
the Greeks by Leo, Bishop of Chalcedon. The
Emperor Alexius had ordered the figures of silver
that adorned the portals of the churches to be
converted into money, in order to supply the
exigencies of the state. Leo obstinately main
tained that Alexius had been guilty of sacrilege;
and he published a treatise in which he affirmed
that in the images of Jesus Christ and of the
saints there resided an inherent sanctity, and that
the adoration of Christians ought not to be con
fined to the persons represented by these images,
but should extend to the images themselves.
The emperor assembled a council at Constanti
nople, which determined that the images of
Christ and of the saints were to be honoured only
with a relative worship, and that invocation and
worship were to be addressed to the saints only
as the servants of Christ, and on account of their
relation to him as their master. These absurd
and superstitious decisions did not satisfy the
idolatrous Leo, who obstinately maintained his
opinions, and was therefore sent into banishment.
In the Western Church the worship of images
was disapproved and opposed by several con
siderable parties — as the Petrobrussians, the
Albigenses, Waldenses, &c. ; and at length this
idolatrous practice was abolished in many parts
of the Christian world by the Reformation.
(Mosheim's Eccles. Hist, vol. ii., pp. 89, 90, 91,
148, &c.) — See Image.
Iconodulia or ILasria (ilxuv, image), the
worship of images : a name often used in the con
troversies of the eighth century. — See Icono
clast. Idiota; (tiiuT-ai, private persons), an early
name of the private members of the Church, in
contrast with those who held public office in the
Church. Idolatry. — The Church of Rome is plainly
guilty of this sin. For in that church, as
Palmer, an English High Churchman, remarks:
— " 1. It is maintained without censure that
latria, or the worship paid to the Divine nature,

IGN
is also due to images of Christ; images of the
Trinity; images of "God the Father; relics of the
blood, flesh, hair, and nails of Christ ; relics of
the true cross ; relics of the nails, spear, sponge,
scourge, reed, pillar, linen cloth, napkin of Vero
nica, seamless coat, purple robe, inscription on
the cross, and other instruments of the passion ;
images of the cross ; the Bible ; the blessed Vir
gin. AU these creatures ought, according to the
doctrines taught commonly and without censure
in the Roman communion, to receive the very
worship paid to God. — 2. Divine honours are
practically offered to the Virgin, and to all the
saints and angels. It has been repeatedly and
clearly shown that they are addressed in exactly
the same terms in which we ought to address
God ; that the same sort of confidence is expressed
in their power ; that they are acknowledged to
be the authors of grace and salvation. These
idolatries are generally practised without opposi
tion or censure  3. The Virgin is blasphem
ously asserted to be superior to God the Son,
and to command him. She is represented as the
source of all grace, while believers are taught to
look on Jesus with dread. The work of redemp
tion is said to be divided between her and our
Lord." Ignorance. — The ignorance of many of the
clergy prior to the Reformation is almost incred
ible. Chaucer affirms of many — " Nother canne
thei the Gospel rede;" and Wycliffe says that
there were " many unable curates that kunnen
not the ten commandments, ne read their sauter
(psalter), ne understond a verse of it." There
was scarcely a Latin Testament in any cathedral
in England till the time of Dean Colet, though
Latin was the language of the church, of its
Scriptures, and services. Matters were as bad
on the Continent. One monk affirmed that a
new language had lately been discovered, called
Greek, and that it was the parent of all heresy.
" Many priests and pastors," according to Museu
ms, " had never seen a Bible." Archbishops
and bishops could not write, but put their mark
to deeds and acts of councils. The Catholic
clergy in Scotland were wont to say, that Luther
had lately composed a wicked book called the
New Testament. If such was the case with so
many of the clergy, what could be expected
from the people? When the blind lead the
blind, there is but one result.
Ikonobortsi, a small Russian dissenting
sect, which not only will not allow paintings in
places of worship, but forbids them also in pri
vate dwellings.
I Humiliated (enlightened), a name given to
those newly baptized in the early Church, either
on account of the knowledge which they had pro
fessed, or because a lighted taper was put into
their hands, as a symbol of their enlightenment.
Illuminated, a sect which, under the name
of Alumbrados (enlightened), rose in Spain in
1575. They were a kind of Antinomian Quiet-

IMA
ists, believing that they had, by prayer, reached
such perfection as to be able to dispense with the
ordinances of the church; for they believed them
selves to be beyond the possibility of sinning.
Many of them were put to death by the inquisi
tion. A sect of the same name and pretensions
also arose in France under Louis XIII., but was
soon extirpated.
Image, in a religions sense, is generally
used to denote an object of idolatrous worship,
or the medium of stimulating to grateful, devo
tional, and reverential remembrance of the person
or being represented by it. Though the second
commandment forbids most explicitly the use of
images in religious worship, and though the
history of tbe Israelites presents some solemn
warnings against a violation of the letter or
spirit of that commandment, 3'et, to the Chris
tian Church of the latter end of the fourth
century is to be ascribed the folly and crime
of introducing the germ of image-worship.
Like every other innovation upon the sim
plicity and purity of Christian worship this
practice was introduced without any idea of
the ulterior consequences which have attended
it; besides which, a plea of utility was not
wanting to repress the murmurs of those who
argued that Christian men were bound to reject
the doctrine of expediency under the most
plausible modifications, adhering ^simply and
closely " to the law and to the testimony." Thus
Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, ornamented the walls
of his church with paintings of Scripture
subjects, in order to engage the attention of
the less instructed of his hearers, during the an
niversary festival ofthe dedication ofthe Church
of St. Felix. About the same time other intima
tions of a like practice appeared elsewhere, which
St. Augustine unhesitatingly condemned, saying
of those who introduced this artistic innovation,
" The Church condemns them as ignorant, and
superstitious, and self-willed persons ; and daily
it endeavours to correct them as untoward chil
dren." So early as the year 305 the council of
Eliberis published the following decree : — " We
decree that pictures ought not to be in churches,
lest that which is worshipped and adored be
painted upon the walls ;" whence it appears that
pictorial embellishments, with the most innocent
intention no doubt, had about that time been
introduced into some churches. Probably the
pictures were but emblematic representations of
the spirit and power of Christianity, or of the
religious experience of those who were led to
embrace it as the true and genuine revelation of
God to man ; for we have mention, in Tertul-
Iian's writings, of a communion cup embellished
with a picture of a shepherd bringing home his
lost sheep — a lively representation of Christ,
" the good shepherd." It is evident, however,
that the design of these pictures was for orna
ment or historic instruction, and not for pur
poses of worship ; but the boundary having
320

IMA
been once passed— the landmark having been
once removed — further innovations stealthily and
slowly succeeded, such as the hanging up in
churches the pictures of kings, bishops, and other
distinguished personages; till at length, by a
decree of the second council of Nice, a.d. 787,
the degrading superstition of reverencing the
images of saints and martyrs was declared law
ful. The Romanists, with much self-confidence,
argue that " the principle itself is apostolic, but
it was not expedient to set up images iu the
oratories and temples of Christians for the first
three centuries, because the remembrance of
idolatry was yet fresh in men's minds." — Peta-
vius. " Images," say others, " were only pro
hibited for fear the Gentiles should think that
Christians were worshippers of stocks and
stones." And as it regards the decree of the
council of Eliberis, Mendoza invented the fol
lowing impudent explanation, which Bona, Pagi,
and Schlestrate highly approved of, namely,
that "it was only images of God and the
Trinity that the council prohibited, not the
images of saints and martyrs ; and that only for
fear the catechumens and Gentiles should be let
into the secret of their religion, and understand
the mystery of the Trinity before the time!"
The canon, however, is quite clear in forbidding
images or pictures of any sort whatever. But
Mendoza's invention failed in satisfying other doc
tors of the church ; for we find that Albaspiny
and Petavius were of opinion that " the images
of God and the Trinity were prohibited lest the
catechumens and new converts should learn to
entertain wrong notions of the majesty of God,
when they saw Him whom they were taught to
believe invisible, immaterial, and incomprehen
sible, represented and circumscribed by visible
lines and colours," which, says Bingham, is a
reason that will always hold against making
images of the Deity, though it does not give the
full sense of the above canon. In conclusion, we
would observe with reference to the council of
Nice, that its decrees were not favourably re
ceived except at Rome ; nor was the worship of
images adopted in Germany, France, England,
and other countries, for some hundreds of years
after they were introduced into the Romish
churches. Indeed, it is well known that at
several councils assembled in these countries,
several of the decrees of the Nicene fathers were
condemned. In the early Church the makers of images
were prohibited from baptism, seeing, as Ter
tullian says, " they made the devils their pup
pets, and make their house a shop to maintain
them." They were also forbidden to come to the
communion ; for the trade was scandalous, and
wholly inconsistent with the profession of Chris
tianity — believing in one God, and yet making
many gods — lifting up those hands to him which
had been employed in the manufacture of false
divinities. The making or vending of incense,

IMA
purveying in any form for heathen worship, or
connivance with it in any way, with its proces
sions, feasts, or ceremonies, was similarly con
demned. There is one image in the Church of
Rome that merits a moment's attention. It is
that of the infant Jesus, usually called il Bam
bino — that being the Italian name for a child.
It belongs to the Convent and Church of Ara
Coeli, at the Capitol in Rome. It is a wooden
doll, about two feet in length, — on its head a
crown of gold, studded with rubies and diamonds,
its body wrapt in swaddling clothes, so gemmed
with precious stones as to blaze with a dazzling
splendour. The worth of the clothing is several
thousands of pounds sterling. It is said to have
been carved out of olive wood by a Franciscan
monk in Jerusalem, and is declared to have
wrought many miracles. Seymour, in his Pil
grimage to Rome, describes the intense and uni
versal homage paid to it : — " Such a scene !
There, at the height of an hundred and twenty-
four steps above the people, there stood the priests
in all their splendid robes. On one side were
arranged about forty monks ; on the other hand
about as many more ; and clothed in their sombre
dresses, and waving their blazing torches in their
hands, they presented a scene of the most strik
ing appearance. In the midst were the more
immediate officials, holding aloft their gigantic
torches; and in the centre of these again were
the priests, surrounding the high priest, who held
the little image — the Bambino — in his hand.
At least one hundred torches, each in the hand
of an ecclesiastic, glittered and flamed around.
The monks stood in their places ; the ecclesiastics
gathered together; the incense was waved, and
enwrapped all for a moment in its clouds and its
perfume ; the military band filled the whole place
with a crash of music ; and the soldiers of the
guard presented arms, as the chief priest lifted
the little image — slowly lifted the Bambino, rais
ing it above his head. In an instant, as if the
eternal Jehovah were visibly present in the
image, among the vast multitude gazing from
far beneath, every head was uncovered before it,
and every knee was bent to it, and almost every
living soul was prostrate before it. He raised it
slowly a second time ; he raised it in the same
manner, only more slowly, the third time ; and
the muttered words of prayer ascended from the
vast multitude, and told how deeply and univer
sally rooted among the people is this worship of the
Bambino. I felt as if my blood was frozen within
me at so awful a spectacle. . . . There is no apo
logy, and there can be no defence for this, which
presents a plain instance of idolatry, as palpable
and as gross as the very worst that ever charac
terized the ancient heathens of Rome. There was
bowing, kneeling, and prostration, to a little
wooden image. And there was in all this the
belief that there was divine power in this image,
to give the divine blessing." — Besides the Bam
bino, there are also at Rome, as prime objects of

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IMM
adoration, such as kneeling, kissing, and prayer,
the statue of St. Peter, said to be really a Ju
piter Tonans, worshipped of old by the pagan
Romans ; the Madonna of the Augustinians, not
unlike " the figure of a collier, or coasting vessel,"
as large as life, and with a child in its arms,
worshipped as the queen of heaven; and the
image of Christ, close to the high altar of the
Church of St. Maria Sopra Minerva, the product
of Michael Angelo ; but it has ceased to be the
favourite idol of the populace, the Virgin having
supplanted it — the mother wholly overshadow
ing her son. — See Iconoclast, Pictures.
Immaculate Conception of the Virgin
Mary, a dogma of the Romish Church, which
was solemnly published in St. Peter's on the
8th December, 1854, in words of which the
following is a translation :¦ — " We declare, pro
nounce, and define, that the doctrine which holds
that the Blessed Virgin Mary, at the first in
stant of her conception, by a singular privilege
and grace of the omnipotent God, in virtue of
the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of man
kind, was preserved immaculate from all stain of
original sin, has been revealed by God, and
therefore should be firmly and constantly believed
by all the faithful." A bull dated that same
day, and containing an elaborate defence of the
doctrine, pronounces that "whoever shall pre
sume to think otherwise, has suffered shipwreck
of the faith, has revolted from the unity of the
church ; and if he gives utterance to his thought,
incurs the penalties justly established against
heresy." The first time this doctrine attracted
any notice in the Church was when St. Bernard,
about the year 1 1 40, wrote to the canons of Lyons
to reprove them for introducing into their church
the Feast of the Conception (174th letter).
The introduction of such a festival was sup
posed to be a consequence of their believing the
conception to be miraculous. And such, no
doubt, was their belief, and the belief of the
many other churches in which the festival was
from time to time introduced, although the
authorities at Rome, when they came to sanction
the festival, look pains to guard against the in
ference that they sanctioned the doctrine of the
Immaculate Conception, pointing out how the
festival of the Assumption also was celebrated
without the Assumption being an article of faith.
The1 first divine of any note who put forth the
doctrine in question was Duns Scotus in 1306.
His views were cordially taken up by the Fran
ciscans, while the Dominicans no less warmly
followed Thomas Aquinas in maintaining the
contrary opinion. From that time to this the
question has been disputed. Popes and coun
cils have attempted to all.iy the strife and to
avoid a formal decision. They have generally
allowed that the Immaculate Conception may be
held as a pious opinion. The council of Trent
decreed that the doctrine of all men being con
ceived in original sin was not intended to in-

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elude the Virgin ; but the zeal of the worship*
pers of Mary would not be satisfied with such
a compromise, and has completely triumphed at
last. In 1843 the general of the Dominicans
applied, in the name of his order, for permission
to adopt the service for the Feast of the Con
ception, in which the epithet Immaculate occurs.
This seemed to remove the last barrier to the
attainment of the long-desired object; and ac
cordingly Pius IX. has ventured solemnly to
stamp, as an article of faith, that doctrine of
which his infallible predecessor, Gregory XV.,
had declared " that it had not been revealed by
God." — See Mary, Virgin Mary.
Immersion. — See Baptism, Pjedobav-
tists. Immovable "Feasts. — See Feasts.
Impanation (in and panis, bread).— The
impanatores were originally those who denied
that the bread and wine were transubstantiated
into the body and blood of Christ. Sub
sequently, Du Cange adds, the Lutherans
were so called, who dreamed that the bread
remains with the body of Christ in the Euchar
ist. " This conceit," says Waterland, " that our
Lord's divinity becomes personally united with
the elements, has sometimes gone under tbe
name of assumption, as it imports the Deity's
assuming the elements into a personal union;
and sometimes it has been called impanation,—- a
name following the analogy of the word incar
nation." Impeccabiles (notable to dn), the Priscil-
lianists and some ancient sects held that they
were incapable of sin, and got this extravagant
name. Implicit Faith. — In a special sense such
faith is enjoined by the Church of Rome.
" When a man," says Newman, " has become
a Catholic, were he to set about following a
doubt which has occurred to him, he has al
ready disbelieved." " Irrational obedience," says
Cardinal Toletin, " is tbe most consummate and
perfect obedience." — See Faith, Implicit.
Impluvium, the atrium or open court in front
of the early churches. It had no covering, but
was surrounded by cloisters. In it assembled the
first class of penitents called Weepers. — See.
Flentes. Imposition of Hands. — This symbolical
rite was often employed in the early Church, as
in the ordination of the superior clergy, and in
that of deaconesses, in confirmation, in absolu
tion, in making catechumens and penitents, in
exorcising the possessed or energumens, and at
the bishops' benediction. — See Hands.
Impropriations. — Skinner observes that
appropriation (of an ecclesiastical benefice) and
impropriadon are to be distinguished; the latter
term being used of those in the possession of
laymen by the gift of the king, the former of
those annexed to some ecclesiastical corpo
ration. Spelman, also, who has inveighed with

IMP
great vehemence against the tenure of impro
priations, very carefully distinguishes them from
appropriations, with which they are usually
identified. After showing in what manner
religious bodies obtained a perpetual incum
bency on benefices, he ' adds, " In old times,
whilst these churches were in the clergy-hand,
they were called appropriations, because they
were appropriate to a particular succession of
churchmen ; now they are called impropriations,
for they are improperly in the hands of laymen "
(Larger Work of Tythes, c. 20.) Minshew in
like manner observes, that impropriations are
" when spiritual livings come to temporall men,
as improper to them." " Benefices," Blackstone
says, " are sometimes appropriated ; that is to
say, the benefice is perpetually annexed to some
spiritual corporation, either sole or aggregate,
being the patron of the living, which the law
esteems equally capable of providing for the
service of the church as any single private cler
gyman. This contrivance seems to have sprung
from the policy of the monastic orders, who have
never been deficient in subtle inventions for the
increase of their own power and emoluments.
At the first establishment of parochial clergy the
tithes of the parish were distributed in a fourfold
division, — one for the use of the bishop, another
for maintaining the fabric of the church, a third
for the poor, and the fourth to provide for the
incumbent. When the sees of the bishops became
otherwise amply endowed, they were prohibited
from demanding their usual share of these tithes,
and the division was into three parts only. And
hence it was inferred by the monasteries, that a
small part was sufficient for the officiating priest,
and that the remainder might well be applied to
the use of their own fraternities (the endowment
of which was construed to be a work of the most
exalted piety), subject to the burden of repairing
the church, and providing for its constant sup
ply; and therefore they begged and bought, for
masses and obits, and sometimes even for money,
all the advowsons within their reach, and then
appropriated the benefices to the use of their
own corporation. But, in order to complete such
appropriation effectually, the king's license and
consent of the bishop must first be obtained;
because both the king and the bishop may some
time or other have an interest, by lapse, in the
presentation to the benefice, which can never
happen if it be appropriated to the use of a cor
poration, which never dies ; and also because the
law reposes a confidence in them, that they will
not consent to anything that shall be to the pre
judice of the church. The consent of the patron
also is necessarily implied, because, as was before
observed, the appropriation can be originally
made to none but to such spiritual corporation
as is also the patron of the church, — the whole
being indeed nothing else but an allowance for
the patrons to retain the tithes and glebe in their
own hands, without presenting any clerk, they 323

IMP
themselves undertaking to provide for the service
of the church. When the appropriation is thus
made, the appropriators and their successors
are perpetual parsons of the church, and must
sue and be sued, in all matters concerning the
rights of the church by the name of parsons.
This appropriation may be severed, and the
church become disappropriate two ways; as,
first, if the patron or appropriator presents a
clerk, who is instituted and inducted to the par
sonage; for the incumbent so instituted and
inducted is to all intents and purposes complete
parson ; and the appropriation being once severed,
can never be re-united again, unless by a repeti
tion of the same solemnities. And when the
clerk so presented is distinct from the vicar, the
rectory thus vested in him becomes what is called
a dnecure; because he hath no cure, of souls,
having a vicar under him to whom that cure is
committed. Also, if the corporation which has
the appropriation is dissolved, the parsonage be
comes disappropriate at common law; because
the perpetuity of person is gone, which is ne
cessary to support the appropriation. In this
manner, and subject to these conditions, may
appropriations be made at this day ; and thus
were most, if not all, of the appropriations at
present existing originally made — being annexed
to bishoprics, prebends, religious houses, nay,
even to nunneries and certain military orders,
all of which were spiritual corporations. At the
dissolution of monasteries b}- statutes 27 Henry
VIII., c. 28, and 31 Henry VIII., c. 13, the
appropriations of the several parsonages, which
belonged to those respective religious houses
(amounting to more than one-third of all the
parishes in England), would have been by the
rules of the common law disappropriated, had
not a clause in those statutes intervened, to give
them to the king in as ample a manner as the
abbots, &c, formerly held the same, at the
time of their dissolution. This, though perhaps
scarcely defensible, was not without example;
for the same was done in former reigns, when
the alien priories (that is, such as were filled
by foreigners only) were dissolved and given
to the crown. And from these two roots have
sprung all the lay appropriations of secular par
sonages which we now see in the kingdom, they
having been afterwards granted out from time to
time by the crown. These appropriating corpo
rations or religious houses were wont to depute
one of their own body to perform divine service
and administer the sacraments in those parishes
of which the society was thus the parson. This
officiating minister was in reality no more than
a curate, deputy, or vicegerent of the appropria
tor, and therefore called vicarius or vicar. His
stipend was at the discretion of the appropriator,
who was, however, bound of common right to
find somebody, qui UU de temporalibus, episcopo
de spirilualibus, debeat respondere. But this
was done in so scandalous a manner, and the

IMP
parishes suffered so much by the neglect of the
impropriators, that the legislature was forced to
interpose ; and accordingly it is enacted by sta
tute 15 Richard II. , c. 6, that in all appropria
tions of churches the diocesan bishop shall ordain
(in proportion to the value of the church) a
competent sum to be distributed among the poor
parishioners annually, and that the vicarage shall
be sufficiently endowed. It seems the parishes
were frequently sufferers, not only by the want
of divine service, but also by withholding those
alms for which, among other purposes, the pay
ment of tithes was originally imposed; and
therefore in this act a pension is directed to be
distributed among the poor parochians, as well
as a sufficient stipend to the vicar. But he,
being liable to be removed at the pleasure of the
appropriator, was not likely to insist too rigidly
on the legal sufficiency of the stipend ; and there
fore, by statute 4 Henry IV., u. 12, it is ordained
that the vicar shall be a secular person, not a
member of any religious house ; that he shall be
vicar perpetual, not removable at the caprice of
the monastery ; and that he shall be canonically
instituted and inducted, and be sufficiently en
dowed, at tbe discretion of the ordinary, for these
three express purposes, — to do divine service, to
inform the people, and to keep hospitality. The
endowments, in consequence of these statutes,
have usually been by a portion of the glebe or
land belonging to the parsonage, and a particular
share of the tithes which the appropriators found
it most troublesome to collect, and which are
therefore generally called privy or small tithes ;
the greater or predial tithes being still reserved
to their own use. But one and the same rule
was not observed in the endowment of all vicar
ages. Hence some are more liberally and some
more scantily endowed ; and hence the tithes of
many things, as wood in particular, are in some
parishes rectorial, and in some vicarial tithes.
The distinction, therefore, of a parson and vicar
is this : The parson has, for the most part, the
whole right to all the ecclesiastical dues in his
parish ; but a vicar has generally an appropriator
over him, entitled to the best part of the profits,
to whom he is in effect perpetual curate, with
a standing salary, though in some places the
vicarage has been considerably augmented by a
large share of the great tithes, which augmen
tations were greatly assisted by the statute 29
Charles II., c. 8, enacted in favour of poor vicars
and curates, which rendered such temporary aug
mentations (when made by the appropriators)
perpetual." Selden considers the subject very
differently : in his History of Tythes ( Works, vol.
iii., 1227) he gives an account of the nature of
appropriations, and afterwards, in the Review of
that work (1322), he makes their existence an
argument against the origin of tithes, jure divino
morali Imputation, a theological term, signifying
the transference, not of character, but of guilt

324

INC
or liability to punishment, or of merit freeing
from punishment. Character is one and indivi
sible, and can never be transferred. Adam's first
sin is said to be imputed to us, so that on
account of it we are under sentence of death,
Christ's righteousness is imputed to us, and on
account of it we are justified, or exempted from
condemnation. Our sins are said to be imputed
to Christ, not that he was made a sinner, but
that he bore, in our name, and as our represent
ative and substitute, the penalty due to us. Nor
are we made holy by the imputation of his right
eousness : we are only absolved from the sen
tence of a broken law  See Justification.
Inability. — Distinction is usually made be
tween natural and moral inability — the first
being beyond our control, and the second lying
not in the mind, but in the will, — that is, when
a man cannot, just because he will not, do a cer
tain thing. Thus Joseph's brethren " could not
speak peaceably to him," — that is, they were so
filled with envy and hatred that they would not
Sin has brought moral inability upon man ; but,
so far from its being a palliation, it is only an
aggravation of his crime. (Edwards On tlie WUl)
Incarnation. — See Person op Christ.
^ Incense. — The use of incense in the Chris
tian Church, and in connection with the Euchar
ist, was not known till the period of Gregory
the Great, towards the close of the sixth century,
incense is used still in the Romish Church on a
variety of occasions.
Incest, a violation ofthe prohibited degrees. 
See Marriage. Incest spiritual was supposed
to happen between two persons spiritually allied
by baptism or confirmation, and such a union
rendered necessary a papal dispensation.— See
Godfathers, Gossrp. The same epithet is also
sometimes given to a beneficiary who holds two
benefices, one of which depends on the collation
of the other— mother and daughter.
Incineratio, the consecration of the ashes
which, on Ash Wednesday or Lent, are by the
popish ritual sprinkled on the heads of the
clergy and people. The custom was begun by
Gregory towards the end of the sixth century,
but not fully established till toward the end of
the twelfth by Pope Celestine III.— See Lent.
Incipientes (beginners), a name given to
catechumens in the early Church. — See Cate
chumens. In Ccena Domini, a famous papal bull
launched against all heretics, and issued in its
latest form by Urban VIII. in 1627.— See
under Bull, p. 110.
1 neorruplibles, an extreme sect of Euty-
chians which held that the body of Christ suf
fered no physical change of any kind, not even
of appetite, thus denying the reality of his
human nature. They were called in Greek Aph-
thartodocetas. Incumbent (Lat., Incumbens, bending down
under), used metaphorically of one who bends

IND
under or sustains a duty. The title incumbent
is given to a clergyman residing on his benefice;
"because," as Sir Edward Coke says (LA, 119),
"he does or ought diligently to bend all his
study to the discharge of the cure of the church
to which he belongs."
Indelible Character, a sign or change so
impressed upon the soul by baptism, confirma
tion, and holy orders, that none of those sacra
ments can be repeated.
Indemnity (a compensation). — An in
demnity was a pension paid to the bishop in
consideration of discharging or indemnifying
churches, united or appropriated, from the pay
ment of procurations ; or by way of recompense
for the profits which the bishop would otherwise
have received during the time of the vacation of
such churches.
Independency, called also Congregation
alism, that form of church government which
is equally opposed to presbytery and episcopacy.
It holds that each church has all the power of
discipline and government within itself, indepen
dently of other churches, and without any court
of review. It denies the office of ruling elders or
congregational representatives, and lodges the
government in the entire body of the member
ship. The congregation directly governs itself,
and that independently of all foreign control or
supervision. Congregationalism admits only
pastors and deacons as office-bearers authorized by
the New Testament. On this last point, how
ever, they have differences both of opinion and
practice, Dr. Davidson, in his lectures on the
Ecclesiastical Polity, arguing that there was a
plurality of elders in each primitive church, any
one of whom might teach. In reference to the con
gregational form of government the same writer
says, — " Our investigations regarding the primi
tive churches have led to the full conviction, that
they were voluntary societies ; that they were of a
spiritual character, existing for purposes of edifica
tion, worship, and discipline ; that they were not
in connection with civil governments, or under
their control ; that in the time of the apostles there
were no provincial or national churches; that
there was no external visible unity among them,
farther than a sisterly relation ; that they were
not subordinate the one to the other ; and that
they were complete in themselves. That they
were voluntary societies is admitted even by those
who think they ought not to be such in the pre
sent day. ' The churches of Christ in those days
were of necessity voluntary societies : but it does
not thence follow that they were always so to
continue.' The language in which they are
uniformly described attests the truth of the pro
position, that they were of a spiritual character.
' Know ye not,' says the apostle of the Gentiles,
to the members of the Corinthian Church, ' that
ye are the temple of God, and that the Spirit
of God dwelleth in you ?' That they were un
connected with dvil governments is universally

IND
conceded. All the governments of the world
were opposed to them. So far from being as
sisted by civil power, they were persecuted by it.
We never read of provincial churches. On the
contrary, the churches of Asia are mentioned ;
the churches of Judea ; the churches of Mace
donia. Hence there is no record of the church of
Achaia, although several churches existed in that
province, as those of Corinth and Cenchrea.
The advocates of national churches do not plead
for their existence in the time of the apostles.
There is nothing to show an external visible unity
among the churches of the apostolic period. Ail
indeed were under the superintendence of the
apostles generally ; but whatever unity they had,
consisted in holding the same faith, and in
serving the same Master with one spirit. Their
unity was in having one Lord, one faith, one
baptism. Neither were they subordinate to one
another. No example of this subordination has
yet been adduced from the New Testament.
Even those called mother churches, such as were
at Jerusalem and Antioch, did not claim or exer
cise power over others. All were distinct, indepen
dent societies. The preceding propositions imply
that the churches were complete in themselves."
The first Independents in this country were the
Brownists. — See Brownists. At the Westmin
ster Assembly the Independents occupied a pro
minent place, their leaders being Nye, Simpson,
Goodwin, Bridge, and Burroughs. Though they
formally rejected " the proud and insolent title of
Independency," they pleaded hard against pres
bytery, and for toleration ; for the Presbyterians
were ready to enforce uniformity. Through
various causes the Independents grew and mul
tiplied, and under Cromwell they acquired great
influence in the country. A synod of them was
convened at the Savoy on the 29th of September,
1658, and issued a declaration of faith and order
— not different in its theology from the West
minster Confession. But the men of that day
had more faith in the civil magistrate than their
more modern representatives, and ascribed reli
gious functions to him which modern Congrega-
tionalists would certainly disown. After the
abdication of Richard Cromwell the ministers
and delegates of the Congregational churches in
and around London passed a series of resolutions,
desiring a parliament that might preserve the
interests of Christ, professing an utter dislike
and abhorrence of universal toleration, and pro
testing " against the taking away of tithes, till as
full a maintenance be equally secured and legally
settled upon the ministry." The Independents
suffered from the despotic " Acts " of the reigns of
Charles II. and James, when Protestant non
conformists of all sects were cruelly persecuted.
They continued, however, to live and prosper,
though shaken by various strifes and heresies,
and oppressed to some extent by the spiritual
indifferentism of the first half of the eighteenth
century. Of them Mackintosh says, — "They

325

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(the Independents) disclaimed the qualifications
of 'national' as repugnant to the nature of a
'church.' The religion of tbe Independents
could not, without destroying its nature, be
' established.' They never could aspire to more
than religious liberty, and they accordingly have
the honour to be the first, and long the only
Christian community who collectively adopted
that sacred principle. It is true that in the be
ginning they adopted the pernicious and incon
sistent doctrine of limited toleration, excluding
Catholics as idolaters; and in New England,
where the great majority were Congregational-
ists, punishing, even capitally, dissenters from
opinions which they accounted fundamental. But
as intolerance could promote no interest of theirs,
real or imaginary, their true principles finally
worked out the stain of these dishonourable ex
ceptions. The government of Cromwell, more
influenced by them than by any other persua
sion, made as near approaches to general tolera
tion as public prejudice would endure; and Sir
Henry Vane, an Independent, was probably the
first who laid down with perfect precision the
inviolable rights of conscience, and the exemp
tion of religion from all civil authority." To
come down to the present time, the following is
a portion of the declaration of the faith, church
order, and discipline of the Congregational Inde
pendent Dissenters, as revised, May, 1852, in
connection with the Congregational Union of
England and Wales. We quote only what
refers to government: — " 1. The Congregational
churches hold it to be the will of Christ that
true believers should voluntarily assemble to
gether to observe religious ordinances, to promote
mutual edification and holiness, to perpetuate
and propagate the Gospel in the world, and to
advance the glory and worship of God, through
Jesus Christ ; and that each society of believers,
having these objects in view in its formation, is
properly a Christian church. 2. They believe
that the New Testameut contains, either in the
form of express statute, or in the example and
practice of apostles and apostolic churches, all
the articles of faith necessary to be believed, and
all tbe principles of order and discipline requisite
for constituting and governing Christian societies ;
and that human traditions, lathers and councils,
canons and creeds, possess no authority over the
faith and practice of Christians. 3. They ac
knowledge Christ as the only head of the Church,
and the officers of each church under bim as
ordained to administer his laws impartially to
all; and their only appeal, in all questions
touching their religious faith and practice, is to
the sacred Scriptures. 4. They believe that
the New Testament authorizes every Christian
church to elect its own officers, to manage all its
own affairs, and to stand independent of, and
irresponsible to, all authority, saving that only
of the supreme and divine head of the Church,
the Lord Jesus Christ. 5. They believe that

326

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the only officers placed by the apostles over indi- 1
vidual churches are the bishops or pastors, and
the deacons; the number of these being depen
dent upon the numbers of the church ; and that
to these, as the officers of the church, is com
mitted respectively the administration of its
spiritual and temporal concerns — subject, how
ever, to the approbation of the church. 6.
They believe that no persons should be received
as members of Christian churches but such as .
make a credible profession of Christianity, are
living according to its precepts, and attest a
willingness to be subject to its discipline; and
that none should be excluded from the fellow-
ship of the church but such as deny the faith
of Christ, violate his laws, or refuse to submit
themselves to the discipline which the Word of
God enforces. 7. The power of admission into .
any Christian church, and rejection from it, they
believe to be vested in the church itself, and to
be exercised only through the medium of its own
officers. 8. They believe that Christian churches
should statedly meet for the celebration of public
worship, for the observance of the Lord's Supper, .
and for the sanctification of the first day of the
week. 9. They believe that the power of a
Christian church is purely spiritual, and should
in no way be corrupted by union with temporal
or civil power. 10. They believe that it is the
duty of Christian churches to hold communion
with each other, to entertain an enlarged affec
tion for each other, as members of the same body,
and to co-operate for tbe promotion of the Chris
tian cause ; but that no church, nor union of
churches, has any right or power to interfere
with the faith or discipline of any other church,
further than to separate from such as, in faith
or practice, depart from the Gospel of Christ
1 1. They believe that it is the privilege and duty
of every church to call forth such of its members
as may appear to be qualified, by the Holy
Spirit, to sustain the office of the ministry ; and
that Christian churches unitedly ought to con
sider the maintenance of the Christian ministry
in an adequate degree of learning as one of its
especial cares ; that the cause of the Gospel may
be both honourably sustained and constantly
promoted. 12. They believe that church ofii
cers, whether bishops or deacons, should be
chosen by the free voice of the church ; but that,
their dedication to the duties of their office should
take place with special prayer, and by solemn
designation, to which most of the churches
add the imposition of hands by those already in
office. 13. They believe that the fellowship of
every Christian church should be so liberal as to
admit to communion in the Lord's Supper all
whose faith and godliness are, on the whole,
undoubted, though conscientiously differing in
points of minor importance; and that this out
ward sign of fraternity in Christ should be co-ex
tensive with the fraternity itself, though without
involving any compliances which conscience

IND
would deem to be sinful." Congregationalists
have a large denominational literature, and many
religious, benevolent, and educational institu
tions ; and their history is adorned by many
illustrious names,. — Owen, Howe, Gale, Good
win, Charnock, Watts, Doddridge, Pye Smith,
&c. The number of churches is, — England,
1,600; Wales, 636; Scotland and Channel
Islands, 147; Colonies, 208. Congregation
alists, both in England and Scotland, are alive
to the necessity of having an educated ministry.
There are ten colleges or academies, with a
staff of twenty-six tutors, or, as they are now
commonly called, professors. The students con
nected with these institutions maintain a high
character. Since the establishment of the Lon
don university, the total number of degrees in
arts and laws conferred is 546 ; and of these 150
have been granted to the alumni of Congrega
tional colleges. The committees and directors,
entertaining strongly the belief that an uncon
verted ministry is fatal to the well-being of any
church, are particularly careful in procuring
evidence of the personal piety of all who are
admitted. Adhering to the congregational prin
ciple, the churches are under no obligation to
restrict themselves to any class of students in
the choice of a pastor. They may and do select
men who are self-taught, but who, in their
estimation, possess the essential qualifications.
Generally speaking, however, students from the
colleges are chosen, and the exceptive cases are
comparatively rare. In addition to the volun
tary support of Gospel ordinances, Congrega
tionalists take a fair share in missionary work,
both at home and abroad. The following
seminaries belong to the body : — Western Col
lege, Plymouth ; Rotherham Independent Col
lege; Brecon Independent College; Cheshunt
College; Airedale College, Bradford; Hackney
Theological Seminar}- ; Theological Hall of Con
gregational Churches of Scotland; Lancashire
Independent College ; Springhill College, Mose-
ley, Birmingham ; New College, London. There
are also private seminaries at Bala, Bedford,
Bethesda, Cotton End, and Huntington, and
various schools of a high eminence and usefulness.
(Congregational Year Book, 1860.)
Congregationalism in Scotland. — "The rise of
Congregationalism in Scotland may be traced
principally to John Glas, minister of the Church
of Scotland, in the parish of Tealing, near
Dundee, who formed a church there in 1725.
The Congregationalists, forming the Congrega
tional Union of Scotland, trace their immediate
origin to the missionary enterprises of Robert
and James Haldane, in 1798 aud subsequent
years. Surrounded by a band of faithful and
devoted men, these gentlemen were intent only
on preaching the Gospel. Originally they had
no idea of forming churches; but when God
blessed their labours, their converts, by a sort of
spiritual instinct, drew towards each other. On

IND
every side they were assailed by torrents of in
vective. The church was in arms against
them, and they sighed for a polity, not cramped
by rigid law, in which all the talent amongst
them might at once be engaged in the cause of
Christ. Places of worship, called ' meeting
houses, or tabernacles,' were accordingly built
in several of the large towns, in which churches
were formed. The good work of the Lord went
on ; and had it not been for separations which
occurred in consequence of the baptismal contro
versy, the number of churches would have been
greater than it is. In connection with the union
there are at present 114 churches." — Russell's
Sketch of Congregationalism ; Walker, Hanbury,
Fletcher, Bogue, and Bennet.
Congregationalism in America  " In tbe year
1602 a dissenting church was formed in the
north of England, which had for one of its pas
tors the Rev. John Robinson. This church was
driven by persecution to Holland, in 1608, where
Mr. Robinson soon followed them. He is re
garded as the father of Congregationalism, and
the principles wbich he established in his church
at Leyden are the same in substance as still
prevail in New England. Some of these prin
ciples were held by the early Puritans, and were
acted upon by the Independents in England as
early as 1580. But as there were other and
distinctive principles at which they did not ar
rive, they are not considered as Congregation
alists. The younger members of Mr. Robinson's
church were the first settlers of New England,
where they landed in 1620. The pilgrims had
been harassed by prelacy on one side, and
independency on the other, and strove to avoid
the evils of both. Hence the Cambridge plat
form takes the ground that the Church, before
the law, was in families ; that under the law, it
was national ; and since the coming of Christ,
only congregational ; and adds, ' Tbe term
Independent we approve not.' Increase Mather,
who knew well the usages of the churches, says,
' That the churches of New England have been
originally congregational is known to every one.
Their platform does expressly disclaim the name
of Independent' Samuel Mather says, ' The
churches of New England are congregational.
They do not approve the name of Independent,
and are abhorrent from such principles of inde
pendency as would keep them from giving an
account of their matters to members of neigh
bouring churches, regularly demanding it of
them.' In speaking of those who would not act
on the principle of the communion of churches,
he says that 'they' (the Congregationalists)
' think it will not be safe or prudent for any
Christian to commit his soul to the direction and
conduct of such an independent church.' It
were easy to multiply quotations on this point,
were it necessary, but enough have been adduced.
Tbe doctrinal articles of the Congregational
churches, if we except the Unitarians, have been

327

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in general those of Calvin, modified to some ex
tent by the views of Hopkins, Emmons, and
other writers. Still they admit to their com
munion and fellowship all those churches which
require evidence of Christian character as essen
tial to church membership. The Westminster
and Savoy Confessions of Faith, and the Thirty-
nine Articles of the Church of England, have
been repeatedly approved by synods and councils
in New England, as in general agreeable to the
Word of God ; but the Bible is the only standard
by which to test heresy. The churches are not
bound by any one creed ; but each church makes
its own, and alters it at pleasure. Other churches
can admonish, and if they see fit, withdraw fel
lowship where any of the essential doctrines of
the Gospel have been renounced. All that
synods and councils have done has been to set
forth the prevailing belief of the churches at the
time when they were held. Synods in New Eng
land are those larger bodies of delegates of the
churches which assemble for making platforms
or other matters of general interest. The synod
of Newtown, in 1637, condemned eighty-two
erroneous opinions which had been disseminated
in New England. Councils are smaller bodies,
and act on objects of less interest. Consocia
tions, such as exist in Connecticut, are standing
councils. There is in each county one or more
of these bodies, composed of the ministers and
lay delegates of such churches as see fit to unite
for the objects proposed. In cases of great im
portance two or three adjoining consociations
may unite and act together, or a temporary
council, without regard to local limits, may be
called for the occasion. A majority of the min
isters, and enough of the lay delegates to make
a majority of the whole council, is necessary in
order to a valid decision. Most of the Congre
gational churches in Connecticut are consociated.
So also are those in Rhode Island, and some in
Vermont and in the state of New York. Asso
ciations are composed of ministers only, who meet
for their own benefit, and to consult for the good
of the churches. They examine and license
candidates for the ministry, but have no power
of making laws for the churches. Associations
have been held from the first settlement of
New England, and as early as 1690 had spread
throughout the country. New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, and Connecticut, have state or
general associations, and Vermont a general
convention, composed of delegates from the dis
trict associations. In Massachusetts, some of
the minor associations are not connected with
the general association, In the state of Maine,
and in the eastern part of Massachusetts, con
ferences of churches exist. This organization
was commenced in Maine soon after the separa
tion of that state from Massachusetts, in 1820.
Conferences are composed of the pastors and one
or more delegates from the churches within a
convenient district, meeting at stated times, to

328

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promote a mutual acquaintance with the state
of the churches represented, and consult and
adopt measures for the promotion of their pros
perity, having no legislative or judicial power. In
Maine the district conferences are united, by a
clerical and lay representation, in a general con
ference, meeting annually, and corresponding
in its design and methods of proceeding to the
general associations of New Hampshire, Massa
chusetts, and Connecticut, and the general con
vention of Vermont. In the year 1791 a plan
was adopted by the general assembly of the
Presbyterian Church and the general association
of Connecticut, by which Presbyterians and
Congregationalists, in the new settlements of the
western states, were effectually amalgamated.
This plan places the two classes on equal terms
in union churches, securing to each a mode of
discipline corresponding to their principles, and
gives to the members of the standing committee
of Congregational churches the same standing
and powers in presbyteries and synods as belong
to the ruling elders of the Presbyterians. Four
hundred of these union churches have been
planted in the western states by the Congrega
tionalists in Connecticut alone. A work entitled
The Keys ofthe Kingdom of Heaven and Power
thereof, by the Rev. John Cotton, of Boston,
had been the principal directory in ecclesiastical
affairs next to the Bible, prior to the adoption
of the Cambridge platform, in 1648. This plat
form was in force throughout New England,
until it was superseded in Connecticut by the
Saybrook platform, in 1708. They both contain
the confessions of faith, and the rules of order
and discipline, of the churches of New England,
and also sanction and approve of the Westmin
ster and Savoy Confessions of Faith. If we
except Connecticut, there is throughout New
England much practical neglect of some of the
fundamental principles laid down in these for
mulas. In Massachusetts about 150 churches
have become Unitarian, while in Connecticut
there is but one minister of that faith, and
but few in the other New England states.
This change in Massachusetts has been mainly
attributed to the operation of what is called
" the half-way covenant," and to the neglect
of congregational usage, as to watching over
and disciplining churches. Owing to the fact
that in early times church membership was
necessary in order to become a voter, or eligible
to office, there was a strong desire on the part of
men not pious to enter the church. Hence an
act was passed by the synod of Boston, in 1663,
which recognized all baptized persons as mem
bers of the church, and their children were
entitled to baptism. Still they made no profes
sion of their faith in Christ, and did not partake of
the Lord's Supper. This is what is called the
" half-way covenant."— See Half-way Cove
nant. Efforts were made at an early period.
by Eliot and others, to Christianize the IndiansJ

IND
and in 1700 there were in New England thirty
Indian churches under the pastoral care of the
same number of Indian preachers. Licentiates are
those who have received a commission to preach,
but have not been ordained or set apart by the
imposition of hands and other ceremonies. Evan
gelists are those who have been ordained, and
hence have power to administer the sacraments,
but are not put over any particular church.
Missionaries to the heathen, and those who go as
pastors to remote and isolated churches, are
ordained before they are sent forth. Ministers
who have been previously ordained are installed
when they are placed over a church. In this
ceremony there is no imposition of hands.
Churches are by law corporate bodies ; and in
the call of a minister to become their pastor,
they act separately from and generally prior to
the society, or parish, which embraces both the
church and those who worship with them. The
call of the church, however, is not valid unless
the parish assents to it. The contract of settle
ment is made wholly between the parish and
minister, and is obligatory on them only. In
the dismission of » minister the church is ex
pected to call a council for that purpose ; and by
the dissolution of his connection with the church
his connection with the parish ceases also. If
the church refuse to call a council, and the parish
are dissatisfied, they can vote not to pay the
minister, when he can bring his claims before a
court of justice, who may decide whether he has
been guilty of such immorality, or neglect of pas
toral duties, as to amount to a violation of the
contract. The Congregationalists have founded
in New England eight colleges, two theological
seminaries, and a large number of high schools
and academies. Besides this they have contri
buted liberally to establish similar institutions
in other parts of the United States. In com
mencing and carrying forward the various
benevolent operations of the present day, the
Congregationalists of New England have had a
leading and prominent agency. The most dis
tinguished writers among the Congregational
divines of New England are — John Cotton,
Increase and Cotton Mather, Thomas Hooker,
the two Edwardses, father and son ; the former,
president of Princeton, and the latter, of Union
College; Hopkins, Trumbull, Bellamy, Smalley,
and Dwight. To these might be added a list
of living authors, who are exerting a great and
important influence on the theology and morals
of this and other nations. There are now 943
Trinitarian Congregational ministers in New
England. A number also of those who are
born and educated there go abroad every year,
and are settled in other parts of the United
States, or sent as missionaries to foreign coun
tries. In twenty-seven years from the first
settlement of New England, forty-three churches
were formed ; and in an equal number of suc
ceeding years eighty churches more rose into

IND
existence. The present number is 1,059, ex
clusive of from one to two hundred Unitarian
churches. The numberof communicants is about
120,000. Congregational churches also exist in
other parts of the United States, and in con
nection with missionary stations in various parts
of the heathen world. — From an article by
Charles Rockwell, of Andover Theological Semi
nary. Indexes. — By the Romish Church index is
used absolutely to designate the catalogues or
lists of books prohibited by ecclesiastical autho
rity, on account of the heretical opinions sup
posed to be contained in them, or maintained by
the authors or editors of them. The catalogue,
or list of books absolutely prohibited, is simply
called the Index, or Index Librorum Prohibito-
rum; but, when the list or catalogue is of books
allowed to be read after correction or alter
ation, agreeably to the orders of the papal
authorities, it is termed Index Expurgatorius ;
and in the later indexes the words donee cor-
rigantur are subjoined to certain works, in
order to render a separate expurgatory index
unnecessary. The invention of printing about
the middle of the fifteenth century caused a
rapid multiplication of books, and induced the
papal hierarchy to prevent, if possible, the circula
tion of any which might prove injurious to the
interests of the Romish Church. Hence origi
nated imprimaturs, or official permissions to
print works ; and the promulgation and diffusion
of the doctrines of the Reformation in the follow
ing century, increased the determination of the
powerful adherents of Popery to suppress and to
destroy all books tinctured with Lutheranism, or
maintaining any of the peculiar opinions held
by the Reformed Churches. In 1546, in pursu
ance of an edict of the Emperor Charles V., the
university of Louvain published an index or
catalogue of books regarded as dangerous, of
which a revised edition was published in 1550.
Similar lists of interdicted books appeared nearly
at the same time at Venice, Paris, Rome,
Cologne, and other places. These indexes as
sumed their most systematic form at the council
of Trent, which, at its eighteenth session referred
the consideration of works to be prohibited to a
select committee ; and in the twenty-fifth session
what had been done by that committee was re
ferred to the pope, that it might be com
pleted and published with his authority. The
work was accordingly published in 1564. Be
sides the catalogue of prohibited books, it contains
general rules relative to such books, drawn up
by certain persons, deputed for that purpose by
the Tridentine council, and sanctioned by Pope
Pius IV. These rules, which are ten in number,
are prefixed to the different indexes which have
been published since that period. They are as
follows : — " 1. All books condemned by the su
preme pontiffs or general councils before the year
1515, and not comprised in the present index,

829

IND
are nevertheless to be considered as condemned.
2. The books of heresiarchs, whether of those
who broached or disseminated their heresies prior
to the year above mentioned, or of those who
have been, or are, the heads or leaders of here
tics, as Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Balthazar Paci-
montanus, Swenchfeld, and other similar ones,
are altogether forbidden, whatever may be their
names, titles, or subjects. And the books of
other heretics, which treat professedly upon re
ligion, are totally condemned ; but those which
do not treat upon religion are allowed to be read,
after having been examined and approved by
Catholic divines, by order of the bishops and in
quisitors. Those Catholic books also are per
mitted to be read which have been composed by
authors who have afterward fallen into heresy,
or who, after their fall, have returned into the
bosom of the church, provided they have been
approved by the theological faculty of some
Catholic university, or by the general inquisition.
3. Translations of ecclesiastical writers, which
have been hitherto published by condemned
authors, are permitted to be read, if they contain
nothing contrary to sound doctrine. Transla
tions of the Old Testament may also be allowed,
but only to learned and pious men, at the
discretion of the bishop ; provided they use them
merely as elucidations of the Vulgate version, in
order to understand the Holy Scriptures, and
not as the sacred text itself. But translations
of the New Testament, made by authors of the
first class of this index, are allowed to no one,
since little advantage, but much danger, gene
rally arises from reading them. If notes accom
pany the versions which are allowed to be read,
or are joined to the Vulgate edition, they may be
permitted to be read by the same persons as the
versions, after the suspected places have been
expunged by the theological faculty of some
Catholic university, or by the general inquisitor.
On the same conditions, also, pious and leirned
men may be permitted to have. what is called
' Vatablus's Bible,' or any part of it. B ut the pre
face and Prologomena of the Bibles published by
Isidore Clarius are, however, excepted; and the
text of his editions is not. to be considered as the
text of the Vulgate edition. 4. Inasmuch as
it is manifest from experience that if the Holy
Bible, translated into the vulgar tongue, be in
discriminately allowed to every one, the temerity
of men will cause more evil than good to arise
from it, it is, on this point, referred to the judg
ment of the bishops, or inquisitors, who ma}', by
the advice of the priest, or confessor, permit the
reading of the Bible translated into the vulgar
tongue by Catholic authors, to those persons
whose faith and piety, they apprehend, will be
augmented, and not injured by it; and this per
mission they must have in writing. But if any
one shall have the presumption to read or possess
it without such written.penmssion, he shall not
receive absolution until he have first delivered

IND
up such Bible to the ordinary. Booksellers who
shall sell, or otherwise dispose of Bibles in the
vulgar tongue, to any person not having such
permission, shall forfeit the value of the books,
to be applied by the bishop to some pious use;
and be subjected to such other penalties as the
bishop shall judge proper, according to the
quality of the offence. But regulars shall neither
read nor purchase such Bibles without a special
license from their superiors. 5. Books of which
heretics are the editors, but which contain little
or nothing of their own, being mere compilations
from others, as lexicons, concordances, (collec
tions of) apothegms, or similes, indexes, and
others of a similar kind, may be allowed by tho
bishops and inquisitors, after having made, with
the advice of divines, such corrections and
emendations as may be deemed requisite. 6.
Books of controversy between the Catholics and
heretics of the present time, written in the vulgar
tongue are not to be indiscriminately allowed,
but are to be subject to the same regulations .as
Bibles in the vulgar tongue. As to those works
in the vulgar tongue which treat of morality,
contemplation, confession, and similar subjects,
and which contain nothing contrary to sound
doctrine, there is no reason why they should be
prohibited ; the same may be said also of ser
mons in the vulgar tongue, designed for the
people. And if in any kingdom or province any
books have been hitherto prohibited, as contain
ing things not proper to be indiscriminately read
by all sorts of persons, they may be allowed by
the bishop and inquisitor, after having corrected
them, if written by Catholic authors. 7.
Books professedly treating of lascivious or
obscene subjects, or narrating or teaching them,
are utterly prohibited, as readily corrupting both
the faith and manners of those who peruse them ;
and those who possess them shall be severely
punished by the bishop. But the works of an
tiquity, written by the heathens, are permitted to
be read, because of the elegance and propriety of
the language ; though on no account shall they
be suffered to be read by young persons. 8.
Books, the principal subject of which is good, but
in which some things are occasionally introduced
tending to heresy and impiety, divination, or
superstition, may be allowed, after they have
been corrected by Catholic divines, by the
authority of the general inquisition. The same
judgment is also formed of prefaces, summaries,
or notes, taken fiom condemned authors, and
inserted in the works of authors not condemned;
but such works must not be printed in future,
until they have been amended. 9. All books
and writings of geomancy, hydromancy, ae>o-
mancy, pyromancy, onomancy, chyromancy, and
necromancy ; or which treat of sorceries, poisons,
auguries, auspices, or magical incantations, are
utterly rejected. The bishops shall also dili
gently guard against any persons reading or
keping any books, treatises, or indexes, which

330

IND
treat of judicial astrology, or contain presump
tuous predictions of the events of future contin
gencies and fortuitous occurrences, or of those
actions which depend upon the will of man.
But they shall permit such opinions and obser
vations of natural things as are written in aid of
navigation, agriculture, and medicine. 10. In
the printing of books and other writings, the
rules shall be observed which were ordained in
the tenth session ofthe council of Lateran, under
Leo X. Therefore, if any book is to be printed
in the city of Rome, it shall first be examined by
the pope's vicar and the master of the sacred
palace, or other persons chosen by our most holy
father for that purpose. In other places, the
examination of any book or manuscript intended
to be printed shall be referred to the bishop, or
some skilful person whom he shall nominate,
and the inquisitor of the city or diocese in which
the impression is executed, who shall gratuitously,
and without delay, affix their approbation to the
work, in their own handwriting, subject, never
theless, to the pains and censures contained in
the said decree ; this law and condition being
added, that an authentic copy of the book to be
printed, signed by the author himself, shall re
main in the hands of the examiner : and it is the
judgment of the fathers ofthe present deputation,
that those persons who publish works in manu
script, before they have been examined and ap
proved, should be subject to the same penalties
as those who print them ; and that those who
read or possess them should be considered as the
authors, if the real authors of such writings do
not avow themselves. The approbation given
in writing shall be placed at the head of the
books, whether printed or in manuscript, that
they may appear to be duly authorized ; and this
examination and approbation, &c, shall be
granted gratuitously. Moreover, in every city
and diocese, the house or place where the art of
printing is exercised, and also the shops of book
sellers, shall be frequently visited by persons
deputed by the bishop or his vicar, conjointly
with the inquisitor, so that nothing that is pro
hibited may be printed, kept, or sold. Book
sellers of every description shall keep a catalogue
of the books which they have on sale, signed by
the said deputies ; nor shall they keep, or sell,
nor in any way dispose of any other books with
out permission from the deputies, under pain of
forfeiting the books, and being liable to such
other penalties as shall be judged proper by the
bishop or inquisitor, who shall also punish the
buyers, readers, or printers of such works. If
any person import foreign books into any city,
tbey shall be obliged to announce them to the
deputies; or if this kind of merchandise be ex
posed to sale in any public place, the public offi
cers of tbe place shall signify to the said depu
ties tbat such books have been brought; and no
one shall presume to give, to rea'l, or lend, or sell
any book which he or any other person has

IND
brought into the city, until he has shown it
to the deputies, and obtained their permission,
unless it be a work well known to be universally
allowed. Heirs and testamentary executors shall
make no use of the books of the deceased, nor in
any way transfer them to others, until they have
presented a catalogue of them to the deputies,
and obtained their license, under pain of confisca
tion of the books, or the infliction of such other
punishment as the bishop or inquisitor shall deem
proper, according to the contumacy or quality of
the delinquent. With regard to those books
which the fathers of the present deputation shall
examine, or correct, or deliver to be corrected,
or permit to be reprinted on certain conditions,
booksellers and others shall be bound to observe
whatever is ordained respecting them. The
bishops and general inquisitors shall, nevertheless, ,
be at liberty, according to the power they possess,
to prohibit such books as may seem to be per
mitted by these rules, if they deem it necessary,
for the good of the kingdom, or province, or
diocese. And let the secretary of these fathers,
according to the command of our holy father,
transmit to the notary of the general inquisitor
the names of the books that have been corrected,
as well as of the persons to whom the fathers
have granted the power of examination. Finally,
it is enjoined on all the faithful, that no one pre
sume to keep or read any books contrary to
these rules, or prohibited by this index. But if
any one read, or keep any books composed by
heretics, or the writings of any author suspected
of heresy, or false doctrine,, he shall instantly
incur the sentence of excommunication ; and
those who read, or keep works interdicted on an
other account, besides the mortal sin committed,
shall be severely punished at the will of the
bishops." — LabbriS.S. Cbndlia, tom. xiv., pp.
952-956 ; Townley's Biblical Literature, vol. ii.
The Congregation of the Index holds its sittings
at Rome, and has the right of examining gene
rally all books which concern faith, morals,
ecclesiastical discipline, or civil society; on
which it passes judgment, for suppressing them
absolutely, or directing them to be corrected, or
allowing them to be read with precaution, and by
certain persons. Pius V. confirmed the estab
lishment of this congregation. Persons specially
deputed by it may give permission to Romanists
throughout the world to read prohibited books;
and the penalty denounced against those who
read or keep any books suspected of heresy or
of false doctrine is the greater excommunication;
and those who read or keep works interdicted
on any other account, besides the mortal sin
committed, are to be severely punished at the
will of tbe bishops. The latest Index Librorum
Prohibitorum appeared at Rome in 1841, to
which supplementary pages have subsequently
been published. Some notices of the earlier
indexes of prohibited books may be seen in
Peignot's Dictionnaire des Livres condamne's au

331

IND
feu, supprimes, ou censures, tom. i., pp. 256-266.
But the best and most accurate account of them
will be found in Mendham's Literary Policy of
the Church of Rome exhibited in an account of her
damnatory Catalogues or Indexes, both Prohibi
tory and Expurgalory, second edition (London, '
1830, 8vo).
Indifferent Things. — See Adiaphorists.
Induction, used technically for placing one
in possession of a benefice. After institution to a
benefice, the ordinary issues a mandate for induc
tion, directed to the person who has power to
induct. This by common right is the archdeacon,
but others may also perform it, by composition
or prescription. Thus the dean and chapter of
St. Paul's, and the same body at Litchfield,
induct by prescription; so also does the chan
cellor or commissary, if a church be exempt from
archidiaconal jurisdiction ; or if it be a peculiar,
the dean or judge within such a peculiar; and
when an archbishop collates by lapse, the man
date goes not to the officer of the archbishop, but
of the bishop. If a bishop dies or is removed,
after institution given, and while a mandate of
induction is either not issued or not executed,
the clerk may repair to the archbishop for such
mandate. The person to whom the mandate is
directed may direct a precept to some other
clerk. The induction consists in vesting the
incumbent with full possession of all the profits
belonging to the church, and is usually per
formed in the following manner : — The inductor
takes the clerk by the hand, and lays it upon
the key or the ring of the church door; or if
neither of these are to be had, or the church is in
ruins, then on any part of the wall of the church
or churchyard ; or even presents him with a clod
or turf of the glebe, and says to this effect, —
" By virtue of this mandate I do induct you into
the real, actual, and corporal possessions of the
church of O, with all the rights, profits, and
appurtenances thereto belonging." After which
the inductor opens the door, and puts the person
inducted into the church, who usually tolls a bell
to make his induction public and known to the
parishioners. Which being done, the inductor
endorses a certificate of induction on the arch
deacon's mandate, and they who are present
testify the same under their hands. Donatives
are given and fully possessed by the single
donation of the patron in writing, without pre
sentation, institution, or induction. So also, if
the king grants one of his free chapels, the
grantee shall be put in possession by the sheriff
of the county, not by the ordinary of the place.
A prebendary of Westminster enters also without
induction, upon the king making collation by
his letters patent. The fees are now generally
regulated according to the custom of the place.
The clerk is not complete incumbent till after
induction, whereby he becomes seized of the
temporalities of the church, so that he hath power
to grant them or sue for them, he is entitled to

IND
plead that he is parson imparsonee, and the
church is full, not only against a common per
son (for so it is by institution), but also against
the king, on which account it is compared in
the books of common law to livery and seisin.
And what induction works in parochial cures is
effected by instalment into dignities, prebends,
and tbe like, in cathedral and collegiate churches.
Being an act of a temporal nature, it is cogniz
able in the temporal courts, and the inductor, if
he refuse or delay, is liable to an action at law,
as well as to spiritual censures. Every incum-'
bent of a benefice with cure, within two months
after induction (computing twenty-eight days to
each month), must read the Common Prayer,
morning and evening, openly and publicly, upon
some Lord's Day, within the church to which he
is inducted, and declare his assent thereto in a
prescribed form of words. If he neglects this,
without some lawful impediment allowed by his
ordinary (and in case of such impediment within
one month after it be removed), he shall be im
mediately deprived of the benefice (13, 14 Charles
II. , c. 4). He is also to read and declare his
assent to the Thirty-nine Articles, within like
time and under like penalties (13 Elizabeth,
c. 12). The ordinary must give six months'
notice of such deprivation to the patron before
any title can accrue through lapse. The incum
bent must also publicly read the ordinary's certi
ficate, that he has subscribed the declaration of
conformity to the liturgy. This must be done
under penalty of deprivation within three months
after subscription, upon a Lord's Day, in his
parish church, in the presence of the congrega
tion, during the time of divine service. It is con
sidered a necessary precaution that a clergyman
should keep a written memorandum that he has
complied with these forms, signed by some trusty
persons present at their fulfilment. A convenient
form for such memorandum may be found in
Burn's Eccl. Law, ad v. Benefice, ad fin. Lastly,
within six months from induction he must take
the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjura
tion, in one of the courts at Westminster, or at the
general quarter sessions of the' peace, on pain of
being incapacitated to hold the benefice, of being
disabled to sue in any action, to be guardian,
executor, or administrator, to be capable of any
legacy or deed of gift, to bear any office or vote
at any election of member of parliament, and of
forfeiting £500 (1 George IL, c. 13; 9 George
II., u. 26). In Presbyterian churches induction
is the name usually given to the formal installa
tion over a new charge of one who has been
previously ordained.
Indulgence, according to the doctrine of
the Romish Church, is "a releasing, by the
power of the keys committed to the church, the
debt of temporal punishment which may remain
due upon account of our sins, after the sins
themselves, as to the guilt and eternal punish
ment, have been already remitted by repentance
332

IND
and confession." — Grounds of Catholic Doctrine,
ch. x., question 1.
Indulgences are divided into plenary and
non-plenary, or partial, temporary, indefinite,
local, perpetual, real, and personal. 1. A
plenary indulgence is that by which is obtained
a remission of all the temporal punishment due
to sin, either in this life or in the next. 2. A
non-plenary or partial indulgence is that which
remits only a part of the temporal punishment
due to sin: such are indulgences for a given
number of days, weeks, or years. This sort of
indulgences remits so many days, weeks, or
years of penance, which ought to be observed
agreeably to the ancient canons of the church,
for the sins which we have committed. 3.
Temporary indulgences are those which are
granted for a certain specified time, as for seven
or more years. 4. Indefinite indulgences are
those which are granted without any limitation
of time. 5. Perpetual indulgences are those
granted for ever, and which do not require to be
renewed after a given number of years. 6. A
local indulgence is attached to certain churches,
chapels, or other places ; it is gained by actually
visiting such church or other building or place,
and by observing scrupulously all the conditions
required by the bull granting such indulgence.
7. A real indulgence is attached to certain
movable things, as rosaries, medals, &c, and is
granted to those who actually wear these articles
with devotion ; should the fashion of them cease,
so that they cease to be deemed the same arti
cles, the indulgence ceases. So long, however,
as such articles continue, and are reputed to be
the same, the indulgence continues in force, not
withstanding any accidental alteration which
may be made in them, as the affixing of a new
string or ribbon to a rosary. 8. A personal in
dulgence is one which is granted to certain parti
cular persons, or to several persons in common,
as to a confraternity or brotherhood. These
privileged persons may gain such indulgences
wherever they may happen to be, whether they
are in health, in sickness, or at the point of
death. 9. Other indulgences are termed en
joined penances, pcenitentiai injunctce. By them
is conferred the remission of so much of the
punishment which is due to sins at the judg
ment of God, as the sinner would have to
pay by canonical penances, or by penances en
joined in all their rigour by the priest. An
indulgence produces its effect at the very mo
ment when all the works prescribed in order
to obtain it are performed. (Richard et Giraud,
Bibliotheque Sacree, tom. xiii., p. 366, et seq.)
The scales of payment are peculiar, being made
to meet a variety of cases, and they are so
lenient that the payment of them can form
no bar against the subsequent commission of
the crime for which an indulgence has been
already received. According to the " Tax of
the sacred Roman Chancery," in which are con-

IND
tained the sums to be levied, we find the fees to
be~ ,7
s. a.
For murdering a layman, . .76
For lying with a mother, sister, &c, 7 6
For procuring abortion, . .76
For taking a false oath in a criminal
case, . . .' . .90
For defiling a virgin, . . .90
For keeping a concubine, . .10 6
For laying violent hands on a clergy
man,  10 6
For simony, . . . . 10 6
For sacrilege, . . . .10 6
For robbing, . . . . 12 0
For burning a neighbour's house, . 12 0
And so on.
In the primitive Church very severe penal
ties were inflicted upon those who had been
guilty of any sins, whether public or private ;
and in particular they were forbidden to par
take, for a certain time, of the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper, or to hold communion with the
church. General rules were made upon these
subjects ; but as it was often found expedient to
make a discrimination in the degrees of punish
ment, according to the different circumstances
of offenders, and especially when they showed
marks of contrition and repentance, power was
given to bishops by the council of Nice, to relax
or remit those punishments as they should see
reason. Every favour of this kind was called a
pardon or indulgence. After the bishops had
enjoyed this privilege for some centuries, and had
begun to abuse it, the popes discovered that in
their own hands it might be made a powerful
instrument both to promote their ambition and
to gratify their avarice. They could not but see
that, if they could persuade men that they had
the power of granting pardons for sin, fit would
give them a complete influence over their con
sciences ; and if they could at the same time
prevail upon them to purchase these pardons for
money, it must greatly augment the wealth of
the Roman see ; and, therefore, in the eleventh
century, when the dominion of the popes was
rising to its zenith, and their power was almost
irresistible, they assumed to themselves the ex
clusive prerogative of dispensing pardons, and
carried it to a most unwarrantable length. In
stead of confining them, according to their origi
nal institution, to the ordinary purposes of
ecclesiastical discipline, they extended them to
the punishment of the wicked in the world to
come ; instead of shortening the duration of
earthly penance, they pretended that they could
deliver men from the pains of purgatory ; instead
of allowing them, gratuitously and upon just
grounds, to the penitent offender, they sold them
in the most open and corrupt manner to the pro
fligate and abandoned, who still continued in
sinful practices. To vindicate in an authorita
tive manner these scandalous measures of the

333

IND
pontiffs, an absurd doctrine was invented, which
was modified and embellished by Thomas Aqui
nas in the thirteenth century, and which, among
other monstrous declarations, affirmed, that there
actually existed an immense treasure of merit,
composed of the pious deeds and virtuous actions
which the saints had performed beyond what was
necessary for their own salvation, and which,
therefore, were applicable to the benefit of others ;
and that the Roman pontiff, being the guardian
and dispenser of this treasure, was empowered to
assign to such as he deemed proper objects a por
tion of this inexhaustible source of merit, suitable
to their respective guilt, and sufficient to deliver
them from the punishment due to their crimes.
The sale of these indulgences afforded an
ample harvest to the pontiffs of Rome j in the
fifteenth century, in particular, the disposal of
them was become almost a common traffic ; and
a public sale of them was generally preceded
by some specious pretext ; for instance, the
reduction of the Greeks under the yoke of the
Romish Church, a war with heretics, or a crusade
against the Neapolitans, &c. Too often the
pretences for selling indulgences were in reality
bloody, idolatrous, or superstitious. It was one
of the charges brought against John XXIII.,
at the council of Constance, in 1415, that he
empowered his legates to absolve penitents from
all sorts of crimes, upon payment of sums
proportioned to their guilt. Leo X., in order to
carry on the magnificent structure of St. Peter's
Church at Rome, published indulgences, with a
plenary remission to all such as should contri
bute towards erecting that magnificent fabric.
The right of promulgating these indulgences in
Germany, together with a share in the profits
arising from the sale of them, was granted to
Albert, Elector of Mentz and Archbishop of Mag
deburg, who selected as his chief agent for retail
ing them in Saxony John Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, of licentious morals, but of an active and
enterprising spirit, and remarkable for his noisy
and popular eloquence. Assisted by the monks of
his order, he executed the commission with great
zeal and success, but with no less indecency,
boasting that he had saved more souls from hell
by his indulgences than St. Peter had converted
by his preaching. He assured the purchasers
of them that their crimes, however enormous,
would be forgiven ; that the efficacy of indul
gences was so great that the most heinous sins,
even if one should violate (which was impossible)
the mother of God, would be remitted and ex
piated by them, and the person freed both from
punishment and guilt; and that this was the
unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile
men to himself. In the usual form of absolu
tion, written by his own hand, he said : " May
our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee,
and absolve thee by the merits of his most holy
passion. And I, by his authority, that of his
apostles Peter and Paul, and of the most holy

334

IND
pope, granted and committed to me in these
parts, do absolve thee, first, from all ecclesiastical
censures, in whatever manner they have been
incurred ; and then, from all thy sins, transgres
sions, and excesses, how enormous soever they may
be, even from such as are reserved for the cog
nizance of the holy see: and, as far as the keys
of the holy church extend, I remit to thee all
punishment which thou deservest in purgatory ou
their account ; and I restore thee to the holy sacra
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful,
and to that innocence and purity which thou didst
possess at baptism ; so that, when thou diest, the
gates of punishment shall be shut, and tbe gates
of the paradise of delights shall be opened ; and
if thou shalt not die at present, this grace shall
remain in full force when thou art at tbe point
of death. In tbe name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen." These
and similar extravagant assertions respecting
the efficacy of indulgences, together with the
gross abuses practised in granting them, were
among the immediate causes of the Reformation
(Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, cent, xvi., ch. ii., sect.
1 ; D'Aubigne, book iii.) So lately as the
year 1800, a Spanish vessel was captured near the
coast of South America, freighted (among other
things) with numerous bales of indulgences for
various sins, the price of which, varying from
half a dollar to seven dollars, was marked upon
each. They had been bought in Spain, and
were intended for sale in South America. Sey
mour tells us as follows : — " This inscription is
placed in that part of the church which is of
all the most public. It is placed over the holy
water, to which all persons must resort, on
entering the church, before partaking of any of
the services. It is as follows : —
" Indulgenzia. — 'L'imagine di Maria Santis-
sima, che esiste all' altare maggiore, parlb a
santo Gregorio Papa, dicendagli — PerchS piu
non mi saluti mentre passando eri solito saluta-
rim. II santo domando pardono, e concesse a
quelli che celebrano in quell' altare la liberazione
dell' anima dai Purgatorio, cioe per quell' anima
per la quale si celebra la messa.'
" Indulgence. — ' The image of the most holy
Mary, which stands on the high altar, spoke to
the holy Pope Gregory, saying to him — Why
do you no longer salute me in passing, with the
accustomed salutation? The saint asked pardon,
and granted to those who celebrate mass at that
altar the deliverance of a soul from purgatorv,—
that is, the special soul for which they celebrate
the mass.* 
" There is nothing more frequently remarked
by Protestants, on entering the ciiurch'esof Rome,
than the constant recurrence of the words ' in-
dulgenlia plenaria ' — a plenary indulgence, in
scribed over the altar, intimating that there was
a plenary indulgence attached to the masses
offered there; and this is tantamount to the
emancipation of any soul from purgatory through

IND
a mass offered at that altar. Instead of these
words, however, the same thing is more plainly
expressed in some churches. In the church S.
Maria della Pace, so celebrated for the magnifi
cent fresco of the sybils by Raphael, there is over
one of the altars the following inscription: —
' Ogni messa celebrata in quest' altare libera un
animod al' purgatorio'— 'Every mass celebrated
at this altar frees a soul from purgatory. In
some churches this privilege extends throughout
the year, but in others it is limited to those masses
which are offered on particular days. In the
church of S. Croce di Gerusalemme this privilege
is connected in an especial manner with the fourth
Sunday in Lent. And this is notified by a public
notice posted in the church close to the altar,
setting forth that a mass celebrated there on that
day releases a soul from purgatory." The
testimonies of Romanist writers to the sale of
indulgences may be seen in Bishop Philpot's
Letters to Mr. Butler, pages 151-153, or Dr.
Hales's Analyds of Chronology, vol. ii., part
ii., pages 1019-1022: and especially in Mr.
Mendham's Spiritual Venality of Rome, second
edition (London, 1836, 12mo); and his Venal
Indulgences and Par dims ofthe Church of Rome
Exemplified (London, 1839, 12mo). The Congre
gation of Indulgences, at Rome, is an assembly
or committee, consisting of cardinals and pre
lates, the number of whom is not fixed. Their
duty is to examine the reasons of all persons
applying for indulgences, and to grant them in
the name ofthe pope.— See Congrkgation.
Indulgence, in English history, is the un
constitutional and cunning proclamation of King
James II, 4th April, 1687, announcing re
ligious toleration to all classes of his subjects,
suspending all penal laws against nonconfor
mists, and abolishing religious tests as qualifica
tions for civil office. The king's object was
simply to favour Roman Catholics, and there
fore neither the English Church nor the great body
of the dissenters received the illegal stretch of pre
rogative with favour, and refused to believe that
a "dispensing power" exercised by the king inde
pendently of parliament, could be of any lasting
advantage. Howe and Baxter maintained this
opinion. The same instrument was extended to
Scotland, and divided tbe Covenanters into two
parties. At first the king asked toleration for
Papists only, but the Scottish parliament, usually
very obsequious, would not listen. He finally de
clared, as if Popery were alreadyin the ascendant,
that he would never use " force or invincible
necessity against any man on account of his Pro
testant faith," and all this he did "by his
sovereign authority, prerogative royal, and abso
lute power." Charles II. had done a similar,
though not so sweeping an act in 1662, and re
peated it in 1672; but on both occasions his
parliament obliged him to retract.
SBHaaolsenfia (forgiveness), a name given
in the early Latin Church to baptism, limiting

INF
the effect, however, to the worthy receivers of the
ordinance. — See Baptism.
Indults, a power given by the pope to cer
tain persons of presenting to benefices. The
cardinals, for example, have such an indult from
each pope conferred to them at his election.
Indwelling Scheme, that theory which
holds that the soul of Christ pre-existed the
incarnation, and was, in Old Testament times,
the Angel in whom God dwelt, and who after
wards assumed humanity. — See Person of
Christ, Pre-existence of Christ.
Infallibility. — Infallibility is claimed by
the Church of Rome, though it is not formally
expressed in any bull, or the edict of any coun
cil. In the exercise of this infallibility, that
church claims power to settle the canon, to give
authority to Scripture, as well as to interpret it,
and to decide all controversies on matters of
faith. But the question has been agitated, —
Where is this infallibility lodged ? Some say in
the pope, others in a general council, others in
pope and council combined, and others in the
universal church. Yet popes have been heretics,
for Liberius was an Arian, and Honorius a
Monothelite, and the councils of Constance and
Basil claimed and exercised the right of electing
and deposing popes. James, in his Bellum Pa-
pale, shows how tbe two popes, Sextus V. and
Clement VIII. differ hundreds of times from each
other about the text of the Latin Scriptures.
Bull often differs from bull, and the one sometimes
repeals the other ; nay, bulls reckoned infallible
on one side of the Alps are declared fallible on
the other. The Jesuit doctrine is to place in
fallibility in the pope when he speaks as Christ's
vicar ex cathedra. The professor of Canon
Law in the Collegio Romano thus guards the
doctrine by limitations which virtually neutral
ize it. In conversing with Mr. Seymour, he said,
— "1. It was necessary, in the first place, that
before composing and issuing the bull, the pope_
should have opened a communication with the
bishops of the universal church — that in such
communication he should ask their prayers to
the Almighty, that the Holy Spirit might fully
and infallibly guide him, so as to make his deci
sion the decision of inspiration. 2. It was ne
cessary, in the second place, that before issuing
the bull containing his decision, the pope should
carefully seek all possible and desirable informa
tion touching the special matter which was
under consideration, and which was to be the
subject of his decision. 3. He said that a
further requisite or essential was, that the bull
should not only be formal, but should be autho
ritative, and should claim to be authoritative:
that it should be issued not merely as the opinion
or judgment of the pope, in his mere personal
capacity, but as the decisive and authoritative
judgment of one who was the head of that
church which was the mother and mistress of
all churches, to whom all Christians owed

335

INF
subjection and allegiance, and who was the
living voice of infallibility, and who, as such,
had the power and the authority to pronounce
infallibly the decision required. 4. It was again
necessary that the bull should be promulgated
universally; that is, that the bull should be
addressed to all the bishops of the universal
church, in order that through them its decisions
might be delivered and made known to all the
members or subjects of tbe whole church. 5.
He stated that another essential was, that the
bull should be universally received ; that is,
should be accepted by all the bishops of the
whole church, and accepted by them as an
authoritative and infallible decision — that, after
promulgation by the pope, it should be accepted
and promulgated by all the bishops as authorita
tive and infallible, or at least should be simply
accepted by them without formal promulgation,
or even tacitly permitted by them without oppo
sition, which is held to be a sufficient acceptance
in a legal sense. 6. Another characteristic was
of immense importance, — indeed, more absolutely
essential than any he had as yet named, viz. —
The matter or question upon which the decision
was to be made, and which was therefore to be
the subject-matter of the bull, must be one
touching faith or morals, that is, it must concern
the purity of faith or the morality of actions.
And this necessity arose from the fact, that faith
and morality are the matters upon which infal
libility was designed to be exercised, and for the
preservation of which this infallibility was given
to the head of the church. 7. It was essential,
in the last place, that the pope should be free —
perfectly free from all exterior influence, so as to
be under no exterior compulsion or constraint.
He stated that the bull or decision of Pope Li-
berius possessed the other essentials, but that
this one was wanting. That pope had acted
under compulsion — under a fear of his life, and,
therefore, as he was not free, his decision could
not be regarded as ex cathedra. That bull thus
issued was full of error. The pope, therefore,
must be free from external influence or con
straint, in order to his decision being received as
infallible." It is plain that this doctrine must go
for nothing ; for satisfaction on all those subjects
cannot be universally obtained even about any
present decision, much less about bulls which are
hundreds of years old. (Seymour's Mornings
with the Jesuits.)
Infant Baptism. — See Pjedobaftists.
Infant Communion. — It has been com
monly supposed that the custom of administering
the communion to infants was begun as early as
Cyprian's time, about the middle of the third
century, and that it was practised in the fifth
century, on an opinion of its being necessary to
salvation, as taught by Augustine and by Inno
cent I. But Waterland, in a tract on the sub
ject, has examined into the evidence on which
this supposition rests, and has shown that the

ING
early ages never gave the communion to mere
infants, but to children of ten years old, or
perhaps seven, scarcely to any younger, if we
except the single instance reported by Cyprian
in his book.De Lapsis; and, moreover, that they
founded their practice, not upon the opinion ofits
being necessary to salvation, but upon prudential
reasons, or general reasons of edification, pursu
ant to Christian principles. In later times the
practice of giving it to mere infants crept in, and
that under a persuasion of its necessity, founded
upon John vi., taken with some passages of the
ancients misunderstood. It is expressly named
in the Gregorian Sacramentary, and enjoined in
the Ordo Romanus, which, in their present state,
may be dated about the end of the eighth cen
tury. In the Greek Church the practice is still
retained. In the Romish Church it prevailed till
about a.d. 1000, when the doctrine of Transub
stantiation, which caused the cup to be withheld
from the laity, caused the whole sacrament to be
denied to infants, from the superstitious fear of
throwing some of the body or blood of Christ on
the ground. The council of Trent decrees that
it is unnecessary, sess. 21, cap. 4. (See Water-
land's Inquiry concerning Infant Communion;
Wall on Infant Baptism, part ii., ch. ix.)
Infant Salvation. — See Baptism, Infant
Communion, Salvation.
Inferior Clergy, the several classes of lay
assistants to the priesthood which existed in the
ancient churches. They were distinguished by
the title ax^tTtvnrts uvrvi^eia, because they
were appointed to their respective offices without
the imposition of hands. Not being ordained at
the altar, nor in ecclesiastical form, they were, of
course, ineligible for the exercise of any of the
sacerdotal functions ; indeed, so distinctly drawn
was the line between them and the superior
orders, called "'n^upXtti " — holy, that they were
strictly forbidden to touch the sacred vessels, or
so much as to enter the "diaconicum" — sanctuary.
The " inferior clergy " of the Church of England
include all those in holy orders not distinguished
by their position and title as dignitaries of the
church. The offices of churchwarden, verger,
sexton, and pew-opener, in the Church of Eng
land, correspond in general to the offices of the
" inferior clergy " of ancient times.
Infidelity. — See Deists, Rationalism.
Infralapsarians. — See SuBLAPSARIANS.
Inghamiles, followers of Joseph Ingham,
born in Yorkshire 1712. Ingham was a good
and zealous man, and son-in-law of the Countess
of Huntingdon. He was first attached to the
Wesleys, but received episcopal ordination in
1735. He next went to America with John
Wesley, and laboured for about two years in va
rious parts of the country, came back with re
newed zeal, but finding many pulpits in the
establishment closed to him, he preached in the
fields and gathered large audiences. He stood
aloof from the conflicts of Wesley and Whitfield,

336

INH
and fraternized with the Moravians for a season.
The Glassite form of government was afterwards
admired and adopted by Ingham and his fol
lowers. Latterly the Inghamites united with
the Scots Independents. Nine Inghamite con
gregations were reported at the census of 1851.
Inhibition, is a writ by which an inferior is
commanded by a superior ecclesiastical authority
to stay the proceedings in which it is engaged.
Thus, if a member of a college appeals to the
visitor, the visitor inhibits all proceedings against
the appellant until the appeal is determined.
When the archbishop visits, lie inhibits the bishop
of the diocese; when the bishop visits, he inhibits
the archdeacon; which inhibitions continue in
force until the last parish is visited. If a lapse
happens while the inhibition is in force against
the bishop, the archbishop must institute ; insti
tution by the bishop would be void, as his power
is suspended. Initiated. — Various titles were employed in
early times to distinguish baptized Christians,
not only from the heathen, but also from cate
chumens. Some of these originated in the sup
posed analogy between baptism and the rites
of initiation to the sacred mysteries of the
heathen. Such were " fjufionpi^ti" " pua-rai," or
" ftuffrayuytiroi " — the initiated; in opposition
to which the catechumens were called " apmrti,"
" afivoTtt," or " afiuirrayuyvirti" — uninitiated.
Again, " rixtiti," or " r-.XMu/tttu " — the perfect,
which distinguished those who had been ad
mitted to the Lord's Supper, an ordinance which
they mystically denominated " TtXzrk tiXitZi."
These terms came into general use about the
fourth century. " $wTi2^asv<« " — the enlightened,
was a more ancient term, being mentioned by
Justin Martyr. They were also called " Turret,"
— faithful; " ahxipo!" — brethren; " aym" —
holy, &c., &c. — See Church, Membership of.
Inner Mission, the name of a special home
mission in Lutheran Germany, originated by the
devoted and enthusiastic Wichern, in a small and
unpretending form, in 1833, and more fully de
veloped by him in 1848. The Kirchentag of
that year took up the scheme, and it has since
that period made rapid progress in Germany and
Switzerland. Kahnis, in a late work, thus de
scribes its modes of operation : — " The Inner
Mission," says he, " opens to children, to whom
the parents cannot devote the necessary care and
attention, its infant schools and nurseries; to
destitute and demoralized children its asylums
and reform atory schools; and takes care of the
spiritual and temporal improvement of the adults
in Sunday schools and young men's associations.
It takes care of the poor in relief associations,
which not only support, but also watch over tbe
bodily and spiritual welfare of their charge. It
nurses the sick; gets up healthy and cheap lodg
ings ; increases in savings' banks the mite of the
..poor ; seeks, by the power of communion, to edu
cate the intemperate to renunciation ; penetrates

INQ
into the jails of the criminals, and takes care of
those who have been dismissed ; circulates Bibles
and Christian books, for awakening Christian
faith and love ; and seeks to make the Sunday
again a Sabbath — a day of rest and of elevation
to the Lord. It takes care of prostitute girls ;
descends, reproving and helping, into the abodes
of filth ; offers to the travelling journeymen places
of spiritual recreation ; brings the Word of God
to the crowds of labourers who do not find
time to take care of their souls; endeavours to
strengthen destitute and sunken congregations
b}' itinerant preachers ; educates nurses, who not
only attend to the bodies but also to the souls of
the sick."
Innocents' Day is celebrated on the 28th
of December. The children of Bethlehem have
been regarded in all ages as unconscious martyrs
for Christ The Greek and Abyssinian Churches
speak of fourteen thousand children as having
perished under Herod — an extravagant absur
dity, as, in such a village as Bethlehem, only a
very few children could be found " from two
years old and under." — See Childermass Day.
Inquisition (from the Latin inquirere, to
seek or search after), an institution for inquiring
into the opinions of others, and searching after
their persons. Thepreciseyearof thefoundation of
the holy office, or the inquisition, is variously as
signed between 1208 and 1215. But all author
ities attribute its origin to the papacy of Innocent
III. The immediate cause of its institution
was the firm and persevering resistance offered
by the Albigenses to the tyranny of the Romish
Church. Innocent perceived that however much
the Albigenses might apparently be subdued by
open force, there never would be wanting num
bers to make a secret profession of doctrine
which no existing authority could reach. He
projected, therefore, as a remedy against this and
all other secessions from his spiritual dominion,
a jurisdiction which should apply itself particu
larly to the detection, the punishment, and the
extermination of heresy. The qualities required
in the members by whom such a court should
be composed, appeared to be an entire dependence
upon Rome, and an absolute devotion to her in
terests ; a leisure undistracted by other cares ;
a condition in society so little elevated that.
their chief honour might be derived from their
new employment; a freedom from the ordi
nary bonds of life, which might otherwise,
through the various channels of consanguinity
or friendship, be supposed to interfere with pub
lic duty ; hardness of purpose, inflexibility,
sternness, rejection of pity; a burning zeal,
which might esteem persecution for the faith's
sake the chief of religious duties ; a sufficient
dash of learning ; and, above all, a strong bias,
it mattered not from what motive it might arise,
against all heresy. The bishops, to whom
hitherto all ecclesiastical causes had been referred,
did not satisfy the views of Innocent on these

337

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points; and he looked with an eye of anxious
hope to the extraordinary body of men which
had recently been organized by Dominic of Ca-
baroga. He found in this society an unbounded
attachment to the papacy. The solitude and
retirement professed by its members, but which
were ill adapted to the ardour which for the
most part animated them, gave promise of time
adequate to the extent and labour of the
task proposed, and of a most willing activity, as
soon as they should be permitted to exercise
their now slumbering powers. The poverty
which they had vowed, and the public mendicity
to which they were expressly bound, rendered
the charge which awaited them a splendid object
of ambition. They had already renounced their
families, their names, connections, and alliances ;
and one of their chief boasts was a more than
stoical indifference to natural and civil ties.
The austerity of their rule, and the privations
and severe discipline exercised upon themselves,
encouraged a reasonable belief that the claims of
others would not be regarded with greater tender
ness than they were used to exhibit to their own.
As a new created body they abounded in zeal ;
for their age they were learned ; that is, they
were profoundly versed in scholastic subtilties
and in the canon law. Moreover, they had an
interest greater than common in the destruction
of the reigning heretics, by whom they were
especially noted as marks for public obloquy, and
who spared no pains to hold them up to popular
reprehension. With such materials at hand, their employ
ment was easily arranged. Missionaries, as
they were at first gently termed, were de
spatched into Provence and Languedoc; and
Lombardy, Romagna, and the March of An-
cona were visited by Dominican emissaries.
Rainier, or Raoul, and Pierre de Castelnau, both
Cistertians, are joined with Dominic as the first
who received the charge. The professed object
of these inquisitors — for they soon obtained that
title — was, as the name implied, to inquire into
the faith of those among whom they were sent.
By preaching and instruction they were to
labour for the conversion of heretics. They
were to exhort princes and civil magistrates to
exercise the laws upon stubborn recusants ; to
register carefully their number and qualities ; to
observe and stimulate the bishops in their epis
copal duties ; and, above all, to forward informa
tion on each of these points to Rome, for the in
spection and final judgment of the pope, who
was to be considered the prime mover of this great
machinery. Toulouse was the first place in
which a formal tribunal was erected by Gregory
IX. in 1229. It was in these territories that the
Albigenses were most formidable, and Raymond
VII., the reigning count, was compelled, after a
long and ineffectual struggle, to assist in their
suppression. But the inquisitors were un
favourably received by the populace ; they were

INQ
soon expelled from the city, and, on their return,
in the end, were massacred. Among the slain
was numbered Pierre de Castelnau, the proto-
inquisitor. Raymond severely punished the
insurrectionists: and during the reign of his
successor, Alfonso, from 1249 to 1271, the holy
office existed in Toulouse with full powers. The
decrease of the Albigenses gradually diminished
the occupation of the inquisitors, and their credit
appears to have decayed together with their
activity. Zeal was not wanting to display it
self by occasional bursts of persecution ; but in
most instances it was exhibited unseasonably,
and contributed little to revive the obsolete
authority of the tribunal ; so that, on the an
nexation of this province to the crown of
France the inquisition retained little more than
a nominal existence. Even the annual inspec
tion of the names of those persons selected for the
magistracy (les capitouls), in order to prevent
the appointment of any one suspected of heresy
(a privilege which had been accorded to the
inquisitors on their first establishment, and which
they had continued to preserve after the extinc
tion of their real power), was taken away in
1646, and transferred to the Archbishop of Tou
louse. The only remnant of the holy office in
that city is a Dominican convent, which still
bears the name of the inquisition, because it was
of old the residence of the grand inquisitor. — See
Albigenses. Under Innocent IV. all Italy,
except Naples and Venice, had received the
yoke of the new judges. The opposition which
arose from Naples, and which, even to the pre
sent day, has prevented the establishment of au
inquisition within that kingdom, might naturally
be anticipated from the never-ceasing dissensions
between the popes and the Neapolitan princes.
Even when the Spanish influence had secured
Naples to itself, a singular reason continued to
form a bar against the introduction of the holy
office, by that power which elsewhere had
evinced itself the most ardent of its supporters.
The court of Madrid contended that the inquisi
tors of Naples, if appointed, should depend, not
upon the congregation at Rome, which swaj'ed
all the other inquisitions of Italy, but upon their
own grand inquisitor ; and to such an arrange
ment, with so near and so restless a neighbour,
it was the obvious policy of the Vatican to re
fuse assent. Hence, although the pope has oc
casionally sent commissaries to decide on charges
of heresy in Naples, even in these rare cases his
ministers have not been allowed to act without
permission of the viceroy ; and the cognizance of
crimes against religion has remained in posses
sion of the Neapolitan bishops, undisturbed by
inquisitors. An attempt which was made in the
reign of Charles V. by his viceroy, Don Pedro
of Toledo, to establish the holy office in form,
led to an insurrection in 1544, which cost the
lives of many Spaniards ; and had it not been
for the timely abandonment of the project, would

INQ
have transferred the crown itself to a French
dynasty. The experiment has not since been
renewed. For their other possessions, Milan,
while under the Spanish yoke, was subordinate
to the inquisition of Rome, upon which it de
pended before its subjection; and Sicily and
Sardinia, which had been free from the tribunal
till their union with Spain, felt no reluctance to
receive an inquisition from Madrid. In the Low
Countries the resistance maintained against the
establishment of the inquisition forms the most
distinguished period of their history. The edict
published by Charles V. for its introduction was
rendered abortive by the sagacity of his sister
Mary, Queen of Hungary, who, in her adminis
tration of these provinces, well knew that the
curtailment of their religious privileges would be
the prelude to commercial extinction, by the ex
patriation of their merchants. Charles, there
fore, first qualified his edict by restricting its
application to strangers, and modifying it as it
affected the natives; and in the end he aban
doned it altogether. The contrary policy, which
was suggested by the unhappy bigotry of his son
and successor, who endeavoured to form in the
Netherlands as rigorous an inquisition as he
found existing in Spain, led to a war which
raged more than sixty years, and which, after
costing the best blood and treasure of the
mother country, and desolating the most pro
fitable of her dominions, ended, after various
fortune, in the entire overthrow of her power
in the Netherlands, and the establishment of
independence by the seven United Provinces.
In the State of Venice the inquisition was
introduced about a century after its first estab
lishment ; but the wary government of that re
public took especial pains to prevent this foreign
jurisdiction from attaining any power which
might endanger its own ; and the immunities of
temporal dominion were carefully preserved from
the inroads of ecclesiastical ambition. From the
middle of the thirteenth century till 1289, ten
popes, by repeated bulls, pressed the full accep
tance of this tribunal upon the Venetians ; but
they could obtain no further admission than that
secular judges should be appointed to receive
denunciations against heresy ; that these judges
should refer the examination of such doctrines as
were suspected of error to theologians, who might
report upon them ; but that, in the end, the civil
magistrates should both find the verdict and
pronounce the sentence. In the year which
we have last mentioned, a final concordat was
arranged between the doge, Giovanni Dandolo,
and Pope Nicholas IV., and the provisions which
it contained formed the future basis of the Vene
tian inquisition, This tribunal, in the capital,
was to consist of the papal nuncio, the Bishop
of Venice, and another ecclesiastic ; but the two
latter could not act without the sanction of the
doge. In the provinces, the pope, in like manner,
had the barren privilege of nomination ; but his

INQ
nominees were powerless if the doge enforced his
veto. Three senators in Venice, three magis
trates in the provinces, completed the inquisitorial
band ; and without their presence all proceedings
were absolutely null. They might suspend the
deliberations, and prohibit the execution of the
sentences of their court, if they judged them con
trary to the interests of the republic. Secrecy,
the boasted master-engine of the institution, was
here deprived of its chief efficacy as strengthening
the pontifical arm ; for the assistants were sworn
to reveal all proceedings to the senate, and no
appeal or evocation to Rome was permitted.
Heresy was the sole offence cognizable by the
inquisitors. The Jews established in the Vene
tian territories were freed from their grasp ; for it
was plausibly argued that church authority could
not extend beyond the members of the church.
So, too, with the Greeks, for it was unjust that
Rome should be judge in her own cause. Biga
mists could not have offended against a sacra
ment, for the second marriage being void was no
more than an infraction of the civil code. Blas
phemers, usurers, and sorcerers, provided these
last had not abused holy ordinances, were pre
served equally harmless. Even with condemned
offenders, property reverted to their heirs, so that
the great stimulus of confiscation was wanting to
avarice. Books, before the invention of printing,
could not alarm ecclesiastical jealousy ; but even
after that discovery, the tyranny of the press
was committed entirely to the vigilance of the
civil magistrates. All offences of priests were
submitted to the secular judge, and even the
funds of the inquisition were managed by a
Venetian treasurer, and inspected and controlled
by the senate. Such were the chief barriers
which Rome, notwithstanding her repealed
attempts, was never able to pass (Historia delV
Inquisition!, e particolarmente delta Veneta, by
Fra Paolo). The inquisition was not established
in Britain. In France and Germany it never
obtained more than partial and temporary estab
lishment. The long struggle between the popes
and the emperors, and the dawn of the Reforma
tion in the German States, were sufficient obstacles
against the submission of their princes to a per
manent spiritual yoke from a foreign power ; and
the Gallican Church, notwithstanding the early
example of Toulouse, has, on all occasions,
maintained an independence of external control,
which, even when it has been the false policy of
the sovereign to encourage religious persecution,
has declined placing the weapons of offence in
any hands but its own. In 1558 an inquisition,
in accordance with that of Rome, was erected in
France under a bull of Paul IV. But even here
the parliament interfered with a salutary check,
by carefully distinguishing between laics and
ecclesiastics. The latter were unreservedly left
to the cognizance of the inquisitorial court ; but
against the former the inquisition bad no further
power than that of instituting a process, and.

339

INQ
declaring the accused to be heretics; for all the
rest they were left to the civil judges. The
times, however, were too turbulent, and the re
formed doctrine was too powerfully advocated in
France, to allow of the quiet imposition of this
detestable yoke. Accordingly, not two years
after the papal bull of establishment, the Cardinal
of Lorraine complained of the inefficiency of the
court, and earnestly pressed the entire adoption
of the Spanish model. He was dexterously met
by the Chancellor l'Hopital, who, knowing that
there would be a majority against him in the
cabinet, if he openly opposed the measure, ad
mitted its advantages if seasonably applied, but
argued that at such a moment the very name
would create a revolt. He succeeded in stopping
the progress of the inquisition, and substituted in
its stead the provisions of an ordinance well
known in French history under the name of
L'Edit de Romorentin.
It was in the Western Peninsula of Europe,
in Spain and Portugal, that the inquisition
fixed and has ever maintained its strongest
hold. The Arragonese, from the first, ad
mitted this tribunal in aU their dependencies ;
but it was not till the union of the two crowns
under Ferdinand and Isabella, that the rest of
Spain surrendered its freedom, Each of these
royal personages sought a refuge from unhappi-
ness in bigotry. Ferdinand endeavoured to make
compensation for crime, Isabella to assuage afflic
tion, and the priests were at hand to profit both
by the stricken conscience and the wounded
heart. The year 1481 may, therefore, be con
sidered as the epoch of the establishment of the
Spanish inquisition, and its first edict was issued
from the Dominican convent of St. Paul at
Seville. Its activity was chiefly directed against
Jews, Mohammedans, and those unhappy offsets
from them who, having been baptized, were,
nevertheless, suspected of attachment to their
ancient faith; and under the stigma of being
new Christians (Maranos, the cursed race), as
they were termed, were perpetual objects of
jealous observation. It is stated that, within ten
months of this first year of the Spanish inquisi
tion, in Seville alone, 298 new Christians were
burned. The scene of execution was the Quema-
dero, in the suburbs, — a stone area, crowned at its
angles with statues of the four greater prophets,
which served to support the transverse beams on
which a platform was raisedi Here as late as
1782 a woman was committed to the flames. It
was destroyed in 1810, in order to erect a battery
against the approaching French army. These
exercises of power were not deemed sufficient.
The pope, Sextus IV., had been appealed to by
the numerous bands who emigrated from Spain
under the dread of persecution ; and their appeal,
instead of checking the tyranny against which it
was directed, tended to its firmer consolidation.
After a short correspondence with Isabella, it
was agreed that the sentences of the Spanish

INQ
inquisition should, for the future, be definitive,
The holy see relinquished its powers of revisal,
and in 1483 Father Thomas de Torquemada (de
Twrecrematd, as he is appropriately Latinized),
a Dominican, and prior of the monastery of the
holy cross at Segovia, received his appointment
as first grand inquisitor of Spain. Torquemada
arranged a royal council, of which himself was
president, with certain subaltern tribunals under
its control. He issued also twenty-eight articles
of instructions. By these, voluntary self-denun
ciations were especially recommended. The
general spirit of these articles— for we have not
room for details — may be apprehended from a
slight specimen. By the eleventh it was decreed
that if an heretic, detained in the prisons of the
holy office, demanded absolution, and appeared
to feel true repentance, it might be granted to
him, imposiog at the same time perpetual im
prisonment. ~By the twelfth, if the inquisitors
thought the repentance pretended, they might
refuse absolution, declare the penitence false, and
condemn the prisoner to be burned. By the
fifteenth, if a semi-proof existed against a person
who denied his crime, he was to be put to the
torture. If he confessed during his agony, and
afterwards confirmed his confession, he was to be
punished as convicted. If he retracted, he was
to be again tortured or condemned to an extra
ordinary punishment. And this appears ever
afterwards to have been the regulation concerning
torture. The supreme council of the inquisition was
composed of the inquisitor-general, nominated
by the pope, but subject to a veto by the King •
of Spain ; five counsellors, of whom one must be
a Dominican ; a procurator-fiscal ; a secretary of
the king's chamber ; two secretaries of the council;
an alguazil, or sergeant-major; a receiver; two
relators; and two qualificators. The number of
familiars (see Familiars) and minor officers is
very great, for their privileges are extensive, and
they are amenable only to their own tribunal
Hence persons of the highest rank and of the
noblest families in Spain are enrolled in the
service of the inquisition. All the provincial
inquisitions depend upon this supreme council,
which is equally paramount with the Congre
gation of the Holy Office at Rome; and this
supreme council itself depends upon the grand
inquisitor, who has the absolute nomination to
every post in the tribunal. No appeal lies from
it. It makes and unmakes statutes ; it confirms
or annuls the sentences and decrees of the lower
inquisitions; and it has the uncontrolled rule
of every matter connected with its functions.
Every officer, before his appointment, must
give satisfactory proof that he is descended
from old Christians, and that not one of his
ancestors has fallen under the cognizance of
the holy office for infidelity or heresy. Above
all, he is bound to the most inviolable secrecy,
and solemnly pledges himself that he will not be

340

INQ
Induced, either by promises or menaces, to reveal
any transaction of the inquisition, with which he
may become acquainted. There are six chief
offences to which the inquisition principally
directs itself, — 1. Heresy. 2. Suspicion of heresy.
8. Protection of heretics. 4. Magic. 5. Blas
phemy. 6. Injury to the inquisition or any of
its officers, and resistance of its orders ; and these
Bix offences, as they are interpreted, leave small
room for escape, if the tribunal is determined to
fix an accusation. Thus heresy is considered to
be committed by any one who says, writes,
teaches, or preaches anything against Scripture,
the creeds, the articles of faith, or the traditions
of the church ; by a renunciation of the Roman
Catholic religion, or an exchange of it for any
Other ; by practising or even praising the rites
and ceremonies of any other religion; or by
believing that a man may be saved, whatever
may be his faith, provided he embraces it con
scientiously. Those also are heretics who dis
approve any rite, ceremony, or usage, not only
of the universal church, but of the particular
church to which the inquisition belongs ; who
hesitate as to the infallibility of the pope, his
sovereignty over general councils, and his power
of dethroning princes. There is but little trouble
requisite to render a man suspected of heresy :
it is enough that he advances any proposition
which scandalizes the hearer, or that he omits to
denounce a person who has chanced to advance
such a proposition in his hearing. Abuse of the
sacraments, or other holy things; contempt,
outrage, or injury of images ; reading, possessing,
or lending to others books condemned by the in
quisition; abstaining from the usages of the
church, as passing a whole yearwithout confession
or communion ; eating flesh on forbidden days ;
neglecting mass; saying mass or confessing others
without ordination ; or, if in orders, saying mass
without consecration ; repeating sacraments which
ought not to be repeated ; or entering into mar
riage ; if laics, contracting a second or more mar
riages while a first wife is alive ; assisting, even
once, at any public religious service of heretics ;
neglecting a citation of the inquisition ; or not
seeking absolution after being excommunicated
for a year's space; — this, it must be admitted, is
a fearfully comprehensive catalogue. But it ex
tends yet further ; an intimacy with any heretic
is of itself enough to create suspicion of heresy ;
any correspondence with such an one, even for
mercantile purposes, is to be avoided by those
who are careful of their own safety. For under
the next head of protection of heretics are in
cluded such as permit themselves to be engaged
in friendship with those not professing the faith
of Rome ; who warn them against the inquisi
tion ; who point out to them methods of avoid
ing its vigilance ; or even who forbear from
denouncing them. This duty of denunciation is
to supersede every bond of blood or affection,
however closely it may be knit. Brother, sister,

INQ
father, mother, husband, or wife, against each of
these must information be presented, if the per
son privy to their heresy would himself avoid
like imputation, and free himself from the terrors
of the holy office. A fortiori, the offence is in
creased if assistance or even advice be given to
any one against whom the inquisition has com
menced a process ; if a fugitive or a recusant of
a citation is housed, concealed, or succoured ; if
a prisoner is furnished with means of escape ; or
if an officer is intimidated or otherwise impeded in
the execution of his duty ; if, without permission,
a prisoner is spoken to, written to, advised, or
even consoled ; if witnesses are tampered with ;
or if any evidence which may be brought to bear
against an offender is destroyed or concealed.
Magic, as we need scarcely say, was a most fruit
ful source of accusation; but on this head the in
quisition was by no means singular ; and the trials
for witchcraft, for which even Scottish and Eng
lish judicature must blush, to a comparatively late
period, are not less disgraceful to human credulity
than those which are recorded in the holy office.
Blasphemy speaks for itself. The last crime, that
of resistance to the holy office, was visited with
the heaviest rigour. It was the policy of the
inquisition to maintain itself by terror; dis
obedience to it, therefore, was in all cases a
capital crime; and no birth, rank, character,
or employment could shield the offender from
assured extremity of punishment. Although
neither Jews nor Mohammedans were in strict
ness subject to the inquisition, it is plain that
they might easily be included under three of the
heads of offence. Moreover, if they spoke or
wrote anything contrary to the articles of belief
common to themselves and Christians, as an im
pugnment of the unity of God, &c, they might
be accused as heretics. So, too, they were
exposed to denunciation if they hindered the
conversion to Christianity of any of their own
brethren, or yet more, if they sought to obtain a
proselyte to themselves. They were forbidden
to have in their keeping any prohibited book,
even if, as the Talmud, it related to their own
creed ; lastly, they might not engage Christian
nurses for their children. In all these cases the
vengeance of the holy office most unsparingly
followed upon offence; for the inquisition had
sagacity enough to perceive that the dread of
like punishment frequently operated as a power
ful motive for conversion. On the receipt of a
denunciation, which was the most usual mode of
proceeding (although common report, the sus
picion of the inquisitors themselves, or even self-
accusation in the hope of lighter punishment, not
unfrequently formed the basis of trials), the in
former swore to the truth of his depositions, and
pointed out witnesses. The witnesses were then
examined, not as to the fact itself — for of this
they were never informed — but in general terms,
if they had ever seen or heard anything which
was or appeared to be contrary to the Catholic

341

INQ
faith or the rights of the inquisition. This vague
question frequently elicited matter quite foreign
to the subject under investigation, and, as may be
supposed, gave rise to fresh processes. The de
positions were written down in such form and
words as the secretary approved. Inquiries were
then made in all the tribunals of the province if
any charges existed against the accused, and
this review of the registers was incorporated, if
it afforded any cause, in the preliminary instruc
tion ; even the same ' offence, if represented in
different terms, was always considered to be a
distinct charge. The instruction thus prepared
was submitted to the qualifiers, who, by their
censure, were to determine whether the propo
sitions contained in it amounted to heresy or
suspicion of heresy. The accused meantime'was
cited thrice to appear ; if he disobeyed the third
summons, he was immediately excommunicated
and subjected to most severe punishment, with
out prejudice to that which he might afterwards
receive, if proved guilty of the original charge.
But few, however, were hardy enough to brave
the dangers of an attempt at escape ; for security
was next to impossible, and the lowest punish
ment on detection was perpetual imprisonment.
In Spain flight was more difficult than else
where ; for bodies of men, not belonging to the
inquisition, but who devoted themselves to its
service, ceaselessly tracked the object of pursuit
through the remotest districts. The members of
the holy brotherhood (la Santa Hermandad) were
dispersed everywhere, and under countless dis
guises ; their great duty and chief merit was the
arrest of the denounced. The crusade (fa Cruciata)
in like manner took to itself the office of denun
ciation ; and to these must be added the swarm
of familiars more immediately attached to the
tribunal. By these last, if the evidence was
deemed sufficient, or if the crime was of an
enormous nature, the accused was summarily ar
rested, without the previous form of citation." No
asylum, no privilege, no sanctuary could protect
the vietim ; resistance or remonstrance were both
equally vain ; and he who was once wanted by a
familiar of the inquisition, had no other course
than to obey in silence.
The prisons to which the accused were trans
ferred were secret, and the captive had no com
munication except with his jailers and judges.
He was rigorously searched, and all property,
having been registered, was taken from him.
Imagination, as it is natural to suppose, has been
busy in painting the horrors of these cells; and
they probably varied, as all prisons do, in their
degree of severity. But take them at the best,
even according to the description of Llorente,
and thej- were abodes little fitting for a culprit
before trial, who might be altogether innocent,
and whose offence, even if he were proved guilty
by the tribunal to which he was amenable, most
probably was arbitrary and factitious. " These
prisons," says tha writer just mentioned, "are

342

INQ
not, as they have been represented, damp, dirty,
and unhealthy; they are vaulted chambers, well
lighted, not damp, and large enough for a person
to take some exercise in. The real horrors ofthe
prison are that no one can enter them without
becoming infamous in public opinion; and tbe
solitude and darkness to which the prisoner is
condemned for fifteen hours in the day during
the winter, as he is not allowed light before the
hour of seven in the morning, or after four in the
evening. Some authors have stated that the
prisoners were chained. These means are only
employed on extraordinary occasions, and to pre
vent them from destroying themselves," (c.-ix.)
Three audiences followed, one on each of the first
three days of imprisonment. On the fourth
audience, the prisoner for the first time learned
the charge against him ; for hitherto he had been
only vaguely questioned, and urged to confess any
offence of which he might be conscious. The
procurator-fiscal now exhibited his requisition,
in which, as in the preliminary instruction, one
single charge might be made to assume numerous
different shapes, to the great perplexity of the
accused, who was required, between each article,
to reply upon the instant whether it were true or
false. The judge, according to an inherent prin
ciple of our English law, is always considered
the advocate of tho prisoner. On what widely
different notions the code of the inquisition was
framed may be learned from its own mouth.
Even the gesture, and the degree of terror which
the examiner was to assume in his countenance,
were scrupulously defined. Moreover, instead of
warning the prisoner that he be most careful
not to let any word escape his lips which may
contain self-accusation, self-accusation is the chief
object which the judge sought to obtain; and to
accomplish this purpose he was tutored in his
legal education to adopt the most subtle strata
gems, in order to entrap his victim.
The prisoner was then asked if he wished to
make a defence, and for that purpose he was
desired to select some advocate on the list of the
holy office. This advocate was not allowed to
see the original process nor to communicate with
his client. He was to frame his argument upon
the result of the preliminary instruction reported
to him by a notary, in wliich were inserted the
depositions of the witnesses, unaccompanied by
their names or by any statement of time or place,
and without the introduction of such circum
stances as appeared to weigh for the prisoner.
The advocate might inquire if the prisoner in
tended to challenge the witnesses, that is, such
persons as he imagined to be witnesses. If he
chanced to be right, the deposition of the person
whom he challenged must receive a ratification ;
or, in other words, the judge must ascertain to
his own satisfaction, that the witness is deserving
of credit. If, however, confession was not ob
tained, and the proofs were not sufficient, yet if
semi-proofs, such as it is called, was established,

INQ
the prisoner might be subjected to the torture.
Upon the fearful inflictions of the pulley, the
rack, and the fire, we shall not dwell. A full
confession was deemed so important (because,
without it, confiscation was not permitted), that
if torture failed to procure it, the unhappy suf
ferer, whose limbs were just released from the
grip of the executioner, and whose spirit was yet
broken and distracted by the remembrance of the
agonies which he had undergone, was exposed,
in all his weakness, to fresh artifices. A seeming
friend was instructed to gain his confidence, and
by a show of affectionate anxiety, to win from his
unsuspecting reliance that secret which no bodily
sufferings could extort. After all, if semi-proof
existed, it does not appear that the prisoner
obtained his liberty by successfully braving the
torture. Few, if any, so circumstanced were
permitted to return to upper day, and their lot
was perpetual secret confinement in the prisons,
by a refinement of contradiction called those of
mercy. On the other hand, if the proofs entirely
failed (a rare occurrence), or if they were com
pletely established by witnesses and by confes
sion, the tribunal proceeded to the publication of
the testimony, in which the declaration and facts
were read to the accused, who after each article
was required to admit its truth ; and here, if he
had not previously alleged anything against the
witnesses, by an unusual clemency he was per
mitted to object to them. This indulgence, con
sidering the general principles of the court, so
unfavourable to the prisoner, must be viewed
with surprise, since the depositions, now first
read to him, might perhaps throw some light on
the parties whose evidence had been received by
the inquisitors, and in this place his advocate
delivered his defence. The whole proceedings
were then examined by the qualificators, who
were to pronounce a definitive censure, which was
the precursor of the sentence. If this was acquit
tal, the prisoner still remained unacquainted with
his denouncers and the witnesses against him,
and he was considered happy in permission to
return to his family with a certificate of abso
lution, after a heavy demand for expenses ; for
the inquisition had no funds but such as pro
ceeded from confiscation. For the condemned
there were numerous punishments, apportioned
to their degree of crime, and the public inflic
tion of them was reserved for an auto da
fe; when the galleys, imprisonment for various
terms, whipping, and the stake, were largely
dispensed. Accounts of these celebrations are
everywhere to be found: we have already
given a few particulars (See Act of Faith), and
we are little inclined to dilate upon them.
Those who have abjured, i. e., admitted and
renounced their crime, whether it be de levi, or
de vehementi, from a light or a violent suspicion of
heresy, perform their respective penances in a
garb of infamy, which they are compelled to wear
either for a longer or shorter period. The

INQ
zamarra, or san-benito (sacco-benito, the blessed
vest of penitence), was kindly given by the ori
ginal inquisitors to reconciled heretics, as a
protecting badge, at a time when all suspected
persons were indiscriminately massacred. It is a
close tunic, like a priest's cassock, of coarse yellow
woollen stuff. Those who abjured de levi wore
it plain ; those de vehementi, with one arm of a
red St. Andrew's Cross. The formally con
victed heretics who were reconciled, carried this
cross entire ; a burning taper in their hands, and
a rope round their necks, completed their cos
tume. The capitally sentenced (relaxados, aban
doned), who repented before their doom was
pronounced, were clothed in the third sort of san-
benito, with the addition of a conical cap made of
the same stuff, or of pasteboard, and called
caroza. The san-benito of those who repented
after sentence, and thus were privileged to be
strangled before burning, was decorated with a
bust surrounded with reversed flames (fuego
rivolto) ; and those who were to encounter the
fullest severity of punishment, as being impenitent
and negative, carried the flames ascending, and
interspersed with hideous figures of devils.
These vests, at one period, were preserved and
suspended in churches as perpetual marks of dis
honour to their wearers. The relaxados bore in
their hands a wooden cross painted green instead
of a lighted taper. Llorente has calculated, but
assuredly not on sufficiently accurate data, the
number of victims whom that tribunal has sacri
ficed since its first institution. One statement
cannot be disputed, for it is authorized by the
inquisitors themselves, and was recorded, no
doubt, as they believed, to their glory. In the
Castle of Triana at Seville, in which the tribunal
held its sittings, an inscription, placed there in
1524 imports, that from 1492 to that year, about
1,000 persons had been burned, and 20,000 con
demned to various penances. Horrible as this
destruction of life may be, let it not be forgotten
that the rage of the English Papists exceeded it
by a ratio of more than two to one. In the four
years of tbe Marian persecution no less than
288 martyrs perished in the flames. Of the pre
sent state of the different inquisitions, it is by no
means easy to offer a correct account The
Congregation of the Holy Office, with its twelve
cardinals, inquisitors-general, nominated by the
pope, the bishops and priests who form its con-
suitors, its Dominican commissary, and its branch,
the Congregation of the Index, still watches over
heresy in Rome itself, and regulates such other
similar Italian tribunals as choose to acknow
ledge its dominion. The use of torture in this
court was abolished by Pius VII. in 1816, *
sufficient admission that up to that time it was
employed. In Spain, during Napoleon's occupa
tion, the inquisition was suppressed in 1808, not
as an unjust and cruel tribunal, but as one
"encroaching on the royal authority;" and it
was during the short-lived reign of Joseph Bona-
343

INS

parte that Llorente, as he assures us, obtained
possession of the archives of the supreme court.
The Cortes, in 1813, confirmed this suppression
by a decree of their own ; but the restoration of
Ferdinand VII. within a year re-established
" the happy influence " ofthe inquisition, as it is
termed in the royal ordinance, " at the desire of
many learned and virtuous prelates and different
bodies and corporations," "to preserve the
tranquillity of the kingdom." In the Madrid
Gazette of May 14, 1816, an account is given of
an auto da fe celebrated by the inquisition of
Mexico in the preceding December. In Goa
a court of inquisition was erected under John
III. of Portugal, in 1561. It was suppressed by
royal edict in 1775, and re-established four years
afterwards, with two restrictions, one of a
humane tendency, which increased the number of
witnesses necessary for a conviction ; the other
opening a door to fearful abuses, by abolishing
public autos da fet and ordering sentences to be
executed privately within the walls of the in
quisition. Insacrati (unConsecratect). — See Inferior
Clergy. Inspiration. — See Deists and Biblical Cy
clopaedia, sub voce.
Installation, the placing of a prebend or
canon in his stall, and so giving him visible pos
session of his office.
Institution, as is shown by Blackstone
(Com., vol. i., book i., ch. ii., p. 390), is the act
by which a clerk is invested by the bisbop, or one
commissioned by him, with tbe spiritualities of a
benefice. His words are, — " If the bishop hath
no objections, but admits the patron's presenta
tion, the clerk so admitted is next to be instituted
by him ; which is a kind of investiture of the
spiritual part of the benefice ; for by institution
the care of the souls of the parish is committed
to the charge ofthe clerk." Before institution, the
clerk must take before the ordinary, or his substi
tute, the oath against simony, the oaths of alle
giance and supremacy, and the following oath of
canonical obedience : — " I, A. B., do swear that
I will perform true and canonical obedience to the
Bishop of C. and his successor in all things lawful
and honest ; so help me God ;" and also, if it be
a vicarage, he shall swear, " I, A. B., do swear
that I will be resident in my vicarage of  ,
in the diocese of  , unless I shall be other
wise dispensed withal by my diocesan ; so help
me God." He must also, in the same presence,
subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, and the three
Articles recited in the thirty-sixth canon concern
ing the king's supremacy, the lawfulness of the
Common Prayer, and the validity of the Thirty-
nine Articles ; which last subscription, after the
signature of the articles themselves, may be con
sidered a very unnecessary repetition. He must
likewise subscribe a declaration of conformity to
the liturgy, and obtain a certificate from the
ordinary that such subscription has been made, 344

INT
which, after induction, he must publicly read
in his church. At the time of institution the
clerk kneels down before the ordinary, who reads
the words of institution out of a written instru
ment, with the seal episcopal appendant, which
the clerk, during tbe ceremony, is to hold in his
hand. An entry thereof is then made in the
ordinary's register. It is advisable that the
clerk have trusty witnesses of all these oaths and
subscriptions, who should indorse the instruments,
and sign a memorandum to be kept by the clerk.
The church by institution is full against all per
sons except the king, and the clerk may enter
upon the parsonage house, and take the tithes ;
but he cannot let, grant, or sue for them till
after induction, for which he receives a written
mandate from the ordinary. The first beginning
of institutions to benefices in England was in a
national synod held at Westminster, a.d. 1124 ;
for patrons originally filled all benefices by colla
tion and livery, till this power was taken from
them by the canons. (Selden, Hist of Tythes,
c. 6, 9). — See Ordination.
Insufflation (spitting). — See Exorcist-
Insnlani (islanders), a name of old given to
those monks who belonged to the famous monas
tery in the island of Lewis.
Intention, Doctrine of, in the Church of
Rome, the doctrine which makes the validity
of a sacrament depend on the intention of the
priest who administers it. An ignorant, careless,
or malicious priest may frustrate the benefit of a
sacrament, and the partaker must be always in
ignorance whether the priest had genuine inten
tion or not. Accordingly, no little casuistry has
been expended on the doctrine of intention, as to
whether it should be actual, virtual, external, or
internal ; and it is held that it is enough to secure
spiritual benefit if the priest simply intend to do
what the church prescribes.
Intercessores, a title given in the African
and other Churches to those bishops who were
appointed to the temporary superintendence of
neighbouring churches rendered vacant by the
death or other removal of their episcopal
guardians. Lest this office should be corrupted
to self-interested purposes, so jealous were those
churches, that the temporary authority was
limited to one year.
Interdict (from inter and dicere, to inter
pose a dictum), » prohibitory command. An
interdict is a general excommunication, directed
not against an individual, but against a king
dom, province, or town ; and, during the period
of its application, suspending in the places
visited all religious exercises, with ~ very few
exceptions. The origin of this ecclesiastical
censure is obscure, and assigned to various dates.
Some carry it as far back as 579, without any
good evidence. It was used, however, in the
tenth and eleventh centuries. Frequent use was
made of these spiritual weapons, and various
modifications of, or additions to their severity,

tNT
were adopted by different popes. The first inter
dict pronounced against England did not issue
from a pope, but from a turbulent Archbishop of
Canterbury. Theobald having incurred the in
dignation of King Stephen, took refuge in France,
and Lord Lyttelton, on the authority of Gervas
of Durham (Chron., ann. 1157), states, that 'j the
obstinate prelate, exasperated at being detained
so long from his see, sent over letters of interdict,
wherein a day was fixed, before which, if he had
not permission to return, they were to take place
against all that part of the realm which was in
obedience to Stephen. These were the first of
this nature to which England had been ever
subjected, and they were therefore much more
terrible to the minds of the English." The arch
bishop came over, and solemnly published the
interdict in person, at Framlingham, under the
protection of Hugh Bigot, who was in arms
against Stephen ; nor was it removed till the
prelate was restored in triumph to the metropo
litan see, (Hist, of Henry II., i., 358, 4to.)
Alexander III., during an early stage of the
dispute between Henry II. and Thomas Si
Beckett, in conjunction with the archbishop,
directed an interdict to Clarembald, who never
theless officiated as abbot elect at St. Augus
tine's. The same pope appears to have threatened
England with an interdict after the murder of
& Beckett. It was averted with difficulty, by
what seems to have been a little hard swear
ing on the part of Henry II.'s messengers. The
framers of the Reformatio Legum, which was
intended to form the code of our English ec
clesiastical law, and to supersede the canon law,
saw the necessity of retaining the power of the
keys, if they designed to preserve wholesome
discipline. Accordingly, excommunication in
cases of extremity was still preserved ; but the
penalty of interdict appears to have been
abolished, since in collective bodies all indi
viduals do not equally offend, and the innocent
should not suffer together with the guilty.
Interest of money. — See Usury.
Interim (in the meantime) was the name
borne by an edict put forth by the Emperor
Charles V., in 1548, in the hope of adjusting
the religious dissensions of Germany. The diet
of Augsburg had in vain petitioned the pope,
Paul III., to bring back to Trent the prelates
attending the council, who, under the pretext of
the plague, had retired to Bologna. Upon the
refusal of this prayer, Charles employed Julius
Pflug, Bishop of Naumburg, Michal Helding,
titular Bishop of Sidon and suffragan of Mentz,
and John Agricola, a protestant divine, preacher
to the Elector of Brandenburg, whose fidelity
to his own church was more than, suspected, to
frame an instrument upon the model of one pre
sented to the diel of Ratisbon in 1541. The
theology of this system, contained in twenty-five
articles, was in all points that of the Romish
Church, the peculiar doctrines and even rites of

INT
which were strictly retained. The only two de
viations from its rule whicli were permitted were,
that the cup was allowed to be administered in
the Eucharist to such provinces as beforehand
had been accustomed to receive it, and that mar
ried priests, who still refused to put away their
wives, were not prohibited from the performance
of their ecclesiastical duties. These concessions,
however, were broadly stated to be but for tem
porary indulgence, and allowed only in considera
tion of the weakness of those Who were not yet
prepared for a more wholesome discipline. By
collusion with the Archbishop of Mentz, who
assumed to himself the right of conveying the
general voice of the assembly, the emperor ob
tained the seeming approbation of the diet, on
the 15th of May, to the articles of this formula ;
and he then prepared to enforce it as a decree of
the empire. But at the dissolution of the diet
it was equally disapproved both by Papists and
Protestants : the former proudly and peremptorily
rejecting any approach to conciliation, the latter
justly alarmed at the total abandonment of then1
faith. At Rome it was condemned as impious
and profane; but the pope himself, with great
political sagacity, discovered the error which
Charles had committed in thus irritating all
parties, and rejoiced in the certain ultimate fate
of a measure which it was unnecessary that he
should openly combat, since it contained in itself
the seeds of its own destruction. The emperor
persisted in executing its provisions. But the
interim was rejected by several of the German
princes, especially by John, Marquess of Bran
denburg, and by the heroic John Frederick,
Elector of Saxony, who, regardless of his cap
tivity and of the increased rigour with which he
was visited, in consequence of his opposition,
refused to betray the cause to which his whole
life had been devoted. Bucer, when consulted
by the Elector of Brandenburg, pronounced it
to be downright Popery a little disguised. The
imperial cities also opposed themselves, and
Strasburg, Constance, Bremen, Magdeburg, and
many other lesser towns, remonstrated with
Charles against this violence to their consciences.
The little town of Lindau (near Constance) pro
fessed general obedience, but protested that it
could not agree to the interim without incurring
eternal damnation. The emperor's reply was
conveyed by the military occupation of Augs
burg and Dim, the abolition of the form of
government existing in those towns, and the
appointment of an administration devoted to his
own views, the members of which, as their first
act, swore to observe the interim.
Intermediate Slate. — See Limbo.
Interpreters. — See HERMENEUTiE.
Iuterventores or Visitors (another name
of the Intercessores), persons in the North Afri
can churches sent to manage elections in a vacant
see, and to superintend it. When an interven-
tor managed to get himself elected as bishop —

345

INT
no matter how strong his party among the people
— the election was set aside. So it was ruled by
the fifth council of Carthage. He could hold
his office only for a year; and if he did not
secure the election of a bishop in that time,
another visitor or procurator was sent in his
room. — See Intercessores.
Introibo (I will go in), the word taken from
the fifth verse of the forty-second psalm (Latin
version or Vulgate), with which the priest, stand
ing at the foot of the altar, begins mass.
Introit (entrance), in church service, what
was sung as the ministering priest entered.
Pope Celestinus ordained that the psalms should
be chanted as introits, the mass before his time
having immediately succeeded the epistle and
gospel. All introits not taken from the Psalms
are termed irregular. The introits, as set
forth in ithe first Common Prayer Book of
Edward VI., were well selected, as bearing upon
the particular Sunday or holiday to which they
were applied; but they were afterwards struck
out, and the choice of the psalm was left to the
caprice of the parish clerk. Carwithen, in his
History of tlie Church of England, says, " The
second Service Book of Edward suffered a mate
rial injury from the vitiation of devotional feel
ing. . . . The use of introits to begin the
communion service was known in the Christian
Church before the time of Jerome, and their
propriety is as unquestionable as their antiquity
is undisputed. Their absence is now sensibly
felt, and is inadequately supplied by an unvaried
anthem, or an unmeaning overture in cathedrals,
and by the frequently improper selection of a
psalm in parish churches. According to the first
liturgy, while the whole psalter was read through
every month, in the morning and evening service,
the most edifying parts were repeated on Sun
days and the other solemn days observed by
the church" (i., 340). The sanctus, usually
chanted as an introit in cathedrals, is among
the most solemn and impressive portions of
their sublime service. In the Common Prayer
set forth in 1549 the gloria patri closes each
psalm in accordance with a rubrio, " and so must
every introite be ended." By a canon of the
fourth council of Toledo the gloria patri was
omitted after the introits during Passion Week.
Intuition. — See Spiritualism.
Invention (finding) of the Cross, a festi
val held in the Romish Church on the third of
May in honour of the supposed discovery of the
Cross by Helena. — See Cross.
Investiture (investire, to put on a vest or
covering), the act of confirming one in the
possession of an office, by formally presenting
him with its robe or insignia. In the primitive
Church, after the election of a bishop, and
his consecration, the early Christian em
perors claimed a right of confirmation. The
Gothic and Lombard kings exercised the same
privilege. In the French monarchy the Mero-

INV
vingians affected the still greater power of direct
nomination, and their control was supported by
means against which the church was wholly in
adequate to contend. The estates and honours
which composed the ecclesiastical temporalities
were considered to partake of the nature of fiefs,
and therefore to require similar investiture from
the lord. Charlemagne is said to have intro
duced this practice, and to have invested the
newly consecrated bishop by placing a ring and
crosier in his hands. Gratian, indeed, affirms
that Pope Adrian positively conceded to this
emperor the power of electing even to the papacy,
in 774; but neither Eginhard, nor any other eon-
temporary writer, mentions this fact. The cus
tom, however, existed, nor does it appear to have
been objected to or opposed during the lapse of
two centuries from his reign. The disorderly
state of Italy which succeeded the death of
Charlemagne, frequently interrupted the exercise
of this right by the Carlovingians ; but even so
late as 1047, when the empire had passed to
another line, Henry III. received an explicit ad
mission of his prerogative, and repeatedly used
it. The investiture in the lesser sees followed
as a matter of course. Alexander II. issued a
decree against lay investitures in general, which
was eagerly revived by Gregory VII. (Hilde-
brand), as one of the chief means through which
his spiritual despotism might be confirmed. Not
content with having shaken off the imperial
yoke, as it weighed upon the see of Rome itself,
and thereby annulling the power by which the
emperors nominated or confirmed popes at each
vacancy, he sought entirely to disjoin the ecclesi
astical from the civil rule. He complained
loudly of the humiliation to which the church
was subjected by dependence upon the patronage
of laymen; and he condemned, with far more
reason and greater justice, the mercenary and
simoniacal exactions which temporal princes ex
torted from ecclesiastics as the price of the bene
fices which they conferred. In the council of
Lateran, in 1080, he declared that no bishop or
abbot submitting to lay investiture should be
considered a prelate. The convulsions which
followed engendered the Guelf and Ghibbelin
factions, and deluged Italy with blood during a
long series of years; for the struggle commenced
by Gregory with the Emperor Henry IV. was
vigorously pursued by his successors; among
whom Urban II. and Paschal II. especially dis
tinguished themselves by their powerful efforts
in the contest for independence. It was not,
however, until the papaoy of Calixtus IL, in
1122, that the question was terminated, as it
appears, materially to the advantage of the holy
see. By a concordat, then arranged at Worms,
Henry V. resigned for ever all pretence to invest
bishops by the ring and crosier, and recognized
the freedom of elections. By way of compro
mise, however, these elections were to be made
either before the emperor in person, or his repre-

346

INV
sentative ; and the new bishop was to receive his
temporalities by the sceptre. In France, even
under the papacy of Hildebrand, the right of in
vestiture does not appear to have been made a
subject of open quarrel. Protests were occasion
ally offered by the holy see, but in spite of these
the power was exercised till the kings, of their
own accord, relinquished the presentation of the
ring and crosier, a form which gave particular
offence ; and contenting themselves by investiture
through a written instrument, or sometimes by
word of mouth, they remained in peaceable enjoy
ment of their privilege. In England the dispute
between our Henry I. and his primate, Anselm,
concerning investiture, has been transmitted to
us in a very full detail by Eadmer, a monk of
Canterbury, a pupil, and afterwards a, chosen
friend of the archbishop, and his companion in
banishment. Anselm, on his return from the
exile to which the violence of William Rufus
had compelled him, to the surprise of Henry, who
had now succeeded to the throne, refused to do
homage for his see. The pope was appealed to ;
and the king seems to have asserted an unquali
fied right of investiture, which was met by
Paschal with as equally unqualified a denial.
After a protracted struggle and continued threats
of excommunication, the controversy ended in
England, the king promising that, for the
future, no regal staff should be given as an in
vestiture to a bishop or abbot, either by himself
or any other layman in England; and the
archbishop in return declaring that he would no
longer refuse consecration to such prelates as paid
homage for their sees.
Invisibles, a name given to Osiander, Fla-
cius, and others of their school, who maintained
that the Church of Christ was not always visible,
being driven, as they thought, to this position by
the common query of the Romanists, Where was
your church before Luther?
Inrita lory, — The thirty-fourth psalm when
sung, as it often was for this purpose, by the
ancient Church, before the dispensation of the
Lord's Supper, was called the invitatory psalm.
Also some text of Scripture used before the
Vbnite (which see.)
Invocation of Saints, a form of idolatry
practised by the Church of Rome, but unknown
to the early Church, and expressly condemned
by the council of Laodicea, and by the early
fathers. The council of Trent decreed as fol
lows : — " Touching the Invocation, Veneration,
and on Relics of Saints, and Sacred Images. —
The holy synod enjoins on all bishops, and others
sustaining the office and charge of teaching, that,
according to the usage of the Catholic and Apos
tolic Church, received from the primitive times
of the Christian religion, and according to the
consent of the holy fathers, and to the decrees
of sacred councils, they especially instruct the
faithful diligently touching the intercession and
invocation of saints ; the honour paid to relics ;

INV
and the lawful use of images: teaching them
that the saints, who reign together with Christ,
offer up their own prayers to God for men ; that
it is good and useful suppliantly to invoke them,
and to resort to their prayers, aid, and help, for
obtaining benefits from God, through his Son,
Jesus Christ our Lord, who alone is our Re
deemer and Saviour; but that they think im
piously who deny that the saints, who enjoy
eternal happiness in heaven, are to be invoked ;
or who assert either that they do not pray for
men ; or, that the invocation of them to pray
for each of us even in particular, is idolatry ; or,
that it is repugnant to tbe Word of God, and is
opposed to the honour of the one mediator be
tween God and men, Jesus Christ; or, that it
is foolish to supplicate, orally or inwardly, those
who reign in heaven. Also, that the holy bodies
of holy martyrs, and of others now living with
Christ, which were the living members of Christ,
and the temple of the Holy Ghost, and which are
by him to be raised unto eternal Ufe, and to be
glorified, are to be venerated by the faithful;
through which [bodies] many benefits are be
stowed by God on men ; so that they who affirm
that veneration and honour are not due to the
relics of saints; or, that these, and other sacred
monuments, are uselessly honoured by the faith
ful ; and that the places dedicated to the memo
ries of the saints are vainly visited for the pur
pose of obtaining their aid; are wholly to be
condemned, as the church has already long since
condemned, and doth now also condemn them.
Moreover, that the images of Christ, of the Vir
gin Mother of God, and of the other saints, are
to be had and retained particularly in temples,
and that due honour and veneration are to be
awarded them ; not that any divinity or virtue
is believed to be in them, on account of which
they are to be worshipped ; or that anything is
to be asked of them ; or that confidence is to be
reposed in images, as was of old done by the
Gentiles, who placed their hope in idols; but
because the honour which is shown unto them is
referred to the prototypes which they represent ;
in such wise that by the images which we kiss,
and before which we uncover the head, and pro
strate ourselves, we adore Christ, and venerate
the saints, whose similitude they bear. And
this, by the decrees of councils, and especially of
the second Bynod of Nicaa, has been ordained
against the opponents of images. And the
bishops shall carefully teach this ; that, by
means of the histories of tbe mysteries of our
Redemption, depicted by paintings or other re
presentations, the people are instructed, and
strengthened in remembering, and continually
reflecting on the articles of faith ; as also that
great profit is derived from all sacred images, not
only because the people are thereby admonished
of the benefits and gifts which have been be
stowed upon them by Christ, but also because
the miracles of God through the means of the

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INV
saints, and their salutary examples, are set be
fore the eyes of the faithful; that so for those
things they may give God thanks ; may order
their own life and manners in imitation of the
saints; and may be excited to adore and love
God, and to cultivate piety. But if any one
shall teach or think contrary to these decrees ;
let him be anathema." As a specimen of some
modern forms of invocation, take the following: —
" It is ' The Litany to the holy warrior and
Martyr Florian,' and begins as usual, —
" Lord ! have mercy upon us.
" Christ! have mercy upon us.
" Holy Mary, pray for us (Ora pro nobis).
" St Florian, courageous soldier of Christ,
pray for us.
" St Florian, unconquered martyr of Christ,
pray for us.
" St. Florian, despiser of the world, pray for
us. " St. Florian, mirror and pattern of soldiers,
pray for us.
"St. Florian, ornament of Austria, pray for
us. " St. Florian, valiant captain, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, on account of the successes
of thy forty soldiers, wert full of cares, pray for
¦us. "St. Florian, who broughtest thy comrades
to martyrdom by thine exhortations, pray for
vs. " St Florian, who didst offer thyself to the
governor of Aqualino, pray for us.
" St Florian, who offered thyself to death for
Christ, and willingly bore it, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who confessed the faith of Christ
with loud voice, pray for us.
" St Florian, who, for this confession, wert
slain, pray for us.
" St Florian, whose shoulders were branded
and lacerated with hot irons, pray for us.
" St Florian, who remained steadfast in the
faith under most dreadful suffering, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, bound hands and feet, and
with millstones about the neck, wert thrown into
the Enns, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, passing through water and
fire, didst enter the land of eternal life, pray for
us. "St. Florian, who art crowned in heaven,
pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, in the presence of God, will
bloom to all eternity, pray for us.
" St. Florian, whose body was by an unseen
power saved from the river, and deposited on a
rock, pray for us.
" St. Florian, whoso body an eagle protected
and showed to the Christians, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who wast taken and buried by
Valeria and other pious women, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, by a miraculous spring of
water refreshed the oxen who were half dead from

IRE
want of water, while conveying ttiy holy body
to the grave, pray for us.
" St. Florian, who obtained from God for this
well such powers that the sick were healed by it,
pray for us.
" St. Florian, who, after thy burial, didst im
mediately raise the dead body of another to life,
pray for us.
" St Florian, who, when invoked by & man
who had fallen on burning coals, restored him
uninjured, pray for us.
" St. Florian, powerful protector against fire,
pray for us.
"Thou Lamb of God! that takest away the
sin of the world, spare us, O Lord ! " (Seymour's
Pilgrimage to Rome, 1851.) — See Saints.
Ireland, Christianity in. — The general
conversion of the Irish to Christianity is sup
posed to have taken place in the course of the
fifth century. This change is generally traced
to the indefatigable labours of St. Patrick, who is
said to have undertaken a mission to that coun
try in 432. When he entered on the work of
evangelization, Ireland was, and had been for
ages, the seat of pagan idolatry. The pagan
priests, jealous of their authority over the minds
of the people, raised the most formidable opposi
tion to the advance of Christianity in the land.
Yet, in the midst of all opposing influences,
Patrick laboured with manifest success. Many
of the people renounced their idolatrous worship,
and publicly embraced the doctrines of the Chris
tian religion ; and several of the Irish chieftains,
who were converted to the Gospel, voluntarily
gave up their lands for the use of the Christian
Church. On these lands schools were erected,
and means provided for the training of Irish
priests, who might in their turn teach their fel
low-countrymen in their native language tbe
Gospel of Christ. Such was the remarkable
success which attended Patrick's labours among
the Irish, that at the time of his decease in 492
the church had obtained a sure footing in the
country, and a complete change had taken place
in the conduct and character of the people.
Many devoted men, educated by means of the
agencies provided, were fully qualified for, and
already engaged in, diffusing the knowledge
of the Gospel. Their teaching was free from
many of the corruptions which were associated
with the religious services ofthe Church of Rome.
They taught the Holy Scriptures in their truth
and simplicity, and faithfully adhered to their
infallible doctrines. Nor did they confine their
evangelistic labours to their native island. Other
lands were visited, and the same heavenly mes
sage was carried to other nations still sitting in
darkness. From Ireland Columba sailed to Iona,
whilst other missionaries went forth to Burgundy,
Germany, and various parts of the continent of
Europe. For several centuries the Irish Church
was independent of the papal see. Even until
the middle of the twelfth century it continued to

348

IRE
maintain Its independence. At length, in 1155,
by a papal bull, Ireland was claimed by the
pope, and given over to Henry IL, King of Eng
land. Subjected to papal jurisdiction, the Irish
Church gradually exhibited an approximation in
doctrine and discipline to the Church of Rome.
Various contentions ensued among the clergy re
garding the vacant sees. The two powers, that
of the pope and that of the king, were frequently
at variance, and much excitement and unseemly
disputation was thereby caused. The papal
power gradually increased, and soon the civil
and spiritual rights of the Irish clergy were at
the entire disposal of the Roman pontiffs. Italian
ecclesiastics were thrust into vacant sees who
proved themselves utterly unworthy of the sacred
office. The native clergy were also degenerating,
and were no longer characterized by that purity
and zeal which had distinguished their predeces
sors. The church revenues were often insufficient
to supply their rapacious demands, and in order to
attain their purposes they charged at exorbitant
rates the sacred duties which tbey performed.
Indulgences were sold to the highest hidders,
censures were commuted for mone}r, and every
base method was adopted to gratify their inordi
nate desires. Such were the corruptions and
abuses which had crept into the church, and
which had wellnigh stripped it of all resem
blance to its former character. The following
occurs in Soames' Latin Church in Anglo-Saxon
Times: — "Patrick 'did not apply to the papal
see to have the election of the bishops appointed
by him confirmed, nor is there extant any re
script from the apostolic see to him, or any epistle
of his to Rome. St Austin of Canterbury cor
responded with his master, St Gregory, about a
century and a-half later ; and it is only natural
to suppose that St. Patrick might have done the
same with the Roman bishops of his day. But
the fact is, that we have no record or hint of his
having kept up any communication with Rome
from the time of his arrival in Ireland until his
death' (Todd's Church of St. Patrick, 30.) ' I
have not been able to discover any fair instance
of a bishop being elected to an Irish see by the
interference of the pope, from the mission of St.
Patrick until after the English invasion ; and it
is a fact admitted by a learned Eoman Catholic
antiquarian, that our episcopal clergy never ap
plied to that see for bulls of ratification, provi
sions, or exemption.' (lb. 35.) The real origin
of Irish Popery is the English invasion under
Henry II. The Irish prelates before that time
had been kept in a state of subserviency by the
native chieftains, wbich was the more distasteful,
because their brethren elsewhere, under the pa
tronage of Rome, had risen into a very different
position. The inferior clergj', too, found them
selves unable to enforce the payment of tithes,
which in other countries was regularly made
under legal sanction, and which they represented
as divinely conferred upon themselves. These

IRI
selfish considerations made nearly the whole
clerical body of Ireland anxious to welcome the
English invaders, who pretended to come over
under a grant from the pope. How that Italian
prelate became possessed of any right to make
such a grant few people, or probably none, then
took any trouble to think. In after times the
difficulty has been solved in four different ways.
Either Constantine gave all islands to the pope,
or the pope was destined by ancient prophecy for
the dominion of all islands, or some king of
Munster and other chieftains had, some time or
other, given up their dominions to the pope, on
some pilgrimage to Rome, or the whole Irish
nation, in St. Patrick's time, from gratitude for that
missionary's labours, had made over the sove
reignty of their island to the pope. But what
ever might be the pontiff's title to interfere, his
countenance of the English invasion answered
the purposes of the native clergy, until England,
soon after the Reformation, set to work in earnest
upon the conquest and civilization of the country.
Then the chieftainry became zealous Papists, and
popular hatred of the English was inflamed by
representing, that however bad they might al
ways have been by being oppressors, they were
now become incalculably worse from having
turned heretics." (Phelan's Policy of the Church
of Rome in Ireland, 12.)
Irish Episcopal Church, The. — For
three centuries prior to the Reformation on the
continent of Europe, the Church in Ireland was
held in complete subjection to the papal see.
During that time the Irish Church rapidly
degenerated, and in the beginning of the six
teenth century was sunk in the lowest depths of
degradation. The grossest superstition prevailed
among tbe people, and every vestige of a pure
Christianity was wellnigh banished from their
religious services. The clergy were characterized
bv ignorance and profligac}', and, with unblush
ing effrontery, made traffic of their sacred office.
Such was the condition of the Church in Ire
land when the light of the glorious Reformation
dawned upon the world. It is said that certain
followers of Wycliffe, who settled in Ireland,
were the first to disseminate the reformed prin
ciples among the people, and that severe mea
sures were adopted by Henry VII. to arrest the
spread of heresy in the country. It is certain,
however, that these principles had not taken deep
root in the hearts of the nation ; for in the reign
of Henry VIII. Ireland was an entirely popish
country. The efforts of that monarch to induce
the Irish to withdraw their allegiance from the
Roman pontiff were for a considerable time with
out success. The commissioners whom he de
spatched from England to treat with the Irish
clergy were treated with contempt, and all their
endeavours to further the ambitious designs of
their royal master completely failed. The Arch
bishop of Armagh offered the most strenuous
resistance to the innovations proposed, and most

349

IRI
zealously advocated the supremacy of the pope.
Incensed at the treatment he received from the
Irish clergy, the king appointed George Brown,
an Augustine friar, who had espoused the cause
of the Reformation, to be ordained Archbishop of
Dublin. In 1536 Henry, at the suggestion of
the archbishop convened an Irish parliament, in
order to take into consideration the question
anent the papal supremacy. The parliament
assembled, and, without opposition, the reformed
principles were adopted, and the national religion
formally abolished. By the statutes then enacted
it was declared that the sovereign was the supreme
head of the Irish Church, and all allegiance to
the papal see was pronounced to be from that
time forth illegal. By the great body of the
people the conduct of the king was viewed with
indignation, and the utmost discontent prevailed
throughout the country. Many of the clergy
abandoned their sees, rather than renounce the
supremacy of the pope. A deputation was com
missioned to repair to Rome, and to invoke the
assistance of the holy father, whilst continuous
efforts were made to stir up the people to a rebel
lion against the government. Unfortunately
their purpose was attained, and several disas
trous engagements were fought, in which the
popish party was repeatedly defeated. In con
sequence of these successes the influence of Henry
increased, and those who rebelled against him
submissively bowed to his authority. Even the
Irish chieftains, who had long resisted his power,
openly avowed their submission to the govern
ment But the clergy, obstinate as ever, refused
to comply with innovations introduced into the
Church. Through fear they were restrained from
open violence during Henry's reign ; but on the
accession of Edward to the throne they threw off
restraint, and opposed with all their influence the
newly established religion. The liturgy, which
was at that time compiled for the use of the Irish
Church, they treated with the utmost contempt
Whilst the established clergy were continually
exposed to the most shameful abuse, the situa
tion of Protestants in the country was rendered
still more perplexing under the government of
Queen Mary. During her reign the work of
reformation was brought to a stand, and the
ancient religion, which was held in veneration
by tbe great majority of the people, seemed to be
re-established in all its former strength. By a
papal bull it was formally declared to be the
established religion of Ireland ; and at a meeting
of parliament, by which the laws unfavourable
to Popery were repealed, the deliverance of the
nation from Protestantism was made the subject
of thanksgiving to God. But a change of go
vernment produced an entire change in the eccle
siastical system organized during tho reign of
Queen Mary. On the accession of her successor
to the throne, an Irish parliament was convened,
and the reformed religion, though not with
out considerable opposition, was established by

IRI
law. All the laws adverse to the reformed
worship were repealed, and the Church was
placed on the same footing as in the reign of
Henry VIII. Many of the popish clergy
refused to take the oath acknowledging the su
premacy of the sovereign, and in consequence
resigned, or were ejected from their livings.
For many years the country was a scene of dis
cord and commotion occasioned by the disaffec
tion of the people towards their rulers. The
Irish chieftains conspired against the govern
ment, and invoked the aid of the Roman pontiff,
for the furtherance of their plans. The pope,
who entertained the most bitter hatred towards
the English sovereign, promised his assistance,
and forthwith issued a bull calling upon all
Catholic princes to engage in the cause of the
Irish, and recover the independence of the
ancient church. It was probably in obedience
to this mandate that Philip II., King of Spain,
sent forth a formidable armada against Elizabeth.
The Irish, encouraged by the prospect of assis
tance from the Spanish king, broke out into open
rebellion, but were soon compelled to submit,
and to promise obedience to the laws of the
country. The Irish Church, encompassed with
so much opposition, made little progress among
the people, whilst its presence in their midst
continued to promote disaffection towards their
EngUsh rulers.
In the reign of James I. renewed attempts
were made to restore the Roman Catholic wor
ship, but were immediately suppressed. More
severe measures were adopted against the Ro
manists, and the priests were compelled to leave
the country if they refused to acknowledge the
supremacy of the king. These severities still
more exasperated the people, and were uni
versally considered as gross acts of injustice on
the part of the government. A petition was
drawn up, in which their grievances were
stated, and in which they craved the royal per
mission to engage with freedom in their reli
gious services. It so happened that their peti
tion was presented on the same day that the
intelligence reached Dublin of the gunpowder
plot. In the excitement produced, their request
was not even entertained, whilst the chiefs of
their party were thrown into prison. Defeated
in their purposes, the northern chieftains formed
the plan of a new rebellion, but were again un
successful, and 500,000 acres of land were for
feited to the crown. With a view to settle the
disturbed state of affairs in Ireland, a parliament
was summoned to inquire into the existing dis
sensions which threatened to embroil the country
in a civil war. In the parliament assembled
the Romanists were in the minority, and were
disappointed to find that no measures were taken
to remove their grievances. During the sitting
of parliament a convocation of the Episcopal
clergy was held in Dublin for the purpose of
drawing up a public confession of faith for the
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IRI
Chnrch of Ireland. That document, which
consisted of 124 articles, including the nine
articles of Lambeth, was drawn up by Arch
bishop Usher; it was afterwards submitted to
the assembly, received their approval, and was
sanctioned by the lord deputy. On the acces
sion of Charles to the throne, the Romanists re
newed their oft repeated efforts to secure a full
toleration for their religion. Rumours were
afloat that the new sovereign was favourable to
their religion, and that he would in due time
give them relief. In consequence of these re
ports, the Protestant clergy were seized with
alarm, and immediately laid before the govern
ment their protest against all toleration of the
Roman Catholic religion. They were also more
frequent and zealous in their denunciations of
popish doctrines, and assiduously endeavoured to
arouse the members to a deeper hatred of Popery.
Meanwhile the Romanists, encouraged by tbe
hope of the royal interference on their behalf,
publicly professed their religion, and openly en
gaged in their distinctive services ; their priests
continued to harangue them on their grievances,
and endeavoured to incite them to open rebellion.
The lord deputy issued a proclamation command
ing the popish clergy to forbear the exercise of
their religious services ; but his commands were
treated with contempt, and in direct opposition
to his mandate they publicly celebrated their
religious worship. In consequence of these bold
proceedings, the government carried out to their
utmost limit the severe measures adopted by
parliament for the suppression of Popery. It was
at this time that the popish college in Dublin
was seized and converted into a Protestant semi
nary. During the reign of Charles I. various
measures were adopted for the purpose of renew
ing church buildings, and planting new churches
in districts which were still unsupplied : for these
charges suitable ministers were appointed, and
sent forth to preach the Gospel. Means were
taken to secure the better education of candi
dates for the ministry, and various reformations
were made in the university of Dublin, with this
object in view. About the same time an effort
was made to effect a union between the Irish
Church and the Church of England, but for
some time this was found impracticable, owing to
the strenuous opposition of Archbishop Usher
and the Irish clergy. With a view to conciliate
those opposed to the union, several concessions
were made to the satisfaction of both parties,
and the union was accordingly consummated.
While the Irish clergy were with praiseworthy
zeal seeking the advancement of religion in the
land, the Romanists, urged on by their priests,
and headed by the Irish chieftains, arose in re
bellion against the government, their chief object
being the overthrow and extermination of the
Protestant Church. Proposals were made by
the popish clergy to invoke the assistance of
foreign princes of the Catholic religion, to aid

IRI

them in throwing off their allegiance to the
English sovereign: many sanguinary conflicts
ensued, and for several years the country was in
volved in all the horrors of a civil war. Under
the government of Cromwell it was speedily
brought to a termination, and for a time peace
was restored to the country. But the long cher
ished animosity of the Romanists was only kept
in restraint until a more favourable opportunity
would lead them to action. During the short
but bloody reign of James IL, tbey displayed
their indomitable hatred to the Protestant reli
gion. Under that Roman Catholic sovereign
they were not only tolerated, but sanctioned by
law, in the exercise of their religious rites, and the
ministers of the Irish Church were forbidden to
discourse from their pulpits on the errors of
Popery. Fortunately, James's purpose to over
throw the Irish Church was unsuccessful, and
the revolution which compelled him to abdicate •
the throne, placed on a firmer footing than ever
the established Church of Ireland. On the
restoration of peace to that distracted country
the Church entered with great spirit on the work
of evangelization, and endeavoured to spread the
Gospel in those districts hitherto neglected.
The success attending their labours was small in
comparison with the efforts put forth ; for at the
close of the eighteenth century we find that of a
population of 6,000,000, only 600,000were mem
bers of the Irish Church.
In addition to the ministrations of the clergy,
several agencies are now employed in the work
of evangelization. A society established in 1826
employs 59 readers and 719 teachers, whose
labours are chiefly designed for the Roman
Catholic population. There is also the Irish
Island Society, which is more especially in
tended for the spiritual instruction of the Irish
on the coasts and islands. The education of
the young forms one of the schemes of the
Church, by means of which education is im
parted to an average number of 64,000 chil
dren. In 1833, in consequence of an agitation
among the Roman Catholics, headed by O'Con-
nel, a petition was laid before parliament craving
the legislature to withdraw from the Church of
Ireland various pecuniary advantages enjoyed by
that Church ; their petition was entertained, and
considerable changes were made. The tithes
payable throughout Ireland were reduced 25 per
cent. The incomes of the sees of Armagh and
Derry underwent a reduction. Ten bishoprics
and two archbishoprics were suppressed, and
the deanery of St. Patrick's was united to the
deanery of Christ Church, Dublin. — See Bishop.
The surplus funds caused by these changes were
appointed to be devoted to the use of the Church.
Moreover, in consequence of the severe famine of
1847, and the constant tide of emigration to
America and other lands, the population of
Ireland, during the last ten years, has consider
ably decreased. By these untoward influences,
351

IRV
the Irish Church has no doubt been In some
measure enfeebled ; notwithstanding, their cause
is gradually progressing, and their arduous
efforts to diffuse the knowledge of Christianity
throughout that benighted land have been
abundantly blessed. At the census of 1851 the
Protestants of the various denominations num
bered 2,000,000 of the population, whilst the
remaining 4,500,000 were Roman Catholics.
By means of national schools and church schools,
the Irish Evangelical Society, and tbe Associa
tion of Methodists, the means of religious instruc
tion are widely spread in the sister isle. ( Mant,
Fuller, &c.) For Presbyterianism in Ireland,
see Presbyterianism.
Irvingites, or, as they call themselves, the
Catholic Apostolical Church. Edward Irving,
after a very popular and eccentric career in Lon
don as a minister of the Scottish Church, was, for
the error of holding and preaching the pecca
bility of Christ's human nature, deposed, in 1833,
by the presbytery of Annan, the body who had
licensed bim, Prior to this period persons in his
church had claimed the possession of the gift of
tongues, and put it into exercise, — the utterances
being sometimes in English, and sometimes in
unintelligible sounds. Irving himself thus de
scribes them: — "The words uttered in English
are as much by power supernatural, and by the
same power supernatural, as the words uttered
in the language unknown. But no one hearing
and observing the utterance could for a moment
doubt it; inasmuch as the whole utterance, from
the beginning to the ending of it, is with a power,
and strength, and fullness, and sometimes rapidity
of voice altogether different from the person's
ordinary utterance in any mood ; and I would
say, both iu its form and in its effects upon a
simple mind, quite supernatural. There is a
power in the voice to thrill the heart and over
awe the spirit after a manner which I have never
felt. There is a march and a majesty, and a
sustained grandeur in the voice, especially of
those who prophecy, which I have never heard
even a resemblance to, except now and then in
the sublimest and most impassioned moods of
Mrs. Siddons and Miss O'Neill. It is a mere
abandonment of all truth to call it screaming
or crying. It is the most majestic and divine
utterance which I have ever heard ; some
parts of which I never heard equalled, and no
part of it surpassed by the finest execution of
genius and of art exhibited at the oratorios in
the concerts of ancient music. And when the
speech utters itself in the way of a psalm or
spiritual song, it is the likest to some of the
most simple and ancient chants in the cathedral
service ; insomuch that I have been often led to
think that those chants, of which some can be
traced up as high as tbe days of Ambrose,
are recollections and transmissions of the in
spired utterances in the primitive Church. Most
frequently the silence is broken by utterance in

852

IRV
a tongue, and this continues for a longer or
shorter period ; sometimes only occupying a few
words, as it were filling the first gust of sound ;
sometimes extending to five minutes, or even
more, of earnest and deep-felt discourse, with
which the heart and soul of the speaker are mani
festly much moved to tears, and sighs, and un
utterable groanings, — to joy, and mirth, and ex
altation, and even laughter of the heart. So far
from being unmeaning gibberish, as the thought
less and heedless sons of Belial have said, it is re
gularly formed, well-proportioned, deeply-feltdis-
course, which evidently wanteth only the ear of
him whose native tongue it is, to make it a very
masterpiece of powerful speech." An Irvingite
congregation was soon formed in Newman Street,
with an angel or bishop, apostles, prophets,
evangelists, and elders. Mr. Irving died in
1834, but the church maintained its existence,
and the worship is now conducted in a magni
ficent fabric in Gordon Square, which was opened
in 1853. There are above thirty congregations
in different parts of the country, and about six
thousand members, numbering in the metropolis
many persons of station and wealth. There are
also some congregations in other lands. They
hold the three creeds of the Catholic Church, the
Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian Creeds.
They are also millenarian, in constant expecta
tion of the Lord's coming. It is said by one of
themselves, "The forms of worship are those
which have been used in all ages in the Catholic
Church. The first and last hours of every day
are devoted to divine service, — the matins and
vespers of our fathers. Prayers are made also
at nine and at three o'clock. The holy Eucha
rist is offered and the communion administered
every Lord's Day. The form of the buildings,
the furniture of the same, the vestments of the
clergy, are, in like manner, those that were de
voted to the worship of God in Catholic times.
Liturgies appropriate to each service as they were
of old, cleansed from the mixture of idolatrous
invocations of dead men and women, are em
ployed. All these practices are still used in the
greater part of Christendom, but they are be
come mere mummeries, because the true signi
ficance of them is forgotten and unknown."
Another has thus described them: " Ecclesiasti
cal matters are managed by a council, consisting
of ministers of all classes, so arranged as to
afford an idea of the relations and adjustment of
the different parts ofthe machinery of the 'Aposr
tolic Church.' This council was shown, at the
time of its formation, by ' the word of prophecy, '
to have been shadowed in the construction of the
Mosaic tabernacle. The forty-eight boards of
that structure, it was said, typified the six elders
from each of the seven churches in London, to
gether with six of the apostles; the five bars
which upheld all the boards represented a minis
try committed to other five of the apostles, whose
duty it is to instruct the council in the principles

IRV
upon which counsel is to be given; the two
tenons with their sockets of silver for each board
had reference to the diaconal ministry, through
which the eldership is rooted in the love of the
people. Two elders appointed to act as scribes
of the council have their shadow in the two cor
ner boards of the tabernacle. The heads of the
fourfold ministry — apostle, prophet, evangelist,
and pastor — correspond to the four pillars be
tween the most Holy and the holy place ; five
evangelists to the five pillars at the entrance ;
the seven angels of the churches, to the lights of
the candlestick; and sixty evangelists are the
antitypes of the sixty pillars of the court, four of
whom form the outer door of entrance. This
council is declared to be the model according to
which God's purpose is to be effected in every
land. It is, moreover, asserted that a council
adequately representing the whole Church, and
presided over by a complete apostolate of twelve,
and in perfect unity, would be infallible. This
unity, however, does not at present exist, one of
the apostles having withdrawn himself. The
ministers of 'the Apostolic Church' have of
late years adopted priestly vestments, in which
to perform their respective functions. These con
sist of alb and girdle, stole and chasuble for ser
vices connected with the altar, a cope for the
presiding angel, and a surplice, rochet, and
mosette, for preaching and other offices. The
different colours of those vestments are not mere
decorations, but emblems of spiritual realities ; —
the purple, of apostolic dignity and rule; the
azure blue, of prophecy ; the crimson, of that
bloodshedding which it is the special office of the
evangelist to announce ; and the white, of the
pure relation between the pastor and flock. Re
garding the sacrament of the Lord's Supper,
' the Apostolic Church ' hold that a real change
takes place in the bread and wine through the
act of consecration, whereby they become the
body and blood of Christ ; that this ordination is
not only a communion feast, but also a sacrifice
and an oblation ; that the elements should be used
not only for communion, but also for purposes of
worship, prayer, and intercession ; and that they
ought always to be present upon the altar when
the church is engaged in these acts. They also
hold that, where the sacrament of the body and
blood of Christ is, ' his whole human nature —
his soul as well as his body — and himself in his
Divine personality, are not absent' Consecrated
bread and wine are therefore reserved and kept
continually in a receptacle upon the altar, as a
symbol of the Lord's presence, and a means of
exciting awe in those who draw near to wor
ship." Such is a professed attempt to revive
primitive worship with mediaeval pomp and
sensuous display, and not a little of the forms
which characterize Popery. The Irvingite apos
tles have not " seen the Lord," and have there
fore no claim to the title, and their prophets
have uttered no words of divine impulse sustain-

ITI
ing their divine commission. The ideal angel of
the seven apocalyptic churches, their symbolic
guardian, they change into a man, and the
tongues seem now to be silenced. Their ideas of
the Eucharist stretch far beyond the nine Eng
lish monosyllables of Paul's announcement, " Ve
do show the Lord's death till he come."
Ishancki (elect band), a Russian sect which
arose in 1666, under the fear that the printed
church books were tainted with error, since they
differed from the old manuscript copies which
had been so long in use. They stoutly adhere
to the letter of Scripture, deny different orders
among the clergy, and any gradation of rank
among the people, but under Alexander I. ob
tained toleration, though they had previously
been exposed to constant persecution.
Italic Version ( Vetus Itala), the usual name
of the old Latin version of the Scriptures, used
prior to the days of Augustine and Jerome, and
probably made in Northern Africa in the second
century. The Italic, however, is properly a re
vision of this old Latin version, which was in use
in Northern Italy, or around Milan. Fragments
of it have been preserved by Blanchini and Sa-
batier. Itinerant Preachers, preachers who move
from one place to another. Such were the
apostles. South says (Sermons, vol. iv., p. 5),
" He (Christ) now closes up all with the charac
ter of a preacher or evangelist ; still addressing
himself to his disciples, as to a designed semi
nary of preachers ; or rather, indeed, as a kind
of little itinerant academy (if I may so call it)
of such as were to take his heavenly doctrines for
the sole rule of their practice." Such were John
Wesley and his co-workers, and such are now
the ministers of the religious denomination called
by Wesley's name. The origin of the itinerant
ministry in connection with Methodism is thus
given in Jackson's Centenary of Wesleyan
Methodism: — "When the Wesleys began to
preach the doctrine of salvation by faith, they did
not confine their ministrations to any particular
town, much less to any one congregation. . .
. . . Preaching two or three times a-day, and
travelling with great rapidity, their voices were
soon heard in the length and breadth of the land.
 The ministry assigned to their fel
low-labourers was of a somewhat similar kind.
Every one of them was required to be a ' travel
ling preacher.' The country was divided into
circuits, to each of which two or three regular
itinerants were generally appointed. Some of
the circuits were at first very extensive, embrac
ing a whole county, and in some cases a con
siderably larger space; but they became more
contracted as the work spread, and the preaching
places and societies were multiplied. Still, how
ever, the preachers were required to visit in
rotation the several towns, villages, and hamlets,
which were committed to their care 
From these stations the preachers were liable to

353

2A

JAC
be removed every year, and they seldom remained
in any of them more than two years in succes
sion. The same order is observed by Wesley's
followers to this day. In the 'Deed of Declara
tion' drawn up by Mr. Wesley in 1784, provi
sion is made for the perpetuity of his plan of an
itinerating ministry, by limiting the power of the
conference to appoint preachers to the same
chapels to three years in succession, it being ' his

JAN
conviction, that it is next to impossible for any
man permanently to preserve his ministry in all
its spiritual efficiency when he is confined to one
congregation' " (pp. 105-107). The agents of a
society called "The Home Missionary Society"
are itinerants; also the ministers of the Welsh,
or Calvinistic Methodists. — See Field-Preach
ing.

Jacobin. — The Dominicans were so called,
because their first establishment in Paris was in
an hospital of St. James.
Jacobites, in ecclesiastical history, were a
branch of the sect of Monophysites, deriving
their name from Jacobus Baradseus, or Zanzalus,
a Syrian monk of tbe sixth century, who so
greatly contributed to their increase and powers
that the various Eutychian sects were com
prehended under this designation. Some of them
admit, and others disown the communion of
Rome. They have, in consequence, two rival
patriarchs. They practise circumcision before
baptism. — See Eutychians.
The votaries who have performed a pilgrim
age to the shrine of St. James of Compostella
are also termed Jacobites. The Dominicans
appear also to have borne this name, as well
as that of Jacobin.
James, St., of Compostella, Chnrch of,
a famous church in Gallicia in Spain, dedicated
to St James Major, the patron saint of the
kingdom. A wooden bust of the saint, with
tapers ever burning before it, has stood on the
high altar for nine hundred years, and the church
is the resort of numerous pilgrims, who kiss the
image. Miracles are ascribed to St. James, such
as appearing on a white horse defeating the
Moors. James's, St., Day, July 25, the festival of
St. James the Elder — the first of the apostles
who died a martyr's death. The festival, which
may have commenced in Spain, was not gene
rally observed before the eleventh century.
James, Si., Liturgy of, a form of service
early used in the patriarchate of Antioch, the
Monophysites using it in Syriac and the orthodox
in Greek, this last having in it many interpola
tions from the liturgies of other places. Palmer
in his Origines IMurgicce, says, " There are satis
factory means of ascertaining the order, sub
stance, and generally the expressions, of the
solemn liturgy used all through the patriarchate
of Antioch and Jerusalem, before the year 451;
that the liturgy thus ascertained coincides with
the notices which the fathers of that country
give concerning their liturgy, during the fifth
and fourth centuries ; that this liturgy was used
in the whole patriarchate of Antioch in the fourth
century with little variety; that it prevailed there

in the third century, and even in the second."
The liturgy of St. James in Greek and Syriac
may therefore be considered to be derived from
the most primitive times. — See Liturgy.
Janitores. — See Doorkeepers.
Jansenists, followers of Jansen. Corneille
Janssen (Cornelius Jansenius), was born in a
hamlet called Accoy, close upon Leerdam, in
Flanders, in a.d. 1585. In 1602 he went to
study at Louvain, but his severe industry brought
on a malady which required change of air, and
the young student repaired to Paris, where he
formed a friendship with Jean du Verger de
Hauranne, better known as the Abbe St. Cyran
in the subsequent history of Jansenism. The
two friends retired to Bayonne, where they spent
several years in earnest study and meditation.
On returning to Louvain, Jansen was elevated
to the principality of the college of St. Pulcheria,
became doctor of theology in 1617, and was
added to the number of professors in ordinary.
Twice was he sent by his college to Spain on
business of moment. He was raised to the
bishopric of Vpres in 1635 ; a work written by
him against France for forming alliances with
Protestant states having contributed to secure
him such patronage from the court of Spain.
He died of the plague in 1638, in the fifty-third
year of his age. A large part of his life — at
least twenty years of it — had been spent in study
ing and collecting the works of Augustine. The
result of his labours — his Augustinus, scarcely
finished at his decease — he submitted to the
judgment of Pope Urban VIII. His friends
published the posthumous volumes at Louvain in
1640. The Jesuits, who were favourers of Pela
gianism, were its bitter and truculent opponents.
Five propositions were selected to be condemned,
and after many scenes of strife and papal ana
thema, the bull Unigenitus was issued by Pope
Clement XL, which put under ban the evan
gelical doctrines of the whole party. Port-royaL
the happy abode of so many of them, had before
this time been razed to the ground by Jesuit
malice and intrigue. The Jansenist party was
the evangelical party in the Church of Rome.
Quesnel, Pierre Nicole, De Sacy, Pascal, and
Arnauld belonged to their number. Pascal
published his famous Provindal Letters in
1656 in connection with this controversy —
354

JAN
letters immortal for their keen logic and keener
wit. The propositions extracted from Jan-
sen's Augustinus, condemned by successive popes,
and against which the famous bull Unigenitus
was finally launched by Clement XI. in 1713,
were, — " I. Some of God's commandments are
impossible to be observed by the righteous, even
though they endeavour with all their power to
accomplish them. 2. In the state of corrupted
nature we are incapable of resisting inward
grace. 3. Merit and demerit, in a state of cor
rupted nature, do not depend on a liberty which
excludes necessity, but on a liberty which ex
cludes constraint. 4. The semi-Pelagians ad
mitted the necessity of an inward preventing
grace for the performance of each particular act,
even for the beginning of faith ; but they were
heretics in maintaining that this grace was of
such a nature that the will of man was able
either to resist or obey it 5. It is semi-
Pelagianism to say that Jesus Christ died or
shed his blood for all mankind in general." Jan
senism was for a season quite popular. Eleven
French bishops wrote to Innocent X. in 1635
not to condemn the work, while sixty-eight de
manded a condemnation. When a formula
was issued by Pope Alexander VII. in 1665,
which was to be signed as a renunciation of
Jansenism, not a few signed with the mental
reservation that Jansen had not taught the doc
trines condemned. When the bull Unigenitus
was issued, six French bishops did not publish it,
and fourteen opposed it. These dignitaries, with
Cardinal deNoailles, Archbishop of Paris, at their
head, were supported by the universities of Paris,
Rheims, and Nantes, and countenanced by the
parliaments of Paris, Rouen, Nix, and Toulouse.
Nay, as late as 1764 the power of Jansenism in
France influenced the parliaments to suppress the
order ofthe Jesuits. In Austria and in Italy
itself Jansenism exerted no Uttle power, and was
openly taught and vindicated. Berrington,
Charles Butler, and O'Connor are supposed to
have been infected with its spirit in England.
But, indeed, whatever opinion went to curtail the
prerogative of the pope, to set up the prime
authority of Scripture, to reduce the merits of
the mass and penance, to magnify the saving in
fluence of a simple and honest faith in Jesus, and
to give the church of each country more self-
government and control, seems for many years to
have been branded by the name of Jansenism. It
is to be confessed, however, that all the Jansen
ists were not like their founders. Many of them
became fanatical and superstitious, and some
claimed the power of working miracles. Jansen
ism is still to be found in some parts of Holland.
The bishops of Utrecht are not in submission to
the Roman see, but each in succession is excom
municated by the pope, as was Van Santon on
his election in 1825. Portions of the church
service are read in the Dutch language, and
there is a theological seminary at Amersfoort.

JES
The last public attempt to buy the Jansenists
over to the Church of Rome was made in 1823,
but it signally failed, and private dealings since,
as by the papal nuncio Capucini, have been at
tended with no better success.
Jannarius, St. — Januarius is the patron saint
of Naples, his day being the 18th of September.
After solemn procession and service, his blood,
preserved hard and dry in a phial, is seen to
liquify and boil np. The trick has been often
exposed, for it is a miserable one; — " one of the
most bungling tricks I ever saw," says Addi
son in his Travels.
Jasideans* — See Yezides.
Jejunium (fast). — See Fasts.
Jerusalem, New. — See Swedenborgians.
Jessaeans, a name of the early Christians,
derived probably from the name of Jesus. Euse
bius and Epiphanius both refer to this name, and
the latter, along with Jerome, erroneously thinks
that it was used of Christians by Philo.
Jesse or Tree of Jesse, in ecclesiastical
architecture, is an exhibition of Christ's gene
alogy on scrolls of foliage, so arranged as to re
present a tree, sometimes in the stone-work of
the chancel windows, sometimes on the reredos,
and it is often seen on painted windows. The
candlestick hi ancient churches often took this
form and purpose, and was therefore called a Jesse.
Jesnates (clerks apostolic), a religious order
founded by John Colombinus, a nobleman of
Siena, in 1367. The order was confirmed by
Pope Urban in 1368, but suppressed by Pope
Clement XI. in 1668. Its members followed the
rule of Augustine; and though they might not be
in holy orders, they gave themselves to prayer,
to relief of the poor, and medical attendance on
the sick. They received the name of Jesuates
from their frequent use of the name of Jesus.
Jesuit, a priest of the Society of Jesus, a reli
gious order established by Ignatius Loyola, a
Spanish soldier. Ignatius Loyola, or Don Inigo
Lopez De Recalde, the founder of the order of
Jesuits, was the youngest son of Don Bertram,
and was born in 1491, at the castle of Loyola,
in the district of Guipuzcoa in Biscay. He was
attached in his youth as a, page to the court of
Ferdinand and Isabella, and trained up in all
the vices and frivolities peculiar to his position.
When still a young man he entered the army,
and during his defence of Pampeluna, in 1521,
against the French, he was severely wounded,
and a long and tedious confinement was the
result. The invalid, however, amused himself
with the Spanish legends of the saints, and
other works of a kindred character. His fancy
was seized, and in a fit of mystical devotion he
renounced the world, made a formal visit to the
shrine of the Virgin at Montserrat, and on the
24th day of March, 1522, laid his arms on her
altar, and vowed himself her knight. Arrayed
in the garb of a pilgrim he then went to Man-
resa, and devoted himself to deeds of benevolence,

355

JES
which won him great renown. His next resolu
tion was to proceed to the Holy Land, and after
ten months' residence at Manresa, he travelled
to Barcelona, a poor, begging, sincere, and reso
lute ascetic, sailed thence for Rome, received the
blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and at length
reached Jerusalem in September, 1523. After
staying but a brief period he returned by Venice
and Genoa to Barcelona, where he began in
earnest to study Latin at the age of three-and-
thirty. At the end of two years, that is in 1526,
he removed to Alcala, in order to make himself
master of philosophy. His retreat from Barce
lona was hastened by the danger he had incurred
in exposing and attempting to remedy some
flagrant disorders in a convent of nuns. His
peculiarities of thought and address made him
suspected at Alcala, and the inquisition charged
him with witchcraft, warned, threatened, im
prisoned, and finally dismissed him. The in
domitable student was not to be crushed, but
repaired at once to Salamanca, where he met
with a similar treatment. Little did those in
quisitors dream of the power that slumbered in
the strange and self-denied recluse. Leaving
Spain, which could not appreciate his motives,
or divine his character, he came to Paris in
February, 1528, where he studied in the lowest
classes of the university with unfeigned humility,
begged for his daily sustenance, and occasionally
startled his friends by religious exhortations.
Several young men admired his unwearied zeal
and drew around him, and of the two who were
domiciled with him, one was the famous Francis
Xavier, afterwards known as the apostle of India.
Their hearts were on fire for the conversion of
the world, and they took solemn vows of chastity,
poverty, and entire consecration to the church,
in the subterranean chapel of the Abbey of
Montmartre. At length these companions, ten
in number, agreed to leave Paris and meet in
Venice in January, 1537. As they resolved to
go to Jerusalem, they went to Rome to receive
the papal blessing, and came back to Venice in
order to embark. But a war with the Turks
frustrated their intentions, and their enthusiasm
was in the meantime expended in various forms
of effort. Rome naturally became their head
quarters, and Loyola conceived the idea of found
ing an order to be devoted to the very work in
which he and his fellows were so ardently
engaged. When Loyola had framed his plans
of a new society, he gave out that it had
been suggested to him by a communication
from heaven ; notwithstanding which pretension
it experienced but little favour at first. Loyola,
however, was not to be deterred from the prose
cution of his project; accordingly, he applied to
Pope Paul for his sanction. Paul referred his
application to the cardinals, who gave an unfa
vourable report, deolaring that the proposed
order was both nnnecessary and dangerous;
whereupon the pope refused to confirm the in-

JES
stitution. Loyola, though repulsed, was not
dismayed. Again he applied to his holiness,
proposing to add to the three usual vows of the
monastic orders — poverty, chastity, and obedience
to their superiors — one of obedience to the pope,
by which the members of the new society would
be bound to go whithersoever he should command
for the service of the church, and that free of
all expense to the holy see. The pope's scruples
were overcome ; a bull was issued confirming the
institution of the Jesuits, granting them impor
tant privileges, and appointing Ignatius Loyola
the first general of the order. The peculiarities of
the order of Jesuits are briefly these : — Instead
of shutting themselves up in solitude, for the pur
pose of working out their salvation by self-mor
tification and the repetition of " long prayers,"
theirs is a life of thorough activity ; they mix
freely in the world, attending to the various
transactions of life, with the view of bringing
whatever influence may arise therefrom into the
service of the church. They devote themselves
to the education of the young, to the conversion
of heretics and infidels, and to the instruction of
tne ignorant among the faithful. Their time is
not occupied by rounds of devotion; they take
no part in processions ; nor do they practise any
system of rigorous discipline. All the members
are under the rule — the despotic rule — of the
governor, who is elected for life, and to whose
commands they are bound to yield the most im
plicit obedience. Previous to the admission of
members to this order, candidates have to con
fess to a superior their sins and natural infirmi
ties ; they must also disclose to him the bent of
their inclination, their desires, prejudices, &c, &c.
These " manifestations," as they are called, must
be repeated frequently during a long probation.
At the same time the members of the order keep
a sharp watch over the words and actions of the
novices, of whom they are bound to report to
the superior whatever of importance they dis
cover in their conduct. Registers are kept by
all the superiors, of the dispositions and abilities
of their respective members, founded on these
confessions, and " manifestations," and reports.
These registers the general consults whenever he
requires men for any important undertaking,
whether of intrigue, or persecution, or any other
purpose; and so absolute is his power, and so
submissive are the members of the order to his
sway, that whatever he commands is unhesitat
ingly performed, and that by the very men
whom he has selected for the purpose. They
preach much for the instruction of adults ; they
seek to promote the education of children by
every means they can command; they go out
as missionaries to foreign lands ; and they have
set themselves as the prominent opponents of
any reform that tends to diminish the influence,
authority, or revenues of the papal see. Rest
less and ambitious, they engaged in trade and
commerce with the inhabitants of the East and

356

JES
West Indies, for which they obtained a special
license from the pope, " for the support of their
missions." They opened warehouses in the chief
cities of Europe for the sale of goods imported
by them from foreign countries ; in every revo
lution, whether in Europe or elsewhere, they
have played a prominent part ; and they have
acquired large possessions of land in South Ame
rica and other places. They have kept alive the
spirit of persecution in the Church of Rome, and
have shown themselvesj under all circumstances,
the inveterate enemies of Protestantism. They
insinuate themselves into every society, obtain a
friendly footing with persons of rank, influence,
and authority, that they may study their dispo
sitions, sway their judgments, and secure their
co-operation in the various intrigues in wliich
they are incessantly engaged. They maintain
the complete independence of the priesthood over
the secular power ; assert for the Church of Rome
the most unlimited claims to temporal and spirit
ual authority, and they justify the most atro
cious crimes, if perpetrated for the good of the
church. The order was suppressed in England in
1604; in Venice, in 1606 ; in Portugal, in 1759 ;
in France, 1764 ; in Spain, 1767 ; and by Pope
Clement XIV. the order was totally suppressed
and banished in 1773, at which time their num
ber amounted to 22,000. They were banished
from Russia in 1820. Still, the order exists
both in Europe and America, and the general
resides at Rome. Archbishop Brown, in a ser
mon preached in Dublin in the year 1551, thus
describes the then new order with prophetic
forecast: — "But there are a new fraternity of
late sprung up, who call themselves Jesuits,
which will deceive many, much after the
Scribes and Pharisees' manner. Amongst the
Jews they shall strive to abolish the truth, and
shall come very near to do it For these sorts
will turn themselves into several forms: with
the heathen, a heatbenist ; with the atheists, an
atheist ; with the Jews, a Jew ; with the re
formers, a reformade, — purposely to know your
intentions, your minds, your hearts, your inclin
ations, and thereby bring you at last to be like
the fool that said in his heart, ' there is no God.'
These shall be spread over the whole world, shall
be admitted into the councils of princes, and
they never the wiser ; charming of them — yea,
making your princes reveal their hearts, and the
secrets therein, and yet they not perceive it;
which will happen from falling from the law of
God, by neglect of fulfilling the law of God, and
by winking at their sins; yet in the end, God,
to justify his law, shall suddenly cut off this
society, even by the hands of those who have
most succoured them and made use of them ; so
that at the end they shall become odious to all
nations. They shall be worse than Jews, hav
ing no resting-place upon earth ; and then shall
a Jew have more favour than a Jesuit."
Jesnitesses, an order of nuns in Italy and 35

JOH
Flanders, following the rule of the Jesuits. They
had several monasteries ; but the order was never
approved at Rome, and was suppressed by Pope
Urban VIII. in 1630.
Jews. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia, under " He
brews " and " Jews." Sometimes, as by the
Romans, the early Christians were called Jews,
as many of them belonged to that race, and
heathen writers could not make the just distinc
tion. Jews stood in a peculiar relation to the
early Church. By the councils of Eliberis and
Agde clergymen were prohibited from eating
with Jews. By the apostolic canons they were
debarred from receiving presents from them, and
were neither to fast nor feast with them. Jews
in certain cases had not the benefit of sanctuary
in churches, — that is, when it was supposed that
they professed Christianity, and sought asylum
either to avoid punishment or payment of debt —
such was the law of Arcadius and Honorius.
Jews were not allowed to hear sermon in the
church, though they might assemble in the por
tico ; but by the fourth council of Carthage this
prohibition was relaxed. Christians were for
bidden to marry with Jews. The council of
Eliberis enacted that parents who gave their
daughters to Jews should be cast out of com
munion for five years. By the Justinian and
Theodosian code, such a marriage is branded as
adultery, and therefore made a capital crime,
without reserve or exception. Constantius had
made it a capital crime for a Jew to marry a
Christian woman, but affixed no penalty for the
Christian marrying a Jew. — See Jddaizinq
Christians. Jezirah. — See Cabala.
Joachimites, followers of Joachim, a Cister
tian monk, Abbot of Flora, in Calabria, and a
remarkable visionary. His followers were fond
of dividing all things by threes, after the Trinity.
Thus, as Buck describes it "They divided
everything relating to men, doctrine, and man
ner of living into three classes, according to the
three persons of the Trinity. The first ternary
was that of men ; of whom the first class was
that of married men, which had lasted during the
whole period ofthe Father ; the second was that
of clerks, which lasted during the time of the
Son ; and the last was that of monks, wherein
was to be an uncommon effusion of grace by the
Holy Spirit The second ternary was that of
doctrine, viz., the Old Testament, the New, and
the everlasting Gospel : the first they ascribed to
the Father, the second to the Son, and the third
to the Holy Spirit. A third ternary consisted in
the manner of living, viz., under the Father, men
lived according to the flesh ; under the Son,
they lived according to the flesh and the spirit ;
and under the Holy Ghost, they were to live
according to the spirit only."
Johannites. — See Sabians.
John, St., .Baptist's EBay, a festival which
is held on the 24th of June.

JOH
John, St., Christians of. — See Sabians.
John, St., Evangelist's Day, a festival
held on the 27th of December.
Jougs or Juggs (probably from jugum, a
yoke), a collar of iron, attached by a chain to
a post by the porch or door of old Scottish
churches, and which was clasped round the necks
of certain transgressors, who were obliged to
stand in this ecclesiastical pillory, exposed to
public gaze. An instrument of a similar kind
was sometimes fixed in the market-place, and
then called the Tron, for goods were weighed at
it or by it. In Act Sederunt, 6th February,
1650, as to a false informer named John Rob, it
is ordained that " his lugg be nailed to the Tron
by the spaice of ane hour.", A figure of the
jougs will be found at the conclusion of the
second volume of Chambers's Domestic Annals of
Scotland. Jorinians, followers of Jovinian, a monk,
who, about 388, taught at Rome, and then at
Milan. He " was of a truly genuine and enlight
ened reformatory spirit, though in some respects
of one-sided tendency, who opposed the notion
of the meritoriousness of monastic life, fasting,
and celibacy of the clergy, and who attacked
not merely single ascetic principles, but the
entire ascetic tendency in the Church, the root of
which he would find in a misapprehension of
the true nature of Christian virtue, and a for-
getfulness of the necessary inward connection
between faith and works. At the same time, by
his obscure and paradoxical manner of express
ing himself, he furnished some ground for the
misapprehension of his real opinions, and for
suspicions in regard to them, which led to his
being charged with holding heretical views, and
to his excommunication by Siricius, Bishop of
Rome, and afterwards by Ambrose, Bishop of
Milan, to whom he had betaken himself. He
was also most violently attacked by Jerome,
in his work Adversus Jovinianum (in 392), and
in his Apologia." — Guericke's Church History,
§75. Jubilate, the name of the third Sunday after
Easter — the name being taken from the first
word of the Introit, Psalm lxvi. 2.
Jubilate Deo (be joyful in God), the name
given to the hundredth psalm, as tbe second
lesson in the morning service.
Jubilee, one of the extraordinary festivals
of the Jews, which was held every seventh sab
batical year, that is, at the end of every forty-
nine years, or the fiftieth current year (Levit
xxv. 8-10). — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. In imi
tation of the Jewish jubilee, or, as some learned
writers have endeavoured to prove, of the secular
games of the Romans, the Romish Church has
instituted a year of jubilee, during which the
popes grant the most plenary and complete in
dulgences to all (hose persons who, having con
fessed and partaken of the holy communion,
shall visit certain churches. Some writers of

JUB
the Romish Church have pretended to trace the
institution of jubilees to the apostolic ages ; but
Pope Leo XII., in " the universal indiction or
proclamation of the jubilee of the sacred year
1825," simply asserted it to be according to the
usages and institutions of the ancients — ex more
instituioque majorum. Its boasted antiquity, how
ever, does not extend much beyond five centuries.
The first proclamation for a jubilee was issued
in 1299 by Boniface VIII. The jubilee as first
instituted was to be solemnized every hundredth
year ; but the successors of Boniface, finding by
experience that it added to the lustre and aug
mented the revenues of the Romish see, rendered
its return more frequent, Clement VI. command
ing that it should be celebrated every fiftieth
year, which period was reduced by Urban VI. to
every thirty-third year. Shortly after, Paul II.
commanded the jubilee to be celebrated everv
twenty-fifth year ; and his bull being confirmed
by Sixtus IV., was acted upon in 1475. The
practice thus introduced continued to be followed
by subsequent pontiffs, though it did not prevent
them from granting jubilees in the year of their
consecration. The bull proclaiming the ap
proaching jubilee is read in St. Peter's after
mass on the preceding Ascension Day, and copies
of it are affixed in the northern, southern,
eastern, and western extremities of Rome,
Briefs and letters are then despatched to the
ecclesiastical dignitaries in the various kingdoms
and provinces professing the Romish faith,
exhorting them to instruct their flocks in all
necessary preparation. The jubilee itself com
mences immediately before Vespers upon Christ
mas Eve by a ceremony known as The Opening
of the Holy Gate. On the morning of the 24th
of December, the four churches containing holy
gates are closed, and after Vespers the pope pro
ceeds in solemn procession, accompanied by such
foreign ambassadors as are resident in the city,
the senate, magistrates, penitentiaries, prelates,
chapters, fraternities, clergy, and college of car
dinals, to the chapel of the apostolical palace.
There the cardinals are presented with lighted
flambeaux, the pope censes the altar, and Veni
Creator is sung. The procession then advances
to the holy gate, as it is termed, in St. Peter's,
which has been walled up since the last jubilee,
and holding alighted wax-taper in his hand, seats
himself close to it, and after a short repose, rises
and strikes it thrice with a silver hammer, which
is afterwards presented to some favourite as a
mark of especial honour. The pope at the same
time sings the following versicles, which are
answered by the choir : —
" V. Aperite mihiportas Justifies.
" R. Ingressus in eas confitebor Domino.
" V. Introibo in domum tuam, Domine.
" R. Adorabo ad Templum Sanctum luum in
timore tuo.
" V. Aperite portas, quonicm nobiscum Deus.
" R. Quiafedt Virtutem in Israel."

358

JUB
Then the pope seating himself says, —
" V. Domine exaudi orationem meam ;
"R. Et clamor meus ad te veniat." (These verses
and responses, as well as those whieh follow, are
clauses of the psalms, the 118th psalm being most
frequently quoted.) Meantime the masons are
employed in demolishing and carrying away the
brickwork, while responses, a prayer, and the
jubilate are sung. The head-piece, posts, and
threshold are then washed with holy water by
the penitentiaries, and as the pope advances to
the gate, the choir sings,
" V. Hose dies quam fecit Dominus.
" R. Exultemus et loitemur in ed.
" V. Bealus populus tuus, Domine.
" R. Quifacit Jubilationem.
" V. Hose est porta Domini.
" R. Justi intrabunt per earn.
" V. Domine, exaudi orationem meam.
" R. Et clamor meus ad te veniat.
" V. Dominus vobiscum ;
" R. Et cum spiritu tuo."
A prayer is then made for a plenary and abso
lute remission of all sins to those who pass
through the holy gate, in order to keep the
jubilee ; and a cross having been placed in the
pope's hand, he sings Te Deum kneeling down
before the gate. He then passes through, and is
carried to the great altar, where, after a prayer,
he mounts a throne erected for the purpose, and
begins the Vespers.
On the same day, and at the same hour, a
holy gate is opened with like ceremonies, by a
cardinal legate, in each of the three churches of
St Paul, St. John Lateran, and Santa Maria
Maggiore. A few days before Christmas Eve,
at the close of the year of jubilee, proclamation
is made, that on that day the holy gate will be
closed. The ceremonies are very similar to those
with which it has been opened; the psalms
chosen are Cum jucunditate and Nisi Dominus
edifacaverit domain. The pope blesses the ma
terials by the following form : —
" V. Adjutorium nostrum in nomine Domini ;
" R. Quifedt caelum et terram.
" V. Sit nomen Domini benedictum.
" R. Ex hoc nunc et usque in seculum. '
" V. Lapidem quem reprobaverunt artifices ;
" R. Hic factus est in caput anguli.
" V. Domine exaudi orationem meam;
" R. Et clamor meus ad te veniat.
" V. Dominus vobiscum;
" R. Et cum spiritu tuo."
A prayer for blessing upon the stones, mortar,
and sand is repeated, and the pope having
sprinkled the gate with holy water, and censed
it, passes through it, and then putting a linen
cloth round his middle, professes himself to be
servus servorum Dd; and receiving a silver gilt
trowel from the grand penitentiary, he takes
some mortar from a basket carried by the mas
ter of the ceremonies, and spreads it upon the
threshold, " according to the vision of the pro-

JUB
phet Amos, which saw the Lord with a mason's
trowel in his hands." The pope then scatters
upon the mortar gold and silver medals, repre
senting the heavenly Jerusalem, and covers the
whole with three squared stones, repeating at the
same time, In fide et virtute Jesu Christi Dei vivi
qui Apostolorum Prindpi dixit ' Tu es Petrus, et
per hanc Petram edificabo Ecclesiam meam,' col-
locamus lapidem primariam, ad claudendam hanc
Portam Sanctam, ipso tanlummodi Jubilaei anno
reserendam, in nomine Patris, &c.,— that is, the
pope, as representing Peter, orders the gate to be
shut till the next jubilee.
The pope next fastens the three stones with
mortar, the master mason draws his line, and
the grand penitentiary, and each other peniten
tiary present, lays a stone, " to convince the
world that they are the pope's coadjutors in the
administration of the sacrament of penance."
The choir chants Cceleslis urbs Jerusalem, which
being ended, the pope washes his hands, resumes
the ordinary responses, and then prays as follows :
— Deus qui in omni loco dominationis tuas clemens
et benignus existis, exaudi nos qumsumus, etprmsta
ut invioldbilis permaneat hujus loci sanctificatio,
et beneficia tui muneris in hoe Jubilaei anno uni-
versitas fidelium impetrasse litetur, per Dominum
nostrum, &c. The pontiff then seats himself,
and twelve bricklayers, six on his right and six
on his left hand, build up the holy gate to the
summit, while the choir sings appropriate psalms.
The ceremony concludes with a benediction from
the pope, and Te Deum.
The tract from which the above account has
been abridged was printed by order of Benedict
XIV. on account of the approaching jubilee of
1750. It concludes with the following explana
tion of the mystery. The pope opens the holy
gate "to signify, first, that Jesus Christ opens
the limbus to those fathers who, dying before his
resurrection, were shut up in it ; second, to show
that the treasure of the church is open ; third, to
cause it to be known with what passion all the
people of the East, West, North, and South, ac
cording to the number of the four gates, are ex
pected at Rome ;" also " the hammer with which
the pope knocks at the gate denotes the sovereign
authority given by Gpd to his vicar upon earth.
The great penitentiary and the others accom
panying him, represent to us the power _ with
which confessors are invested to absolve in all
cases." Those must be fastidious, indeed, who
require more satisfactory reasons for the cere
mony : they are in strict accordance with the
mummery which we have described as attendant
on it. The Porta Santa is one of the five doors
leading out of the covered portico of St Peter's
into the church ; above it is a block of red and
white marble, of a kind which takes its name in
Rome from its position here, and is called Porta
Santa. The dates of the last two jubilees are
always registered over this gate, and whenever a
new one is put up, the oldest of tha other two is

359

JUD
removed. The centre of the brickwork is marked
with a gilt bronze cross. By the bull for the
jubilee of 1825, Pope Leo XII. granted and
imparted the most plenary and complete indul
gence, remission, and pardon of all their sins
to all the faithful in Christ, of both sexes,
who are truly penitent, and have confessed,
and who have likewise refreshed themselves
with the holy communion; provided (if Ro
mans, or inhabitants of the city) they shall
have devoutly visited these churches of the city,
that of St. Peter, St Paul, St. John Lateran,
and Santa Maria Maggiore, at least once a
day for thirty days, whether successive or inter
rupted, natural, or even ecclesiastical, to be com
puted from the first vespers of one day, to the
complete evening twilight of the succeeding day ;
but if they be foreigners, or in any respect stran
gers, they must have visited these churches at
least three days, as already described ; provided
also that they shall have poured forth pious
prayers to God for the exaltation of the holy
church, the extirpation of heresies, the concord
of Catholic princes, and the salvation and tran
quillity of Christendom (Lettre Encyclique, cfc.
ut supra). In the Directions and Instructions
addressed to all the Faithful in the LondonDistrict,
published by the vicars apostolic, the latter part
of this condition for gaining the jubilee is dif
ferently translated, and the language of the papal
bull appears to be designedly softened into
prayers " for the exaltation of the holy Catholic
Church throughout the world ; for bringing back
all strayed souls to the ways of unity and truth ;
for the peace and concord of Christian princes,
and for the general welfare of all Christian people
both in time and eternity " (p. 22). According
to the Romish divines, a jubilee adds nothing to
a plenary indulgence with regard to the remis
sion of the temporal punishment due to sin. It
only grants different privileges. Every penitent
is permitted to choose his own confessor, who is
empowered to absolve him or her in the tribunal of
conscience, for once only, from the cases and cen
sures reserved to the bishops or to the pope.
Confessors are further authorized to commute
simple vows for just and reasonable causes, with
the exception of vows of perpetual chastity, of
entering a religious order, and vows made in
favour of a third person.
Judaizing Christians. — This party rose
early in the Church, and laboured to bring the
Gentile converts to conform so far to the Mosaic
ritual. The Epistle to the Galatians, so full of
indignation and sorrow, was directed against
them. They wished the heathen converts to
come to the cross by the Hebrew altar, to learn
of Moses before they learned of Christ, and
insisted that circumcision was as necessary as
baptism for their admission to the Church. At
various times in the churches a somewhat similar
spirit showed itself. The ancient councils were
frequent and solemn in their warnings against

JUD
keeping the Jewish Sabbath, against feastings and1
intermarriages with Jews, or using Jewish
amulets for the cure of diseases. Thus, in
Bingham's concise arrangement : — " The council
of Laodicea forbids Christians to Judaize by
resting on the Sabbath, under pain of ana
thema : likewise it prohibits keeping Jewish
feasts, and accepting festival presents sent from
them ; as also receiving unleavened bread from
them, which is accounted a partaking with them
in their impiety. To the same purpose, among
the apostolical canons we find one forbidding to
fast or feast with the Jews, or to receive any
of their festival presents or unleavened bread,
under the penalty of deposition to a clergyman,
and excommunication to a layman. And by
another of the same canons, to carry oil to a
Jewish synagogue, or set up lights on their fes
tivals, is paralleled with the crime of doing the
like for any heathen temple or festival ; and both
of them equally punished with excommunication.
So a bishop, priest, or deacon, who celebrates the
Easter festival before the vernal equinox with the
Jews, is to be deposed ; though this is a little
more severe than the constitution that was made
about it in the time of Irenseus, and afterwards
was confirmed by Constantine and the council of
Nice : for tbey forbid the celebration of Easter
with the Jews, but lay not the penalty of deposi
tion or excommunication Upon those that fol
lowed that custom, because they had some
pretence of apostolical tradition for their practice.
The council of Eliberis forbids Christians to have
recourse to the Jews for blessing the fruits of the
earth, and that under the penalty of excommuni
cation, because it was a reproach to the manner
of blessing them in the church as if that was
weak and ineffectual. The same council forbids
both clergy and laity to eat with the Jews, upon
pain of being cast out of the communion of the
Church. And the reason of this is assigned by
the council of Agde ; because they use not the
meats that are commonly used among Chris
tians ; therefore it is an unworthy and sacrile
gious thing to eat with them ; forasmuch as they
reputed those things unclean which the apostle
allows us to receive ; and so Christians are ren
dered inferior to the Jews, if we eat of such
things as they set before us, and they contemn
what we offer them. Which canon is repeated
in the same words in the council of Vannes, and
there is a rule in the council of Epone to the
same purpose. It appears also from the fourth
council of Toledo that the Spanish churches were
much infested with this sort of complying and
Judaizing Christians; some patronizing" the Jews
in their perfidiousness, others turning downright
apostates, and submitting to circumcision, and
others indifferently conversing with them, to
the manifest danger of their own subversion.
Against which last sort of compliers the sixty-
first canon of that council is particularly directed ;
and there are six or seven canons more in the

360

JUD
same places, one after another, relating to cases
of like nature, which need not here be related.
The council of Clermont makes it excommunica
tion for a Christian to marry a Jew. And the
third council of Orleans prohibits it under the
same penalty, together with sequestration of the
persons from each other. St. Chrysostom in
veighs against those who went out of curiosity
to the Jewish synagogues, saying it was the
same thing as going to an idol temple."
Jude's Day, St., usually called the feast of
St Simon and St. Jude, is held on the 28th day
of October.
Judgment of God. — See Ordeal.
Jndica (judge thou), the name of the fifth
Sunday in Lent — taken from the first word of
the Introit, Psalm xliii. 1.
Judices Electi (elected judges), the bench
appointed by a metropolitan for deciding pro
vincial causes. If a bishop's cause was to be
tried the number of such judges must be twelve.
Julianists. — Julian of Halicarnassus, in the
year 519, maintained that the Divine nature had
so insinuated itself into the body of Christ, from
the very moment of his conception, that this
body changed its nature and became incorrup
tible. With him agreed Cajanus [or Gaianus]
of Alexandria, from whom the believers in this
sentiment were called Caianists. The advocates
of this doctrine became divided into three par
ties ; two of which disagreed on the question
whether Christ's body was created or uncreated ;
and the third maintained that Christ's body was
indeed corruptible, but on acconnt of the influ
ence of the Divine nature never became, in fact,
corrupted. This sect was vigorously resisted by
the celebrated Severus of Antioch and Damianes,
who maintained that the body of Christ, before
his resurrection, was corruptible, — tbat is, was
liable to all the changes to which human bodies
in general are. Those who agreed with Julian
were called Aphthartodocetse, Docetae, Phanta-
siastse, and also Manichseans ; because from their
opinion it might be inferred that Christ did not
really suffer, feel hungry, fall asleep, and expe
rience the other sensations of a man ; but that
he only appeared to suffer, to sleep, to be hungry,
thirsty, &c. Those who agreed with Severus
were called Phthartolatrse, and Ktistolatrse or
Creaticolas. This controversy was agitated with
great warmth in the reign of Justinian, who
favoured the Aphthartodocetse ; but it afterwards
gradually subsided. A middle path between the
two parties was taken by Xenaias, or Philoxe-
nus of Maubug [or Hierapolis] ; for he and his
associates held that Christ really suffered the
ordinary sensations of a man, but that in him
this was not the effect of nature, but of choice.
(See Mosheim's History, part ii., chap. v. ;
Walsh's Hist, der Ketzereien, vol. viii., p. 556.)
Jumpers, a class of Methodists in Wales,
who, under strong religious excitement, gave
way to frantic bodily gestures. The custom be-

JUN
gan about 1760, and some ofthe earlier preachers'
appear to have encouraged it. The simple
excitable people first groaned, then rocked
themselves to and fro, and then leaped about in
joyous fury. Persons who cannot control them
selves under nervous excitement (and the Celtic
temperament is liable to it), are found falling
into similar extravagances under every revival.
June 20, the day on which " Her Majesty
began her happy reign." The prayers belonging
to the special service in all churches and chapels
of the Church of England are as follows : —
" ^ Instead of the first collect atmorning prayer
shall be used this following collect of
thanksgiving for Her Majesty's accession
to the throne.
" Almighty God, who rulest over all the king
doms of the world, and disposest of them accord
ing to thy good pleasure: We yield thee un
feigned thanks, for that thou wast pleased, as on
this day, to place thy Servant our Sovereign
Lady Queen Victoria upon the throne of this
realm. Let thy wisdom be her guide, and let
thine arm strengthen her ; let justice, truth, and
holiness, let peace and love, and all those virtues
that adorn the Christian profession, flourish in
her days, direct all her counsels and endeavours
to thy glory, and the welfare of her people ; and
give us grace to obey her cheerfully and willingly
for conscience' sake : that neither our sinful pas
sions, nor our private interests, may disappoint
her cares for the publick good ; let her always
possess the hearts of her people, that they may
never be wanting in honour to her person, and
dutiful submission to her authority ; let her reign
be long and prosperous, and crown ber with im
mortality in ,the life to come; through Jesus
Christ our Lord. Amen.
" ^f In the endofthe litany (which shall always
be used upon this day) after the collect
[We humbly beseech thee, 0 Father, <fc.~]
shall the following prayer, for the Queen
and Royal Family, be used.
" O Lord our God, who upholdest and gov-
ernest all things in heaven and earth; receive
our humble prayers, with our hearty thanksgiv
ings, for our Sovereign Lady Victoria, as on this
day, set over us by thy grace and providence to
be our queen ; and so together with her bless the
Prince Albert, Albert Prince of Wales, and all
the Royal Family; that they all, ever trusting
in thy goodness, protected by thy power, and
crowned with thy gracious and endless favour,
may continue before thee in health, peace, joy,
and honour, and may live long and happy lives
upon earth, and after death obtain everlasting
life and glory in the kingdom of heaven, by the
merits and mediation of Christ Jesus our Sa
viour, who with the Father and the Holy Spirit,
liveth and reigneth ever one God, world without
end. Amen.
" ^[ Then shall follow this collect, for God's pro
tection ofthe Queen against all her enemies.

361

JUR
"Most gracious God, who hast set thy servant
Victoria our Queen upon the throne of her ances
tors, we most humbly beseech thee to protect her
on the same from all the dangers to which she
may be exposed ; Hide her from the gathering
together of the froward, and from the insurrection
of wicked doers; Do thou weaken the hands,
blast the designs, and defeat the enterprises of
all her enemies, that no secret conspiracies, nor
open violences, may disquiet her reign ; but that,
being safely kept under the shadow of thy wing,
and supported by thy power, she may triumph
over all opposition ; that so the world may ac
knowledge thee to be her defender and mighty
deliverer in all difficulties and adversities ;
through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.
" 1f Then the prayer for ihehigh court of par
liament (if sitting).
" ^[ In the communion service, immediately be
fore the reading of the epistle, instead of
the collect for the Queen, and that of the
day, shall be used this prayer for the Queen,
as supreme governor of this church.
"Blessed Lord, who hast called Christian
princes to the defence of thy faith, and hast made
it their duty to promote the spiritual welfare, to-
f ether with the temporal interest of their people ;
Ve acknowledge with humble and thankful
hearts thy great goodness to us, in setting thy
servant our most gracious Queen over this church
and nation; Give her, we beseech thee, all those
heavenly graces that are requisite for so high a
trust ; Let the work of thee her God prosper in her
hands ; Let her eyes behold the success of her
designs for the service of thy true religion estab
lished amongst us ; And make her a blessed in
strument of protecting and advancing thy truth,
wherever it is persecuted and oppressed ; Let hy
pocrisy and profaneness, superstition and idolatry,
fly before her face ; Let not heresies and false
doctrines disturb the peace of the church, nor
schisms and causeless divisions weaken it ; But
grant us to be of one heart and one mind in
serving thee our God, and obeying her according
to thy will : And that these blessings may be
continued to after-ages, let there never be one
wanting in her house to succeed her in the gov
ernment of this united kingdom, that our posterity
may see her children's children, and peace upon
Israel. So we that are thy people, and sheep of
thy pasture, shall give thee thanks for ever, and
will always be showing forth thy praise from
generation to generation. Amen."
Jure Divino (of or by Divine right), a phrase
often found in polemical writings as applied to
various articles of dispute.
Jurisdiction. — To define the bounds of tem
poral and civil jurisdiction has led to no little
discussion. Of old the earl and bishop sat in
the same court. Afterwards the bishop held his
courts by himself, though temporal lords sat in
synod with bishops — "the one to search the
laws of the land, and the other the laws of God."

JUS
The question of jurisdiction, after the period of
the conqueror; was often agitated between the
pope and the kings of England. The thingj
that are Caesar's belong to Caesar, and it is treaf
son to take them from him ; the things that are
God's belong to God, and it is impiety to take
them from him. The Church is a free society,
and should have perfect power of self-government
within its own domain, and a purely spiritual
sentence should be beyond review by a civil
court. — See Investiture; Keys, Power of.
Jus Asyli. — See Church, Sanctuary.
Jus Devolntum (devolved right). — When, in
the Established Church of Scotland, a patron
does not present to a parish within six months
after the commencement of the vacancy, the
right of presentation falls to the presbytery,
tanquam jure devoluto. Still further to guard
against abuse it has been enacted (act 1719, c.
29), "That if any patron shall present any per
son to a vacant church who shall not be quali
fied, by taking and subscribing the said oath in
manner aforesaid, or shall present a person to
any vacancy, who is then or shall be pastor or
minister of any other church or parish, or any
person who shall not accept or declare his will
ingness to accept of the presentation and charge
to which he is presented, within the said time,
such presentation shall not be accounted any in
terruption of the course of time allowed to the
patron for presenting; but the jus devolutum shall
take place as if no such presentation had been
offered ; any law or custom to the contrary not
withstanding." — See Patronage.
Justification. — The popish doctrine of jus
tification by inherent righteousness is delivered,
at wearisome length, and in sixteen chapters,
in the sixth session of the council of Trent.
Thus : — " For, whereas Jesus Christ himself, as
the head into the members, and the vine into the
branches, continually causes his virtue to flow
into the said justified, which virtue always pre
cedes and accompanies and follows after their
good works, and without which it could not in
anywise be pleasing and meritorious before God,
we must needs believe that to the justified
nothing further is wanting, but that they be
accounted to have, by those very works which
have been done in God, fully satisfied the divine
law according to the state of this life, and truly
to have merited eternal life, to be obtained also
in its due time; if so be, however, that they
shall have departed in grace: forasmuch as
Christ, our Saviour, saith,' ' If any one shall
drink of the water that I shall give him, he shall
not thirst for ever ; but it shall become in him a
well of water springing up into everlasting life.'
Thus, neither is our own righteousness established
as our own as from ourselves ; nor is the right
eousness of God denied or repudiated: for that
righteousness which is called ours, because we
are justified from its being inherent in us, that
same is [the righteousness] of God, because it is

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infused into us of God, through the merit of Christ
Nor is this to be omitted, that, although, in the
sacred writings, so much is attributed to good
works, that Christ promises that even ' he that
shall give a drink of cold water to one of his
least ones shall not lose his reward;' and the
apostle bears witness that, 'That which is at
present but for a moment and light of our tribu
lation, worketh for us a far more exceeding
eternal weight of glory.' " Again, Canon ix. : —
" If any one shaU say that by faith alone the
impious is justified ; so as to mean that nothing
else is required to co-operate in order unto the
obtaining the grace of justification, and tbat it is
not in any respect necessary that he be prepared
and disposed by the movement of his own will ;
let him be anathema." Also, Canon xi. : — "If
any one shall say that men are justified either
by the sole imputation of the righteousness of
Christ, or by the sole remission of sins, to the
exclusion of the grace and ' the charity which is
shed abroad in their hearts by the Holy Ghost,'
and is inherent in them ; or even that the grace,
by wliich we are justified, is only the favour of
God; let him be anathema." Also, Canon
xxxii.: — "If anyone shall say that the good
works of a man that is justified are in such wise
the gifts of God as that they are not also the
good merits of him that is justified ; or, that the
said justified, by the good works which are per
formed by him through the grace of God and the
merit of Jesus Christ, whose living member he
is, does not truly merit increase of grace, eternal
life, and the attainment of that eternal life, if so
be, however, that he depart in grace, and, more
over, an increase of glory ; let him be anathema."
On the other hand, the plain Scriptural doc
trine that we are justified by the righteousness of
Christ is clearly given in the eleventh article of
the Chnrch of England : — " We are accounted
righteous before God, only for the merit of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ by faith, and not
for our own works or deservings : wherefore, that
we are justified by faith only is a most whole-

KET
some doctrine, and very full of comfort, as more
largely is expressed in the homily of justification."
More fully is the same doctrine announced in the
Westminster Confesdon : — "1. Those whom
God effectually calleth he also freely justifieth ;
not by infusing righteousness into them, but by
pardoning their sins, and by accounting and
accepting their persons as righteous : not for
anything wrought in them or done by them,
but for Christ's sake alone: not by imputing
faith itself, the act of believing, or any other
evangelical obedience, to them as their righteous
ness ; but by imputing the obedience and satis
faction of Christ unto them, they receiving and
resting on him and his righteousness by faith :
which faith they have not of themselves ; it is
the gift of God. 2. Faith, thus receiving and
resting on Christ and his righteousness, is the
alone instrument of justification ; yet is it not
alone in the person justified, but is ever accom
panied with all other saving graces, and is no
dead faith, but worketh by love. 3. Christ, by
his obedience and death, did fully discharge the
debt of all those that are thus justified, and did
make a proper, real, and full satisfaction to his
Father's justice in their behalf. Yet, inasmuch
as he was given by the Father for them, and his
obedience and satisfaction accepted in their stead,
and both freely, not for anything in them, their
justification is only of free grace ; that both the
exact justice and rich grace of God might be
glorified in the justification of sinners." The
doctrine of justification was restored to its place
by Luther, who declared it the article of a stand
ing or falling church. Justification is opposed to
condemnation. In condemnation a man is not
made guilty, but only declared to be guilty, so in
justification a man is not made righteous but
only pronounced to be righteous — absolved from
the penalty of a broken law, and brought into
favour with God. It is therefore only a change
of state, though it is followed by a change of
character. — See Hooker, Bull, Edwards, Fuller,
Dick, &c

K

Kabbala. — See Cabala.
Kalendar. — See Calendar.
Karaites (Scripturisis), a Jewish sect of
more than 8,000 persons, found principally in
Poland and the Crimea, differing from the Tal-
mudists in that they reject the oral law, and
allow the Talmud no binding authority. They
hold by the written law, and seek to find its
meaning, not from traditional sources, but from
honest grammatical interpretation. Integrity
characterizes all their worldly dealings, and
their religion is devoid of that superstitious
minuteness of ceremonial which oppresses so many
of their blood and creed. They are supposed by
some to have the same origin with the Sadducees,

but to have left that sect when it sunk into ra
tionalism. They were re-formed by Rabbi
Anan about the middle of the eighth century.
Keithians. — See Quakers.
Kelensma (xiXimrpa, call). — See Call.
Kells, Synod of, a famous Irish synod held
in 1152, at which the Irish Church renounced its
independence, and the Irish archbishops consented
for the first time to receive palls from Rome.
Prior to that period, Ireland had, since the days
of St. Patrick, ordained its own metropolitans,
but it now submitted unreservedly to the papal
see. — See Ireland, Irish Episcopal Church.
Keys, Power of, a phrase borrowed from
Scripture to denote the power of inflicting spirit-

363

KHL
ual censure, and absolving from it. Papists
ascribe it in highest prerogative to the pope, as if
what was said to Peter, and then virtually to all
the apostles as a body, was centred in him.
The church, as a spiritual society instituted by
Christ, holds authority under him, and must in
his name exercise it, after the example of, and
in conformity to, the teaching of the apostles.
The Church has no power to bind to what is
contrary to the Word of God, or to absolve
from what is enjoined by it In such an
attempt she might break the keys, but would
not open the door. Neither is the key to be given
to the custody of Csesar, nor is he to interfere
with its use, unless civil rights be invaded.
Spiritual privilege involves no civil franchise, and
spiritual censure no civil penalty. — See Inves
titure, Jurisdiction.
Khlestovshchicki. — See Skoptzi.
Kilhamites. — See Methodists.
Kings, Coronation of. — See Coronation.
King's Evil. — It was believed that the
touch of an anointed king could heal this form
of cutaneous complaint; and as if a religious
virtue resided in the sovereign, a form of service
was prescribed at the time of touching the
patient It was as follows : — " The first gospel
was exactly the same with that on Ascension
Day. At the touching of every infirm person,
these words were repeated, ' they shall lay their
hands on the sick, and they shall recover.'
The second gospel began at the first of St. John,
and ended at these words, ' full of grace and
truth.' At putting the angel (or gold) about
their necks, ' that light was the true light which
lights every man that cometh into the world,'
was repeated, —
" Lord have mercy upon us.
" Christ have mercy upon us.
" Lord have mercy upon us.
" Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed
be thy name, &c.
" Minister. 0 Lord, save thy servants.
" Answer. Which put their trust in thee.
" Minister. Send unto them help from above.
" Answer. And evermore mightily defend
them. " Minister. Help us, O God our Saviour.
"Answer. And for the glory of thy name's
sake deliver us ; be merciful unto us sinners, for
thy name's sake.
" Minister. 0 Lord, hear our prayer.
" Answer. And let our cry come unto thee.
"the collect.
" Almighty God, the eternal health of all suoh
as put their trust in thee, hear us, we beseech
thee, on the behalf of these thy servants, for
whom we call for thy merciful help ; that they,
receiving health, may give thanks unto thee in
thy holy Church, through Jesus Christ our
Lord. Amen.
" The peace of God, &c." — See Hook's
Church Dictionary.

KIS
Kirchen-tag (church diet) a religious Pro
testant Association founded in Germany in 1848,
It consists of lay and clerical delegates from the
more important religious communions. Its doc
trinal basis rests upon the confessions of the six
teenth century. It has no legislative power, for
it is not strictly an ecclesiastical assembly ; but
it takes a wider range than the Evangelical
Alliance, and strives to promote purity, harmony,
and social reform. The Inner Mission is specially
patronized by it. — See Inner Mission. In
1850 it unanimously adopted the Augsburg
Confession as the symbol of the German Evan
gelical Church. Von Bethmann Holliveg has
been its president since the commencement But
difficult questions have risen up — questions of a
politico-ecclesiastical nature, fierce animosities
have been produced, and contending parties have
bitterly assailed each other, so that the influence
of the Kirchen-tag is greatly weakened, and its
power for good nearly paralyzed.
Kirk of Scotland. — See SCOTLAND,
Church of.
Kirk Session. — See Session.
Kiss. — In times prior to Constantine, and by
one of his laws confirmed by Justinian, a kiss
was an essential part of the nuptial ceremonial.
Persons newly baptized received what was called
the kiss of peace, as they were brought into the
new spiritual relations of brotherhood. The
same salutation was given mutually at the
Eucharist, and Chrysostom founds upon the prac
tice an eloquent appeal for brotherly love. The
bishops who enthroned a new bishop all greeted
him with a kiss, and the bishop and officiating
clergy gave the new ordained presbyter the same
token of affection. Kings, princes, and people)
sometimes kissed the bishop's hand, and the altar
was often kissed by the rapturous worshippers.
But it was forbidden to give the kiss of peace to
the dead.
Kiss of Charity (1 Peter v. 14). — It was a
custom in the assemblies of the early Christians
to salute one another, according to the apostolic
injunction, with "an holy kiss" (Rom. xvi. 16;
1 Cor. xvi. 20 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 Thes. v. 26).
This custom, however, soon became a cause of
reproach, but with what injustice may be inferred
from the fact that in the first Christian churches,
as well as in the Jewish synagogues, the men
and women sat apart, — a practice which we be
lieve is still observed by the Society of Friends,
by the Primitive Methodists of Ireland, and by
other minor denominations. The words of the
nineteenth canon of the council of Laodicea are
quite satisfactory on this point: — "After the
three prayers for the faithful (which came on as
soon as the penitents and highest class of
catechumens were dismissed), the first of which
is to be performed in silence, the second and
third by the bidding and direction of the deacon,
then the kiss of peace (or charity) is to be given,
presbyters saluting the bishop, and laymen one

364

KNE
another. The holy communion shall then be
celebrated." The author of the Apostolic Con
stitutions is still more specific :—" Immediately
after the priest has given the salutation of peace,
and the people have returned their answer, a
deacon goes on to proclaim solemnly that they
should salute one another with a holy kiss ; the
clergy to salute the bishop, and laymen their
fellow laymen, and women one another." This
kiss of charity or of peace was a symbol of
reconciliation and forgiving of all injuries what
soever. The custom was not, however, confined
to the Eastern Churches, among whom it was
observed in the most decorous manner, though
false reports of promiscuous embraces were circu
lated by the heathen : it was adopted also in the
Latin Church, but with this remarkable differ
ence, that the kiss was promiscuously given.
Tertullian adduces this argument, among others,
why a Christian woman should not marry a
heathen, " that he would be unwilling to suffer
her to go into the prisons to embrace the martyr
in his chains, or at any other times to give the
kiss of peace to a brother." " The kiss of peace "
at the celebration of the Eucharist is an estab
lished rite of the CathoUc Church : immediately
before communion the officiating priest kisses the
altar, and then turns and embraces the deacon,
saying to him, " Pax tibi, frater, et eccledce
sanctcs dd; " the deacon next salutes the sub-
deacon, saying, " Pax tecum," and proceeds to
perform the same ceremony towards the other
clergy. Kissing the great toe or foot of the
pope has been required by every pontiff since
Constantine the first. — See Adoration, and
Adoration of the Cross. After the per
formance of the marriage ceremony among
Catholics, the priest generally kisses the woman.
And among Protestants the minister some
times kisses the babe after he has baptized it.
There are, moreover, some few and insignificant
sects of Protestant Christians who observe the
custom of kissing after the communion; but
like the Eastern Churches the men and women
sit apart, so that the indecorousness of promis
cuous embraces, and the scandals which marred
the purity of the early Latin Church are thereby
avoided. Kneelers. — See Genuflectentes, Cate
chumens. Kneeling, a devotional posture of great
antiquity. In the days of Irenasus, and for some
time after, four postures were in use among
Christians, namely, — standing, prostration, bow
ing, and kneeling; the slovenly and irreverent
posture of sitting during the time of public
prayer, which has in modern days been adopted
by some, was not then known. Kneeling at
public devotions was the common practice during
the six working days, " as a symbol of our fall
by sin;" but worship was performed in a stand
ing posture on Sundays, and during the fifty
days between Easter and Whitsuntide,

KNE
symbol of the resurrection, whereby, through the
grace of Christ, we rise again from our fall."
Cassian says of the Egyptian churches, that
from Saturday night to Sunday night, and all
the days of Pentecost, they neither knelt nor
fasted. The. Apostolical Constitutions order that
Christians should pray three times on the Lord's
Day, standing, in honour of him who rose the
third day from the dead ; and in the writings of
Chrysostom we meet with frequent allusions to
the same practice, especially in the oft-repeated
form by which the deacon called upon the people
to pray, — " Let us stand upright with reverence
and decency," Tertullian says "we count it
unlawful to fast, or to worship kneeling, on the
Lord's Day ; and we enjoy the same immunity
from Easter to Pentecost." Deacons, presby
ters, and bishops, were ordained in a kneeling
posture. Dionysius says, — "The person to be
ordained kneeled before the bishop at the altar,
and he, laying his hand upon his head, did
consecrate him with a holy prayer, and then
signed him with the sign of the cross, after
which the bishop and the clergy present gave
him the kiss of peace." It would appear, how
ever, that bishops elect did not relish much the
humiliating posture of kneeling at their ordina
tion, for Theodoret informs us that " it was a
customary rite to bring the person about to be
ordained bishop to the holy table, and make him
kneel upon his knees by force." But this, no
doubt, was a significant mode of showing with
what reluctance men should undertake so impor
tant, so weight}', a charge, as that of bishop in
the Church of Jesus Christ. And, indeed, so
solemn and onerous were its responsibilities
esteemed, that we read of several who absconded
as soon as they understood that the popular voice
had chosen them to fill this honourable post;
and many of them, when captured, were brought
by force unto the holy altar, and there, against
their will and inclination, were ordained by the
imposition of hands, being held down on their
knees by the officers of the church. — See Elec
tion of Pastors. Not only at the ordinary
Sabbath prayers, but also at the celebration of
the Eucharist, it was the practice to stand ; but,
on this occasion, as Cyril says, "it was with
silence and downcast eyes, bowing themselves in
the posture of worship and adoration." The
exact period when kneeling at the Lord's Supper
became general cannot be ascertained, but it has
prevailed for many centuries, and is now the
acknowledged posture for communicants in many
churches. Kneeling in the Church of Rome is
carried to great excess, especially in _ the per
formance of monastic devotions, and in acts of
penance. Instances are innumerable, and ever
recurring, of delicate women being compelled
to walk on rough pavements, for hours in suc
cession, on their bare knees, until at length,
nature, worn out by the injurious and demoral-
as "a 1 izing exercise, compels them to desist To en-
365

KNI
courage the penitent and devout in acts of this
nature, the most wonderful tales are narrated of
the good resulting from self-mortification and
entire submission to the stern discipline of the
church. Upon women and children these " ly
ing wonders" exercised a mighty influence, —
an advantage which a cunning priesthood has
ever turned to their own account. Indeed,
it is a well-known fact that in most countries,
and among all sects, the baneful influence of
priestcraft would speedily vanish but for the
firm hold which superstition in its various modifi
cations exercises over the female and juvenile
mind. Knights. — Knighthood was originally a reli
gious and monastic institute. The principal
religious orders were : — 1. The order of the
Templars, founded by Hugh de Payens (1118),
for the protection of pilgrims in the Holy Land.
They wore a white cloak, with a red cross on the
breast. St. Bernard warmly interested himself
in favour of this order, and accordingly procured
a large accession to its membership. When St.
Jean d'Acre fell (in 1291), the Templars retired
to Cyprus ; but soon afterwards returned to the
West, when Paris became the head-quarters of
the order. The name of the order was derived
from the circumstance, that the palace which
King Baldwin of Jerusalem assigned for their
use was built on the site of the temple of Solo
mon. 2. Originally the Knights of St. John, or
Hospitallers, were ordinary inmates of a monas
tery, whose special duty it was to take charge of
sick pilgrims, to relieve their wants, and to ex
tend hospitality to them (founded in 1099).
With these duties Raymond du Puy, the second
general of the order, combined in 1118 the obli
gation of fighting against the infidel. They
wore a black dress, with a white cross on the
breast, and had a red cross on their banners.
When expelled by the Saracens, they settled
first in Rhodes (1310), and lastly in Malta in
1530. 3. The order of the Teutonic Knights
consisted also, at first, of the inmates of an hos
pital, or inn, founded during the siege of St. Jean
d'Acre, in 1190, by some citizens of Bremen and

LAB
Lubeck. The knights wore a white cloak, with
a black cross on the breast. At a later period
the order settled in Prussia, where in 1237 it
amalgamated with that of the Brethren of the
Sword. Modern knighthood retains somewhat
of its religious and symbolical character. Thus
in the Order of the Garter or St. George, while
the investiture with the mantle is performing,
the following admonition is given : — " Take
this mantle of heavenly colour, in sign and token
of the most honourable order yon have received,
and to the increase of your honour, signed and
marked as you see with a red scutcheon of our
Lord's cross, to the intent that you being always
defended by the virtue and strength thereof, may
pass through your enemies, and them also over
come and vanquish, so that at the last, for your
worthy and approved acts, you may, after this
temporal chivalry, come to eternal triumphs and
joys in heaven." Courts of law have also some
connection with the ancient knights. The " tem
ple " was the residence of one order, and their
usual abode was called an " inn," while Serjeants
were the fratres servientes, freres serjans of the
temple. (Ashmole, Heliot, Fleury, Mills, Kurtz).
Kornthal, Society of, was founded in 1818
by Hoffmann, burgomaster of Leonberg, inas
much as he obtained relief from Lutheran juris
diction for about forty families of dissenters, and
a royal edict of 1819 gave them toleration.
They bought land, and settled themselves as a
distinct community, somewhat after the Mora
vian model. They claim, indeed, to be an apos
tolic church. Their numbers for a period rapidly
increased. Virtually they have a community
of goods, and at least a common chest.
Ktistolatra; (worshippers of a created thing),
a party of the Monophysites, who, holding that
Christ's body was created, was thus opposed to the
Actistetse, who held that it was not created.
Kyrie Eleeisou (Ki/jis ix'wirtv, Lord have
mercy), the well-known form of earnest petition
borrowed from Scripture, occurring in the services
of the early Church, and often repeated in the
vernacular in the English Prayer Book.

Iiabadists, a sect named after a Frenchman,
John Labadie, who was originally a Jesuit, but
was dismissed from the order in 1639. He then
joined the Reformed Church, and laboured in
France, Switzerland, and Holland. Soon after
he propounded a species of mysticism, laying
great stress on the internal light, which alone can
make the outer revelation intelligible; holding
high notions on the purity of the Church, and
advocating a community of goods. His party
assembled first at Middleburg, in Zealand;
then at Amsterdam, and then at Hervorden, in
Westphalia; lastly, it removed to Altona, in

North Holland ; and finally to Wiewert, where it
sunk out of view. Labadie died at Altona in 1674.
JLabarum, the name given to the imperial
banner upon which Constantine, after his conver
sion, blazoned the monogram of Christ. Euse
bius has described it with much particularity.
It was a long gilt spear, with a cross beam
towards the top, and a golden crown on the
summit, inclosing the two first letters of the
Greek name of Christ, intersecting each other
P p
— thus x or + From the cross beam was
suspended a silken veil, with the images of the

LAB
emperor and his children inwrought into it.
The story of the vision of Constantine, as related
by Eusebius, may be denied or variously ex
plained from subjective causes. The monogram
is said to have been employed before the period
of Constantino. This standard, wherever it was
borne, was believed to be the precursor of vic
tory, insomuch that fifty of the most able-bodied
men were appointed for its special defence.
Miracles, as it is natural to expect, were largely
attributed to it. The Greeks wrote the term
/.i:W»"., and derived it a labore; bnt the second
syllable in labarum is short. Lipsius believes
it to be a word of foreign origin (Not. in lib.
iii., c. 15, De Cruce). Numerous derivations
have been suggested. Scrieckius says it is
drawn from lab -hair or hair -lab, which in
Celtic signifies panniculus exerdtus, and he is
confident that it was adopted from the Belgae,
(Origines Celtieae et Belgiccs. Index ii., Miscell.)
Suicer (Thes. Ecc. ad v.) assigns its beginning
to the time of Hadrian. Fuller (Miscell. Sacra,
ii. 1, iv. 12) says it is derived from XaQuga
(spoils). !EbXan.ua (piety) and XafSiTv (to cap
ture) have been advanced with equal improba
bility, and its real source may still be considered
totally unknown, "in spite," as Gibbon says,
" of the efforts of the critics, who have ineffec
tually tortured the Latin, Greek, Spanish, Celtic,
Teutonic, IUyric, and Armenian, in search of an
etymology." Labis (Xafas), the name in the modern church
for the spoon by which the eucharistic elements
are dispensed.
Iiaborantes. — See FossARn.
Lady Day, the 25th of March. — See An
nunciation Day.
Laity, the people, as in contrast to the clergy.
— See Clergy, Layman.
Lamb of God. — See Agnus Del
Lambeth Articles. — See Articles of
Lambeth. — These articles were drawn up by
the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of
London, at Lambeth, in 1595. They affirm
Calvinism in a sharp and decisive form ; but
they were never imposed by authority. They
are as follow: — "1. God hath from eternity
predestinated certain persons to life, and hath
reprobated certain persons unto death. 2. The
moving or efficient cause of predestination unto
life is not the foresight of faith, or of persever
ance, or of good works, or of anything that is in
the persons predestinated ; but the alone will of
God's good pleasure. 3. The predestinate are a
predetermined and certain number, which can
neither be lessened nor increased. 4. Such as
are not predestinated to salvation shall inevi
tably be condemned on account of their sins. 5.
The true, lively, and justifying faith, and the
Spirit of God justifying, is not extinguished, doth
not utterly fail, doth not vanish away in the
elect, either finally or totally. 6. A true be
liever, that is, one who is endued with justifying

LAP
faith, is certified by the full assurance of faith
that his sins are forgiven, and that he shall be
everlastingly saved by Christ 7. Saving grace
is not allowed, is not imparted, is not granted to
all men, by which they may be saved if they
will. 8. No man is able to come to Christ un
less it be given him, and unless the Father draw
him ; and all men are not drawn by the Father,
that they may come to his Son. 9. It is not in
the will or power of every man to be saved."
Lannaa Day, (A. S. hlaf-masse), the Cal
ends, or first day of August; q. d., loaf-mass.
called also the feast of St. Peter ad vincula. — See
Gule of August. Some derive the term from
Loaf-mas, the day when the Saxons made offer
ings of bread from new wheat ; others from lamb,
in bald allusion to Peter's commission, "Feed my
lambs ;" while others allege that on this day the
mediseval priests gathered their tithe lambs —
such as from the tenants who held lands belonging
to the church at York, which is dedicated to St.
Peter ad vincula. Like many other church festi
vals, it seems to have existed in pagan times,
and, like the first of May, was one of the festi
vals of the Druids — mass being a term for feast,
as Candlemas, Martinmas, &c.
D.jiiii p, a strange ceremony of the Maronite
Church. A wafer of some size, having seven
pieces of cotton stuck into it, is put into a flask
or basin of oil ; a religious service is then read, the
cotton is set fire to, and the sick person for whose
recovery the rite is intended is anointed with
the oil, and prayer is repeated over him.
Lamps. — Lamps were kept burning in the
heathen temples, and Christians were solemnly
prohibited from carrying oil to them. Chrysostom
condemns the custom of setting up lamps on days
of festival — the relic of some pagan rite. Nor
were the faithful, according to the council of
Eliberis, to light wax candles during day in
cemeteries or burial-places of the martyrs, under
pain of excommunication. Lights in the time of
Jerome burned by day in the churches, and the
custom was much discussed. — See Lights on
the Altar.
I.anipadary, an officer in the Greek Church,
whose care it was to light the lamps, and supply
them with oil, and also to carry a taper on days
of great processions.
Iiampetians, followers of Lampetius, a Sy
rian monk of the seventh century, who held
Arian tenets, denied the lawfulness of vows, and
kept the Sabbath as a fast. They are con
demned by several early writers.
liautern, in church architecture, is a tower
open to view from the ground, and lighted with
windows. Lanterns are usually found over the
centres of cross-churches, as at York Minster and
Ely Cathedral. The term is also applied to a
small structure on the top of a dome, for the pur
pose of giving light, as on St. Paul's, London.
Lapse, in law, occurs when the person en
titled to present or collate to a vacant ecclesias-

367

LAP
tical benefice neglects to exercise his right within
the period allowed to him by law. On such
occasions, if the bishop be the patron, the right
devolves or lapses to the archbishop, and if the
archbishop omits to take advantage thereof, to
the king. So also if any person, other than the
bishop, be patron, on his neglecting to present,
the right lapses in the first place to the bishop,
on the bishop's neglect to the archbishop, and
from him to the king. The patron, the bishop,
and the archbishop, are severally and succes
sively allowed the full period of six calendar
months, exclusive of the day on which the bene
fice becomes void ; and if the bishop be himself
the patron, he must collate to the benefice within
the period of the first six months after the
vacancy, as he is not entitled to six months in
his character of patron, and six months more in
his character of bishop. When the patron's six
months have expired his right of presentation is
not absolutely destroyed by the lapse which then
takes place ; but the bishop acquires merely a
kind of concurrent right with him. For although
the bishop may collate immediately after the
lapse, yet so long as he suffers the benefice to
continue vacant, he cannot refuse to institute a
person presented by the patron; and, in like
manner, when the bishop's six months have
expired, the patron may present at any time
before the archbishop has filled up the vacancy.
By these means provision is made against the
improper duration of vacancies in the church.
For when the benefice has continued vacant for
six mouths, the patronage for that turn becomes
an object of competition between the original
patron and the bishop or archbishop, as the case
may be, the nominee of that party which pre
sents first being entitled to the benefice. But
when the right to present has passed the bishop
and the archbishop, and through their neglect
has actually lapsed to the crown, a different rule
prevails, arising from an old maxim of our law,
that the king's rights shall never be barred or
destroyed by delay on his part. Nullum tempus
occurrit Regi. When, therefore, the lapse to the
king has actually occurred, the right of presen
tation for that turn is absolutely vested in him ;
and if the patron presents while the benefice con
tinues vacant, the king may present at any time
afterwards before another vacancy occurs, and
may turn out the patron's nominee. But if the
patron's nominee is instituted and inducted, and
dies incumbent, or if after his induction he is
deprived by sentence of the ecclesiastical courts,
or resigns bona fide, and not with intent to defeat
the king's right to present, before the king has
exercised that right, it is then held that his right
is destroyed; for he was only entitled to the
presentation for one turn, and his having per
mitted the patron to present for that turn will
not entitle him to any other. When the vacancy
is occasioned by the death of the incumbent, or
by his cession, which is bis own voluntary act,

LAP
being the acceptance of a second benefice incom
patible with the one which he already holds, the
patron is bound to take notice of the vacancy,
without its being notified to bim by the bishop,
and his six months are calculated from the time
at which the vacancy actually occurs. But
when the incumbent is deprived by sentence of
the ecclesiastical courts, and when he resigns,
such resignation being necessarily made into the
hands of the bishop, it is held that, as neither
his deprivation nor resignation can he complete
without the concurrence of the bishop, the bishop
ought to notify the vacancy to the patron ; and
that the patron's six months are to be calculated
from the time at which such notice is given.
And in like manner, if the patron presents in due
time, and the bishop refuses to institute the
person so presented, on the ground of his insuffi
ciency, the bishop ought, if the patron be a lay
man, to give notice of his refusal, and until he
does so no lapse can take place ; but if the patron
be a spiritual person, it appears from the old
law books that no notice is necessary, because
the spiritual person is presumed to be a compe
tent judge of the morals and abilities of the
person whom he has selected for the appointment.
If on account of some such neglect or omission
on the part of the bishop, the benefice does not
lapse to him, it cannot lapse to the archbishop
or to the king ; for it is a rule that a lapse can
not take place per saltum, that is, by leaping over
or leaving out the intermediate steps. This rule
protects the patron's right from being ever injured
by the improper refusal of the bishop to institute
his nominee ; for the bishop can take no advan
tage of that which is occasioned by his own
wrongful act ; neither can the archbishop or the
king, for the reason alleged above. This right
of lapse appears to have been first established
about the time of the reign of Henry IL, and to
be coeval with the practice of institution. Pre
viously to that period the incumbent's title was
complete, upon his appointment by the patron,
without his being instituted by the bishop. But
the Church of Rome, always anxious to render
the clergy independent of the laity, strongly
opposed this custom (pravam consuetudinem, as
Pope Alexander IIL, in a letter to Thomas k
Beckett, designates it), and insisted that the
right of appointing to ecclesiastical benefices
belonged exclusively to the bishops. This intro
duced the ceremony of institution. It is, how
ever, contended by some that institution is as
ancient as the establishment of Christianity in
England ; but Blackstone (ii., 33) maintains that
it was introduced at the time stated above. After
that period the bishop alone had the power of
conferring the legal title to the vacant church,
which he did by institution; but he was still
bound to institute the person presented to him
for that purpose by the patron, provided the
patron presented some one. But how long was
the bishop to wait to see whether it was the

368

LAP
patron's intention to exercise his right of pre
sentation? The law declared that he should
wait a reasonable time ; and with a due regard
to the interest of the patron and the convenience
of the public, it has settled that time to be six
months. — See Jus Devolutum.
Lapsed, the term commonly applied to those
who fell away from the faith under the terrors
of persecution. The question how such persons
were to be treated on their repenting caused great
trouble to the Church in the third century, and
led to the schism of the Novatians. — See Nova
tians. Lateran Councils. — There are usually
reckoned five Lateran councils, which were held
as follows: — 1. In the year 1123, convened by
Pope Calixtus II., who presided in person, and
consisted of 300 bishops. It decreed that in
vestiture to ecclesiastical dignities was the ex
clusive right of the church ; and it also com
manded the celibacy ofthe clergy. 2. In 1139,
composed of nearly 1,000 bishops, under the
presidency of Pope Innocent II. It affirmed
the due election of this pope, and condemned
the errors of Peter de Bruys and Arnold of
Brescia. 3. In 1179. At this council, with
Pope Alexander III. at their head, 302 bishops
condemned the "errors and impieties" of the
Waldenses and Albigenses. 4. In 1215, com
posed of 412 bishops, under Innocent III.
It discussed the recovery of the Holy Land,
reformation of abuses, and the extirpation of
heresy. 5. In 1512, assembled by Pope Julius
IL, to oppose another held by nine cardinals the
year before at Pisa with a view to check his
turbulence. It declared that council schismatic,
and abolished the Pragmatic Sanction. — See
Council. Latin Chnrch. — See Greek Church,
Papacy, Popery. (Milman's History of tlie
Latin Church.)
Latitndinarian (Broad Church), the term
more particularly applied to those pacific divines,
in the seventeenth century, who offered them
selves as mediators between the more violent
Episcopalians and the rigid Presbyterians and
Independents, respecting the forms of church
government, public worship, and certain religious
tenets, more especially such as were debated
between the Arminians and Calvinists. The
chief leaders of these Latitudinarians were Hales
and Chillingworth ; but More, Cudworth, Gale,
Whichcot, Burnet, and Tillotson, were also among
the number. These men were firmly attached to
the Church of England; but they did not consider
episcopacy as indispensably necessary to the con
stitution of a Christian church. Hence they
maintained that those who adopted other forms
of government and worship were not, on that
account, to be excluded from their communion,
or to forfeit the title of brethren. As to the doc
trinal part of religion, they took the system of
Episcopius for their model, and, like him, reduced

LAW
the fundamental doctrines of Christianity to a
few points. By this manner of proceeding tbey
endeavoured to show the contending parties that
they had no reason to oppose each other with
such animosity and bitterness, since the subjects
of their debates were matters of an indifferent
nature with respect to salvation. They met, how
ever, with much opposition, and were branded as
atheists and deists by some, and as Socinians by
others ; but upon the restoration of King Charles
II. they were raised to the first dignities of the
church, and were held in great esteem. (Bur
net's Hist, of his own Times, vol. i., book ii., p.
188.) Latria (Divine worship), worship done to
God alone  See Adoration of the Host.
Latter-day Saints. — See Mormonism.
Laudisll, a society for religious service at
Florence, founded in 1316.
Lauds (from laus, praise), in the distribu
tion of monastic service, were the last portion
of nocturns, which were celebrated between 12
and 3 a.m., or in the third watch. Du Cange
assigns them this place, but cites a passage from
which it would appear that they rather belong
to matins in the following watch. They con
sisted, according to Du Cange, of the last three
psalms. Dur a ml names five.
Laura (collection of anchorites' cells), a term
sometimes confounded with monasterium, but dif
fering from it, inasmuch as the inmates of the latter
were coenobites, and held intercourse with each
other, — those of the former lived apart, in seclu
sion. The holy tenants of a laura passed in soli
tude and silence five day3 in a week ; their food
was bread, water, and dates ; on the Saturday and
Sunday they received the sacrament, and messed
together on broth and a small allowance of wine.
Bingham states that when many of the cells of
anchorets were placed together in the same wil
derness, at some distance from one another, they
were all called by one common name, laura,
wbich, as Evagrius informs us (i., 21), dif
fered from a ccenobium in this, that a laura
was many cells divided from each other, where
every monk provided for himself; but a cceno
bium was but one habitation, where the monks
lived in society, and had everything in common.
Epiphanius (Haeres., 69, 1) says, Laura, or
Labra, was the name of a street or district where
a church stood in Alexandria ; and it is probable
that from this the name was taken to signify a
multitude of cells in the wilderness, united, as it
were, in a certain district, yet so divided as to
make up many separate habitations — See Mon a-
chism, Monastery.
Lavacrum (place for washing). — See Font.
Law.— See Canon Law.
Lawn Sleeves. — See Rochet.
Lawrence, St., Festival of, held on the
10th day of August. He was a deacon in Rome
and treasurer of the church, and was cruelly put
to death, in 259, over a slow fire. The gridiron

309

2 B

LAW
in which he was broiled was said to have wrought
many miracles.
Lawrence, St., Regular Canons of, a
religious order, said to have been founded by St.
Benedict in the sixth century. Its seat was in
Dauphine'. It was re-formed in the eleventh
century under the patronage of Odo, Count of
Savoy. The Bishop of Turin, in 1065, conferred
many gifts upon it, and several popes enriched
it with benefactions.
Lawyers. — In the Roman and Spanish
Churches pleaders before the courts were not
eligible to the clerical office. The rule, however,
was not universal, for the council of Sardica
enacted that a lawyer might be ordained a bishop
if he passed through the inferior grades of reader,
deacon, and presbyter. On the other hand,
clergymen were not allowed to act as lawyers, or
to plead either their own cause or even an eccle
siastical one. Bribery and extortion were for
bidden to lawyers under severe penalties.
Lay (from Xuis, people), an epithet with vari
ous reference, such as, —
Lay-Abbots or Abbacomites. — Prior to
the period of Charlemagne the court appointed
its favourites to the office of abbot : rich abbacies
were given to the higher secular clergy in com
mendam, i. e., simply to enjoy its revenues, or else
to counts and military chiefs in reward for their
services. These lay-abbots occupied the monas
teries with their families, or with their friends and
retainers, sometimes for months, converting them
into banqueting halls, or using them for hunting
expeditions or for military exercises. The
wealthiest abbacies the kings either retained for
themselves or bestowed on their sons and daugh
ters, their wives and mistresses. Charlemagne
corrected this abuse: he insisted on strict dis
cipline, and made it a rule that schools should
be planted in connection with the various monas
teries, and that literary labours were to be prose
cuted within their walls. — See Abbot.
Lay-Baptism. — See Administration of Bap
tism, Baptism, p. 54. — The question is of some
importance in modern law, since some clergy
men of the Church of England have refused to
bury children baptized by Methodist or dissenting
ministers. They allege that, as such ministers
are simply laymen, the child has not been pro
perly baptized, and cannot therefore receive
Christian burial. The following is a case de
cided by Sir H. Jenner, in the Arches Court
of Canterbury, May 8, 1841. The plea was
instituted by Mastin v. Escott, vicar of Gedney
in Lincolnshire, for refusing to bury » child
who had been baptized with the proper matter
and form by a Wesleyan minister, the said
T. S. Escott being aware of such fact of bap
tism, and assigning it as the ground for re
fusing to comply. The learned judge stated,
that the question which the court is called upon
to decide is, whether a child that received the
outward and visible form of baptism, i. e., which 87

LAY
had been sprinkled with water in the name of
the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holv
Ghost, by a dissenting minister, that minister
not being an ordained minister of the Church of
England, not episcopally ordained, was to be
considered within the terms of the rubric " un
baptized." Here it was shown, 1. That in the
very early, if not in the earliest ages, baptism by
lay hands, with the proper matter and form, j. &,
with water, and in the name of the Holy Trinity,
was held to be valid, and on no account to be
repeated. 2. That the practice of the ancient
Church had been adopted in this country up to
the time of Henry VIII. 3. That by the rubrics
of the books of Edward VI. baptism by lav
hands was declared to be lawful and sufficient,
and not to be repeated ; and that these rubrics
were confirmed by act of parliament. 4. That
they also underwent no material alterations in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5. That the canon
agreed on by convocation in 1575 was involved
in great obscurity, and was never considered to
have any binding authority. 6. That the com
missioners at Hampton Court, 1603, strongly as
they were opposed to baptism by laymen and
women, yet could not prevail on themselves
absolutely and expressly to prohibit it, still less
to declare such baptism null and void. 7. That
such a notion would be inconsistent with the
king's language against rebaptization, and with
the wording ofthe proclamation, "that some small
things might rather be explained than changed,"
— a passage incompatible with alterations such
as those contended for. 8. That the rubric re
specting persons "dying unbaptized " was inserted
at the Restoration. But what was the meaning
of the word "unbaptized ?" In its usual sense it
would apply to persons to whom this sacrament
had not been administered, without reference to
the administrator. 9. But it had been objected,
that the term applied to persons not baptized by
a "lawful minister," i. e., hy a minister episcopally
ordained. 10. Now, although by the expression
"lawful minister," the law since 1661 certainly
intended an episcopally ordained minister, it does
not follow that acts performed by persons not so
ordained are null ; for then they should have been
so declared hy authority, which was not the case
at the Restoration. The bishops at that time
neither refused to confirm persons not episcopally
baptized, nor did they instruct their clergy to
rebaptize in such cases. It was therefore not
intended to include within the term " rebaptized"
those who had already been baptized with the
proper form and matter, though not by a lawful
minister. In fact, the practice continued as it was,
irregular undoubtedly, but not null and void.
11. That this view of the question is borne out
by the minutes of the conference at Lambeth in
1712, up to which time lay-baptism in the opi
nion of the Church of England was valid so as
not to he repeated, and that a person so baptized
was not a person unbaptized, and not entitled to
0

LAY
Christian burial. 12. That the foregoing argu
ment may be proved from Hooker, Bingham,
Fleetwood, &c, against Waterland and Wheatly.
13. That the church does not esteem the minister
an essential part of the sacrament appears to
follow from the last rubric in the office of private
baptism [James, 1603, and Charles II., 1662]
compared with the catechism on the sacraments,
and that this statement is not inconsistent either
with the twenty-third article or the sixty-ninth
canon, as alleged by Mr. Escott. Then it seems
upon the whole of the case that the law of the
church is beyond all doubt that a child baptized
by a layman is validly baptized. Therefore, the
law calls upon the judge to pronounce, that the
articles admitted in this case have been proved ;
that the party promoting the office of the judge
has established, that Mr. Escott being duly in
formed, and having due notice of the death of
the child, and being also duly informed that the
child had been baptized by a dissenting minister,
refused to perform the office for the interment of
the dead over the body of that child ; and that
Mr. Escott has failed in establishing, to the
satisfaction of the judge, that the church does
consider a child baptized by an unordained
minister, is not validly baptized; and conse
quently has failed to establish that the child in
this case was unbaptized according to the doc
trine of the Church of England, and according to
the meaning of the rubric prefixed to the order
for the burial of the dead. The sentence there
fore which the court must pronounce must be,
that Mr. Mastin has sufficiently proved the
articles by him exhibited, and that Mr. Escott
has failed in proving the allegation by him given
in." (Bulley; Bingham's Scholastical History of
Lay-Baptism, Works, vol. viii.)
Lay-Brothers, illiterate persons who, in
Romish countries, devote themselves to serve a
religious order in any of its convents. They
wear a different habit, and take no vow but that
of constancy and obedience; but they are not
allowed to enter the choir, or be present at any
meeting of the chapters. The institution began
in the eleventh century. There are also lay-
sisters holding a similar relation to houses of nuns.
Lay-Chancellor. — See Chancellor.
Lay-Communion.- — See Clergy. — A cler
gyman was sometimes punished by being de
barred from communion with his clerical peers,
and only allowed to communicate with the laity.
Lay-Elders. — See Elders.
Laying on of Hands. — See Imposition
of Hands.
Layman. — The distinction of clergy and
laity, whether found in germ in Scripture or not,
existed in the Church at a very early period.
Origen, Cyprian, and Tertullian, often refer to it
in various ways. A layman, properly speaking,
must be one in full communion with the Church.
Laymen, by the fourth council of Carthage, were
not allowed to preach in the presence of the

LEC
clergy, except at their request. Some bishops
occasionally employed them to address the people.
Whatever the distinction which must exist be
tween office-bearers and those placed under them,
it is wholly different from the arrogant opinions
of independent prerogative and authority which
churchmen have so often assumed.
Lazarites, an order of French monks, founded
by St. Vincent in the seventeenth century, and
taking their name from a suburb in Paris, where
they had a seminary — des bons enfans.
Lazarus, St., Festival of, kept in the
Church of Rome on the 21st day of February,
in memory of Lazarus, a painter of images in the
fourteenth century, who persisted at his task in
defiance of persecution from Theodosius Icono-
clastes. Leader, an officer in the Wesleyan Methodist
body whose duty it is, according to Mr. Wesley,
1. " To see each person in his class once a-week
at least, in order to inquire bow their souls pros
per; to advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as
occasion may require ; to receive what they are
willing to give towards the support of the Gos
pel. 2. To meet the ministers and stewards of
the society once a-week, in order to inform the
minister of any that are sick, or of any that walk
disorderly, and will not be reproved ; to pay to
the stewards what they have received of their
several classes in the week preceding; and to
show their account of what each one has con
tributed." The "leadership" of classes is not
confined to men; for women of experience in
connection with the Methodists are also chosen
as "leaders" of female classes, who thus fulfil
some of the duties which devolved upon the dea
conesses in the early ages of the Church. — See
Class Meetings.
League and Covenant. — See Covenants.
League of Smalcald. — See Smalcald.
Lectern, the reading desk in old churches.
— See Eagle. In Scotland, during the last
generation, the precentor's desk was commonly
called by that name, and pronounced lettem.
Lcciicarii. — See Fossarii.
Lectionarnm, a collection of lessons to be
read during divine service. — See Lessons.
Lecturer, one who reads or speaks a dis
course ; an oral instructor ; a reprover. It is not
easy to decide at what particular time the office
of lecturer was admitted into the English Church ;
but such persons were not generally recognized
till the statute of 13 and 14 Car. II., c. 4, § 19,
commonly known as the Act of Uniformity.
Nevertheless, an evening lecture on Fridays was
endowed in the London Parish of St. Michael
Royal as early as 1589 ; and at not a later date
three lecture-sermons were established in St
Michael's, Cornhill, — two on Sundays after even
ing prayers, and a third at the same time on
Christmas Day. During the great rebellion the
pulpits of the lecturers were used as powerful
instruments by those who sought to overthrow

371

LEC
the church and monarchy ; and Lord Clarendon
especially points to St. Antholin, in Watling
Street, as made infamous by a seditious lecturer
(i., 189). Lecturing, as thus appointed, has
gradually tended to the exclusion of a far more
useful and important office, that of catechizing;
which used to be performed by the minister at
the conclusion or in the course of the evening
service. Selden, in his Table Talk, has this
caustic remark : — " Lecturers do in a parish
church what the fryers did heretofore — get away
not only the affections but the bounty that should
be bestowed upon the minister. Lecturers get
a great deal of money, because they preach the
people tame; as a man watches a hawk, and
then they do what they list with them. The
lectures in Blackfryers, performed by officers of
the army, tradesmen, and ministers, is as if a
great lord should make a feast, and he would
have his cook dress one dish, and his coachman
another, his porter a third," &c. Lecturers are
usually chosen by the vestry, or by popular
election of the parishioners. They must have
the consent of those by whom they are employed,
and the approbation and admission of the ordi
nary, before which admission they must subscribe
the Thirty-Nine Articles, and conform to the
other provisions of the Act of Uniformity. They
must be licensed by the bishop ; but this license
regards the fitness of the person, not the right
of the office. If they preach on week-days, they
must read the Common Prayer on the first day on
which they preach, and declare their assent to
it ; likewise they must read the Common Prayer
on the first lecture-day in every month, on pain
of being disabled till they conform to the same ;
and if they preach before such conformity, they
may be committed to prison for three months,
by warrant of two justices of the peace, granted
on the certificate of the ordinary. Where lec
tures are founded by donation without the
consent of the incumbent, the incumbent, in
whom resides the freehold, may refuse his
pulpit. The Court of King's Bench will not
grant a mandamus to the bishop to license a
lecturer without the consent of the incum
bent, where the lecturer is supported by volun
tary contributions, unless an immemorial custom
to elect without such consent be shown. Nor
will that court grant a mandamus to the
incumbent to certify to the bishop the election of
a lecturer chosen by the inhabitants, where no
such custom is shown, though the lecturer has
been paid out of tbe poor-rates. The incumbent
may, however, free himself from an obnoxious
intruder, by occupying the pulpit in his own
person. Lecture in Scotland signifies an ex
position of a passage, analyzing it clause by
clause, and carefully and patiently bringing out
the mind of the sacred writer. Every Scot
tish clergyman usually lectures on Sabbath fore
noon, and goes through, in this instructive way,
a gospel or an epistle.

LEG
Lectures. — Various lectures have been found
ed in England at different periods. — See Bamp-
ton, Boyle, Congregational, Donellan,
Hulsean, Merchant, Morning, Movers,
Wareurtonian Lectures.
Legate (legatus, one sent), a person deputed
to act for another. " The legates a latere, as
they were called," says Hume, " were a kind of
delegates, who possessed the full power of the
pope in all the provinces committed to their
charge, and were very busy in extending as well
as exercising it." The papal legates, whose
great powers are thus briefly noticed by Hume,
and who in all points represented the person of
the holy father himself, were selected from the
college of cardinals. Hoveden gives an instance
in which our own kings might, if they had so
chosen, have performed the duties of this high
office. In 1164 Alexander III. nominated Henry
II. Legatus totius Anglice — an appointment which
that prince had sufficient reasons, in the turbulent
state of his ecclesiastics, for declining. Legati
nati were such as held legatine jurisdiction by
virtue of office, and as such were not subject to
the authority of occasional legates. Before the
latter part of the tenth century, the legatine
commission was for the most part entrusted to
the legati nati. The special legates (legati dati),
who were much employed afterwards, displayed
unbounded arrogance. They held councils, pro
mulgated canons, deposed bishops, and issued in
terdicts, at their discretion. And they were as
little acceptable to transalpine ecclesiastics as they
were to the laity ; for simple deacons were fre
quently invested with this office, which at once
placed them above bishops ; and the splendour in
which they lived was supported at the expense
of the clergy of that province to which they
were despatched. A legate (as may be seen in
Wolsey's bulls) may create a certain number of
apostolical notaries, knights, and doctors, in all
faculties ; and hence the right of conferring de
grees is still retained by the Archbishop of Can
terbury, who, before the Reformation, was the
ordinary legatus natus of England. Legates
also may legitimate bastards, and have several
other powers, which not being deemed consistent
with the liberties of the Gallican Church, caused
their exclusion from the French dominions, till
their bulls should be examined and registered.
A legate cannot exercise his functions till he is
forty miles distant from Rome.
Legend (something to be read). — Originally,
and in the Romish Church, it contained the
lessons to be read in divine service. Lives of
saints and martyrs, to be read at matins in reli
gious houses, received also the same name. — See
Acts of the Saints, Bollandists, Golden
Legend. The Roman Breviary is full of le
gendary stories, absurd, incredible, and super
stitious. Legion, Thundering. — In the war of Marcus
Antoninus against the Marcomanni, in a.d. 174,

372

LEI
his soldiers were in danger of destruction from
thirst in the burning desert The soldiers of one
legion betook themselves to prayer, and forth
with followed thunder and abundance of rain.
The legion was therefore called the "thunder
ing legion." Such was the story. There is
nothing incredible in it, as Eusebius tells it on
the authority of Apollinaris and Tertullian.
Whether it was a natural or supernatural event
has been keenly disputed. But, though the
Christian soldiers might claim the credit, the
emperor directly ascribed his deliverance to
Jupiter. Besides, the twelfth of the Roman
legions had borne the name of "thundering"
from the period of Augustus. That some Chris
tian soldiers did pray in the crisis is very likely,
and their report of the Divine answer may have
been soon exaggerated, and brought finally into
the form in which Tertullian rehearses it.
Leipsic Conference. — It was held in 1631,
between divines of the Lutheran and Reformed
Churches, to try, if possible, to effect a union.
But it failed, after a prolonged discussion.
Leipsic Disputation. — It was held at an
early stage of the Reformation between Luther
and Carlstadt on the one side, and Eckius on the
other, the universities of Paris and Erfurt being
judges or umpires. Many topics were discussed
during three weeks, but no formal decision was
come to. Melanchthon, however, was confirmed
in the reformed doctrines, and Poliander was won
over to them, while Luther himself derived a
fresh accession of light, courage, and strength.
Lent (German Lenz, Spring) is the season
of fasting which precedes Easter. The Greeks
called it rifftragaxoffTw, and the Latins, " quadra-
gedma" — fortieth, either from the number of
hours it originally lasted, or from the number of
days to which it was afterwards extended ; for
there seems good reason to believe that the fast,
as originally observed, lasted only from the day
on which our Saviour was crucified to cock-crow
ing in the morning of his resurrection. So
Tertullian and Irenseus seem to testify, the
former saying that the Christians thought them
selves obliged to keep two days of fasting : and
the latter referring to " the fast of forty hours
before Easter." Many of the early Christians
appear to have thought that they had a divine
command for a fast of that length in the words
of our Saviour recorded in Matthew ix. 15. It
is clear, however, that before the times of
Irenseus various additions had been made to
the length of the fast And yet even in the
time of Gregory the Great, at the end of the
sixth century, it did not extend beyond thirty-
six days of actual fasting. That pope, or (as
some suppose) Gregory IL, more than 100 years
later, added what are now the first four days of
Lent, in order that it might contain forty days,
exclusive of the Sundays, on which fasting was
unlawful. The manner of observing Lent among those who

LEN
were piously disposed, was to abstain from all food
till evening ; to hold assemblies for prayer and
preaching every day, at least in the greater
churches; and to have frequent communions,
especially on the Sabbath and the Lord's Day.
All public games and stage plays were forbidden,
and even the celebration of marriages, birth-days,
and martyrs' festivals, except on Saturdays and
Sundays. Servants had vacation, and criminal
processes were suspended. On the Thursday in
that week the Eucharist was in some places ad
ministered twice— in the morning and the even
ing ; in others in the evening, after supper, as a
close imitation of its original institution ; the
candidates for baptism publicly rehearsed their
creed in the church, and servants received the com
munion. On Good Friday it is believed that peni
tents were absolved. On the Saturday a strict fast
was observed, it being the only Saturday in the
year on which such service was permitted, for
all others were festivals, and the fast continued
till cock-crowing, the supposed time of the re
surrection. The night was spent in a vigil, in
which the assembled worshippers performed
divine service, sang psalms, read the Scriptures,
prayed, preached, and baptized the catechumens ;
and thus concluded their Lent
It was scarcely possible that the appointment
of a season like Lent could escape a mystical ex
planation; and accordingly it has endured the
same fortune with which almost every part, either
doctrinal or ceremonial, of Christianity has been
visited, at some time or other. The first day of
Lent was called " Caput Jejunii" — the head or
beginning of the fast. It also received the
name of Dies dnerum, Dies pulveris — Ash Wed
nesday, Pulver Wednesday, from a ceremony
observed in the Romish Church of sprinkling
ashes on the congregation. Penitents had ashes
sprinkled upon their heads, and stood clothed in
sackcloth, according to the rite mentioned Isaiah
lviii. 5. Gratian thus describes the ceremony :
"All penitents who either then were admitted
to penitence, or had been admitted before, were
presented to the bishop before the doors of the
church, clothed in sackcloth, barefooted, andwith
countenances dejected to the earth, confessing
themselves guilty both by their habit and their
looks. They were to be attended by the deans
or archpresbyters of the parishes, and the peni
tential presbyters, whose office was to inspect
their conversation, and enjoin them penance,
according to the measure of their faults, by the
degrees of penance that were appointed. After
this they bring tbem into the church, and then
the bishop, with all the clergy, falling prostrate
on the ground, sing the seven penitential psalms.
The bishop, rising from prayer, gives them the
imposition of hands, sprinkles them with holy
water, puts ashes on their heads, and then cover
ing their heads with sackcloth, declares, with
sighs and groans, that as Adam was cast" out
of paradise, they are then turned out of the

373

LEN
'church, while the inferior clergy follow after,
reciting these words, — ' In the sweat of thy
face,' &c. At the end of Lent, viz., the Thurs
day before Easter, they are again presented be
fore the gates of the church, when those who
had performed their penances were solemnly
received and absolved." Notwithstanding this
minute account by Gratian, the most that can
be gathered from the ancient canons is, that
penitents were commanded to change their
habit, and appear in a doleful dress; to cut
off their hair or shave their heads; to pro
strate themselves in their acts of devotion;
and to observe strictly all the fasts. Many
penitents added to their mortification by their
avoidance of all pleasurable pursuits — even the
innocent and grateful exercise of bathing.
Women were enjoined f,o cut off their hair, or
to appear with it dishevelled and loose about
their shoulders ; to wear penitential veils, and to
change their habit. We learn from Bingham
that it was sometimes enjoined on women to
shave their heads ; for St Ambrose, writing to a
virgin who had grievously sinned, bids her cut
off her hair, which, through vain glory, had
given her occasion to sin. Nevertheless, we find
a different practice in the case of Fabiola, who
performed her penance with her hair dishevelled,
the bishops and presbyters and all the people
weeping with her. Now, as these canons make
no specific allusion to Lent, but relate to peni
tential discipline, whenever inflicted ; and as the
first day of Lent did not commence with Ash
Wednesday till Gregory the Great added it and
the three following days, it has been reasonably
concluded that Gratian's account refers to a more
modern practice. The ashes used in the Church of
Rome on this day, are made from olive branches
that had been blessed on Palm Sunday of the pre
vious year ; they are laid on the altar in a small
vessel for the blessing of the priest ; chants are
sung, and other solemnities performed ; after
which the priest makes the sign of the cross
upon the ashes, and then sheds incense over
them. Another priest then goes up to the altar,
takes the vessel containing the ashes, and places
it on the head of him who officiates, repeating
these words, — " Remember, man, that thou art
dust." The officiating priest's assistants then
receive the ashes, next the clergy, and at last
the whole congregation, on their foreheads. If
a, bishop is present he receives it sitting, his
mitre being off; he then gives it to the officiating
priest, who stoops to receive it. All the canons
come next. Should there be any princes, ambas
sadors, or nobles present, tbey obtain the mark on
their foreheads, immediately after the priests,
and that kneeling ; for the exemption from this
position is confined to the officers of the church.
— See Shrove Tuesday. In the Church of
England the office of commination, which is
always read in the course of the service of this
day, has been substituted in the room of this

LEN
open penance. — See Commination. " Though
the ancient discipline was severe," says the Rev.
C. Wheatly, " yet the many good consequences
of it showed it worthy the imitation of all
churches in succeeding ages ; and ours in parti7
cular heartily bewails the want of it ; but till she
can be so happy as to succeed in discharging
those obligations she lies under to restore it, she
supplies that want by adding to her ordinary
service a very proper and suitable office called
commination." Of the carnival sports which contribute by con
trast to the diversions of a Romish Ash Wed
nesday, no writer with whom we are acquainted
has left us a more vivid picture than Hospinian,
In Germany the last evening is called ber fftmn
^BSsttatbt hoc est, Clericcrum seu Dominorum
Bacchanalia, appellalur. The Latin is far too
elegant a rendering of the German, which liter
ally signifies the Lord's barrel-night, and very
appropriately represents the gross, vulgar, swin
ish sottishness of the old Teutonic revelry.
In the Romish Church each of the five Sun
days in Lent bore its name from the introit
chanted upon them respectively, — 1. Invocavitj
2. Reminiscere; 3. Oculi; 4. Lceiare ; 5. Judica.
The Church of England terms the fourth, Mid-
lent Sunday; and Bishop Sparrow has called
it Dominica Refectionis, probably because the
Gospel for the day treats of the miraculous feed
ing of the 5,000; and on that account it has
likewise been called Dominica de Panibus. It
has also a vulgar name of Mothering Sun
day, which Brand traces to the popish custom
of visiting the mother church on that day.
Another reason is given from Cowell, that the
epistle to the Galatians, ch. iv., contains the
words Jerusalem mater omnium. Be this as it
may, it seems to have been a provincial custom
in England for the lower classes, as servants and
apprentices, to visit their parents on this day,
and to carry with them some present, as money,
a trinket, or some nice eatable. In return they
were regaled with a mess of furmety — that is,
whole wheat boiled in milk and then sweetened
and spiced. In the north of England also it is
known as Care or Carle Sunday, when gray peas,
steeped over night in water, and fried in butter,
are eaten under the name of carlings. Karr or
Carr, in German, is a satisfaction for a fine or
penalty, and Good Friday by that people is indif
ferently called Gute Freytag and Car Freylag.
Midlent Sunday is known also in the Romish
ritual as Dominica de Rosa. The pope, on going
to mass on this day, bears in his hand a golden
rose, which he displays in the sight of all the
people. This rose, after being perfumed and con
secrated, is presented as a mark of especial favour
to some crowned head or prince. — See Golden
Rose. The Sunday before Easter was named
Pascha fioridum, Dominica in ramis palmarum, or
Palm Sunday, from the procession accompanied
with palm branches, in commemoration of our

374

LEN
Saviour's public entrance into Jerusalem, and of
the circumstances attending it. We learn from
Epiphanius that this day was celebrated as a
festival in the Greek Church as early as the
fourth century. In the Latin Church there are
no traces of its observance till after the sixth
century. In the Middle Ages the great event of
the day was represented by a priest mounted on
an ass; and sometimes a wooden figure on a
wooden ass was employed. The palm branches
were regularly consecrated, and the form of bless
ing is given by Brand. It is still customary in
many parts of England for boys to gather slips
of willow, with their flowers aud buds, about
this season. Brand says, with much probability.
that these are substituted for palms, as being the
only trees sufficiently forward for the purpose.
— See Palm Sunday.
The week following Palm Sunday has been
called " Hebdomas magna," or " Sancta " — Holy
Week, Passion Week, and was observed in the
early Church with a yet greater degree of fasting
and humiliation than the remainder of Lent. The
Thursday of this week is known to the Romish
Church as Quinta Feria Dominicce in ramis palma
rum, and its institution is attributed to Leo II.
about 682. But the day was observed as early as
the fifth century, by the celebration of the Lord's
Supper, in connection with the ceremony of
washing the feet It has had several appellations,
in allusion to the events commemorated or the
ceremonies observed, — such as " Dies ccenae Do
minical " — the day of the Lord's Supper ; " Eu
charistia," or "Dies natalis Eucharistia! " — the
birth-day of the Eucharist ; " Natalis calicis " —
the birth-day of the cup ; "Dies panis " — the day
of bread; "Dies lucis "¦ — the day of light, with
allusion, perhaps, to the lights used at the Lord's
Supper; "Dies viridium," si title of somewhat
doubtful meaning. — See Day. Another title was
Capitularium, because the heads (capita) of cate
chumens were diligently washed upon this day,
preparatory to baptism. In England this day is
known as Chare Thursday, or Shere Thursday,
which, from a passage cited by Brand, appears
to be the same as Capitularium, although he does
not recognize it as such : " for that in old fa
thers' days the people would that day shere their
heedes, and clypp theyr bordes, and pool theyr
heedes, and make them honest ayent Easter Day."
But this probably refers more to the readmitted
penitents than to the catechumens. It is yet
more commonly known as Maundy Thursday,
which Spelman, with no little violence, derives
from "mand," or "maund," — a basket, sc. from
which provisions are distributed. Others have
traced it to "maundier" — to beg; and others
again to mandatum, perhaps more correctly as to
the real source. Cowell contents himself with say
ing, " some derive the word from ' mandatum '¦ —
a command." Very probably the name was
drawn in the same manner as those of other days
in Lent, and indeed throughout the year, from a 3

LEN
portion of the service performed on it ; and the
Romish ritual shows, that while the pope is
washing the feet of the poor, Cantores cantant
mandatum novum. With this opinion Whately
seems to agree. The second lesson of the Church
of England at morning prayer relates this new
commandment. The pope still washes and kisses
the feet of thirteen poor persons, to whom be
likewise gives clothes and alms, and entertains
them with a banquet, himself placing the first
dish on table. — See Washing. The custom
of washing the feet of the poor was observed
by our own kings. James II. was the last
who performed it in person. The alms are
still annually distributed in Whitehall chapel.
As many poor men and women as the sovereign
is years of age receive portions of meat, dried
fish and bread, shoes, stockings, linen, and cloth,
and some money ; part of which is given in sil
ver pennies, twopences, threepences, and four-
pences in white kid purses. If an account in
the Gentleman's Magazine (vol. i., April, 1731,
p. 172) is to be believed, so late as in that year
the Archbishop of York, as Lord High Almoner,
washed the feet of a certain number of poor. In
the Sari of Northumberland's Household Book
is an account of a maundy annually dispensed
by that nobleman.
Among the observances which gradually crept
into the Church, and which Hospinian charac
terizes as superstitious, were the silence of all
bells from this day till Easter Eve; the admis
sion of penitents who had been excluded from
religious services at the beginning of Lent ; and
the consecration of the elements by the pope
below the altar of the Lateran. This was done
in imitation of the high priest under the law,
who entered once in every year into the Holy
of holies, with a censer full of burning coals,
(Lev. ch. xxx.) The oil also employed for
extreme unction, for chrism, and for baptism,
was consecrated on this day. After vespers
on this day two acolytes strip the altars of all
their ornaments, and cover them with black trap
pings. The images are veiled, and the lights,
one after another, extinguished, with the excep
tion of a single one. In many places the altars
are washed with wine and water, and rubbed
with herbs. On the Sexta Feria, or Parasceve,
the Romish Church exhibited a sort of mystery
of the crucifixion. The kings of England blessed
their cramp rings on Good Friday, or Long Fri
day of the Saxons; and the ceremony of creeping
to the cross was observed. On Easter Eve all
fires in churches were extinguished, and new ones
lighted by flint and steel. At this time was lighted
also a huge waxen taper, Cerevs Paschals, previ
ously consecrated. On Palm Sunday the pope
assists at a tedious funzione in the Sistine chapel,
when he censes and blesses artificial palm
branches of plaited straw, topped with real palm
leaves from the Gulf of Genoa. Of Monday no
thing is related. On Tuesday the body of St.
75

LEN
Joseph of Arimathea is exhibited in St Peter's.
On Wednesday a service, termed II Mattutino
delle Tenebre, is celebrated in the Sistine chapel.
Fifteen wax tapers, of a dark purple colour, are
placed pyramidally beside the altar, to repre
sent the twelve apostles and the three Marys —
the Virgin herself being in the centre. All of
these, excepting that of the Virgin, which at last
is set under the altar, are extinguished one after
the other, to typify the falling away of the apos
tles at the hour of trial. At dusk, and while the
chapel is thus dim, a miserere is chanted, which
is described to consist of the most solemn, touch
ing, and impressive music. One writer says, —
"Never by mortal ear was heard a strain of
such powerful, such heart-moving pathos. The
accordant tones of a hundred human voices, and
one which seemed more than human, ascended
together to heaven for mercy to mankind — for
pardon to a guilty and sinning world. It had
nothing in it of this earth, — nothing that
breathed the ordinary feelings of our nature. Its
effects upon the minds of those who heard it was
almost too powerful to be borne, and never can
be forgotten. One gentleman fainted and was
carried out ; and many of the ladies near me were
in agitation even more distressing, which they
vainly struggled to suppress. It was the music
of Allegri ; but the composition, however fine, is
nothing without the voices which perform it
here." Another writer says, — "At the conclu
sion of this portion of the service, and when the
darkness is complete by the concealment of the
last light, commences the Miserere. This is the
fifty-first psalm. And as it is breathed by the
choir — tbe most perfect and practised choir in
the world — as it is heard in all the stillness and
solemnity of the scene, wrapped in darkness and
leaving nothing to distract the eye where all
looks dim and shadowy, it has a strange and
wonderful effect. It is designed to express as
far as music can express, the deep and mental
agonies of the dying Saviour; and certainly there
never yet was heard, except among the shep
herds of Bethlehem on the night of the nativity,
such sounds, so unearthly, and unlike the music
of the world. . It is plaintive, intensely melan
choly, and has a powerful effect under the pecu
liar circumstances of the scene. The several
musical compositions for the Miserere are the pro
ductions of the greatest composers, are stamped
by the highest popularity, and all hear a similar
character, being unquestionably among the most
strikingly suitable and effective pieces of music
in the world ; and they undoubtedly express, as
far as musical composition is capable of express
ing, the depths of inward and intense grief. If
nngols could be supposed to sigh and moan in
sorrow, they might attune their harps of heaven
to such music as is then sung in the Sistine
chapel." At its termination some loud strokes re
verberate through the chapel, intended to repre
sent the rending in twain of the veil of the temple.

LEN
This strange anachronism is followed by
one equally so on the succeeding day. Though
the crucifixion took place on Friday, it is on
Thursday that the ceremony of our Saviour's in
terment is performed. The pope himself, bare
headed, carries the host from the Sistine chapel,
through the intermediate hall, to the Paulina
chapel, where it is deposited in a sepulchre pre
pared to receive it beneath the altar. A similar
rite is celebrated in each of the other churches.
The tomb is brilliantly illuminated, and hun
dreds, clad in deep mourning, kneel around it
in silence, interrupted only by demonstrations of
grief and penitence. Thirteen priests are then
arrayed in the Sala della Lavanda ; twelve are
old, and represent the apostles; one is young,
and personifies an angel, who once came to the
table while St. Gregory was officiating. All are
dressed in loose white gowns, with white caps on
their heads and clean woollen stockings, and are
seated in a row along the wall under a canopy.
The pope takes off his splendid dress of ceremony,
and, remaining in a white linen robe and wear
ing a bishop's mitre instead of his tiara, takes
from an attendant cardinal a silver bucket of
water, kneels before the first priest, dips his foot
in the bucket, pours water over it with his hand,
wipes it with a fringed cloth, kisses it, and pre
sents the cloth, together with a white flower, to
the man. All the thirteen are despatched in less
than two minutes. A table is then spread with
a variety of dishes and a profusion of flowers, in
the Sala della Tavolla ; and the thirteen priests
being seated, the pope gives a blessing, and,
walking along the side of the table opposite to
them, presents each with bread, plates, and a
cup of wine, which they rise to receive. After
a parting benediction, they are left to finish their
dinner. What is not eaten they are permitted
to carry away, and they have a small present in
money besides. On the evening of this and the
next day a cardinal sits in the great confessional
of St. Peter's, to perform the penitenzamaggiore.
He has power to give absolution for such crimes
as no other priest can remove. On this evening
also a brilliant illuminated cross, eighteen feet
in length, is suspended from the dome of St
Peter's, above the tomb of the apostle. The
pope visits the tomb in procession, and some of
the most sacred relics, among them the Volto
Santo (St. Veronica's handkerchief, with the
impression of our Saviour's face), are exhibited.
On Good Friday the mourning coverings with
which the crucifixes have been veiled during the
week are removed. This is called the discovery
of the cross.— See Cross. The pope and cardi
nals then perioral its adoration. The host is
taken out of the sepulchre, and during the three
hours of Christ's agony upon the cross a service
is performed, called Le Tre Ore. During three
days of the holy week poor pilgrims of all na

tions are gratuitously lodged and fed in the hos
pital of the Trinita de' Pe/egrini. That build-

876

LEO
ing will contain 5,000 inmates, and is frequently
full. On the evening of Maundy Thursday and
Good Friday many cardinals and Roman nobility
of both sexes wash, not according to the pope's
form, but really and truly wash the pilgrims'
feet, and afterwards wait upon them at supper.
In some of the churches on Good Friday even
ing Flagellants exercise their disciplines in the
dark. On Saturday such Jews as can be con
verted, and arguments sufficiently cogent for the
occasion are never wanting, are baptized in St.
John Lateran. At noon the moment of the re
surrection is announced by the dissonance of
every possible species of barbarous noise. The
bells of all the churches in Rome, of which there
are more than three hundred, peal forth at once.
The cannon of St. Angelo are discharged, and
horns, trumpets, and kettle-drums are empkvyed
to swell the clangour. Thus ends a Romish
Lent — See Fasting.
Leonine Verses, a name given to the jing
ling Latin poetry, if it may be so called, which
was much in fashion during the Middle Ages.
Leoninus, or Leonius, from whom the title is
most probably derived, is supposed to have been
first a canon of the order of St. Benedict at
Paris, afterwards a monk of the monastery of St
Victor at Marseilles, in tbe twelfth century. He
composed twelve books in heroic verse on the
history of the Bible, and other poems, with much
purity of style, as it is said, before he adopted
this false taste of rhyming. The date of the
origin of this style is not precisely ascertained ;
and it is indeed somewhat remarkable that this
style of writing should derive the name by which
it is most generally known, from one who was
neither its inventor nor by any means the chief
of his class ; but it is far more reasonable to
leave Leoninus in possession of this honour than
to trace the designation, as others have done,
from one of the many Popes Leo (of whose
authorship in this way nothing is asserted), or
from leo — a lion, because that animal is the king
of beasts, and a leonine bard is the king of
poets ! The proper leonine is a couplet in which
two verses — the second being, if the writer so
pleased, a pentameter — rhymed only at the end,--
" Alme Deus, rector, qui terra? frsena gubernas
Nee siuis absque modo sedes fluitare supernas."
Or the middles and ends sometimes rhymed alter
nately, —
"Sitibi grata seqes— est mornm, gratus haberis;
Si virtutis eges— despiciendus eris.
Or the first pause rhymed with the fourth and
the second with the third, —
"Est Domini donum— puri devotio cordis;
Contemptus sordis—initiale Donum."
In the fourth century rhyming Latin ap
pears to have been introduced into hymns for the
Church service; and the sacred poems of St.
Hilary, St. Ambrose, and Pope Damasus, may
be cited as pleasing specimens of this fantastic
style. St Augustine was not equally successful; 31

LES
but his zeal directed him to frame, not a devo
tional hymn, but a psalm vituperative of the
Donatists. It consists of 270 lines, all rhyming
to the letter E, and divided into stanzas of twelve
lines each, every stanza beginning with a new
letter, in alphabetical order, from A to U. A
rhyming hymn, attributed to St. Patrick, who
died in 492, may be found among the Cottonian
MSS. A similar composition, sometimes as
signed to Tertullian, is a production of the fifth
century. In the sixth, Fortunatus established
a deserved reputation; and among others the
well-known hymn, Vexilla Regis prodeunt, ex
hibits considerable poetical fire. He was fol
lowed, but at a distance, by Gregory the Great.
The venerable Bede, himself the subject of one
of the most celebrated leonines on record, must
not be forgotten as a writer of them also.
Leontarium. — See Cantharus.
Lessons, the portions of Scripture appointed
to be read during divine service. The reading of
the Scriptures in the primitive Church belonged
to the service of the catechumens, the whole con
gregation therefore being present. Two lessons,
and sometimes three and four, were read out of
the Old and New Testaments. There were also
proper lessons for peculiar seasons and festivals.
For a full account, see Scriptures. According
to Hook, the Church of England in the appoint
ment of lessons observes two different courses —
one for ordinary days and another for holidays.
On ordinary days she begins the course of her
first lessons with the book of Genesis, in the
beginning of her civil year, January, and pro
ceeds regularly through the greatest part of the
Bible. Isaiah alone is not read in the order in
which it stands. The evangelical prophet, in
conformity to primitive usage, is reserved to be
read in the season of Advent. Before Isaiah,
and after the other canonical Scriptures, the Eng
lish Church substitutes some apocryphal lessons
in the room of the canonical Scripture that has
been omitted. But though the most part of the
Bible is read through every year once, yet some
chapters of particular books, and three whole
books, are left unread, for reasons that sufficiently
appear. Of Genesis, chapters x., xi., and xxxvi. ,
are not read ; x. and xxxvi. evidently because
they contain little else than genealogies. The
first nine verses of chapter xi., giving an account
of a most extraordinary display of the divine
power — the confusion of tongues at Babel — is
received into the table of lessons for holidays,
viz., Monday in Whitsun Week. Of Exodus,
the first twenty-four chapters are read, excepting
some repetitions and genealogies in the latter part
of chapter vi. From chapter xxv. to the end of
the book there is little that does not relate to
the ark, and other local and temporary particu
lars, except chapters xxxii,, xxxiii., and xxxiv.,
which are accordingly read. Of Leviticus, as it
treats chiefly of Jewish sacrifices, and ceremonial
observances of clean and unclean beasts, and

LES
birds, lepers, &c, only four chapters are read,
viz., the xviii., xix., xx., and xxvi. Of Num
bers, the first ten chapters are omitted, which
relate to the men of war, the Levites, their
services and offerings. Chapters xv., xviii.,
xix., xxvi., xxviii., xxix., xxxiii., and xxxiv.,
are also omitted, as containing similar subjects.
All Deuteronomy is read, except ohapter xxiii.
In Joshua, the history contained from chapter
xi. to xxii., treating of the destruction of several
kings, and the division of the land of Canaan, is
not read. The whole of the book of Judges is
read, and also that of Ruth, and so are also the
two books of Samuel, and the two books of
Kings. The first book of Chronicles is entirely
omitted, probably because it consists of the de
tails of facts which are related in ,the preceding
historical books. Of 2 Chronicles, chapters i., ii.,
v., vi., &c, to xxxvi., are read, extending to
evening prayer, on December 16. Of Ezra, chap
ter ii. being a catalogue of names, is omitted, as
are also chapters viii. and x., partly for the same
reason. Of Nehemiah, chapters iii., vii., xi., and
xii., consisting of the names of the builders of
the wall, genealogies, &c, are omitted. Of
Esther, the tenth chapter, containing only three
verses, is omitted, probably on that account. In
the Scotch calendar chapters ix. and x. make
one lesson ; a rare occurrence in that calendar, but
frequent in ours. The whole of the book of Job
is read. The book of Psalms is passed over as
being otherwise used. Of Proverbs, chapter
xxx., the prayer of Agar, &c, is alone omitted ;
but the Scotch calendar retains it. The book
of Ecclesiastes is read throughout; but the
whole of the Song of Solomon is omitted, as
containing mystical descriptions not likely to
edify. The Jews did not permit this book to be
read by any one under thirty years of age. The
whole book of Isaiah is read, but not in its
regular place, as before remarked, — the first
chapter being read on the 23d of November,
and the sixty-sixth concluding the year. Jere
miah and the Lamentations of Jeremiah, are
read throughout Of Ezekiel only nine chap
ters are read, viz., ii., iii., vi., vii., xiii., xiv.,
xviii, xxxiii., and xxxiv. The remainder of
the Old Testament is read through regu
larly. The whole of Esdras is omitted. The
whole book of Tobit is read, except chapter v.
The whole of Judith is read. The remainder of
the book of Esther is passed over. The Wisdom
of Solomon is read throughout And the whole
of the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Siraeh, or
Ecclesiasticus, except chapter xxvi., and part of
xxv., xxx., and xlvi. The whole of Baruch
is read. But the Song of the Three Children
(one chapter), a continuation of Daniel iii. 23, is
omitted; principally, perhaps, as the greater
part of it is the " Benedicite," &c. The History
of Susannah, and that of Bel and the Dragon,
are both read. The two books of Maccabees are
omitted. The New Testament is read through

378

LET
three times In the year, for the second lessons ;
i. e., the four Gospels and the Acts, for the second
lessons in the morning service ; and the Epistles
for the second lesson in the evening service. The
book of the Revelation of St. John is wholly
omitted, except on his own peculiar day, when
the first and twenty-second chapters are read;
and on All-saints Day, when part of the nine
teenth chapter is read. (See Hook's Diction
ary.) Letters (Epistolcs literal), with various re
ferences, such as, —
Letters Canonical (Epislolce canonical).
— See Canonical Letters.
Letters Clerical (EpLtolce clerical).—
Bishops' letters to foreign churches were usually
carried by the sub-deacons. Cyprian (Ep. xxiv.),
tells the clergy at Carthage, that having occa
sion to write to the church at Rome, he had to
ordain a sub-deacon for the purpose of carrying
his letter.
Letters Commendatory (Epistola! com-
mendatoriai). — See Commendatory Letters.
Letters Communicatory (Epistotts com-
munieatorice). — These were granted to persons in
full communion, or to those who were at peace
with the Church ; therefore also called pacifica,
ecclesiastical, and occasionally canonical.
Letters Concessory (Epistolas conces-
sorice), letters of license granted by a bishop to
a clergyman who was removing from one diocese
to another.
Letters Demissory (Epistolas demissorm, ¦
avrtXvTtxai), the name given in the old canons to
letters concessory. — See Dimissory Letters.
Letters Ecclesiastical (Epistolai eccle
siastical), a, name which, from their nature and
contents, was given to communicatory letters.
Letters Xlnthronislic (Epistolce enthron-
isticw)  It was customary for a bishop, after
being installed or enthroned, to send letters to
foreign bishops, giving an account of his ortho
doxy, that he might get in return letters of peace
and congratulation from them. Such letters
were called enthronistic, and sometimes com
municatory, xoivuvtxai. If a bishop refused to
give such intimation to those of his own order, it
was regarded either as a slight or as a token that
he suspected their orthodoxy, and wished to hold
no fellowship with them.
Letters, Formed (Epistolas or literal for
mates). — This epithet applies to various epis
tolary documents, including commendatory, com
municatory, and demissory letters, because they
bore certain characters or signatures which
showed them not to be spurious or forged. This
term, therefore, does not apply to the substance of
the letters, but only to their form or marks of
authentication. Letters of Orders.— In the Church of Eng
land the name is given to the bishop's certificate
that he has ordained one either deacon or priest
Churchwardens can demand a sight of the docu-

LET
ment from any person offering to serve in the
church in which they hold office.
Letters of Peace (Episiolae pacificai), same
as letters demissory, in which a man was sent
away in peace  the Christian form of blessing
and farewell.
Letters Synodical (Epistolas synodicce),
were the circular letters, or the summons sent by
the primate to all his bishops, when he convoked
a synod. If a bishop refused the metropolitan
without valid reason, suspension or other penalty
followed disobedience.
Letters Systatic or of Introduction
(iruTTaTixai), same as letters commendatory.
Letters Tractory or of Journey (Epis
tolas tractoriw), same as letters synodical. The
term in civil law signified an imperial letter
commanding all necessaries to be provided for a
person on Ins journey.
Levites, Military, a name sometimes given
to the chaplains in Cromwell's army.
Libel, the technical name of the document
which contains the accusation framed against a
minister before ecclesiastical courts. — See Fama
Clamosa. In England, libel, in the ecclesi
astical courts, is the name given to the formal,
written statement of the complainant's ground of
complaint against the defendant. It is the first
stage in the pleadings after the defendant has
been cited to appear. The defendant is entitled
to a copy of it, and must answer the allegations
contained in it upon oath. In Scotland, the
libel is a document drawn up, as usual, in the
form of a syllogism, the major proposition stating
the name and nature of the crime, as condemned
by the Word of God and the laws of tie" church;
the minor proposition averring that the party
accused is guilty, specifying facts, dates, and
places ; and then follows the conclusion deducing
the justice of the sentence, if the accusation should
be proven. By the term relevancy is meant
whether the charge is one really deserving cen
sure, or whether the facts alleged, if proved,
would afford sufficientevidence of the charge. A
list of witnesses is appended to the copy of the
libel served in due time and form on the person
accused. One of the forms is as follows : —
" Unto the Rev. the Moderator and Remanent
Members of the  Presbytery of the United
Presbyterian Church, The Complaint of A and
B, a committee appointed to prosecute the matter
after-mentioned (or *>f Mr. A. B., merchant in
 , a member of said Church) ; Sheweth,
That the Rev. C. D., minister of the 
Congregation of  , has been guilty of the
sin of (liere state the denomination of the offence,
such as " drunkenness," "fornication," or such
like). In so far as, upon the  day of
 , 1848, or about that time, and within
the house of  , situated in — - - street,

, he, the said C. D. (here describe ihe
circumstances attending the offence charged, as,
Jbr example, "did drink whisky or some other

LIB
spirituous liquor to excess, whereby lie became
intoxicated "), to the great scandal of religion,
and disgrace of his sacred profession. May it
therefore please your reverend court to appoint
service of this libel to be made on the said Rev. C.
D., and him to appear before you to answer to the
same ; and, on his admitting the charge, or on
the same being proved against him, to visit him
with such censure as the Word of God and the
rules and discipline of the church in such cases
prescribe, in order that he and all others may be
deterred from committing the like offences in all
time coming ; or to do otherwise in the premises
as to you may appear expedient and proper.
According to justice, &c. — List of witnesses."
Libellatici, those who in times of persecution,
when the emperor's edict called upon the Chris
tians to appear and offer sacrifice, obtained from
the magistrates, by a payment of money, certi
ficates — libelli of having obeyed the edict.
Libelli Pacis (Certificates of peace), docu
ments given by confessors to penitents pleading
for their re-admission to the church. The prac
tice was abused at one time to a great extent,
and discipline was relaxed. The giving of these
papers to the lapsed led in the north of Africa
to very keen controversy. Such documents,
sometimes called libelli pcsnitentiales, were often
used about the eighth century by the popish
priesthood, granting absolution, upon confession
and professed readiness to do penance, to persons
imperfectly prepared for the holy communion.
Efforts were afterwards made to abolish the
evasive practice.
Libertines. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Libertines, a party that arose in Flanders
about the year 1525. The heads of this party
were Copin and Quintin of Ficardy. The doc
trines they taught are comprised in the following
propositions: — That the Deity is the sole operating
cause in the mind of man, and the immediate
author of all human actions ; that consequently
the distinctions of good and evil, which have
been established with respect to these actions,
are false and groundless, and that men, properly
speaking, cannot commit sin ; that religion con
sists in the union of the spirit, or rational soul,
with the Supreme Being; that all those who
have attained to this happy union by sublime
contemplation and elevation of mind, are allowed
to indulge, without exception or restraint their
appetites and passions, as all their actions are
then perfectly innocent ; and that after the death
of the body they are to be united to the Deity.
This denomination permitted their followers to
call themselves either Catholics or Lutherans.
Calvin wrote a special treatise against them,
and their spread in France was prevented.
(Broughton's Hislor. Dictionary, vol. ii., p. 543 ;
Mosheim's Eccles. History, vol. iv., pp. 122, 123.)
A party at Geneva got the same name. They
were the resolute and unscrupulous opponents of
Calvin's church rule, and cried out for a liberty

379

LIB
or license which was little else than practical
infidelity. Libra (pound), the name sometimes given
to the seventy suffragans of the Bishop of Rome,
from the circumstance that there were seventy
solidi or parts in the Roman libra.
Libraries. — Many churches had libraries
attached to them. Thus Bingham says:
"Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, in the third
century, built a library for the service of that
church, where, Eusebius tells us, he found the
best part of his materials to compose his
Ecclesiastical History. Iulius Africanus founded
such another library at Csesarea, in Palestine,
which Pamphilus and Eusebius much augmented.
St. Jerome says, Pamphilus wrote out almost all
Origen's works for the use of this library, which
were reserved there in his time. And he often
mentions his own consulting it upon necessary
occasions, in his emendations of the text of the
Holy Scriptures; telling us further, that there
was a copy of St. Matthew's Gospel in the original
Hebrew, as it was first written by him, extant
in his time. Another of these libraries we find
mentioned in the Acts of Purgation of Csecilian
and Felix, belonging to the church of Cirta
Julia, or Constantina, in Numidia, where Paulus,
the bishop, is accused as a traditor for delivering
up the goods of the church in the time of the
Diocletian persecution. These were all founded
before the Church had any settled times of peace.
In the following ages we find Augustine making
mention of the library of the church of Hippo,
and St Jerome commending Euzoius, the Arian
Bishop of Ciesarea, for his care in repairing the
library of Pamphilus, which was fallen to decay.
St. Basil speaks of the Roman libraries, or
archives at least ; and the author of the
Pontificale, if any credit may be given to him,
ascribes the building of two to Pope Hilary, near
the baptistery of the Lateran church. But that
which exceeded all the rest was the famous
library of the church of St Sophia, which Hos-
pinian thinks was first begun by Constantine,
but was afterwards vastly augmented by Theo
dosius Junior, who was another Ptolemy, in
whose time there were no less than 100,000
books in it, and 120,000 in the reign of Basil-
iscus and Zeno, when both the building and its
furniture were all unhappily consumed together,
by tbe firing of the city in a popular tumult"
In the Middle Ages the religious houses
usually had a library. Some of the monastic
libraries still in existence have an antiquity of a
thousand years — that of St. Gall being an emi
nent example. The Annals of Fleury mention
a tax imposed on all the priories and dependencies
of the abbey of that name, for the furnishing of
its library. Much earlier than this (i. e., the
fourteenth century) there are instances of a
library-tax levied on all the members of an
individual monastery. In many houses each
novice regularly contributed writing materials at

380

LIB
the outset, and books at the close of his novltiat*.
The library of the Benedictine Monastery of
Christ Church, Canterbury, was probably one of
the largest of the English monastic collections.
The ancient classics formed a considerable pro
portion of most of the monastic collections. In
the eleventh century the monks of Monte Cassino
became famous for the industry with which they
transcribed, not only the theological and ecclesi
astical MSS. they had amassed, but also Homer,
Virgil, Horace, Terence, the Idyls of Theocritus,
the Fasti of Ovid, and not a few of the historians
of Greece and Rome. The copies thus made
were widely disseminated. In many of the
monastic communities, both the library (armar
ium) and its great feeder, the writing-room
(Scriptorium), were under the immediate charge
of the "precentor and armarius." The very
usual conjunction in one person of these ofiicers
of leader of the choir and keeper of the MSS.,
grew naturally enough out of the fact, that at
first the only books which had to be taken care
of were breviaries and service-books. Each
volume being a MS. representing a vast amount
of labour, the rules for the loan of books seem to
have been strict. The rule of St Benedict
contains express laws to regulate the annual
delivery of books, and these laws were observed
in almost all Benedictine monasteries.
The precise day on which this annual partition
was to be made depended at first on the will of
the abbot, or other superior; but after the
Cluniac and Cistertian reforms, it was usually
fixed by statute. Howsoever fixed, it then be
came the duty of the armarius to spread out on
a carpet in the chapter-house the books assigned
for circulation during the coming year. After
mass the monks were assembled ; the appropriate
sections of the rule and constitution were read;
and the armarius then proceeded to call over the
names of the monks, each of whom had to answer
his name, and to return the book he had borrowed
a year before. In certain communities it was
the practice for the abbot to put some question
on the contents of the book so returned, with a
view to ascertaining that it had been read care
fully. If the answer was satisfactory, the
borrower was then asked what other book he
desired to have ; if unsatisfactory, the book was
redelivered with an intimation that on the next
occasion a better result would be expected. The
armarius (or his assistant) kept a brevis librorum,
or register, an example of which may be seen in
Herrgott's Vetus disciplina monastica. In the
Carthusian houses the issue of two books at a
time seems to have been permitted.
The literary reputation of Henry VIII. de
serves to suffer more than it has done for the
little care that was taken by him, on the disso
lution of the monasteries, to preserve their in
valuable MSS. from dispersion and destruction.
John Bale, afterwards Bishop of Ossory, writing
to King Edward VI., in 1549, says,— "But

LIB
this is highly to be lamented of all them that
have a natural love to their country, either yet
to learned antiquity, which is a most singular
beauty to the same, that in turning over of the
superstitious monasteries so little respect was had
to their libraries, for the safeguard of those
noble and precious monuments  A great
number of them which purchased those super
stitious mansions, reserved of those library-books,
some to scour their candlesticks, and some to rub
their boots ; some they sold to the grocers and
soap-sellers, and some they sent over the sea to
the book-binders, not in small numbers, but at
times whole ships full, to the wondering of the
foreign nations. ... I know * merchant-man
that bought the contents of two noble libraries
for forty shillings price. This stuff hath he
occupied in the stead of gray paper by the space
of more than these ten years, and yet hath he
store for as many years to come." Fuller joins
in this lamentation with bitter and indignant
sarcasm: "As brokers in Long Lane, when
they buy an old suit, buy the linings together
with the outside, so it was conceived meet that
such as purchased the buildings of monasteries
should, in the same grant, have the libraries, the
stuffing thereof, conveyed unto them. And now
these ignorant owners, so long as they might
keep a ledger-book or terrier by direction thereof
to find such straggling acres as belonged unto
them, they cared not to preserve any other
monuments. The covers of books, with curious
brass bosses and clasps, intended to protect,
proved to betray them. . . . What heart can be
so frozen as not to melt into anger thereat ? . . .
What monuments of mathematics all massacred
together ; seeing every book with a cross was
condemned for Popish ; with circles for conjuring!
Yea, I may say that then holy divinity was
profaned, physic hurt, and a trespass, yea, a riot,
committed on law itself. And, more particularly,
the history of former times then and there re
ceived a dangerous wound, whereof it halts at
this day, and without hope of a perfect cure, must
go a cripple to the grave." (Edward's Memoirs
of Libraries.)
Libri Carol! ni. — The four books compiled
under Charlemagne against image-worship, after
the second council of Nice. — See Iconoclast.
License. — The name given in Presbyterian
Churches to the liberty and warrant to preach,
conferred by the presbytery on those who have
passed satisfactorily through the prescribed
curriculum of study. When a student has fully
completed his course of study at the theological
hall, he is taken on trials for license by the
presbytery to which he belongs. These trials
consist of an examination on the different subjects
taught in tbe theological hall, his personal re
ligion, and his motives for seeking to enter the
ministerial office. He also delivers a lecture on
a passage of Scripture, a homily, an exercise
and additions, a popular sermon, and an exegesis ;

LIG
and lastly, he is examined on Church History,
Hebrew and Greek, and on divinity generally.
It is the duty of the presbytery to criticise
each of these by itself, and sustain or reject it
separately, as a part of the series of trials, and
then, when the trials are completed, to pass a
judgment on the whole by a regular vote. If
the trials are sustained, the candidate is required
to answer the questions in the formula, and after
prayer, is licensed and authorized to preach the
Gospel of Christ, and exercise his gifts as a pro
bationer for the holy ministry, of which license
a regular certificate is given, if required. He is
simply a layman or lay candidate for the clerical
office, preaching, but not dispensing the sacra
ments. Lifters. — It is common, we believe, in Pres
byterian churches, for the minister to lift the
bread and the cup, ere he offers prayer, in imita
tion of the Lord at the last Supper, who " took
the bread and gave thanks," and "in the same
manner also took the cup." In 1782 Mr. Smy-
ton, a seceding minister at Kilmaurs, in Ayrshire,
insisted on perfect uniformity, or that the formal
lifting of the elements was essential to the due
celebration of the ordinance ; but the General
Associate or Antiburgher Synod declared, when
appealed to, that the matter should be one of
mutual forbearance. After several discussions
Mr. Smyton left the fellowship of the synod
two years afterwards. Several people in Paisley,
Kilwinning, Beith, and Greenock, sympathized
with him, and they were popularly called " Lift
ers." A minister of Falkirk also joined him, but
the whole controversy sunk into speedy oblivion.
Light, friends of, a party of Rationalists
that, about 1841-42, arose in Prussia, and made
some noise and disturbance, especially at Magde
burg, where Uhlich, their leader, preached. But
they soon disappeared.
Light, Inward. — See Quakers.
Light, Old and New, cant names of
seceding sects in Scotland. — See United
Presbyterian Church.
Lights, feast of, a name given in the
Greek Church to Epiphany. — See Epiphany,
Illuminated. Lights on the Altar.— Lights were early
employed in the Christian Church, but for no
other purpose than to obviate the inconveni
ence of assembling for worship in the dark.
Their use as a. matter of religion, or rather of
superstition, is of far less ancient date, although
it has been defended as a primitive custom, and
might, of course, be traced even to Jewish an
tiquity, if such a precedent were esteemed of any
value. The practice of lighting candles on the
altar, which prevailed, and still prevails, in the '
Romish Church, was abolished in England at the
Reformation. The injunctions of Edward VI. in
1547 made an exception in favour of two lights
upon the high altar, to signify that Christ is the
true light of the world, and those who wish to

381

LIM
restore in the English Church the symbols and
ceremonies which formerly encumbered it, have
pleaded this exception as justifying them in
placing two candles on the communion table.
But those injunctions of Edward VI. have no
force at all in the present day. The rubric at
the commencement of the prayer book sanctions
only those ornaments in churches that " were in
this Church of England by the authority of
parliament in the second year of king Edward
VI.; i. e., those that were mentioned in Edward's
first prayer book, and were consequently autho
rized by the Act of Uniformity, 2 Edward VI.
We have, moreover, express testimony to the
intention of abolishing the practice of setting
lights on the table ; for it is one of the things
forbidden by certain articles issued by royal
authority just after the first prayer' book of
Edward VI. was put forth, (See Goode's Aid for
determining some disputed points in the Ceremonial
of the Church of England, section ix.) The
opinion of Dr. Hook is different, and he contends
for the lights. Wheatly says, — " I must observe
still further, that among other ornaments of the
church then in use, there were two lights en
joined by the injunctions of King Edward VI.
(which injunctions were also ratified by the act
of parliament here mentioned) to be set upon the
altar, as a significant ceremony to represent the
light which Christ's Gospel brought into the
world. And this, too, was ordered by the very
same injunction which prohibited all other lights
and tapers that used to be superstitiously set
before images or shrines, &c. And these lights,
used time out of mind in the church, are still
continued'in most, if not all, cathedral and col
legiate churches and chapels, so often as divine
service is performed by candle light ; and ought
also, by this rubric, to be used in all parish
churches and chapels at the same times."
Limbo. — The Limbus Patrum, as it is called,
is a place that the Schoolmen supposed to be on
the limb, that is, the edge or border of hell, where
the souls of the patriarchs were detained, and
those good men who died before our Saviour's
resurrection. The doctrine of a Limbus, or re
ceptacle for the souls of just men not yet made
perfect, appears to have arisen from a false ren
dering of the passage of St. Luke (xvi. 23), in
which Lazarus is placed in Abraham's bosom.
The Christian fathers appear to have been a
good deal perplexed on this matter. Tertullian
(ad/versus Mardonem, iv., 34) in some degree
adopts the Jewish notion when he speaks of
Christi et Dei ccslestis sinus et partus. Bishop
Kaye has given a distinct summary of Tertul-
lian's opinions regarding this separate state, as
far as distinctness can belong to opinions which
more than once contradict each other. "He
speaks of four different places of future happiness
or misery. The Inferi, Abraham's bosom, Para
dise, and Gehenna. The Inferi he defines to be
a deep and vast recess in the very heart and

LIM
bowels of the earth. He sometimes distinguishes
between the Inferi and Abraham's bosom; at
others he includes under the common name of
Inferi, both the place in which the souls of the
wicked are kept in a state of torment until the
day of judgment, and Abraham's bosom, the
receptacle prepared for the souls of the faithful,
where they enjoy a foretaste of the happi
ness which will afterwards be their portion in
heaven." — Eccl. Hist, illus., 263. Paradise, as
far as we understand Tertullian, is the place
of ultimate reward to which martyrs are at once
transferred. Thither accordingly the Latin
fathers, who found Paradisus in the Vulgate or
Ecclesiasticus (xliv. 16), supposed Enoch to be
translated. The Schoolmen defined and distri
buted the various abodes of the dead with rash
ingenuity; and it is from their unseemly dogmas
that the limbus has been derived. A few speci
mens from St. Thomas Aquinas may suffice. He
first determined that the Limbus Inferni is not
now the same as Abraham's bosom ; then that
before our Saviour's advent they were the same,
per accidens et non per se — a nice distinction.
Next he decided that the Limbus Patrum, as
regards the quality of the place, differs from the
Infernus Damnatorum, but as to its site, borders
upon it, and is above it. Again, that there is
a Limbus Puerorum for unbaptized children, dis
tinct, secundum qualitatem, as, to quality from the
Limbus Patrum; because the inhabitants' of the
latter always cherish hope of final translation to
heaven, of which the former are deprived; as re
gards the site, they are probably the same, except
that the patriarchs are uppermost. Thus then,
he says, there are five states to which departed
spirits are allotted : Paradise, Limbus Palrum,
Purgatory, Hell, and limbus Puerorum.
The limbo of Dante is placed in the outermost
of the. nine circles of his Inferno. No weeping is
heard within it, but perpetual sighs tremble on
the air, breathed by an infinite crowd of women,
men, and children, afflicted, but not tormented.
These inhabitants are not condemned on account
of sin, but solely because it was their fortune to
live before the birth of Christ, or to die unbap
tized. The poet was grieved at heart, as well
he might be, when he recognized in this sad
company many persons of great worth.
Limiter or Limitour, an itinerant friar
employed to beg or to collect dues and per
quisites within certain limits. In the Prologue
to the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer thus describes
one of the fraternity : —
" A friar there was, a wanton and a merry,
A limitour, a full solemne man.
In all the orders four is none that can
So much of dalliance aud fair language.
Until his order he was a noble post;
Full well beloved, and familiar was he
With franklins over all in his country,
And eke with worthy women of the town :
For he had power of confession,

382

LIT
As said himself, more than a curate,
For of his order he was licentiate.
Full sweetSIy heard he confession,
And pleasant was his absolution.
He was an easy man to give penance,
There as he wist, to have a good pittance :
He was the beste' beggar in all his house :
And gave a certain farme for the grant,
None of his brethren came in his haunt.
For though a widow hadde' but a shoe,
(So pleasant was his In principio),
Yet would he have a farthing or he went,
His purchase was well better than his rent.
And rage he could as it had been a whelp,
In lovedays there could he muchel help.
For there was he not Uke a. cloisterer,
With threadbare cope, as is a poor sender,
But he was like a master or a pope.
Of double worsted was his semicope,
That round was as a bell out ofthe press.
Somewhat he lisped for his wantonness,
To make his English sweet upon his tongue.'

Litany (Xtravtia from xWr-tcQai, to pray). —
The word signifies a general supplication for the
removal of any calamity by which a church,
community, people, or nation, may be visited.
Hooker, in his Ecclesiastical Polity, book v., foi.
265, has the following: — "As things inuented to
one purpose are by use easily conuerted to more,
it grew that supplications with this solemnitie
for the appeasing of God's wrath, and the auert-
ing of publique euils, were of the Greeke Church
termed litanies; rogations, of the Latine." The
term litany for a supplicatory form of worship
among the pagans was early adopted by Chris
tian writers. Eusebius employs it in relating the
devotions of Constantine and Chrysostom, in a
declaration to his flock before he quitted it on
going into banishment. Nevertheless, in an
edict against heretics, promulgated by Arcadius,
the word appears to be used for any form of
prayers in general (Cod. Theod., xvi., tit. 5.,
leg 30); and there are expressions in other
writings of contemporary date, in which Utania
is applied to all worship in its most extended
sense. The council of Orleans, a.d. 511, ex
pressly recognizes litanies as peculiarly solemn
supplications, and enjoins their use preparatory
to the celebration of a high festival. In the
Spanish Church, in like manner, they were ob
served in the week after Pentecost. Other coun
cils subsequently appointed them at a variety
of other seasons, till, in the seventeenth council
of Toledo, a.d. 694, it was decreed that they
should be used once in each month. By degrees
they were extended to two days in each week,
and Wednesday and Friday being the ancient
stationary days, were set apart for the purpose.
Gregory the Great instituted * service at Rome
for the 25 th of April, which was named Litania
Septifurmis, because a procession was formed in
it of seven different classes. This service origi
nated in consequence of a pestilence which deso
lated Rome, and among the various titles which
distinguished it was that of Major, from its
extraordinary solemnity. The Litanies Minores,
on the other hand, are supposed by Bingham 383

LIT
to consist only of a repetition of Ku'jja Usnra,
the customary response in the larger suppli
cations. " It was a short form of supplication,
used one way or other in all churches, and
that as a part of all their daily offices;
whence it borrowed the name of the Lesser
Litany, in opposition to the Greater Litanies,
which were distinct, complete, and solemn
services, adapted to particular times or extra
ordinary occasions. I must note further, that
the Greater Litanies are sometimes termed " exu-
mologeses" — confessions; because fasting, and
weeping, and mourning, and confession of sins,
were usually enjoined with supplication, to avert
God's wrath, and reconcile him to a sinful
people." Sometimes processions accompanied
the celebration of litanies in the early Church;
and Sidonius, who wrote in the fifth century,
inveighs against the unbecoming and unseason
able pomp of dress in which those who attended
them often indulged themselves. Du Cange
cites a passage from the Acts of the Cone.
Cloveslioviense, a.d. 747, confirming the identity
of litania and rogatio ; but showing that origi
nally there was a distinction between litania
and exomologesis. Johannes de Janua terms
litany, properly, a service for the dead. In the
authorities given by Du Cange for the early
litanies, it will be found, he says, that they
differ but little from those in modern usage. In
regard to the Church of England, in the first
book of Edward VI., a.d. 1549, the litany was
placed between the communion office and the
office of baptism, under the title " The Litany
and Suffrages," without any rubric for its use.
But at tbe end of the communion office occurred
the following rubric : — " Upon Wednesdays and
Fridays the English litany shall be said or
sung in all places, after such form as is appointed
by his Majesty's injunctions, or as it shall be
otherwise appointed by his Highness." In the
review of the Common Prayer, in 1552, the
litany was placed where it now stands, and the
rubric was added, to " be used on Sundays, Wed
nesdays, and Fridays, and at other times when
it shall be commanded by the ordinary." So
late as the last review, in 1661, the litany con
tinued a distinct service by itself, used sometime
after the morning prayer (then read at a very
early hour) was concluded, the people returning
home between them. The rubric which inserts
the litany after the third collect in morning
prayer, is formed from a similar rubric in the
Scotch Common Prayer Book, with this differ
ence, that the English rubric enjoins the omission
of certain of the ordinary intercessional prayers;
the Scotch rubric, on the other hand, states ex
pressly, "without the omission of any part of
the other daily service of the church on those
days." In both of King Edward's books, in the
clause deprecating " sedition " and " privy con
spiracy," after the last two words were added,
" from the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome and •

LIT
all his detestable enormities." In the same clause
"rebellion" and "schism" were introduced soon
after the Restoration. The clause for the king
in King Edward's liturgies ran,—" That it may
please thee to keep Edward the Sixth, thy ser
vant, our King and Governor." The clause for
the royal family was added in the reign of James
I., the first ofthe Protestant Princes who had
issue. The litany of the Church of England
differs very little from that of the German and
Danish Lutherans.
Liturgy (Xurtu^yia, a public work, a public
office). I. Liturgies of the Ancient Christian
Churches. Besides the Lord's Prayer, it is evident that
the primitive Christians very early employed
precomposed set forms of prayer, from the appel
lations given by them to their public prayers ;
which are termed Common Prayers (lima) Ei^a))
by Justin Martyr (Apol., i., c. 85) ; Constituted
or Appointed Prayers (Eb%a) cr^at-Ta^in^ai) by
Origen (Contra Celsum, lib. vi., p. 312, Aug.
Vind., 1605); and Solemn Prayers (Preces Solen-
nes) hy Cyprian (De Laps., p. 122). In the
first ages every bishop was at liberty to order the
form of divine service in his own church : and
accordingly each particular church or diocese
had its proper liturgy. But when the Roman
empire was divided into different kingdoms,
National Liturgies were introduced, the use of
which was co-extensive with the bounds and limits
of the several nations and kingdoms. None of
the ancient liturgies are now remaining as tbey
were at first composed for the use of particular
churches ; for the authors of them having
designed them only for the use of such churches,
there was no reason or inducement for them to
be very solicitous either to communicate the
knowledge of them to other churches or to pre
serve them to posterity. Besides, it is not im
probable that the ancient liturgies were, for some
ages, only certain forms of worship committed to
memory, and known by practice rather than by
writing (Bingham's Orig. Eccles., book xiii., ch.
v., sect. 3). This conjecture is confirmed by the
fact, that during the persecution of Dioclesian,
when the strictest search was made for every
thing belonging to the Christian Church, no
mention is made of the discovery of any ritual
books, "or books of divine service, among the
Christians. Dupin, also, has demonstrated by
numerous examples that the liturgies bearing the
names of Peter, Matthew, Mark, and James,
cannot possibly be the genuine productions of
those apostles, from the anachronisms found in
them, and also from their containing doctrines,
and mentioning ecclesiastical persons, offices, and
usages, all of which were utterly unknown to the
apostles, or to the Christians living in the apos
tolic age. A collection of Oriental liturgies
(some of which pretend to be the productions of
the evangelists John and Mark, of the apostle

LIT
James, and of the martyred Bishop of Antioch,
Ignatius, and others) was published at Paris, by
Eusebe Renaudot, in Greek and Latin, in 1716,
in two quarto volumes, which have been recently
reprinted at London. In 1848 an edition ofthe
restored Greek Liturgy of St. James was pub
lished in octavo by the Rev. William Trollope,
M.A., with an introduction and notes, and a
Latin version of the Syriac copy. The liturgy,
or collection of public prayers, contained in the
pseudo-Apostolical Constitutions, is the oldest
composition of the kind now extant; and it
most probably exhibits the form and order of
public worship as it existed at the close of the
third or early in the fourth century. The fol
lowing is the order of daily service, as given in
these constitutions: — After the morning psalm
(the sixty-third of our enumeration), prayers were
offered for the several classes of catechumens, of
persons possessed by evil spirits, and candidates
for baptism, for penitents, and for the faithful or
communicants, for the peace of the world, and for
the whole state of Christ's Church. This was
followed by a short bidding prayer for preserva
tion in the ensuing day, and by the bishop's
commendation or thanksgiving, and by his im
position of hands or benediction. The morning
service was much frequented by people of all
sorts. The evening service was much the same
with that of the morning, except that Psalm cxI.
(the one hundred and forty-first of our enumera
tion) introduced the service, and that a special
seems to have been used sometimes at the setting
up of the lights. — See Eucharist, Evening
Service, Morning Service. The liturgies
formed on the model of that contained in the
pseudo- Apostolical Constitutions, which were
used in different churches, have been divided by
the Rev. W. Palmer into four great families or
classes, viz. : —
1. The great Oriental Liturgy includes, as its
variations, — (1.) The Liturgy of Antioch. It
bears the name of the apostle James, and was
used in churches within the patriarchate of
Antioch. This liturgy seems to have prevailed
in all the churches from the Euphrates to the
Hellespont, and thence to the southern extremity
of Greece. (2.) The Liturgy of Basil, Bishop of
Caesarea, a.d. 370, was in use through the greater
part of Asia Minor. It is ascribed to Basil, but
has since undergone various alterations: it is,
however, justly valued as one of the most
venerable remains of Christian antiquity. (3.)
The Liturgy of Chrysostom, Patriarch of Con-.
stantinople, was used throughout Thrace, Mace
donia, and Greece. From the repeated mention
of liturgical forms in the genuine writings of
Chrysostom, it is evident that an ancient liturgy
was in use in the church of Constantinople in
his time ; but no contemporary writer has men
tioned that this father composed a liturgy, and
it was not until the council of TruUo, held at
Constantinople a.d. 692, that his name was

384

LIT
placed at the head of that of Constantinople.
This liturgy has been greatly altered and in
terpolated, and contains expressions not to be
found in the writings of Chrysostom: for in
stance, the appellation of Mother of God, given
to the Virgin Mary, was not used until after
the third general council held at Ephesus, a.d.
431 (twenty-four years after the death of Chry
sostom, who, consequently, could not have been
the author of this liturgy), in which council the
tenets of Nestorius were condemned.
2. The Alexandrian Liturgy was used through
out the patriarchate of Alexandria, which included
Egypt, Abyssinia, and the country extending
along the Mediterranean sea towards the west.
This liturgy was first ascribed to the evangelist
Mark towards the end of the fourth, or early in
the fifth century. It received additions from
Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, in the fifth cen
tury. 3. The Roman Liturgy includes, — (1.) The
Roman Liturgy, properly so called. It was used
throughout Italy and Sicily; and it has been
ascribed to Gregory the Great, Bishop of Rome,
towards the close of the sixth century. Some
writers, however, are of opinion that Gregory
only revised or improved a liturgy which he found
already in use. (2.) The Liturgy of Milan, also
called the Ambrosian Liturgy, is substantially
the same as the Roman Liturgy until the time of
Gregory the Great. It is ascribed to Ambrose,
Bishop of Milan, who made various additions to
it. (3.) The African Liturgy was used through
out the civil diocese of Africa : it was nearly the
same as the Roman Liturgy.
4. The Gallican Liturgy includes, as its
variations, — (1.) The Gallican Liturgy, properly
so called. It was in use in Gaul before the
time of Charlemagne, by whose decree it was
exchanged for the Roman Liturgy. This liturgy
is confessedly of very high antiquity, and in all
probability proceeded from the Oriental liturgies,
with which it very closely agrees. The earliest
bishops in Gaul were mostly Orientals. Mr.
Palmer is of opinion that the ancient Gallican
Liturgy and rites were derived from the churches
in Asia and in Phrygia. (2.) The Spanish
Liturgy, also called the Mozarabic Liturgy, ap
pears to have agreed very nearly with the ancient
Gallican Liturgy; but the kingdom of Spain
being overrun in the fifth century by the Alani,
Suevi, Vandals, and Goths, two liturgies were
introduced in the celebration of divine service:
that of the ancient Catholics, which was derived
from the Roman Liturgy, and that of the Arian
Goths, which was of Oriental origin. In the
year 563 the council held at Braga (at that
time the metropolitan city of Portugal) com
manded all priests to celebrate mass conformably
to the order sent by Virgilius, Bishop of Rome,
to the Spanish bishop Eutherius or Profuturus.
The council held at Toledo in 633 also enjoined
uniformity, and adopted the missal and bieviary

LIT
of Isidore, Bishop of Seville. Julian, Bishop of
Toledo, who died in 690, revised the liturgy of
Isidore, which has been denominated the Gothic,
because it was used by the Goths, and most
commonly the Mozarabic since the eighth cen
tury, because the Christians who lived under the
Moorish dominion were termed Mozarabes, that
is, mixed with tlie Arabians, who had subjugated
Spain. Cardinal Ximenes, apprehensive lest the
Mozarabic Liturgy should be entirely forgotten,
caused the missal to be printed at Toledo in
1500 and the breviary in 1502, and founded
and endowed a chapel and canons to celebrate
divine service daily according to this office.
(3.) Mr. Palmer is of opinion that the ancient
Gallican Liturgy may have been used in Britain
at first ; and that, from the time of Patrick (the
middle of the fifth century), the Irish probably
used the Roman Liturgy. The ancient British
Liturgy may have been introduced into Ireland
about a century later, and both forms may have
been used at the same time in different parts of
the island. (Palmer's Dissertation on Primitive
Liturgies, in the first volume of his Origines
Liturgical; Riddle's Manual of Christian Anti
quities, book iv., ch. i., sect. 6.)
II. Liturgies of the Modern Greek
and Oriental Churches.
Three liturgies are in use in the modern Greek
or Constantinopolitan Church, viz., those of Basil
and of Chrysostom, and the liturgy of the Pre-
sanctified. The liturgy bearing the name of Basil
is used by the Constantinopolitan Church ten
times in the year; viz., on the eve of Christmas-
Day; on the festival of St. Basil; on the eve
of the Feast of Lights, or the Epiphany ; on the
several Sundays in Lent except the Sunday be
fore Easter ; on the festival of the Virgin Mary ;
Good Friday, and the following day, which is
sometimes termed the great Sabbath. The liturgy-
ascribed to Chrysostom is read on all those days
in the year on which the liturgies of Basil and of
the Presanctified are not used. The liturgy of the
Presanctified is an office for the celebration of the
Lord's Supper on Wednesdays and Fridays
during Lent, with the elements which had been
consecrated on the preceding Sunday. The date
of this liturgy is not known, some authors as
cribing it to Gregory Thaumaturgus in the third
century, while others ascribe it to Germanus,
Patriarch of Constantinople, in the eighth cen
tury. These liturgies are used in all those Greek
churches which are subject to the Patriarch of
Constantinople, and in those countries which
were originally converted by Greeks, as in Russia,
Georgia, Mingrelia, and by the Melchite patri
archs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem
(King's Rites of the Greek Church, p. 131-134;
Richard et Gianni's Bibliotheque Sacree, tom. xv.,
p. 222-224). The Coptic Jacobites, or Chris
tians in Egypt, make use of the Liturgy of
Alexandria, which formerly was called indif
ferently the Liturgy of St. Mark, the reputed

385

2C

LIT
founder of the Christian Church at Alexandria,
or the Liturgy of St. Cyril, who caused it to be
committed to writing. The Egyptians had
twelve liturgies, which are still preserved among
the Abyssinians ; but the patriarchs commanded
that the Egyptian churches should use only three,
viz., those of Basil, of Gregory the Theologian,
and of CyriL The earliest liturgies of the Church
of Alexandria were written in Greek, which was
the vernacular language, until the fourth and
fifth centuries : since that time they have been
translated into the Coptic and Arabic lan
guages. The Abyssinians or Ethiopians receive
the twelve liturgies which were formerly in use
among the Coptic Jacobites : they are commonly
found in the following order, viz., — 1. The liturgy
of St. John the evangelist. 2. That of the three
hundred and eighteen fathers present at the
council of Nice. 3. That of Epiphanius. 4. That
of St. James, of Sarug or Syrug. 5. That of St.
John Chrysostom. 6. That of Jesus Christ. 7.
That of the Apostles. 8. That of St. Cyriac. 9.
That of St Gregory. 10. That of their patriarch,
Dioscurus. 11. That of St. Basil. 12. That of St.
Cyril. The Armenians who were converted to
Christianity by Gregory, surnamed the Illumi
nator, have only one liturgy, which is supposed
to be that of the Church of Caesarea in Cappa
docia, in which city Gregory received his instruc
tion. This liturgy is used on every occasion,
even at funerals. The Syrian Catholics and
Jacobites have numerous liturgies, bearing the
names of St James, St. Peter, St. John the
evangelist, St Mark, St. Dionysius, Bishop of
Athens, St Xystus, Bishop of Rome, of the
Twelve Apostles, of St. Ignatius, of St. Julius,
Bishop of Rome, of St. Eustathius, of St.
Chrysostom, of St Maruthas, &c. Of these, the
liturgy of St. James is most highly esteemed, and
is the standard to which are referred all the
others, which are chiefly used on the festivals of
the saints whose names they bear. The Maronites,
who inhabit Mount Lebanon, make use of a
missal printed at Rome in 1594 in the Chaldeo-
Syriac language; it contains thirteen liturgies
under the names of St Xystus, St. John Chry
sostom, St. John the evangelist, St. Peter, St.
Dionysius, St. Cyril, St. Matthew, St. John the
patriarch, St. Eustathius, St. Maruthas, St.
James the apostle, St. Mark the evangelist, and
a second liturgy of St. Peter. The Nestorians
have three liturgies, — that of the Twelve Apostles,
that of Theodoras, surnamed the Interpreter,
and a third under the name of Nestorius. The
Indian Christians of St. Thomas are said to
make use of the Nestorian liturgies (Richard
et Giraud, Biblioiheque Sacree, torn, xv., pp.
221-227). III. Liturgies op the Church op Rome.
There are various liturgical books in use in the
modern Church of Rome, the greater part of which
are common and general to all the members in
communion with that church, while others are

LIT
permitted to he used only in particular places or
by particular monastic orders.
1. The Breviary (Lat, breviarium) is the book
containing the daily service of the Church of
Rome. It is frequently, but erroneously, con
founded with Missal and Ritual. The breviary
contains the matins, lauds, &c, with the several
variations to be made therein, according to the
several days, canonical hours, and the like. It
is general, and may be used in every place ; but
on the model of this have been formed various
others, specially appropriated to different religious
orders, such as those of the Benedictines, Car
thusians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits, and
other monastic orders. The difference between
these books and that which is by way of emi
nence designated the Roman Breviary, consists
chiefly in the number and order of the psalms,
hymns, ave-marias, pater-nosters, misereres, &c,
&c. Originally, the breviary contained only
the Lord's Prayer and the Psalms, which were
used in the divine offices. To these were subse
quently added lessons out of the Scriptures,
according to the institutes of the monks, in
order to diversify the service of the church.
In the progress of time the legendary lives of
the saints, replete with ill-attested facts, were
inserted, in compliance with the opinions and
superstition of the times. This gave occasion
to many revisions and reformations of the Bo-
man Breviary by the councils, particularly of
Trent and Cologne, and also by several popes,
as Gregory IX., Nicholas IIL, Pius V., Cle
ment VIII., and Urban VIII. ; as likewise by
some cardinals, especially Cardinal Quignon,
by whom various extravagances were removed,
and the work was brought nearer to the sim
plicity of the primitive offices. In its present
state the breviary of tbe Church of Rome con
sists of the services of matins, lauds, prime,
third, sixth, nones, vespers, complines, or the
post-communion, that is of seven hours, on ac
count of the saying of David, Septies in die
laudem dim, — " Seven times a day do I praise
thee" (Psal. cxix. 164). The obligation of read
ing this service-book every day, which at first
was universal, was by degrees reduced to the
beneficiary clergy alone, who are bound to do it
on pain of being guilty of mortal sin, and of
refunding their revenues in proportion to their
delinquencies in discharging this duty. The
Roman Breviary is recited in the Latin language,
throughout the Romish Church, except among
the Maronites in Syria, the Armenians, and some
other Oriental Christians in communion with
that church, who rehearse it in their vernacular
dialects. 2. The Missal, or volume employed in cele
brating mass. It contains, besides the calendar,
the general rubrics or rites of the mass, and such
parts of it as are invariably the same, viz., — (1.)
The De tempore — that is, the variable parts ofthe
mass on Sundays and such ferias, or week days,

LIT
as have proper masses. (2.) The Proprium Sanc
torum — that is, the same variable parts in the
masses for the festivals of such saints as have
proper masses, viz., gospels, epistles, &c, ap
propriated to their festivals. (3.) The Commune
Sanctorum — that is, the variable parts of the
liturgy upon the feasts of such saints as have
not fixed gospels, epistles, &c., appropriated to
their festivals. To this part are added the forms
of prayers used when masses are offered for the
dead, &c. According to a tradition generally
believed by members of the Romish Church, this
liturgy owes its origin to St. Peter. The canon
of the mass was committed to writing about the
middle of the fifth century. Various editions
were subsequently made, especially by Gregory
the Great, who reduced the whole into better
order. This missal is ih general use throughout
the Romish Church.
3. The Ceremoniale contains the various offices
peculiar to the pope. It is divided into tliree
books, the first of which treats on the election,
consecration, benediction, and coronation of the
pope, the canonization of saints, creation of car
dinals, the form and manner of holding a coun
cil, and the funeral ceremonies on the death of
a pope or of a cardinal, besides various public
ceremonies to be performed by the pope as a
sovereign prince. The second book prescribes
what divine offices are to be celebrated by the
pope, and on what days ; and the third discusses
the reverence which is to be shown to popes,
cardinals, bishops, and other persons performing
sacred duties ; the vestments and ornaments of
the popes and cardinals when celebrating divine
service ; the order in which they are severally
to be seated in the papal chapel; incensing the
altar, &c. The compiler of this liturgical work
is not known.
4. The Pontificate describes the various func
tions which are peculiar to bishops in the Romish
Church, such as the conferring of ecclesiasti
cal orders; the pronouncing of benedictions on
abbots, abbesses, and nuns; the coronation of
sovereigns ; the form and manner of consecrating
churches, burial grounds, and the various vessels
used in divine service ; the public expulsion of
penitents from the church, and reconciling them ;
the mode of holding a synod ; suspending, re
conciling, dispensing, deposing, and degrading
priests, and of restoring them again to orders ;
the manner of excommunicating and absolving,
&c, &c.
5. The Rituale treats on all those functions
which are to be performed by simple priests or
the inferior clergy, both in the public service of
the church and also in the exercise of their pri
vate pastoral duties. The Pastorale corresponds
with the Rituale, and seems to be only another
name for the same book.
IV. Liturgies of the Reformed or Pro
testant Churches on the Continent.
Origen, who lived in the third century, says,

LIT
"The Grecians use Greek words in their pray
ers, the Romans, Latin; and every one prays
to God in his own language; and he that is
Lord of every language, hears them who pray
in every language, understanding those of dif
ferent tongues as if they spake with one voice."
Contra Celsum, p. 402. In the times imme
diately succeeding that of the apostles, liturgies
were composed in the language of the people
for whose use they were intended. The Eastern
Churches employed the Greek language, and
the Western Church the Latin, because those
were the predominant languages of the Roman
empire. The Latin language continued to be
generally understood in the countries imme
diately under the influence of the popes, until it
became the policy of the Romish Church to
keep the common people in a state of ignor
ance and blind dependence. They were aware
that this purpose would be greatly promoted by
the continued use of the Latin liturgies, even
after these ceased to be understood. On this
account the Romish divines convened at Trent,
declared, first, that it did not appear expedient
to the fathers that mass should be celebrated in
the vulgar tongue (Canones Cone. Trid., sess. 23,
cap. 8), and afterwards that, "if any person say
that the mass ought to be celebrated in the vul
gar tongue ... let him be accursed" (Ibid., cap.
9, can. 9). And as the same principle continues
to actuate the governing part of that church, no
alteration has been made in this anti- scriptural
practice. At the Reformation all the Protestant
Churches on the Continent unanimously rejected
prayers in an unknown tongue, and, without a
single exception, introduced liturgies for the more
uniform celebration of divine service.
1. The Liturgy of the Episcopal Church of
the Unitas Fratrum, United Brethren, Mora
vians, or, as they were more anciently termed,
Bohemian Brethren, was first published in 1632.
That which has been adopted by the renewed
Moravian Church is mainly the work of Count
Zinzendorf, who compiled it chiefly from the
services of the Greek and Latin Churches, but
who also availed himself of the valuable labours
of Luther and of the English reformers. The
United Brethren at present make use of a
Church litany, introduced into the morning ser
vice of every Sunday ; a litany for the morning
of Easter Day, containing a short but compre
hensive confession of faith; two offices for the
baptism of adults, and two for the baptism of
children ; two litanies at burials ; and offices for
confirmation, the holy communion, and for ordi
nation; the Te Deum, and doxologies adapted
to various occasions. All these liturgical forms
in use in England are comprised in the new
and revised edition of the Liturgy and Hymns
for the Use of the Protestant Church of ihe
United Brethren (London, 1849). Other ser
vices peculiar to this church, which are called
" liturgies," consist chiefly of hymns and passages

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of Scripture, to be sung or chanted alternately
by the choir and by the whole congregation.
These are intended for church festivals and other
solemn occasions.
2. Lutheran Liturgies. — Liturgies ofthe Ger
man Lutheran Church. — In 1523 Luther
drew up a liturgy, or form of prayer and ad
ministration of the sacraments, which, in
many things, differed but little from the mass
of the Church of Rome (Lutheri, Opera,
tom. ii., p. 384). He did not, however, confine
his followers to this form ; and hence every
country in which Lutheranism prevails has
its own liturgy, each perfect!}' agreeing with
the others in all essential matters, but differing
widely in many things which are of an indif
ferent nature, and concerning which the Scrip
tures are silent. The prayers are read or chanted
by the minister at the altar, and the subject of
the sermon or discourse is in most cases limited to
the epistle or gospel for the day (Adam's Relig.
World Displayed, vol. i., pp. 365, 366). A new
Liturgy was published at Berlin in 1822, of
which subsequent editions have appeared with
various alterations. Though designed primarily
for the use of the " Royal and Cathedral Church
in Berlin," it was pretty generally adopted in
Prussia. This Uturgy was subsequently sub
mitted to the ecclesiastical synods of the several
provinces in the kingdom of Prussia, by which
it was accepted, with some additions or varia
tions adapted to each province. In 1843 a
German Liturgy, for the public worship of the
Evangelical Christians in the Duchy of Nassau,
was published at Wiesbaden. It comprises
prayers for Sundays and festivals, besides vari
ous occasional offices. Swedish Liturgy. — A re
vised edition of the old Kyrlco-Handbok (church
manual) or liturgy, established in Sweden at the
Reformation, was published in 1811 : it is di
vided into fifteen chapters, containing the psalms,
the morning prayer and communion service, the
evening prayer and holyday service, the litany,
forms for baptism, confirmation, marriage, and
the churching of women, the funeral service, and
forms for the consecration of churches and of
bishops, and for the ordination of presbyters,
&c. The Danish Liturgy comprises morning and
evening services for all tbe Sundays in the year,
and three services daily for the three great
festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost
(each of which is kept for two days), besides
forms for baptism, confirmation, &c.
3. Calvinistic Liturgies. — Calvin was by no
means averse to liturgies ; and forms of prayer
were drawn up for the use of the Reformed
Churches in Holland, at Neufchatel, at Geneva,
in France, and in other countries. Of these, the
Genevese and French Liturgies are the most im
portant. (1.) The Liturgy ormanner ofcelebrating
Divine Service in the Church at Geneva contains
the ordinary prayer with which divine service
commences on Sundays, a confession of sins,

LIT
and public prayers for every day in the week,
prayers for Christmas and for New Year's
Day, articles or paragraphs which may be in
serted in the prayers for festival days and other
solemnities, prayers for fast days, liturgies for
baptism, the Lord's Supper, and marriage, a
formulary for the reception of catechumens to the
Lord's Supper, the Lord's Prayer, Decalogue,
and Creed, together with the benediction given
to the congregation by the officiating minister at
the close of every service. The whole is con
cluded with a table of lessons which are read
and of portions of psalms which are sung, in the
church at Geneva throughout the year. (2.)
The old Liturgy of the Reformed Churches in
France, which was published in 1562, contains
forms of ecclesiastical prayers, together with
the mode of administering the sacraments, and
a formulary for the visitation of the sick; but
the want of various additional formularies having
been felt after the restoration of the Bourbons,
the Rev. J. M. F. Roux, presiding pastor of the
consistory of the church at Uzes, in 1826,
published a new edition of this liturgy, revised,
and enlarged with various services adapted to
every extraordinary occasion. This liturgy ter
minates with a table of lessons read and of psalms
sung on every Sunday and Thursday throughout
the j'ear. (3.) All preceding French Liturgies
having been found and indeed acknowledged to be
defective, a Specimen of an Evangelical Liturgy,
extracted from the Liturgies of the Protestant
Churches of France, England, and Switzer
land (Essai d'une Liturgie Evangelique extrait
des Recueils Liturgiques des Eglises Protestantes
de France, d'Angleterre, et de Suisse), was pub
lished at Paris in 1846, in octavo. It comprises
forms of prayer for morning and evening
service; hymns for the great Christian fes
tivals in the words of Scripture; prayers for
the festivals, and some other solemnities; the
form (equivalent to the office for confirmation
in the United Church of England and Ireland)
for the admission of catechumens; offices for the
celebration of the Lord's Supper, of baptism, and
of marriage, and for the burial of the dead.
V. Liturgy of the Church op England.
Before the Reformation the public service ofthe
Anglican Church was performed only in Latin,
and different liturgies were used in various parts
of the kingdom. Thus gradually was formed
the " Uses" or liturgies used in the dioceses of
Bangor, Hereford, Lincoln, Sarum, York, and
other churches. Of these liturgies the most
celebrated were the Breviary and Missal, &c,
secundum usum Sarum, compiled by Osmund,
Bishop of Salisbury, about the year 1080, and
reputed to be executed with such exactness ac
cording to the rules of the Romish Church, that
they were also employed in divine service in
many churches on the Continent. They con
sisted of prayers and offices, some of which had
been transmitted from very ancient times, and

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others were of later origin, accommodated to the
Romish religion. In 1844 the Rev. W. Maskell
published The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of
England, according to the Uses of Sarum, Bangor,
York, Hereford, and the Modern Roman Liturgy,
in one volume octavo. And in 1846 he also puh-
lished, in three octavo volumes, Monumenta Rit-
ualia Ecclesios Anglicancs- or, Occasional Offices
ofthe Church of England, according to the Ancient
Use of Salisbury; the Prymer in English, and
other Prayers and Forms. A List of Printed
Service Books, according to the Ancient Uses of
the Anglican Church, was printed by Joseph
Masters in octavo (London, 1850). In the year
1536, in pursuance of Henry VIII.'s injunctions,
the Bible, Pater-noster, Creed, and Decalogue,
were set forth and placed in churches, to be read
in English. In 1545 the King's Primer was pub
lished, containing a form of morning and evening
prayer in English, besides the Lord's Prayer,
Creed, and Ten Commandments, the Seven
Penitential Psalms, Litany, and other devotions.
Not long after, in 1 547, on the accession of Edward
VI., the king and his council commissioned
Archbishop Cranmer, Bishop Ridley, and eleven
other eminent divines, martyrs, and confessors,
for the purpose of drawing up a liturgy in the
English language, free from those unfounded
doctrines and superstitious ceremonies which had
disgraced the Latin liturgies. When the com
missioners had completed it, Cranmer presented
it to the king, and towards the close of the
year 1548 it was ratified by act of parliament.
In 1549 it was published. This liturgy is com
monly known and cited as the First Prayer Book
of Edward VI. In the great body of their work
Cranmer and his associates derived their materials
from the earlier services which had been in use
in England; "but in the occasional offices they
were indebted to the labours of Melanchthon and
Bucer, and through them, to the older liturgy of
Nuremberg, which those reformers were in
structed to follow (Dr. Cardwell's Two Books
of Common Prayer, set forth . . . in the reign
of King Edward the Sixth, compared, p. xiv.,
Oxford, 1838). In consequence, however, of
exceptions being taken at some things in this
book, which were thought to savour too much
of superstition, it underwent another revision,
and was farther altered in 1551, when it was
again confirmed by parliament. This edition is
usually cited as the Second Prayer Book of
Edward VI.: it is very nearly the same with
that which we have now in use. 77*e two Lit
urgies, a.d. 1549 and a.d. 1552, with other
Documents, set forth by Authority in the Reign of
King Edward VI, were very carefully edited for
the Parker Society by the Rev. Joseph Ketley,
M.A., at the Cambridge University Press, in
1844, in octavo. The two acts of parliament
(2 and 3 Edward VI., c. 1; and 5 and 6
Edward VI., c. 1) which had been passed for
establishing uniformity of divine service, were

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repealed in the first year of Queen Mary, who
restored the Latin liturgies according to the
popish forms of worship. On the accession of
Elizabeth, however, this repeal was reversed, and
the second book of Edward VI., with several
alterations, was re-established. This liturgy con
tinued in use during "the long reign of Elizabeth,
and received further additions and improvements.
An accurate edition of it, and of the Latin trans
lation of it made by Alexander Aless, was pub
lished for the Parker Society by the Rev. W. K.
Clay, B.D. It is entitled. Liturgies and Occa
sional Forms of Prayer set forth in the Reign of
Queen Elizabeth (Cambridge University Press,
1847, 8vo). Early in the reign of James I. it
was again revised. At this revision a collect in
the daily morning and evening service, and a
particular intercession in the litany, were appoint
ed for the royal family; the forms of thanks
giving upon several occasions were then added ;
the questions and answers concerning the sacra
ments were subjoined to the catechism ; and the
administration of baptism was, by the rubric
expressly confined to the lawful minister. These
and some other additions and improvements were
made by the authority of James I., though they
were not ratified by parliament In 1661, the
year after the restoration of Charles IL, the
commissioners, both episcopal and presbyterian,
who had met at the Savoy to revise the liturgy,
having come to no agreement, the convocation
agreed to the following alterations and additions,
viz., several lessons in the calendar were changed
for others more proper for the days ; the prayers
upon particular occasions were disjoined from
the litany ; several of the collects were altered ;
the epistles and gospels were taken out of the
last translation of the Bible, published in 1611,
instead of being read from the old version.
Further, the prayer for the parliament, that for
all conditions of men, the general thanksgiving,
the office of baptism for those of riper years, the
forms of prayer to be used at sea, for the anni
versary of the martyrdom of Charles I., and for
the restoration of the royal family were added ;
and throughout the whole liturgy, ambiguities
were removed, and various improvements made.
The whole book being finished, passed both
houses of convocation ; it was subscribed by the
bishops and clergy, and was ratified by act of
parliament, and received the royal assent, May
19, 1662. This was the last revisal of the
Book of Common Prayer, in which any altera
tion was made by public authority. (Wheatly's
Illustration ofthe Common Prayer, appendix to
introduction ; Nicholl's Preface to his Commen
tary on the Book of Common Prayer ; Tomline's
Christ. Theol, vol. ii., pp. 20-29 ; Dr. Cardwell's
History of Conferences and other Proceedings
connected with the Revision of the Book of Com
mon Prayer, from the year 1558 to the year 1690,
Oxford, 1840, 8vo). Hamon L'Estrange's
Alliance of Divine Offices (London, 1659, folio,

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reprinted at Oxford in 1844, in 8vo), exhibits all
the liturgies of the Church of England since the
Reformation, as also the service-book intro
duced into the Church of Scotland in 1637: it
is illustrated with ample annotations. The
Liturgical Britannicce, published by the Rev.
William Keeling, B.D., at London, in 1842,
exhibits the several editions of the Book of Com
mon Prayer of the Church of England, from its
first compilation to its last revision in 1662 ;
together with the liturgy set forth for the use
of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. These
are all arranged so as to show their respective
variations, and the Rev. W. K. Clay's Book
of Common Prayer Illustrated (London, 1841,
8vo), most commodiously shows its various
modifications, the date of its several parts, and
tbe authority on which they rest. An ap
pendix, containing various important ecclesi
astical documents, terminates this cheap and
very useful volume. To those who can procure
more expensive publications, the complete col
lection of the authentic editions of the Book of
Common Prayer, published at London in 1848,
and in six large folio volumes, will doubtless be
preferred. This collection, which is uniformly
printed in black letter, like the original editions,
comprises the liturgies of King Edward VI.,
1549 and 1552 ; the first Prayer Book of Queen
Elizabeth, 1550; King James the First's Prayer
Book, as settled at the Hampton Court conference
in 1604 ; the Scotch Book of King Charles I. ;
and King Charles the Second's Book, as settled
at the Savoy conference in 1662. By the Act
of Uniformity, 13 and 14, Car. IL, c. 4., sec
28, it was enacted that true and perfect copies
of that act, and of the Book of Common Prayer,
1662, should be delivered into the respective
courts, and into the Tower of London, to be
preserved among the records thereof, in all
time to come. These copies are usually termed
"The Sealed Books," from their being ex
emplified under the Great Seal of England.
From the copy in the Tower of London the folio
fac-simile edition of 1848 was chiefly printed ;
and in 1849-50 Mr.'A. J. Stephens published an
edition of the Book of Common Prayer in three
octavo volumes, with notes legal and histori
cal. The text of this edition is taken from the
" Sealed Book " of the Court of Chancery, col
lated with the copies preserved in the courts of
Queen's Bench, and Exchequer, and also with
the copies in the Tower of London ; in the library
of St Paul's Cathedral, London; of Christ
Church, Oxford; at Ely; and with the manu
script Book of Common Prayer, originally annexed
to the Irish statute, 17 and 18 Car. IL, c. 6, now
preserved in the Rolls Office at Dublin. And in
1849-55 Mr. Stephens alsb published, in three
octavo volumes, the text of the Book of Common
Prayer for the use of the Church of Ireland, from
the same manuscript, with an introduction and
notes. Numerous learned divines and others

LIT
have applied themselves to the illustration of the
liturgy of the Church of England. Of these, the
works of Comber, Hole, Wheatly, Bennett,
Nicholls, Rogers, and Shepherd, may be noticed
as particularly worthy of study ; but the most
useful and comprehensive elucidation of the Book
of Common Prayer is Bishop Mant's edition of
it, with notes compiled from upwards of fifty
different authors.
VI. Liturgies of Separatists from the
Church op England.
1. Liturgies ofthe Nonjurors. — The Nonjurors
were those who refused to take the oaths of alle
giance and supremacy to King William III. and
Queen Mary It., on the settlement of the govern
ment in 1688, after the abdication of James II.
The result was that eight bishops and about four
hundred other clergymen were deprived of their
ecclesiastical benefices. This schism continued
until the year 1779, in which year the last non-
juring bishop died (Bishop Short's History of the
Church of England, sec. 801-803). With few
exceptions the earlier Nonjurors adhered to the
Book of Common Prayer, even at the celebra
tion of the Lord's Supper, unless in the prayer
for the king. But there were some exceptions.
Dr. Hicks, whose example was probably fol
lowed by Jeremy Collier, used the communion
office in the first book of King Edward VI.,
which he regarded as more conformable to the
ancient practice; but most others continued to
use the English Prayer Book until the year
1718 (Lathbury's History of the Nonjurors).
The following are the principal liturgies of the
Nonjurors : — (1.) A Communion Office, taken
partly from the Primitive Liturgies and partly
from the first English Reformed Common Prayer
Book: together with Offices f,r Confirmation
and the Visitation of the Sick (London, 1718,
8vo. Reprinted in the fifth volume of Hall's
Fragmenta Liturgica, in 1848, 12mo). From
the publication of these offices the Nonjurors were
divided into two parties, — those who adopted the
new, and those who retained the old offices.
The obsolete, not to say superstitious, ceremonies
revived in this new communion office were four,
viz., mixing water with the wine, prayer for the
dead, prayer for the descent of the Holy Spirit
on the elements, and the prayer of oblation..
These were called the usages, and those who prac
tised them were called usagers. Three other
ceremonies, apart from these usages, are fre
quently reckoned among them, viz., trine im
mersion at baptism; chrism, or consecrated oil
in confirmation ; and unction at the visitation of
the sick, (Ibid., vol. i., p. xxxviii.) (2.) A
Compleat Collection of Devotions, taken from
the Apostolical Constitutions, the Ancient Litur
gies, and the Common Prayer Book of the
Church of England. Part I. comprehending
the Publick Offices of the Church  Part
//. a Method of Private Prayer (London
1734, 8vo). Part I. is reprinted in Hall's

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Fragmenta Liturgica. Among these " publick
offices" are forms of consecrating oil for
baptism, and milk and honey for the bap
tized, chrism for confirmation, oil for the sick,
and a form for the ordaining of deaconesses.
The anonj'mous compiler of this liturgy was Mr.
(afterwards Dr.) Deacon, who, in 1746, published
three additional offices ; one of which, A Litany
for the use of those who Mourn for the Iniquities
of the Present Time, is reprinted in the second
volume of Fragmenta Liturgica.
2. Liturgies of Dissenters from the Church
of England. — (1.) The earliest of these is A
Booke of the Forme of Common Prayers, Ad
ministration of the Sacraments, tyc, agreeable
to God's Worde and the use of the Reformed
Churches. This liturgy was printed by Walde-
grave at London, without date, and at Middle-
burg, in Holland, in 1586, 1587, and 1602.
The text of Waldegrave's edition is reprinted in
the first volume of the Rev. Peter Hall's Frag
menta Liturgica ; and that of the Middleburg
edition, 1586, in the first volume of his Reli
quiae Liturgicos. The differences between the
two editions are specified in the introductions
to those publications. Whether this liturgy
was composed by " Cartwright, his friend Tra
vers, or Snape, . . . certain it is that nothing
more was attempted than a brief and desultory
compilation from the Genevan form of Calvin "
(Hall's Rel.- Liturg., vol. i., p. xii.) (2.) At the
conference held in the Savoy, in 1661, between
the royal commissioners for reviewing the
liturgy and the nonconformists, the office of
drawing up certain additional forms was as
signed to the Rev, Richard Baxter, who in little
more than a fortnight presented a new form of
prayer of his own composition, entitled, the Re
formation of the Liturgy as it was presented to
the Right Reverend the Bishops, by the Divines
appointed by his Majesties Commission to treat
with them about the alteration of it. This form of
prayers was published in 1661, and is now more
generally known as the Savoy Liturgy. It has
been repeatedly reprinted, and will be found in
the fourth volume of Hall's Reliquiae Liturgicos.
The Savoy Liturgy comprises forms of prayer for
" the ordinary public worship of the Lord's Day ;
the order of celebrating the sacrament of the body
and blood of Christ, and the celebration of the
sacrament of baptism ; a short discourse of cate
chizing, and the approbation of those who are to
be admitted to the Lord's Supper ; the celebra
tion of matrimony; directions for tbe visita
tion of the sick, and their communion," with
prayers ; " the order for the burial of the dead,
prayer and thanksgiving for particular members
of the church ;" a discourse " of pastoral disci
pline," with forms of " public confession, absolu
tion, and exclusion from the holy communion of
the church." An appendix contains a " larger
litany or general prayer," and " the Church's
praise for our redemption," both of which are

LIT
"to be used at discretion." When it is con
sidered in how short a space of time this liturgy
was composed, and that Baxter, as he himself
stated, Reliquios Baxteriance, part ii., p. 306,
could not have time to make use of any book
save the Bible, comparing all with the Assem
bly's Directory, and the Book of Common
Prayer, and Haraon L'Estrange's Alliance of
Divine Offices, candour must allow that it is a
very extraordinary performance, in which the
deepest devotion is combined with the most
profound acquaintance with the language of
the Holy Scriptures. The method which Mr.
Baxter pursued in its composition was, to follow
the general plan of the Lord's Prayer and the
Ten Commandments." In 1855 the Rev. David
Thomas, of Stockwell, London, published, for
the use of his congregation and for " evangeli
cal churches and homes," a Biblical Liturgy.
(3.) William Whiston, sometime fellow of Clare
Hall and Lucarian professor of mathematics in
the university of Cambridge, attracted public
attention by his zeal in propagating Arianism,
for which he was deprived of his professorship.
Being for a time suspended from communion
with the church by an act of convocation, he
formed a religious society at his house in Lon
don for public worship. There he employed
The Liturgy of the Church of England reduced
nearer to the primitive standard, humbly pro-
pos'd to publick consideration. This liturgy
was first published at London in 1713. Whiston
believed tbe pseudo-Apostolical Constitutions to
be the genuine work of the apostles, and has
made use of them in the composition of some of
his prayers. (4.) Jobn Henley, M.A., sometime
rector of Chelmondiston, in Suffolk, removed to
London, where he became a popular preacher.
" Convinced of his own abilities and powers," he
established what he called an oratory in Newport
Market, whence he subsequently removed to
Clare Market. There, " under cover of the Tol
eration Act, he lectured on Sundays in theology,
and on Wednesdays in every faculty and science -
under heaven." The first part of The Primitive
Liturgy for the Use of the Oratory -was published
in 1726, in 12mo. In 1727 appeared an en
larged edition, entitled the Primitive Eucharist,
according to the Institution of Christ and his
Apostles, for the Use ofthe Oratory, in 8vo ; and
shortly after, in the same year, The Appeal of
the Oratory to the First Ages of Christianity, in
four parts. All these publications are reprinted
in the fourth volume of Hall's Fragmenta Litur
gica. Henley professes to have taken bis liturgy
"entirely from Scripture and the primitive writers,
but especially the most antient and authentick
liturgy of the Apostolical Constitutions." (5).
The Book of Common Prayer, Reformed ac
cording to the Plan of the late Dr. Samuel
Clarke ; or as it is designated in the prefatory
advertisement, The liturgy of the Church of
England, with the Amendments of Dr. Clarke,

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and such further Alterations as were judged neces
sary to render it Unexceptionable with respect to
the Object of Religious Worship," was first pub
lished in 1774 by the Rev. Theophilus Lindsay,
M.A., who Socinianized the Arian alterations
proposed by Dr. Samuel Clarke, rector of St.
James's, Westminster. This liturgy has subse
quently passed through numerous editions. It
contains almost all the offices in the Book of
Common Prayer, except the order of baptism for
persons of riper years, and the commination ; and
in some of them, as the thanksgiving of women
after childbirth, and the burial of the dead, but
few alterations are made. The great object of the
whole is, to address the entire worship to God
the Father, to the utter exclusion of God the Son
and God the Holy Spirit. Various alterations
and omissions are also made, which are too
numerous to admit of being specified here. This
liturgy is the basis of A Liturgy collected prin
cipally from the Book of Common Prayer, for
the Use of the First Episcopal Chapel in Boston
[Massachusetts], together with ihe Psalter or
Psalms of David (Boston, 1785, 8vo). This was
reprinted in 1811, and again in 1838, with further
alterations. (6.) The Book of Common Prayer
compiled for the Use of the English Church at
Dunkirk, together with a collection of Psalms,
was printed at Dunkirk in 1791. The anony
mous compiler states that he followed through
out the plan proposed by Dr. Clarke. Its devia
tions from the liturgy of the Church of England
are less offensive than those which occur in the
Socinian liturgy above noticed. The affairs of
the congregation at Dunkirk were managed by
a committee : the English Church at Dunkirk
had but a short existence. (7.) The Sunday
Service of the Methodists was originally pre
pared by the late Rev. John Wesley. What
alterations (if any) this liturgy may have re
ceived since his death we have no means of
ascertaining. On comparing a copy of the
edition of The Sunday Service of the Methodists,
with other Occadonal Services (printed in 1826),
with the Book of Common Prayer, we find that
the first lessons for Sundays are retained ; but
for the second lessons in the morning, a chapter
out of the four gospels, or the Acts of the Apos
tles, is to be read ; and in the evening a chapter
out of the epistles in regular .rotation. Many
verbal expressions, which have been excepted
against, are here corrected. Select psalms are
appointed to be read, while others are abridged.
The only creed read is that of the apostles.
The offices for the baptism of infants, or of per
sons of riper years, the celebration of matrimony,
the communion of the sick, and the burial of the
dead, are materially shortened. The offices for
the ordination of priests and deacons, and for the
consecration of bishops, are here altered into
forms for the ordination of deacons, elders, and
superintendents ; and the thirty-nine articles are,
by omissions, reduced to twenty-five. The Nicene

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and Athanasian Creeds, and the apocryphal books
of the Old Testament, are severally rejected.
Some obsolete words are replaced by others
which are more easily understood. (8.) On the
passing of the Act 6 and 7 Will. IV., c. 85, by
which dissenters from the Church of England
were permitted to solemnize marriages in their
respective chapels, some forms of prayer for this
purpose were published. (9.) The Liturgy of
the New Church, signified by the New Jeru
salem in the Revelation, prepared by Order of
the General Conference, was published in 1828,
and superseded all the liturgies which had pre
viously been used by the Swedenborgians, or
followers of Emanuel Swedenborg. Some ideas
and sentences of the national liturgy may be
traced in this form of prayer for divine worship;
but the whole of the several offices is made con
formable to the peculiar tenets of this denomina
tion. This liturgy comprises several tables of
psalms and proper lessons ; but only those books
of the Old and New Testament are read which
"have the internal sense, and thus are truly the
Word of God." The result is, that the New
Church omits to read nine books of the Old Tes
tament, viz., Ruth, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra,
Nehemiah, Esther, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes ;
and twenty-two books of the New Testament,
viz., the Acts qf the Apostles, and the whole of
the Apostolical Epistles; " though" it is admit
ted, " most of the other books contained in the
collection called the Bible, particularly those
commonly included in the New Testament, were
written by men who enjoyed divine illumination."
— Liturgy, p. 153. " In thus distinguishing
these books from others, the New Church does
not deny their truth, nor place them below the
rank commonly assigned them by the profes
sing Christian world." — Ibid., pref. p. xxviii. — .
The General Services contain forms of prayer
for morning and afternoon or evening service,
together with prayers, thanksgivings, and glori
fications, to be used on particular occasions. In
the celebration of divine service " the ministers
of most of the principal societies of the New
Church have adopted the use of white robes,
resembling in form those worn by the ministers
of the Church of England."  Ibid., p. xxiv.
And the congregations are directed to kneel
during prayers, stand when giving thanks or
singing, and sit when receiving instruction. The
Particular Services comprise the order of the
administration of baptism to infants, to adults,
and also to infants and adults together; for the
administration of the Holy Supper ; order of nup
tials, or consecration of marriage ; and orders for
visiting the sick and burial of the dead. These
are followed by .Forms of Doctrine and Instruc
tion, including articles of faith, a creed, and a
catechism ; and by Extraordinary Services for the
ordination of ministers, for the consecration of
ministers having authority to ordain others, for
the consecration of a church or place of worship, .

LIT
and some chants. The explanatory addresses
in the offices for baptism, the Holy Supper, nup
tials, and the ordination of ministers, are almost
entirely taken, even to the very words, from the
works of Swedenborg, The " order of nuptials"
is observed " in regard to those whose feelings
prevent them from being satisfied with the
Church of England ceremony. The forms of
the Church of England," it is stated, "may be
gone through as a civil act, necessary to obtain
a legal sanction to the properly indissoluble en
gagement of marriage; and afterwards, before
the parties begin to live together as husband
and wife, their nuptials may be religiously so
lemnized, and their marriage consecrated by a
minister of the New Jerusalem," who receives a
certificate that the parties have previously com
plied with the formalities required by law
(Liturgy, p. 91).
VII. Liturgies in Use in Scotland.
1. Ancient Liturgy ofthe Kirk of Scotland.
— At the commencement of the Reformation
in Scotland the Protestant nobles and barons,
assembled at Edinburgh in December, 1577,
agreed that they would rest satisfied for the pre
sent with the reading of the prayers and lessons
in English, according to the order of the Book of
Common Prayer, that is, the liturgy of King
Edward VI., in every parish on Sundays and
other festival days. If the curates of the several
parishes were qualified, they were to read the
same ; but if they were disqualified, or refused
to read them, "the most qualified person in
the parish was to read the same." — Keith, p. 66.
This regulation, however, continued in force only
a short time; for in 1562 the Book qf Common
Order, commonly termed " Knox's Liturgy,"
was partially introduced ; and by an act of the
general assembly, passed December 26, 1564,
its use was authoritatively ordained in all the
churches in Scotland. This liturgy was taken
from the order or liturgy used by the English
church at Geneva. It contains forms for morn
ing and evening prayer, the celebration of bap
tism, the Lord's Supper, and marriage; and
for the election of superintendents or presbyters
who were invested with episcopal functions ; the
order of ecclesiastical discipline, of excommuni
cation, and of public repentance ; a treatise on
fasting ; and forms of prayer for domestic and
private use. A new edition of The Liturgy qf
tlie Church of Scotland; or, John Knox's Book
of Common Order, was published by the Rev.
Dr. Cumming, at London, in 1840, in 18mo.
The New Booke of Common Prayer, according to
the Forme ofthe Kirke of Scotland, our Brethren
in Faith and Covenant, printed in 1644, is a very
brief abstract of Calvin's Genevan Prayer Book,
or rather of Knox's Book of Common Order. It
is reprinted in the first volume of the Rev. P.
Hall's Fragmenta Liturgica. — See Directory.
2. Liturgy ofthe Episcopal Church in Scotland.
— The liturgy of the Episcopal Church in Scot-

LIT
land is at present nearly the same as that of tho
Church of England. Charles I., in 1637, made
an unsuccessful attempt to introduce into Scot
land a Book cf Common Prayer, copied, with
some alterations, from that of England, which
produced the Solemn League and Covenant.
That liturgy was prepared by Archbishop Spot-
tiswoode, of St. Andrews, and Lindsay, of
Glasgow ; assisted by Wedderburn, Dean of the
Chapel Royal at Edinburgh, and by Bishops
Guthrie, Maxwell, and Whitford. On its being
sent to London, Charles I. referred it to the ex
amination of Archbishop Laud, and of Wren,
Bishop of Ely — Juxon, Bishop of London, being
too much engaged to attend to the revision. It
was published at Edinburgh in folio, and entitled
— The Booke of Common Prayer and Adminis
tration of the Sacraments and other parts qf
Divine Service, for the Use of the Church qf
Scotland." This liturgy is reprinted in the
second volume of Hall's Reliquiae Liturgical; a
copious bibliographical and historical account
of it will be found in vol. i., pp. xiii.-xxxv.
From 1645 until after the Restoration in 1660,
the Westminster Directory was adopted, but by
no means strictly adhered to, in various instances
(as in that of praying for the civil government);
and when episcopacy was restored together
with monarchy, it was not thought advisable to
renew the attempt to introduce a public liturgy ;
so that, except at ordinations, when the English
forms were used, as far as local circumstances
would admit, no regular form of prayer was in
general use, while episcopacy continued to be
the form of ministry in the established church.
Many, indeed, of the episcopal clergy compiled
forms, to be used by themselves in their parti
cular congregations, with some petitions and
collects taken out of the English book ; and all
of them uniformly concluded their prayers with
the Lord's Prayer, and their singing with the
doxology. Prayers for the Morning and Even
ing Service of the Cathedral Church of Aberdeen,
composed by the Rev. Henry Scougal, professor
of theology in the King's College, continued in
use until the Revolution, when the Presbyterians
would no longer tolerate such superstition as a
written prayer. At length, in 1712, the Eng
lish Book of Common Prayer was universally
adopted by the Scottish Episcopal Church with
little variation, except in the celebration of the
Eucharist. In that service the order for the ad
ministration of the Lord's Supper is substantially
that in the liturgy authorized by Charles I., but
with alterations made, to make it more conform
able to the first and comparatively imperfectly
reformed liturgy of King Edward VI. By the
twenty-first canon of The Code of Canons of
the Episcopal Church in Scotland, as revised,
amended, and enacted, by an ecclesiastical synod,
holden for that purpose at Edinburgh, from
August 20 till September 6, 1838 (Edinburgh,
1838, 8vo), after ratifying and confirming the per-

393

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mission, formerly granted by the bishops "to all
those who profess to be ofthe episcopal persuasion
in Scotland, . . . to retain the use of the English
office in all congregations where the said office
had previously been in use," it is enacted, "That
in the use of either the Scotch or English office
no amalgamation, alteration, or interpolation
whatever shall take place, nor shall any substi
tution of the one for the other be admitted, unless
it shall be approved by the bishop. From re
spect, however, for the authority which originally
sanctioned the Scotch Liturgy, and for other suffi
cient reasons, it is hereby enacted, that the Scotch
communion office continue to be held of primary
authority in this church ; and that it shall be
used in all consecrations of bishops, but also at
the opening of all general synods."- — Pp. 29, 30.
Although the Scotch communion office is thus
established, it is worthy of notice that this canon
does not prescribe what specific edition is to
be used; almost every single bishop, in the
lapse of years, having made additions, and even
some changes, according to their own judgment
or preference. But the edition of The Book of
Common Prayer, and Administration of the Sa
craments and other Rites and Ceremonies qf the
Church, according to the Use of the Church of
Scotland, which was published at Edinburgh in
1849, under the sanction of Patrick Torry, D.D.,
Bishop of St Andrews, Dunkeld, and Dunblane,
was disowned and rejected by the synod of
bishops of the episcopal communion in Scotland,
for the following reasons, viz., — "That the said
book is not the Book of Common Prayer, accord
ing to the use of the Church in or of Scotland ;
that it possesses no canonical authority; and
that neither the college of bishops, nor the church
at large, is answerable for a book compiled and
published without their approbation, consent, or
knowledge." The edition thus disclaimed does
not contain the office for the administration of
the holy communion, which is actually used by
a large proportion of the congregations of this
church. Whatever may be the comparative
excellencies ascribed by different persons to
the order for the administration of the Lord's
Supper which is followed in the United Church
of England and Ireland, and in that (or those) in
use in the episcopal communion in Scotland for
the same purpose, truth and candour require it to
be stated that the difference between the two
offices is most clear and unequivocal — the English
office being exclusively commemorative, and the
Scottish most distinctly sacrificial. Besides
which, the following usages are practised, not
one of which is adopted in the English office,
viz. — 1. The mixing of water with the wine in
the Eucharist; 2. Commemorating the faithful
departed at the altar; 3. Consecrating the ele
ments by an express invocation; 4. Using the
oblatory prayer before distribution, — See Com
munion Service.
8. The Book of Common Prayer, according to

LIT
the Use ofthe Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United Slates qf America, varies as little as cir
cumstances will allow from the liturgy of the
Anglican Church, except in regard to the com
munion service. In 1785 the English Liturgy
was revised and proposed for the use of the
Episcopal Church in the American Union, at a
convention held in Philadelphia, where the " Pro
posed Book," as it is commonly termed, was
printed in 1786. It is reprinted in the fifth
volume of the Rev. P. Hall's Reliquiae liturgical
(London, 1847). This first edition of the Ameri
can Liturgy adopted most ofthe alterations in our
Book of Common Prayer which had been pro
posed, in 1689, by several distinguished divines
acting under a royal commission, but which were
rejected by the convocation then assembled.
These alterations are chiefly confined to such
circumstances of language or arrangement as
time and local situation appeared to render
necessary. The prayers for the king and royal
family are, of course, omitted, and prayers
adapted to the government of the United States
inserted in their room. Various other altera- i
tions and omissions were made, which it is not
necessary to specify, as the second edition,
which was ratified by the American Episcopal
Church, October 16, 1789, is now the autho
rized liturgy of that church. The Athanasian
Creed is omitted ; and in the Apostles' Creed the
officiating minister has a discretional power of
omitting the clause " he descended into hell," and
substituting for it the words " he went into the
place of departed spirits." Not to dwell on ver
bal alterations and corrections, it may suffice to
state that the American Episcopal Church has
adopted the oblation and invocation in the com
munion service, in which it approximates nearly
to the Scottish communion office ; and that there
are added six forms of prayer, viz., for the visita
tion of prisoners ; for thanksgiving to Almighty
God for the fruits of the earth, and all the other
blessings of his merciful providence ; for morning
and evening, to be used in families ; for the con
secration of a church or chapel; and lastly, a
beautiful and impressive " office of institution of
ministers into parishes or churches." A beautiful
" standard edition" of this liturgy was published
at New York in 1844, in one volume octavo,
which, by order of the general convention of the
American Protestant Episcopal Church, is to be
the basis of all future editions.
VIII. Liturgy of the Primitive Episco
pal Church, revived in England in 1831.
The Book of Common Prayer and Adminis
tration of tlie Sacraments and other Rites and
Ceremonies ofthe Church, according to the use of
the Primitive Episcopal Church, revived in Eng
land in the Year of our Redemption, One thou
sand eight hundred and thirty-one, together with
ihe Psalter or Psalms cf David, though bearing
the imprint of London, 1832, was printed at
Liverpool, but was never published. It was

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edited by the Rev. George Montgomery West,
M.A., a presbyter of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in the state and diocese of Ohio, in North
America. This volume is of great rarity, not
more than five or six copies being found in the
libraries of the curious in ecclesiastical matters.
The liturgy of the Protestant Episcopal Church
in the United States of America is the basis of
this edition, excepting two or three alterations
in the office for the ministration of baptism, and
a few verbal alterations to fit it for use in Eng
land and in Ireland. " The Primitive Episcopal
Church, revived in England in 1831," had a short
existence of little more than twelve months.
For a bibliographical account of the principal
collections of liturgies and liturgical treatises,
the reader is referred to Koecher's Bibliotheca
Liturgica, &c, 699-866.
IX. Deistical Liturgy.
In 1752 a liturgy was published in Liverpool
by some of the Presbyterians, as Anti trinitarians
are often called in England, but Christ's name is
hardly mentioned in it, and the Spirit has no
place in it. In 1776 was published A Liturgy
on the Universal Principles qf Religion and
Morality : it was compiled by David Williams,
with the chimerical design of uniting all par
ties and persuasions in one comprehensive form.
This liturgy is composed in imitation of the
Book of Common Prayer, with responses cele
brating the Divine perfections and works, with
thanksgivings, confessions, and supplications.
The principal part of three of the hymns for
morning and evening service is selected from the
Works of Milton and Thomson, though con
siderable use is made of the language of the
Scriptures.— T. H. H.
The Rev. Dr. Robert Lee of Edinburgh had
prepared a book of prayers, and used them for a
time in public worship. Complaints were made
against him, and the following is the formal de
liverance of the general assembly : — " The
general assembly had transmitted to them, from
their committee on bills, an appeal by the Rev.
Dr. Lee, minister of Old Greyfriars Church,
Edinburgh, against a judgment of the synod of
Lothian and Tweeddale, of date 3d May, 1859,
affirming a sentence of the presbytery of Edin
burgh, of date 26th April, 1859, of the follow
ing tenor, viz. : — ' The presbytery of Edinburgh
having received and considered the report of the
committee, given in at last meeting, in pursuance
of the remit made to them, of date 23d February,
1859, find, — 1st, That the practice has been
introduced into Old Greyfriars Church, Edin
burgh, of standing at the singing of psalms, and
of kneeling at prayer, of which the presbytery
disapprove, as inconsistent with the immemorial
usage of the church. 2d, That the prayers are
read by Dr. Lee. 3d, That Dr. Lee uses, and
others officiating for him in Old Greyfriars
Church use, a book, either in manuscript or
printed, entitled, Prayers for Public Worship,

LIT
a copy of which was laid on the table of the
presbytery, and has now been reported on. 4th,
That the order of service contained in said book,
and in as far as it is admitted by Dr. Lee to be
an exponent of the mode in which he conducts
the devotions of the congregation, is at variance
with the law and usage of the church, in re
spect, — That he commences the service with the
reading of verses of Scripture, as an introduction
to the devotional exercises. That after the con
fession of sins certain passages of Scripture are
read, styled Comfortable Words, and which may
be regarded as occupying the place of what
is termed " the absolution" in other liturgies.
That the prayers are broken into fragments ; and
although Dr. Lee explains that in using them
he gives them a continuous form, yet from their
structure, each short prayer being complete in
itself, it is impossible to give tbem that real
unity which is agreeable to the law and practice
of the church. That in the use of this form
the people are directed to say " Amen" audibly
at the close of each prayer, — all which being
innovations unknown to this church, and un
authorized by it, the presbytery enjoin, as they
do hereby enjoin, Dr. Lee to discontinue the same,
and to conform in future to the order and form
of public worship as established in the Directory
qf Public Worship, confirmed by acts of assem
bly, and presently practised in this church.'
It was moved and seconded, — Tbat the general
assembly sustain the appeal, and recall the judg
ment of the synod, in so far as the same affirms
simpUdter the judgment of the presbytery of
Edinburgh, pronounced on the 26th April, 1859,
but find it established by the report of the com
mittee of the presbytery of Edinburgh, referred
to in this judgment, and by the admissions of
Dr. Lee and certain members of his kirk-session,
that the prayers in the services of Greyfriars
Church are read by Dr. Lee from a book, either
in manuscript or printed, entitled Prayers for
Public Worship, a copy of which was laid on the
table of the committee, and is now laid before
this house : Find that this practice is an innova
tion upon, and contrary to the laws and usage of
the church in the celebration of public worship ;
and the assembly enjoin Dr. Lee to discontinue
the use of the book in question in the services
of his church, and to conform, in offering up
prayer, to the present ordinary practice of the
church. It was also moved and seconded, —
That the general assembly, having heard parties,
and after reasoning, dismiss the appeal, and so
far affirm the judgment of the synod as to find,
— 1st, That the reading of forms of prayer is
not in accordance with the Directory for the
public worship of God, and is contrary to the
practice of this church. 2dly, That whilst the
order of public worship, as stated in the Direc
tory, begins with prayer, it has become the
general usage in this church to begin with sing
ing. Zdty, That whilst the Directory prescribes

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nothing as to the position of the worshippers dur
ing the devotional exercises of praise and prayer,
the practice of sitting during the former and of
standing during the latter exercise has become
the general practice. The general assembly do
therefore enjoin the Rev. Dr. Lee to discontinue
the practice lately introduced by him of reading
forms of prayer in the public worship of God,
and do further earnestly recommend to him to
conform to the common usage of the church in
regard to the manner of conducting public wor
ship. The vote being called for, it was agreed
that the state of the vote should be first or second
motion; and the roll being called, and votes
marked, it carried first motion by 140 to 110."
Living. — See Benefice.
Loci Communes (commonplaces), the
name of Melanchthon's well-known Theological
Treatise, published in 1521, and the first Protes
tant system of divinity. Sixty editions of it
were published during its author's lifetime, the
earlier editions being marked by successive im
provements and clearer statements of doctrine.
It consists of fifty-three heads. Luther calls it
" the best book next to the Holy Scriptures ;"
and Calvin, who published, in 1551, an edition in
French, says in his preface, " it is a summary of
those truths which are essential to the guidance
of the Christian in the way of salvation."
Locker, a small cupboard, often hewn
out of the wall, on the north side of the altar,
fastened with a door, and containing wine,
water, towels, and other materials for mass.
It was smaller then the aumbry, though the
terms are generally used synonymously. — See
Aumbry.
Logos. — See " Word," Biblical Cyclopaedia.
— See also Person of Christ.
Logothetes, an officer in the household of
the Greek patriarch, and a general overseer in
the church.
Lollards, Continental. — The word is prob
ably from " lullen" — to chant in a low key, though
some popish writers take it from lolium, or tare,
as if the Lollards were tares in the field of the
Church. They were called by the people Cellites.
— See Cellites. Walter Lollard, from whom
some derive their name, was burned at Cologne
in the fourteenth century.
Lollards, English. — The adherents of
Wycliffe were so called. They were most
numerous in the dioceses of Lincoln and London.
Some, indeed, suppose that the English Lollards
came from Germany. At all events so ineffi
cacious had the measures hitherto adopted against
them proved, that on many occasions they ventur
ed to bring their tenets prominently before the
public. Thus they affixed to tho doors of
churches placards denouncing the priests; and
in 1395 they even addressed "twelve conclu
sions " to parliament, in which they attacked, in
no measured language, the doctrines of Rome.
This and other disturbances induced King Rich-

LOL
ard to return from Ireland, in order to check the
daring sectaries. So far as the hierarchy was
concerned, zeal was not awanting. At a synod
held in February, 1396, Thomas of Arundel, the
new primate of England, procured a formal con
demnation of eighteen propositions extracted from
the writings of Wycliffe. Still Richard was not
very hearty in lending secular aid to the hier
archy. At length the clergy found a monarch
ready to obey their behests. Richard was de
throned by Henry IV., with whom the house
of Lancaster came to the throne of England.
The new king was all the more willing to aid
the clergy that, as usurper of the throne, he
needed their support. It seems strange that
under the son of that Dnke of Lancaster who so
long had proved Wycliffe' s steady friend the
act de Hceretico comburendo — the first of
the kind which disgraced the English statute
book — should have been passed (1400). The
statute gave power to bishops to hand over
obstinate or relapsed heretics to sheriffs or magis
trates, who were enjoined to have them publicly
burnt The ordinance was not allowed to re
main a dead letter. In 1401 William Sawtre,
a parish priest, was burnt at Smithfield as a re
lapsed heretic. Among many other victims we
select such names as William Thorpe, a most
devoted priest (1407); J. Badby, who was
burnt in a barrel ; and especially that generous
friend of the Reformation, Lord Cobham (Sir
John Oldcastle). Frequently had his castle af
forded shelter to Lollard preachers, and devotedly
did he adhere to these doctrines, since, as him
self attested, his whole Ufe had through them
undergone a change. Henry V., the conqueror
of Agincourt, had made vain efforts to induce
him to change his opinions. However little
that monarch cared for theological subjects, he
deemed the submission of the layman to his
priest as necessary as that of the soldier to his
general. He now handed the heretic to the
tribunal of his bitter enemy, Archbishop ArundeL
Lord Cobham refused to recant, and was con
demned as a "pernicious and detestable heretic"
(1413). But during the respite granted him he
managed to escape into Wales, where he con
cealed himself till 1417, when he was captured
and executed at St. Giles's Fields amidst bar
barous tortures. The same sufferings— the
victim being hung, and then roasted over a
slow fire — were endured by many others of all
classes in society. The escape of Lord Cobham,
and rumours of a Lollard insurrection the follow
ing year, were made the occasion for fresh
measures of persecution. In 1414 it was order
ed that all public officials should bind them
selves by oath to aid in the extirpation of
heresy, and that the lands and possessions of
those convicted of heresy should be confiscated.
In 1416 a regular inquisition was instituted in
every parish of the diocese of Canterbury. Still
I stringent measures gradually led the nobility

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and clergy to withdraw from so dangerous a
movement Among the common people, how
ever, these opinions continued to spread ; secret
conventicles were held ; and though the perse
cution, which lasted till 1431, may have crushed
the party, so late as 150 years after Wycliffe's
death Leland testifies that the English tractates
of the reformer were still preserved, and eagerly
read by the people. They were opposed to all
priestly celibacy, even to that of the monastic
orders ; they denounced the . doctrine of pur
gatory, ordained priests of their own, and
allowed laymen to preach ; regarded the Lord's
Prayer as the only form which should be used ;
objected to the lawfulness of oaths, to wars, and
to the punishment of death ; and denounced art
as an antichristian invention, and a means of
sinful indulgence. If such was the state of
matters among the people, the position which
the university of Oxford occupied in reference
to the condemned opinions was for some time
far from satisfactory to the hierarchy. Despite
former ordinances it published in 1406 a Pub
like Testimonie, given out by the Universitie
of Oxford— -supposing that document to be
genuine — in which the character and attain
ments of Wycliffe were vindicated. Whatever
may be thought of this remarkable document,
tbe hierarchy at least deemed it requisite to
keep a watchful eye on the university. Ac
cordingly, in 1408, the primate passed, in eon-
vocation at Oxford, the so-called Constitutions
of Arundel, directed against the tenets of the
reformer, tndications, however, are not awant-
ing that the university still continued " to beget
degenerate children " till 1412, when an entire
change seems to have taken place. In that
year the university appointed a commission to
examine the writings of Wycliffe ; and 260, or,
according to another computation, 298, pro
positions extracted from them were branded as
heretical. A still heavier blow awaited the
cause of the Reformation in England. In 1415
— two months before the death of Hus — the
council of Constance solemnly denounced forty-
five articles taken from the works of Wycliffe,
to which afterwards a catalogue of other sixty
heresies was added. That assembly went even
further. It ordered the bones of Wycliffe to be
exhumed and burnt. The infamous sentence
was only carried out in 1428 — sad to tell, by
Fleming, Bishop of Lincoln, once a devoted
adherent of the reformer. Attempts were not
awanting to confute the tenets denounced by
the Romish hierarchy. Thus William of Wood
ford endeavoured to refute those eighteen articles
from the " trialogus," which Archbishop Arundel
had solemnly condemned on his accession. Again,
between 1417 and 1422, Thomas Netter of Wal-
den composed a work in which he endeavoured
to prove the falseness of Wycliffe's theological
views. But neither of these works was written
in a manner likely to carry conviction. It was

LOL
otherwise with the writings of Reginald Peacock,
Bishop of Chichester, in 1449. Unfortunately,
the evangelical and candid spirit in which they
were composed proved fatal to their author.
He was obliged to recant and do penance for
his moderation, and was besides condemned to
spend the remainder of his life in prison, de
prived even of the consolation of books and
writing materials. (See Kurtz, sec. 150.)
Lollards, Scottish, or, as they were some
times called, the Lollards of Kyle. From Eng
land Lollard tenets spread into Scotland. John
Resby, an English priest who had fled north
wards from persecution, soon attracted by his
teaching the attention of Wardlaw, Bishop of
St. Andrews. He was tried before Dr. Lau
rence de Lindoris, afterwards Professor of Com
mon Law at St. Andrews ; and, on his refusal
to retract his views about the supremacy of the
pope, auricular confession, transubstantiation, &c,
was burnt at Perth (1405 or 1407). According
to Pinkerton, such a scene was unknown before
in Scotland. The burning of Resby is given in
the twentieth chapter of the fifteenth book of the
Scotichronicon. Still these opinions continued
to extend, especially in the south and west
of Scotland. The regent, Robert Duke of
Albany, was known to be opposed to the
Lollards ; and though King James I. was by
no means blind to prevailing abuses in the
church, an act of parliament was passed during
his reign, in 1425, by which bishops were re
quired to make inquisition in their dioceses for
heretics, in order that they might undergo con
dign punishment. This act was soon to be put
in force. In 1433 Paul Craw or Crawar, a
physician of Prague, had arrived — probably to
escape persecution — in Scotland. As he made
no secret of his Lollard or Hussite opinions, he
was soon arraigned before Lindoris, and con
demned to the flames. From this time we hear
little of the Lollards in Scotland, though their
continuance is attested by the fact that, in 1494,
Blackadder, first Archbishop of Glasgow, sig
nalized his zeal for the church by persecuting
the numerous heretics in his diocese. Accord
ingly, thirty suspected persons were summoned
before the king and council. Among them were
Reid of Barskimming, Campbell of Cessnock,
Campbell of Newmills, Shaw of Polkemmet,
Helen Chalmers, Lady Polkillie, and Isabel
Chalmers, Lady Stairs. According to Knox,
their indictment contained thirty-four different
articles, which he informs us are preserved in the
Register of Glasgow. Among the chief of these
were — that images, relics, and the Virgin, were
not proper objects of worship; that the bread
and wine in the sacrament were not transub
stantiated into the body and blood of Christ ;
that no priest or pope could grant absolutions or
indulgences ; tbat masses could not profit the
dead ; that miracles had ceased ; and that priests
might lawfully marry. But James IV., who

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was not inclined to be a persecutor, dismissed
the prisoners, after an examination which contri
buted little to the credit of the new Archbishop.
(See Kurtz, sect. 150 ; Lee., vol. i., p. 13, 17.)
Long Friday. — See Good Friday.
Longinus, St., Hay of, observed in the
Romish Church on the 15th of March. This
saint is said to have been the soldier who
pierced the Saviour's side with a spear. He
was nearly blind, but as the blood fell in some
drops upon his eyes, he had his vision re
stored, was converted by the miracle, became
a zealous preacher and missionary, and after
wards died a martyr.
Lord's Day. — See Sabbath.
Lord's Prayer. — See Prayer.
Lord's Supper. — See Eucharist.
Lord's Table. — See Eucharist, Table.
Lords ofthe Congregation, an association
of noblemen banded together to promote the Re
formation, when they discovered the hostile inten
tions of the queen regent. — The Lord High
Commissioner's the nobleman annually appointed
by the crown to preside at the General Assembly
of the Church of Scotland. — See Assembly.
Loretto, Holy House at.— According to
popish legend, this Santa Casa is the identical
house in which Jesus was born, and in which
Mary was born, betrothed, and married. It was
discovered by Helena, the mother of Constantine,
about three centuries after the incarnation, on
its original spot In 1291 angels carried it
through tbe air and set it down in Dalmatia.
In December, 1294, some shepherds saw it flying
over the Adriatic into Italy. Afterwards it was
shifted by the same supernatural power to its
present site. It is built of stone, and is thirty-
two feet long, thirteen feet wide, and eighteen
feet high. On the right of the altar is the
image of the Virgin, with a face, according to
Dr. Middleton, " black as a negress, and liker a
Proserpine than a Queen of Heaven." "Infinite
miracles," according to a bull of Pope Paul II.,
have been wrought at this shrine, and it is hung
round with votive offerings of vast value from
all parts of the world, for the foolish legend
is believed by myriads. There was a chapel of
our Lady of Loretto at Musselburgh, near Edin
burgh, which had a famous image of the Virgin.
To this shrine James V. made a pilgrimage from
Stirling in 1536. The shrine was popular. The
satirist Lyndsay thus sings of its pilgrims, —
"I have sene pass ane marvillous multitude-
Young men and women, flingand on thalr feit,
Under the forme of fenzeit sanctitude,
For till adore ane image In Laureit;
Mony came with thalr marrowis tor to meit."
Lois. — See Bibliomancy. — While such ap
peals to Scripture, by reading the first verse that
occurred, or by some other profane and fortuitous
method, were condemned, divining lots were
allowed, such as in dividing property, or as in the
case put by Augustine, in determining during a

LOW
plague what ministers shall stay in the infected
city. The disposal of ecclesiastical offices and of
the lives of men was forbidden to be determined
by lot, being left simply in the hands of God.
Love, Family of, a sect which was founded
in the Netherlands during the sixteenth century
by Henry Nicolai. His theory was that religion
consists wholly in love, independently of any
form of truth held and believed. He came to
England in the reign of Edward VI., and under
Elizabeth tbe sect made some noise. In 1580
the queen burned their books and dispersed them,
but they survived in a declining state for another
century. Some immoralities charged against
them do not appear to be substantiated. Of
recent years an Agapemone, or abode of love, has
been founded in England by a man named
Prince, once an English clergyman, but the
strange doings of his household have of late
been dragged to light by a court of law.
Love Feasts. — See AGAP.fi.
LovrChurchman. — See High Churchman.
— In Queen Anne's reign low churchmen were lati-
tudinarian, with a leaning towards Socinianism.
Conybeare thus speaks of the low church party
of the present day: — "It originated in the
revival of religious life which marked the close
of the last and the beginning of the present cen
tury, — the reaction against a long period of
frozen lifelessness. The thermometer of the
Church of England sank to its lowest point in
the first thirty years of the reign of George III.
Butler and Berkeley were dead, and had left no
successors. The last of that generation of clergy
men which had founded the societies for 'the
Diffusion of Christian Knowledge,' and the
' Propagation of the Gospel,' were now in their
graves. Unbelieving bishops and a slothful
clergy had succeeded in driving from the Church
the faith and zeal of Methodism, which Wesley
had organized within her pale. The spirit was
expelled, and the dregs remained. That was
the age when jobbery and corruption, long
supreme in the state, had triumphed over the
virtue of the church ; when the money-changers
not only entered the temple, but drove out the
worshippers; when ecclesiastical revenues were
monopolized by wealthy pluralists; when the
name of curate lost its legal meaning, and,
instead of denoting the incumbent of a benefice,
came to signify the deputy of an absentee; when
church services were discontinued ; when univer
sity exercises were turned into a farce; when
the holders of ancient endowments vied with one
another in evading the intentions of their foun
ders; when everywhere the lowest ends were
most openly avowed, and the lowest means
adopted for effecting them. In their preaching,
nineteen clergymen out of twentv carefullv ab
stained from dwelling upon Christian doctrines.
Such topics exposed the preacher to the charge of
fanaticism. From the period of the French revo
lution the Evangelical party began to assume the

LOW
form which it still retains. At first it had com
prehended many different shades of theological
opinion. All religious men had been classed
together by their opponents as enthusiasts, fana
tics, and Methodists, and had agreed to forget
their minor differences in their essential agree
ment But when the great truths of Christianity
were no longer denied within the church, the
maintenance of them ceased to be a distinctive
badge of fellowship ; and other secondary doctrines
assumed greater importance, as forming the speci
fic creed of the majority of those who had hitherto
been contented with a more catholic bond of
union. Of the tenets which then became, and
have since continued, the watchwords of the
Evangelical camp, the most conspicuous were
the two following ; first, ' the universal necessity
of conversion,' and secondly, 'justification by
faith.' A third was added, to which subsequent
controversy gave more than its original promi
nence, namely, "the sole authority of Scripture as
tlie rule qffailh.' " (Goode's Rule of Faith.)
Low Sunday, the octave pf, or first Sunday
after, Easter, called "low," either as corrupted
from " close of Easter," or because it was Low
Easter in comparison with the previous Sun
day, which was High Easter. It was also
called Dominica in albis. — See Alb, Chrisome,
Easter. Lncernarium (Xtixva^ia), a name given to
the evening service of the church, because ere it
began it was usually dusk, and the place had to
be lighted up with lamps. — See Evening Ser
vice, Vespers.
Lucianists, a party of semi- Arians, named
after Lucian, a presbyter of Antioch, iu the
beginning of the fourth century. The Antiochian
school became famous for a long season on account
of its critical and exegetical labours, and in
theology was the antagonist of the orthodox
school of Alexandria. Lucian died a martyr in
311, and Chrysostom and Jerome speak of him
very highly. Whether he held the opinions
which his followers maintained, it is difficult to
say, though he seems to have been a man given
unduly to speculation, and may have originated
in this way the heresy with which his name is
historically connected.
Lnciferians. — In 360 the Arians of Antioch
chose Meletius of Sebaste, formerly an Eusebian,
but afterwards an adherent of the Nicene Con
fession, their bishop. But his inaugural discourse
convinced them of their mistake about his views,
and they deposed him after the lapse of only a
few days. Meletius was next chosen bishop of
the Homoousian congregation at Antioch. The
appointment of one who had been an Arian was,
however, resisted by a part of the people, headed
by Paulinus, a presbyter. Athanasius and the
synod of Alexandria, A.D., 362, used every in
fluence to heal this schism. But Lucifer of
Calaris, whom the synod for this purpose de
puted to Antioch, took the part of the opposi-

LYC
tion, and ordained Paulinus counter-bishop. The
schism was only healed when, in 413, Alexander,
the Meletian bishop, an excellent man, resigned
of his own accord, in order to restore harmony.
On his return to Alexandria, Lucifer protested
against any recognition of those Arians and semi-
Arians who had renounced their errors. He
founded a sect called the Luciferites, which
entertained the views about ecclesiastical purity
formerly advocated by Novatian. The party con
tinued till the fifth century. — See Novatians,
The zeal of Lucifer on behalf of orthodoxy had
alienated even Athanasius from him. The per
secution he had undergone under Constantius
had sunk into his soul, and made him bitter,
irrascible, and impracticable in his after life.
(Kurtz.) Lucifugx (fleers from the light), a name of
scorn given to the early Christians, because in
dangerous times they met for worship in the
darkness of night.
Lncopetrians, the followers of a person
called Lucopetrus, as is usually supposed. They
were fanatics and ascetics, believed in a double
Trinity, rejected marriage, scorned all external
forms of worship, and adopted absurdly allegor
ical interpretations of Scripture. The probability
is that Lucopetrus is a nickname, and it is said
to have been given to a person called Peter, who
promised to appear on the third day after his
death, and who was called Wolf-Peter or Luco
petrus afterwards, because the devil on that day
appeared to his followers in the shape of a wolf.
—See Bogomiles, Euchites, Messalians.
Luke's, St., Day, a festival observed in the
Greek and Romish Churches on the 18th of
October. Luniinum dies (day of lights), a name
given to Epiphany. — See Epiphany ; Illumi
nated; Lights, Feast of.
Lntherans. — See Germany, Churches in.
Lychgate or Lichgate (corpse-gate, from
leich, a corpse), is a shed erected at the entrance
of a church-yard, beneath which the persons
bearing a corpse for interment were wont to pause.
It sometimes signifies the path by which a corpse
is carried. Leikwake was a term used in Scot
land during the last generation for the watch
held by friends and neighbours in the room where
a corpse lay before its burial. — See Burial.
Lychnoscope (an opening for watching the
light), a name assigned by conjecture to an un-
glazed window or opening, which is frequently
found near the west end of the chancel, and
usually on the south side, below the range of the
other windows, and near the ground. What
purpose these low side windows served in
churches is not now known. Some suppose
that they were used to watch the pasch-light
from without the church, others imagine tbat
they belonged to the confessional, and others as
ingeniously maintain that they were simply
ventilators.

399

MAC
Macarians. — 1. The followers of two monks
named Macarius — one named of Egypt, and the
other of Alexandria. Several ancient treatises
are extant bearing the name of Macarius — sup
posed to be him of Egypt, named the Great, or
the Elder. A good edition by H. J. Floss was
published at Cologne in 1850. 2. The followers
of Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch in the seventh
century. At a council in Constantinople, held
in a.d. 680, he avowed his Monothelism, and
was deposed. — See Monothelites.
Maccabees, Feast of, a festival annually
held by the Church in honour of the seven youths
who were martyred under Antiochus Epiphanes.
The story is told at length in the seventh chap
ter of 2 Maccabees, Chrysostom, Augustine, and
Gregory of Nazianzum allude to the feast.
Macedonians. — Macedonius was Bishop of
Constantinople, and a celebrated semi-Arian
teacher; but through the influence of the Euno
mians he was sent into exile, in which he formed
the sect of the Macedonians, or Pneumatoma-
chians. He considered the Holy Ghost as a
divine energy diffused throughout the universe,
and not as a person distinct from the Father and
the Son (Epiphan. Haeres., 74; Augustin. De
Hares., c. 52). The opinions of Macedonius
were condemned in a general council at Constan
tinople, which completed that which the council
of Nice had left imperfect, and fixed in a full
and determinate manner the doctrine of three
persons in one God.-^See Arianism; Creed,
Nicene. MacMillanites. — See Scotland, Re
formed Fresbyterian Church in.
Madonna (My Lady), the name of the Vir
gin and her images in popish countries.
Magdalens, an order of nuns, consisting
chiefly of reformed prostitutes. Pope Leo X. estab
lished the order in Rome. Clement VIII. endowed
it, decreeing that the effects of all prostitutes
dying intestate should belong to it, and that the
testamentary deeds of none of them should be
valid, unless a fifth part at least of their effects
were bequeathed to the order. In each monas
tery were three classes, — 1. Nuns proper, and
under vow ; 2. Those who, though admitted, were
not fully avowed, and called nuns of St. Martha ;
and 3. Such as were detained by force, and styled
after St. Lazarus.
Magdeburg Centuries (Centuries Magde
burgenses), the name of a famous Protestant
Church History, receiving one of its names
from the city where the earlier portions were
finished, and getting its other name from the
fact that the history is divided into centuries,
and that each volume contains a century. It
was published between the years 1559 and 1574,
and extends to thirteen folio volumes. The ori-

M

MAG
ginator of the gigantic work was Matthias Fla-
cius ; and he was assisted by John Wigand and
Matthew Judex, preachers in Magdeburg ; and
also by Basil Faber, a jurist; Andrew Corvinus,
&c. Each century is divided into sixteen chan
ters, and under the following heads: — 1. A
tabular view of the whole century. 2. The pro
gressive enlargement of the Church. 3. The
persecutions or tranquillity of the Church, and
the punishment of persecutors. 4. The doc
trine of the Church. 5. Errors and heresies.
6. Rites and ceremonies. 7. Government of the
Church, in which are included accounts of lib
raries, schools, power of magistrates, discipline,
and popes. 8. Schisms. 9. Councils held. 10.
Lives of bishops and doctors. 11. Heretics.
12. Martyrs. 13. Miracles and prodigies. 14.
The state of the Jews. 15. State of religion
without the Church. 16. Political changes in
tbe empire. — Such a division gives an artificial
air to the work, though it is well adapted for
reference. It abounds with documents also, and
pays special attention to the history of doctrines.
Prejudices may be detected in it ; but it is a
work of vast and honest research and labour.
A new edition in quarto was begun at Nurem
berg in 1757, but extended only to the sixth
volume. An abridged edition was also published
in three folios at Basle in 1624. Caesar Baro
nius undertook to refute this Protestant work,
the fruit of his labour extending to twelve folios,
and he was rewarded for his toil with a cardinal's
hat. Magicians, a name of reproach given to the
early Christians, and brought by Celsus against
Christ himself, as if he had learned magic in
Egypt- Magister Disciplina;, a presbyter in the
Spanish Church in the fourth century, under the
Gothic kings, whose function it was to superin
tend in the bishop's house the education of chil
dren early devoted to the church. The second
and fourth councils of Toledo make reference to
the office.
Magistrates. — In the early Church magis
trates, whatever the grade of their office, were
under the spiritual jurisdiction of the clergy;
and if they were impious or profane, they were
subject to censure and excommunication. The
council of Aries, called by Constantine, ratified
this ecclesiastical power. Synesius, Bishop of
Ptolemais, excommunicated Andronieus, the go
vernor, for his blasphemies and cruelties, and
with him all his accomplices. Athanasius pro
nounced a similar sentence on the governor of
Libya. Ambrose denied the communion to the
Emperor Theodosius. But such a spiritual sen
tence did not deprive the magistrate of his lawful
civil authority. The Church rendered allegiance
400

MAG
to the rightful governor, whether heathen or
heretic; but she had perfect right to exclude
from her fellowship any magistrate of erroneous
creed or depraved life. The temporal power of
the pope, or his claim to dethrone princes, how
ever ingeniously Baronius and Bellarmin may
argue from this old practice, has no support in
the early history of the Church. She did not
attempt to deny a magistrate's authority, while
she refused him ecclesiastical fellowship. In all
ecclesiastical causes — that is, in matters of faith,
the canons, order, or discipline — the clergy were
not subject to the civil jurisdiction. In matters of
" levia delicto" — lesser crimes — the bishops seem
to have been the judges of the clergy ; but greater
crimes on the part of the clergy were judged
by the secular power, — such crimes as murder,
robbery of graves, defrauding widows and or
phans, &c. — See Clergy, p. 153; Jurisdic
tion ; Keys, Power of. The Westminster
Confession gives to the magistrate extraordinary
power in or about sacred things. The earlier
Scottish Reformers went still farther, as in the
first Confession. The Books of Disdpline are
no less explicit. The First Book says, — " We
dare not prescribe unto you what penalties
shall be required of such ; but this we feare not
to affirme, that the one and the other deserve
death ; for if he who doth falsifie the seale,
subscription, or come of a king, is judged worthy
of death, what shall we think of him who
plainly doth falsifie the seales of Christ Jesus,
Prince of the kings of the earth? If Darius
pronounced that a balk should be taken from the
house of that man, and he himselfe hanged upon
it, that durst attempt to hinder the re-edifying
of tbe materiall temple, what shall we say of
those that contemptuously blaspheme God, and
manifestly hinder the temple of God, which is
the soules and bodies of the elect, to be purged
by the true preaching of Christ Jesus from the
superstition and damnable idolatry in which they
have bene long plunged and holden captive ? If
ye, as God forbid, declare your selves carelesse
over the true religion, God will not suffer your
negligence unpunished ; and therefore more ear
nestly we require that strait lawes may be made
against the stubborne contemners of Christ Jesus,
and against such as dare presume to minister his
sacraments not orderly called to that office, least
while that there be none found to gainstand im
piety, the wrath of God be kindled against the
whole." Nay, blasphemy was to be tried by the
civil judge, but false weights and measures by
the kirk. The Scottish parliament, in 1560,
enacted not only that the power and jurisdiction
of the pope should cease in Scotland, but that all
who either assisted or were present at mass should
be punished, for the first offence, by confiscation
of goods ; for the second, by banishment ; for the
third, by death. It was believed that the ma
gistrate had the same power in regard to the first
table as to the second, — a theory which, restoring

MAN
the Jewish theocracy, would justify persecution,
and put an end to toleration. For example, the
Scottish parliament in 1579 passed an act ordain
ing every householder worth three hundred
merks of yearly rent, and every burgess or yeo
man worth £500 stock to have a Bible and
psalm-book in their houses under a penalty of
ten pounds. — See Sacra.
Magnificat, the hymn of the Virgin; so
named from its first words in the Vulgate. In
the sixth century it was chanted in the French
churches. In the English Church it is to be
said or sung after the first lesson, at every prayer,
unless the ninety-eighth psalm, called Cantate
Domino, is sung.
Majoli, Clerks of. — See Clerk.
Majorcs, a name given to Jewish ministers
in the Theodosian Code, and also by Augustine
and others, to a party called Coelicolse, made
up of Jewish apostates. The laws were specially
severe against them, three statutes of Honorius
being levelled at them.
Majoristic Controversy, named after
Major — his followers holding that good works
are essential to salvation; his opponent, Ams-
dorf, reprobating them as prejudicial to it.
Malta, Knights of. — See Knights. (Major
Paton's History ofthe Knights of Malta, 2 vols.
8vo.) Managers, a committee of members ap
pointed annually in many Presbyterian churches,
and to which is entrusted all merely secular
affairs as to property and finance.
Mandra (sheepfold), a name given to a mon
astery in the Greek Church. — See Archiman
drite. Mandyas, a vestment of the Greek priests,
not unlike the cope of the Romanists, but with
bells at the lower edges, in supposed imitation
of the Jewish high priest
ManichEcism, a system of religion which
was first disseminated in Persia, about the year
270, by Mani or Manes. It rested on the as
sumption of two everlasting kingdoms, bordering
on each other, — the kingdom of light, under the
dominion of God, and the kingdom of darkness,
under the demon or hyle (3x>i), The borders
between the two kingdoms were broken down by
a war ; and God caused the world to be formed
out of the mixed materials, with the intention of
separating, in the course of time, the light from
the darkness, and restoring the old boundaries.
After men had long been led astray by false
religions (heathen and Jewish), Christ came down
in the appearance of a body, to lead them to the
worship of the true God. But his teaching was
not fully understood even by his apostles ; and
therefore he promised to send in due time a
still greater apostle, the Paraclete, who should
effectually separate truth from falsehood. This
Paraclete appeared in Mani. Accordingly, his
followers rejected entirely the Old Testament,
and regarded so much of the New as answered

401

2D

MAN
their purpose as remnants of the truth. The
only writings wholly to be accounted canoni
cal were those of Mani. Their morality was
most rigid, and the privations imposed on the
baptized were so severe that it was usual for
most of the adherents of the sect to remain as
long as possible in the condition of catechumens.
A close union was preserved among them, under
the superintendence of a president, twelve mas
ters, and seventy-two bishops. Mani was put
to death about 275 ; but the sect soon spread
into proconsular Asia, and even into Africa and
Italy, although they were vehemently opposed
by the Catholic Church, and persecuted by the
heathen emperors, who enacted bloody laws
against them, as a sect derived from hostile
Persia. We hear of them as still existing so
late as the fifteenth century. It is a, remark
able circumstance in their history, that though
they could not stand openly against the power
and severity of their persecutors, they con
tinued for ages to make proselytes in secret.
Their doctrines lurked even among the clergy and
the monks. Augustine fell under their influence,
and was a member of the sect from his twentieth
to his twenty-ninth year (374-383). They still
were to be found in Leo's time, 440. The Arian
Hunneric, in 477, began his reign with attempts
to persecute them, and was mortified to find
most of those whom he detected had professed
to be lay or clerical members of his own sect.
Gregory the Great, about 600, had to take means
for extirpating them from Africa; and even
after his pontificate traces of them appeared now
and then in Italy, as well as other countries,
threatening danger to the church. But about
the year 1000 they emerged from obscurity,
and spread from Italy into other countries.
Among the works of Manes may be reckoned
four books, sometimes ascribed to Terebinthus
and sometimes to , Scythian, entitled the Mys-
teries, the Chapters or Heads, the Gospel, and
the Treasure. In the Mysteries Manes endea
voured to demonstrate the doctrine of two prin
ciples from the mixture of good and evil which
is found in the world. He grounded his reason
ing on the argument that, if there were one sole
cause, simple, perfect, and good in the highest
degree, the whole, corresponding with the nature
and will of that cause, would show simplicity,
perfection, and goodness, and everything would
be immortal, holy, and happy, like himself.
The Chapters contained a summary of the chief
articles of the Manichasan scheme. Of the Gos
pel nothing certain can be asserted. Beausobre,
apparently without sufficient grounds, considers
it as a collection of the meditations and pre
tended revelations of Manes. The Treasure, or
Treasure of life may, perhaps, have derived its
name from the words of Christ, wherein he com
pares his doctrine to a treasure hid in a field.
Manas also wrote other works and letters, and
among them tha Epistle of the Foundation, of

MAN
which we have fragments still extant in St.
Augustine, who undertook to refute it His
works appear to have been originally written,
some in Syriac, some in Persic. And if the Cathari
and other sects of that kind, cannot be thoroughly
identified with them, it is probable that there
may have been some ground for the charge of
Manichseism universally brought against the
heretics who appeared in the twelfth century,
under various names, in the south of France,
north of Italy, &c. (Walch, Fiiesslin, Halm.)
Maniple, a portion of the Romish priests'
dress during celebration of mass. It is used
to wipe away perspiration, or to clean the sacred
vessels. It was originally a strip of linen,
hanging from the left arm, but was in course of
time fringed and embroidered. It is not retained
in the Church of England. — See Epigonato.n,
Epimanicia. Manse, the name usually given in Scotland
to the house of the minister. In unendowed
churches the manse is the property of the church,
erected and maintained by it. In the established
church it is built and maintained by law, and
belongs to the heritors. Dunlop says, — " While
manses and houses which had belonged to the
popish clergy were still standing, these of course
fell to be first designed for a manse, and an
order of designation, similar to that prescribed
by the act 1593 as to glebes, seems to have
been followed. — See Glebes. A minister ac
cordingly was not allowed to have a manse
designed to him within the precincts of an abbey
or bishop's palace, if there was a parson's or
vicar's manse in the parish ; nor was he entitled
to any house which, though erected on church
lands, had not of old belonged to any kirkman,
or incumbent serving at the church. Where
there is no manse in a parish, the minister is
entitled to have designed to him, by the presby
tery of the bounds, half-an-acre of land for the
manse, offices, and garden, and to have the heri
tors ordained to erect a manse and offices thereon.
The statutes regarding manses require that they
shall be situated near the parish church ; and in
general the manse and glebe are contiguous,
The presbytery are of course, in the designation
of a new manse, entitled, in the first instance, to
fix its situation ; and even in the case of an old
manse to be rebuilt, they may fix on a new situa
tion, always, of course, within the ground or
glebe allotted to the minister. The act 1663
provides, ' that where competent manses are not
already built,' the heritors shall ' build competent
manses to their ministers, the expenses thereof
not exceeding one thousand pounds, and not
being beneath five hundred merks ; ' and it haa
been questioned whether, in respect of the phrase
1 competent manses,' heritors can be compelled to
expend a greater sum than £1,000 Scots on the
erection of a manse." Hill says, " The law of
Scotland provides the minister of every country
parish with a dwelling-house, called a manse, a

402

MAN
garden, a glebe, of not less than four acres of
arable land, designed out of lands in the parish
near the manse, and with grass, over and above
the glebe, for one horse and two cows ; and with
the out-houses necessary for the management of
his small farm. As the act James VI., pari. 3,
c 48, declares that the manse and glebe shall be
marked and designed by the archbishop, bishop,
superintendent, or commissioner of each diocese
or province, upon whose testimonial being pre
sented by the minister, the Lords of Council and
Session are instructed to direct letters, charging
the former occupiers to remove, and entering the
minister to possession; as the act Charles II.,
parL 1, sess. 3, c. 21, ordains, that the heritors
of the parish, at the sight of the bishop of the
diocese, or such ministers as he shall appoint,
with two or three of the most knowing and dis
creet men of the parish, build competent manses
to the ministers ; and as, by the settlement of
presbyterian government in Scotland, the pres
bytery has come in place of the bishop, all
applications concerning manses and glebes are
made, in the first instance, to the presbytery of
the bounds. After taking the regular steps suit
able to the nature of the business, which, as a
civil court specially constituted for that purpose,
they are called to discuss, the presbytery pro
nounce a decreet; and their sentence, unless
brought by a bill of suspension before the Court
of Session, is binding upon all concerned." Prior
to the Reformation canon xiii. ordained that
every parish should have a dwelling for the
minister, built at the expense of the parsons and
their vicars, the support of it afterwards falling
as a burden on the vicars. By the general
assembly of 1563 ministers having manses were
required to live in them.
Mansionarii (vraf>up,ovd(>iti), a class of func
tionaries who were not oily keepers of churches,
but especially bailiffs or stewards of the glebes or
lands belonging to the church or the bishop.
Marcellians, followers, in the fourth cen
tury, of Mareellus, Bishop of Ancyra, in Galatia.
If confidence may be placed in Eusebius of
Csesarea and in his other adversaries, Mareellus
so explained the mystery of the holy Trinity as
to fall into the Sabellian and Samosatenian errors.
Yet there are many who think that both Euse
bius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea un
fairly represent his sentiments, because he gave
offence hy the severity of his attacks upon the
Arians and upon the bishops who favoured them.
But admitting that his accusers were influenced
in some respects by their hatred of the man, it is
certain that their accusations were not altogether
groundless ; for it appears, from a careful exami
nation of the whole subject, that Mareellus con
sidered the Son and the Holy Spirit as two
emanations from the divine nature, which, after
performing their respective offices, were to return
back into the substance of the Father, and who
ever believed so could not, without self-contra-

MAR
diction, hold the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit,
to differ from each other in the manner of dis
tinct persons. Mareellus increased the odium
and suspicions against him by refusing, in the
last years of his life, to condemn Photinus, his
disciple. Mareellus and his friends always de
nied that they were Sabellians, though the lan
guage they employed would almost lead one to
believe the accusation against them, — that they
believed in a phenomenal and not in an immanent
Trinity. Marcionites, an important sect of Gnostics,
whose founder, Marcion, was son of a bishop of
Sinope. He came to Rome between a.d. 140
and 150, and attached himself to the Syrian
teacher, Cerdon. The system which he developed
was widely distinguished from those of all the
other heresiarchs. He assumed three moral prin
ciples : — the good God, all love ; the Demiurge,
all justice, and of whom it is doubtful whether
Marcion meant to teach that he was an emana
tion from God or an independent existence;
and the god of matter, all evil. Mankind were
created by the Demiurge; and, having fallen
from the state in which he made them, they
received from him a promise of his son to restore
them. But as this gave a prospect, at best, of
very limited happiness, the good God determined
to send his own Son into tbe world ; and accord
ingly Christ came down, clothed in a phantastic
body, and suddenly appeared at Capernaum,
revealing to men the God of whom before they
had known nothing. Those who believe in him
and lead holy lives, out of love to the good God,
are to be exalted to his heavenly kingdom. The
rest are to be left to the strict justice of the Demi
urge. The disciples of Marcion were required to
be extremely strict in their manner of living,
abstaining from marriage and from all earthly
pleasures, and confining themselves to the simplest
diet. Marcion's Gospel, so called, was a mutila
tion of the canonical Luke, and he received
only ten epistles of Paul. Though Marcion ad
mitted that Jesus was Christ, the Son of tha
good God, he would not allow that he was the
Christ, or Messiah, foretold by the prophets, and
son of the Demiurge. This last was, according
to his account, a Saviour promised to the Jewish
nation and yet to come, in order to free them
from their enemies. The latter was designed to
restore the state of the dispersed Jews, the former
to deliver the whole human race. He denied
that the descriptions given of Christ in the Old
Testament corresponded with the accounts of
him in the New. Marcion appears to have ad
mitted, in the main, the Gospel account of the
death and resurrection of Christ. He ascribed
his crucifixion to the powers subject to the Demi
urge, who had jealously observed that tbe Good
Being was destroying the law. The Creator
was not aware that the death, or the apparent
death, of Christ (for a pure spirit could not suffer
death) would procure the salvation of mankind —

MAR
i. e., their deliverance from the ancient law, and
their adoption as children of the perfect Father,
and heirs of eternal life. Thus, then, Marcion
endeavoured to trace the difference between the
Deity, all-powerful and perfectly good, and the
Demiurge, just in his intentions, but weak and
imperfect, and also between the Christ of the
former and the Christ of the latter.
Marcosians. — See Valentinians.
Margaret's, St., Day, two festivals, one
held on 21st of February, and another on 20th
of July.
Mariolatry (worship of Mary), a prevalent
and characteristic form of Romish worship. — See
Mary.
Mark's, St., Day, a festival observed on the
25th of April by the Greek and Romish Churches.
Maronites, the name of the Syrian Chris
tians which inhabit the districts on and around
Mount Lebanon, and who seem to have been
driven to this asylum at the great Mohamme
dan invasion of the seventh century. At an
early period they adopted Monothelite opinions,
which they have long abjured; indeed, the pre
sent patriarch denied that ever they held them.
For five centuries they maintained ecclesias
tical independence. But the Church of Rome
at length got the supremacy. Gregory XIII.
founded a Maronite college at Rome; Pope
Clement XII. summoned the great council of
Lebanon in 1736 ; and its enactments guide the
Maronites to the present day. The subjection
to Rome, however, is far from being complete.
The patriarch styles himself Peter, as if claim
ing to be the apostle's representative and suc
cessor. Dr. Wilson says, — " They have been
allowed to maintain most of their own cus
toms and observances, however much at vari
ance with those which Rome is usually content
to sanction. They are allowed to preserve their
own ecclesiastical language, the Syriac ; while
Rome has shown her partiality for the Latin
rite, by bringing it into use wherever practicable.
They dispense the communion in both kinds,
dipping the bread in wine before its distribution
among the people. Though they now observe
the Roman calendar, as far as the time of feasts
and fasts is concerned, they recognize local saints,
which have no place in its commemorations.
They have retained the custom of the man-iage
of their clergy previous to their ordination.
Though they profess to be zealous partizans of
Rome, it dare not so count upon their attachment
as to force upon them all that in ordinary circum
stances it thinks desirable. In order to secure
its present influence over them it is subjected to
an expense of no small magnitude." The patri
arch, who is elected by the bishops, but receives
investiture from Rome, has jurisdiction over nine
sees. There are 356 churches, with about 1,000
priests. The priests are of two orders, — episcopal
priests and common priests, the latter being
again divided into monastic and parochial priests.

MAR
A United Presbyterian missionary in the East,
and a native, says, " The Maronites have three
orders of monks. The convents and cenobia are
about seventy in number, are well endowed, and
contain above one thousand monks and five
hundred nuns. Some of the convents are under
the supervision of the patriarch, and others under
the bishops, though each convent has its supe
rior, and each order its superior-general. The
monks, by the rules of their order, are not
allowed to smoke or eat meat. The latter, how
ever, is permitted in case of sickness, by the
order of the physician and the consent of the
superior. In making long journeys the bishop
may give the same permission, provided they
shall not indulge in it on the days in which its
use is forbidden by the canons of the Church.
Much stress is laid on the nunneries being built
at a distance from the convents ; and no nun or
woman is allowed to enter a convent, nor a monk
to enter a nunnery, except on occasions of great
necessity, and with strict limitation. The
monks are employed in their prayers, and in
various occupations of industry; the lay-brothers
tilling the lands of the convents, making shoes,
weaving, begging, &c. ; and the priests applying
themselves to study, copying books, and other
matters befitting the dignity of their office. The
nuns are taught to read and sew. Both the
monks and nuns vow the three conditions of a
monastic life, — namely, chastity, poverty, and
obedience ; and taken as a whole, both are ex
tremely ignorant and bigoted." The converts are
numerous, but depraved. In fact, through ig
norance, superstition, and fanaticism, Druse and
Maronite are often only distinguishable in name.
At the present moment (1860) the public jour
nals are' filled with deplorable accounts of revolt
ing havoc and massacre done by the wild Druses
on the Maronites, the Turkish government being
either too feeble or too indifferent to protect its
Christian subjects from violence and murder,
(Wortabet'sjBe%iore in the East, London, 1860.)
Marriage. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. — In
the earliest periods of the Church, marriage
was honoured, according to apostolic mandate
and after the example of Him who wrought his
first miracle at the nuptial feast of Cana. But
ascetic notions soon began to prevail, and iu the
course of time celibacy was reckoned among the
highest virtues. Celibates formed a select and
higher circle, the masses round about them being
scorned or pitied, since they married and were
given in marriage, multiplied and replenished
the earth. It was never apparently asked by
those who looked on marriage as worldly and
unholy, how, without it, the Redeemer was to see
his seed, and how the house of many mansions
was to be, tilled. The heretics Marcion and Ta-
tian were among the first who railed against
marriage — as Simon Magus is said, on the other
hand, to have taught in his day a plurality of
wives. The Gnostics and Manichseans also re-

404

MAR
jected marriage; indeed, "forbidding to marry"
has characterized fanatics in every age. Reli
gious error has, according to temperament and
circumstances oscillated between polygamy and
celibacy. The canons of the Gangran council,
held about 340, reveal the state of the age : —
" 1. If any one reproach marriage, or have in
abomination the religious woman, that is a com
municant and sleeps with her husband, as one
that cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven, let
him be anathema. 4. If any one condemn a mar
ried presbyter, as if he ought not to partake of
the oblation when he performs the liturgy, let
him be anathema. 9. If any one live a virgin,
or contain, as abominating marriage (while he
Hves in a retired state), and not for the beauty
and sanctity of a virgin life, let him be anathema.
10. If one of those who live a virgin life for the
Lord's sake Insult those who are married, let
him be anathema. 14. If any woman, abomi
nating marriage, desert her husband, and will
become a recluse, let her be anathema." (See also
Isaac Taylor's Ancient Christianity.)
While the state ordained civil marriage laws,
the Church claimed the power of ethical or spirit
ual regulation. Christians were not to marry with
infidels, heretics, or Jews : they were to marry
only in the Lord. Cyprian, Tertullian, Jerome,
and Ambrose, insist on this at length. Various
councils urged the same doctrine. Thus the
council of Laodicea, — " 10. That they of the
Church are not to marry their children promis
cuously to heretics. 31. That we ought not to
make matches, or give our sons and daughters
to every heretic ; but rather to accept of them if
they will promise to become Christians." Bing
ham adds, — "The prohibition, in the third council
of Carthage, extends only to the sons and daugh
ters of bishops and the clergy, that they should
not marry with Gentiles, heretics, or schismatics ;
but particularly mention no others. The coun
cil of Agde runs in the same words with the
council of Laodicea, — ' That none shall marry
with heretics, unless they promise to become
Catholic Christians.' And so the council of
Chalcedon forbids the readers and singers among
the inferior clergy to marry either Jew, Gentile,
or heretic, unless they would promise to embrace
the orthodox faith; and this is enjoined the
clergy under pain of canonical censure. But the
first council of Aries goes a little further with re
spect to the whole body of Christians, and orders,
' That if any virgins who are believers be married
to Gentiles, they shall for some time be separated
from communion.' The council of Eliberis not
only forbids such marriages in one canon, for fear
of spiritual adultery (that is, apostacy from the
faith), though there was a pretence that young
women were so numerous, they could not find
Christian husbands enough for them, but also,
in another canon, orders such parents as gave
their daughters in marriage to Jews or heretics
to be five years cast out of the communion of the

MAR
Church. And a third canon orders, ' That if
any parents married their daughters to idol
priests, they should not be received into com
munion even at their last hour.' The second
council of Orleans forbids all Christians to marry
Jews, because all such marriages were deemed
unlawful ; and if any, upon admonition, refused
to dissolve such marriages, they were to be de
nied all benefit of communion. Nor was the civil
law wanting to confirm ecclesiastical with its sanc
tion." — See Jews. Again, children were not to
marry without consent of their parents, nor
slaves without that of their masters. Guar
dians were prohibited from marrying orphans
during their minority; and a judge was not
to marry a woman of his province during the
period of his administration. Penitents were
not to marry during the period of their penance ;
nor a widow till a year after her husband's
death, under pain of forfeiting her goods. A
wife was not to contract a marriage in her hus
band's absence, till fully certified of his death ;
for, by the council of Trullo, if the first husband
re-appeared, he might claim her, and the second
marriage was set aside; but a soldier's wife
might marry after four years' absence on the part
of her husband, if she had no proof of his survival.
Certain degrees of consanguinity always proved
a bar to marriage, and a union of parties too nearly
related was branded as incest. The council of
Agde says, — " Concerning incestuous conjunc
tions, we allow them no pardon, unless the offend
ing parties cure the adultery by separation from
each other. We reckon incestuous persons un
worthy of any name of marriage, and dreadful
to be mentioned. For they are such as these, — ¦
If any one pollutes his brother's relict, who was
almost his own sister, by carnal knowledge ; if any
one takes to wife his own sister ; if any one mar
ries his stepmother, or father's wife ; if any one
joins himself to his cousin-german ; if a man
marries any one nearly allied to him by con
sanguinity, or one whom his near kinsman had
married before ; if any one marries the relict or
daughter of his uncle by the mother's side, or
the daughter of his uncle by his father's side, or
his daughter-in-law — that is, his wife's daughter
by a former husband ; — all which, both hereto
fore and now, under this constitution, we doubt
not to be incestuous; and we enjoin them to
abide and pray with the catechumens till they
make lawful satisfaction. But we prohibit these
things in such manner, for the present time, as
not to dissolve or cancel anything that has been
done before ; and they who are forbidden such
unlawful conjunctions shall have liberty to marry-
more agreeably to the law." The canon law
differs on these points somewhat from the Mosaic
law; and the prohibited degrees in the early
Church are given in the following Latin lines : —
" Nata, soror, neptis, matertera fratris et uxor
Et patrui conjux, mater, privigna, noverca
Uxorisque soror, privigni nata, nurusque
Atque soror patris; conjungi lege vetantur."

405

MAR
Incest was severely punished, incest with a sister
being reckoned as vile as murder, and visited
with the same penance. In the case of marry
ing a deceased wife's sister, the nineteenth canon
of the Apostolic Constitutions says, — " He that
marries two sisters or hjs niece cannot be a
clergyman," implying that among the laity such
a connection was sometimes formed. The sixty-
first canon of the council of Eliberis says, " If
any one, after the death of his wife, shall have
married her sister and she be a believer, let her
abstain for five years from communion, unless
illness render necessary an earlier reconciliation."
The marriage is neither formally forbidden nor
dissolved by this canon. Basil condemned such
marriages, affirming that he who marries two
sisters must do the penance of one who divorces
his wife and marries another," for the last is " by
our Lord's judgment an adulterer." A woman
who had married two brothers is, by the council
of Neocaesarea, placed under the ban of excom
munication till her death. Prior to the Refor
mation marriage with a deceased wife's sister
was in the same category as marriage with a
sixth cousin. — See Affinity. According to
the canons of the Greek Church a man may not
marry —
His second cousin's daughter.
His deceased wife's first cousin.
His deceased wife's first cousin's daughter.
His deceased wife's second cousin.
Two brothers may not marry —
Two sisters.
An aunt and a niece.
Two first cousins.
A man may not marry —
His wife's brother's wife's sister — i. e., his
brother-in-law's sister-in-law.
His brother-in-law's wife: nor can his own
brother marry her.
Godparentage and Adoption constitute impedi
ments to marriage, up to the seventh degree.
Till the time of Ambrose there was no law
against the marriage of cousins; but an act of
Theodosius distinctly forbade it, under penalty
of confiscation and burning, by advice of Am
brose, as is thought ; and though the law be
not extant, there is a statute of Honorius re
ferring to it and confirming it. Another law
of Arcadius alleviates the penalty, but still
holds the connection as incestuous, and declares
the children illegitimate and incapable of suc
ceeding to any inheritance. Augustine, though
he does not deem such marriages unlawful,
by any divine prohibition, yet advises against
them, as being pasne cum sorore. Arcadius
afterwards revoked the law against the mar
riage of cousins; and Justinian inserted the
revocation in his Institutes. Tlie Church, how
ever, continued to condemn them, as was done
by the councils of Epone and Tours ; nay, the
prohibition was extended by and bye as far as
the sixth and seventh degree of collateral con-

406

MAR
sanguinity. In the General Assembly of the
Church of Scotland in 1565, it was declared
that the marriage of cousins was not forbidden
in Scripture ; but it was desired that the matter
should be settled by the civil magistrate, as such
marriages had been attended with '* diverse in-
convenients." Persons in spiritual relationship
were, by a law of Justinian, debarred from mar
rying — not only the godfather and his godchild,
but, by certain popish regulations, the baptizer
was not to marry the baptized, nor the catechist
the catechumen.
As for digamy, or a second marriage, the
Novatians and Montanists condemned it. The
seventh canon of the council of Neocaesarea
says, — " 7. Let not a presbyter be present at
a feast made on occasion of a second marriage ;
for, since he who marries a second time ought
to do penance, what a presbyter is he who
consents to such a marriage by being enter
tained at the feast!" Many harder expres
sions are found in the fathers. Augustine says,
" That he dares not condemn any marriages
for the number of them, whether they be
second or third, or any other. I dare not be
wise above what is written. Who am I that I
should define what the apostle has not defined?
' The woman is bound,' says the apostle, ' as
long as her husband liveth.' He said not the
first husband, or the second, or the third, or the
fourth, but ' the woman is bound as long as her
husband liveth; but If her husband be dead,
she is at liberty to be married to whom she will;
only in the Lord. But she is happier if she so
abide.' I see not what can be added to or taken
from this sentence. Our Lord himself did not
condemn the woman that had seven husbands ;
and therefore I dare not, out of my own heart,
without the authority of Scripture, condemn any
number of marriages whatsoever. But what I
say to the widow that has been the wife of one
man, the same I say to every widow — Thou art
happier if thou so abidest." Though granted
to the laity, it was forbidden to the clergy.
Bingham says (book xvi., cap. 11), — "It is
certain the great council of Nice thus determined
the matter against the Novatians, requiring
them, upon their return to the Church, to make
profession in writing that they would submit to
the decrees of the Catholic Church, particularly
in this, that they would ' iiya/tas xtitunh,' —
communicate with digamists, or those that were
twice married. So that whatever private opin
ions some might entertain in this matter, or
whatever private rules of discipline there might
be in some particular churches in relation to
digamists, it is evident the general rule and prac
tice of the Church was not to bring such under
discipline, as guilty of any crime, which at most
was only an imperfection in the opinion of many
of those who passed a heavier censure on it As
for such as plainly condemned second, third, or
fourth marriages, as fornication or adultery, I

MAR
see not how they can be justified or reconciled
to the practices of the Catholic Church."
The question as to the remarriage of persons
divorcing or divorced is more difficult. An un
lawful divorce is no divorce, and therefore a
second marriage, in such circumstances, i3 only
adultery or bigamy, having two wives at once.
Constantine allowed a man to divorce his wife
only for adultery, poisoning, or lascivious prac
tices (vel conciliatricem) ; and a wife could repu
diate her husband only if he were a murderer, a
poisoner, or a robber of graves. If a man put
away his wife for other reasons than these, he
could not marry, and she might claim her dowry.
Other causes of divorce were allowed by suc
ceeding emperors. But the ecclesiastical canons
were stricter. Augustine thought that none of
the parties even lawfully divorced should marry
again, though he does not absolutely forbid it
The first council of Aries also forbids such a
marriage, or rather advises against it The
fathers had a similar view. But the councils of
Eliberis and Mileris strongly condemn them,
and declare that, according to evangelical and
apostolical discipline, neither of the parties can
marry. The law of England allows the parties
to contract a second marriage. In the Church
of Rome, where marriage is a sacrament, divorce,
properly so called, is impossible. Modern canon
law does not allow a man to marry a woman with
whom he has committed adultery prior to her
husband's death. Augustine, however, ruled it
in the affirmative, since, as he argues, those who
had survived might afterwards make a just and
honest marriage; and some of the councils deter
mined accordingly.
Marriages were to be notified to the bishop
or church, and in the early ages were solem
nized by the clergy, but with very many ex
ceptions. Much was borrowed from the cus
toms of the Roman law. Banns were required
about the twelfth century. — See Banns. No
prescribed form for the solemnization of mar
riage seems to have existed in early times.
Witnesses were required, and the dowry was
settled in writing. The sponsalia or betrothal
preceded, and tokens or pledges were given or
exchanged. The ceremonies were as follows:
— " The use of the ring, in the rites both of
espousal and of marriage, is very ancient. It is
mentioned both by Tertullian and Clement of
Alexandria; the latter of whom says, 'It was
given her, not as an ornament, but as a seal, to
signify the woman's duty in preserving the goods
of her husband, because the care of the house
belongs to her.' The crowning of the married
pair with garlands wa3 a marriage rite peculiar
to many nations professing different forms of
religion. Tertullian inveighs against it with all
the zeal of a Montanist ; but it is spoken of with
approbation by the fathers of the fourth and
fifth centuries, from whom it appears that the
friends and attendants of the bridal pair were

MAR
adorned in the same manner. These chap-
lets were usually made of myrtle, olive, ama
ranth, rosemary, and evergreens, intermingled
with cypress and vervain. The crown, appro
priately so called, was made of olive, myrtle,
and rosemary, variegated with flowers, and some
times with gold and silver, pearls, precious
stones, &c. These crowns were constructed in
the form of a pyramid or tower. Both the
bride and the bridegroom were crowned in this
manner, together with the groomsman and the
bridesmaid. The bride frequently appeared in
church thus attired on the day when proclama
tion of the banns was made. Chaplets were not
worn by the parties in case of second marriage,
nor by those who had been guilty of impro
priety before marriage. In the Greek Church
the chaplets were imposed by the officiating
minister at the altar. In tbe Western Church
it was customary for the parties to present them
selves thus attired. The wearing of a veil by
the bride was borrowed from the Romans. It
was also conformable to the example of Rebecca
(Gen. xxiv.) From this marriage rite arose the
custom of taking the veil in the Catholic Church.
By this act the nun devotes herself to perpetual
virginity as the spouse of Christ, the bridegroom
of the Church. It appears to have been custom
ary also to spread a robe over the bridegroom
and bride, called viita nuplialis, pallium jugale,
&c, and made of a mixture of white and red
colours. Torches and lamps were in use on
such occasions, both among the Jews and pagan
nations. These festivities were celebrated by
nuptial processions, going out to meet the bride
groom and conducting him home, by nuptial songs
and music, and marriage feasts. These festi
vals are frequently the subject of bitter animad
version by the fathers, especially by Chrysostom ;
and often called for the interposition of the autho
rity of the Church. In connection with these
festivities it was customary to distribute alms to
the poor. The groomsman had various duties to
perform, — to accompany the parties to the church
at their marriage ; to act as sponsor for them in
their vows ; to assist in the marriage ceremonies ;
to accompany them to the house of the bride
groom ; to preside over and direct the festivities
of the occasion."
In England "marriage by the common law
is considered merely as a civil contract. The
holiness of its obligations is left entirely to
the ecclesiastical courts, the temporal courts
not having jurisdiction to consider unlawful
marriage as a sin, but merely as a civil incon
venience. In legal language the husband is
called the baron ; the wife is called coverte baron,
or feme coverte ; and the period while both hus
band and wife are living, and the marriage is
subsisting, is called the coverture. It is neces
sary to the validity of a man-iage that the par
ties should consent to enter into the contract;
that they should be subject to no disability pre-'

407

MAR
venting them from so doing; and that they
should conform to the ceremonies and solemni
ties required by law. There are two kinds of
disabilities, canonical and municipal. The ca
nonical are, consanguinity, or relation by blood,
affinity, or relation by marriage, and corporal
infirmity. They afford grounds for avoiding the
marriage in the spiritual court ; but, until sen
tence of avoidance be pronounced, the marriage
is considered valid. The object of the sentence
in the spiritual court is pro salute animarum,to
reform the parties by a separation ; as this object
cannot be gained after the death of either of
them, all hope of reformation being then lost, it
follows that the spiritual court must pronounce
its sentence during the lifetime of both, or not
at all. While Fopery was the established reli
gion of the land a great variety of degrees of
kindred were impediments to marriage, a dispen
sation from which, however, could always be
procured for money. But now, by statute 32
Henry VIII., c. 33, confirmed by 1 Elizabeth,
<;. 1, it is declared that nothing (God's law ex
cepted) shall impeach any marriage but within
the Levitical degrees, the furthest of which is
that between uncle and niece. The municipal
disabilities differ from the canonical disabilities
in this, that the former render the marriage void
ab initio, without sentence of avoidance in any
court, while the latter merely render it liable to be
declared void. This distinction is of great impor
tance; for the issue of a marriage void ab initio is
necessarily base-born, but the issue of a marriage
voidable only by sentence in the spiritual court
is legitimate, unless the marriage be actually
avoided, which, as we have seen, can only be
done in the lifetime of both the parents. The
municipal disabilities are, a prior marriage, want
of age, and want of consent of parents or guard
ians. If any person shall solemnize matrimony
at any other time than between eight and twelve
o'clock in the forenoon, or in any improper place,
without special license ; or shall solemnize ma
trimony without license or due publication of
banns ; or if any person falsely pretending to be
in holy orders shall solemnize matrimony accord
ing to the rites of the Church of England, every
such person, knowingly and wilfully so offend
ing, is declared by the same statute to be guilty
of felony, and liable to be transported for four
teen years; provided he be prosecuted within
three years after the offence committed. The
royal family, Jews, and Quakers are exempted
from the operation of the above statute of 4
George IV., c. 76. " The 6 and 7 William IV.,
c. 85, was passed chiefly in favour of those who
scrupled at joining in the services of the estab
lished church ; and it contains numerous provi
sions for this purpose. Persons who object to
marry in a registered place of worship may, after
due notice and certificate issued, according to the
provisions of this act, contract and solemnize
marriage at the office of the superintendent regis-

408

MAR
trar, and in his presence and in that of soma
registrar of the district, and of two witnesses.
These statutes do not extend to marriages con
tracted out of England, or to marriages of the
royal family, which are regulated by a particular
statute, 12 Geo. III., u. 11. In August, 1844,
an act was passed (7 and 8 Vict, c. 81) relat
ing to marriages in Ireland, and for registering
such marriages, which came into operation April
1st, 1845. It establishes a system very nearly
similar to that which exists in England and
Wales under 6 and 7 William IV., u. 85." The
form of the solemnization of matrimony is to be
found in the Book qf Common Prayer. With
various prayers, address, and reading of appro
priate portions of Scripture, the contract is made
in the following terms : —
Tf "Ifno impediment be alleged, then shall the
curate say unto the man,
" M., Wilt thou have this woman to thy wedded
wife, to live together after God's ordinance in the
holy estate of matrimony ? Wilt thou love her,
comfort her, honour, and keep her in sickness
and in health ; and forsaking all other, keep thee
only unto her, so long as ye both shall live ?
Tf " The man shall answer, I will.
Tf " Then shall the priest say unto the woman,
" N., Wilt thou have this man to thy wedded
husband, to live together after God's ordinance
in the holy estate of matrimony ? Wilt thou
obey him, and serve him, love, honour, and keep
him in sickness and in health ; and forsaking all
other, keep thee only unto him, so long as ye
both shall live ?
Tf " The woman shall answer, I will
Tf " Then shall the minister say,
" Who giveth this woman to be married to this
man? Tf " Then shall they give thdr troth lo each other
in this manner,
" The minister, receiving the woman at her fa
ther's or friend's hands, shall cause ihe man
with his right hand to lake the woman by her
right hand, and to say after him as fol
loweth :
"IM. take thee N. to my wedded wife, to have
and to hold from this day forward, for better for
worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in
health, to love and to cherish, 'till death us do
part, according to God's holy ordinance; and
thereto I plight thee my troth.
Tf " Then shall they loose their hands; and the
woman, with Iter right hand taking tlie sum
by his right hand, shall likewise say after the
minister,
" I N. take thee M. to my wedded husband, to
have and to hold from this day forward, for
better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness
and in health, to love, cherish, and to obey, till
death us do part, according to God's holy'ordi-
nance ; and thereto I give thee my troth. "
Tf " Then shall they again loose their hands;
and the man shall give unto tlie woman a

MAR
ring, laying the same upon the book, with ihe
accustomed duty to the priest and clerk. And
Vie priest, taking the ring, shall deliver it
unto the man, to put it upon the fourth finger
of the woman's left hand. And the man
holding the ring there, and taught by the
priest, shall say,
" With this ring I thee wed, with my body I
thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I
thee endow : In the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
Tf " Then Vie man, leaving the ring upon the
fourth finger ofthe woman's left hand, they
shall both kneel down," &c.
The marriage ceremony is usually simpler and
briefer in Scotland, and is rarely performed in
church. Marriage is at the same time a civil con
tract, — even parties declaring themselves before
witnesses, or before a justice of peace, to be man
and wife, are held bound by such a contract.
But clandestine marriages are not common, even
though a proved promise of marriage, followed
by cohabitation, constitutes marriage by the law
of Scotland. Ministers not of the established
church have been always in the habit of solem
nizing marriages ; and they were never called in
question, though legally the established clergy
and licensed episcopalian ministers alone had the
privilege. But by 4 and 5 William IV., c. 28,
marriages may be legally solemnized by the clergy
of any denomination. According to the Direc
tory, after some admonitions, it is said, " The
prayer being ended, it is convenient that the
minister do briefly declare unto them, out of
the Scripture, the institution, use, and ends of
marriage, with the conjugal duties which, in
all faithfulness, they are to perform each to
other ; exhorting them to study the holy Word
of God, that they may learn to live by faith,
and to be content in the midst of all mar
riage cares and troubles, sanctifying God's
name, in a thankful, sober, and holy use of
all conjugal comforts ; praying much with and
for one another; watching over and provok
ing each other to love and good works ; and to
live together as the heirs of the grace of life.
After solemn charging of the persons to be mar
ried, before the great God, who searcheth all
hearts, and to whom they must give a strict
account at the last day, that if either of them
know any cause, by pre-contract or otherwise,
why they may not lawfully proceed to marriage,
that they now discover it ; the minister (if no
impediment be acknowledged) shall cause first
the man to take the woman by the right hand,
saving these words :
" ' / N. do take thee N. to be my married wife,
and do, in the presence of God, and before this
congregation, promise and covenant lo be a loving
and faithful husband unto thee, until God shall
separate us by death.'
" Then the woman shall take the man by the
right hand, and say these words :

MAR
" ' ITS. do take thee N. to be my married hus
band, and Ido, in thepresence of God, and before
this congregation, promise and covenant to be a
loving.faithful, and obedient wife unto thee, until
God shall separate us by death.'
" Then, without any further ceremony, the
minister shall, in the face of the congregation,
pronounce them to be husband and wife, according
to God's ordinance, and so conclude the action
with prayer."
In the Church of Rome marriage is a sacra
ment, and the contract is indissoluble. In
session xxiv. of the council of Trent it is said,
"The gracewhich might perfect that natural love,
and confirm that indissoluble union, and sanctify
the wedded, Christ himself, the institutor and per-
fecter of the venerable sacraments, merited for us
by his passion. Whereas, therefore, matrimony,
in the evangelical law, excels the ancient mar
riages in grace, through Christ, with reason
have our holy fathers, the councils, and the tra
dition of the universal Church, always taught,
that it is to be numbered amongst the sacraments
of the new law. Also canon i. If any one shall
say that matrimony is not truly and properly
one of the seven sacraments of the evangelic law,
instituted by Christ the Lord, but that it has
been invented by men in the Church, and that
it does not confer grace, let him be anathema."
A peculiar social celebration of marriage called
penny weddings, which was common in Scot
land, came under the notice of the general
assembly and the parliament " The assem
bly, considering that many persons do invite to
these penny weddings excessive numbers, among
whom there frequently falls out drunkenness and
uncleanness. for preventing whereof, by their act
February 13, 1645, they ordain presbyteries to
take special care for restraining the abuses ordi
narily committed at these occasions, as they shall
think fit, and to take a strict account of the obedi
ence of every session to their orders thereanent,
and that at their visitation of parishes within
their bounds; which act is ratified March 8,
1701. And by the 12th sess. assembly, 1706,
presbyteries are to apply to magistrates for exe
cuting the laws relating to penny bridals, and
the commission, upon application from them, are
to apply to the government for obliging the
judges, who refuse to execute their office in that
matter. By the 14th act, pari. 3. Car., IL, it is
ordained, that at marriages, besides the married
persons, their parents, brothers and sisters, and
the family wherein they live, there shall not be
present above four friends on either side. And
if there shall be any greater number of per
sons at penny weddings within a town, or two
miles thereof, that the master of the house shall
be fined in the sum of 500 merks." (Augusti,
Siegel, Riddle, Bingham, &c.)
Marrow Controversy. — The Marrow of
Modern Divinity -was a work published, in 1646,
by Edward Fisher, of the university of Oxford.

409

MAR
It was in the form of a dialogue, to explain the
freeness of the law, — to expose, on the one hand,
Antinomian error, and also, on the other, to
refute Neonomian heresy, or the idea that Christ
has, by his atonement, so lowered the require
ments of the law that mere endeavour is accepted
in room of perfect obedience. A copy of the
book, which had been brought into Scotland by
an English puritan soldier, was accidentally
found by Boston, then minister of Simprin, and
was republished in 1718, under the editorial
care of Mr. Hogg, minister of Carnock. It had
been recommended long before by several divines
of the Westminster Assembly. The treatise,
consisting of quaint and stirring dialogues,
throws into bold relief the peculiar doctrines of
grace, occasionally puts them into the form of a
startling proposition, and is gemmed with quot
ations from eminent Protestant divines. The
publication of the Marrow threw the clergy into
commotion ; and by many of them it was vio
lently censured. But not a few of the evangeli
cal pastors gave it a cordial welcome, and among
multitudes of the people it became a favourite
book, next in veneration to the Bible and the
Shorter Catechism. In 1719 its editor, Mr.
Hogg, wrote an explanation of some of its pas
sages ; but in the same year Principal Haddow,
of St. Andrew's, opened the synod of Fife with a
sermon directed against it. The synod requested
the publication of the discourse, and this step
was the signal for a warfare of four years' dura
tion. The assembly of that year, acting in the
same spirit with the synod of Fife, instructed its
commission to look after books and pamphlets
promoting such opinions as are found in the
Moitow, though they do not name the book,
and to summon before them the authors and
recommenders of such publications. The com
mission, so instructed and armed, appointed a
committee, of which Principal Haddow was the
soul; and before this committee, named the "com
mittee for purity of doctrine," four ministers
were immediately summoned. The same com
mittee gave in a report at next assembly of 1720,
in the shape of an overture, classifying the doc
trines of the Marrow, and solemnly condemning
them. It selected several passages which were
paradoxically expressed, while it severed others
from the context, and held them up as contrary
to Scripture and to the Confession of Faith. The
passages marked for reprobation were arranged
under distinct heads, — such as the nature of
faith, the atonement, holiness, obedience and its
motive, and the position of a believer in refer
ence to the law. The committee named them
as errors, thus, — universal atonement and par
don ; assurance of the very essence of faith ; holi
ness not necessary to salvation ; and the believer
not under the law as a rule of life. Had the
Marrow inculcated such tenets it -would have
been objectionable indeed. The report was dis
cussed, and the result was a stern condemna-

MAR
tion ofthe Marrow; and " the general assembly
do hereby strictly prohibit and discharge all the
ministers of this church, either by preaching,
writing, or printing, to recommend the said book,
or in discourse to say anything in favour of it;
but, on the contrary, they are hereby enjoined
and required to warn and exhort those people in
whose hands the said book is or may come, not
to read or use the same." That book which had
been so highly lauded by many of the southern
divines— such as Caryl and Burroughes — by the
men who had framed the very creed of the Scot
tish Church, and who were universally acknow
ledged to be as able as most men to know truth
and detect error— was thus put into a presbyte
rian Index expurgatorius. Nobody can justify the
extreme statements of the Marrow, but their
bearing and connection plainly free them from
an Antinomian tendency. In fact, some of the
so-called Antinomian statements condemned by
the assembly are in the very words of inspira
tion. But the rigid decision of the assembly
only added fuel to the controversy which it was
intended to allay, and the forbidden book became
more and more an object of intense anxiety and
prevalent study. The popular party in the
church at once concerted measures to have that
act repealed. Consultations were repeatedly
held by a section of the evangelical clergy, and
at length it was agreed to hand in a representa
tion to the court, complaining of the obnoxious
decision, and of the injury which had been done
by it to precious truth. This representation was
signed by twelve ministers, and it briefly called
the assembly's attention to the fact that it had
condemned propositions which are in accordance
at once with the Bible and the symbolical books.
The names of the twelve were — Messrs. James
Hogg, Carnock ; Thomas Boston, Etterick ; John
Bonar, Torphichen; John Williamson, Inver-
esk ; James Kidd, Queensferry ; Gabriel Wilson,
Maxton; Ebenezer Erskine, Portmoak; Ralph
Erskine and James Wardlaw, Dunfermline;
Henry Davidson, Galashiels ; James Bathgate,
Orwell; and William Hunter, Lilliesleaf. Other
discussions followed ; the Representors were sum
moned, in 1722, to the bar of the assembly, aud
admonished — against which they solemnly .pro
tested. This doctrinal controversy was one
principal origin of the first secession in 1734.
Martinis! s, a Russian sect of mystics which
rose and disappeared during the last sixty years.
Chevalier St. Martin of France was its founder,
and it was a recoil against prevalent infidelity.
It took advantage especially of masonic lodges,
and spread itself from Moscow as its centre. The
works of the German pietists, Arndt and Spener,
were special favourites ; and many other trans
lations of excellent treatises were published.
Catherine II., however, resolved to crush the
society ; but it revived under Alexander I., as
it had the patronage of Prince Galitzin. Nicho
las at length put it down with a strong arm ;

410

MAR
and many kindred institutions shared a similar
fate under that despot's repressive policy.
Martinmas, a feast kept on the 11th of No
vember in honour of St Martin of Tours. The
feast was often a merry one. At that period,
too, in England and Scotland, the winter's pro
vision was cured and stored up, and was called
a mart. Luther derived his first name from
being born on the eve of this festival.
Martyr. — The word sometimes, in later times,
signified a sponsor in baptism ; but specially it
means one who has died rather than renounce his
Christian faith. As was most natural, martyrs
were held in high esteem by the early Church ; hut
the esteem soon grew into veneration, and deep
ened at length into superstitious homage. —
See Relics. Their festivals or birthdays were
observed often at their graves ; and on such occa
sions their acts were read in the churches — See
Legend. Churches which were often built over
their graves were called martyria, and their
keepers martyrarii. Every church soon wished
to possess a saint's tomb for an altar. Mere
cenotaphs did not suffice. Thus, according to
Augustine, Ambrose was delayed in the conse
cration of a new church at Milan, till a season
able dream helped him to the bones of two mar
tyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The second
council of Nice subjected bishops to deprivation
if they consecrated churches without relics. The
consequence was that a supply was produced by
such a demand, and frauds of every kind were per
petrated and overlooked. Each church also had its
own Fasti, or calendar of martyrs. — See Church,
Calendar. Public notaries took down the
accounts of their martyrdom : these accounts were
carefully preserved, and out of them were com
piled the Martyrologies of subsequent periods.
The martyrs, when in prison, sometimes inter
ceded for offenders, and the penance was, on
their request, mitigated — a practice which, as
Cyprian complains, soon grew into an abuse. —
See Libelli Pacis. The estates of martyrs
who died without heirs were, by a law of Con
stantine, to be given to the Church. — See Dip
tychs. Gieseler has well said, — " The respect
paid to martyrs still maintains the same charac
ter as in the second century, differing only in
degree, not in kind, from the honour shown to
other esteemed dead. As the churches held the
yearly festivals of their martyrs at the graves
of the latter, so they willingly assembled fre
quently in the burial places of their deceased
friends, for which they used in many places even
caves (cryptas catacumbos). At the celebration
of the Lord's Supper, both the living who brought
oblations, as well as the dead, and the martyrs
for whom offerings were presented, especially on
the anniversary of their death, were included by
name in the prayer of the church. Inasmuch
as the re-admission of a sinner into the church
was thought to stand in close connection with
the forgiveness of sin, an opinion was associated

MAR
with the older custom of restoring to church
communion the lapsed who had been again re
ceived by the martyrs, that the martyrs could
also be serviceable in obtaining the forgiveness
of sins. In doing so they set out in part with
the idea, which is very natural, that the dead
prayed for the living, as the living prayed for
the dead ; but that the intercession of martyrs
abiding in the captivity of the Lord would be of
peculiar efficacy on behalf of their brethren;
while they partly thought that the martyrs, as
assessors in the last decisive judgment, were par
ticularly active (1 Cor. vi. 2, 3). Origen attri
buted very great value to that intercession, in
expecting from it great help towards sanctifica
tion; but he went beyond the ideas hitherto
entertained in attributing to martyrdom an
importance and efficacy similar to the death of
Christ. Hence he feared the cessation of per
secution as a misfortune. The more the opinion
that value belonged to the intercession of martyrs
was established, the oftener it may have hap
pened that persons recommended themselves to
the martyrs yet living for intercession."
Mary, Mother of our Lord. — See Bibli
cal Cyclopaedia. — That she was " Blessed among
women" is the testimony of Scripture. But
undue honours began in the fourth century to be
given to her. She was called Mother of God, —
Deipara, htnxts — an appellation which really
can have no meaning ; for in no possible sense
can any creature bear a maternal relation to
God. The acknowledgment of Christ's supreme
divinity is an objection to such a title, and not
an argument for it. In the vindications of the
phrase by some of the fathers the inconsistency
of tbe epithet is apparent; and they strove in
many ways to neutralize it. It would be no
difficult- matter to show that none but a Mono
physite could use the title with any propriety.
Divine honours were at an early period paid to
the Virgin. — See Antidicojkarianites, Col-
lyridians. In the fifth century images of the
Virgin, with the infant Jesus in her arms, began
to prevail. — See Image. In course of time
Mariolatry was fully established ; and it is now
the characteristic worship or idolatry of the
Church of Rome. The Oriental Church salutes
her as "Panagia" — all holy. There is in the
Latin Church the daily office of Mary ; and the
rosary contains one hundred salutations to her.
The Ave Maria and Salve Regina site of perpetual
occurrence. In Bonaventura's psalter is the
following : — " 0 thou, our governor, and most
benignant lady, in right of being his mother,
command your most beloved Son, our Lord Jesus
Christ, that he deign to raise our minds from
longing after earthly things to the contemplation
of heavenly things. — We praise thee, Mother of
God; we acknowledge thee to be a virgin. All
the earth doth worship thee, the spouse of the
eternal Father. All the angels and archangels,
all thrones and powers, do faithfully serve thee.

411

MAS
To thee all angels cry aloud, with a never-ceas
ing voice, Holy, holy, holy, Mary, mother of
God  The whole court of heaven doth
honour thee as queen. The holy church through
out all the world doth invoke and praise thee,
the mother of divine majesty. . . . Thou sittest
with thy Son on the right hand of the Father.
... In thee, sweet Mary, is our hope ; defend
us for evermore. Praise becometh thee ; empire
becometh thee; virtue and glory be unto thee
for ever and ever." St. Alphonsus Liguori,
canonized but a very few years ago, wrote a
book called tho Glories of Mary, in which,
among other extravagant blasphemies, it is said
that even God himself is subject to Mary. He
says again, — "The King of heaven has resigned
into the hands of our Mother his omnipotence in
the sphere of grace." St. Peter Damian declares,
" When St Mary appears before Jesus she seems
to dictate, rather than supplicate, and has more
the air of a queen than of a subject" So pre
valent has Mariolatry become, so full of it are
the encyclicals of popes and bishops, that the
religion of Papists may be said to be rather that
of Mary than that of Christ. — See Immaculate
Conception. Seymour says, in reference to
one absurdity, — " I then called his attention to
a large number of pictures, to be seen in almost
every church. They are designed to represent
the Virgin Mary in heaven, enthroned above the
clouds, and encircled by angels and cherubs, and
even there she is represented with the infant
Jesus in her arms! It could not possibly be
that either the artists who paint, or the priests
who suspend those pictures over the altar, sup
pose that Jesus Christ is now an infant still, in
the arms of Mary in heaven — that he is still an
infant in heaven; and therefore it is apparent
that he is introduced, thus absurdly and impro
perly, as a mere accessory, to distinguish the
figure of Mary from the figure of any other
saint ! I added that there were few things in the
Church of Rome that so offended us, as dishon
ouring to Christ, as this system of making Mary
the principal person, and Christ only the secon
dary person in their pictures. It seemed an
index of the state of Italian religion, in which
Mary seemed first, and Christ second in promi
nence, as if it was the religion of Mary rather
than the religion of Christ. I added yet further,
that it was singular that in the Church of Gesu
e Maria in the Corso, where the sermons are
preached in English, for the conversion of the
English, there are no less than three large altar-
pieces, — pictures larger than life, representing the
Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus in heaven ! "
Masora (tradition), the critical digest of the
Rabbins of the school of Tiberias on the text
of Scripture — called by its authors Pirke Avoth,
or fence of the law. Letters, vowel-points,
accents, and words, are annotated by them with
extraordinary minuteness. The common Hebrew
Bible has many of their notes. Their object

412

MAS
was, by their scrupulous exactness, to preserve
the integrity ofthe Hebrew text. (See Buxtorf 's
Tiberias and tbe " Introductions " of Horne,
Jahn, De Wette, &c.)
Mass may be satisfactorily derived either
from missa catechumenorum — the dismission of
the catechumen penitents and energumens, which
in the primitive Church took place before the
celebration of the communion, by the words ite,
missa est) or from missa fidelium — the similar
dismission of the communicants themselves after
that service. But the Romanists, perhaps, be
lieved that their doctrine of the mass being a
sacrifice would be strengthened by tracing the
name to the Hebrew ro? oblatio, tributum.
Be this as it may, the word itself is of great
antiquity, and it means the office at the cele
bration of the Eucharist. The order almost
universally adopted among Roman Catholics is
that of the Roman missal; to this, however,
there are a few exceptions : the Church of Milan
prefers that of St. Ambrose ; the Spanish dio
ceses of Toledo and Salamanca, the Mozarabic
or Gothic ; and most national churches introduce
certain variations peculiarly adapted to their
own spiritual condition. — See Liturgy.
There are masses of various kinds, "Missa
alta" — high mass, is offered up with the greatest
solemnities by a bishop or priest, attended by a
deacon, sub-deacon, and other ministers, each
officiating in his respective part, and it is always
sung. Masses bear also names from the holy
personages through whose intercession they are
offered, as a Mass of the Beata or our Lady, a
Mass of the Holy Ghost, a. mass of any parti
cular saint, &c. Each day also has some pecu
liar prayers introduced into its own mass. The
missa sicca, or dry mass, is without consecra
tion or any administration of the holy elements.
This is said to have been authorized by St.
Louis while voyaging to Palestine, and hence is
called also missa naulica: the reason assigned
for the omission of the Eucharist is, that on ac
count of the motion of the sea it could scarcely
be offered without hazard of effusion. In the
Mass of the Presanctified — " Missa Prassanctifi-
calorum" — elements before consecrated are ad
ministered. A solitary mass, low mass — " missa i
solitaria, bassa, privata" — is that said by the
priest alone, without a congregation, for the
benefit of a departed soul; and when those
masses became a source of great lucre, an abuse
crept in which some of the Romish divines have
bitterly condemned. In order to save time, and
because they were forbidden for the most part to
say more than one mass in a day, the priests
contrived to throw a, great many masses into
one, first saying the mass ofthe day so far as the
offertory, and then repeating to the same resting
place as many special masses as they pleased, for all
of which one consecration (or canon, as itis termed)
sufficed. These masses were opprobriously called
bifacialcs or trifaciatae, because they were double

MAS
and triple-faced. In a "Missa Animarum" —
Mass for the Dead, — the introit generally com
mences with a requiem. — See Introit, Requiem.
In the controversy concerning the doctrine of
the mass, the chief disputed points between
the Romish and Reformed Churches are,
whether it is a positive sacrifice renewed at
every celebration, or only a, solemn feast on
a sacrifice once offered by our Lord ; whether
Christ in body and blood is absolutely and cor
porally, or only spiritually and really present
in the elements. — See Real Presence, Tran
substantiation. The Romanists attach sym
bolical and allegorical interpretations to each
action of the priest during the service. All of
them are declared to bear relation to incidents in
our Saviour's passion ; and their mysteries are
elucidated (or perhaps it may be thought ren
dered more obscure) at great length by Durand
(Rationale, lib. iv.), and briefly explained by
Picart, (Cer. Rel., vol. i.) The following office
of the mass is extracted from the Garden of the
Soul by the late Bishop Challoner, and may be
accepted, therefore, as the authorized rite of the
English Roman Catholics: — "At the beginning
of the mass, the priest at the foot of the altar
makes the sign of the cross, ' In the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Amen,' and then recites with the clerk, the forty-
second psalm, Judica me, Deus, &o. Then the
priest bowing down says the Confiteor, by way
of a general confession to God, to the whole court
of heaven, and to all the faithful there present,
of his sins and unworthiness ; and to beg their
prayers to God for him. And the clerk, in the
name of the people, prays for the priest, that God
would have mercy on him, and forgive him his
sins, and bring him to everlasting life. Then,
in the name of all there present, the clerk makes
the like general confession to God, to the whole
court of heaven, and to the priest, and begs his
prayers. And the priest prays to God to show
mercy to all his people, and to grant them par
don, absolution, and remission of all their sins.
Which is done to the end that both priest and
people may put themselves in a penitential spirit,
in order to assist worthily at this divine sacrifice.
^ After the Confiteor, the priest goes up to the
altar, saying, ' Take away from us we beseech
thee, 0 Lord, our iniquities, that we may be
worthy to enter with pure minds into the holy
of holies, through Christ our Lord. Amen.'
And kisses the altar as a figure of Christ,
and the seat of the sacred mysteries. When
the priest is come up to the altar, he goes to
the hook, and there reads what is called the
introit or entrance of the mass, which is dif
ferent every day, and is generally an anthem
taken out of the Scripture, with the first verse of
one of the psalms, and the glory be to the Fa
ther, &c, to glorify the blessed Trinity. The
priest returns to the middle of the altar, and
says alternately with the clerk, the Kyrie eleison,

MAS
or Lord have mercy on us, which is said three
times to God the Father; three times Christe
eleison, or Christ have mercy on us, to God the
Son ; and three times again Kyrie eidson, to God
the Holy Ghost. After the Kyrie eleison, the
priest recites the ' Gloria in Excelsis,' or Glory be
to God on high, &c, being an excellent hymn
and prayer to God, the beginning of which was
sung by the angels at the birth of Christ. But
this being a hymn of joy, is omitted in the
masses of requiem for the dead, and in the masses
of the Sundays and ferias of the penitential
times of Advent and Lent, &c. At the end of
the Gloria in Excelsis, the priest kisses the altar,
and turning about to the people says, ' Dominus
vobiscum' — The Lord be with you. Answer,
' Et cum spiritu tuo ' — And with thy spirit. The
priest returns to the book, and says, ' Oremus' —
Let us pray, and then reads the collect or col
lects of the day, concluding them with the usual
termination, 'Per Dominum nostrum,' &c. —
Through our Lord Jesus Christ, &c, with
which the church commonly concludes all her
prayers. The collects being ended, the priest
lays his hands upon the book, and reads the
epistle or lesson of the day. At the end of
which the clerk answers, ' Deo gratias ' — Thanks
be to God, — viz., for the heavenly doctrine there
delivered. Then follow some verses or sentences
of Scripture, called the gradual, which are every
day different. After this the book is removed to
the other side of the altar, in order to the reading
of the gospel for the day ; which removal of the
book represents the passing from the preaching
of the old law, figured by the lesson or epistle,
to the Gospel of Jesus Christ published hy the
preachers of the new law. The priest, before he
reads the gospel, stands awhile bowing down
before the middle of the altar, begging of God
in secret to cleanse his heart and his lips, that
he may be worthy to declare those heavenly
words. At the beginning of the gospel the
priest greets the people with the usual salutation,
' Dominus vobiscum ' — The Lord be with you,
and then tells out of which of the evangelists the
gospel is taken, saying, ' Sequentia S. Evangelii
secundum,' &c  i.e., What follows is of the holy
gospel, &o. At which words both priest and
people make the sign of the cross. 1st, Upon
their foreheads, to signify that tbey are not
ashamed of the cross of Christ and his doctrine.
2d, Upon their mouths, to signify they will ever
profess it in words. 3d, Upon their breasts, to
signify that they will always keep it in their
hearts. The clerk answers, ' Gloria tibi Domine'
— Glory be to thee, 0 Lord. At the gospel the
people stand up, to declare by that posture their
readiness to go and do whatsoever they shall be
commanded by the Saviour in his gospel. At
the end of the gospel the clerk answers, ' Laus tibi
Christe ' — Praise be to thee, O Christ ; and the
priest kisses the book in reverence to those sacred
words he has been reading out of it. Then upon

413

MAS
all Sundays, and many other festival days,
standing in the middle of the altar, he recites
the Nicene Creed, kneeling down at these words,
' He was made man,' in reverence to the great
mystery of our Lord's incarnation. Then the
priest turns about to the people, and says,
'Dominus vobiscum'— The Lord be with you.
And having read in the book a verse or sentence
of the Scripture, which is called the offertory,
and is every day different, he uncovers the
chalice, and taking in his hand the paten, or
little plate, offers up the bread to God; then
going to the corner of the altar, he takes the
wine and pours it into the chalice, and mingles
with it a small quantity of water, in remem
brance of the blood and water that issued out of
our Saviour's side; after whieh he returns to
the middle of the altar, and offers up the chalice.

MAS
his passion, and his hiding at that time his
glory and his divinity, as to signify the vast
importance of that common cause of all mankind,
which the priest is then representing as it were
in secret to the ear of God ; and the reverence
and awe with which both priest and people ought
'to assist at these tremendous mysteries. The
canon begins by the invoking the Father oi
mercies, through Jesus Christ his Son, to accept
this sacrifice for tbe holy Catholic Church, for
jthe pope, for the bishop, for the king, and for
all the professors of the orthodox and apostolic
faith throughout the whole world. Then follows
:the memento, or commemoration of the living,
for whom in particular the priest intends to offer
,up that mass, or who have been particularly re-
icommended to his prayers, &c. To which is sub
joined a remembrance of all there present, fol-

-..., ........... ... ...„ ...„«., ...... v....... v.r .,  ,,   r  , —
Then bowing down he begs that this sacrifice, Slowed by a solemn commemoration of the blessed

which he desires to offer with a contrite and
humble heart, may find acceptance with God ;
and blessing the bread and wine with the sign of
the cross, he invokes the author of all sanctity
to sanctify this offering. At the end of the
offertory, the priest goes to the corner of the
altar, /ind washes the tips of his fingers, to denote
the cleanness and purity of soul with which we :
ought to approach to these divine mysteries, !
saying, ' Lavabo,' &c. — I will wash my hands
among the innocent, and I will encompass thy
altar, O Lord, &c, as in the latter part of the
twenty-sixth psalm. Then returning to the
middle of the altar, and there bowing down, he
begs of the blessed Trinity to receive this obla
tion in memory of the passion, resurrection, and
ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ, and for an
honourable commemoration ofthe blessed Virgin,
and of all the saints, that they may intercede for
us in heaven, whose memory we celebrate upon
earth. Then the priest, kissing the altar, turns to
the people, and says, ' Orate Fratres,' &c. — that
is, ' Brethren, pray that my sacrifice and yours
may be made acceptable to God the Father Al
mighty. Then the priest says, in a low voice,
the prayers called secreta, which correspond to
the collects of the day, and are different every
day. The priest concludes the secreta by saying
aloud, ' Per omnia saecula sceculorum ' — that is,
World without end. Answer, Amen. Priest,
'Dominus vobiscum' — The Lord be with you.
Answer, ' Et cum spiritu tuo ' — And with thy
spirit. Priest, ' Sursjsin cor da' — Lift up your
hearts. Answer, ' Habemus ad Dqminum' — We
have them lifted up totlie Lord. Priest, ' Gra-
tias agamus Domino Deo nosiro ' — Let us give
thanks to the Lord our God. Answer, ' Dignum
etjustum est ' — It is meet and just. Then the
priest recites the preface (so called, because it
serves as an liitTSauction to the canon of the
mass). After the preface, follows the canon of
the mass, or the most sacred and solemn part of
this divine service, which is read with a low
voice, as well to express the silence of Christ in

IVirgin, of the apostles, martyrs, and all the
saints ; to honour their memory by naming them
[in the sacred mysteries, to communicate with
iithem, and to beg of God the help of their inter
cession, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Then
the priest spreads his hands, according to thei
ancient ceremony of sacrifices, over the bread and!
wine, which are to be consecrated into the body
and blood of Christ, and begs that God would
accept of this oblation which he makes in the
name of the whole church ; and that he would
grant us peace in this life, and eternal salvation
in the next. After which he solemnly blesses
the bread and wine with the sigh "of tie cross,
and invokes the Almighty,, that they may be
made to us the body and blood of his most be
loved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. And so he
proceeds to the consecration, first of the bread
into the body of our Lord, and then of the wine
into his blood ; which consecration is made_by
Christ's own words, pronounced in huTname and
person by the priest, and is the most essential
part of this sacrifice, because thereby the body
and blood of Christ are really exhibited and
presented to God, and Christ is mystically im-
tmolated. Immediately after the consecration]
(follows the eleyatiorij first of the host, then of]
jthe chalice, in remembrance of Christ's elevatiorj
upon the cross. At the elevation of the chalice!
the priest recites those words of Christ, ' As often;
as you do these things you shall do them for si
^commemoration of me.' Then he goes on,'.
making a solemn commemoration of the passion,
^resurrection, and ascension of Christ, and begging
of God to accept this sacrifice, as he was pleased
to accept the oblation of Abel, Abraham, and
Melchisedek ; and to command that it may, by
his holy angel, be presented upon the altar above,
in presence of his divine majesty, for the benefit
of all those that shall partake of these mysteries
here below. Then the priest proceeds to the
memento, or commemoration of the dead, saying,
' Remember also, 0 Lord, thy servants N. and
N., who are gone before us with the sign of faith,
414

MAS
and repose in the sleep of peace ; ' praying for all
the faithful departed in general, and in particular
for those for whom he desires to offer this sacri
fice. After this memento or commemoration of
the dead, the priest, raising his voice a little, and
striking his breast, says, ' Nobis quoque peccato-
ribus,' &e. — And to us sinners, &c, humbly
craving mercy and pardon for his sins, and to be
admitted to some part and society with the
apostles and martyrs' through Jesus Christ.
Then kneeling down, and taking the sacred
host in his hands, he makes the sign of the
cross with it over the chalice, saying, ' Through
him, and with him, and in him, is to thee 0
God, the Father, in the unity of the Holy Ghost,
all honour and glory;' which last words he
pronounces, elevating a uttle the host and chalice
from the altar, and then kneels down, saying,
with a loud voice, ' Per omnia scscula sceeulwum '
— For ever and ever. Answer, Amen. After
which he recites aloud the Pater poster, or
Lord's Prayer, the clerk answering" at the* end,
'Sed libera nos a malo' — But deliver ns from
evil. After this the priest breaks tbe host over
the chalice, in remembrance of Christ's body
being broken for us upon the cross ; and he puts
a small particle of the host into the chalice,
praying that the peace of the Lord may be
always with us. Then kneeling down, and
rising np again, he says, 'Agnus Dei,' &c. —
Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the
world, have mercy on us. He repeats this
thrice; but at the third time, instead of have
mercy on us, he says, grant us peace. After
the Agnus Dei, the priest says three short
prayers, by way of preparation for receiving the
blessed sacrament ; then kneeling down, and
rising again, he takes up the host, and striking
his breast, he says thrice, ' Domine, non sum dig-
nus,' &c. — Lord, f am not .worthy that thou
shouldest enter under my roof; speak only the
word; and my soul shall be healed. After
which he makes the sign of the cross upon him
self with the host, saying, 'The body of our
Lord Jesus Christ preserve my soul to life ever
lasting. Amen.' And so receives it. Then,
after a short pause in mental prayer, he proceeds
to the receiving of the chalice, using the like
words. ' The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ
preserve my soul to life everlasting. Amen.'
Then .foJleBS— the communion of the People,
if any are to receive. After ~ffie communion,
the priest takes the lotions, or ablutions, of
wine and water in the chalice, in order to
consummate whatever may remain of the con
secrated species. Then covering the chalice, he
goes to the book and reads a versicle of Holy
Scripture, called tbe communion ; after which
he turns about to the people with the usual salu
tation, Dominus vobiscum, and returning to the
book, reads the collects or prayers called the
post-communion. After which he again greets
the people with Dominus vobiscum, and gives

MAS
them leave to depart with ite, missa est; the
clerk answering 'Deo gratias' — Thanks be to
God. Then the priest, bowing down before the
altar, makes a short prayer to the blessed Trinity ;
and then turning about to the people, gives his
blessing to them all, in the name of the blessed
Trinity ; and so concludes the mass, by reading
the beginning of the Gospel according to St.
John, which the people hear standing, till these
words, ' Et verbum caro factum est ' — And tha
Word was made flesh; when both priest and
people kneel down, in reverence to the mystery
of Christ's incarnation. At the end the" clerk
answers, 'Deo gratias' — Thanks be to God.
And so the priest returns from the altar to the
sacristy, and unvests himself, reciting in the
meantime the Benedicite, or the canticle of the
three children, inviting all creatures in heaven
and earth to praise and bless the Lord.
" As the mass represents the passion of Christ,
and the priest there officiates in his person, so
the vestments in which he officiates represent
those with which Christ was ignominiously
clothed at the time of his passion. Thus
the amice represents the rag or clout with which
the Jews muffled our Saviour's face, when at
every blow they bid him prophesy who it was
that struck him (Luke xxii. 64). The alb re
presents the white garment with which he was
vested by Herod: the girdle, maniple, and stole,
represent the cords and bands with which he was
bound in the different stages of his passion.
The chasuble, or outward vestment, represents
the purple garment with which he was clothed
as a mock king ; upon the back of which there
is a cross, to represent that which Christ bore on
his sacred shoulders : lastly, the priest's tonsure
or crown, is to represent the crown of thorns
which our Saviour wore. Moreover, as in the
old law, the priests, that were wont to officiate
in sacred functions, had, by the appointment of
God, vestments assigned for that purpose, as well
for the greater decency and solemnity of the
divine worship, as to signify and represent the
virtues which God required of his ministers : so
it was proper that in the Church of the New
Testament Christ's ministers should in their
sacred functions be distinguished in like manner
from the laity by their sacred vestments ; which
might also represent the virtues which God re
quires in them : thus the amice, which is first
put upon the head, represents divine hope, which
the apostle calls the helmet of salvation ; the
alb, innocence of life; the girdle with which
the loins are begirt, purity and chastity; the
manifjle which is put on the left arm, patient
suffering of the labours of this mortal life;
the stole, the sweet yoke of Christ, to be borne
in this life, in order to a happy immorta
lity ; in fine, the chasuble, which is uppermost,
and covers all the rest, represents the virtue of
charity. In these vestments the church makes
use of five colours, viz., the white on the feasts

415

MAS
of our Lord, of the blessed Virgin, ofthe angels,
and of the saints that were not martyrs ; the red
on the feasts of Pentecost, of the invention and
exaltation of the cross, and of the apostles and
martyrs; the violet, which is the penitential
colour, iu the penitential times of Advent and
Lent, and upon vigils and ember days ; the green
on most of the other Sundays and ferias through
out the year; and the black on Good Friday, and
in the masses for the dead,
" We make a reverence to the altar upon which
mass is said, because it is the seat of these divine
mysteries, and a figure of Christ, who is not
only our priest and sacrifice, but our altar too,
inasmuch as we offer our prayers and sacrifices
through him. Upon the altar we always have
a crucifix, that, as the mass is said in remem
brance of Christ's passion and death, both priest
and people may have before their eyes, during
this sacrifice, the image that puts them in mind
of his passion and death. And there are always
lighted candles upon the altar during mass, as
well to honour the victory and triumph of our
Great King (which is there celebrated) by these
lights, which are tokens of our joy and of his
glory, as to denote the light of faith, with which
we are to approach to him."
The priest who is to celebrate mass must pre
viously confess all his mortal sins, in order that
he may feel morally sure that, he is in a state of
grace, since for the recovery of that state by
such as have once fallen from it, confession, or
contrition, if confession cannot be obtained, is
absolutely necessary. Confession is unattain
able when there is no confessor, or when there
is none but an excommunicated person, or one
whose powers have expired, or whose powers do
not extend to absolution from the particular sins
of which the penitent is guilty, or one who is
justly suspected of having betrayed the secrets
of confession, or who requires an interpreter, or
when it is impossible to go to confession without
manifest inconvenience from distance, badness of
the roads, inclemency of the season, or the mur
murs of the congregation impatient for mass.
Evenffany..o£Jhesa. .reasons. can be pleaded, jio
JmcoiBSssjid priest ought to celebrate mass unless
he be compelled by menaces of death, or through
'fear that a sick person may die without receiv-
ing,_the viaticum, or to avoid scandal, when a
congregation is waiting, or to finish a mass in
whichanother priest has been accidentally inter
rupted". Tf "a priest, during the celebration of
' mass, should recollect that he is in a state of
mortal sin, excommunicated or suspended, or
that the place in which he is celebrating it is
interdicted, he must quit the altar, unless he has
already consecrated the, host; and even if he has
done so, or any fear of scandal induces him to
proceed (as it is morally impossible but that
some suoh fear must arise), he must perform an
act of contrition, and make a firm resolution to
confess, if in his power, on the very same day.

MAS
No priest, without committing venial or perhaps
mortal sin, can celebrate mass before he has
recited matins and lauds, unless from the neces
sity of administering the viaticum to the dying,
or of exhorting such a one during the night,
from pressure of confessions on a holiday, or to
quiet murmurs among the congregation. It is
a mortal sin for a priest intending to say mass
to taste food, drink, or medicine, after the pre
ceding midnight. Even an involuntary trans
gression of such rules is a mortal sin ; so that
a priest offends in that degree if he celebrates
mass after having been forced to eat or drink
the smallest morsel or drop while the hour of
midnight is striking, or a single moment after
wards. The exceptions are, — 1st, To save the
profanation of the host ; thus, if a heretic is about
¦ to profane the host, and there be no one else by,
who can otherwise prevent it, a priest, although
not fasting, may swallow it without sin. 2d,
When a priest has so far proceeded in mass that
he cannot stop, as when water has been acci
dentally put into the chalice instead of wine, and
he does not perceive it till he has swallowed it,
or when he recollects after consecration that he
is not fasting. 3d, When, after having per
formed the lavabo, he perceives any scattered
fragments of hosts, provided he be still at the
altar, these he may eat. ith, To prevent scan
dal, such as a suspicion that he had committed
a crime the night before. 5th, To administer
the viaticum. 6th, To finish a mass commenced
by another priest, and accidentally interrupted.
1th, When he is dispensed. It is very probably
a mortal sin, by authorities, to celebrate mass
before dawn. So also mass must not be cele
brated after noon, and never, unless for the
dying, on Good Friday. It is a. mortal sin to
celebrate mass without the necessary vestments
and ornaments, or with unconsecrated vestments,
&c, unless in cases of the uttermost necessity.
These vestments lose their consecration if any
portion has been torn off and sewed on again,
not if they are repaired before absolute disjunc
tion, even if it be by a downright patch. No
worn out consecrated vestment should be applied
to any other purpose ; but it should be burned,
and the ashes thrown in some place in which
the}' will not be trampled on. But on the other
hand, with a very wise distinction, the precious
metals which have served profane uses may be
applied to sacred purposes, after having been
passed through the fire, which changes their very
nature by fusion. No dispensation has ever yet
been granted by any pope to qualify the rigid
precept enjoining the necessity of an altar for
mass ; and this must have been consecrated by
a bishop, not by a simple priest, unless through
dispensation from the holy father himself. Three
napkins are strictly necessary ; two may suffice
if such be the common usage of the country — one
in very urgent cases ; and even that, provided it
be whole and clean, may be unconsecrated ; but

416

MAS
a lighted taper must not on any account be dis
pensed with, even to secure the receipt of the
viaticum by a dying man. Mass must stop if
the taper be extinguished, and another cannot
be obtained. On that account a lamp should be
kept burning day and night before every altar
on which the host is deposited; and those to
whom the care of this lamp appertains commit
a mortal sin if they neglect it for one whole day.
In no case must a woman be allowed to assist a
priest at the altar. Certain prevalent supersti
tions during the celebration of mass are forbidden
— such as picking up from the ground, during
the sanctus of the mass on Palm Sunday, the
boxwood consecrated on that day, infusing it for
three-quarters of an hour, neither more nor less,
in spring water, and drinking the water, as a
cure for the colic : keeping the mouth open dur
ing the sanctus in the mass for the dead, as a
charm against mad dogs ; writing the sanctus on
a piece of virgin parchment, and wearing it as an
amulet ; saying mass for twenty Fridays running
as a security against dying without confession,
contrition, full satisfaction, and communion, and
in order to obtain admission into heaven thirty
days after decease ; ordering a mass of the Holy
Ghost to be said in certain churches by way of
divination. If a fly or a spider fall into the
cup before consecration, a fresh cup should be
provided; if after consecration, it should be
swallowed, if that can be done without repug
nance or danger, otherwise it should be removed,
washed with wine, burned after mass, and its
ashes thrown into the sacristy. There are some
nice precautions to be observed in case of the
accidental fall of a host among the clothes of a
female communicant ; if the wafer fall on a nap
kin, it suffices that the napkin be washed by a
sub- deacon ; but if it be stained by no more than
a single drop of wine, the office must be per
formed by a priest. The Augsburg Confession
(syntagma 30) protests against any notion that
it abolishes mass ; and the word, indeed, accord
ing to its original meaning, conveys no meaning
from which a Protestant need recoil. It con
tinued in England to be the name for the Lord's
Supper during part of Edward VI.'s reign. — See
Eucharist. (Hospinian, Kortholt, Durand,
Durant, Augusti, Mohler, &c.)
Massalians (Heb., askers). — See Euchites.
Mathema (learning), an ancient name given
to the creed. — See Creed.
Mathnrins or Brethren of the Holy
Trinity, an order of monks which arose at the
end of the twelfth century, and got this name
from having a church at Paris which has St
Mathurin for its patron saint. All their churches
were dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Sometimes
they are called Brethren of the Redemption of
Captives, because, originating at the period of the
crusades, they gave their labour and a third of
their revenue to liberate Christian captives from
Mohammedan masters. Their founders were two

MEE
French recluses in the diocese of Meanx— John
de Mattia and Felix de Valois. By some they
seem to have been called the Order of Asses, as
they were permitted to use those animals only,
and were debarred from riding on horses. A
similar order was founded in Spain in 1228, and
there called the Order of St Mary.
Mntin. — In the Roman Catholic Church
Matins, qfficium horae matutinal, form the third
watch of the monastic day, namely, from three
to six o'clock a.m. — See Morning Service.
Matricula, a name given to the catalogue
of the clergy. — See Canonici, Diptychs.
Matricularii. — See Sacristan.
Matrimony. — See Marriage.
Matthew's, St., Day, a festival kept by the
Latin Church on the 21st of September, and by
the Greek Church on 16 th of November.
Matthias's, St., Day, a festival kept on the
24th of February. (Matutina.) — See Morning
Service. Maundy Thursday. — See Day, and under
Lent, p. 375. See also Bull, p. 110 ; and
Washing of Feet.
Maur, St., Congregation of, a part of the
Benedictine order, which was re-formed bv Gre
gory XV., in 1621, and spread through France.
It is named after St. Maur, who transplanted
the Benedictine order into France in 543. They
have been famed for their editions of many of
the fathers. The eminent critics Montfauc;on
and Mabillon belonged to their order.
Maximianists, a considerable party among
the Donatists who separated from the main body
of that sect, and arrogated to themselves the
exclusive possession of those qualities of perfec
tion and infallibility to which the whole sect had
made pretensions, when they separated from the
Catholic Church.
Means of Grace, the name usually given
to the divine institutions of Christianity — such
as prayer, preaching, reading of the Word, and
the sacraments. Tbey are only means — not in
fallible conveyancers, but when filled by the
Spirit of grace, channels of grace to the right-
minded. The divine blessing alone can make them
effectual, as they have no virtue or power in
themselves, or from him who administers them.
— See Opus Operatum.
Meeting : —
Meeting for Sufferings, a meeting among the
Society of Friends. It3 origin and purpose
are thus given : — " The yearly meeting of Lon
don, in the year 1675, appointed a meeting to
be held in that city, for the purpose of advismg
and assisting in cases of suffering for conscience'
sake, which hath continued with great use to the
society to this day. It is composed of Friends,
under the name of correspondents, chosen by the
several quarterly meetings, and who reside in or
near the city. The same meetings also appoint
members of their own in the country as cor
respondents, who are to join their brethren in

417

2E

MEE
London on emergency. The names of all these
correspondents, previously to their being recorded,
are submitted to ike approbation of the yearly
meeting. Such nren as are approved ministers
and appointed elders are also members of this
meeting, which is called the ' Meeting for Suffer
ings ; ' a name arising from its original purpose,
and which is not yet become entirely obsolete.
The yearly meeting has entrusted the Meeting
for Sufferings with the care of printing and dis
tributing books, and with the management of its
stock ; and, considered as a standing committee
of the yearly meeting, it hath a general care of
whatever may arise, during the intervals- of that
meeting, affecting the society, and requiring
immediate attention, particularly of those cir
cumstances which may occasion an application
to government." — See Yearly Meeting.
Monthly Meeting, among the Quakers, is a
meeting usually composed of several particular
congregations, situated within a convenient dis
tance of one another. Its business is to provide
for the subsistence of the poor, and for the educa
tion of their offspring; to judge of the sincerity
and fitness of persons appearing to be convinced
of the religious principles of the sociajB, and
desiring to be admitted into membership; to
excite due attention to the discharge of religious
and moral duty; and to deal with disorderly
members. Monthly meetings also grant to such
of their members as remove into other monthly
meetings, certificates of their membership and
conduct, without which they cannot gain mem
bership in such meetings. Each monthly
meeting is required to appoint certain persons,
under the name of overseers, who are to take
care that the rules of discipline be put in prac
tice; and when any case of complaint, or dis
orderly conduct, comes to their knowledge, to
see that private admonition, agreeably to the Gos
pel rule (Matt, xviii. 15-17) be given, previously
to its being laid before the monthly meeting.
When a case is introduced to the monthly
meeting, it is usual for a small committee to be
appointed to visit the offender, in order to endea
vour to convince him of his error, and induce
him to forsake and condemn it. Time is allowed
to judge of the effect of this labour of love, and
if needful the visit is repeated. If the endea
vours prove successful, the person is by minute
declared to have made satisfaction for the offence;
if not, he is disowned as a member of the society.
In disputes between individuals it has long been
the decided judgment of the society that its
members should not sue each other at law. It
therefore enjoins all to end their differences by
speedy and impartial arbitration, agreeably to
rules laid down. If any refuse to adopt this
mode, or having adopted it, to submit to the
award, it is the direction of the yearly meeting
that such be disowned. To monthly meetings
also belongs the allowing of marriages; for the
society hath always scrupled to acknowledge

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MEE
the exclusive authority of the priests in tho
solemnization of marriage. A record of mar
riages is kept by the monthly meeting, as also
of the births and burials of its members. A
certificate of the date, of the name of the infant^
and of its parents, is the subject of one of these
last-mentioned records; and an order for the
interment, counter-signed by the grave-maker, of
the other. ,
Quarterly Meeting, among the Society of
Friends, is an assembly composed of several
monthly meetings. At the quarterly meeting
are produced written answers from the monthly
meetings to certain queries respecting the con
duct of their members, and the meetings' care
over them. The accounts thus received are
digested into one, which is sent, also in the form
of answers to queries, by representatives to the
yearly meeting. Appeals from the judgment of
monthly meetings are brought to the quanerlv
meetings, whose business also is to assist in any
difficult case, or where remissness appears in the
care of the monthly meetings over the indi
viduals who compose them  See Monthly
Meeting and Yearly Meeting.
A Quarterly Meeting, among the Methodists, is
a general meeting of the stewards, leaders, and
other officers, for the purpose of transacting the
general business of the " circuit." There is also
held a quarterly meeting for the issue of " love
feast tickets " in all the " classes," on which occa
sions the poorest members generally pay one shil
ling, and those in better circumstances a larger
amount. — A quarterly meeting, or, as it is
called, "association," among the Welsh Cal
vinistic Methodists consists of preachers and
leaders. As every such association is supposed
to represent the whole Connexion, the decision!
arrived at on those occasions is esteemed author
itative by all the members ofthe community.
Yearly Meeting, an annual meeting of the
Society of Friends. " The yearly meeting has
the general superintendence of the society in the
country in which it is established; and therefore,
as the accounts which it receives discover the
state of inferior meetings, as particular exigencies
require, or as the meeting is impressed with a
sense of duty, it gives forth its advice, makes
such regulations as appear to be requisite, or ex
cites to the observance of those already made,
and sometimes appoints committees to visit those
quarterly meetings which appear to be in need
of immediate advice." At the yearly meeting
another meeting (a sort of sub- committee) is
appointed, bearing the name of the morning meet
ing, for the purpose of revising the denominai
tional manuscripts, previously to publication;
and also the granting, in the intervals ofthe
yearly meeting, of certificates of approbation to
such ministers as are concerned to travel in the
work of the ministry in foreign parts, in addition- .
to those granted by their monthly and quarterlv
meetings. When a visit of this kind doth not

MEE
extend beyond Great Britain, a certificate from
the monthly meeting of which the minister is a
member, is sufficient. If to Ireland, the concur
rence of the quarterly meeting is also required.
Regulations of similar tendency obtain in other
yearly meetings. The "stock" of tbe yearly
meeting consists of occasional voluntary contri
butions, which is expended in printing books,
salary of a clerk for keeping records, the passage
of ministers who visit their brethren beyond sea,
and some small incidental charges ; but not, as
has been falsely supposed, the reimbursement of
those who suffer distraint for tithes and other
demands with which they scruple to comply.
Appeals from the quarterly meetings are heard
at the yearly meetings. There are ten yearly
meetings, — namely, one in London, to which re
presentatives from Ireland are received ; one in
Dublin; one in New England; one in New
York; one in Pennsylvania; one in Maryland ;
one in Virginia ; one in the Carolinas ; one in
Ohio ; and one in Indiana.
Meeting-House, a name often given to
dissenting places of worship. — See Conven
ticle. Melchites (Heb., royalists), the name given
to the Greek-Catholic Church, or to such mem-
.bers of the Greek community as are Romanists.
The number is about 40,000. The Melchites
originated in the labours of the Jesuits in and
around Aleppo in the seventeenth century. They
conform to the Greek ritual, and they have a
magnificent cathedral at Damascus. They con
duct divine service in Arabic, use unleavened
bread in the Eucharist, and their priests (not
their bishops) are allowed to marry. They have
also some monastic establishments. A branch
of the same church exists in Cairo, and another
in Constantinople. — See Jacobites. The name
Melchite was also given by the Jacobites to the
orthodox in the sixth century, as if they had re
tained their orthodoxy in sycophancy to imperial
patronage. Melchizedecians, a sect of the second cen
tury who believed Melcbizedec to be a divine
power, superior to Christ, and an intercessor in
heaven for the angels — Christ's priesthood being
only a copy of his. Similar views were revived
among the Hieracites. — See Hieracites.
Meletians, Asiatic. — The Arians in 331
had deposed Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, a
learned and zealous Nicene; but a party who
adhered to the Nicene symbol, and who called
themselves Eustathians, continued to exist at
Antioch. After appointing several successors to
Eustathius, the Arians, in 360, transferred Mele
tius from the bishopric of Sebaste to that of
Antioch. Although the Arians found they had
made a mistake, and soon deposed him as an
enemy of Arianism, yet only a part of the Ni-
cenes at Antioch would acknowledge him as
bishop, since the Eustathians regarded an Arian
ordination as invalid. In this way two par-

MEN
ties were formed among the Nicenes at Antioch
— a strict party, the Eustathians ; and a mode
rate party, the Meletians. This schism, after
Athanasius had tried in vain to remove it, Lu
cifer made worse, by ordaining as bishop over
the Eustathians the presbyter Paulinus, in oppo
sition to the wishes of Eusebius of Vercelli, who
had been sent with him to Antioch, by the Alex
andrine synod, as his co-deputy. The entire
Nicene portion of Christendom now became
divided, in reference to this matter, into two
parties ; the Occidentals and Egyptians recogniz
ing Paulinus as the true Bishop of Antioch, and
the majority of the Orientals, whose Nicene
proclivities had been somewhat weakened by
semi- Arian influences, recognizing Meletius. —
See Eustathians.
Meletians, Egyptian.— During the Dio
cletian persecution, Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis,
in Thebais, had, without being authorized, arro
gated to himself the power of ordaining and
of otherwise interfering with the rights of his
metropolitan, Petrus, Bishop of Alexandria,
who for a season had retired from his diocese.
Warnings and admonitions were in vain. An
Egyptian synod then excommunicated and de
posed him. This gave rise to a schism which
spread over Egypt. The general council of
Nice (325) offered to all Meletian bishops am
nesty, and the succession in their respective sees,
in case the Catholic counter-bishop should die.
Many submitted ; but Meletius himself, with
some others, continued schismatic, and joined the
party of the Arians. (Kurtz.)
Melitonians, followers of Melito, in the fifth
century, and were Anthropomorphites, (which
see.) Menu ion, a service-book in the Greek
Church, containing hymns and special services
for the saints, with their biographies. It con
sists of twelve folio volumes — a volume for every
month. It corresponds in some respects to the
Roman Breviary. — See Breviary.
Menander, a pretended pupil of Simon
Magus in the first century, who claimed to be
one of the iEons or Emanations sent to redeem
the world. He ordained his followers to be bap
tized in his name. — See Gnostic.
Menandrians, the sect of Samaritan Gnos
tics who followed Menander, the disciple of Simon
Magus. Menander was no less arrogant and
blasphemous in his pretensions than Simon had
been before bim. He practised also the same
magic arts, and taught very much the same
doctrines. Mendenns, followers of John the Baptist,
and sometimes called Hemero-Baptists. They
are found near Bussorah, and amount to about
25,000 families. Another branch, calling them
selves Galileans, exists in Syria, but is much
smaller in numbers. They claim the Baptist as
their founder, make a sacramental feast of locusts
and wild honey, apply the term " Word," in the.

419

MEN
beginning of the fourth gospel, to John, and not
to Jesus, and baptize in a large vessel in the
open air, their minister being clothed in a robe
of camel's hair — See Hemero-Baptists.
Mendicant Orders. — See Dominicans,
Franciscans. — Only two other mendicant
orders of later origin attained great influence,
viz., the Augustines, whom Pope Alexander IV.
drew from the members of monastic orders which
had been scattered (1256); and the Servites
(Servi b. Mariae Virg.), instituted by seven pious
Florentines for the service of the Virgin Mary,
in 1233 — an order very popular both in Italy
and Germany.
Mennonites, a sect of Dutch Anabaptists
which had its origin about 1536. Its founder,
Menno Simonis, from whom it derived its name,
was born in 1505 at Witmarsum in Friesland.
In 1529 he was ordained to the Romish priest
hood ; but in the course of a few years he resigned
his office, in the conviction that the doctrines of
the Papal Church — especially that regarding the
" real presence " in the Eucharist — were not in
harmony with the teaching of the Bible. On
the subject of infant baptism also, he saw meet
to change his views. At that time the excesses
into which Munster and his followers had run
were regarded with feelings of deep regret, by
many good men even amongst those who agreed
with them respecting the invalidity of infant
baptism. Of this number was Menno. His
opinions on this point having become known, he
was induced to become the pastor of an Anabap
tist congregation, which repudiated, not less than
himself, the licentious conduct of Munster. In
this office he continued during a period of twenty-
five years, disseminating his peculiar tenets,
not only in Friesland, but throughout Holland
and Germany. Although oftentimes exposed
to persecution, he nevertheless continued steadfast
ia the work, and ere he died had the satisfaction
of seeing his followers a large and flourishing sect
Besides the necessity of adult baptism, the Men
nonites in the sixteenth century held other doc
trines in common with the Anabaptists, These
were a belief in Christ's personal reign during the
millennium — the unlawfulness of oaths and wars,
even in resistance to injury — the impropriety of
engaging in lawsuits — and the exclusion of the
civil magistrate from the Church. But, with the
wild notions, which were indulged in by many,
of setting up Christ's kingdom on earth, by
violence and bloodshed, they had no sympathy.
Every immoral practice, also, they as a sect
discountenanced. Scarcely had the Mennonites
separated themselves from the other Anabaptists,
than they themselves were divided. The subject
of dispute was the propriety or impropriety of
excommunicating from the fellowship of the
church those who had incurred its censures.
Even when the erring brother showed signs of
repentance, it was maintained by some that he
ought not to be re-admitted. From this cir-

MEN
cumstance the two parties were named respec
tively " die Feinen," — the Fine, and "die Groben"
— the Coarse. They were also called " Flemings "
or " Flandrians " and " Waterlanders," from the
districts in which they resided. The former
was the more rigid of the two ; but ere long it
was also divided into Flandrians and Frieslan-
ders. This separation arose out of a question
as to what should constitute a sufficient cause
for excommunication. One party regarded those
only who were open contemners of the divine
law to be deserving the highest censure of the
church, whilst the others considered offences of
the most trivial kind a reason for their instant
rejection. So much did this latter party insist
on purity of life, that even now, although re
duced to a very small number, they still hold
tenaciously to this distinction. A disposition to
indulge in the gaieties of life is held as a proof
that the heart is set on the world — consequently,
all ornaments and elegant clothing are strictly
forbidden. Amongst them, also, all intercourse
with the excommunicated is prohibited. Even
the dearest ties of life are disregarded, no allowance
being made for the weakness of the flesh. They
also followed the example of the Saviour in
washing the feet of their guests as a token of
love. In doctrine, also, they differ amongst
themselves, the old Flemings or strict Mennonites
maintaining, with the original founder of the sect,
that the body of Christ was not derived from the
Virgin Mary, but produced out of nothing by
the power of the Holy Ghost In other respects
they agree generally with the doctrines of tbe
Reformed Churches, although, in some of their
published confessions of faith, there is a manifest
leaning towards Arianism. But although thus
divided, they are all agreed in regard to the
fundamental doctrine of baptism. This ordinance
is delayed till the person reaches the age of
twelve, or, if performed in infancy, has to be
repeated. The mode in which it is administered
is by pouring the water on the head. Their
form of government is congregational, each
church managing its own affairs. Besides the
pastor, there are deacons and deaconesses, the
former attending to the male and tbe latter to
the female poor. Such of their ministers as are
educated receive their training in the Mennonite
college at Amsterdam. The sect numbers about
5,000 in Russia and 14,000 in Prussia. In
Holland there are about 150 congregations.
Mennonites in America. — This sect was first
known to exist on the western Continent about
the end of the seventeenth century. Holding
many things in common with the Quakers, they
received an invitation from William Penn to
settle in the new province of Pennsylvania.
Many availed themselves of it, so that in little
more than half a century the sect had increased
to about 500 families. Since that time it has
extended itself throughout the whole Union, and
also to Canada. Their religious views are sirni-

420

MEN
lar to those held by their brethren in Europe.
They have, however, distinguishing peculiarities.
Their office-bearers are bishops, ministers, and
deacons, all of whom are chosen by lot. Their
pastors give their services gratuitously. They
keep no records of church membership, from a
desire to avoid display. In Pennsylvania and
Ohio, where they are most numerous, half-yearly
conferences are held, to devise measures for the
advancement of the sect.
Mennonites (Reformed) in America, separated
from the other Mennonites in 1811, in consequence
of a desire on their part to live more in accord
ance with the doctrines which they professed.
They follow strictly the injunctions of Menno
Simonis, in regard to foot-washing, non-resistance
of evil, abstinence from oaths, and separation
from all excommunicated persons. This sect is
not so numerous as the other, and is confined
chiefly to Pennsylvania, where it first originated,
although there are congregations belonging to it
scattered over many parts of the United States.
Men of Understanding. — See Hommes
d' Intelligence.Menologinm, the Greek calendar, taken
from the Menaion, and corresponding in some
respects to the Latin martyrology.
Mensa, Mensal (table), a name anciently
given to a church erected over a martyr's grave.
— See Martyr. It got the name from the dis
tinctive altar or common table. Thus Augustine
speaks of a church called mensa Cypriani — Cy
prian, as he explains, not having eaten there,
but having been offered up there. Prior to the
Reformation in Scotland, when the revenue of a
popish bishopric arose from the annexation of
parish churches, those allotted to the bishop him
self were called mensal churches, as furnishing his
table; the other churches being called common,
as bishop and chapter had an interest in them.
Mensula. — See Credence Tarle.
Men, The, are a class of persons who occupy
a somewhat conspicuous place in the religious
communities of the north of Scotland, and are
chiefly to be found in those counties where the
Gaelic language prevails, as in Ross, Suther
land, and the upland districts of Inverness
and Argyle. Large and undivided parishes, a
scanty supply of the means of grace, patronage,
and other causes peculiar to such localities,
seem to have developed this abnormal class of
self-appointers, instructors, and spiritual over
seers. They are designated " Men " by way
of eminence, and as a title of respect, in recog
nition of their superior natural abilities, and
their attainments in religious knowledge and
personal piety. There is no formal manner in
which they pass into the rank or order of Men,
farther than the general estimation in which they
are held by the people among whom they live,
on account of their known superior gifts and re
ligions experience. If they are considered to
excel their neighbours in the exercises of prayer

MER
and exhortation, for which they have abundant
opportunities at the lyke-wakes, which are still
common in the far Highlands, and at meetings
for prayer and Christian fellowship ; and if they
continue to frequent such meetings, and take
part in these religious services, so as to meet
with general approbation, they thus gradually
gain a repute for godliness, and naturally glide
into the order of " The Men." — See Lychgate,
Burial. There may be three or four such Men
in a parish; and as, on communion occasions,
the Friday is specially set apart for prayer and
mutual exhortation, "The Men" have then a
public opportunity of exercising their gifts by
engaging in prayer, and speaking to some ques
tion bearing on religious experience. This, in
many parts of the Highlands, is considered as
the great day of the communion season, and is
popularly called the " Men's day;" and as there
may be present twenty or thirty of these " Men "
assembled from the surrounding parishes, the
whole services of the day may be said to be left
in their hands — only the minister of the parish
usually presides, and sums up the opinions ex
pressed on the subject under consideration. Many
of the Men assume, on these occasions, a peculiar
garb in the form of a large blue cloak ; and in
moving about from one communion to another,
they are treated with great respect, kindness, and
hospitality. The influence which they thus
acquired over the people was very powerful. Ac
cording to current reports, some of them griev
ously abused it, forming as they once did, an
imperium in imperio, which usurped supremacy
over the minister, and superseded the authority
of the kirk-session in a manner often as gro
tesque as it was high-handed and severe. Their
criticisms on the sermons of ministers whom they
disliked, are said to have been very racy and en
tertaining. Yet there can be no doubt that, in
many parishes in the Highlands, where the min
isters have been intruded on resisting congrega
tions, and where others have been careless and
remiss in the performance of their duties, these
" Men " have been often useful in keeping spirit
ual religion alive. It is not to be wondered that
the heads of some of them were turned, and that
the honour in which they were held begat spirit
ual pride in them. But these are always said to
have been the exception. Since the period of the
Disruption, when the Highlands have been fur
nished with a more adequate supply of Gospel
ordinances, and spiritual feudalism has been
broken, it has been observed that the influence
of tbe Men, who have for the most part con
nected themselves with the Free Church, has
been gradually on the wane, their peculiar call
ing and services being, in a great measure, hap
pily superseded by an active and evangelical
ministry. Merchants' Hjeciiirc, a lecture set up at
Pinner's Hall, in 1672, by the Presbyterians
and Independents, to defend the doctrines of the

421

Mes"
Reformation against Popery and Socinianism.
But some misunderstanding took place, and the
Presbyterians removed to Salter's Hall.
Messalians. — See Euchites.
Mess Johns, a name given last century
to a certain class of chaplains kept by the
nobility and families of higher rank, who were
generally expected to rise from table after the
second course, and were in little better esteem
than menials. (Broughton.) Be that as it may,
the name of Mass or Mess John was given in
Scotland also to Presbyterian ministers, not from
any connection with the mass, or because they
succeeded mass-priests, but probably because
they were called Mr. or Messrs., the title
reverend not being applied to them.
Metatoriam or Mutatorium, a name given
to the diaconicum magnum, because it served as
a robing-room. — See Diaconicum.
Methodists. — Tbis name, which is now
applied to a large and influential body of
Christians, is of ancient use. It was first
given to a class of physicians who flourished
about a century before the Christian era. In
the seventeenth century it was applied as a mark
of distinction to those Roman Catholic contro
versialists who, in their disputations with Pro
testants, sought to be very precise. In the
beginning of the eighteenth century the name
Methodist received its present application. A
religious society, founded by John Wesley, arose
in England in the year 1729, who, on account
of the exact regularity of their lives, and strict
ness in the performance of their religious duties,
were called Methodists. This denomination of
Christians rapidly increased in numbers and in
fluence. They are divided into various societies,
but still retain their original name.
Methodists ( Wesleyan). — The founder of this
large and influential body of Christians was John
Wesley. That distinguished divine was born in
1703, at Epworth, in Lincolnshire, where his
father, the Rev. Samuel Wesley, was rector. At
an early age he was sent, along with his brother
Charles, to the university of Oxford, where he
laid the foundation of that sound and varied
learning in which he so much excelled, and
which was of immense advantage to him in after
life. It was when residing in Oxford that the
two brothers became deeply impressed with a
sense of the importance of religion. The regular
ity of their conduct, and general strictness of their
behaviour, attracted the attention of their fellow-
students, and made Wesley and his associates the
objects of ridicule and reproach. It was with
reference to that marked propriety in their "walk
and conversation " that the name Methodist was
applied to them. Two or three young men con
nected with the university were drawn towards
them, and held meetings together for mutual
edification. Of this first " Methodist " society
Wesley gives the following account : — " In
November, 1729, four young gentlemen of

422

MET
Oxford, Mr. John Wesley, fellow of Lincoln
College; Mr. Chas. Wesley, student of Christ
Church; Mr. Morgan, commoner of Christ
Church ; and Mr. Kirkman, of Merton College,
began to spend some evenings together in read
ing the Greek Testament. The next year two or
three of Mr. John Wesley's pupils desired the
liberty of meeting with them, and afterwards,
one of Mr. Charles Wesley's pupils. It was in
1732 that Mr. Ingham, of Queen's College, and
Mr. Broughton, of Exeter, were added to their
number. To these in April was joined Mr.
Clayton, of Brazennose, with two or three of
his pupils. About the same time Mr. James
Hervey was permitted to meet with them, and
afterwards Mr. Whitfield." But though brought
under religious convictions, and deeply in earnest
in his observance of the duties of Christianity, he
was even then, according to his own declaration
several years afterwards, without a saving know
ledge of Christ. It was on his return from
missionary labours in Georgia, in 1738, that he
was brought under the influence of the Gospel,
and found peace and joy through believing,
That blessed result was, under God, attained by
means of the instructions which he received front
Peter Bohler, a Moravian minister in London.
From that time he was seized with an inexpres
sible desire to. communicate the knowledge of
salvation to his fellowmen. His favourite theme
ever afterwards was the doctrine of justification
by faith in Jesus; and in all his exhortations he
endeavoured to impress upon the minds of his
hearers its unspeakable importance. Driven
from the pulpits of the Establishment, he was
forced to proclaim, wherever opportunity offered,
the Gospel of salvation. Along with the cele
brated Whitfield he preached in the open air to
large multitudes assembled, and by these means
many were awakened, and brought from " dark-,
ness into light" Referring to this, the beginning
of his labours, he says, — "Not daring to be
silent, after a short struggle between honour and
conscience, I made a virtue of necessity, and
preached in the middle of Moorfields. Here
were thousands upon thousands, abundantly more
than any church could contain, and numbers
among them who never went to any church or
place of public worship at all. More and more
of them were cut to the heart, and came to me
all in tears, inquiring with the utmost eagerness
what they must do to be saved," An unavoid
able consequence of these efforts was the formation
of religious societies. The following is portion of
the original explanatory document, which has re
mained in force upwards of a century : — " In the
latter end of the year 1739, eight or ten persons
came tome in London, who appeared to be deeply
convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for re
demption. They desired (as did one or two
more the next day) that I would spend some
time with them in prayer, and advise them how
to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw

MET
continually hanging over their heads. That we
might have more time for this great work, I
appointed a day when they might all come
together, which from thenceforward they did
every week, namely, on Thursday, in the evening,
To these, and as many more as desired to join
with them (for their number increased daily), I
gave those advices from time to time which I
judged most needful for them, and we always
concluded our meeting with prayer suited to
their several necessities. This was the rise of
the United Society, first in London and then in
other places." " Such a society is no other than
' a company of men having the form and seeking
the power of godliness; united in order to pray
together, to receive the word of exhortation, and
to watch over one another in love, that they may
help each other to work out their salvation.'
"That it may the more easily be discerned whether
they are indeed working out their own salvation,
each society is divided into smaller companies
called classes, according to their respective places
of abode. There are about twelve persons in
every class, one of whom is styled the leader. It
is his business, (1.) To see each person in his
class once a-week at least, in order to inquire
how their souls prosper; to advise, reprove, com
fort, or exhort, as occasion may require; to re
ceive what they are willing to give towards the
support of the Gospel. (2.) To meet the minis
ters and the stewards of the society once a-week,
in order to inform the minister of any that are
sick, or of any that walk disorderly and will not
be reproved ; to pay to the stewards what they
have received of their several classes in the week
preceding; and to show their account of what
each person has contributed. There is one
only condition previously required of those who
desire admission into these societies, — viz., 'a
desire to flee from the wrath to come, and be
saved from their sins.' But wherever this is
really fixed in the souL it will be shown by its
fruits. It is therefore expected of all who con
tinue therein that they should continue to evi
dence their desire of salvation,— first, by doing
no harm, by avoiding evil in every kind, espe
cially that which is most generajW practised,
such as the taking the name of Goafm vain ; the
profaning the day of the Lord, ei^S'by doing
ordinary work thereon, or by buyirsfor selling ;
drunkenness, buying or selling spirituous liquors,
or drinking them, unless in cases of extreme
necessity; fighting, quarrelling, brawling, brother
going to law with brother, returning evil for evil,
or railing for railing; the using many words in
buying or selling; the buying or selling uncus
tomed goods; the giving or taking things on
usury — viz., unlawful interest; uncharitable or
unprofitable conversation, particularly speaking
evil of magistrates or of ministers; doing to
others as we would not they should do unto us ;
doing what we know is not for the glory of God,
;as the nutting on of gold and costly apparel, the

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taking such diversions as cannot be used in the
name of the Lord Jesus, the singing those songs
or reading those books which do not tend to the
knowledge or love of God ; softness and needless
self-indulgence ; laying up treasure upon earth ;
borrowing without a probability of paying, or
taking up goods without a probability of paying
for them. It is expected of all who continue
in these societies, that they should continue to
evidence their desire of salvation, secondly, by
doing good, by being in every kind merciful after
their power as they have opportunity, doing good
of every possible sort, and as far as is possible to
all men ; to their bodies, of the ability that God
giveth, by giving food to the hungry, by cloth
ing the naked, by helping or visiting them that
are sick or in prison ; to their souls, by instruct
ing, reproving, or exhorting all we have any in
tercourse with, trampling under foot that enthusi
astic doctrine of devils, that ' we are not to do
good unless our hearts be free to it' By doing
good, especially to them that are of the house
hold of faith, or groaning so to be; employing
them preferably to others, buying one of another,
helping each other in business ; and so much the
more, because the world will love its own, and
them only. By all possible diligence and fru
gality, that the Gospel be not blamed. By run
ning with patience the race that is set before
them, denying themselves, and taking up their
cross daily, submitting to bear the reproach of
Christ, to be as the filth and offscouring of the
world, and looking that men should say all man
ner of evil of them falsely, for the Lord's sake.
It is expected of all who desire to continue in
these societies that they should continue to evi
dence their desire of salvation, thirdly, by at
tending upon all the ordinances of God, such are,
the public worship of God, the ministry of the
Word, either read or expounded, the Supper of
the Lord, family and private prayer, search
ing the Scriptures, and fasting or ahstinence.
These are the general rules of our societies, all
which we are taught of God to observe, even in
his written Word, — the only rule, and the suffi
cient rule, both of our faith and practice. And
all these we know his Spirit writes on every truly
awakened heart. If there be any among us who
observe them not, who habitually break any of
them, let it be made known unto them who
watch over that soul, as they that must give an
account We will admonish him of the error of
his ways ; we will bear with him for a season ;
but then, if he repent not, he hath no more place
among us. We have delivered our own souls.
" John Wesley,
" May 1, 1743. , " Charles Wesley."
In order to supply the increasing demands
of the people for gospel preaching, Wesley was
induced to accept the assistance of preachers
who had not been educated with a view to the
Christian ministry, nor formally ordained to that
sacred office. Pious and experienced men were

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selected and set apart to that important work,
and that they were able and effective preachers
of the Word is attested by the fruit of their
labours in every part of the land. From this
time Methodism began to assume a regularly
organized system. Meeting-houses were planted
in various parts of the country, and certain rules
were drawn up for regulating admission into the
membership, and conducting the affairs of the
society. The societies were divided into classes,
over each of which a leader was placed. As they
increased in number it was necessary to adopt
new measures for oarrying on the work. With
this end in view a conference was held in London
in 1744, composed of six persons, five of whom
were clergymen of the Established Church ; and
the result of their deliberations was eminently
conducive to the progress of the society. The
country was divided into circuits, and to each of
them two or three regular itinerant preachers
were appointed, to whom a stated sum was
allowed for their support. These preachers were
placed under the superintendence of the confer
ence, which now met annually to devise measures
for maintaining and extending the operations of
the society. Whilst the cause of Methodism
continued to flourish at home, efforts were made
to commence mission operations in other lands.
And in this matter they were so successful that,
ere the decease of the founder of Methodism,
nineteen missionaries were employed by the
society in the West Indies and in British North
America. The Methodists had now become a
numerous and influential body in England ; and
also in Scotland and Ireland their number was
considerable. They were also rising to consider
able importance in the United States of America.
In the year 1784, Mr. Wesley, who was now in
the decline of life, with a view to the permanency
of the institution which by his unwearied efforts
had been so successfully established, got a " Deed
of Declaration" drawn up, constituting one hun
dred preachers by name "the Conference of the
people called Methodists." "This deed," writes
Mr. Jackson, " Wesley caused to be enrolled in
His Majesty's High Court of Chancery, in the
year 1784. It created some uneasiness at the
time, particularly among the preachers whose
names were omitted; but that uneasiness soon
passed away, and the deed has unquestionably
been the greatest benefit of the kind ever con
ferred upon the Connexion. From the time of
Mr. Wesley's death it has been strictly acted
upon by the conference, and has preserved the
unity of the body by securing to the congrega
tions and societies that itinerant ministry for the
exercise of which every Methodist chapel was
originally built."
At the advanced age of eighty-seven the founder
of Methodism died, having presided over forty-
seven conferences. Soon after his death attempts
were made to set aside the Deed of Declaration by
a body of trustees of chapels, who claimed the right

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of appointing the preachers to the respective pul-,
pits ; but their attempts were unsuccessful. The
body of the preachers, and the people over whom
they presided, remained steadfast to their princi
ples, and by their zealous and unremitting labours
contributed to the advancement of the cause of
Methodism. Within ten years after Wesley's
decease the membership in the various societies
numbered more than 40,000, and in twenty years
after they were increased to upwards of 100,000.
But, unhappily for the general interests of the
body, disputes arose among the people regarding
what was deemed by many the despotic rule
exercised by the conference. A desire for reform
was expressed, which, had it been granted, would
have led to the representation of the laity in the
conference. But that body (which was exclusively
composed of ministers) firmly refused to make.
any alteration in the government or representa
tion of the society; and in consequence a con
siderable number, headed by Mr. Kilham, one of
the ministers, seceded, and formed themselves
into a society, which they denominated the
Methodist (Wesleyan) New Connexion. The
cause which led to that secession gave rise to
other secessions, which in no small measure
marred the prosperity of the United Societies.
Through these contentions and separations the
society is said to have lost 100,000 members
— a number equal to one-third of the whole.
Of these may be reckoned a large and influ
ential party denominated the Wesleyan Associa
tion; also another party who term themselves
the Wesleyan Methodist Reformers. Notwith
standing these losses to the Connexion which
have arisen in consequence of large secessions
from their ranks, and the expulsion of a large
number from the membership, they still maintain
an important position in the country. In Great
Britain, according to the latest accounts, the
number in communion with the society is 300,000,
their ministers 1,295, preachers on trial 83. In
Ireland there are 19,287 members, 107 ministers
and 18 preachers on trial.
The theology of the Wesleyans is of the Ar
minian type, and they recognize as their creed
fifty-three of Wesley's discourses and his Notes .
on the New Testament. Thus, too, in the Minutes
qf Conference are found the following questions
and answers: — " Q. In what sense is Adam's sin
imputed to all mankind? A. In Adam all
died, i. «., 1. Our bodies then became mortal.
— 2. Our souls died, i. e., were disunited from
God. And hence, — 3. We are all born with a
sinful, devilish nature; by reason whereof, —
4. We are children of wrath, liable to death
eternal, (Rom. v. 18 ; Eph. ii. 3.) Q. In what
sense is the righteousness of Christ imputed
to all mankind, or to believers? A. We do
not find it expressly affirmed in Scripture, that
God imputes the righteousness of Christ to any,
although we do find that faith is imputed for
righteousness. That text, 'As by one man's dis-
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obedience all men were made sinners, so by the
obedience of one all were made righteous,' we
conceive, means by the merits of Christ all men
are cleared from the guilt of Adam's actual sin.
Q. Can faith be lost but through disobedience ?
A . It cannot. A believer first inwardly disobeys ;
inclines to sin with his heart ; then his intercourse
with God is cut off, i. e. , his faith is lost ; and
after this he may fall into outward sin, being
now weak; and like another man. Q. What is
implied in being a perfect Christian? A. The
loving the Lord our God with all our heart, and
with all our mind, and soul, and strength. Q,
Does this imply that all inward sin is taken
away? A. Without doubt; or how could we be
said to be saved from all our uncleannesses ?
(Ezek. xxxvi. 29.)"
The duties of a Wesleyan minister are thus
defined : — " Q. What is the office of a Chris
tian minister ? A. To watch over souls, as he
that must give an account. To feed and
guide the flock. Q. How shall he be fully
qualified for his great work? A. By walking
closely with God, and having his work greatly
at heart; by understanding and loving every
branch of our discipline ; and by carefully
and constantly observing the twelve rules of a
helper; viz. — 1. Be diligent; never be unem
ployed; never be triflingly employed; never
while away time, nor spend more time at any
place than is "strictly necessary. 2. Be serious ;
let your motto be, holiness to the Lord; avoid ali
lightness, jesting, and foolish talking. 3. Con
verse sparingly and cautiously with women,
particularly with young women. 4. Take no
step towards marriage without solemn prayer
to God, and consulting with your brethren.
5. Believe evil of no one ; unless fully proved take
heed how you credit it: put the best construction
you can on everything,^ — you know the judge
is always supposed to be on the prisoner's side.
6. Speak evil of no one, else your word especially
would eat as doth a canker ; keep your thoughts
within your own breast, till you come to the
person concerned. 7. Tell every one what you
think wrong in him, lovingly and plainly, and as
soon as may be, else it will fester in your own
heart ; make all haste to cast the fire out of your
bosom. 8. Do not affect the gentleman; a
preacher of the Gospel is the servant of all. 9. Be
ashamed of nothing but sin, no, not of cleaning
your own shoes when necessary. 1 0. Be punctual ;
do everything exactly at the time ; and do not
mend our rules, but keep them, and that for
conscience' sake. 11. You have nothing to do
but to save souls ; and therefore spend and be
spent in this work ; and go always, not only to
those who want you, but to those who want you
most. 12. Act in all things, not according to
your own will, but as a son in the Gospel, and in
union with your brethren. As such, it is your
part to employ your time as our rules direct;
partly in preaching and visiting from house to

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house ; partly in reading, meditation, and prayer.
Above all, if you labour with us in our Lord's
vineyard, it is needful that you should do that
part of the work which the conference shall advise,
at those times and places which they shall judge
most for his glory. Observe: — It is not your
business to preach so many times, and to take
care merely of this and that society : but to save
as many souls as you can; to bring as many
sinners as you possibly can to repentance ; and
with all your power to build them up in that
holiness without which they cannot see the Lord ;
and, remember, a Methodist preacher is to mind
every point, great and small, in the Methodist
discipline; therefore you will need all the grace
and all the sense you have, and to have all your
wits about you."
The organization of Wesleyan Methodism is as
follows : — " A number of ' Societies ' form what
is called a ' circuit' This generally includes a
considerable market town, and the circumjacent
villages to the extent of ten or fifteen miles. To
one circuit two, three, or four ministers are ap
pointed, one of whom is styled the ' superinten
dent;' and this is the sphere of their labour for
at least one year, or not more than three years.
Once a-quarter the ministers visit all the classes,
in order to speak personally to every member.
All who have maintained a consistent walk dur
ing the preceding three months then receive a
ticket. These tickets resemble in some respects
the symbols or tesserae of the ancients, and serve
in place of the commendatory letters of which
St. Paul speaks in 2 Corinthians iii. One of
their main uses is to prevent imposture. After
the visitation of the classes, a circuit meeting is
held, which consists of ministers, stewards, lead
ers of classes, lay preachers, &c. The stewards
then deliver their collections to a circuit-steward,
and everything relating to the financial support
of the ministry is thus publicly settled. This
business is conducted simply on the principle of
supplying the wants of those who are ' separated
unto the Gospel of God,' that they may give an
undistracted attention to their holy function.
Accordingly, the Methodist ministry enriches no
man. Candidates for the sacred office are pro
posed at the quarterly meetmg just described :
the presiding minister nominates them, and it
rests with the members to approve or negative
the nomination. A similar balance of power is
maintained in the leaders' meeting in regard to
various affairs of the particular society to which
it belongs. Many of these meetings are attended
by one minister only, or, at the most, by two
or three ; while the lay members are very nu
merous. No leader, or other society-officer, is
appointed but with the concurrence of a leaders'
meeting : no circuit steward, without that of the
quarterly meeting. A number of the circuits —
from ten to twenty, more or fewer, according to
their extent — form a ' district :' the ministers of
which meet at least annually. Every district

425

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has a ' chairman' or president. These assemblies
have authority,— 1. To examine candidates for
the ministry, and probationers ; also, to try and
suspend ministers who are found immoral, erro
neous in doctrine, unfaithful to their ordination
vows regarding the maintenance of order and
discipline, or deficient in ability for the work
they have undertaken. 2. To decide prelimi
nary questions concerning the building of chapels.
3. To review the demands from the less wealthy
circuits, which draw upon the public funds of the
Connexion for aid in supporting their ministers.
4. To elect a representative, who is thus made a
member of a committee appointed to sit previously
to the meeting of the conference, in order to pre
pare a draught of the stations of all the minis
ters for the ensuing year ; regard being had to the
wishes of the people in the allocation of indivi
dual pastors. The judgment of this 'stationing
committee' is conclusive until conference, to
which an appeal is allowed in all cases, either
from ministers or people. This 'district meet
ing ' is in fact a committee of the conference,
circuit stewards and other lay gentlemen at
tend all its sittings for financial and public
business, taking part equally with ministers in
all that affects the general welfare of the body.
Strictly speaking, the conference consists of one
hundred ministers, mostly seniors, who have been
introduced according to arrangements prescribed
in a deed of declaration, executed by Mr. Wesley,
and enrolled in Chancery. But the representa
tives just named, and all the ministers allowed
by the district committees to attend (who may
or may not be members of the legal conference),
sit and vote usually as one body ;' the ' one hun
dred' confirming their decisions. In this clerical
assembly every minister's character undergoes
renewed and strict scrutiny ; and if any charge
be proved against him, he is dealt with accord
ingly. The proceedings of the subordinate meet
ings are here finally reviewed, and the state of
Methodism at large is considered. Candidates
for the ministry are publicly and privately ex
amined, and their ordination takes place during
the second week of session." — The Wesleyan
Missionary Society has upwards of .£100,000 of
annual income, with eight printing establish
ments, nigh 500 missionaries, and many more
catechists and teachers. At home it has two
theological institutions — one at Richmond Hill,
and another at Didsbury — with various other
educational seminaries. Its recognized " Book-
room" issues hosts of publications of all sizes
and prices. Methodism revived the spiritual
life of England when it bad far decayed, and
has wrought effectually and successfully ever
since its origin. It has not many names of lite
rary eminence, teamed leisure being denied to its
laborious ministers ; yet we may mention Adam
Clarke, the commentator; Richard Watson, the
theologian ; with Benson, Fletcher, Drew, Treffrey,
Rule, Etheridge, and Arthur. (Smith's History

426

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of Wesleyan Methodism; Coke's Life of Wesley j '
Jackson, Isaac Taylor, &c.)
Methodists (Calvinistic), a name given to
those Methodists who entertain those opinions on
the leading doctrines of Christianity which, in-
their aggregate form, are usually termed Cal
vinistic. Their founder, the celebrated Whit
field, was well known to promulgate these views,
as opposed to the Arminian doctrines openly
avowed by John Wesley, the founder of Meth
odism. Notwithstanding, these two great men
laboured together harmoniously for several
years, both alike animated with an inexpres
sible desire for the revival of godliness in the
land. But in the year 1748, in consequence of
their differences of opinion with regard to the
leading doctrines of Christianity, they separated
from one another. Various attempts were made
to reconcile their conflicting views, but without
success. Whitfield still continued to preach
the Gospel wherever he found an opportunity,
having no fixed sphere of labour, and evidently
without the slightest desire to be the founder of a
sect. On one occasion he preached at Moorfields
to a great multitude who were assembled there at
the fair on Whitmonday, and with so, much power
and success did he preach, that hundreds were
at that time awakened to a deep sense of their
sins, and found peace with God through Christ.
In the year 1755 Mr. Whitfield was asked to
preach at a chapel in Long Acre. ' He agreed
to preach twice a-week. Multitudes flocked to
hear him, and to many his ministrations were
abundantly blessed. A building for accommo
dating a, large number was speedily erected,
aud was formally opened for public worship in
November, 1756. In addition to these two
great chapels in the metropolis, several others
were built in different towns in England, where
the followers of Whitfield still continue to wor
ship. According to Dr. Haweis, the number
of Calvinistic Methodists in 1800 amounted to
as many as the Arminian Methodists. Their
congregations are formed on the independent
principle — each defraying its own expenses,
and conducting its own affairs. — See Welsh
Calvinistic Methodists.
Methodists ( Welsh Calvinistic). — This body of
Methodists arose about the middle of the last
century. Its origin may ba traced to the zealous
and successful labours of a gentleman named
Howel Harris, a resident in Trevecca, Breck
nockshire. At one time it was the intention of
Harris to take holy orders in the Church of
England. With this end in view he entered
one of the Oxford colleges ; but, disgusted with
the immorality and unprincipled conduct whiph
at that time prevailed to an alarming extent in
these seats of learning, he left Oxford and re
turned home. Deeply impressed with a sense
of the spiritual-destitution of those around him,'
he began visiting from house to house, and with
untiring zeal continued for four years, single-

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handed ahd alone, these labours of love. Nor
were his efforts in vain. At the end of that short
period, no fewer than 300 societies were estab
lished in South Wales. His success attracted
the attention of several pious ministers in the
Church of England, who afterwards seceded
from the Establishment, and joined themselves
to the rising cause, A chapel was erected in
Builth, Brecknockshire, in 1747, and soon
afterwards other two were built in Carmar
thenshire. In the midst of great opposition
they continued to progress, and were the means
of carrying the glad tidings of salvation to many
thousands in Wales, who otherwise would have
remained ignorant of Gospel truth, In 1784 the
cause was much strengthened by the accession of
the Rev. Thos. Charles, of Bala, Merionethshire,
to their membership ; and indeed the organization
of the Calvinistic body, and its present prosperous
condition, was mainly owing to the exertions of
that indefatigable servant of Christ. Fully alive
to the spiritual destitution of the surrounding
districts, Mr. Charles set himself to devise a
system by which the work of evangelization
might be most successfully accomplished. Re
ferring to these purposed labours, he thus writes
some time afterwards : — " In my travels through
different parts of North Wales, about twenty-three
years ago, I perceived that the state of the poor
of the country in general was so low as to religi
ous knowledge, that in many parts not one person
in twenty was capable of reading the Scriptures ;
and in some districts hardly an individual could
be found who had received any instruction in
reading. I found then, and still do find, daily
proofe of the poor people who cannot read, and
have never been oatechetically instructed, even
where constant preaching is not wanting. This
discovery pained me beyond what I can express,
and made me think seriously of some remedy,
effectual and speedy, for the redress of this griev
ance. I accordingly proposed to a few friends
to set a subscription on foot to pay the wages of
a teacher, who was to be moved circuitously from
one place to another, to instruct the poor in
reading, and in the first principles of Christianity
by catechizing them. This work began in the
year 1785." These circulating schools proved
eminently successful. Both parents and children,
in many cases, availed themselves of the means
of instruction provided for them. Sunday schools
were also numerously formed, and were the
means of communicating to many neglected
children the knowledge of Divine truth. An
edition of Welsh Bibles and Testaments was
issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society,
and many copies of both were distributed among
the Welsh population. By these various agencies
the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists were the hon
oured instruments in the hand of God of impart
ing new life to many places which for centuries
were the abode of superstition, ignorance, and
vice. The doctrines held by this body are de-

427

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eidedly Calvinistic. With regard to church
government they are neither episcopalian nor
congregational, hut agree in many respects with
the presbyterian form. They have two colleges
for the education of candidates for the ministry.
The first of these is at Bala, and was established
in 1837 ; the second is at Trevecca, and was
established in 1842. The number of chapels,
as reported at last census (1851), was 828, con
taining accommodation for 211,951 persons. In
1853 their ministers were in number 207, their
preachers 234, and their communicants 58,577.
In late years they have taken a decided interest
in missionary operations. They have now a
mission station in the north-east part of Bungal.
They have also a station in Brittany, in the
south of France ; and, in addition to these, they
have undertaken a mission to the Jews.
Methodists, Kil/iamites, a name by which the
members of the " New Connexion of Wes
leyan Methodists" are known. It appears that
after Mr. Wesley's death much dissatisfaction
was expressed by members of the denomination
in various places, on account of the decision of
the first conference which met after that event,-
to " take the plan as Mr. Wesley had left it"
The plan, as Mr. Wesley had left it, gave all
power into the hands of the travelling preachers ;
denied to the people any share whatever in the
disbursement of the public funds; refused them
a voice in the election of church officers, or in
the management of the general affairs of the
Connexion, at the annual meeting of conference.
The principal asserter of the popular rights was
the Rev. Alexander Kilham, one ofthe itinerant
preachers, who published tracts on " the Pro
gress of Liberty," which gave the conference
much offence. For this crime he was expelled
the Wesleyan community, by his brethren in the
ministry, in the year 1796. This early act of
conference did not, however, stop the agitation ;
for the conference held at Leeds the following
year was besieged by delegates from various
places, who came " to request that the people
might have a voice in the formation of their
own laws, the choice of their own officers, and
the distribution of their own property." The
request was rejected; whereupon a plan for a
new itinerancy was proposed by the friends of the
popular cause; and in order that this plan might
be carried into immediate effect, they formed
themselves into a regular society in Ebenezer
Chapel, appointing Mr. WUliam Thorn the pre
sident and Mr. Kilham the secretary. They at
once proceeded to supply the "circuits" of the
"New Connexion" with preachers, and then
authorized the president and secretary to draw up
a form of church government, embodying those
principles for the support of which they had left
the older community of Wesleyans. Soon after,
a pamphlet, entitled Outlines of a Constitution
proposed for the Examination, Amendment, and
Acceptance ofthe Methodist Itinerancy., made its

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appearance. This publication, after it had passed
through the various select committees appointed
for its examination, was, with a few alterations,
finally adopted at the conference of delegates and
preachers held the ensuing year. In this " Con
nexion" the preachers and people are incorpo
rated in all meetings for business, by the essential
principles ofits constitution; but the most strik
ing difference between the New Connexion and
that of the Wesleyan Connexion is in the com
position of the conference, — the former consisting
of an equal number of delegates and preachers,
chosen by the people ; while the latter is com
posed of preachers only, with regard to whom
the people exercise no choice whatever. The
representative principle, upon which the New
Connexion conference is based, pervades the
entire system of that community ; so that neither
the legislative nor the executive power of the
body, in any single instance, is exclusively pos
sessed by tbe preachers. The will of the people
is brought to bear upon the proceedings of the
Connexion, whether local or general.
Methodist Primitive Connexion. — This society
of Methodists, which arose in Staffordshire about
the commencement of the present century, was
the fruit of a revival of religion which took
place among the workmen engaged at the
Potteries. The principal instrument in pro
moting these revivals was one of the workmen,
named William Clowes. When but a young
man he was converted to a knowledge of the
truth as it is in Jesus, and was seized with an
ardent desire to proclaim the tidings of salvation
to his fellowmen. In his house a prayer meeting
was held, which was numerously attended, and
was the means of awakening many to spiritual
concern. Finding that these meetings were
eminently blessed, Clowes, along with two
others who were deeply interested in the
movement, resolved to extend their efforts for
the conversion of sinners. They resorted fre
quently to united prayer, and in their supplica
tions, which were characterized by great fervency
and strong faith in the promises of God, the
great object of desire was the conversion of souls.
In addition to the local prayer meeting which
was established ir. the district, a local preachers'
meeting was commenced. Other associations of
a kindred character and design were likewise
formed — such as a tract distribution society, and
a society for the preservation of the sanctity
of the Sabbath. Me.anwb.ile, they continued to
increase, a spirit of inquiry was raised among
the people, and a growing desire for religious
services. New prayer meetings, class meetings,
and preaching stations were commenced, and
even camp meetings were held, with a view to
extend more widely the blessings of the revival.
Their first camp meeting was held on Mow Hill,
near the boundary line which divides Cheshire
from Staffordshire. The services, which chiefly
consisted in prayer and exhortation, were con-

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ducted by William Clowes, Edward Anderson,
and several others. Referring to that meeting,
Clowes writes, — " The glory that filled my soul
on that day far exceeds my power to explain.
Much of the good wrought at this great meet
ing remains, but the full amount of that good
eternity alone will develop to the myriads of
the angelic and sainted inhabitants, who will
everlastingly land the Eternal Majesty on
account of tbe day's praying on Mow Hill."
Other open air meetings were held soon after
wards, and were attended by great multitudes
of people. Until this time, those who were
instrumental in promoting these revival services
were members of the Wesleyan Connexion; but,
as their proceedings met with disapprobation
from the Wesleyan preachers in the Buslem
Circuit, on the ground that camp meetings
were irregular and' contrary to the discipline of
the church, they were soon afterwards expelled
from the membership. Thus driven out from
the church with which they had been connected,
they continued to hold prayer meetings among
themselves, and commenced other operations for
the spiritual well-being of those around them,
But it was not until the 30th May, 1811, that
they formed themselves into a. separate body of
Methodists, and made systematic arrangements
for the spiritual provision of those who adhered
to them. At a meeting in Tunstale, in the year
1812, they took the name of the Primitive
Methodist Connexion. Efforts were now made
by the Wesleyan Society to induce them to
return into their fellowship, but without suc
cess. Their numbers and influence gradually
increased, and in a few years after their
organization as a separate body, their mis
sionary operations had extended into several
counties in England. At their first annual
meeting, held on 2d May, 1820, the report of
the Connexion stood as follows: — 8 circuits, 48
travelling preachers, 277 local preachers, and
7,842 members. At the conference in 1822,
so rapidly had they increased, that they then
numbered 25,218 members. In 1844 they com
menced foreign missionary operations. In that
year two missionaries set out for America. A
missionary society was organized, and missions
were adopted to Canada, New Zealand, Australia,
and other parts of the world. At present the so
ciety supports 40 missionaries, 22 of whom are in
Canada, 14 in Australia, and 4 in New Zealand.
Their membership in these various places num
bers 3,363. In 1857, at the annual conference,
their report stood as follows : — 598 travelling
preachers, 10.205 local preachers, and the mem
bers of the Home and Foreign Missions in con
nection with the British conference, 1 10,683.
Their Sabbath schools are also in a flourishing
condition. At the last annual conference they
had 1,692 schools, attended by 139,486 scholars.
The doctrines held by this body of Methodists
are the same as those set forth in the published

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standards of the Wesleyan Society. They
give great prominence to the doctrine of a full
and free salvation. They also believe in the
doctrine of instantaneous conversions. They
believe in infant baptism, while they reject the
dogma of baptismal regeneration. Their main
object as a society is to diffuse Christian know
ledge among the ignorant and neglected, and
thus to aid in extending the kingdom of Christ
throughout the world.
Methodist (Wesleyan) Association. — This so
ciety of Methodists originated in a secession
from the Wesleyan Methodists in 1835. The
controversy which led to their separation from
that body arose in consequence of an undue
exercise of power on the part of its ministers.
The distinctive feature in the government of the
"Wesleyan Association" consists in the intro
duction of the laity as representatives at the con
ference. In doctrine and worship they essentially
agree with the society from which they seceded.
They have made great progress since their organ
ization into a separate body. In 1857 there
were in England 93 preachers ; the members in
England and Scotland, 20,873 ; in Wales, 250 ;
in Ireland, 34; and on foreign stations, 1,185.
Methodist (Wesleyan) Reformers. — This so
ciety, like the one referred to in the preceding
article, originated in consequence of what was
deemed by them an undue exercise of power on
the part of the ministers. The proceedings of
conference which led to the formation of this
society took place in 1849, and were occasioned
by a series of tracts called " Fly Sheets," which
were evidently published with a view to bring
discredit on certain points of Methodist procedure.
Several ministers were expelled on the ground of
being implicated in the publication of these
pamphlets. A considerable party among the
laity sympathized with them, and in concert
with the expelled ministers formed themselves
into a separate society. Though separated from
the original Wesleyan Connexion, they still claim
to be considered as Wesleyan Methodists who
have been unjustly expelled from the society.
Thus in their " Declaration of Principles " it is
stated, "that the restoration of all preachers,
officers, and members who had been expelled, in
consequence of the recent proceedings of the con
ference, is essential to the future peace and
prosperity of the Connexion." In 1851 there
were in connection with the body 339 chapels,
with nearly 50,000 members.
Methodist Episcopal Church in America. —
The first Methodist Society in America was
established in New York in 1766. The cir
cumstances which led to its formation in that
country are thus described by the Rev. Dr.
Bangs : — " A few pious emigrants from Ireland,
who, previous to their removal, had been mem
bers of the Methodist Society in their own country,
landed in this city. Among their number was
Mr. Philip Embury, a local preacher. Coming

MET
among strangers, and finding no pious associates
with whom they could confer, they came very
near making ' shipwreck of faith and a good
conscience.' In this state of religious declension
they were found the next year on the arrival of
another family from Ireland, among whom was
a pious ' mother in Israel,' to whose zeal in the
cause of God they were all indebted for the
revival of the spirit of piety among them.
Soon after her arrival she ascertained that
those who had preceded her had so far departed
from their ' first love ' as to be mingling in the
frivolous amusements of the world. The know
ledge of this painful fact excited her indignation,
and, with a zeal which deserves commendation,
she suddenly entered the room in which they
were assembled, seized the pack of cards with
which they were playing, and threw them
into the fire. She then addressed herself to
them in terms of expostulation, and turning to
Mr. Embury, she said, — 'You must preach to
us, or we shall all go to hell together, and God
will require our blood at your hands!' This
pointed appeal had its intended effect, in
awakening his attention to the peril of their
condition. Yet, as if to excuse himself from
the performance of an obvious duty, he trem
blingly replied, — ' I cannot preach ; for I have
neither a house nor congregation.' ' Preach in
your own house first, and to our own company,'
was the reply. Feeling the responsibility of his
situation, and not being able any longer to resist
the importunities of his reprover, he consented to
comply with her request, and accordingly he
preached his first sermon in his own hired house
to five persons only. This, it is believed, was
the first Methodist sermon ever preached in
America." The attendance on that first little
meeting gradually increased ; and in order to
accommodate all who sought admission, they
hired a large room in the neighbourhood. Soon
that room, though much larger than their first
meeting-place, became too small to receive all
who wished to assemble. They therefore hired
a rigging loft in the city, where they assembled
for religious service. Success continued to fol
low their preaching. Many were awakened to a
sense of their sins, and found forgiveness through
Christ. In consequence of a further accession to
their numbers, they resolved to build a place
of worship. " But," says Dr. Bangs, " in the
accomplishment of this pious undertaking many
difficulties were to be encountered. The members
in the society were yet few in number, most of
them of the poorer class, and, of course, had but
a limited acquaintance and influence in the com
munity. But while all were deliberating on the
most suitable means to be adopted to accomplish
an object so desirable, the elderly lady whose
pious zeal has been already mentioned, while
earnestly engaged in prayer for direction in this
important enterprise, received, with inexpressible
sweetness and power, this answer, — ' I, the Lord,

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MET
will do it' At the same time a plan was
suggested to her mind, which, on being sub
mitted to the society, was generally approved of
and finally adopted. They proceeded to issue a
general subscription paper, waited on the mayor
of the city and other opulent citizens, to whom
they explained their object, and received from
them such liberal donations that they succeeded
in purchasing several lots in John Street, on
which they erected a house of worship sixty feet
in length by forty-two in breadth, caUing it, from
respect to the venerable founder of Methodism,
M'esley Chapel. This was the first meeting
house ever erected for a Methodist congregation
in America. This was in the year 1768 ; and
the first sermon was preached in it October 30,
1768, by Mr. Embury. This, therefore, maybe
considered as the beginning of Methodism in this
country." From that time Methodism made
rapid progress in America. Several preachers
were despatched from England, who, by their
fidelity and zeal, contributed much to the
advancement of the cause. Many new socie
ties were established in various parts of the
country. In 1773, five years after the Wesley
Chapel was erected, the members of the various
societies numbered 1,160. Their first conference
was held in Philadelphia on the 4th July, 1773,
on which occasion Mr. Ranken, who had newly
arrived from England, presided. Matters went
on prosperously, and their numbers continued to
increase, until, in consequence of the war with
Britain, persecution arose against them, and the
preachers who had come from England were
obliged to leave the scene of their successful
labours, and return home. Mr. Ashbury only
remained, but was under the necessity of with
drawing for some time from public notice.
Notwithstanding these opposing influences,
Methodism continued to flourish. At the close
of the war in 1783 the body consisted of 43
preachers and 13,740 members. The year fol
lowing was the beginning of a new era in the
history of Methodism. Their connection with
the Methodist Episcopal Church in England for
mally ceased, and they became an independent
religious body, bearing the name of Methodist
Episcopal Church of America. The first general
conference of the newly organized church was
held in the year 1792, and at that time numbered
266 travelling preachers, 65,980 church members.
In 1819 the Missionary Society of the church
was formed, having for its objeot the diffusion
of Christian knowledge throughout the United
States and elsewhere. They have also special
missions to the Swedes, French, Germans, Danes,
and Norwegians, who are settled in the States,
besides missions to Africa, China, and South
America. These agencies have been abundantly
blessed in spreading the knowledge of the Gos
pel. With regard to church government, the
Methodist Episcopal Church conforms to the
rules laid down by Wesley for the Methodist

MET
societies in England. In the year 1847 a
division took place in the church in connection
with the slavery question, which led to the
secession of those members who resided in the
Southern States from the mother church, They
then formed themselves into an independent
society, which they denominated the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South. In their separate con
nections these two churches have made great
progress, and have each contributed largely to
the extension of the Gospel in foreign parts.
In 1854 no fewer than 78 missionaries were thus
employed by the two divisions of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. In 1853 there were enrolled
in the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 1,659
travelling preachers, 4,036 local preachers, and
529,394 members; while the Methodist Epis
copal Church, North, enrolled 6,100 travelling
preachers, 6,061 local preachers, and 732,637
members, under 7 bishops.
Methodist (African) Episcopal Church in
America. — This society of Methodists is com
posed entirely of coloured members. It is
commonly known in America by the name of
the "Zion Wesley Methodist Connexion." It
originated in a secession from the Methodist
Episcopal Church, New York, which took place
in consequence of the ill treatment experienced
by the coloured members at the bands of their
white brethren. Their separation from the
mother church took place in 1799; but until
1820 they continued to subject themselves to
the spiritual control of the White General Con
ference. At a meeting of the general conference
in 1820, certain resolutions were passed, by
which it was designed to exercise a control
over the temporalities of the African Church,
To these innovations the members of the Zion
Wesley Connexion were unwilling to submit,
and, in consequence, withdrew all connection
with the Methodist Episcopal Church, and
formed themselves into a separate society.
They hold a general conference every fourth
year, at which the superintendent, who is then
elected, receives reports from the various ministers
of the church. The annual conference consists
of the itinerant ministers of a district. There is
besides a quarterly conference, a monthly meet
ing of the trustees of each church, and a leaders'
meeting, consisting of the class leaders and
stewards of the district. In the superintendence
and administration of the spiritual and temporal
affairs of the church are, — 1, the superintendent;
2, elder; 3, deacon; 4, the licensed preacher;
5, the exhorter ; 6, the class leader. Their re
ligious tenets are of a low Arminian character.
They also hold peculiar views regarding mar
riage : they place it among the sacraments, and
reckon it of equal importance with baptism and
the Lord's Supper.
Methodist (African) Episcopal Church in
America. — This church originated in circum
stances entirely similar to those which occasioned

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MET
the origin of the society referred to in the
preceding article. The coloured members were
subjected to a species of persecution which
Ultimately drove them from the membership
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. On their
secession, which took place in 1816, they founded
a church in Philadelphia. They hold the same
principles in doctrine, discipline, and general
government, which are held by the body from
which they seceded. Their first annual confer
ence was held at Baltimore in 1818. At that
time there were connected with the society 23
preachers and 6,778 members. In 1847 there
were in the Connexion 300 preachers and up
wards of 20,000 members.
Methodists (Camp), a name given to those
Methodists in the Western States of N. America,
who, with a view to promote revivals of religion,
adopted camp meetings, at which religious ser
vices were conducted. These meetings were
often numerously attended, and frequently were
scenes of the most painful excitement. In the
earlier part of the present century they were
frequently resorted to; but in later years they
have been of less common occurrence.
Methodist Reformed Church in America. —
This body, which is now merged into the
Wesleyan Methodist Church, originated in a
secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church
in 1814. The seceders considered themselves
restricted under the episcopal form of govern
ment, and, with a view to obtain redress of their
grievances, petitioned the general conference.
Their representations met with no favourable
reception, and in consequence they withdrew
from the membership ofthe Methodist Episcopal
Church. Their formal separation from that body
took place on the 16th January, 1814, when
they adopt& the name of the " Reformed
Methodist Church." In the leading doctrines
of Christianity they agree with the church which
they left; but as to the government of the
church, they conduct their affairs on the con
gregational principle. They hold peculiar views
regarding the efficacy of faith. They believe
that all blessings given in answer to prayer are
in consequence of faith ; and in cases of sickness
and distress faith exercised is the restoring prin
ciple. They further believe that it is possible for
them in this life, through faith in the blood of
Christ to arrive at a state of moral perfection.
The condition on which members are admitted is
simply by exhibiting clear evidence that their
sins are forgiven, and that their hearts are
renewed. They hold that subscription to any
record of Christian principles is altogether
unnecessary. This body was first known in
Upper Canada in 1818, and there made great
progress. In combination with the Society of
Methodists and local bodies of Wesleyan Meth
odists, they formed a society for advancing the
interests of Christianity. For some time after
the organization of the Wesleyan Methodist

MET
Church in America, they united with that body
in publishing a magazine called the True Wes
leyan— a circumstance which ultimately led to a
union between the two bodies.
Methodist Society in America. — This class of
Methodists originated in a secession from the
Methodist Episcopal Church in New York in
1820. Their secession from that body took
place in consequence of what they considered
an undue interference on the part of the ruling
preacher with the temporalities of the church.
They were also opposed to the passing various
resolutions, by which it was designed to petition
the legislature to recognize the peculiarities of
church discipline enjoined by the Methodist
Episcopal Church. On seceding from that
body, they formed themselves into a separate
religious society. They erected a church in
New York, which was presided over by the Rev.
Wm. M. Stilwell. They still hold the doctrines
which they held before their secession ; but in
the government of the church there is a con
siderable difference. In a short account of the
operations of this society, written hy their minis
ter, the Rev. Mr. Stilwell, we find the following
rules bearing on the government of the church :
— 1st. No bishop was allowed ; but - president
of each annual conference was chosen yearly by
ballot of the members thereof. 2d. All ordained
ministers, whether travelling or not, were allowed
a seat in the annual conference. " The property
of the societies to be Vested in trustees of their
own choice, and the minister to have no over
sight of the temporal affairs ofthe church." For
several years the Methodist Society, as a separate
body, made great progress in the country ; and,
with a view to extend their operations, they
joined themselves with a body of seceders from
the Methodist Episcopal Church, and took the
name of the Protestant Methodist Church.
Methodist Protestant Church in America. —
This body of Methodists sprung out of a
secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church,
which took place in 1830. Their separation
from that body originated in consequence of a
disagreement which arose among a considerable
number of the members with regard to a pecu
liar feature in the government of the church,
adopted by the general conference in 1784.
The obnoxious feature was that which gave to
the itinerant ministers the entire exercise of the
legislative and judicial powers of the church, to
the exclusion of all other classes of ministers,
as well as the whole membership of the body.
Various petitions were presented by large num
bers of dissentients, in the expectation of
having that grievance redressed; but in this
they were unsuccessful. For nearly ten years
they continued their efforts, but with the same
ill success. Regarding these fruitless endeavours
to attain their object, and their ultimate separa
tion from the Methodist Episcopal Church, the
Rev. Thos. F. Norris thus writes: — "Sometime

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during the spring ofthe year 1826, the Baltimore
Union Society recommended State conventions
to be held in the several States, for the exclusive
purpose of making inquiry into the propriety of
making one united petition to the approaching
general conference of 1828, praying for represen
tation, and to elect delegates to meet in a general
convention for the purpose." These conventions
were accordingly held, and delegates elected;
in consequence of which reformers in different
parts of the country were made to feel the dis
pleasure of men in power. Meanwhile, several
members who were favourable to the movement
were excluded from the membership. Eleven
ministers were suspended, and finally expelled
from the church. The memorials presented by
the general convention of ministers and lay
delegates to the general conference in 1828 were
not entertained, and consequently no change was
effected either in the principles or operations of
the church. Abandoning all hope of redress, the
reformers withdrew from connection with the
Methodist Episcopal Church, and took steps to
form themselves into a separate body. On the
2d November, 1830, their first general conven
tion was held in Baltimore, at which the
Methodist Protestant Church was regularly
organized. A form of constitution and dis
cipline was agreed to and published, in which
they state the reason which led to their secession
from the Methodist Episcopal Church. Their
general conference meets every seventh year, and
is represented by an equal number of ministers
and laymen — there being one minister and one
layman for every thousand members. In doc
trine they are in all points agreed with the
church from which they seceded, and in all other
respects they agree, with this exception, viz.,
that the Protestant Church admits of lay repre
sentation and a parity in the ministry.
Methodist (the True Wesleyan) Church in
America. — This society was formed in 1843, at
a convention held in Utica, New York. At that
convention, which consisted of ministers and
laymen, a formula was drawn up, called " The
Discipline of the Wesleyan Methodist Church
in America." They also organized six annual
conferences, including the chief portions of the
Northern and Eastern States. The distinctive
feature of this body of Methodists consists in
their aversion to intemperance and slavery, and
in maintaining the equality of elders in the
church. In the fundamental doctrines of Chris
tianity they agree with the Methodist Episcopal
Church. They number about 20,000 communi
cants, 300 ministers and preachers who itinerate,
and 300 other ministers and preachers to whom
stations have not been allotted.
Methodists, Romish. — The term Methodist
was first brought into ecclesiastical use in the be
ginning of the seventeenth century, and was ap
plied to certain clergymen of the Church of Rome,
who attempted, by ingenious sophistry, to refute

MID
the arguments employed against them by the
Protestant party. Mosheim arranges them
under two classes. According to his classifi
cation, the one party in their controversies urged
their opponents to adduce direct proof of their
doctrines by an appeal to the statements of the
Holy Scripture. The other party refused to
encounter the Protestants by arguing with them
on the various disputed points; but sought to
overcome them by adducing certain great prin
ciples involving the whole subject. Thus they
argued that the church which was chargeable
with changing or modifying its doctrines could
not have the Holy Spirit for its guide.
Metropolitan, bishop of a mother church,
or the chief church in a chief city. — See Primate,
Bishop, Archbishop.
Michael, St., Festival of. — See Gabriel.
Microchemi, or ordinary professed monks,
the second of the three ranks of monks in the
Greek Church. — See Caloyers.
Midwives. — See Baptism, Lay-Baptism.
— At the conference held at Hampton Court,
his Majesty was " earnest against the baptizing
by women and laics." Barlow says: — "The
lord archbishop proceeded to speak of private
baptism, showing his Majesty that the adminis
tration of baptism by women and lay persons
was not allowed in the practice of the church,
but inquired of by bishops in their visitation,
and censured ; neither do the words in the book
infer any such meaning. Whereunto the king
excepted, ' urging and pressing the words of the
book, that they could not but intend a permission
and suffering of women and private persons to
baptize.' Here the Bishop of Worcester said,
that indeed the words were doubtful, and might
be pressed for that meaning ; but yet it seemed,
by the contrary practice of our church (censur
ing women in this case), that the compilers of the
book did not so intend them, and yet propounded
them ambiguously, because otherwise, perhaps,
the book would not have then passed in the
parliament The Bishop of London replied that
those learned and reverend men who framed the
Book of Common Prayer, intended not by am
biguous terms to deceive any, but did indeed by
those words intend a permission of private per
sons to baptize in case of necessity, whereof their
letters were, witnesses; some parts whereof he
then read, and withal declared that the same was
agreeable to the practice of the ancient Church.
. . . The Bishop of Winchester spake very
learnedly and earnestly in that point, affirming
that the denying of private persons, in cases of
necessity, to baptize, were to cross all antiquity,
seeing that it had been the ancient and common
practice of the Church, when ministers at such
times could not be got; and that it was also a
rule agreed upon among divines, that the minis
ter is not of the essence of the sacrament. . . .
The issue was a consideration, whether into the
rubric of private baptism, which leaves it in-

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differently to all laics or clergy, the words curate
or lawful minister might not be inserted, which
was not so much stuck at by the bishops. It
had been customary till this time for bishops to
license midwives to their office, and to allow their
right to baptize in cases of necessity, under the
following oath : — ' I,  , admitted to the office
and occupation of a midwife ... in the
ministration of the sacrament of baptism, in the
time of necessity, will use the accustomed words
of the same sacrament ; that is to say, these words
following, or the like effect : " I christen thee in
the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy
Ghost," and none other profane words ; and that
in baptizing any infant born, and pouring water
on the head of the said infant, I will use pure
and clean water, and not any rose or damask
water, or water made of any confection or mix
ture; and that I will certify the curate of every
such baptizing.'"
Militant, a term often applied to the Church
on earth, as in a state of battle with evil, and
opposed to the triumphant state which the Church
shall enjoy in heaven, when her warfare is over.
Milk and Honey. — See Honey.
Millenary Petition. — As King James VI.
passed through England on his way to London,
the Puritans presented to him a petition signed
by nearly a thousand ministers, and praying for
such changes or alterations in ceremonial as
the Puritans had generally contended for. An
answer to it was published by the university of
Oxford, and the divines of Cambridge thanked
theirOxonian brethren. Theconference at Hamp
ton Court, however, was the result of the famous
petition. Millennium (thousand years) — Millcn-
arians. — The epithet is applied to such as
believe in the personal reign of Christ on earth
for a thousand years, and in the pre-millennial
resurrection of the martyrs. Chiliasm began
early, and was very extravagant, especially at
the end of the third and tbe beginning of the
fourth century. It originated chiefly in too
literal an interpretation of the prophetic writings,
more especially of some passages in the Apoca
lypse, and appears to have corresponded with the
notions and prejudices of the Judaizing Chris
tians. The first, according to Eusebius, who
introduced it was Papias, a man of slender
capacity, who had published certain parables
of Christ not recorded in the Gospels, and vari
ous fables which he pretended to have received
by unwritten tradition. It was subsequently
embraced by Irenseus, Justin Martyr, Tertul
lian, Lactantius, and others, but was severely
attacked by Origen, with whose peculiar opin
ions it was inconsistent Nepos, an Egyptian
bishop, about the middle of the third century,
wrote, in defence of the doctrine, a work entitled
A Confutation of the Allegorists, by which name
were designated such as explained allegorically
the passages on which the opinion of a Millennium

MIL
rested. This work, which acquired much repu
tation, was refuted with equal zeal and candour
by Dionysius of Alexandria. It was still com
mon, however, in the time of Jerome, who him
self was one of its opponents. The following
appear to have been the general opinions of
the ancient Millenarians : — They thought that
the city or temple of Jerusalem should be re
built, and splendidly adorned with gold and
jewels, and that Christ, having come down
from heaven upon earth, all the just, both
those who were before dead, and those who were
still found alive, should reign with him in the
land of Judea for the space of a thousand years,
at the expiration of which the conflagration of
the world and the last judgment were to take
place. The descriptions which they give of this
period of enjoyment are not marked by that
spiritual character which peculiarly distinguishes
the state of beatitude in the Christian paradise.
The productions of nature were to be lavishly
multiplied and prodigiously enlarged to admin
ister to corporeal delights. The earth was to
pour forth spontaneously its abundant harvests.
The rocks of the mountains were to exude honey,
wines were to run down with the stream, and the
rivers to overflow with milk. Rich vineyards and
luxuriant fruits, delicious fare and immoderate
banquets, were the pictures of bliss which they
drew and embellished. And lest the prospect of
any exertion should cast the slightest shade over
the brilliancy of the colouring, they imagined
that nations should serve them as slaves, that
princes should bow down to them, that aliens
should come to offer them gold and frankincense
and precious stones, and should perform for them
menial offices as ploughmen or as builders. And
not merely men, but beasts, both wild and domes
tic, should be raised up and subjected to them.
The marriage state was still, in the opinion of
nearly all the Millenarians, to flourish during this
term of triumph. Modern Millenarians, however,
indulge not in such extravagances. Dr. Brown,
in his masterly work, thus states the substance
of the modern Millenarian view : — " That the
fleshly and sublunary state is not to terminate
with the second coming of Christ, but to be then
set up in a new form ; when, with his glorified
saints, the Redeemer will reign in person on the
throne of David, at Jerusalem, for a thousand
years, over a world of men yet in the flesh,
eating ahd drinking, planting and building,
marrying and giving in marriage, under this
mysterious sway." It is impossible, in consis
tency with our limited space, and the purpose of
this work, to review the controversy, or vindicate
the anti-Millenarian view which we maintain.
It is unjust, however, to rank as Millenarians
men who use. strong language or imagery in
describing the future and happy condition of the
world, when Christ's kingdom shall be universally
established, and the power and grace of his sceptre
everywhere acknowledged. On the Millenarian

433

2F

MIN

side may be consulted Mede, Abbadie, Beverley,
Burnet, Hartley, Price, Frere, Irving, Birks,
Bickersteth, Brooks, Duke of Manchester, Begg,
Burgh, Greswell, Gilfillan, Bonar, Elliot, Homes,
Burchell, Wood, Tyso, Molyneux, &c. ; and on
the other side, Bishop Hall, R. Baxter, Gipps,
Dr. David Brown, Waldegrave, Fairbairn,
Urwick, Bush, and many others.
Minims (minimi fratres, least brethren), a
religious order, founded in the fifteenth century
by St. Francis de Paula, of Calabria. They
wore a black coarse woollen dress, and a girdle
with five knots of the same materials and colour.
Originally, too, they went barefooted. They do
not doff their habit day or night, and their life
is a continual Lent. This new order made rapid
progress at first, and spread from Sicily into Italy,
France, Spain, and Germany. The founder, who
had been educated among the Franciscans, and
was distinguished in his youth for his austerities,
died in 1507, and was canonized bv Leo X. in
1519. Minister. — See Clergy, Orders, Ordina
tion. Minor (less) Friars.— See Franciscans.
Minoress, a nun of the rule of St. Clara
*— See Clarisses.
Minster (German, Milnster), probably or
originally the church of a monastery, or one to
which a monastery has been attached. It now
signifies a cathedral— as the Minster of York, or
Strasburg. Miracles. — See Mysteries.
Mirameon. — See Genevieve.
Miserere (have compassion) is taken from
the Latin commencement of the fifty-first psalm.
For two striking accounts of the Miserere
chanted during Lent in the Sisters' Chapel,
see Lent, p. 376. The name is also given to
hinged brackets connected with stalls in the
old churches, which were a relief to the infirm,
who were obliged to stand during the long
service; for they might rest or lean upon the
projections. Mishna (repetition), the second or oral law
of tbe Jews — additional to the written law, or
explanatory of it. The Rabbins held that its
statutes were given to Moses by God, and
by Moses delivered to Joshua, and so handed
down from age to age. The commentary on the
Mishna is called the Gemara. The Mishna
was probably compiled in the second century.
A good edition was published by Surenhusius
in six vols, folio, 1698-1703. — See Gemara,
Talmud. Missa. — See Mass.
Missal.— See Liturgy, p. 386.
Missions. — One special function of the
Church is to spread the truth, as well as to
preserve it. The early Church rejoiced in this
work, and carried the Gospel to many a land.
Devoted men went out to various lands, such as
Patrick and Columba; Gallus; the apostle of 434

MIS
Switzerland; Boniface, the apostle of the Ger
mans; Anschar, the apostle of the North; and
Frumentins, the apostle of the Ethiopians. Many
noble men of later days have followed their ex
amples, and carried the Gospel to distant and
degraded countries, such as India, Persia, Syria,
South and West Africa, Polynesia, the West
Indies, Greenland, and the western portions of
North America. The Church of Rome always
manifested a spirit of proselytism in a higher or
less degree. The Congregation de Propaganda
Fide was established in 1622. The Moravians

early gave themselves to the work ; and the nu
merous Protestant Churches were aided and stim
ulated by their noble example. In the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland some hos
tility was at first shown to missions. Thus in
the" General Assembly of 1796, Hamilton,
minister of Gladmuir, eulogized the innocence
of savage life as not needing the Gospel— senti
ments which provoked the venerable Dr. Erskine
to rise and exclaim, " Moderator, rax (reach)
me that Bible." In the same assembly, Dr.
Hill, leader of the so-called moderate party, de
clared that missionary societies "were highly
dangerous in their tendency to tbe good order of
society at large ;" and the elder from the burgh
of Irvine, Mr. Boyle, who was afterwards Lord
President of the Court of Session, maintained
that such associations were " of an alarming
and dangerous tendency." Cunningham, in his
History, says that this was in accordance with
tbe spirit of the times, and adds in proof,
"that, in 1796, the Antiburgher synod passed a
resolution against missionary societies." This
is so far a misrepresentation of a body which
had by that time sent out about fifty mission
aries to the American colonies. The Secession
Act refers, not to missions simply, but to the
extra-ecclesiastical constitution and procedure
of some of the societies — a dispute which has
been revived again and again, and recently,
too, in several churches. The question with
that synod was, — Should not every church have
a missionary organization within itself? And if
this were the case, would not such voluntary
associations as the London Missionary Society
and the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions be superseded? In fine, we
cannot forget the British and Foreign Bible
Society, whose total issue of Bibles is above
thirty-seven millions and a-half of copies, and
which expended last year (1860) in the printing
and circulation of the Scriptures in nearly two
hundred tongues, £179,365 15s. 6d. The fol
lowing table, showing the date of origin, sphere
of labour, and amount of funds belonging to
the different missionary societies of note, is
taken, with some necessary emendations, from
the Rev. J. L. Aikman's Cyclopaedia of
Missions, a work of great accuracy and full-

TABULAR STATISTICS OF EXISTING MISSIONARY ASSOCIATIONS— 1859-60.

1701179217951800 1808 18161817 1824 1840 184018411841 1842
1843

ASSOCIATIONS.

I.— BRITISH.
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, .....
The Baptist Missionary Society, .
The London Missionary Society, .

The Church of England Missionary Society,

The London Society for Promoting Christianity
among the Jews, .....
The General Baptist Missionary Society,
The Wesleyan Missionary Society,

The Church of Scotland's Foreign Mission, .
The Irish Presbyterian Church's Foreign Mission,
The Welsh Foreign Missionary Society,
The British Society for Propagating the Gospel
among the Jews, 
The Edinburgh Medical Mission,
The Reformed Presbyterian Church's Foreign
Mission, ....
The Free Church of Scotland's Foreign Mission,
Colonial and Continental Missions,
Jewish Mission, .

sion,}

AGENCIES.

*500 Missionary agents, including many native
assistants, 300 students, catechists, and
teachers, 
75 Missionaries, about 112 native assistants, 43
schls., 6,512 schlrs., 16,994 communicants,
183 Churches, 19,781 communicants, 735
educational institutions, including day and
boarding schools, 33,625 scholars, 152
missionaries, about 800 native agents,
228 Ordained missionaries and assistants, 2,140
other assistants, 16,231 communicants,
33,546 scholars, ....
78 Missionaries — Jewish College, .
8 Missionaries, 24 assistants,
763 Ministers and assist, mis., 967 other paid
agents, as cat., interp., day-schl. teachers,
133,726 commun., and 121,766 scholars.
9 Missionaries, several assistants, 3 Mission.
establishments in India, and staff of agents,
11 Missionaries, 

4 Missionaries, .
19 Missionaries — Jewish College,

4 Missionaries, 
24 Missionaries, 8 natives, 4 printers, 65
native teachers, 814 communicants, and
9,261 scholars 

SCENES OP LABOUR.

East and West Indies, South
Africa, Australia, New Zea
land, ....
India, the West Indies, and
Western Africa,
South Seas, West Indies, South
Africa, Mauritius, India, China,

Western Africa, Western Asia,
India, China, West Indies, New
Zealand, &c, .
Europe, Persia, Palestine, North
Africa, ....
India, China,
Europe, Ceylon, India, Africa,
West Indies, Canada, Aus
tralasia, and Ireland, ,
India, European Continent, tbe
Colonies,
India, European Continent, the
Colonies, Syria,
Brittany, India,
North Africa, European Continent,
Syria, ....
China, ....
New Hebrides, Jewish Mission in
London,
/"India, South Africa,
1 The Colonies,
(European Continent,

INCOME.

£ ». A
66,753 0 0

29,006 13 11

93,906 18 2*

161,976 9 1

32,451 10 9

3,500 0 0
140,005 5 lif

10,365 7 1

7,234 14 10

5,263 4 11

715 0 0
852 0 0

12,790 5 10
4,420 15 11
2,600 0 0

» This includes £14,231 Is. lid. raised on the Foreign Mission fields, and £13,068 for the extension of the Missions in India and China.
t Includes £33,170 12s. 2d. raised abroad, one part of which was Colonial Grants for Schools, to tbe extent of £3,439 10s. Hid.

TABULAR STATISTICS OP EXISTING MISSIONARY ASSOCIATIONS— Con*™™*

DATE. I

ASSOCIATIONS.

1843
18441847

1850

1732

1797 1816
18221828
1833
1836
1836
18361842
1850
1810

I.— BRITISH— Continued.
The Lew-Chew Naval Mission,
The English Presbyterian Church's Foreign Mission,
The United Presbyterian Church's Foreign Mission,

The Chinese Evangelization Society,
II.-COHTIHENTAL.
The Moravian Missions,

The Netherlands Missionary Society, .
The Basle German Mission,
The Paris Society for Evangelical Missions, .
The Rhenish Missionary Society,
The Berlin Missionary Society," .
The Evangelical Union for the Spread of Chris
tianity (Gossner's), ....
The Evangelical Lutheran, or the Leipsic Mis
sionary Society, 
The North German Missionary Society,
The Norwegian Missionary Society,
The Berlin Missionary Union for China,
III.— AMERICAN.
The Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,

AGENCIES.

1 Missionary and 1 assistant,
3 Missionaries, 
37 Ordained missionaries, 65 catechists and
teachers, exclusive of Canada and Australia,

5 Missionaries (1 medical),

305 Missionaries and assistants, 74,538 con
verts and catechumens, .

23 Missionaries, 146 nat. assist, 8,290 scholars,
51 Missionaries, 18 assistants, 69 other assist
ants, 1,212 communicants, 2,342 scholars,
14 Missionaries, a number of native assistants,
1,300 communicants,
31 Missionaries, 
15 Missionaries and several assistants, about
200 communicants, and 600 scholars,
S Missionaries, 13 assistant missionaries, 25
male and female assistants,
6 Missionaries, 67 assistants, 2,152 commu
nicants, and 890 scholars,
12 Missionaries, 
6 Missionaries and assistants,
3 Missionaries, 

26 Missions, 258 stations,161 missionaries, 12
physicians, 224 assists., 21 native pastors,
222 preachers, and 264 assists., 6 printing
offices, 163 churches, with 23,166 membs.,
8,949 scholars, besides Sandwich Islands,

SCENES OP LABOUR.

Lew-Chew,China, ....
West Indies, Western Africa,
India, Southern Africa, Syria,
Northern Africa, European
Continent, the Colonies, .
China, ....

The West Indies, Greenland,
North America, Tartary, South
Africa, South America, Persia,
Egypt, Nicobar Islands, Labra
dor, China, India, .
East Indies,
Western Africa, India, China,
South Africa,
China, South Africa, .
South Africa,
India, Australia, the Chatham
Islands, . .
India, New Holland, .
Africa, India,
South Africa,
China, ....

India, Indian Archipelago, Wes
tern Asia, European Turkey,
China,WestIndies,Pacific Isles,
¦ North American Indiana, Africa,

* Home and Foreign Agencies included

INCOME.

302 0 0
1,093 12 2
19,228 12 11

2,748 13 1
14,453 5 2

7,500 0 0
13,000 0 0
4,545 0 0
3,600 0 0
4,150 0 0
796 0 0
2,000 0 0

74,669 0 0

TABULAR, STATISTICS OP EXISTING MISSIONARY ASSOCIATIONS— Continued:

DATE,

ASSOCIATIONS.

AGENCIES.

SCENES OF LABOUR.

INCOME.

III.— AMERICAN— Continued.

£ s. d.

1814

The Baptist Missionary Union,

84 Stations, 539 out-stations, 66 missionaries,.
64 female assistants, 220 native helpers,
192 churches, 15,219members, 88 schools,
2,000 pupils, including European agency,

Burmah, Assam,Teloogoo country,
China, North American Indians,
Europe,

22,180 o a

1819

The Methodist Episcopal Missionary Society,

66 Stations, 81 missionaries, 30 local preachers,
6,869 members, 63 schools and 2,535
pupils,, including the South Church, .

North American Indians, Western
Africa, China,

16,849 0 0

1820

The Episcopal Board of Missions, .

18 Stations, 15 missionaries, 1 native preacher,
20 American and fr native teachers, 360
church members, 413 scholars, .

Greece, Western Africa, China,
North American Indians,

8,935 0= 0

1823

The Society for Ameliorating Condition of the Jews,

10 Missionaries, 7 colporteurs,

America, • * - .

3,081 0 0

1833

The Free- Will Baptist Foreign Missionary Society,

4 Missionaries, 4 native preachers, 2 churches,
with 75 members, and several schools,

Orissa, ....

956 0 0

1837

The Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian

69 American and 4 native missionaries, 27

North American Indians, Western

47,695 0 0»

Church, 
male, 101 female, and 52 native teachers,
1,162 church memb., and 4,000 scholars,
Africa, India, Siam, Japan,
China, San Francisco,
1837
The Foreign Missionary Society of the Lutheran
Church, . ....
6 Ordained and 2 unordained native mission
aries, 86 church members, 355 scholars,
Hindostan, ...
...
1842
The Seventh-Day Baptist Missionary Society,
Western Asia, China,
423 0 0
1842
The American Indian Mission Association, .
6 Stations, 8 sub-stations, 28 missionaries
and assistants, 21 churches, 1,300 mem
bers, 165 scholars, ....
North American Indians, .
3,400 0 0
1843
The Baptist Free Missionary Society, .
1 Missionary, 3 female assistants, 1 native
pastor, 4 native teachers,
Hayti, ....
1844
The Associate and Associate Reformed Presby-
India, Turkey, the Pacific, .
...
1845
The Southern Baptist Convention,
40 Missionaries, white and coloured, 26 assis
tants, 11 native helpers, 1,225 church
members, and 633 pupils,
China, Western Africa, North
American Indians, .
10,829 0 0
1846
The American Missionary Association, »
14 Churches, 1,160 members, 9 teachers, 70
The West Indies, North Ameri
9,030 0 0
male and female missionaries and assistants,
can Indians, Pacific Islands,
Siam, California, Egypt, .
1848
The Nova Scotia Presby. Church's Foreign Missions,
1 Missionary and several native assistants,
New Hebrides, ,
339 0 0
1849
The American and Foreign Christian Union,
Romish and Greek Communities,
16,097 0 0
* Including the Associate Beformed Fresbyterian Fund.
MIT
Mitre fyt/rja), a bandage or diadem to en
circle the head ; applied to the crown or diadem
worn by bishops, which is a cap pointed and
cleft at the top.
Moralists, those who look on Father, Son,
and Spirit, as mere names of modes of being,
and not of persons, and who deny immanent or
personal distinction in the Trinity. — See Sabel-
lians. Moderates, the name given to the party in
the Church of Scotland who were adverse to
popular claims, and who were also opposed to the
Evangelical party — as many of themselves did
not give prominence in their preaching to the dis
tinctive doctrines of the Gospel.
Moderator, the elected chairman of a pres
byterian church court. To moderate in a call,
is to preside over the election of a, minister.
When the attempt was made to introduce epis
copacy into Scotland, one plan was to have per
petual moderators for presbyteries — a bishop or
his vicar to be chosen to the office.
Modern Question  See Question, Mo
dern. Modus, in law, signifies an exemption from
the payment of tithes, and is of two kinds, —
first, a partial exemption, when it is called a
modus decimandi; secondly, a total exemption,
when it is called a modus de non decimando.
There is a third species of exemption, called a
*eal composition, where an agreement is made
between the owner of lands and the parson or
vicar, with the consent of the patron and ordi
nary, that the lands specified shall be exempt
from tithes on such considerations as are con
tained in the stipulation, such as land or other
real recompense given in lieu and satisfaction
of the tithes to be relinquished. The modus
dedmandi is that which is generally meant when
the term modus is used. It is defined to be
a custom of tithing in a particular manner,
different from that which the general law pre
scribes, which custom must have existed from
time whereof the memory of man goeth not to
the contrary — that is, from the commencement
of the reign of Richard I., a.d. 1189, a period
which for these purposes is fixed as the limit
of legal memory. The modes of tithing esta-
lished by these customs are exceedingly vari
ous : sometimes it is a compensation in work
and labour, as that the incumbent shall have
only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth,
in consideration of the landowner's making it for
him : sometimes it is a less quantity of tithe in
a more perfect, in lieu of a larger quantity in a
crude and imperfect state, as a couple of fowls
in lieu of tithe eggs ; sometimes, and more fre
quently, it consists in a pecuniary compensation,
as twopence an acre for tbe tithe of land.
The modus de non dedmando is an absolute
exemption from tithes. It exists in four cases :
— 1. The king may prescribe that he and his
progenitors have never paid tithes for ancient

438

MOL
crown lands, and this prescription will be good.
2. The vicar does not pay tithes to the rector,
nor the rector to the vicar, according to the rule
that ecclesia eccledm decimas solvere non debet.
3. An ecclesiastical person, as a bishop, may
prescribe to be exempt from paying tithes on the
ground that the lands belong to the bishopric,
and that neither he nor his predecessors have
ever paid them. 4. The abbeys and monasteries
at the time of their dissolution were possessed of
large estates of land, a great part of which was
held tithe-free, either by prescription or by unity
of possession, which was, in fact, no more than
prescription, or by the pope's bull of exemption,
or by a real composition. The statute 31 Henry
VIII., c. 13, which dissolved the larger abbeys,
enacted that all persons who should come to the
possession of the lands of any abbey then dis
solved should hold them tithe-free, in as ample
a manner as the abbeys themselves had formerly
held them. The lands which belonged to the
order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem
and to the order of the Cistertians are within
the protection of the statute 31 Henry VIII.,
c. 13; and those of them, consequently, which
were tithe-free before they came into the hands
of the king, still continue tithe-free, in who
soever hands they may now be. Some lands
have been made tithe-free by act of parliament;
but the great bulk of tithe-free lands throughout
the country are so by virtue of the above-named
statute. (Blackstone's Commentaries, vol. ii.,
p. 28 ; Selden's History qf Tithes, ch. xiii. ; Bur
ton's Compendium of the Law of Real Property,
p. 367, etseq.)
Molinists, followers of the Spanish Jesuit,
Molina, who belonged to the university of Evora,
in Portugal. Scholastic divines were in the
habit of ascribing to God scientia simplicis intel-
ligentiai, or the knowledge of all things possible;
and scientia visionis, or the knowledge of all
which he was about to create. Molina, in 1588,
proposed a third kind of knowledge — scientia
media, the knowledge of events which are to
happen on certain conditions — that is, the volun- .
tary action of his creatures. These He knew
not immediately, but mediately — that is, by
knowing all the circumstances in which free
agents shall be placed, and the amount and kind
of influence which shall be brought upon them.
Upon this scientia media, according to Molina,
and the Arminians who espouse his theory, is
based God's elective decree. The Dominicans
complained of Molina's book, and condemned it;
and the congregation at Rome decided in their
favour. The pleadings had lasted over three
years, and the Pope, Clement VIII., presided on
seventy-three sessions. But his holiness died
before he published his decision ; and Paul V.,
his successor, dismissed the matter without any
formal decision.
Molokans, a Russian sect, so called because
they use bread and milk on the ordinary fast-

MOM
days, which they hold in contempt, while they
keep every Saturday as a fast.
Momiers (Mummers), a name given in con
tempt to Protestant evangelical sects in Swit
zerland — to those who, whether in the established
church or out of it, hold evangelical truth, and
labour to promulgate it. The Evangelical So
ciety of Geneva, which has done so much good,
is the result of their co-operation and zeal.
Monachisni or Monkery has its origin
in man's nature — in the morbid desire of many
minds for solitude and reflection — in their loath
ing of the world, and in their mystical aspirations
after perfection and oneness with Deity. — See
AccEMET.E, Anchorets, Ascetics, Boskoi,
Ccsnobites, Hesvchasts, Laura, and the
names of tbe various orders. In the fourth
century, and especially in Egypt and Palestine,
raonachism possessed powerful attractions. Cli
mate, temperament, and persecution, aided the
delusive impulse of many to secrete themselves
in the wilderness of Jordan, the rocky environs
of Sinai, and the dreary sands of the Nile. The
pride of sanctity was speedily nursed, and the
monks soon acquired a prodigious ascendancy.
The passion for an ascetic life seized on all
classes, even though monks were not formally
placed on the same level with the clergy, but
were called religiod. A monk, if he wished ordi
nation as a priest, had to pass through all the
inferior grades of office. The clerid regulares, or
monks, were, after the tenth century, distinguish
ed from the clergy, clerid sasculares. Establish
ments for females appear also in the fourth cen
tury. Pachomius was one of the founders of
monachism in the upper Thebais, in Egypt, where
Antony also had his cells in the lower Thebais.
Hilarion brought it into Palestine ; Eusebius of Se-
bastia carried it into Asia Minor ; Martin of Tour
gave it celebrity in France ; Athanasius of Alex
andria brought it into fame in Italy; and with
Augustine it came into England in 596. Within
two hundred years thirty kings and queens retired
from the world, and built and endowed monas
teries. It was finally organized by Basil in the
East, and Benedict in the West. The pope in
course of time became protector of religious
houses, and arbiter of their disputes, so that
the jurisdiction of bishops was superseded. Prior
to Christianity, a similar tendency to monachism
had developed itself among the Jews, as in the
case of the Essenes and Therapeutee. Hermits
and ascetics also abounded in Persia, Assyria,
and Judea ; and the Pythagorean institutes
are not unlike monastic rules and forms. Dur
ing the rage for monachism, certain restraints
were laid upon it. Children and servants were
forbidden to take the vows, the latter by a law
of Valentinian III. ; but the law was afterwards
relaxed. Monks could at first return, if they
chose, to society; but more stringent regulations
were afterwards enacted. Thus, when a monk
deserted and married, he was declared incapable

MON
ever after of holy orders ; and by a law of Jus
tinian, if monastic deserters possessed any pro
perty, it was forfeited to the monastery which
they had abandoned. At first, married persons
could not enter a monastery without mutual con
sent, and curiales, or civil ofiicers, were on no
account to turn monks. No direct promise of
celibacy was at first made; nay, there appear
to have been married monks. Nor yet was there
any vow of poverty, though, when men renounced
the world, they generally sold their estates for
charitable uses, or keeping them iu their own
hands, made a distribution regularly of all the
proceeds. Monks also laboured with their own
hands at a great variety of occupations, and
their industry is often commended. "A labour
ing monk," said they, "was tempted by one
devil, but an idle monk by a legion." Their
exercises were penitence, fasting, and prayer, —
all supposed to be more extraordinary in inten
sity and frequency than could be practised in the
world. As they ate their meals, one often read
to the rest, and they, in some houses, served one
another by turns. But great corruption crept, in
course of time, into monastic establishments, and
so vile were many of them that their demolition
became a national duty. There were the follow
ing orders of monks : — 1. Those of Basil — Greek
monks and Carmelites ; 2. Those of Augustine, in
three classes, canons regular, monks, and hermits;
3. Those of Benedict; and 4. Those of St. Francis
— all of which names may be consulted in their
respective places. Originally, monks were divided
into Solitaries, Ccsnobites, and Sarabites,
(which see.) In more modern times the orders were
distinguished by the colour of their dresses, as
white, black, and grey friars. At admission the
hair was polled, though some wore long hair, and
were censured by Augustine and Jerome for their
effeminacy; as, according to the latter, longhair,
goats' beards, black cloaks, and bare feet, were
tokens of the devil. Neither was the ancient
tonsure identical with the shaven crown of more
modern times ; for tonsure was censured by the
fathers as a pagan custom, and characteristic of
the priests of Isis. As superstition grew, cowls,
sackcloth, and wooden crosses suspended from the
neck, came into fashion.
Monarchians, a title assumed towards
the end of the second century, not unlike that
of Unitarian in more modern times, by those
who fancied themselves the sole defenders of
the unity of God against the generally pre
vailing faith of the Christian Church. Various
opinions respecting the nature of Christ might
prevail among those who were included under
this name. For instance, while Praxeas and his
followers exalted as much as possible the dignity
of the Saviour, by representing that it was the
Father himself manifested in the form of man ;
others, like Artemon and Theodotus, seem to have
denied his divinity altogether, or at any rate, to
have held that Jesus was a mere man, even if

439

MON
they imagined a divine Christ to have been fbr
a time united with him.
Monarchy. — See Fifth Monarcht Men.
Monastery (Moiwnifwv), an abode of the
solitaries or monks (//.im). It was called by a
variety of names. Thus, — " Claustrum, or ctaus-
tra, se, f., cloister, or place of confinement— the
prevailing name in the West — and indicating a
stricter seclusion than in the East ; Camobium —
i. e., a common dwelling-place ; Laura, Xuo^a,
or Xufya, an old name for the residence of an
chorets ; Zt/isTvtv, a name applied by Philo to the
abodes of the Tberapeutae ; and hence sometimes
given to monasteries, the Latins retaining the word
semnium; ' Atrxnrtt^itv — i. e., atrxtiruv xarayuyn,
a place of religious exercise and contemplation,
the Latins retaining the word asceterium ; #f i»-
Tiffrvgiov, the same as airxmn^m, but with especial
reference to meditation and spiritual exercises ;
'Hffu%airrfyiov, place of silence and repose ; Con-
ventus, or convent, applied to monasteries, with
reference to the social connection of their inmates ;
'Hytti/ttviiM, properly the residence of the yyov-
pivts, or nytv/ihti, the president, but was some
times used to denote the whole establishment ;
Mdvfya (mandra), a term frequently employed in
this signification by both Greek and Latin writers ;
and lastly, the Syrians and Arabians use the
word dairo, dairon, to denote a monastery." (See
also under these respective words.) As Bingham
remarks, — " The monasteries were under strict
governhient. They were commonly divided into
several parts, and proper ofiicers appointed over
them. Every ten monks were subject to one,
who was called the decanus, or dean, from his
presiding over ten; and every hundred had
another officer called centenarius, from presid
ing over a hundred. Above these were the
patres, or fathers of the monasteries, as St.
Jerome and St. Augustine commonly term
them; which in other writers are called abbates,
abbot, from the Greek word ' alifias ' — a father ;
and * hegumeni ' — presidents, and archimandrites,
from 'mandra' — a sheepfold, they being, as it
were, the keepers or rulers of these sacred folds
in the Church. The business of the deans was to
exact every man's daily task, and bring it to the
wconomus, or steward of the house, who himself
gave a monthly account to the father of them
all." To give our readers some impression of the
routine of a conventual house, we print the rule
of St. Benedict as in operation : — " The abbot re
presented Christ ; called all his monks to council
in important affairs, and adopted the advice he
thought best: he required obedience without
delay, silence, humility, patience, manifestation
of secret faults, contentment with the meanest
things and employments. Abbot selected by the
whole society ; his life and prudence to be the
qualifications ; and to be addressed dominus or
pater. Prior elected by the abbot, deposable for
disobedience. A dean set over every ten monks in

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larger houses. The monks to observe general sil
ence ; no scurrility, idle words, or exciting to laugh
ter ; to keep head and eyes inclined downwards ; to
rise to church two hours after midnight; to leave
the church together at a sign from the superior.
No property ; distribution according to every one's
necessities. To serve weekly, and by turns, at the
kitchen and table. On leaving their weeks, both
he tbat left it and he that began it to wash the
feet of the others ; and on Saturday to clean all
the plates and the linen which wiped the others'
feet. To render the dishes clean and whole to the
cellarer, who was to give them to the new heb-
domary. These officers to have drink and food
above the common allowance, that they might
serve cheerfully. Daily Routine — Work from
prime till near 10 o'clock, from Easter to Octo
ber; from 10 till near 12, reading. After re
fection at 12, the meridian or sleep, unless any
one preferred reading. After nones, labour
again till the evening. From October to Lent,
reading till 8 a.m., then tierce, and afterwards
labour till nones; after refection, reading or
psalmody. In Lent, reading till tierce; doing
what was ordered till 10 : delivery of books at
this season made. Senior to go round the house,
and see that the monks were not idle. On Sun
day, all reading except the officers. Workmen
in the house to labour for the common profit. If
possible, to prevent evagation, water, a mill, gar
den, oven, and all other mechanical shops, to be
within or attached to the house. Refection in
silence, and reading Scripture during meals:
what was wanted to be asked for by a sign.
Reader to be appointed for the week. Two
different dishes at dinner, with fruit. One
pound of bread a-day for both dinner and
supper. No meat but to the sick. Three-
quarters of a pint of wine per day. From
Holyrood-day to Lent, dining at nones ; in
Lent, till Easter, at six o'clock; from Easter
to Pentecost at six; and all summer, except
on Wednesdays and Fridays, then at nones.
Collation or spiritual lecture every night before
compline (after supper) ; and compline finished,
silence. — See Compline, Breviary. Particu
lar abstinence in Lent from meat, drink, and
sleep, and especial gravity. Rule mitigated
to children and the aged, who had leave to
anticipate the hour of eating. Dormitory,
light to be burning in. To sleep clothed, with
their girdles on, the young and old intermixed.
Monks travelling to say the canonical hours
wherever they happened to be. When staying
out beyond a day, not to eat abroad without the
abbot's leave. Before setting out on a journey
to have the previous prayers of the house, and
upon return to pray for pardon of excesses on
the way. No letters or presents to be received
without the abbot's permission. Precedence, ac
cording to the time of profession. Elders to call
the juniors brothers ; the seniors to call the elders
nonnos. When two monks met, the junior was

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to ask benediction from the senior ; and whert he
passed by, the junior was to rise and give him
his seat, and not to sit down till he bade him.
Impossible things ordered by the superior to be
humbly represented to him ; but if he persisted,
the assistance of God to be relied on for the exe
cution of them. Not to defend or excuse one
another's faults. No blows or excommunication
without the abbot's permission. Mutual obedi
ence, but no preference of a private person's com
mands to those of the superiors. Prostration at
the feet of the superiors as long as they were
angry. Strangers to be received with prayer,
the kiss of peace, prostration, and washing their
feet, as of Christ, whom they represented ; then
to be led to prayer ; the Scripture read to them ;
after which the prior might break his fast (except
on a high fast). Abbot's kitchen and the visitors'
separate, that guests coming in at unseasonable
hours might not disturb the monks. Porter to be
a wise old man, able to give and receive an an
swer; who was to have a cell near the gate, and
a junior for his companion. Church to be used
only for prayer. Admission — Novices to be tried
by denials and hard usage before admission. A
year of probation. Rule to be read to them in
the interim every fourth month. Admitted by a
petition laid upon the altar, and prostration at
the feet of all the monks. Parents to offer their
children by wrapping their hands in the pall of
the altar; promising to leave nothing to them
(that they might have no temptation to quit
the house) ; and if they gave anything with
them, to reserve the use of it during their lives.
Priests requesting admission to be tried by de
lays ; to sit near the abbot ; not to exercise sacer
dotal functions without leave, and conform to the
rule. Disdpline — Upon successless admonition
and public reprehension, excommunication ; and,
in failure of this, corporal chastisement. For light
faults, the smaller excommunication, or eating
alone after the others had done. For great faults,
separation from the table, prayers, and society,
and neither himself nor his food to receive the
benediction : those who joined him or spoke to
bim to be themselves excommunicated. The ab
bot to send seniors to persuade him to humility
and making satisfaction. The whole congrega
tion to pray for the incorrigible, and if unsuccess
ful, to proceed to expulsion. No person expelled
to he received after the third expulsion. Children
to be corrected with discretion, by fasting or
whipping." — Sanctorum Patrum Regulas Monas-
tices, in Fosbrooke's British Monachism, p. 109.
These Benedictines had the following houses in
England:— St. Albans, Bardney, Battel!, St.
Bennet's, Hulme, Bury St. Edmunds, Colchester,
Crowland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Hyde, Malms-
bury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby,
Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Tewkesbury, Thorney,
Westminster, Winchelcombe, and York, which
enjoyed the distinction of mitres, and to which
may be added the large abbeys of Canterbury,

MON
Chester, Coventry, Bath, Ely, Gloucester, Mal
vern, Whitby, Winchester, and others, whose
ruins, even in their decay, attest the magnifi
cence of their ancient owners. The chief orders
in Scotland, according to Dr. Lee, were: — "The
principal Benedictine monasteries were Colding-
ham and Dunfermline, — Kelso, Kilwinning, Ar
broath, and Lindoris, — Paisley, Crossraguel, arid
Icolmkill, — Melrose, Newbattle, Dundrennan,
Kinloss, and Culross. The canons regular of
the Augustinian order had twenty-eight monas
teries in Scotland, among which were Scone,
Inchcolm, St. Andrews, Holyrood House, Aber
nethy, Cambuskenneth, and St. Mary's Isle.
About twenty other monasteries professed to be
canons regular, — but they were either Canons
of St. Anthony, or Red Friars, or Ptemonstra-
tenses. The Carthusians were the most austere
of all the orders. They had only one establish
ment in this country, namely, at Perth, where
they were settled by James I. The Mendicant
orders were four in number, — Dominicans, or
Black Friars ; Franciscans, or Grey Friars ;
Carmelites, or White Friars; and Hermits of
St. Augustine. Of these, the Black Friars
were the most considerable, and the Grey
Friars were not far behind them."
The following calculation has been made as
to the number and wealth of the religious houses
in England dismantled and scattered at tbe period
of the Reformation : — "The number of houses
and places suppressed from first to last, in Eng
land, so far as any calculations appear to have
been made, seems to be as follows : —
Of lesser monasteries, of which we have
the valuation, . .... 374
Of greater monasteries, .... 1S6
Belonging to the Hospitallers, ... 48
Colleges,  90
Hospitals,  no
Chantries and free chapels, . . . 2,374
Total 3,182
Besides the friars' houses, and those suppressed
by Wolsey, and many small houses of which we
have no particular account. The sum total of the
clear yearly revenue of the several houses at the
time of their dissolution, of which we have any
account, seems to be as follows : —
Of the greater monasteries, . £ 104,919 13 3
Of all those of the lesser mon
asteries of which we have
the valuation, . . . 29,702 1 10
Knights Hospitallers, head
house in London, . . 2,385 12 8
We have the valuation of
only twenty-eight of their
houseB in the country, . 3,026 9 5
Friars' houses, of which we
have the valuation, . 751 2 0
Total, £140,784 19 2
If proper allowances are made for the lesser mon
asteries and houses not included in this estimate,
and for the plate, &c, which came into tho bands
of the king by the dissolution, and for the valu
ation of money at that time, which was at least

441

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six times as much as at present, and also con
sider that the estimate, of the lands was generally
supposed to be much under the real worth, we
must conclude their whole revenues to have been
immense. It does not appear that any computa
tion hath been made of the number of persons
contained in the religious houses.
Those of the lesser monasteries dis
solved by 27 Hen. VIII. were reck
oned at about  10,000
If we suppose the colleges and hos
pitals to have contained a propor
tionable number, these will make
about  5,347
If we reckon the number in the greater
monasteries according to the pro
portion of their revenues, they will
be about 35,000; but as, probably,
they had larger allowances in pro
portion to their number than those
of the lesser monasteries, if we abate
upon that account 5,000, they will
then be  30,000
One for each chantry and free chapel, 2,374
Total 47,721
But as there was probably more than one person
to officiate in several of tbe free chapels, and
there were other houses which are not included
within this calculation, perhaps they may be
computed in one general estimate at about
50,000. As there were pensions paid to almost
all those of the greater monasteries, the king did
not immediately come into the full enjoyment of
their whole revenues ; however, by means of what
he did receive, he founded six new bishoprics —
viz., those of Westminster (which was changed
by Queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve
prebends and a school), Peterborough, Chester,
Gloucester, Bristol, and Oxford. And in eight
other sees he founded deaneries and chapters, by
converting the priors and monks into deans and
prebendaries — viz., Canterbury, Winchester, Dur
ham, Worcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, and
Carlisle. He founded also the colleges of Christ
Church in Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge,
and finished King's College there. He likewise
founded professorships of divinity, law, physic,
and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues in both
the said universities. He gave the house of Grey
Friars and St. Bartholomew's Hospital to the
city of London, and a perpetual pension to the
poor knights of Windsor, and laid out great
sums in building and fortifying many ports in
the channel." — Buck. (Baxter's History qf tlie
Church qf England.)
Money. — See Usury.
Monialcs.— See NuNS.
Monitorium (Monitory), an injunction in
the Church of Rome laid on those who are sup
posed to be able to discover any secret story with
which their ecclesiastical superiors desire to be
acquainted. The threatened penalty to such as
disobey, or in any way frustrate the end, is ex
communication. Monk (jitvaxis, from pint, alone), one who
lives a solitary life— a life secluded from the

MON
general intercourse with society — See Monacb'-
ism, Monastery.
Monophysites, those who held that there
was but one nature in Christ. — See Eutychians.
They were greatly divided among themselves,
especially after the deposition of their bishops in
the reign of Justin I. Some taught that the
Saviour's body was corruptible, called therefore
Phthartolatrse (servants of the corruptible), or
Severians, (q. v.) Others insisted that it was
incorruptible, and were styled Aphthartodocetae,
or Julianists, from Julian of Halicarnassus, who
first broached the doctrine. From the Phthar-
tolatrse came the Agnoetse, who maintained that
many things were unknown to Christ in his
human nature; called also Themistians, from
Themistius, a deacon of Alexandria. — See Ag-
noetje. The Aphthartodocetse were divided
into Aktistetse, who held that the body was
uncreated, and the Ktistolatrse, who affirmed
the contrary. Under Justin II. other minor
sects branched off, such as the Philoponists, led
by a grammarian of Alexandria, who propounded
a Tritheistic system founded upon an erroneous
application of the Aristotelian Realism to the
doctrine of the Trinity ; the Conists, named from
Conon, a bishop of Tarsus, who slightly differed
from the Philoponists respecting the resurrection
of the body; the Damianists, followers of
Damian, the Monophysite Patriarch of Alexan
dria, who, in opposing the errors of PhiloponuB,
verged himself towards Sabellianism ; and the
Niobites, followers of Stephen Niobes, who denied
that there was any difference between the two
natures of Christ after their union. — See also
under some of the various names.
Monolhelites (One Will). — This heresy was
derived from the Eutychian doctrine, and it arose
under the reign of the Emperor Heraclius. He was
assured that the Monophysites might be induced
to receive the decrees of the council of Chalcedon,
and thereby to terminate their controversy with
the Greeks, on condition that the latter would
give their assent to the following proposition : —
viz., That in Jesus Christ there was, after the
union of the two natures, but one will and one
operation. Heraclius communicated the pro
posal to Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, a
Syrian by birth, and a Monophysite by profes
sion, and that prelate delivered his opinion that
the doctrine of one will and one operation, after
the union of the two natures, might be adopted
without departing from the decrees of the Chal-
cedonian council. Flattering as was the first
appearance of this project, it was soon changed.
The emperor published an edict in favour of the
Monothelite doctrine, and it was received, if not
with general approbation, yet without serious
opposition. Cyrus, who had been raised by
Heraclius from the bishopric of Phasis to the
patriarchate of Alexandria, assembled a coun
cil, by the seventh canon of which the doctrine
of Monothelitism, or one will, was solemnly

442

MON
confirmed. Hence Cyrus has been generally
esteemed the founder of the sect The decree of
the Alexandrian synod, bringing the doctrine of
the council of Chalcedon nearer to the Eutychian
system, had the desired effect ; and numbers of
the Eutychians, who were dispersed throughout
Egypt, Armenia, and other remote provinces,
returned to the bosom of the Church. But in
the council of Alexandria there was one dissen
tient, who carried his opposition to the Monothe-
lite doctrine further than the limits of mere
argument and hostility in debate. Sophronius,
a monk of Palestine, had opposed the decree of
the Alexandrian synod with violence; but his
opposition was treated with contempt. In the
succeeding year, however, he was elevated to the
vacant patriarchate of Jerusalem ; and he soon
exercised his authority by summoning a council,
and condemning the Monothelite as a branch of
the Eutychian system. In order to terminate, if
possible, the commotions to which this division
of opinion had given rise, Heraclius issued an
edict composed by Pope Sergius, and entitled the
Ecthesis, or exposition of the faith, in which all
controversies upon the question whether iu Christ
there was a double operation, were prohibited,
though the doctrine of a unity of will was incul
cated. A considerable number of the eastern
bishops declared their assent to the Ecthesis, and
above all Pyrrhus, who succeeded Sergius in
the see of Constantinople. A similar accepta
tion was obtained from the metropolis of the
Eastern Church; but at Rome the Ecthesis
was differently received. John IV. assembled a
council, in which that exposition was condemned.
— See Ecthesis. Neither was the Monothelite
system maintained in the Eastern Church any
longer than during the life of Heraclius. The
Emperor Constans published a new edict under
the name of the Type, or Formulary, suppressing
the Ecthesis, and enjoining a silence on both the
controverted points of one will and one operation.
This silence was not sufficient for either of the
contending parties. Very soon the Ecthesis
and Type were both condemned. At length,
in the Trullan, or sixth general council,
the Nicene Creed was solemnly declared to be
that of the Church. Monothelitism was a com
promise, and shared the fate of many similar
projects. — See Eutychian Tenets.
Montanists, a sect which arose in Asia
Minor in the second century. The name was
derived from Montanus, a native of Mysia, on
the confines of Phrygia ; but his personal charac
ter and influence had hut little to do with the
growth of the heresy. He was rather, as Nean
der observes, "the unconscious organ through
which a peculiar mental tendency, which bad
developed itself in various parts of the church,
expressed itself with clearer intelligence and
greater strength." — Antignost. He had been
a heathen, and soon after his conversion to
Christianity he began to be subject to trances or

MON
ecstasies, in which he uttered what were supposed
to be prophecies; as did also Priscilla and Maxi-
milla, two ladies of rank who joined him. This
pretence to inspiration was one main characteris
tic of the sect ; and as a consequence of it they
assumed to themselves exclusively the title of
spiritual, regarding all who denied their preten
sions as devoid of the spirit, and living in a
carnal unregenerate state. A belief in their ex
travagant claim spread rapidly in Asia Minor.
And, indeed, there was much in the system which
their pretended revelations were employed to
establish, not only well adapted to take root and
flourish among such a people as the Phrygians,
but also sure to find in every country persons
prepared to receive it by previous habits of mind.
"It was attractive to the more rigid feelings, by
holding out the idea of a life stricter than that
of ordinary Christians ; to weakness, by offering
the guidance of precise rules where the Gospel had
only laid down general principles ; to enthusiasm
and the love of excitement, by its pretensions to
prophetical gifts; to pride, by professing to
realize the pure and spotless mystical Church in
an exactly defined visible communion ; and by
encouraging the members of this body to regard
themselves as spiritual, and all other Christians
as carnal." — Robertson, p. 71. It is said to
have been chiefly among the lower orders that
Montanism spread ; but even in the powerful
mind of Tertullian it found congenial soil ; and
his embracing their opinions is one of the most
interesting events in the history of the sect, as it
is also in the biography of Tertullian himself.
It occurred about a.d. 200, and the treatises
which he wrote after that important period in
his life give us the clearest insight into the
essential character of Montanism ; for he carried
the opinions of the sect to their utmost length of
rigid and uncompromising severity, though at
the same time on the great fundamental points
in which the Montanists did not differ from the
Church he continued as he had before been, one of
the ablest champions of Scriptural truth, and one
of the mightiest opponents of every form of
heresy. It has been remarked with much truth,
that although the actual number of the Mon
tanists was at one period very considerable, the
importance of the sect is rather to be estimated
by the extent to which their character became
infused into the Church. Neander attributes
much of this to the great influence which Ter
tullian exerted through the relation in which he
stood to Cyprian, who called him his teacher.
At the same time it is to be noticed that there
was some tendency in the opposite direction in
the introduction of a prophetical order superior
in rank; and importance to the order of bishops.
The first order among the Montanists was that
of patriarch, the second that of cenones, and the
third that of bishop. The patriarch resided at
Pepusi in Phrygia, which they believed would
be the seat of the millennial kingdom. Hence

443

MON
the sect obtained the name of Pepusians and
Cataphrygians. Montenegrine Church, that portion of the
Greek Church located in the mountainous tracts
of southern Albania, and consisting of about
60,000. It, however, rejects pictures, images,
and crucifixes. Such is its abhorrence of Popery
that Papists admitted to its fellowship must be
re-baptized. It is under the jurisdiction of the
synod of Russia. The people are ignorant and
fanatical. They have their own patriarch.
Month's Mind, an office performed for a
month in the Romish Church for the dead. Mind
in that case is used in its old sense of memory —
as in the phrases, " to call to mind," " time out
of mind."
Monthly Meeting. — See Meeting.
Montolivetenses, monks of Mount Olivet —
that is, living in a residence so named. This body,
wearing white serge, and professing the rule of St.
Benedict, sprang up in 1407, was approved by
Pope John XXII., and confirmed by Gregory
XII. They trace their origin to St Bernard
Tolomaei of Sienna, and their first monastery
was at Acona ; but the order soon spread through
Italy and Sicily.
Moravians, ITnilas Fratrum, or United
Brethren. — The Church of the United Breth
ren is originally descended from the Sclavonian
branch of the Greek or Eastern Church, which
is supposed to have received the Gospel through
the immediate agency of the apostles and their
cotemporaries. By the seventh century the
Sclavonian Church had increased considerably,
and rendered herself remarkable, in the year 680,
by refusing to appear at the sixth synod of Con
stantinople, because her members abjured image-
worship. Soon after this period nearly the whole
of the Sclavonian provinces received the Gospel.
The Bulgarians were the next who embraced
the faith, which, through the laborious efforts of
Cyril and Methodius, two Greek bishops, spread
Ukewise among the neighbouring nations. They
entered Moravia, where, in 861, Swatopluk, the
reigning monarch, was converted; and a short
time afterwards, Borziwogius, Duke of Bohemia.
From these countries the beams of sacred truth
shone upon Poland, and even upon Muscovy.
The bishops of Rome, jealous of the spreading
influence of the Eastern Church, used every
means to bring these nations under their yoke.
In 940 the Emperor Otho, having subdued the
Bohemians, commanded their princes to intro
duce the Roman liturgy in the Latin tongue.
The Bohemian Church refused; and, though
their princes, from the year 967, adhered to the
Roman communion, they resolutely retained the
Bible, and performed their church service in
the vulgar tongue. Not long afterwards Pope
Celestine endeavoured to impose celibacy upon
the Bohemian clergy; but the cardinal legate
who made the attempt, narrowly escaped being
stoned to death. The doctrine of Transubstan-

MOR
tiation was next obtruded upon thebi ; and*
being at length wearied out by the repeated
efforts of the popish emissaries, they began to
relax in their zeal for purity of doctrine and
worship, when, in the year 1146, at a most
seasonable period, the Waldenses came into
Bohemia, by whom the faithful worshippers were
anew encouraged to adhere firmly to the truth
which they had received.
It was not until the year 1361 that, by the
command of the Emperor Charles IV., at the
instigation of the Roman pontiff, the cup of
the Eucharist was taken out of the hands of
the laity, and all the corruptions and abuses
of the Western Church commanded to be
adopted. This measure was brought about by
the erection of Prague into an archbishopric,
and the establishment of an university there,
into which numerous German, French, and
Italian doctors were introduced. To these in
novations, however, a large body of the Bo
hemian Christians opposed a resolute resistance,
and many upright ministers dispensed the ordi
nances of the Word of God in private dwel
lings. For these heresies, as they were deemed,
they were persecuted without mercy, and almost
without intermission, many being punished with
death, more with the spoiling of their goods, and
multitudes with imprisonment and exile. At
the end of the fourteenth century, John Huss,
professor, and afterwards rector of the university
of Prague, began to inveigh boldly against the
errors of the Chnrch of Rome. His spirit was
greatly revived by receiving the books of Wy
cliffe from England, in the year 1400, part of
wbich he translated into the Bohemian tongue;
and he exhorted his cotemporary, Jerome of
Prague, to persevere in opposing, in the schools,
the errors which he was resisting in the church.
The rejection of the popish indulgences in 1411,
by the Bohemians, who publicly burnt the bulls
of the pontiff and the letters of his prelates, led
to the citation before the council of Constance in
1414, and the subsequent martyrdom of that
man of God, as well as of his fellow-reformer,
in pursuance of the sentence of the council, and
in violation of the safe conduct granted by the
Emperor Sigismund. During the long war that
followed, and about the year 1450, the Church
of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren,
under its present name, was formed by those who
chose rather to suffer as witnesses of the truth
than to take up worldly weapons for its defence.
They were granted a retreat in the barony of
Lititz, in the mountainous parts of Bohemia, and
afterwards at a spot named Fulnek, in Moravia;
and being solicitous to retain and perpetuate
episcopal ordination, they solemnly selected three
of their ministers, and sent them into Austria,
where they were consecrated bishops by Stephen,
Bishop of the Waldenses. In the same year,
1467, Stephen was burned by the papists at
Vienna, and many of the Waldenses retired to

444

MOR
the Brethren, and joined their communion ; but,
in the following year, a dreadful persecution
broke out; and a bloody decree, requiring all
the states to seize and punish them at pleasure,
was commanded to be read from all the pulpits
of Bohemia. The prisons were crowded with
the members of their church — many perished in
dungeons from hunger, and others were inhu
manly tortured. The remainder fled to the
thickest forests, where , they hid themselves by
day "in dens and caves of the earth." When
obliged to go out, they were compelled carefully
to obliterate their footsteps in the snow, and, lest
the smoke should betray them, only dared to
kindle their fires by night, round which they
spent their time in reading the Scriptures, and
in prayer. When, afterwards, the rage of perse
cution had somewhat abated, they were the
first people who applied the newly invented art
of printing to the publication of the Bible in a
vernacular tongue, of which they had issued
three editions before the Reformation dawned
upon Europe. The first was printed at Venice
about the year 1480. This ancient church ap
pears to have been known in England at an
early period. During the progress of the Refor
mation, the Brethren received the strongest tes
timonies of approbation and regard from the
learned and pious Archbishop Cranmer and
Bishop Latimer, as well as from Luther, Calvin,
Bucer, and Melanchthon, and afterwards from the
whole body of Lutherans and Calvinists, who
united with them in the synod of Sendomir, in
Poland, in 1570. The Reformation had not
then reached the recesses of Bohemia and Mora
via, where renewed and more violent persecu
tions broke out against the United Brethren, who
were again visited with imprisonment, confisca
tion, exile, and death. In the year 1621 no
less than twenty-seven Protestant noblemen,
many of whom were members of the Brethren's
church, were executed in one day, sealing with
their blood the most affecting testimonies to the
truth. Many hundred families, noble and ple
beian, were driven into distant countries, and
their Bibles and religious books burnt under the
gallows. In the short space of ten years, of
two hundred ministers of the Brethren's church,
only ninety-six were left alive. At length, to
wards the close of the seventeenth century, the
Brethren were so hunted down and scattered as
to be no longer publicly known to exist as a
church. In the year 1660, John Amos Com-
enius, one of the greatest scholars of the age, con
sidering himself their last bishop, transmitted to
Charles II. of England a history of the church,
with an affecting account of its sufferings, and a
dedication (which he called his last will and
testament), hequeathing these memorials of his
people to the Church of England. The Church
and the government of England have not been
backward in acknowledging this bequest. In
the extremity of her distress the Church of the

MOR
Brethren made an appeal to the generosity of the
English Church, supported by a formal testi
monial of their orthodoxy, signed and sealed by
the synod of Lissa, in Great Poland, and dated
on the 10th of February, 1683, which was pre
sented to Charles II. in that year, certifying
that she had preserved unimpaired, in Great
Poland and Polish Prussia, the purity of the
Christian doctrine, her apostolical rites, and epis
copal constitution. A most pathetic account of
the history and severe persecutions of this church
was published by order of Arohbishop Sancroft
and Bishop Compton, and letters patent, autho
rizing collections for the relief of the Brethren
were issued by the king. In 1715 they again
addressed the Church of England, being reduced
to a very low ebb in Poland, when his majesty
George I., by the recommendation of Archbishop
Wake, gave orders in council for their relief as
a Reformed Episcopal Church, and letters patent
for that object were again issued. It was in the
year 1722 that, fleeing from a renewed persecu
tion in Moravia, the Moravian remnant of the
Church ofthe Brethren found refuge in the estates
of Count Zinzendorf in Lusatia, where they
built a humble village, called Herrnhut, which is
now their principal settlement. By the acces
sion of further numbers from their own country,
and from various parts of the Continent, they
gradually increased, though not to a large extent,
and settlements were afterwards formed in Eng
land, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Holland, and
North America. Count Zinzendorf, finding that
his efforts to induce the Moravian emigrants to
unite themselves to the Lutheran Church, and
forsake their ancient rule and discipline, were
unavailing, devoted himself wholly to their
service, after due examination of their claims
and tenets ; procured for them the continuation
of their episcopal constitution from the only sur
viving bishops of their church, Jablonsky and
Sitkovius ; and, resigning all his worldly hon
ours, was himself consecrated a bishop of the
Unitas Fratrum in 1737. The desire of the
Brethren to promote the salvation of the most
benighted nations of the heathen world soon
began to display its effects to u most extraordi
nary degree. When the Moravian refugees at
Herrnhut scarcely amounted to 600 persons —
when they had but just found rest from suffering
themselves, and were beginning to build a church
and habitations where there had previously been
a desert — so powerful was this anxiety to com
municate the blessings of the Gospel to the
heathen, that in seven years they had sent mis
sionaries to Greenland, to the Indians in North
and South America, to the Island of St. Thomas,
to Lapland, to Algiers, to Guinea, to the Cape of
Good Hope, and to Ceylon ; and not long after
they commenced missions in other West India
Islands, in Tartary, in the Nicobar Islands, in
the Bay of Bengal, in Persia, in Egypt, and in
Labrador. Such was their devotedness to this

445

MOR
work, that in the first mission they undertook
among the negroes in the West India islands,
upon hearing that no opportunity would be
afforded them of intercourse with the slaves
unless they became such themselves, the first
missionaries determined even to sell themselves
as slaves, that they might be able to teach the
poor Africans the way of deliverance from the
darkness and the vice in which they were buried.
This sacrifice, however, was not eventually re
quired. The success of their labours has been
remarkable. In those islands and in Surinam
they have above 56,000 negroes under constant
instruction, and in other countries about 10,000
of the natives of heathen lands, receiving through
their means the inestimable blessings of the
Gospel of Christ. The settlement of many
families of the Brethren in the British colonies
of North America, soon after their emigration
from Moravia, led to an application to parlia
ment for protection, and for relief from laws and
services contrary to their religious scruples. In
1747 an act was passed in their favour (20
George IL, cap. 44), for extending the pri
vileges of natural-born subjects to the Moravian
Brethren, and other foreign Protestants, who
should make affirmation of allegiance, &c, and
should scruple to take the oaths ; but their case
was more particularly brought to the notice of
parliament in 1749, when, upon application to
be relieved from taking oaths generally, and
bearing arms, their doctrine, discipline, charac
ter, and history, were scrupulously examined
before committees of both houses; and an act
was passed, with the unanimous consent of the
episcopal bench, in that year (22 George IL,
cap. 30), conceding to the Brethren in Eng
land, as well as America, the privileges they
sought, and fully acknowledging them as " an
ancient Frotestant Episcopal Church, which had
been countenanced and relieved by the Kings of
England, His Majesty's predecessors." In the
colony of the Cape of Good Hope the Brethren
have been called upon repeatedly by the colonial
government to increase the number of their
stations among the Hottentot and other tribes.
In 1823 they were requested to take charge of
the Leper Hospital, a most trying station, in the
midst of appalling and incurable disease and
death, which no other Europeans could be found
willing to superintend, but where a married
couple have ever since resided. In 1828 they
were desired by the government to commence a
mission among the Tambookies, on the eastern
boundary ofthe colony, towards the first expense
of which a sum of money was advanced from
the colonial treasury; and in 1838 they were
requested, with similar offers of aid, to commence
another mission among the Fingoes, a tribe who,
having escaped from slavery among the Caffres,
had flocked into the colony, and were as sheep
without a shepherd. This mission, established
at Clarkson, on the banks of the Zitzikamma,

MOR
is succeeding well. Two other stations are
now in course of formation in or near British
Caffraria. On the inclement coast of Lab
rador, the Brethren, who are the only represen
tatives of the British government there, occupy
four settlements, under three orders of the king
in council, the first dated in 1769, the last in
1818 ; and, in acknowledgment of that service,
Her Majesty's treasury exempt the stores sent
annually to the missionaries from duty. It is a
remarkable fact that the vessel conveying these
indispensable supplies, though called to navigate
an icy ocean and a rocky coast, presenting no
ordinary perils, has never failed during seventy
successive years to fulfil the object of her voyage.
Many hundreds of the Esquimaux nation have,
through the blessing of God upon the indefati
gable and self-denying zeal ofthe Brethren, been
raised from the depths of heathen degradation
and superstition to a state of genuine Christian
faith and obedience. The missions are sup
ported upon the most frugal scale, at an ex
pense of about £13,000 per annum; of this
amount scarcely a fourth part can be furnished
by the Brethren themselves. — Abridged from A
Brief Narrative qf the United Brethren, Mars-
den, La Trobe.
Mormonism. — The sect of the "Mormon-
ites," or, as its members choose to designate
themselves,'" Latter day Saints," is of compara
tively recent origin. Its founder, Joseph Smith,
was born of obscure parentage, at Sharon, in
Vermont, United States, in 1805. So early as
his fifteenth year he commenced that system of
religious imposture which characterized his after
life, by professing himself to be the direct re
cipient of heavenly instruction, by means of
miraculous visions. But it was not till several
years had elapsed that he formally announced
himself as a prophet, divinely commissioned to
reform existing abuses in the church, and to rally
round his own person those who were the true
children of God. For this purpose, about the
year 1823, he pretended to be favoured with a
second revelation, through which he discovered
certain golden plates which for ages had lain
hid at Palmyra in Ontario County. On these,
according to his own statement, were engraved in
"Egyptian characters," sufficient directions for
his future procedure in the work to which he
had been appointed. But being unlearned, it was
necessary to resort to another expedient, in order
that their contents might be rendered intelligible
to those on whom he meant to practise his de
ceptions. This was easily found in ascribing to
a huge pair of spectacles, otherwise described as
" two crystal stones, set in silver," representing
the Urim and Thummin of the Jewish priesthood,
and which were said to have been discovered
along with the plates, the supernatural power of
enabling him to read and understand the charac
ters, so as to translate them into English. Con
sequently, in seven years after their first discovery,

446

MOR
and three years from the time when he received
the angel's permission to remove them, a pre
tended translation of the " plates " was published
under the title of the Book of Mormon.
The year 1830 may therefore properly be said
to date the rise of Mormonism; for although before
this time its founder had made a few converts,
chiefly amongst his own relations, it was not till
after the publication of his book that Smith set
about the regular organization of a church, fur
nished with a code of laws dictated by himself,
and governed by men subject to his entire control.
This book, which is to the Mormon what the
Bible is to the Christian, or the Koran to the
Mohammedan, contains a strange mixture of his
tory, prophecy, and doctrine. The first of these
is in many instances purely fabulous, as for ex
ample, ascribing to the North American Indians
a Jewish origin, and tracing their descent from
the Patriarch Joseph. The whole is written in
the style, and interspersed with much of the lan
guage, of Holy Writ So far, however, from its
being a translation of the tablets, as alleged, it
has since been satisfactorily proved that it is
nothing else than an attempt at an historical
romance by one Spalding, through whose widow
the MSS. fell into the hands of Joseph Smith.
The title was evidently suggested by the frequent
recurrence of the fictitious name " Mormon," as
one of the principal characters in the story.
Such is the sole authority on which the religious
belief of many thousands of human beings is
based. The system, as moulded and developed by
recent events, possesses little which can com
mend it to the esteem of the virtuous and the
wise. Many of its doctrines, it is true, are in
theory correct Some of the cardinal truths of
the Gospel, such as the Godhead, faith in Christ
for salvation, repentance, &c, are professedly
acknowledged; but these are so obscured by error,
and especially so counterbalanced by the corrupt
practices which the whole system unblushingly
countenances and supports, that a belief in them
is rather nominal than real. Indeed, if tbe
teaching of Joseph Smith is to be taken as the
proper criterion of the Mormonite creed, then it
follows that their ideas of the Deity, and even of
man himself, are of the most perverted character.
The former is brought down to the level of a
" man of like passions with ourselves," while the
latter is exalted to the dignity and power of the
uncreated " IAm." Of the several distinguishing
tenets of this sect, one of the earliest, and one
which, indeed, is absolutely necessary to its very
existence, is the " perpetuation of miracles in the
church." On this all the others are based, for
without it, the frequent revelations which are re
ceived as circumstances may require would be
deprived of their authority. Hence its leaders, in
order to sustain their influence over their deluded
followers, have been compelled to resort to
means the most disreputable and base. Not

MOR
unfrequently have attempts been made to restore
the dead to life, which of course proving una
vailing, the failure has with unblushing effrontery
been ascribed to " want of faith " in the surviving
relatives. Baptism is another doctrine on which
great stress is laid. Not only does the neglect of
this ordinance cut off from the inheritance of
eternal life, but its being administered by the
hands of any other than a Mormon, duly conse
crated to the sacred office, is equally fatal. In
the government of the church, all the offices
which are mentioned in the New Testament as
existing in the first century are revived — viz.,
apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists,
&c. They also claim for these different offices
the miraculous gifts which were conferred on the
Christian Church at its first institution, e. g.,
" the gift of discerning of spirits, prophecy,
revelations, visions, healing, tongues, and the
interpretation of tongues," &c. They are also
"Millenarians" in a peculiar sense. Their
strange ideas on this subject will be best de
scribed in the language of their published creed.
" We believe in the literal gathering of Israel,
and in the restoration of the ten tribes; that
Zion will be established upon the Western
Continent; that Christ will reign personally
upon the earth one thousand years; and that
the earth will be renewed, and receive its para
disiacal glory."
But the chief point of difference betwixt
this sect and every other acknowledging the
inspiration of the Scriptures, is the unrestricted
license which is allowed in the matter of
polygamy. This doctrine, it is true, forms no
part of the original constitution of the Mormon
Church ; for it was not till thirteen years after,
when thousands of men and women were pro
fessing its principles, that Joseph Smith, by
special revelation, received Divine permission for
himself and a few others of bis coadjutors, to add
to their households an unlimited number of
" wives," to whom they gave the appellation of
"spiritual." This privilege, which at first was
confined to the leading office-bearers in the
church, was gradually extended, till at length it
assumed the dangerous aspect in which it now
presents itself — viz., that every man is entitled to
as many wives as his position in life will enable
him to provide for. To give colour to a proceed
ing so outrageous to every moral feeling, re
course was had to the example of the patriarchs
and other Old Testament saints, and on this
feeble pretext the sacred institution of marriage
has virtually become a mere dead letter. A
necessary consequence arising out of this system
is the low place which is assigned to women in
the social circle. Instead of receiving that con
sideration to which their sex entitles them, they
are made " hewers of wood and drawers of water."
Whilst their fathers and husbands live luxurious
ly, they exercise over them a tyranny almost un
surpassed by the greatest Oriental despot. So

447

MOR
inseparably connected, indeed, is the " spiritual
wife " system with the degradation of females,
that an ecclesiastical law has been already passed,
declaring their perfect salvation attainable only
through the instrumentality of their husbands.
Such a system can of course be carried into
effect only in the Mormon territory ; but the fact
of its existence there proves the perilous position
in which many thousands who have left our
shores for the city of the Salt Lake have placed
themselves; and that instead of enjoying the
glories of a paradise (a fitting rival to that of
Mohammed), by which they were allured thither,
they are only reaping the reward of their own folly.
But notwithstanding this, and despite the many
persecutions to which they have from time to
time been subjected, this sect, during the thirty
years which have elapsed since the publication
of the Book of Mormon has, as regards num
bers, continued rapidly to advance. At that
time there were only thirty persons acknowledging
the pretensions of Smith, hut in the short space
of thirteen years, when the foundation stone of
the temple at Nauvoo was laid, this number had
been increased to at least 150,000. Of these
80,000 were resident in the so-called " land of
promise," and not less than 10,000 were living
under British rule. Their fortunes otherwise
have been various. With Smith at their head,
they removed, in 1831, from La Faj'ette, where
the first church was planted, to Kertland, in
Ohio. Here they continued nearly two years,
till, by their fraudulent speculations exciting the
opposition of the neighbouring settlers, they were
compelled to remove. For a time they found an
asylum in the State of Missouri. From thence
also they were speedily ejected, and the " city of
Zion " which they had built, fell into the possession
of their " Gentile" oppressors. Their next des
tination was the state of Illinois, where another
city, called "Nauvoo," or "Beautiful," was
founded, in which they continued to reside till
after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. This
latter event happened at a time when he was
waiting his trial for high treason against the
state. In endeavouring to make his escape
through a window of the jail in which he was
confined, he was set on by an armed mob, and
speedily despatched. His memory is held sacred,
and his death, like that of martyrs in a better
cause, only fanned the flame which it was meant
to extinguish. A successor to the vacant office
— the headship of the Mormon Church — was
found in Brigham Young, under whose guidance
the temple at Nauvoo, which had been begun by
Smith, was completed. Again, and for similar
reasons as on former occasions, hut not till they
had made a stout resistance, they were under the
necessity of abandoning their artificial stronghold.
This time, after many weary miles of marching,
they secured a settlement beyond the Rocky
Mountains, in the valley of the great Salt Lake,
In this territory they still continue to reside; but

448

MOR
from the unhealthiness of the climate, and
especially because of their late encounters with the
United States government, it is proposed to
migrate to another district were they may live
unmolested. (Report of United Slates Govern
ment Commissioners of 1851 — Mormons, or
Loiter Day Saints; Hansbury's Expedition to
the Salt Lake; Kelly's Excursions in California;
Geschichte der Mormonen, Von Theodor OIs-
hausen.) Morning Lecture. — It first commenced in
London amidst the civil wars, and in connection
with prayer for friends, in the army of the Earl of
Essex. The lectures then became, in the days of
the Commonwealth, casuistical in its character.
A volume of them was published — Morning Ex
ercises at Cripplegate. In different places there
were ineffectual attempts to revive the lecture.
Morning Service. — According to the Apos
tolic Constitutions the early order was as follows:
— "It began with the sixty-third psalm (ac
cording to our arrangement), ' O God, thou art
my God; early will I seek thee.' After this
follow the prayers for the several orders of cate
chumens, energumens, candidates for baptism,
and penitents. When these were sent away,
there followed the prayers which, on the Lord's
Day, began the communion service. After the
prayer for the whole state of the Church was
ended, the deacon exhorted the people to pray,
thus : ' Let us beg of God his mercies and com
passions, that, this morning and this day, and
all the time of our pilgrimage, may be passed by
us in peace and without sin : let us beg of God
that he would send us the angel of peace, and
give us a Christian end, and be gracious and
merciful unto us. Let us commend ourselves,
and one another, to the living God, by his only-
begotten Son,' Immediately after this common
prayer of the deacon and people together, the
bishop offered l the morning thanksgiving,' in
the following words : — ' O God, the God of spi
rits and of all flesh, with whom no one can
compare, and who art above all need, that givest
the sun to govern the day, and the moon and
the stars to govern the night : look down now
upon us with the eyes of thy favour, and re
ceive our morning thanksgivings, and have
mercy upon us. For we have not spread forth
our hands to any strange god. We have not
chosen unto ourselves any new god among us, but
thou, the eternal and immortal God; O God, who
hast given to us our being through Christ, and our
well-being through him also, vouchsafe,by him, to
make us worthy of everlasting life, with whom,
unto thee be glory, honour, and adoration, in the
Holy Ghost, world without end. Amen.* After
this the deacon bade them bow their heads, and
receive the bishop's benediction in the following
form : — ' O God, faithful and true, that showest
mercy to thousands and ten thousands of them
that love thee ; who art the friend of the humble,
and defender of the poor, whose aid all stand in

MOR
need of, since all things serve thee ; look down
upon this thy people, who bow their heads unto
thee, and bless with thy spiritual benediction :
keep them as the apple of an eye ; preserve them
in piety and righteousness, and make them
worthy of everlasting life, through Christ Jesus,
thy beloved Son, with whom, unto thee be glory,
honour, and adoration, in the Holy Ghost, now
and for ever, world without end. Amen.' The
deacon then dismissed the congregation with the
usual form — ' Depart in peace.'"
ffloruoniaus, — See Evangelical Union.
Mortal Sin. — See Sin.
Mortar. — See Holy Mortar.
Mortmain (in a dead hand). — The most
probable origin of the term is that given by
Coke, that "the lands were said to come to
dead hands as to the lords, for that by alienation
in mortmain they lost wholly their escheats, and
in effect their knights' services, for the defence of
the realm, wards, marriages, reliefs, and the like,
and therefore was called a dead hand, for that a
dead hand yieldeth no service." " By the 9 H. III.,
c, 36 (Magna Charta), it was enacted that it
should not be lawful, for the future, for any per
son to give his land to a religious house so as to
take it back again, and hold it of the house ;
and any such gift to a religious house was
declared" to be void, and the land was forfeited
to the lord of the fee. The reason stated in
the preamble of the statute of the 7 Edward I.,
sometimes entitled De Religiosis, runs thus : —
' Whereas of late it was provided that religious
men should not enter into the fees of any without
the license and consent of the chief lords (capi-
taUum dominorum) of whom such fees are imme
diately held; and whereas religious men have
entered as well into fees of their own as those of
others, by appropriating them to their own use
and buying them, and sometimes receiving them
of the gifts of others, by which means the services
due from such fees, and which were originally
provided for the defence of the realm, are unduly
withdrawn, and the chief lords lose their escheats
of the same,' &c. The statute then forbids any
religious person or any other to buy or sell lands
or tenements, or under colour of a gift or term
of years, or any other title whatever, presume to
receive from any one, or by any other means, art,
or contrivance, to appropriate to himself lands
or tenements, so that such lands and tenements
come into mortmain in any way (ad manum
mortuam deveniant), under pain and forfeiture of
the same." By the 23 Henry VIII., c. 10, it was
enacted, " That if any grants of lands or other
hereditaments should be made in trust to the use
of any churches, chapels, churchwardens, guilds,
fraternities, &c, to have perpetual obits, or a
continual service of a priest for ever, or for sixty
or eighty years, or to such like uses or intents,
all such uses, intents, and purposes, shall be
void; they being no corporations, but erected
either of devotion or else by the common con-

MOR
sent of the people ; and all collateral assurances
made for defeating this statute shall be void,
and the said statute shall be expounded most
beneficially for the destruction of such uses as
aforesaid." " The statute of the 9 Geo. II., <;. 36,
is now commonly, though not correctly, called
the Statute of Mortmain. It applies "only to
England and Wales. It is entitled ' An Act to
restrain the Disposition of Lands, whereby the
same become inalienable.' " " Various acts have
been passed since the 9 Geo. IL, c. 36, as already
stated, for exempting various bodies from the
operation of that act. These acts chiefly apply
to the established church. The 58 Geo. IIL, c
45, amended by 59 Geo. III., c. 134, and 2 and
3 Willliam IV., c. 61, are intended to promote
the building of new churches in populous places
in England and Wales. The 43 Geo. IIL, c.
107, was passed to exempt decrees and bequests
to the governors of Queen Anne's Bounty." By
12 and 13 Vict, c. 49, sect. 4, grants of land for
sites of schools, not exceeding five acres, are
voted ; and there are other recent modifications.
Mortuary (mortalis, from mors, death), in
law, is a gift which, by the custom of many
parishes, is due to the minister upon the death
of one of the parishioners. It was anciently
usual to bring the mortuary to the church with
the corpse ; whence it took the name of corse-
present, a name which shows that the payment
of the mortuary was once voluntary, though so
early as in the reign of Henry III. we find that
the custom was established. The mortuary was
given by way of compensation for the tithes and
offerings which the deceased had failed to pay in
his life-time, and for the salvation of his soul.
In the reign of Henry VIII. the custom was
found to be the cause of great exactions on the
part of the clergy, and of expensive litigation.
Accordingly the statute 21 Henry VIII., c. 6,
was passed, by which it is enacted, that mor
tuaries -shall he taken in the following manner,
unless where less or none is due by the custom :
viz., for every person who does not leave goods
to the value of ten marks, nothing; for every
person who leaves goods to the value of ten marks
and under thirty pounds, 3s. 4d. ; if above thirty
and under forty pounds, 6s. 8d. ; if above forty
pounds, of what value soever the goods may be,
10s., and no more. It is enacted further, that
no mortuary shall be paid on the death of a
married woman ; nor for any child ; nor for any
one that is not a housekeeper ; nor for any way
faring man ; but such wayfaring man's mor
tuary shall be paid in the parish to which he
belongs. This is the statute which regulates
mortuaries at the present day (see Blackstone's
Commentaries, vol. ii., p. 424; Burn's Ecclesias
tical Law, title " Mortuary"). The purpose and
mode of paying mortuaries anciently is given by
Spelman. He says, "A mortuary was thus paid:
the lord of the fee had the best beast of tbe de
funct, by way of an heriot, for the support of

449

2G

MOR
his body against secular enemies ; and the par
son of the parish had the second as a mortuary
for defending his soul against his spiritual ad
versaries. Prior to the Reformation in Scotland, the
popish priest, after a parishioner's death, claimed
a cow and the corpse-cloth, or uppermost cloth —
apparently the coverlet of the bed of the deceased.
Forret, Vicar of Dollar, had gained some new
light, and began to preach to the people, and refuse
also this customary present. Being summoned,
on suspicion of Lutheranism, before the Bishop of
Dunkeld, the following colloquy took place : —
"Bishop  'My joy dean Thomas' I am in
formed that you preach the epistle or gospel
every Sunday to your parishioners, and that you
take not the cow nor the uppermost cloth from
your parishioners, which thing is very prejudi
cial to the churchmen ; and therefore, my joy-
dean Thomas, I would you took your cow and
your uppermost cloth, as other churchmen do, or
else it is too much to preach every Sunday ; for in
so doing you may make the people think that we
should preach likewise. But it is enough for
you, when you find any good epistle or any
good gospel, that setteth forth the liberty of the
holy church, to preach that and let the rest be.'
" 77ie Martyr. — Thomas answered, ' M3' lord, I
think tbat none of my parishioners will complain
that I take not the cow nor the uppermost cloth,
but will gladly give me the same, together with
any other thing that they have ; and I will give
and communicate with them anything that I
have ; and so, my lord, we agree right well, and
there is no discord among us. And whereas
your lordship saith, it is too much to preach
every Sunday, indeed I think it is too Httle, and
also would wish that your lordship did the
like.' "Bishop. — 'Nay, nay, dean Thomas,' saith
my lord, ' let tbat be, for we are not ordained to
preach.' " Martyr  Then, said Thomas, ' Whereas
your lordship biddeth me preach when I find
any good epistle or a good gospel, truly, my
lord, I have read the New Testament and the
Old, and all the epistles and the gospels, and
among them all I could never find an evil
epistle or an evil gospel; but if your lordship
will show me the good epistle and the good
gospel, and the evil epistle and the evil gospel,
then I shall preach the good and omit the evil.'
" Bishop. — Then spake my lord stoutly, and
said, ' I thank God that I never, knew what the
Old and New Testament was [and of these
words rose a proverb which is common in Scot
land, Ye are like the Bishop of Dunkeldene,
that knew neither new nor old law] ; therefore,
dean Thomas, I will know nothing but my por-
tuese and my pontifical. Go your way, and let
be all these fantasies; for if you persevere in
these erroneous opinions, ye will repent it when
you may not mend it.'

MUG
" Martyr. — ' I trust my cause be just in the
presence of God, and therefore I pass not much
what do follow thereupon.' " Forret was burned
at Edinburgh in 1539. (Foxe.)
Motett, in the Catholic Church, a highly
elaborate piece of vocal music, consisting of from
one to eight parts, the theme usually being taken
from some psalm or hymn. It seems, however,
to have been at first synonymous with anthem,
and was originally accompanied only by the
organ. Mother Chnrch, a name given of old to the
cathedral church of a diocese.
Mothering Sunday or Midlent Sunday,
supposed to be the day on which, in popish times,
people visited the mother church, and made their
annual offering. In more recent times children
and servants in England obtain leave to visit
their parents on this day. This custom, accord
ing to some, originated in this Sunday being the
Dominica Refectionis, or Sunday of Refreshment,
the gospel for the day being the record of the
miraculous banquet to the five thousand in the
desert. On that day the guests used to eat fur
mety, consisting of whole grains of wheat, boiled
in milk, and sweetened and spiced.
Mother of Cod. — See Mary.
Mountain Men. — See Scotland,
Churches, in.
Mourners. — See Flentes.
Mourning. — See Burial.
Movable Feasts. — See Feasts.
Mover's Lecture, a lecture founded by Lady
Mover, widow of Sir Samuel Moyer, of the pa
rish of St Andrew, Holborn. Her will says,
— " My now dwelling-house in Bedford Row, or
Jockey Field, I give to my dear child Eliza
Mover, that out of it may be paid twenty guineas* ¦
a-year to an able minister of God's Word, to
preach eight sermons every year on tbe Trinity
and divinity of our ever blessed Saviour, begin
ning with the first Thursday in November, and
to the first Thursday in the seven sequal months,
in St. Paul's, if permitted there, or, if not, else
where, according to the discretion of my execu>-
trix, who will not think it any incumbrance to
her house. I am sure it will bring a blessing on
it, if that work be well and carefully carried on,
which in this profligate age is so neglected. If
my said daughter should leave no children alive
at her death, or they should die before they come
to age, then I give my said bouse to my niece,
Lydia Moyer, now wife to Peter Hartop, Esq.,
and to her heirs after her, she always providing
for that sermon, as I have begun, twenty guineas
every year." Several courses of lectures were
delivered — Berriman's on 1 Tim. iii. 16 being
among the best — but they were discontinued
about the middle of last century.
Mugglctoninnsi, a now extinct sect, named
after Ludovic Muggleton, a journeyman tailor,
who, about 1657, claimed, along with an asso
ciate named Reeves, to be inspired. The two

450

MUL
fanatics were stupid errorists, were guilty of the
wildest blasphemies, and aped the mission of
Moses and Aaron.
Mullion or Monyal, the upright piers or
stone shafts which form the division between the
lights in a Gothic or traceried window, the
horizontal divisions being termed transons. The
mouldings of the mull ions are very Varied, and
partake of the character of the prevailing style
of architecture.
Myncherr. the Saxon name for a nunnery —
nuns being called mynckes (minciores, moniales).
Mystery. — See Arcani Disciplina — Bap
tism, the Lord's Supper, Chrism, Ordination, &c,
were reckoned among the mysteries which the
catechumens were not allowed to behold  See
Catechumens. Mysteries, otherwise called Miracles and
Moralities, were shows in the Middle Ages,
representing scenes from the Scripture and from
the Apocryphal Gospels. They were named
miracles when supernatural events were repre
sented, and moralities, when the cardinal virtues
were personified; and persons emblematically
dressed were called grace, patience, justice, wis
dom, &c The Coventry mysteries, for example,
were famous in England. Of these, Dugdale
relates, in his History of Warwickshire, pub
lished in 1656, that " Before the suppression of
the monasteries this city was very famous for
the pageants that were play'd therein, upon Cor
pus Christi Day (one of their ancient fairies),
which occasioning very great confluence of people
thither from far and near, was of no small benefit
thereto ; which pageants being acted with mighty
state and reverence by the Grey Friers, had
theatres for the several scenes, very large and
high, placed upon wheels, and drawn to all the
eminent parts of the city, for the better advan
tage of spectators, and contain'd the story of the
Old and New Testament, composed in the old
Englishe rithme, as appeareth by an ancient
MS. (in Bibl. Cotton. Vesp. D. VIII.), entituled,
Ludus Corporis Christi, or Ludus Coventrice. I
have been told,' says Dugdale, ' by some old
people, who in their younger years were eye
witnesses of these pageants so acted, that the
yearly confluence of people to see that show was
extraordinary great, and yielded no small advan
tage to this city.' The celebrity of the per
formances may he inferred from tbe rank of the
audiences ; for, at the festival of Corpus Christi,
in 1483, Richard III. visited Coventry to see the
plays, and at the same season, in 1492, they
were attended by Henry VII. and his queen, by
whom they were highly commended." . . .
Of them it is said, " Every company had his
pagiante, or parte, which pagiantes were a highe
scafolde with two rowmes, a higher and a lower,
upon four wheeles. In the lower they apparelled
themselves, in the higher rowme they played,
being all open on the tope, that all behoulders
might heare and see them. The places where

MYS
they pla}-ed them was in every streete. They
begane first at the Abay Gates, and when the
pagiante was played, it was wheeled to the High
Cross before the mayor, and so to every streete ;
and so every streete had a pagiante playing be
fore them, till all the pagiantes for the daye
appointed were played ; and when one pagiante
was neere ended, worde was broughte from
streete to streete, that soe the mighte come in
place thereof, exceedinge orderlye, and all the
streetes had their pagiante afore them, all at one
time, playing together, to se which playes was
great resorte, and also scafoldes, and stages made
in the streetes, in those places wheare they deter
mined to playe their pagiantes." These mysteries
were often ludicrous and profane ; and the wonder
is how they could be so long tolerated.
Christmas carols were somewhat similar, and
turned on scriptural subjects. The following
lines from one of them are of simple beauty, re
ferring to the Holy Babe : —
"As Joseph was a walking,
He heard an angel sing—
'This night shall be born
Our heavenly King ;
" ' He neither shall be born
In housen, nor in hall,
Nor in the place of Paradise,
But in an ox's stall ;
" ' He neither shall be clothed
In purple nor in pall,
But all in fair linen,
As were babies ali ;
'"He neither shall be rock'd
In silver, nor in gold,
But iu a wooden cradle,
That rocks on the mould ;
" ' He neither shall be christen'd
In white wine nor In red,
But with the spring water
With which we were christened.' "
The Abbotsford Club have published a volume
of mysteries from the Digby MSS. Halliwell
has edited the Coventry Mysteries, and Wright
the Chester Mysteries. The first mystery per
formed in Scotland was at Aberdeen, in 1445,
and was called the Haly Blude. One was called
Candlemas Day, and another, Mary Magdalene.
The records of the town council of Edinburgh, in
1554, contain an order to pay Walter Bynning,
for making, among other theatrical implements,
a mitre, a fool's hood, a pair of angel's wings,
two angels' hair, and a chaplet of triumph.
Other and coarser scenes were enacted by the
Boy-bishop, and at the Feast of Asses,
(which see.) These mysteries are still enacted
in some parts of the Continent. The Holy Plays
in 1860 were acted at Oberammergau, in
Bavaria. This Passions-Spiel originated in a
vow made by the inhabitants of Oberammergau
in 1633 — on their deliverance from a plague
which ravaged the whole of the district, but fell
with especial violence on their village — to re-'
present every ten years for ever the last scenes
of the life of the Saviour. The following are
some of the principal scenes given by an eye-

451

MYS
witness last yean— » 1. The triumphal entry of
Christ to Jerusalem; the children and people
shouting ' Hosanna!' and strewing clothes and
branches. This introduced the Saviour and the
apostles, and formed in itself an admirable intro
duction to the whole. There were certainly not
less than 200 persons in the crowd, including
seventy or eighty children. 2. The long and
animated debates in the Sanhedrim, including
the furious evidence of the expelled money
changers, and later the interview with Judas,
when the contract was ratified between him and
the priests by the payment of the thirty pieces
of silver. Nothing could be more characteristic,
real, and unaffected than these, 3. The Last
Supper and the washing of the apostles' feet.
Here the table was arranged on the model of the
well-known picture of Leonardo da Vinci. 4.
All the scenes in which Christ was brought suc
cessively before Annas, Caiaphas, Pilate, and
Herod. The ' Ecce Homo ' (copied, it struck
me, from Van Dyck); the scourging, &c. In
some of these as many as 250 persons were
at once on the scene — infuriated mobs of priests,
money-changers, Roman soldiers, &c. ; and, vio
lent as were the passions personified, there was
not the least approach to rant, nor the slightest
transgression into irreverence or improbability.
In the course of these scenes a striking occur
rence was the contrast of Barabbas, a brutal
and squalid figure, with the noble form and
countenance of the sacred sufferer — the latter
formed more after the model of those of Albert
Durer than of any other painter, — at least such
was my impression. Both Pilate and Herod
were admirahly represented, but especially the
former. 5. The whole long procession, at the
slowest pace, from Pilate's house to Golgotha,
our Lord and the thieves carrying their huge
crosses ; His interview with his mother and the
other women of Jerusalem. This contained the
legendary or traditional incident of the wiping
of Christ's face by St. Veronica ; but there was
no attempt to show the miraculous impression of
the sacred countenance on the handkerohief,
which forms the point of the legend. 6. The last
dreadful scene — the uprearing of the three
crosses with their living burdens, and all the
cruel incidents of that most cruel and lingering
death." Mystics. — The term mystical is sometimes
applied to what is beyond the cognizance of the
senses, as in the phrase, the " mystical body of
Christ," meaning his Church. Mystics are of
early date in the Church. The earliest were
Platonic in opinion, and strove to arrive at the
sublime consciousness of God within them by rapt
contemplation, and thus to come to supreme and
blessed communion with Him. The tendency
with Mystics was to depreciate the Word and
the ordinary means of grace, their delusion being
the persuasion that not only an immediate cogni
tion and enjoyment of God were possible, but

452

MYS
that one might lose bimself in the infinite full
ness. That among this class of devout men
there was often genuine piety is not to be
doubted, with a living faith which realized
Christ within them the hope of glory. But de
lusion soon sprang up, and men, given to mental
introversion, mistook the dreams of their own
distempered imagination for realities. Sudden
impressions were cherished as the illapse of the
Spirit, and pictures of morbid fancy were hailed
as exhibiting tbe odours, hues, and riches of
a spiritual paradise. The reveries of the pseudo-
Dionysius, the Areopagite, made a great noise
in the fourth century, and following centuries.
His theosophy was wild and dreamy ; his angelogy,
intruding into things he had not seen, was absurd
and intricate. The impulse which led to mon-
asticism in Western Europe,- was also mystical
in character, as in the case of Bernard and others
— seclusion from the world to obtain intuitive
knowledge of Divinity and transcendental frui
tion. Many who came after him went further,
and strove to gaze at once and by some inner
organ on the absolute and intolerable splendour
of Divinity.
The mediaeval mysticism of Germany was
often a protest against surrounding ecclesiasti-
cism. Men could find no spiritual peace nor
satisfaction in the dead routine of church service,
and longed for wholesome nutriment to their
souls. They were nauseated with mere mechani
cal observances, and retired into themselves.
Such a man was Eckhart, whose doctrine of the
identity of all believers with the Son of God and
in whom God is ever producing his only begotten
Son, is closely allied to Pantheism. Then fol
lowed Tauler, who dwells so much on self-abne
gation, and with whom the union of a believing
soul with God is such that they become one, but
not in the pantheistic sense. Yet he saw and re
probated several mischievous forms of mysticism
around him. Luther admired Tauler's sermons,
and their theology is that of the Theologia Ger-
manica, another favourite of the great Reformer.
There was Ruysbrock, too, who tells us that after
our birth our souls are endowed with certain pro
perties,— first, the " imageless nudity," by which
we are united to the Father; second, the higher
reason by which we receive the Son ; and third,
the spark of the soul by which we come into
possession of the Holy Ghost. Yet both he and
Tauler did condemn some prevalent forms of
mysticism, such as the views of those who said
there is one God, and believers are identical with
him ; or of those who affirmed that they are in
carnations as well as Christ ; or those who main
tained that nothing exists but God, that them
selves and the universe are nothing. There was
Suso, too, author of the Horologe of Wisdom,
professedly written under inspiration, and who
dreamed that the free soul, transcending time
and space, is, with amorous intuition, dissolved
in God. Angelus also sings—

NAA
" I am as great as God, and he as small as I,
He cannot me surpass, or I beneath him lie."
And— "I see In God both God and man.
He man and God in me;
I quench his thirst, and he in turn
Helps my necessity."
But the mediaeval mystics often embodied the liv
ing piety of the Church of Rome, and prepared the
way for the Reformation. Luther with marvel
lous precision balanced the objective and subjec
tive in his evangelical svstem, brought into pro
minence the doctrine of Justification by faith, and
upheld the sole authority of the Divine Word j
the ground of justification being the merit of
Christ without us, and the Scripture, as the only
rule of faith and manner, being an inspired teacher

NAT
external to us. Dreams and visions are no longer
needed, reveries are but delusions, and tbe Bible
is the voice of God. The Spirit does not reveal
truths beyond Scripture, but he enlightens and
impresses the soul with the truths found in
Scripture. Sanctification, or the inner work of
the same Spirit, is indissolubly connected with
justification. (Vaughan's Hours with tlie Mystics,
2 vols., London, 1856; Gieseler; Ullmann's Re
formers before the Reformation.) Others there
were of less note. In a following age we find
mysticism of a lower and more intricate stamp,
as in the Anabaptists of Munster and the prophets
of Zwickau, and in Agrippa, Paracelsus, L" eh men,
and Swedenborg. — See Quietist, Bourignon,
Quakers,Swbdenbokgians,Correspondisnce.

ITaasenes (from the Hebrew trrj, nahash, a
serpent), serpent worshippers. — See Ophites.
Nag's Head. — This story, or rather fable,
refers to the consecration of Archbishop Parker,
and was first told by a Jesuit, Sacro Bosco, or
Holywood, forty-five years after the event.
Intelligent Romanists now discredit it We add
Archbishop Bramhall's account of the Nag's
Head fable (Works, p. 436), as the shortest
and fullest refutation of the story. It is as
follows : — " They say that Archbishop Parker
and the rest of the Protestant bishops in the
beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, or at
least sundry of them, were consecrated at the
Nag's Head, in Cheapside, together, by Bishop
Scory alone, or by him and Bishop Barlow,
without sermon, without sacrament, without
solemnity, in the year 1559 (but they know not
what day nor before what public notaries), by a
new fantastic form. And all this they, on the
supposed voluntary report of Mr. Neale (a single
malicious spy), in private to his own party, long
after the business pretended to be done. We say
that Archbishop Parker was consecrated alone
at Lambeth, in the church, by four bishops,
authorized thereunto by commission under the
Great Seal of England, with sermon, with sacra
ment, with due solemnities, on the 17th day of
December, anno 1559, before four of the most
eminent public notaries in England, and par
ticularly the same public notary was principal
actuary both at Cardinal Pole's consecration and
Archbishop Parker's."
Name. — See Baptism.
Nantes, Edict of, was an act of toleration,
promulgated by Henry IV. of France in 1598,
restoring to Protestants their earlier liberties.
It was revoked by Louis XIV. in 1685.
Thousands of Protestants of all classes therefore
left the country; and 40,000, including many
of its best artisans, made Britain tbe place
of their exile. — See more fully, France,
Churches in ; Pacification.

N Naos (temple). — See Church, Form and
Architecture of ; see also Nave.
Narthex, the portico or ante-temple in front
of ancient churches, and usually entered by three
doors from the outer porch, and admitting by
three other doors into the nave and the aisles
on each side. In this place catechumens and
penitents stood during that part of the service
which they were permitted to attend. The
font was also in course of time brought into the
narthex. — See Font. The word narthex (*i(h%)
signifies a plant with a long stalk, or the canes or
rods used by schoolmasters (ferula) — then a case
or casket of an oblong shape ; and the ecclesiasti
cal narthex seems to have been of an oblong
form in front, or lying across the entrance to the
sacred building.
Natal days. — " Natales episcopatus " — tho
days of a bishop's ordination, observed as an
annual festival. " Natalis Christi " — day of our
Lord's birth — Christmas. — See Christmas.
"Natales Martyrum" — anniversaries of the
martyrs, their sufferings and death being called
their nativity. — See Genethlia. Ordinary
birthdays were forbidden to be celebrated in
Lent. " Natalis calicis " — the Thursday of
Easter. The day of baptism was also called
nativitas spiritualis.
National Covenant. — See Covenant.
Nativity of Christ. — See Christmas  It
was a great festival in the early Church. Bing
ham says — " The day was kept with the same
veneration and religious solemnity as tbe Lord's
Day. For they had always sermons on this day ;
of which there are many instances in Chrysostom,
Nazianzen, Basil, Ambrose, Augustine, Leo, Chry-
sologus, and many others. Neither did they let
this day ever pass without a solemn communion.
For Chrysostom, in this very place, invites his
people to the holy table, telling them " that if
they came with faith, they might see Christ lying
in the manger ; for the holy table supplied the
place of the manger ; the body of the Lord was

453

NAT
laid upon the holy table, not as before, wrapped in
swaddling clothes, but invested on every side
with the Holy Spirit." And that the solemnity
might be more universally observed, liberty was
granted on this day to servants to rest from
their ordinary labours, as on the Sabbath and
the Lord's Day. This is particularly mentioned
by the author of the Apostolical Constitutions :
" Let servants rest from their labour on the day
of Christ's nativity, because on this day an un
expected blessing was given unto men, in that
the Word of God, Jesus Christ, was born of the
Virgin Mary, for the salvation of the world."
And all fasting was as strictly prohibited on this
festival as on the Lord's Day ; and no one, with
out suspicion of some impious heresy, could go
against this rule, as appears from what Pope Leo
says of the Priscillianists, that they dishonoured
the day of Christ's nativity and the Lord's Day
by fasting, which they pretended they did only
for the exercise of devotion in an ascetic life ;
but in reality, it was to affront the days of his
nativity and resurrection, because with Cerdon,
and Marcion, and the Manicbees, they neither
believed the truth of our Saviour's incarnation
nor his resurrection. Therefore, in opposition to
these and such like heresies, the Church was
always very jealous of any who pretended to
make a fast of the Nativity of Christ. Finally,
to show all possible honour to this day, the
Church obliged all persons to frequent religious
assemblies in the oity churches, and not go to
any of the lesser churches in the country, except
some necessity of sickness or infirmity compelled
them so to do. And the laws of the state pro
hibited all public games and shows on this day,
as on the Lord's Day."
Natural T Bicology  See Theology.
Nave (vacs, navis) was the body of the church
where the faithful met for divine service, the
chancel being at its inner end, and the narthex
at its outer. Males and females had separate
places assigned to them, and in its lowest part
stood penitents of the third order, substrati ; and
in a more honoured part were ranged penitents
of a higher class, consistentes : other penitents
did not advance beyond the narthex. The nave
was surrounded by passages or aisles, and small
chambers or cells. In Norman churches, built in
the form of a cross, the two wings are called
aisles. But the word, as used among architects
and antiquarians, seems to have two meanings, 
first, ala, or wing ; and secondly, written He or isle,
as if from " insula" — island, when the " middle
isle," for example, is spoken of; the term being
then used for an isolated or separate compartment.
Alley is another form of the same term. The
ambo or reading desk was in the nave. It was
usually of a square form. — See Ambo, Chancel,
Church.
Nazarenes (of or belonging to Nazareth). —
See Biblical Cyclopaedia. — The name was given
in contempt to all Christians by the Jews.

NEO
A sect called by this name rose up in the second
century — keen Judaists, and impugners also, ac
cording to some, of Christ's divinity; but the latter
point is so doubtful that many deny the charge. A
spurious Aramaic gospel was in circulation among
them, sometimes called the Gospel according to
Matthew, but wanting the first two chapters of
the canonical gospel, relating the miraculous
conception. — See Ebionites.
"Necessary Doctrine," the name of a
book published toward the latter end of the reign
of Henry VIII., more fully named, The Neces
sary Doctrine and Erudition of a Christian Man.
It was preceded, however, by an act forbidding
the Scriptures to the common people. It was
the work of a committee, but Henry had some
share in the composition of it, so that it was
called "the King's Book," in contrast with one
previously published, The Institution of a Chris
tian Man, and called "the Bishop's Book."
Cranmer also wrote a portion of it — that con
cerning faith. But while it was evangelical in
doctrine, it was popish in other things, affirm
ing transubstantiation, calling marriage a sacra
ment, and maintaining the seven sacraments of
Romanism. As an authorized formula it re
tained authority till the king's death. Of the
Necessary Doctrine, Carwithen says, — "A work
whose materials are as heterogeneous as the
opinions of those who composed it were discor
dant; a work which in the present day has
occasioned much discussion and dispute, arising
from the prejudices of its readers. One party
has confidently appealed to it as a criterion of the
opinions of the Reformers on many important
doctrinal points, in opposition to the church from
which they had separated ; another party has
condemned it, in the most unqualified terms, as
leaning even in doctrine towards Popery rather
than Protestantism," — History qf the Church of
England, vol. i., p. 246.
Necrology. — See Diptychs.
Neology. — See Rationalism.
Neonomians (new law), those who held
that the Gospel was a new law, accepting sincere
for perfect obedience, as if the moral law had
been modified or relaxed in its claims and
sanctions by the death of Christ. The doctrine
of Scripture is, that God's law is glorified in all
its parts by tbe atonement of the Lord Jesus;
that through faith in that atonement men are
rescued from its condemning power ; and that,
released from that law as a covenant of works,
they are the more bound to it as a rule of life.
Perfect obedience alone can be accepted by the
law, and the sinner is accepted through his faith
in the perfect obedience and suflering of his Divine
and glorified substitute. The scholastic question,
Is the Gospel a new law ? is very much of a
quibble. The Gospel is a new economy, and faith
is a new principle, the possession of which is a
commanded duty, in obedience, it may be said,
to a new law. By the power of that faith

454

NEO
in Christ those who are pardoned and reconciled
are gradually brought to obey the divine law,
which has its origin in God's nature, and is, like
himself, eternal and immutable. The Gospel is
properly arevelation of infinite mercy in Christ —
a system of remedy, and also one of restoration ;
for it frees man from guilt, and brings him back
to primeval obedience and holiness, — holiness
being perfect conformity to the divine law or
will. (Marrow of Modern Divinity ; Works of
Baxter, Williams, and Crisp).
Neophyte (newly planted), a Greek name
given to converts in early times, and applied
also to candidates for admission to a religi
ous order. It is rendered " novice " in 1 Tim.
iii. 6.
Nestorians, the followers of Nestorius, who
was condemned by the council of Ephesus as
heretical on the subject of our Saviour's incarna
tion. The false doctrine for which he suffered
was found rather in the inferences drawn from
his language by his enemies, and repudiated by
himself, than in anything which he actually
taught. The circumstances of the Alexandrian
Church, and the peculiar errors with which it had
to contend, had led to the use of language, even
on the part of Athanasius, with respect to the
nature of Christ, to which the Syrian Christians,
viewing the truth from a different position, could
see strong objections. Hence it arose that soon
after his elevation from being a presbyter at
Antioch, to be Patriarch" of Constantinople,
Nestorius was led to defend earnestly one of
his presbyters, who preached against the appli
cation of the term " Qitrixc; "—Mother of God,
to the Virgin Mary. — See Maey. This was a
favourite epithet with the Alexandrians, and
they could not understand its being objected
to, except by one who denied the doctrines
which they intended it to express. The con
sequence was an angry and fruitless contro
versy between Cyril of Alexandria and Nestorius,
in the course of which C3rril published twelve
anathemas against the supposed errors of his
antagonist, and persuaded Celestine, the Bishop
of Rome, to join him in declaring Nestorius a
heretic. Nestorius appealed to a council, which
Theodosius was induced to summon at Ephesus,
and the history of which forms one of the most
painful pages in the annals of the Church. Cyril,
the avowed enemy of Nestorius, claimed to preside
in the assembly in right of his see, and forced on
a decision without waiting for the arrival of the
Syrian bishops. Nestorius was of course ana
thematized and deposed. And then the Syrians,
arriving in the city and holding a separate council
of their own, deposed and excommunicated Cyril,
with his friend Memnon, the Bishop of Ephesus.
The emperor confirmed both sentences, and all
three of the bishops were put under arrest. The
rival parties continued at Ephesus till September,
when the emperor was persuaded to dismiss them,
at the same time restoring Cyril and Memnon to

NET
their sees. Nestorius was afterwards subjected to
extremely cruel treatment, which only ended with
his life. The breach between the Syrian and
Egyptian Churches was healed to a certain extent
by the Patriarch of Antioch consenting to sign the
condemnation of Nestorius, while Cyril subscribed
a confession of faith which Nestorius himself
might have readily accepted. It was drawn up
by Theodoret, the Bishop of Kars, the most
learned as well as the most moderate of all who
took part in this controversy. He had written
against the twelve anathemas of Cyril when they
first appeared, and he persisted to the last that
they ought to have been condemned, and that
nothing should have induced the Patriarch of
Antioch to sign the condemnation of Nestorius.
The cause of Nestorius continued to find favour in
the East, and especially in the theological school of
Edessa, from which many teachers spread them
selves in Persia, so that, in the year 499, the
whole Persian Church, in a council, declared its
adoption of the Nestorian doctrines. The sect
spread also into India, where they still exist under
the name of Thomas Christians, and in the
seventh century are said to have introduced the
Gospel into China. Their dootrine, as it was
determined in several councils held at Seleucia,
amounts to what follows : — 1. That in the Savi
our of the world there were two hypostases, or per
sons, of which the one was Divine, or the Eternal
Word, and the other Human, or the Man Christ
Jesus. 2. That these two hypostases had only one
outward appearance. 3. That the union between
the Son of God and the Son of Man was formed
in the moment of the Virgin's conception, and
was never to be dissolved. 4. That this union
was not of nature or person, but of will and
affection. 5. That Christ was to be carefully
distinguished from God, who dwelt in him as in
a temple. 6. That Mary was to be called the
Mother of Christ (x^irrtrixts) and not the
Mother of God (e-.trixas.)
Netherlands, Churches in the.
I. The Dutch Reformed Church. — Christianity
was first introduced into the Netherlands in the
seventh century, chiefly through the agency of
missionaries from Britain. The church thus
founded was speedily brought under the influ
ence of Rome, and so continued until the period
of the general Reformation movement on the
Continent. The doctrines of the Reformation,
spreading from Germany, found ready and sym
pathizing adherents in the people of Holland.
Indeed, from the previous existence in the country
of various religious societies of a liberal tendency,
the people had been to some extent prepared for the
important changes which now took place. — See
Beghards, Bp.etiiren of the Free Spirit.
These changes, however, were not ushered in
without violent persecutions on the part of the
civil and ecclesiastical authorities. Charles V.
proclaimed an edict against heresy in the Nether
lands, and resolved to suppress it there as well as

455

NET
in his German dominions. It has been calculated
that in the persecutions which resulted, not less
than 50,000 persons suffered violent death in
consequence of their religious opinions. These
repressive efforts were unsuccessful, and the
Protestant religion was firmly established. The
Dutch Reformed Church, as ite name implies,
belongs to that great division of the Protestant
Church known as the Reformed, in opposition to
the Lutheran. It at first experienced a consider
able amount of Zwinglian influence, but after
wards became almost entirely Calvinistic. Its
confession of faith, agreed upon at Antwerp, in
1566, is very similar to that of the French Pro
testant Church. In its presbyterian constitution
and mode of government, too, it is almost identi*
cal with that church. The different grades of ec
clesiastical jurisdiction are, the consistory, the
classis, the provincial synod, and the general
synod — corresponding to the kirk-session, pres
bytery, provincial synod, and general assembly of
the Scottish Church. According to the original*
constitution, the general or national synod was
intended to meet once every three years ; but
this arrangement has not been at all adhered to,
Not long after the establishment of the church
as a Calvinistic Protestant community, it was
agitated by the Arminian controversy, originated
by Arminius, one of the professors of theo
logy. His views were finally condemned, by a
synod held at Dort in 1618. — See Akminian-
ism. Still, during the greater part of the
seventeenth century, the peace of the church
was disturbed by controversial discussions upon
doctrinal subjects. These arose partly from
the philosophy of Descartes, and partly from
the theology of Cocceius. In the eighteenth
century, the state of religion was very low.
In 1795 the church ceased to be directly and
distinctively connected with the state; and
since that time all ecclesiastical parties may-
have their share of government pay. In the
early part of the nineteenth century, the spirit
ual life of the church still further declined ;
and the ecclesiastical government became more
fettered by the trammels of the state. These
were the chief causes of a pretty extensive
secession which took place in 1834. There is
nothing very striking or deserving of particu
lar notice in the mode of divine worship in use
in the Dutch Reformed Church. It is calcu
lated that there still adhere to this church, now
greatly marred by the inroads of Arianism, about
1,700,000 persons. It has considerable and
vigorous offshoots at the Cape of Good Hope
and in the United States of America. These,
owing to their comparatively isolated position,
have to a great extent escaped the withering
blight of heresy which ha3 fallen with such
disastrous effect upon the parent church, and
may thus be considered as constituting the true
representatives of the faith contended for by their
martyred forefathers in the Netherlands. Tlie

NEW
Reformed Dutch Chnrch in America has 30
classes, 410 ministers, a membership of above
50,000, a theological seminary, and 3 foreign
missionary stations.
II. The Dutch Separate Reformed Church ia
the community referred to in the previous section
as having taken its rise in 1834, This secession,
having as its favouring causes the spiritual and
ecclesiastical declensions of the national church,
was commenced by Mr. H. de Cock, minister at
Ulrum. It speedily acquired more extensive
proportions, and it now numbers 234 congrega
tions, 79 of which are reported as being unpro
vided with pastors. This deficiency is in process
of being supplied by the training of a number of
students in a theological academy. The synod
of this church meets triennially, the most recent
being that held at Drenthe in June, 1860. The
opinions of the church on many questions are as
yet rather unsettled. They seem to be as yet
but feeling their way to the position of a church
thoroughly voluntary in theory and practice.
They have warmly espoused the cause of missions ;
and seem, with a membership of upwards of
40,000, to have an extensive door of usefulness
opening before them.
New Jerusalem Church. — See Sweden-
BORGIANS. New Xiights, a name given in contempt to
the early Christians ; also a cant name of some
seceding parties in Scotland. — See Scotland,
Churches in.
New Platonists. — Ammonius, called Saccas,
or Sack-Carrier, from his first occupation at the
port of Alexandria, is the reputed founder of the
New Platonic school. He was born in the
second century, and some affirm that he was
born of Christian parents, but that in riper
years he apostatized. Porphyry affirms it, while
Eusebius and Jerome as stoutly deny it. Pos
sessed of a creative genius, and conversant with
the prevalent philosophies, he strove hard to form
a species of eclecticism, in which Christianity
and all systems of philosophy should be har
monized. In his attempt to accomplish this, he,
as might be anticipated, robbed Christianity of
its prime peculiarities, and did great violence
to the current philosophies in accommodating
them to the new religion. — Plotinus, the most
famous teacher of the New Platonic school,
was born at Lycopolis, in Egypt, about a.d.
204. The original bent of his mind was to
speculation, and he had prosecuted such studies
under Ammonius Saccas, at Alexandria, for
eleven years, when, in his thirty-ninth year, he
joined the expedition of Gordian against the
Parthians, as a means of enabling him to study
the philosophy of the East. At the emperor's
death he found his way back to Antioch, and
afterwards went to Rome, where he taught for
six-and-twenty years with great popularity, and
where he gradually developed his system and
composed many books, which wero corrected and

45G

NEW
arranged by his pupil, Porphyry. Porphyry
divided his master's fifty-four books into six
-•Enneads, or sections of nine. The metaphysics
of Plotinus are obscure in their subtlety, though
Plato was his acknowledged guide and pattern.
He held that, in order to perfect knowledge, the
subject and object must be united, that the intelli
gent agent and the thing understood — the appre
hending and the apprehended — must not be in
separation ; the spirit having everything spiritual
within itself. Great stress was laid by him upon
pure intuition, as in some one of its gleams even
the absolute and unconditioned might be dis
covered. Out of the spirit is developed the soul,
which is brought into contact with the sensuous
world. Plotinus had learned eclecticism from
Ammonius, but he added to it a mysticism pecu
liar to himself, while he attempted to clothe
paganism in the garb of a philosophical theism.
Probably towards the end of his life his tran
scendental visions and ecstacies were the result of
a diseased organization, which had been reduced
and emaciated by continued abstinence. His
system acquired great popularity in subsequent
years, and sometimes opposed Christianity, and
often modified it. — Porphyry, another of the Neo-
platonists and early opponents of Christianity,
was born a.d. 233. His original name was
Malchus, the Shemitic term for a king; but
Longinus, his master, gave him the appellation
of Porphyry, in allusion to the purple vestments
of royal persons. He studied under Origen and
under Longinus in his youth, but at thirty years
of age attached himself, at Rome, to Plotinus,
whose works he arranged and corrected. Leav
ing Rome, where his thoughts had often reverted
to snicide as the speediest means of freeing his
spirit from its present prison-house, he went to
Sicily, where he wrote his attack on Christianity.
He seems to have returned to Rome, and he died
about the year 304. Porphyry was a man of
great abilities and erudition, and his elegant
style contributed in no small degree to the popu
larity of the Plotinian philosophy. His asceti
cism may be found in his treatise On Abstinence,
and the strange but not uncommon union of
superstition and scepticism may be seen in his
doctrine of demons, in his ascription of the power
of miracles to Plotinus, and in his record of a
special ecstacy enjoyed by him in his sixty-eighth
rear, in which he was privileged to gaze upon
the unveiled Divinity. He laboured to find dis
crepancies in the Scriptures, and he made a special
assault upon the authenticity of the Book of
Daniel. The history of the gospels was also
subjected to similar treatment. His fifteen books
against Christianity were ordered to be destroyed
by the Emperor Theodosus, so that we are only
acquainted with their nature and contents through
the replies made to them by such writers as Euse
bius and Jerome. Besides his philosophical and
Antichristian works, Porphyry wrote commen
taries on Homer, and treatises on a great variety of

NIC
miscellaneous subjects  Proclus holds also a con
spicuous place in the new school. He was born
in the year 412 at Constantinople, though, as his
parents had dwelt in Xanthus, in Lycia, where
he received the first elements of his knowledge, he
is often called a Lycian. After having studied at
Alexandria, and having learned from Olympio-
dorus to blend together the Aristotelian and Pla
tonic doctrines, he visited Athens, where, so
rapid was the progress which he made, that
at the age of twenty-eight he had composed,
besides other pieces, his best work, a Comment
tary on the Timaus of Plato. The skill which
he acquired in the theurgic art, as well as in
the mysterious science of his school, pointed
him out as worthy of filling the office of public
professor. His lectures, full of dark mysticism,
harmonized well with the taste of the age, and
won him many followers. His very credulous,
or very inventive, biographer and successor,
Marinus, relates that he prepared himself by
abstinence from animal food, by long fastings
and repeated prayers, for immediate intercourse
with the Divine Being, and that he possessed
the power of expelling diseases and of com
manding the elements. His works, a strange
mass of varied fanaticism, discover marks of
a rich but unchecked fancy, and extensive
but misapplied learning. — M. Degerando looks'
upon the school of the New Platonists as
dividing itself into three branches; the school
of Rome, that of Alexandria, and that of
Athens. The School qf Rome has this distinctive
character, that it is essentially a philosophical
eclecticism; that it shows itself but little tinc
tured with Oriental traditions; that it does not
yet invoke the services of the ancient mythology.
The School of Alexandria, on the contrary,
plunges deeply into mystic theology; it is a
syncretism of philosophical and religious opin-'
ions. The School of Athens, holds a middle
course, adopting Faith as a sort of medium be
tween direct Revelation and Reason, and prefer
ring to reascend to the sources of Greek wisdom.
New Testament. — See Bible.
New Year's Dny. — From the introduction
of the festival of Christmas, in the fourth cen
tury, down to the seventh, the first day of
January was called the octave of the Nativity.
As the heathen, on the calends of January,
indulged in great licentiousness and revelry, the
Christians at first kept the day as a season
of fasting and humiliation. In the course of
the seventh century the day came to be called
the festival of the circumcision, though some
suppose the name to have had an earlier com
mencement. The first of January grew at length
to be recognized in Europe as the first day of
the civil year.
Nicene Creed. — See Creed.
Nicene Conncil. — See Council.
Nicodemus, Gospel of, sometimes called
the Acts of Pilate, one of the early forgeries

457

NIC
which circulated in the third and fourth cen
turies. — See Gospels, Spurious. We subjoin a
specimen, describing the entrance of the converted
thief into Hades : — " 5. And while the holy Enoch
and Elias were relating this, behold there came
another man in a miserable figure, carrying the
sign of the cross upon his shoulders. 6. And
when all the saints saw him, they said to him,
Who art thou ? For thy countenance is like a
thief's ; and why dost thou carry a cross upon
thy shoulders? 7. To which he, answering,
said, Ye say right, for I was a thief, who com
mitted all sorts of wickedness upon earth. 8.
And the Jews crucified me with Jesus; and
I observed the surprising things which happened
in the creation at the crucifixion of the Lord
Jesus. 9. And I believed him to be the Creator
of all things, and the Almighty King; and I
prayed to him, saying, Lord remember me, when
thou comest into thy kingdom. 10. He presently
regarded my supplication, and said to me, Verily,
I say unto "thee, this day thou shalt be with me
in Paradise. 11. And he gave me this sign of
the cross, saying, Carry this, and go to Paradise ;
and if the angel who is the guard of Para
dise will not admit thee, show him the sign of
the cross, and say unto him : Jesus Christ, who
is now crucified, hath sent me hither to thee.
12. When I did this, and told the angel who is
the guard of Paradise all these things, and he
heard them, he presently opened the gates, intro
duced me, and placed me on the right hand in
Paradise, 13. Saying, Stay here a little time, till
Adam, the father of all mankind, shall enter in,
with all his sons, who are the holy and righteous
servants of Jesus Christ, who was crucified. 14.
When the}' heard all this account from the thief,
all the patriarchs said with one voice, Blessed be
thou, 0 Almighty God, the Father of everlast
ing goodness, and the Father of mercies, who
hast shown such favour to those who were sin
ners against him, and hast brought them to tbe
mercy of Paradise, and hast placed them amidst
thy large and spiritual provisions, in a spiritual
and holy life. Amen."
Nicolailans (see Biblical Cyclopaedia), a
licentious sect mentioned in Rev. ii. 6, and
supposed by some of the ancients to have been
founded by Nicolas, one of the seven named in
Acts vi. But this was probably a conjecture
without much foundation, and there is good
ground for the idea that John may have in
tended to express by BaXadp. and XtixcXa'iruv
the same thing — both names being symbolic. For
Balaam is compounded of two Hebrew words,
which are equivalent to the Greek words " vixci t
riv Xaiv " — to destroy of the people.
Nicolas, St., Day, is the 6th of December,
and is observed by the Greek and Romish
Churches in honour of the patron saint of
sailors. Niliilists, a German sect of mystics who
reduced God and the universe to nothing, and

NOM
denied, therefore, all moral obligation.-

¦See

Annihilation. Ninth Hour— See Nones.
Niobites, followers of Niobes, who denied
any distinction of natures in Christ after their
union in the incarnation.— See Mosophysites.
Niptcr (wash-basin).— See Pedilavium.
Nocturns (services for the night). — The
psalter in the Breviary is divided into portions
consisting of nine psalms, each portion being
called a nocturn. — See Antelucan Services.
Noctians, the followers of Noetus, a native
of Asia Minor, in the early part of the third
century, a heretic whose opinions were nearly
similar to those of Praxeas and Sabellius. They
were confuted by Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus, in
a treatise which is still extant. — See Praxeas,
Sarellians. Nola, a name given to a church bell ; said to
be derived from the circumstance that Paulinus,
Bishop of Nola, in Campania, first made use of
bells. But Paulinus, neither in his epistles nor
poems, makes any mention of bells ; nor do his
eulogists refer to them. — See Bell.
Nominalism. — The controversy involved in
this term has a connection with theology ; for its
origin may be traced to well-known disputes
with Berengarius on the Lord's Supper. The
Nominalists held that what are universals are
only names — the opposite sect, or Realists, main
taining that universals are real existences. Sir
Wm. Hamilton says, — "The former of these opin
ions — the doctrine, as it is called, of Nominalism
— maintains that every notion, considered in itself,
is singular, but becomes, as it were, general,
through the intention of the mind to make it
represent every other resembling notion, or notion
of the same class. Take, for example, the term
man. Here we can call up no notion, no idea,
corresponding to the universality of the class or
term. This is manifestly impossible. For as
man involves contradictory attributes, and as
contradictions cannot coexist in one representa
tion, an idea or notion adequate to man cannot
be realized in thought The class man includes
individuals, male and female, white and black,
and copper-coloured, tall and short, fat and thin,
straight and crooked, whole and mutilated, &c,
&c. ; and the notion of the class must, therefore,
at once represent all and none of these. It is
therefore evident, though tbe absurdity was
maintained by Locke, that we cannot accomplish
this ; and this being impossible, we cannot repre
sent to ourselves the class man by any equiva
lent notion or idea. All that we can do is to
call up some individual image, and consider it
as representing, though inadequately representing,
the generality. This we easily do; for as we
can call into imagination any individual, so we
can make that individual image stand for any or
for every other which it resembles, in those essen
tial points which constitute the identity of the
class. This opinion, which, after Hobbes, has
458

NOM
been in this country maintained, among others,
by Berkeley, Hume, Adam Smith, Campbell, and
Stewart, appears to me not only true but self-
evident." The Nominalists had for their founder,
Roscellinus in the eleventh, who was followed
by Abelard and Occam in the fourteenth century.
The Church of Rome took Realism under its
patronage, and tbe theism of Roscellinus was
branded as Lutheranism.
Nomination.— See Clergy, Jus Devo-
lutum. — Hook says, in reference to the Church
of England, nomination is " the offering of a
clerk to him who has tbe right of presentation,
that he may present him to the ordinary. The
nominator must appoint his clerk within six
months after the avoidance ; for if he does not,
and the patron presents his clerk before the
bishop bath taken any benefit of the lapse, he is
bound to admit that clerk."
Nomo-Canon. — See Canon Law.
Nomophjlax (keeper ofthe law), an officer
of the Greek Church, whose function is indi
cated by his name.
Nonconformist, one who refuses or rejects
uniformity ; applied generally to dissenters from
the established church, but chiefly with refer
ence to those ministers who, in the year 1662,
renounced their livings rather than subscribe
according to tbe Act of Uniformity. This act
enjoined on all ministers of religion in England
to declare their unfeigned assent and consent to
all and everything contained in the Book of
Common Prayer; with which no fewer than
two thousand of the clergy refused to comply.
Had the government of the day been content
with requiring subscription from those who
desired to remain as ministers of the Establish
ment, without proceeding to the passing of ob
noxious, persecuting, and iniquitous acts against
those whose consciences forbade their compliance
with the requirements of the Act of Uniformity,
dissent would not, in all probability, have taken
such deep root in the minds of the people, nor
would it have attained the eminence to which it
subsequently reached in this country. But only
two years elapsed after the enactment above
named, when the Conventic'.e Act was intro
duced into parliament, passed, and received tbe
royal sanction. By this act only five persons
above sixteen years of age, besides the family,
were authorized to assemble for any worship,
domestic or social, The power of enforcing the
penalties of a violation of this act, which were
very severe, was lodged in the hands of a single
justice ofthe peace, who had authority to proceed
on the oath of an informer, without the inter
vention of a jury. The penalties on him who
officiated were, for the first offence, five pounds
fine, or three months' imprisonment; for the
second, ten pounds fine, or six months' imprison
ment ; and for the third, a fine of one hundred
poimds, or transportation for life. The following
year (1665) the Five Mile Act came into opera-

NON
tion. It imposed an oath on all nonconformists
not to attempt any alteration in Church or
State, and in case of refusal, the parties were
to be expelled all the towns, boroughs, and cities
in the kingdom, and not be permitted to come
within five miles of any one of them. The Cor
poration Act and the Test Act were also passed
in the same reign — that of Charles II ; thus
increasing the civil disabilities of those whose
opinions were heterodox to the established faith,
and thereby creating among nonconformists a
spirit of dislike and opposition to the clergy and
constitution of the Anglican Church. Tbe course
pursued towards the first nonconformists has led
to most of the strifes which, sinoe the reign of the
second Charles, have thickened and multiplied.
— See Acts, Dissenters, Independents, Puri
tans. Nones, a service of the ninth hour, or three
in the afternoon, the usual time of the Jewish
sacrifice. Chrysostom exhorts to this service by
telling that at that hour paradise was opened
for the thief and the great sacrifice was offered.
Some derive the term noon from Nones, because
the service was often antedated, and held at mid
day. Non-Intrusionists. — See Scotland, Free
Church of. — Non-Intrusion had its formal ori
gin in the following motion, proposed to the gene
ral assembly in 1833 — moved by Dr. Chalmers,
and seconded by Lord Moncrieff: — "That the
general assembly, having maturely weighed and
considered the various overtures now before them,
do find and declare, that it is, and has been ever
since the Reformation, a fixed principle in the law
of this church, that no minister shall be intruded
into any pastoral charge contrary to the will of
the congregation: and considering that doubts
and misapprehensions have existed on this im
portant subject, whereby the just and salutary
operation of the said principle has been impeded,
and in many cases defeated, the general assembly
further declare it to be their opinion, that the
dissent of a majority ofthe male heads of fami
lies, resident within the parish, being members
of the congregation and in communion with the
church, at least two years previous to the day of
moderation (of the call), whether such dissent
shall be expressed with or without the assign
ment of reasons, ought to be of conclusive effect
in setting aside the presentee (under the patron's
nomination), save and except where it is clearly
established by the patron, presentee, or any of
the minority, that the said dissent is founded in
corrupt and malicious combination, or not truly
founded on any objection personal to the presen
tee in regard to his ministerial gifts and qualifi
cations, either in general or with reference to
that particular parish: and in order that this
declaration may be carried into full effect, that
a committee shall be appointed to prepare the
best measure for carrying it into effect, and to
report to the next general assembly." The mo-

459

NON
tion was lost, there being a majority of twelve
against it. But it was carried in effect next
assembly. — See Veto.
Nonjurants, a party in the Church of
Scotland, who, in 1712, refused to take the
oath of abjuration, an oath which, abjuring the
Pretender, promised to support the succession to
the crown as settled by act of parliament, one
condition being, that the sovereign should belong
to the Church of England. — See Abjuration.
Many stumbled at the oath as being wholly
inconsistent with the Covenant — See Covenant.
Principal Carstairs and others took it, but along
with a declaration and a protest The jurants
were branded as traitors by the nonjurants, and
all the features of a schism were rapidly mul
tiplying. Woodrow, Boston, and many well-
known evangelical preachers belonged to the
nonjurants. The assembly had twice to interfere
to preserve peace, and after five year's the oath
was altered. — See Oath.
Nonjurors, the name given to the episcopal
clergy in England and Scotland, who would not
take the oath of allegiance to the Prince of
Orange. Macaulay says, — " Those clergymen
and members of the universities who incurred
the penalties of the law were about four hundred
in number. Foremost in rank stood the primate
and six of his suffragans — Turner of Ely ; Lloyd
of Norwich ; Frampton of Gloucester ; Lake of
Chichester; White of Peterborough; and Ken
of Bath and Wells. Thomas of Worcester would
have made a seventh, but he died three weeks
before the day of suspension. On his deathbed
he adjured his clergy to be true to the cause of
hereditary right, and declared that those divines
who tried to make out that the oaths might be
taken without any departure from the loyal doc
trines of the Church of England, seemed to him
to reason more Jesuitically than the Jesuits them
selves." Hickes, and Jeremy Collier, and Dod-
well, also belonged to the number. Macaulay
adds, — " Most of them passed their lives in run
ning about from one Tory coffee-house to another,
abusing the Dutch, hearing and spreading reports
that within a month his majesty would certainly
be on English ground, and wondering who would
have Salisbury when Burnet was hanged. Dur
ing the session of parliament the lobbies and the
court of requests were crowded with deprived
parsons, asking who was up, and what the num
bers were on the last division. Many ofthe
ejected divines became domesticated as chaplains,
tutors, and spiritual directors in the houses of
opulent Jacobites. Not one in fifty, therefore,
of those laymen who disapproved of the revolu
tion thought himself bound to quit his pew in
the old church, where the old liturgy was still
read, and where the old vestments were still
worn, and to follow the ejected priest to a con
venticle—a conventicle, too, which was not pro
tected by the Toleration Act. Thus the new sect
Was a sect of preachers without hearers; and

NOT
such preachers could not make a livelihood by
preaching. In Lohdon, indeed, and in some
other large towns, those vehement Jacobites
whom nothing would satisfy but to hear King
James and the Prince of Wales prayed for by
name, were sufficiently numerous to make up a
few small congregations, which met secretly and
under constant fear of the constables, in rooms
so mean that the meeting-hohses of the Puri
tan dissenters might, by coihparison, be called
palaces." The episcopalian nonjurors in Scot
land ceased to be so after the death of Prince
Charles in 1788, and in 1?92 were relieved from
various penalties and restrictions. Presbyterian
nonjurors, too, there were and are in Scotland.
— See Scotland, Churches in; Reformed
Presbyterian. Nonna, or vivis , a nun. — See Nun.
Non-residence. — The early Church passed
special laws against non-residence. Justinian
ordained that no bishop shall be absent for more
than a year, without the formal sanction of the
emperor ; and no bishop shall leave his diocese
on pretence of coming to court. The council of
Sardica prohibited episcopal absence for more
than three weeks, unless for very weighty reason ;
and if the bishop have an estate in another dio
cese, he may, during three weeks, go there and
collect his rents, provided on Sunday he perform
worship in the church near which his lands lie.
— See Residence. The Council of Agde, yet
more stringent with the inferior clergy, sentenced
to suspension from communion for three years a
presbyter or deacon who should be absent for
three weeks.
Noon-day Service, the service in the early
Church at mid-day, and in which, St Basil says,
the ninety-first psalm was read.
Norman Architecture is the style intro
duced at the Norman conquest into England.
It succeeded the Saxon, though many buildings
erected before 1066 are Norman in all essential
particulars. At first it was plain, massive, and
devoid of ornament, though afterwards orna
mentation was profusely employed. Spires were
not used nor pinnacles, though turrets are occa
sionally found. The arch was round, and this
a main characteristic, the pointed arch

not being introduced till about the middle of the
twelfth century. The windows look like small
doors, and have no mullions, and the doors are
often deeply recessed. — See Early English,
Gothic. Norway, Church of. — See Sweden.
Notaricon. — See Cabala.
Notary (clerk or recorder), one who recorded
the act and decision of ecclesiastical bodies, and
occasionally bad a charge or supervision in dis
tant parts of the Church.
Notes of the Church, those marks by which
a true church may be recognized. Palmer, who
has written a high-church treatise on the subject
says, — " The necessity of devising some general
460

NOT
notes of the church, and of not entering at once
on controversial debates concerning all points of
doctrine and discipline, was early perceived by
Christian theologians. Tertullian appeals, in re
futation of the heresies of his age, to the antiquity
of the Church derived from the apostles, and its
priority to all heretical communities. Irenseus
refers to the unity of the Church's doctrines, and
the succession of her bishops from the apostles.
The universality of the Church was more espe
cially urged in the controversy with the Dona
tists. St. Augustine reckons amongst those
things which attached him to the Church — The
consent of nations, authority founded on miracles,
sanctity of morals, antiquity of origin, succession
of bishops from St. Peter to the present episco
pate, and the very name of the Catholic Church.
St Jerome mentions the continual duration of
the Church from the apostles, and the very appel
lation of the Christian name. In modern times
Bellarmine, one of the Roman school, added
several other notes, such as — Agreement with the
primitive Church in doctrine, union of members
among themselves and with their head, sanctity of
doctrine and of founders, efficacy of doctrine, con
tinuance of miracles and prophecy, confessions of
adversaries, the unhappy end of those who opposed
the Church, and the temporal felicity conferred
on it Luther assigned as notes of the true church
the true and uncorrupted preaching of the Gospel,
administration of baptism, of the Eucharist, and
of the keys ; a legitimate ministry, public service
in a known language, and tribulations internally
and externally. Calvin reckons only truth of
doctrine, and right administration of the sacra
ments; and seems to reject succession. Our
learned theologians adopt a different view in some
respects. Dr. Field admits the following notes
of the church : Truth of doctrine ; use of sacra
ments and means instituted by Christ; union
under lawful ministers ; antiquity without change
of doctrine ; lawful succession, i. e. , with true doc
trine; and universality in the successive sense,
t. e., the prevalence of the church successively in
all nations. Bishop Taylor admits as notes of
the church, antiquity, duration, succession of
bishops, union of members among themselves and
with Christ, sanctity of doctrine, &c. The Con
stantinopolitan creed gives to the Church the attri
butes of ' One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolical'"
A high-churchman unchurches without hesita
tion other communities that want some of his
extra-scriptural criteria; but theorists on this
subject are not agreed among themselves. — See
Fundamentals. Notitia, the name given to the record or
chart of the great divisions or provinces, &c, of
the empire and of the Church.
Novatians, a, sect which separated from
the Church in the third century, on the question
about re-admitting the lapsed to communion.
The persecution of Decius, a.d. 249, produced an
unprecedented number of cases in which Chris-

NUN
tians were induced either to sacrifice to idols, or
to procure from the magistrates, by payment of
money, a certificate of having obeyed the em
peror's command. This latter proceeding seems
to have been easily excused to their consciences,
and when the persecution had ceased, the libella-
tici, as they were called, expected to be re
admitted to communion on very easy terms.
Great abuses had also grown up in regard to
Letters of Peace (which see) which were
given in the shape of tickets available for a
number of persons, and not only issued with
out discrimination, but even made a matter of
traffic, like the indulgences of later days.
Cyprian at Carthage, and Dionysius at Alex
andria, exerted themselves to remedy these dis
orders. But they were disposed to deal leni
ently with the lapsed, and a council which
Cyprian assembled in 251 decided that those
who had actually sacrificed should be ad
mitted to communion after a prescribed course of
penance, and the libellatici, if truly penitent,
immediately. Cornelius was elected Bishop of
Rome just at this crisis, and adopted the decision
of the council of Carthage. But Novatian, a
presbyter, who had opposed the election of
Cornelius, and who, in the interval of nearly
eighteen months since the death of the former
bishop, had exerted great influence at Rome,
was anxious for the adoption of the most stringent
measures towards all who in any way had
yielded to the storm of persecution. The party
which agreed with him elected him bishop, and
so commenced an open schism, which soon spread
through almost every province in which the
Church had been planted. The Novatians called
themselves " xata^oi " — puritans. At first th^y
only declared against the re-admission of the
lapsed. But afterwards they fully returned to
the old African notion, that all who had defiled
themselves by gross sins after baptism should
for ever be excluded from the Church. In
accordance with this view, they declared all
other churches to have forfeited the rights of a
Christian body, ahd re-baptized all who joined
them. — See Cathari, Libellatici.
Norena, a nine days' devotion on some
peculiar occasion in the Church of Rome.
Novice, one who, having entered a religious
house, has not yet taken the vows, the initial
term being called his novitiate. In the same way
catechumens were sometimes novitioli, tirones Dei.
Nullatenenses (nowhere), titular bishops
without a see. — See Ordination.
Nun (nonna, vtvis), said by Hospinian to
be an Egyptian term denoting a virgin. At an
early period women devoted themselves to the
service of the Church, though they did not dwell
in monasteries. These ecclesiastical virgins were
enrolled in the canon or matricula of the Church
(see Canon, Matricula), and from this were
sometimes called canonical virgins. It does not
seem that they were absolutely forbidden to

461

NUN
marry. The council of Ancyra, however, de
creed them to the penance of digamists, should
any of them marry (see Marriage), and the
council of Chalcedon doomed them to excommu
nication. The marriage itself, however, does not
appear to have been cancelled, even though the
lady married after the age of forty, at which time
her consecration was supposed to be valid. (Mon
astic virgins, on the other hand, lived in seclu
sion.) The consecration of virgins was performed
by the bishop or by a presbyter specially deputed.
After consecration they wore a certain habit, of
which the veil (velamen sacrum) was a charac
teristic portion. Hence the modern phrase, "to
take the veil." The virgins seem also to have
worn a kind of mitre or coronet, and in some
places their head was shaved — a practice con
demned by the council of Gangra. Their per
sons were sacred, and special honours were paid
to them both in society and in the place occupied
by them in the church. The mother of Con
stantine used to wait upon them at her own
table and do them service. But religious com
munities soon sprung up in the Church, and
nuns proper dwelt under rule in special residences.
Pachomius erected such residences in the fourth
century in Egypt — the first one being built on
the Island of Tabenna in the Nile. They soon
spread through Europe. The following orders
of nuns, among others of less note, were in
England prior to the Reformation: — 1. The
nuns of the order of Fontevrault, of which the
Abbess of Fontevrault was superior : they had
their first establishment at Nuneaton in Warwick
shire, and possessed only two other houses. 2. The
nuns of the order of Saint Clare, or, as they were
denominated from their scanty endowments, the
poor Clares. Saint Clare was born in the same
town, and was contemporary with Saint Francis;
and the nuns of Saint Clare, observing the Fran
ciscan rule, were sometimes called Minoresses,
and their house, without Aldgate in London,
was called the Minories. Blanche, Queen of
Navarre, first introduced them into England.
3. Brigittines, or nuns of our holy Saviour, in
stituted by Bridget, Duchess of Nercia in Sweden,
about the middle of the fourteenth century. They
followed the rule of Saint Augustine, with some
additions. There was but one house in England
belonging to the Brigittine nuns, the celebrated
establishment at Sion House in Middlesex. — See
under the respective names ofthe Orders.
The religious houses in England were merci
lessly treated at the Reformation. In reference to
Scotland, Cunningham says, in his Church His
tory, " It was not to be expected that the female
mind, ever susceptible of religious impressions,
should withstand the tendency to monasticism at
that time so prevalent. At Edinburgh, Berwick,
St. Bathans, Coldstream, Eccles, Hadding
ton, Aberdeen, Dunbar, and several other places,
there were nunneries; and within these, ladies
connected with many of the noblest families

402

NUN
in the land. The nuns of Scotland revered,
as the first of their order in our country, a le
gendary St. Brigida, who is fabled to have be
longed to Caithness, to have renounced an ample
inheritance, lived in seclusion, and finally to have
died at Abernethy in the sixth century. Church
chroniclers relate, that before Coldingham was
erected into a priory for monks, it had been a
sanctuary for nuns, who acquired immortal renown
by cutting off their noses and lips to render them
selves repulsive to some piratical Danes who had
landed on the coast. The sisterhood of Lin-
cluden were of a different mind, for they were
expelled by Archibald, Earl of Douglas, for
violating their vows as the brides of heaven, and
the house was converted into a collegiate church.
History contains no record of the influence which
these devoted virgins exercised upon the Church
or the world ; and we may well believe that, shut
up in their cloisters, and confined to a dull rou
tine of daily duty, they could exercise but little.
They would chant their matins and vespers,
count their beads, employ themselves with
needlework, and in many cases vainly pine for
that world which their parents or their own
childish caprice had forced them to abandon; but
the world could not witness their piety nor pene
trate their thoughts." There are nunneries again
erected of recent years both in Edinburgh and
Glasgow. The consecration of a nun is a great cere
mony in the Popish Church. Seymour, in his
Pilgrimage, thus describes it, — "In a short
time the masses were finished, and before long
the seats were occupied with persons coming to
witness the scene. The Cardinal- Vicar, to whose
province the receptions of nuns belongs, ar
rived. He robed, assumed his mitre, held his
crosier, and seated himself in the front of the
high altar. He was robed in silver tissue bro
caded with gold. In a few moments the des
tined bride of Jesus Christ entered. She was
led into the chapel and along the aisle by
the Princess Borghese. They knelt for a few
moments at the side-altar, and then the princess
conducted her to the Cardinal-Vicar. They both
knelt to him, and as the candidate bent her head,
her long rich tresses of chestnut-coloured hair fell
like a veil around her, and gave her a peculiar
interest. He then blessed a crucifix and pre
sented it to the kneeling novice. The carrying
of this crucifix is invariable in the order of St.
Theresa. I could not catch the words that
passed, though I was not four yards distant from
the parties. They rose and retired to seats pre
pared for them at the right of the Cardinal-
Vicar. This destined recluse, or bride of Jesus
Christ, was dressed specially for the occasion.
Her dress was white satin richlv damasked in
gold. Her head was adorned with a diadem of
diamonds, beneath which fell a profusion of long
and luxuriant curls of rich chestnut-coloured hair.
Her neck was covered with precious stones, that

NUN
flashed through the many ringlets that fell among
them. Her breast was gemmed with brilliants,
set off by black velvet, so that she sparkled
and blazed in all the magnificence of the jewels
of the Borghese family, said to be among the
most costly and splendid in Italy. There was a
profusion of the most valuable lace, and a long
and light train of gauze elegantly trimmed.
This was borne by one of those beings of whom
it is said that their visits are 'few and far be
tween.' It was an angel, or rarer still, a seraph.
It had the appearance of a little girl of eight
years of age, a pretty, gentle thing, that seemed
frightened at such close contact with sinful mor
tals. It had a wreath of no earth-born, but
finger-made, flowers upon its head. It had a
Bhort, a very short dress of pale blue silk, to
show it was some creature of the skies. Its
arms and its neck and its legs were covered, not
as in mortals with skin, but with a silken tex
ture that was coloured like flesh, and to place
its heavenly nature beyond doubt, it had two
wings, regular feather-wings, projecting from the
shoulders, and very airily trimmed with swan's
down. There could be no doubt that, if not an
infant angel, it was a real sylph or seraph, de
scended from the skies to wait on the destined
bride of Jesus Christ. After some moments the
reverend confessor, attired in his monkish dress,
approached, kissed the hand of the Cardinal-
Vicar, and seated himself within the chancel.
He then proceeded to deliver an address or ser
mon to the destined novice. A curtain was
raised at the side of the altar, and revealed an
interior chapel. It was separated from that in
which we were assembled by a strong grating of
iron. Soon were heard the voices of the whole
sisterhood. They were chanting some litany,
and their voices were first heard coming from
some distant gallery. It was faint and feeble,
but sweetened by distance. It slowly swelled
louder and clearer, as the sisterhood approached
in slow and solemn procession, and recalled to
my mind what had so often, in tho days of ro
mantic youth, filled my imagination in reading
of the chants and the processions of nuns in
the romances of other days. The effect at the
moment was very pleasing. The chant, feeble and
distant at first, and then becoming louder and
clearer, and all who so chanted approaching
slowly, and all the associations that gathered
and crowded on my mind gave a charm to the
moment that I shall long remember. The chant
ceased, and from my position I could see the
nuns, about sixteen in number, with three or four
novices, enter the interior chapel and move slowly
and solemnly around it, all taking their station
in two lines, at right angles with the iron grating.
Tbe two lines faced each other. Each nun bore
a large lighted candle in one hand, and a book
in the other. Thev were dressed in blue over
white serge. The nuns bad a black shawl or
napkin of black serge thrown over the head.

NUN
The novices had a similar thing of white serge,
but of the colour of white flannel. Their faces
were not visible, as those cloths, which are most
unromantic things, though most romantically
called veils, while they might more suitably be
called shawls, hung down so as to hide the side-
face, while the front-face, which was open and
unveiled, was bent down on their books. In
this position they stood and read some office or
service in which the lines of nuns took alternate
parts. They were motionless as statues, and
might have passed for such, if their voices had
not proved them living. The destined nun was
on her knees inside the grating. The Princess
Borghese was beside her, directing her maid to
take off the tiara and other jewels ; no other
hands — not even the hands of the nuns — were
allowed to touch a diamond; they were the jewels
of the Borghese family, and the princess and her
maid watched every stone till they were all care
fully removed by their own hands, and deposited
safely from any light fingers that might possibly
be present, even in the sacred interior of a
monastery of nuns. At last every diamond was
gone, and then the hair — the beautiful hair, with
its luxuriant tresses, its long wreatby ringlets of
rich and shining chestnut, was to be now cut off.
It was the loveliest charm she possessed, and in
parting with the world, its pleasures and its sor
rows together, she was to part with that which
of all else had attracted the admiration of men ;
she meekly bowed her head to her sad destiny.
Lo! they touched it, and it was gone! as if by a
miracle it was gone! alas, that my pen must
write the truth — it was A wig ! On the present
occasion the charm of the scene was dispelled by
the fact, that the young, the gentle, the loving,
the interesting object of our romance, who had
just parted from the pleasures of the bright and
sunny world of splendid courts and fashionable
revels was — A servant maid of above forty
years of age! She was the maid of the
Princess Borghese, and the daughter of another
domestic, and had now changed the service of
the princess, where she was a menial, for a life
in a monastery, where she was an equal of the
sisterhood. The princess, in a foolish pride, dis
played the jewels of the family." — See Mona
chism, Monasteries, and the various names of
orders of nuns.
Nunc Diniittis (now thou lettest depart),
the name given to Simeon's song, from its first
two words in Latin. It was employed as a
hymn at an early period; and in tbe English
Church is appointed to be sung after the second
lesson at evening service.
Nuncio (nuncio, one who bears news; a
messenger or delegate,) — A nuncio is to the pope
what an ambassador is to a secular prince, there
being of them both ordinary and extraordinary.
The nuncio is the representing minister particu
larly, the internuncio the envoy extraordinary.
The French nicely distinguished his authority
4G3

NUN
the pope's bull against the Jansenists who had
denied his infallibility, the nuncio printed it on
his own authority, assuming the quality of
nuncio to the King and kingdom of France.
The parliament, upon the appearance of the paper,
arrested the printer and seized his goods, stating
that if the nuncio had been sent to the kingdom,
it would have been to exercise a jurisdiction ;
whereas he had none, being sent only to the
king, that is, the sovereign of the state. — See
Legate. Nundines or Nundinal Letters. — The
Romans used letters, called literal nundinales,

OAT
in number eight, to denote the dies prqfesti,
nundinal, in their calendars. The nundinae, or
market days, happened every ninth day. In
imitation of them, the European nations have
adopted seven dominical or Sunday-letters,
one of which denotes the Sunday throughout
all the months of the year.— See Dominical
Letters. Nuptials. — See Marriage.
Nynphacum (fountain), one of the many
names given to the laver which stood in the
court of ancient ohurches — See Cantharus,
Church.

0

Oak of Reformation. — During the turmoil
which preceded the Reformation various insur
rections took" place through the country. The
insurrection in Norfolk was headed by one Ket,
a tanner, who assumed to himself the power of
judicature under an old oak, called from thence
the Oak of Reformation. The rebels were twenty
thousand strong; but the Earl of Warwick,
with six thousand foot and fifteen hundred
horse, quickly dispersed them. Several of the
leaders were executed, and Ket was hanged in
chains. Oath of Abjuration. — The following was
in Scotland the obnoxious clause in thi3 oath :
— " And I do faithfully promise, to the utmost
of my power, to support, maintain, and defend
the succession of the crown against him, the said
James, and all other persons whatsoever ; as the
same is and stands settled by an act entitled,
' An Act declaring the Rights and Liberties of
the Subject, and settling the Succession of the
Crown to Her present Majesty and the Heirs of
Her body, being Protestants ; ' and as the same,
by another act entitled, ' An Act for the further
limitation of the Crown, and better securing the
Rights and Liberties of the Subject,' is, and
stands settled." — See Nonjurants.
Oath of Allegiance. — " I, A B, do sin
cerely promise and swear, that I will be faithful
and bear true allegiance to her Majesty, Queen
Victoria. So help me God."
Oath, Burgess, an old oath in some
Scottish burghs. It was, — " Here I protest before
God, and your lordships, that I profess, and
allow with my heart, the true religion presently
professed within this realm, and authorized by
the laws thereof: I shall abide thereat, and de
fend the same to my life's end ; renouncing the
Roman religion called papistry."
Oath of Canonical Obedience. — See
Institution. Oath of Purgation.— In an ecclesiastical
process, when full proof is not to be had against
a person accused and strongly suspected, he
is allowed at length to clear himself by an

oath. "I, A B, now under process before
the Session of the Congregation of C, for the
sin 0f  , alleged to have been committed
by me: For ending said process, and giving
satisfaction to all, do declare, before God and
this session, tbat I am innocent and free of the
said sin of  , charged against me. And I
hereby call the Great God, the judge and avenger
of all falsehood, to be witness, and judge against
me in this matter if I be guilty. And this I <lo
by taking his blessed name in my mouth, and
swearing by Him who is the searcher of the
heart, and that in sincerity, according to the
truth of the matter and my own innocence, as I
shall answer at the great day of judgment, when
I stand before him, to answer for all that I have
done in the flesh, and as I would partake of his
glory in heaven after this life is at an end."
Oath against Simony. — Canon xl., in the
Church of England, provides the following oath :
— " I do swear that I have made no simoniacal
payment, contract, or promise, directly or indi
rectly, by myself or by any other, to my know
ledge or with my consent, to any person or
persons whatsoever, for or concerning the pro
curing or obtaining of this ecclesiastical place,
preferment, office, or living, nor will at any time
hereafter perform or satisfy any such kind of pay
ment, contract, or promise made by any other,
without my knowledge or consent. So help me
God, through Jesus Christ." — See Simony.
Oath of Supremacy. — "I, A B, do swear,
that I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure,
as impious and heretical, that damnable doctrine
and position, that princes excommunicated or
deprived by the pope, or any authority of the see
of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their
subjects, or any other whomsoever. And I do
declare that no foreign prince, person, prelate,
state, or potentate, hath or ought to have any
jurisdiction, power, superiority, pre-eminence, or
authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this
realm. So help me God." (1 Will. & Man',.
cap. 8.) Profane oaths are at all times too
common, and several laws were passed against

4G4

OBI
them in Scotland  See Swearing, Pro
fane. Obit, an office originally performed at fu
nerals, the corpse being in the church prior to
interment. The word now denotes the anniver
sary of a benefactor's death, such as that of the
founder of a college.
Oblati (offered or dedicated), lay-brethren
who gave themselves and their estates to the
service of the Church. At the time of their ad
mission the bell rope was sometimes put round
their necks as the symbol of their servitude.
Oblation (offering). — Out of oblations, in
early times, the Church maintained both its min
isters and its ordinances ; and so liberal was the
support, tbat Constantine and Valentinian made
laws to repress excessive gifts, which tended to
corrupt the clergy. — See Eccharist. The word
is used also in connection with the Eucha
rist ; and of it Wheatly says, — " Besides this,
our liturgy at that time suffered a more material
alteration : the prayer of oblation, which, by the
first book of King Edward, was ordered to be
used after the prayer of consecration (and which
has since been restored to the Scotch common
prayer), being half laid aside, and the rest of it
thrown into an improper place; as being en
joined to be said by our present rubric in tbat
part of the office which is to be used after the
people have communicated; whereas it was
always the practice of the primitive Christians
to use it during the act of consecration. For
the holy Eucharist was, from the very first
institution, esteemed and received as a proper
sacrifice, and solemnly offered to God upon the
altar, before it was received and partaken of by
the communicants. In conformity whereunto,
it was Bishop Overall's practice to use the first
prayer in the post-communion office between the
consecration and the administering, even when
it was otherwise ordered by the public liturgy."
— See Communion Service. (See Johnson's
Unbloody Sacrifice and Altar.)
Oblalioiiariuni, the table on which were set
the offerings of the people referred to in the
previous article, and out of which the sacra
mental bread and wine were furnished. — See
Credence Table.
Obsequies  See Burial.
Octave (eighth), the eighth day after any of
the great church feasts, which was wont to be
kept with special solemnity, the practice being
probably borrowed from Old Testament customs.
Wheatly says, — " In the Roman Church they
had ten of them, but our reformers have only
retained five of the most ancient; all which
(except that for Trinity Sunday, retained by
reason of the great mystery it celebrates) are
concerning the principal acts of our redemption —
viz., the Nativity, Resurrection, and Ascension
of our Saviour, and of his sending the Holy
Ghost to comfort us."
Octachos, a service-book in the Greek 465

OPH

Church, containing services for each day of tlie
week, and telling what tone is to be used in
chanting them.
4£conomus (steward), an officer having
charge of church property, in place of the earlier
deacons. The steward, from the nature of his
office, rose in mediaeval times to high importance.
The bishop, by early law, was not to appoint
him, but he was to be chosen by the entire pres
bytery. The council of Chalcedon enacted this,
and it was afterwards confirmed by imperial
authority. <Economy. — See Reserve.
Oecumenical Bishop or Universal
Bishop, a title now assumed by the popes, but
first taken by John the Faster, Patriarch of Con
stantinople, in the sixth century. The Bishop
of Rome violently opposed this Eastern usurpa
tion ; but Boniface III. obtained the same title
from Phocas, the Greek emperor, in 606, and
his successors have borne it ever since.
Oecumenical Couucil. — See Council.
Offertory, the verses read in that part of the
communion service of the Anglican Church in
which offerings are made — such as alms for the
poor, &o.
Office, Holy.— See Inquisition.
Offices, the name given to a form of prayer
or service in the churches of Rome and England.
Official, the title given to him who has the
trial of offences entrusted to him. The official
originated in the twelfth century, as if to check
the power of the archdeacon. The official of an
archdeacon stands to him as a chancellor to a
bishop. Oil. — See Chrism, Euchelaion, Holy Oil,
Unction. Old and New Iiight. — See Scotland,
Churches in.
Olivetans, a Romish order of monks, con
firmed by Pope John XXII. in 1319.
Ornish Church. — A sect of Mennonites in
America are sometimes so called, after one of
their preachers ofthe seventeenth century. They
are found also in Germany and Switzerland. — See
Mennonites. Omophorion (borne on ihe shoulders), a
Greek ecclesiastical vestment, corresponding to
the pallium of the Romish Church. It was ori
ginally made of wool, and had four crosses. —
See Pallium.
Ophites or Serpentinians, a sect of Gnos
tics which arose in the second century, and was
still in existence, a.d. 530, when Justinian en
acted some laws against them. Their system
was in many respects nearly allied to that of the
Valentinians. Their name (from Sfis, a serpent)
had reference to their belief that it was either the
jEon Wisdom, or Christ himself, who tempted
Eve under the form of a serpent This absurd
opinion was connected with their ideas of the
opposition between the Demiurge (Jaldabaoth,
as they called him) and the Supreme God, or
2 H

OPT
rather the .Son Wisdom, who would fain set free
the pneumatic natures from the ignorance and
bondage in which their maker wished to hold
them. The same view of the opposition existing
between the creator of man and the holier beings
above him led some sects, which may be regarded
as branches of the Ophites, into still more extra
vagant perversions of Scripture history. The
Cainites, for example, taught that all the books
of the Old and New Testaments, being written
by inspiration of the Demiurge, were purposely
falsified ; so that the really good men were Cain,
Esau, &c, and the only spiritual apostle, Judas
Iscariot, who betrayed his master from the
best of motives — viz., to deliver man from the
Demiurge. The Peratics (emigrants) taught that
it was necessary to leave Egypt, that is, the
body, and pass into the wilderness where the
fiery serpents are, as gods of destruction, but
where Christ also is, being represented by the
brazen serpent, the symbol of salvation. The
Seihites, another branch of the same sect, took
a different view of the character of Cain, re
garding him as the representative of a hylic
race, against which the psychic, represented by
Abel, was too weak to contend, till Wisdom
substituted Seth, in whom she had implanted
a portion of the pneumatic principle. The
contest, carried on now upon more equal terms,
would have been put an end to by the deluge,
had not Ham, of the hylic race, clandestinely
entered the ark. This made the vigilance of
Wisdom still needful, and at length, at the
most critical moment, she sent forth Seth once
more in the person of Christ. This Christ de
scended upon Jesus at his baptism, and left
him before his crucifixion, according to the com
mon Gnostic theory. — See Gnostic.
Optimates or Best men. — See Election
of Pastors.
Option (optare, to elect), choice, preference.
The archbishop of a province has a customary
prerogative, when one of his suffragan bishops
is consecrated by him, to name a clerk or
chaplain of his own to be provided for by such
bishop; in lieu of which it is now usual for
the bishop to make over by deed to the arch
bishop, his executors, administrators, and assigns,
the next presentation of such dignity or benefice
in the bishop's disposal within that see, as the
archbishop himself shall choose, and this is
called the archbishop's option. If the bishop
die or be translated before the archbishop
exercises his right, the option is lost, because
the new bishop is not bound by the grant of
the predecessor; and the archbishop cannot
present to any benefice which is vacant at the
time of the bishop's death, because the patron
age of all such vacant benefices belongs by
prerogative to the crown. An option is con
sidered the private patronage of the arch
bishop; and if the archbishop die, it belongs to
his personal representatives, who may present

466

ORA
whomsoever they please, unless the archbishop
has by his will directed them to present a par
ticular individual, in which case they can be
compelled to obey the will.
Opus ©peratuni (work wrought) is a term
which denotes the essential and inherent power
which resides in the sacraments, irrespective of
the moral qualities of the recipients. Thomas
Aquinas boldly defended the doctrine that the
sacraments now had virtue ex opere operate, and
not, as in Old Testament time3, ex opere operantis.
The council of Trent, sess. 7, canons vii., viii.,
says,  " If any one shall say that grace, as far as
concerneth God's part, is not given through the
said sacraments, always, and to all men, even
though they rightly receive them, but [only]
sometimes, and to some persons, let him be ana
thema. If any one shall say that by the said
sacraments of the new law grace is not con
ferred through the act performed, but that faith
alone in the divine promise suffices for obtaining
grace, let him be anathema." — See Tracta-
rianism. Orarium, in some of the ancient churches,
a scarf or tippet worn by deacons on their left
shoulder, and by bishops and presbyters on both
shoulders, the use of which was for giving
signals for prayer by the bishops and presbyters
to the deacons, and by the deacons to the con
gregation; hence its name. Ambrose, Augus
tine, and other writers, speak of the orarium
only as a handkerchief to wipe the face with ;
but the ecclesiastical councils of Braga and
Toledo prove that it was a distinguishing badge
of the clergy, the former ordaining that priests
should wear the orarium on both shoulders when
they ministered at the altar, and the latter that the
deacons were to wear but one orarium, and that
on the left shoulder, wherewith they were to give
the signal of prayers to the people. Sub-deacons
and all other unordained officials were not privi
leged to wear this clerical appendage.
Oratorio, a piece of sacred music, some
times narrative and often dramatic in form, and
said to derive its name from the Congregation
of the Oratory, among whom, and in a simple
form, such musical pieces were first performed.
The oratorio was introduced into England by.
Handel's "Esther," in 1720. His "Samson,"
"Messiah," "Israel in Egypt," and "Judas Mac-
cabseus" are well known — as also Hadyn's
" Creation," and the compositions of other authors.
The passages from Scripture in the " Messiah "
have a perfect commentary in the music adapted
to them.
Oratory (place of prayer), a name given to
small domestic chapels, and also to some churches,
as in Geneva. Among Romanists it denotes a
private room for devotion, fitted up with altar
and crucifix.
Oratory, Fathers of the, a religious order
founded by St. Philip Neri, an active and re
markable devotee, and approved by Gregory

ORD
XIII. in 1577. The name is taken from the
oratory which Neri built for himself at Florence.
He was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. in 1622.
The French branch of the order was originated
by Cardinal Berulle, and sanctioned by Pope
Paul V., under the title of the Oratory of Jesus,
The vows of the French order are simply eccle
siastical, not sacerdotal. They belong to the
secular clergy, and are not distinguished either
iu learning or theology. The Oratorians are
found also in other countries, and recently have
made some noise in England.
Ordeal is a Saxon word which signifies pur
gation. The earliest trace of any custom re
sembling the ordeals, afterwards so largely used
among the northern tribes of Europe, may be
found in the waters of jealousy, which the
Hebrew women suspected of adultery were com
pelled to drink as a test of innocence. The
four chief ordeals of the Middle Ages, to which
our Saxon ancestors resorted in common with
the rest of Europe, were, — 1. That of hot iron;
2. Of boiling water ; 3. Of cold water ; 4. The
corsned. Ecclesiastics usually chose the first;
they were prohibited from claiming the judicial
combat in person, and they avoided tbe water
ordeals, which for the most part were considered
ignoble, and reserved for peasants. That species
of the hot iron ordeal which consisted in treading,
blindfold and barefooted, over a certain number of
red-hot ploughshares laid lengthwise, at unequal
distances, was no uncommon test of female chas
tity. The forms of service for the different species
of ordeal have been given by Spelman in his
Glossary from the Textus Roffensis. In the cold
water ordeal, a three days' fast is to be ob
served by the accused, who are then to be brought
into the church to the celebration of mass.
Abjuration is made thus, — "By the name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,
and by the Christianity whose name thou hearest,
and by the baptism in which thou wert born
again, and by all the blessed relics of the saints
of God that are preserved in this church, I con
jure thee, Come not unto this altar, nor eat of
this body of Christ, if thou beest guilty in the
things that are laid to thy charge ; but if thou
beest innocent therein, come, brother, and come
freely." After the exorcism the accused are
to be undressed, they are to kiss the Gospels and
the cross, and to be sprinkled with holy water,
and then, all persons present fasting, they are
to be thrown into the water; if they sink
they are absolved, if they swim they are con
victed. A similar service mutatis mutandis
belonged to the hot water and iron ordeals. At
the conclusion of the adjuration, holy water is
to be tasted by all present, and the chamber is
to be sprinkled with it Then the iron is to be
produced, and carried by the accused over a
space of nine feet. After which his hand is to be
sealed up, and not inspected till the third
night is past; then, if it be clean, let thanks

' ORD
be given to God; but if it appears festered on
the mark of the iron, he must be esteemed
guilty. So also in the ordeal of boiling wafer.
In the corsned (panis ordeaceus) all in like
manner must be fasting. The corsned was a
piece of bread or cheese eaten with imprecations,
and supposed to choke the person taking it if he
was guilty, as in the vulgar appeal, May this
morsel be my last.
Order, the technical name of the law or dis
cipline of a monastic body, or of a church, as in
the phrase Book of Common Order, or the Order
of Geneva.
Orders, Holy. — The three recognized orders
in the early post-apostolic Church were bishops,
priests, and deacons. The inferior grades admitted
into the Roman Catholic polity, namely, sub-dea
cons, acolyths, exorcists, readers, and doorkeepers
(ostiarii), must be considered of later and of
entirely ecclesiastical institution. Their origin
is obscure, and they are not mentioned before
the days of Cyprian and of Tertullian; and,
indeed, although the modern Romanists count
precisely five, and sometimes have assigned mys
tical reasons for so doing, the number appears to
have varied in different periods of church history.
The reputed Ignatius (Ep. ad Antioch, 12) ex
cludes acolyths, and yet, by adding singers and
copiatss, swells the list to six ; the Constitutions
which hear the name of Clemens Romanus (iii.,
11) count but four — sub-deacons, readers, singers,
and doorkeepers; the Apostolical Canons, as
they are called (lxix.), name only the first three ;
and in a word, the number five is perhaps less
selected than any other by the majority of ancient
church writers, whether authentic or pseudo
nymous. Their use in early times was to form
a nursery for the regular clergy, and to assist in
the performance of certain lower and ordinary
offices, to which laymen, if authorized by the
bishop, were equally competent. More than
one council, indeed, prohibited those who had
once embarked even in this inferior ministry
from returning to secular employments ; never
theless, they were esteemed insacrati by the
ancient canons. They did not receive any ordi
nation at the altar, nor, for the most part, any
imposition of hands. By the fifth canon of
the fourth council of Carthage, sub-deacons, on
their appointment, were to receive an empty
patiu and an empty cup from the hands of the
bishop, and a ewer and towel from the arch
deacon; a ceremony implying their duties,
namely, the preparation of the sacred utensils
for the service of the altar. But they were not
allowed in any way to minister at the altar, to
step within its rails, nor even to place the holy
vessels upon it So the duties of the acolyths
were symbolized when the archdeacon presented
them with a taper in a candlestick, and an empty
pitcher: they were to light the candles in the
church, and to supply wine for the Eucharist.
Concerning the duty of the exorcists, from the

467

ORD
obscurity attaching to the history of the ener-
gumens entrusted to their care, it is difficult to
speak with certainty; and it may be thought
that peculiar sanctity and especial reservation
would be required in persons who were to exer
cise so important a gift as the adjuration of evil
spirits. Nevertheless, some of the occupations
ofthe exorcists, as noticed by the ninetieth canon
of the fifth council of Carthage, belong rather to
inferior keepers than to spiritual guardians of
the_ demoniacs. Thus, although at times in
which the church was not assembled they were
enjoined to pray over their unhappy charges,
they were also to take heed that they were busied
in wholesome exercises, such as sweeping the
church pavement, &c, by which idleness might
be banished, and the tempter thereby be de
prived of favourable opportunities for assault.
They were also to look after the daily meals of
their patients. The bishop, on their appoint
ment, presented them with a book containing
the forms of exorcising. The readers, as their
name implies, read the Scriptures publicly, not,
however, at the bema of the altar, but at the
pulpitum in the body of the church; and the
bishop's words, upon placing in their hands the
Bible, by which he conferred the privilege, suffi
ciently denote their separation from the regular
clergy, — " Accipe, et esto lector verbi Dei, habi-
turus, sifideliter et utiliter impleveris officium,
partem cum eis qui Verbum Dei ministraverunt,"
(IV. Cone. Carlh., c, viii.) To the ostiarii the
bishops delivered the keys of the church; and
they appear to have had about as much claim
to the spiritual gifts conferred by ordination on
the regular ministry as is possessed by the beadle
or pew-openers of a modern chapel. We par
ticularly specify the above five inferior orders,
as they are still retained by the Romanists.
Besides them, at different periods of ecclesiasti
cal history, we read of psalmistos or singers,
sometimes called btrtfioXus, because as precentors
they prompted and suggested the musical parts
of the service to the remainder of the congrega
tion; of copiatae (xttriao-lai, to labour), or
fossarii, who looked after funerals, and seem
to have united in one the functions both of a
sexton and an undertaker ; and of parabolani,
who undertook the dangerous work (rafafiiXtr
tfiytv) of attending the sick.
The Cburch of England declines admitting
orders as a sacrament, for the reasons stated in
her Twenty-fifth Article — " For that they have
not like nature of sacraments with baptism
and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not
any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God."
The doctrine of the Church of Rome on the sub
ject of orders is thus given : — " Canon i. If any
one shall say, that there is not in the New
Testament a visible and external priesthood,
or that there is not any power of consecrating
and offering the true body and blood of the
Lord, and of remitting and retaining sins, but

468

ORD
only an office and bare ministry of preaching the
Gospel ; or that those who do not preach are not
priests at all : let him be anathema. Canon ii.
If any one shall say that, besides the priesthood,
there are not iu the Catholic Church other orders,
both greater and lesser, by which, as by certain
steps, advance is made unto the priesthood : let
him be anathema. Canon iii. If any one shall
say that orders or sacred ordination is not truly
and properly a sacrament instituted by Christ
the Lord ; or that it is a certain human figment
devised by men unskilled in ecclesiastical matters ;
or that it is only a certain kind for choosing
ministers of the Word of God and of the sacra
ments : let him be anathema. Canon iv. If any
one shall say that by sacred ordination the Holy
Ghost is not given; and that the bishops do
therefore vainly say, Receive ye the Holy Ghost;
or that a character is not thereby imprinted; or
that he who has once been a priest can again
become a layman: let him be anathema." — See
under the separate names of these various offices.
Orders, Religious, the various monastic
bodies. — See under separate names; see also
Friar, Monachism, Monastery, Nun.
Ordibarii, a sect of the Catharists, who held
that a Trinity only began to be when Jesus
Christ was born — that is, Jesus became Son of
God by his reception of the Word; and when
this preaching attracted others the Holy Ghost
began to exist. In their patois, that of the
south of France, their adherents were called " bos
homes " — good men, and " credentes" — believers ;
these last at some future period joined the bos
ordo, whence probably the name. (Neander,
vol. viii., p. 366, Translation, Edin., 1852;
Kurtz, sect, 138). — See Albigenses, Bogo-
miles, Cathari, Gazares.
Ordinal, the name of the book wbich contains
the forms of ordination for the various orders in
the Church of England. It was prepared under
Edward VI., and confirmed by parliament
Ordinances. — See Ceremony, Means of
Grace. Ordinary (ordinarius), a term used in the
civil law, meaning in its most extensive signi
fication any one who hath regular and proper
jurisdiction, in opposition to those who are extra
ordinarily appointed ; but in English law it has a
much more confined meaning. Coke, in his
Second Institute, p. 398, says, that "This word
signifieth a bishop, or he or they that have ordi
nary jurisdiction, and is derived ab ordine;" for
which he gives a quaint reason, as if the name
were selected for the purpose of keeping the indi
vidual who bears it in perpetual remembrance of
"the high order and office that he is called
unto." When the word is used in the present
day, It is generally to denote either the individual
who has the right to grant letters of administra
tion of the effects of deceased persons, or him who
has the right of ecclesiastical visitation. The
bishop of the diocese is, generally speaking, the

ORD
ordinary in the first of these two senses; but
there are many peculiar jurisdictions which inter
fere with his. In the second sense, tbe pope was
formerly, as the queen is now, supreme ordinary,
and as such, the visitor of the archbishops or
metropolitans ; the metropolitan is the ordinary
of the suffragan bishops in his province; each
bishop in his own diocese is ordinary and visitor
of all deans and chapters, parsons, vicars, and
other ecclesiastical corporations. The archdeacon,
too, visits the clergy in his district, and therefore
is called the ordinary. In some cases the arch
deacon has a peculiar or exclusive jurisdiction,
but generally his authority is only concurrent
with that ofthe bishop. — See Inhibition.
Ordination. — In the early Church many
laws were enacted as to tbe persons who might
receive ordination. By the Apostolical Canons
no blind or deaf person, no demoniac or volun
tary eunuch was to be ordained, nor a slave with
out his master's consent The same prohibition
by the same authority was extended to such as
had kept a concubine, or had married two sisters,
or a widow, or a person divorced, or a harlot, or a
slave, or an actress, and to any one who retained
an adulterous wife. Those who married irregu
larly could not be ordained, nor those who lapsed,
nor those who had done public penance, nor per
sons newly turned from heathenism. Actors, sol
diers, murderers, usurers, seditious persons, per
sons baptized by heretics, or clinically baptized
(see Clinics), were placed in the same category,
as well as those whose families had not all become
Christian. — See Clergy. Ordination belonged
to the bishop, and for his ordination, see Bishop.
Forced ordinations, though occurring, were gene
rally condemned, and every bishop was to be
ordained in his own church. When he was or
dained, two bishops held the Gospels over his
head, and solemn prayer was offered, which, ac
cording to the Apostolic Constitutions, contains a
supplication that he might receive the Holy
Spirit, and have power to remit sin, confer orders,
and offer the " pure unbloody sacrifice," the
sacrament of the New Covenant. Then he was
enthroned, and wrote certain official letters. — See
Enthronization, Letters Enthronistic,
Deacon. The forms for the consecration of bishops
and the ordaining of priests and deacons,
according to the usage of the Church of Eng
land, were set forth, in a manner very little
differing from that now employed, in the Liturgy
promulgated in 2 Edward VI. By 3 and 4
Edward VI., c. 10, all other forms were abol
ished, and afterwards by 5 and 6 Edward VI.,
c. 1, the existing form was annexed to the Book
of Common Prayer. It was then legally estab
lished by the Thirty-nine Articles, by the eighth
canon, and by the Act of Uniformity, 13 and 14
Charles II., c. 4. The time for ordination is
restricted by the thirty- first canon to the Sundays
following the four Ember Weeks ; but on urgent

ORD
occasions, the bishop, at his discretion, may
admit priests and deacons on some other Sunday
or holiday. The place is the bishop's own
cathedral, the church of the parish in which he
resides, or the chapel of his palace. The quali
fications for the person to be ordained are, that
to be admitted deacon he be twenty-three years
of age (canon xxxiv.), unless he have a faculty
(Preface to Form qf Ordination), which faculty
or dispensation for persons of extraordinary abi
lities must be obtained, as it seems, from the Arch
bishop of Canterbury. To be admitted priest,
a candidate must be four-and-twenty years com
plete, and in this case there is no dispensation.
(Canon xxxiv., 13 El. c. 12.) By the thirty-third
canon some certain place is required at which
the priest or deacon may exercise his function,
and that title, as it is called, must be exhibited
to the bishop. The titles enumerated are a pre
sentation to some ecclesiastical preferment then
void in the diocese; an appointment to some
cure of souls in the same ; a fellowship, conduct-
ship, or cha plainship in some college in Cambridge
or Oxford ; or a certificate that he is a Master of
Arts of five years' standing, living at his own
charge in either of the universities. And if any
bishop shall admit any person into the ministry
that hath none of these titles as aforesaid, then he
shall keep and maintain him with all things
necessary till he do prefer him to some ecclesias
tical living. And if the said bishop shall refuse
so to do, he shall be suspended by the archbishop,
being assisted with another bishop, from giving
of orders by the space of a year. A testimonial
of good life and conversation must be exhibited
to the bishop, under the seal of some college of
Oxford or Cambridge, where the candidate before
remained, or of three or four grave ministers,
who have known his life and behaviour for the
space of three years next before. The signatures
now required are those of three beneficed clergy
men, countersigned by the bishops of their dio
ceses, provided their benefices are not situated in
the diocese of the ordaining bishop. If the
candidate shall have quitted college, a notice,
termed a Si quis, calling upon any person who is
aware of just cause or impediment to his ordina
tion to signify it to the bishop, must be read
during divine service in the church of the
parish in which the candidate usually resides,
and a testimonial that no impediment has been
alleged, signed by the officiating minister and
the churchwardens, must be transmitted to the
bishop. A certificate, also, of having attended
university divinity lectures must be procured,
and likewise a certificate of baptism to avouch
the legal age. The previous examination by
right appertains to the archdeacon, who in the
form of ordination presents the candidates to the
bishop. It is usually performed by a chaplain
appointed for that purpose by the bishop, and
with respect to priest's orders in particular, the
candidates must be able to render to the ordinary

469

ORD
an account of his faith, in Latin, according to
the Thirty-nine Articles, or have special gift or
ability to be a preacher. No bishop may admit
any person into sacred orders who is not of his
own diocese, except he is of one of the univer
sities, i. e., have a title as Fellow of a College ;
or except he shall bring letters dimissory from
the bishop to whose diocese he belongs. The
candidates must take the oaths of allegiance and
supremacy before the ordinary or commissary,
must subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles, and three
other articles specified by the thirty-sixth canon ;
one respecting the exclusion of all foreign autho
rities from spiritual or ecclesiastical power within
the king's dominions; another respecting the
legality of the Book qf Common Prayer; and
a third respecting the Articles of Religion. — See
Oath. This subscription must be made before
the bishop, willingly and ex animo. The form
of ordination is given in the Service-Book. After
the preliminaries referred to, and an address
given by the bishop, the following questions are
put: —
" Do you think in your heart that you be
truly called, according to the will of our Lord
Jesus Christ, and the order of this United Church
of England and Ireland, to the order and minis
try of priesthood ?
" Answer. I think it.
" The Bishop. Are you persuaded that the
holy Scriptures contain sufficiently all doctrine
required of necessity for eternal salvation through
faith in Jesus Christ ? and are you determined,
out of the said Scriptures, to instruct the people
committed to your charge, and to teach nothing,
as required of necessity to eternal salvation, but
that which you shall be persuaded may be con
cluded and proved by the Scripture ?
"Answer. I am so persuaded, and have so
determined by God's grace.
" The Bishop. Will you, then, give your faith
ful diligence always so to minister the doctrine
and sacraments, and the discipline of Christ, as the
Lord hath commanded, and as this church and
realm hath received the same, according to the
commandments of God : so that you may teach
tbe people committed to your cure and charge
with all diligence to keep and observe the same ?
"Answer. I will so do by the help of the
Lord. " The Bishop. Will you be ready, with all
faithful diligence, to banish and drive away all
erroneous and strange doctrines contrary to God's
Word, and to use both public and private moni
tions and exhortations, as well to the sick as
to the whole, within your cures, as need shall
require, and occasion shall be given ?
" Answer. I will, the Lord being my helper.
" The Bisliop. Will you be diligent in prayers
and in reading of the holy Scriptures, and in
such studies as help to the knowledge of the same,
laying aside the study of the world and the
flesh? 47'

ORD
" Answer. I will endeavour myself so to do,
the Lord being my helper.
" The Bishop. Will you be diligent to frame
and fashion your own selves, and your families,
according to the doctrine of Christ, and to make
both yourselves and them, as much as in you
lieth, wholesome examples and patterns to the
flock of Christ?
"Answer. I will apply myself thereto, the
Lord being my helper.
" The Bishop. Will you maintain and set for
wards, as much as lieth in you, quietness, peace,
and love, among all Christian people, and espe
cially among them that are or shall be committed
to your charge ?
" Answer. I will so do, the Lord being my
helper. " The Bishop. Will you reverently obey your
ordinary, and other chief ministers, unto whom
is committed the charge and government over
you, following with a glad mind and will their
godly admonitions, and submitting yourselves to
their godly judgments?
" Answer. I will so do, the Lord being my
helper. " The bishop with the priests present shall lay
their hands severally upon the head of every
one that receiveih the order of priesthood,
the recdvers humbly kneeling upon their
knees, and ihe bishop saying,
" Receive the Holy Ghost for the office and
work of a priest in the Church of God, now
committed unto thee by the imposition of our
hands. Whose sins thou dost forgive they are
forgiven ; and whose sins thou dost retain, they
are retained. And be thou a faithful dispenser
of the Word of God, and of his holy Sacraments;
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost. Amen.
" Then the bishop shall deliver to every one of
them kneeling, the Bible into his hand, saying,
" Take thou authority to preach the Word of
God, and to minister the holy Sacraments in the
congregation, where thou shalt be lawfully ap
pointed thereunto."
In Presbyterian Churches a student, after
the usual curriculum at college and divinity
hall, is licensed (see License), and, after re
ceiving a call, preaches certain trial discourses
before the presbytery. His edict is read (see
Edict), and then he is ordained "by the
laying on of the hands of the presbytery."
The doctrine of ordination is thus laid down
in the Westminster books, — " Touching the
Doctrine of Ordination. — No man ought to
take upon him the office of a minister of the
Word without a lawful calling. Ordination is
always to be continued in the church. Ordina
tion is the solemn setting apart of a person to
some public church office. Every minister of the
Word is to be ordained by imposition of hands,
and prayer, with fasting, by those preaching
presbyters to whom it doth belong. It is agree-
0

ORD
able to the Word of God, and very expedient,
¦ that such as are to be ordained ministers be de
signed to some particular church, or other minis
terial charge. He that is to be ordained minister
must be duly qualified, both for life and ministerial
abilities, according to the rules of the apostle.
¦ He is to be examined and approved by those by
whom he is to be ordained. No man is to be
ordained a minister for a particular congrega
tion if they of that congregation can show just
cause of exception against him." Ordination is
usually conducted as follows : — After sermon
by one of the ministers present, the following
questions in the Church of Scotland are put to
the candidate ; and the same form of questions,
with a few unimportant deviations, are used in the
other Presbyterian bodies : — " 1. Do you believe
the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament
to be the Word of God, and the only rule of
faith and manners? 2. Do you sincerely own
and believe the whole doctrine contained in the
Confession of Faith, approven by the general
assemblies of this church, and ratified by law
in the year 1690, to be founded upon the Word
of God ? And do you acknowledge the same
as the confession of your faith ; and will you
firmly and constantly adhere thereto, and, to the
utmost of your power, assert, maintain, and de
fend the same, and the purity of worship as
presently practised in this national church, and
asserted in the 15th act of assembly, 1707? 3.
Do you disown all Popish, Arian, Socinian, Ar
minian, Bourignian, and other doctrines, tenets,
and opinions whatsoever, contrary to and incon
sistent with the foresaid Confession of Faith? 4.
Are you persuaded that the presbyterian govern
ment and discipline of this church are founded
upon the Word of God, and agreeable thereto ?
And do you promise to submit to the said go
vernment and discipline, and to concur with the
same, and never endeavour, directly nor indirectly,
the prejudice or subversion thereof, but, to the
utmost of your power, in your station, to main
tain, support, and defend tbe said discipline and
presbyterian government, by kirk-sessions, pres
byteries, provincial synods, and general assem
blies, during all the days of your life ? 5. Do
you promise to submit yourself willingly and
humbly, in the spirit of meekness, unto the
admonitions of the brethren of this presbytery,
and to be subject to them, and all other presby
teries and superior judicatories of, this church,
where God in his providence shall cast your lot ;
and that according ¦ to your power you shall
maintain the unity and peace of this church
against error and schism, notwithstanding of
whatsoever trouble or persecution may arise;
and that you shall follow no divisive courses
from the present established doctrine, worship,
discipline, and government of this church ? 6.
Are not zeal for the honour of God, love to Jesus
Christ, and desire of saving souls, your great
motives and chief inducements to enter into the

ORG
functions of the holy ministry, and not worldly
designs and interest ? 7. Have you used any
undue methods, either by yourself or others, in
procuring this call? 8. Do you engage, in the
strength of Jesus Christ our Lord and Master,
to rule well your own family, to live a holy and
circumspect life, and faithfully, diligently, and
cheerfully, to discharge all the parts of the min
isterial work, to the edification of the body of
Christ ? 9. Do you accept of and close with
the call to be pastor of this parish, and promise,
through grace, to perform all the duties of a
faithful minister of the Gospel among this people."
The candidate is then set apart by solemn prayer
and the imposition of hands. Suitable counsels
are then tendered to him, and to the people, who at
the conclusion of the service come forward and
give him the right hand of fellowship  See
Charge. Organ (instrument), as if of all musical
instruments the most noble and powerful
(see Biblical Cyclopaedia). The period when
organs were brought into Europe is uncertain ;
but they had been long in use in the East, and
also in some parts of Africa. Pope Vitalian is
supposed to have introduced it about 670 ; but
certainly, in 755, Copronymus, the Greek em
peror, sent one to Pepin, King of France. By the
tenth century organs were common in England.
The use of instrumental music in the service of
the Church was strongly opposed at an early
time, and no mention is made of it in the old
liturgies. Clement of Alexandria allows it for
private Christians, such as the lute and the harp;
and Chrysostom says it was permitted to the
Jews, as sacrifices were. Several of the ancient
fathers dwell on the spirituality of Christian
worship, and place it in contrast with Levitical
service. They condemn the tendency to enjoy
the music for its own sake, as if men were at a
theatre. Thus Augustine reprobates " nice sing
ing of psalms," such intricate singing as pre
vented the people from joining in praise. Music
of this kind, whether vocal or instrumental, must
ever be condemned. Thomas Aquinas (1250)
says, — " Our church does not use musical instru
ments, as harps and psalteries, to praise God
withal, that she may not appear to Judaize.
Nor ought a pipe, nor any other artificial instru
ments, such as organ or harp, or the like, be
brought into use in the Christian Church, but
only those things which shall make the hearers
better men. For by musical instruments the
mind is more directed to amusement than to the
forming of a good internal disposition. But
under the Old Testament such instruments were
used, partly because the people were harder and
more carnal, — upon which account they were to
be stirred up by these instruments, as likewise
by earthly promises, — and partly hecause these
bodily instruments were typical of something."
This statement may not refer to the entire Latin
Church, but probahly to some portion of it. In

471

ORG
the Latin Church organs were, at length, exten
sively used, and after the Reformation the Luth
eran and the Anglican Church retained them.
The question of their use in churches has been
often debated, from the days of Hospinian
down to our own. Presbyterians, Indepen
dents, and Methodists now, however, use them,
so that they have ceased to be a denomina
tional characteristic The question is one of
taste rather than conscience or Scripture. The
passage in Ephesians v. 19, so often appealed
to by both parties, says nothing for either (see
our Commentary on the place, and those of
Alford, Ellicott, Meyer, Hodge). Instrumental
music was no Jewish thing in any typical sense,
the choristers and performers of David's orchestra
were no original or essential element of the
Levitical economy. The music of the temple
stood upon a different basis from sacrifice, which
has long been formally superseded. But the ser
vice of song is not once alluded to in the Epistle to
the Hebrews as among the things which " de
cayed and waxed old." Its employment in
the Christian Church is therefore no introduc
tion of any point or portion of Jewish ritual,
nor any digression into popish ceremonial. In
deed, the employment of an organ to guide the
music is properly not ritualistic at all. The
leader has his pitch-pipe, and the hundred pipes
of the organ only serve to guide and sustain the
voice of the people. Nobody wishes to praise
God by the mere sound of the organ : its music
only helps and supports the melody and wor
ship of the church. It has been abused cer
tainly, but the sensuous luxury of some con
gregations should be no bar to the right and
legitimate use of it by others. In fact, the
proper employment of it might be pleaded for
on the same grounds as scientific education in
music. Both are simply helps to the public
worship of God.
The Presbyterian Churches in this country have
made stout and continued resistance against the
use of organs. In the Church of Scotland the
matter was discussed in connection with the use
of an organ by the congregation of St. Andrews,
Glasgow. The case was brought before the Pres
bytery of Glasgow, and no appeal was made. On
the 7th October, 1807, the following motion was
carried: — "That the presbytery are of opinion
that the use of the organ in tbe public worship
of God is contrary to tlie law cf the land, and
to the law and constitution of our Established
Church, and therefore prohibit it in all the
churches and chapels within their bounds ; and
with respect to Dr. Ritchie's conduct in this
matter, they are satisfied with his declaration."
In 1829 the question was brought up in the
Relief Synod— as an organ had been introduced
into Roxburgh Place Chapel, Edinburgh. The
deliverance, given by a very large majority,
was as follows : — " It being admitted and incon-
trovertibly true that the Rev. John Johnston

ORG
had introduced instrumental music into the
public worship of God, in the Relief Congrega
tion, Roxburgh Place, Edinburgh, which inno
vation the synod are of opinion is unauthorized
by the laws "of the New Testament, contrary to
the universal practice of the Church in the first
and purest periods of her history, contrary to
the universal practice of the Church of Scotland,
and contrarv to the consuetudinary laws of the
synod of Relief, and highly inexpedient The
synod agree to express tbeir regret that any indi
vidual member of their body should have had the
temerity to introduce such a dangerous innova
tion into the public worship of God in this
country, which has a manifest tendency to
offend many serious Christians and congrega
tions, and create a schism in the body, without
having first submitted it to the consideration of
his brethren according to usual form. On all
which accounts the synod agree to enjoin the
Rev. John Johnston to give up this practice
instanter, with certification if he do not, the
Edinburgh Presbytery shall hold a meeting on the
second Tuesday of September next, and strike
his name off the roll of presbytery, and declare
him incapable of holding office as a minister in
the Relief denomination. And further, to pre
vent the recurrence of this or any similar prac
tice, the synod enjoin a copy of this sentence to
be sent to every minister in the synod, to be
laid before his session, and read after public
worship in his congregation, for their satisfac
tion, and to deter others from following divisive
courses in all time coming." An organ having
been erected in the new Claremont Church,
Glasgow, the same question came up in 1856
before the United Presbyterian Synod, with
which the Relief Synod had been for some years
incorporated. Again more formally in 1858,
when the following motion was Carried alike
against one for toleration, whieh had many
supporters, and against another, which certainly
had few supporters, and contained the assertion,
"Instrumental music was one of the carnal
ordinances of the Levitical economy." The
motion which passed into law was, — "That the
synod re-affirm their deliverance of 1856 respect
ing the use of instrumental music in public
worship — viz., ' The synod refused the petition
of the memorialists, inasmuch as the use of in
strumental music in public worship is contrary
to the uniform practice of this church, and of
the other Presbyterian Churches in this country,
and would seriously disturb the peace of the
churches under the inspection of this synod;
and at the same time enjoined sessions to employ
all judicious measures for the improvement of
vocal psalmody ;' and the synod now declare
said deliverance to be applicable to diets of con
gregational worship on week days as well as on
the Lord's Day." It is to be observed that in
each of these three instances, a constitutional
principle of presbyterianism was violated, the

472

ORI
organ was introduced, and the innovation made
without consulting the brethren, — without ask
ing the advice or sanction of the presbytery.
These decisions were anticipated by Aelred, a
monk of the twelfth century, who says, — " Since
all types and figures are now ceased, why so
many organs and cymbals in our churches?
Why, I say, that terrible blowing of bellows,
that rather imitates the frightsomeness of thunder
than the sweet harmony of the voice ? For what
end is this contraction and dilatation of the voice ?
One restrains his breath, and another breaks his
breath, and a third unaccountably dilates his
voice, and sometimes, which I am ashamed to
say, they fall a-quivering, like the neighing of
horses ; then they lay down their manly vigour,
and with their voices endeavour to imitate the
softness of women."
Oriental Churches. — See Eastern
Churches. Oriflamme is the banner of the abbey of St.
Dennis, which was taken by tbe kings of France,
on occasions of great emergency, from the altar of
that abbey, and on such occasions it was always
consecrated and blessed. Louis VI. received the
oriflamme a.d. 1119 and 1125, and a writer of
that period speaks of this as an ancient custom
of the French kings. The consecration of a
knight's pennon or gonfanon was indeed an
essential feature in the solemn religious ceremo
nial by which he was elevated to the rank of
knighthood in those ages. The consecration of
standards for an army or a regiment is merely a
different form of the same general idea. — See
Knights. Origenists. — The speculations of Origen
were upon all subjects ; and, in the spirit of the
new Platonic school of Alexandria, he spiritual
ized large portions of Scripture. The following
tenets among others have been ascribed to him : —
1. That the soul of Christ was united to the
Word before the incarnation. 2. That there is
a pre-existent state of human souls. 3. That
souls were condemned to animate mortal bodies
in order to expiate faults they had committed in
a pre-existent state. 4. That, after long periods
of time, the damned shall be released from their
torments, and restored to a new state of probation.
5. That the earth, after its conflagration, shall
again be inhabited. (Mosheim's Eccles. Hist,
vol. i., pp. 219-225 ; Adams's View of Religions,
p. 245, &c.)
Original Burghers, Antiburghers, Se
ceders. — See Scotland, United Presby
terian Church.
Original Sin. — The ninth article of the
Church of Englandsays, — " Original sin standeth
not in the following of Adam (as the Pelagians
do vainly talk) ; but it is the fault and cor
ruption of the nature of every man, that natu
rally is ingendered of tho offspring of Adam :
whereby man is very far gone from original
righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined

ORI
to evil, so that tho flesh lusteth always contrary
to the spirit ; and therefore, in every person born
into this world, it deserveth God's wrath and
damnation. And this infection of nature doth
remain, yea in them that are regenerated ; where
by the lust of the flesh, called in the Greek, pkro-
nema sarkos, which some do expound the wisdom,
some sensuality, some the affection, some the
desire, of the flesh, is not subject to the law of
God. And although there is no condemnation
for them that believe and are baptized, yet the
apostle doth confess, that concupiscence and lust
hath of itself the nature of sin." The Westminster
Confession says, — " 1. Our first parents being
seduced by the subtilty and temptation of Satan,
sinned in eating the forbidden fruit. This their
sin God was pleased, according to his wise and
holy council, to permit, having purposed to order
it to his own glory. 2. By this sin they fell
from their original righteousness, and communion
with God, and so became dead in sin, and wholly
defiled in all the faculties and parts of soul and
body. 3. They being the root of all mankind,
the guilt of this sin was imputed, and the same
death in sin and corrupted nature conveyed, to all
their posterity descending from them by ordinary
generation. 4. From this original corruption,
whereby we are utterly indisposed, disabled, and
made opposite to all good, and wholly inclined to
all evil, do proceed all actual transgressions."
The origin of evil is an inscrutable mystery,
and has afforded matter of subtle speculation from
Plato down to Eant and Schelling ; while, in the
interval, Aquinas bent his keen vision upon the'
problem, and felt his gaze dazzled and blunted.
Ideas of the actual nature of sin naturally modify
our conceptions of its moral character, as may be
seen in the theories which have been entertained,
from those of Manichsean dualism and mystic
pre-existence, to those of privation, sensuousness,
antagonism, impreventibility, and the subtle
distinction between formal and real liberty de
veloped in the hypothesis of Miiller. While
admitting the scriptural account of the introduc
tion of sin, many have shaped their views of it
from the connection in which they place it in
reference to Divine foreknowledge, and so have
sprung up the Supralapsarian and Sublapsarian
hypotheses. Attempts to form a perfect scheme
of Theodicy, or a full vindication of the Divinity,
have occupied many other minds than that of
Leibnitz. The relation of the race to its Pro
genitor has been viewed in various lights, and
analogies, physical, political, and metaphysical,
with theories of creatianism and traducianism,
have been employed in illustration, from the
days of Augustine and Pelagius to those of Eras
mus and Luther, Calvin and Arminius, Taylor
and President Edwards* Creatianism is the
theory that each human soul is immediately
created by God; traducianism the theory that
soul and body are alike the result of ordinary
generation. Questions about the origin of

473

ORT
evil, transmission of depravity, imputation of
guilt, federal or representative" position on the
part of Adam, and physical and spiritual
death as elements of the curse, have given rise
to long and laboured argumentation, because
men have looked at them from very different
standpoints, and have been influenced in their
treatment of the problem by their philosophical
conceptions of the Divine character, the nature
of sin, and that moral freedom and power which
belong to responsible humanity. The modus
may be and is among " the deep things of God,'
but the res is palpable ; for experience confirms
the Divine testimony, that we are by nature
" children of wrath " per generationem, not per
imilationem. Orthodox (l^Seitlts, from Saga, an opinion,
and Itfis, right) are those whose doctrine is
right — whose religious opinion is in accordance
with the Scriptures. The importance of an ortho
dox faith is thus expressed by Bishop Beveridge
(Sermon oxxxviii.), — " I confess an orthodox faith
can never bring us to heaven, without an holy
life ; but so neither can an holy life do it, with
out an orthodox faith ; for heresies are damnable
as well as sins." The national standard of ortho
doxy is not the same in all countries ; for those
opinions and observances which are received by
the majority of any nation, or are patronized by
the ruling power, are recognized as the standard
faith; hence the Greek Church is orthodox in
Russia ; the Roman Catholic in Spain, Portugal,
France, &c. ; the Anglican Church in England ;
the Fresbyterian in Scotland; but in Ireland,
while the religion of the majority is Roman
Catholic, the endowed church is on the Anglical
model ; so that it is a disputed point which set
of religious opinions and customs should be
acknowledged as orthodox. Again, in Upper
Canada the orthodox faith is the Protestant
Episcopal; while in Lower Canada the estab
lished religion, which is also the religion of the
majority, is Roman Catholic. The true stan
dard of orthodoxy, however, is that book to
whose pages we must all appeal — The Bible ;
for it alone " containeth all things necessary to
salvation : so that whatsoever is not read therein
is not to be required of any man that it should
be believed as an article of faith." — Article vi.
efthe Church of England.
Orthodoxy, Feast of. — The council of
Constantinople, held under Photius in the year
879, and reckoned by the Greeks the eighth
general council, fortified image -worship by
new and firm decisions, approving and re
newing all the decrees of the Nicene council.
The Greeks, a superstitious people, and controlled
by monks, regarded this as so great a- blessing

OTH
conferred on them by heaven, that they resolved
to consecrate an anniversary in remembrance of
it, which they called the Feast of Orthodoxy.
Ortlibeuses, a sect ofthe Waldenses charged
by their enemies with denying a Trinity before
the incarnation, with believing Peter to be the
Holy Ghost, and as being without knowledge of
immortality and a resurrection.
Osculatorium. — See Kiss, Kiss of Peace.
— After the original practice was given up, a
relic or picture, entitled the osculatorium, was
passed from one person to the other, that it might
be kissed or venerated. Thus the apostolical cus
tom of kissing one another became extinct both
in letter and spirit, and all that remained was
the name of the osculum pads.
©senium Pacis (kiss qf peace)  See Kiss.
Osiandrian Controversy, one of those dis
putes which distracted the Lutheran Church soon
after the death of its founder. It turned upon the
question whether the righteousness of Christ,
which is imputed to the believer, was wrought out
by the Saviour in his human or his divine nature.
Osiander, who was professor of divinity at
Konigsberg, maintained the latter opinion," that
men obtained justification only through the
righteousness of Christ as God. Stancarus,
professor of Hebrew in the same university, took
the opposite view ; and the controversy was car
ried on with much bitterness on both sides.
Osiander died in 1552 ; but the Osiandrian and
Stancari3tic parties at Konigsberg continued
their disputes for many years; and Stancarus,
retiring at length into Poland, is said to have
kindled in that country also the flames of theo
logical strife.
Ostiarius (doorkeeper). — See Doorkeepers.
Olhobon, Synod of, a synod held in
London, a.d. 1268, under Cardinal Othobon,
claims attention, not only as representing the
united churches of England, Wales, Scotland,
and Ireland, but as displaying a commendable
zeal for discipline, and embodying its decrees
in constitutions, many of which are still law.
It directs that the laity be carefully instructed
in the baptismal formula, in order that in
cases of emergency they might be qualified to
administer the rite ; and it enjoins, for the first
time, the indicative form of absolution after con
fession, still retained in the office for the visitation
of the sick. Several of its oanons are directed
against simoniacal contracts for benefices, non-
residence and pluralities,commutations of penance,
appropriations of tithe to monastic houses, and
commendams, which, originating in early times
when interruptions were perpetually occurring to
regular ministerial appointments, were afterwards
grievously perverted,

474

PAC
Pacification, Edicts of, the title given
to the ordinances of the Kings of France, which
sanctioned more or less toleration to their Protes
tant subjects, and hi fact trifled with their
liberties. The first was announced by Charles
IX., in January, 1562, tolerating the Reformed
religion in the vicinity of all the cities and
towns of the realm. March 19, 1563, the
same king granted a second edict, at Amhoise,
permitting the free exercise of Protestant wor
ship in the houses of gentlemen and lords high-
justiciaries (or those that had the power of life
and death) to their families and dependents only,
and allowing other Protestants to have their
meetings in such towns as they had them in
before the 7th of March. Another, called the
Edict of Longumean, sanctioning the execu
tion of that of Amboise, was published March
27, 1558. Afraid of an insurrection of the
Huguenots, Charles revoked these edicts in
September, 1568, forbidding Protestantism, and
commanding all its ministers to leave the king
dom in fifteen days. But on the 8th of August,
1570, he retracted, and published an edict
on the 11th, allowing the lords high-justi
ciaries to have sermons in their houses for all
who chose to attend. He likewise gave them
four towns, viz., Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac,
and La Charite, as places of security for them
during the space of two years. Nevertheless, in
August, 1572, he authorized the Bartholomew
Massacre, and at the same time issued a declara
tion, forbidding the exercise of the Protestant
reUgion. Henry III., in April, 1576, made
peace with the Protestants, and the Edict of
Pacification was published in parliament, May
14, permitting them to build churches. But the
faction of the Guises began the famous League
for defence of the Catholic religion, which became
so formidable, that it obliged the king to assemble
the states of the kingdom at Blois, in December,
1576; where it was enacted, that there should
be but one religion in France, and that the
Protestant ministers should be all banished, fn
1577 the king, to secure peace, published an edict
in parliament, October 5, granting the same
liberty to the Reformed which they had before.
However, in July, 1585, the League obliged him
to publish another edict, revoking all former
grants, and ordering all Protestants to leave the
kingdom in six months, or conform. Henry IV.,
on his coronation, abolished, July 4, 1591, the
edicts against the Protestants. This edict was
verified in the parliament of Chalons, but was
never fully acted out. In April, 1598, the king
published a new Edict of Pacification at Nantes.
This edict was confirmed by Louis XIII. in
1610; and by Louis XIV. in 1652. But the

FMD
latter, in 1685, abolished it entirely. — See
Nantes, Edict of.
Paedobaptisls (those who baptize children). —
For the history and form of baptism, see Baptism,
As in the article " Baptist," we shall present
some of the arguments of those who hold psedo-
baptist views. As to the connection of the pre
sent economy with the preceding one, Dr. Ward-
law affirms, — "We state our argument thus:
Before the coming of Christ the covenant of
grace had been revealed ; and under that covenant
there existed a divinely instituted connection
between children and their parents ; the sign
and seal of the blessings of the covenant was,
by divine appointment, administered to children,
and there can be produced no satisfactory evidence
of this connection having been done away. 'And
I will establish my covenant between me and
thee, and thy seed after thee, in their genera
tions, to be a God to thee, and to thy seed after
thee.' As to this promise, which certainly sounds
very like one ofthe ' exceeding great and precious
promises ' of the new covenant, it is of essential
consequence first of all to notice, that in what
ever sense God promises here to be a God to
Abraham, he promises, in the same sense, to be a
God to his seed. The promise is one. No hint
is ever given of his being the God of Abraham in
one sense and the God of his seed in another.
Now, who are the seed to whom Jehovah thus
engages to be a God ? Surely to the seed speci
fied in the terms of the covenant. And who are
they? Have we not the answer given us by
inspired authority, in the apostle's interpretation
of the words, ' Thou shalt be a father of many
generations.' ' Therefore it is of faith, that, it
might be of grace, to the end the promise might
be sure to all the seed, not to that only which is
of the law, but to that also which is of the faith
of Abraham, who is the father of us all.' If
this means, as Paul teaches us, his being the
spiritual father of believers in all nations, then
must not these be the seed of Abraham to whom
he promises to be a God ? If objections are
brought to this, they ought, I think, to be brought
against the apostle. Circumcision is most ex
pressly pronounced by ihe apostle to have been
a" sign and seal of spiritual blessings, and
especially of that first blessing of the Gospel
covenant, justification by faith. I have endeav
oured to show that the covenant made with
Abraham was the Gospel covenant, the covenant
of grace, under which we live, and which is the
basis of the New Testament Church ; that the
ordinance of circumcision was attached to that
covenant, and, as the sign of its blessings and the
seal of its promises, was by divine command
administered to children : that although there is

475

PiED
abundant evidence of a change in the rite or
ordinance, there is none whatever of any such
change in its administration as excludes children
from being any longer the legitimate subjects of
its observance. The Baptists prove adults to
have been baptized on a profession of faith, but
they do not disprove the baptism of the children
of proselytes. ' Yes,' say they, ' they do dis
prove it ; for, as to the baptism of any besides
the believing adults themselves, the Scriptures
are silent. They speak nothing concerning the
baptism of infants ; therefore infants ought not
to be baptized.' Now this is what we deny. It
is precisely here that we are at issue. We say
they are not silent. We affirm that there is
abundant evidence of the fact, that instead of any
change exclusive cf children having taken place
under the New Testament dispensation, the chil
dren of converts to the faith of the Gospel were
actually baptized along with their parents, in the
time of Vie apostles and the apostolic churches."
In reference to the New Testament, Dr. Dwight
argues, — " It is objected, that there is no certain
example of infant baptism in the Scriptures.
To this I answer, that there is no instance in
which it is declared in so many terms that infants
were baptized. But there are instances in which,
according to every rule of rational construction,
this fact is plainly involved. Lydia and her
house, and the household of Stephanas, were
baptized. He who has examined the meaning
ofthe words house and household in the Scriptures,
cannot fail to perceive that in their primary
meaning they denote children, and sometimes
more remote descendants. Thus St. Paul said
unto the jailer, ' Believe on the Lord Jesus
Christ, and thou shalt be saved, and thine house.'
There is no reason to think that Paul knew what
family the jailer had, and that he used the word
house necessarily from this ignorance, in the
manner in which it was customarily used by his
countrymen. Of this manner we have many
examples in the Old Testament ' Come thou
and all thy house into the ark,' said God to
Noah. We know that the house of Noah con
sisted of his wife and children. In all these
passages, and in others almost innumerable, the
children only are meant. Thus the house of
Israel, the house of Judah, the house of Joseph,
are phrases exactly synonymous with the children
of Israel, the children of judah, and the children
of Joseph. In this manner, then, Paul unques
tionably used the term in the passage already
quoted ; accordingly it is subjoined, ' He was
baptized, and all his, straightway.' St. Paul
declares to the jailer, that in consequence of his
own faith, he and all his house should be saved.
Should this, however; be contested; there is strong
reason to believe that in some or other of these
families, and not improbably in all, there were
children too young to be baptized on their own
profession of faith. It is objected, also, that
children cannot be the subjects of faith ; and 47

PjED
that faith is a necessary qualification for baptism-
This objection is certainly not founded in truth-
John the Baptist was filled with the Holy Ghosti
even from his mother's womb, and was unques
tionably a subject of faith in such a manner,
that, had he died in infancy, he would certainly
have been received to heaven. What was true
of him can be true of any other infant. The ob
jection, therefore, is founded on error." As to the
mode, the same author adds, — " In Matt. iii. 11,
it is said, ' He shall baptize you with the Holy
Ghost and with fire.' The bare rendering of
this passage, ' He shall immerge you in the Holy
Ghost, and in fire,' is, one would think, a suffi
cient exposition ofthe impropriety of translating
Baa"r/?> by the word immerge, or plunge.
Substitute cleanse for immerge, and the impro
priety vanishes. It is incredible that the mul
titudes whom John baptized in the wilderness
were immersed. Of these a very great multi
tude were women. These multitudes certainly
came to hear John, without having prepared any
proper dress in which to be baptized ; for they
could not even know tbat he would baptize them.
It will not be mistrusted that this promiscuous
assembly were immersed naked. To have im
mersed them with their clothes on would have
exposed them to certain disease and death. It
is impossible that those whom Peter and his
companions baptized on the day of Pentecost
should have been immersed. All the difficulties
which attended the baptism of John's followers
attended that of these people also, and probably
in a still higher degree ; because they did not
assemble to be baptized, nor even to hear the
preaching of the apostles. They therefore cer
tainly assembled in their usual dress. At the
same time, it seems almost a thing of course, that
the apostles, who had just received a spiritual
baptism, by the affusion of the Holy Ghost, and
announced it to their hearers, should follow the
mode in which this baptism was administered to
them, in administering the baptism wbich was
symbolical of it to their hearers. But, indepen
dently of these considerations, the thing itself
could not be done by the apostles, in the circum
stances, and within the lime specified, in the
mode of immersion. St Luke informs us, that
they who received the word of Peter were then
baptized, and that the same day there were added
to them about three thousand souls. The only
way in which these persons could be known to be
added to the Church, or could in fact be added
to the Church, was by their baptism. They were,
therefore, baptized that day. But the apostles
could not, in any supposable circumstances
furnished hy the city of Jerusalem, nor indeed
in arty circumstances whatever, baptize by im
mersion three thousand persons within the ut
most part of that day which the story will allow
us to consider as left for this purpose, after the
other transactions mentioned in it were ended.
The least consideration of the time necessary for

PjED
each administration will clearly show this Im
possibility. I conclude, therefore, without hesi
tation, that these persons were not immersed."
As to the allusions in the New Testament,
Dr. Halley says, — " We have, then, to consider
baptism as a scenic representation of the burial
of the baptized with Christ. As Christ was
buried, so tbe disciple is immersed, to represent
his participation of the burial of Christ. The
authorities adduced in favour of this doctrine
are: 'Know ye not that so many of us as were
baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into
his death ? Therefore we are buried with him
by baptism into death.' 'Buried with him in
baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him.'
That these are figurative allusions no one will
deny. The design of baptism, if this be its
design, is nowhere ostensibly taught, but only
obliquely noticed in figurative language, in order
to illustrate another subject. If the interpretation
of the figure can be found in the inspired writings,
we readily acquiesce; but we are not disposed to
allow a fallible interpreter of figures to give law
to the Christian Church, especially when his
unauthorized interpretation appears to us incon
gruous and inconsistent. If I am asked for the
meaning of the apostle's language, I reply
(according to my construction of the metaphor,
wliich of course has no more authority than that
of my opponents, and disputes upon the meaning
of figures are endless), do we not satisfy all tbe
legitimate requirements of the figure in main
taining that all who have the spiritual blessings
proposed in the emblem of baptism have obtained
them through the death, burial, and resurrection
of Jesus ? Those who have been baptized, not
only in the letter, but also in the spirit, are vir
tually and legally considered as having become
united to Christ in the fellowship of his sufferings,
and the power of his resurrection ; tbey have
figuratively died unto sin, and become alive unto
righteousness. But if the expressions are figu
rative, and represent spiritual things, no man
who has not the reality of the baptismal emblem
has been baptized into the death of Christ, or
has been buried with him in baptism ; while
every man who has that reality has been spirit
ually baptized into the death of Christ, and been
buried with him in the baptism of the Spirit.
If I am dead with Christ, I have been buried
with him in my baptism, not into water, but by
his Spirit into his death. Is not this tbe sense,
and all the sense, of the figurative language of
the apostle? We object, then, to the symbol
of the Baptists, in the first place, because it is
unauthorized, except by figurative language,
which will admit of another and, as we think,
better interpretation. That baptism is the funeral
solemnity of a believer, or his interment in the
tomb of Christ, is a doctrine which has no sure
warranty of Holy Scripture. In the next place,
the sj'mbol appears to us incongruous and inap
propriate. It may be said, we have no right to

P2ED
pronounce upon the propriety of an authorized
symbol ; but in this instance the supposed resem
blance between immersion and burial is the
foundation of the whole argument It is said
by the Baptists, sprinkling does not represent a
burial ; and our reply is, neither does immersion.
The momentary and hasty dipping is so little
like the solemn act of committing the body to
the earth ; the water is so little like a tomb ;
the service so little like a funeral solemnity ; the
words, I baptize thee in the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, so inap
propriate to the burial of the dead (and our
friends, notwithstanding the use of this formulary,
do not profess to bury alive), that sprinkling
itself appears to me as good and veritable a
symbol of a believer's burial as such an im
mersion. Besides, the burial is with Christ in
his tomb, and therefore the burial of Christ is
the model of the service. But was Christ let
down into the earth ? Was there in his burial
any circumstance which can be fitly represented
by immersing in water ? To lay a person in a
tomb cut in a rock, and to complete the sepulture
by rolling a stone to the opening, bear no resem
blance to any mode of baptism whatever. Our
Baptist friends, we think, gain some adventitious
aid in representing immersion as the sign of a
burial, because the baptistery as usually made
in their chapels, in size and form, most fortu
nately for their argument (I do not say they
take undue or designed advantage of it), resembles
an English grave much more than it does a
Jewish sepulchre. Were the image of the se
pulchre in the garden to be exhibited in front of
tbe baptistery, the charm of the representation,
and with it the force of the argument, would,
we imagine, be speedily dissolved."
In reference to the early history of the prac
tice, Coleman writes : — " We will begin with
Augustine, born a.d. 354, at which time the
general prevalence of infant baptism is con
ceded by all. Passages without number might
be cited from this father to show that the
observance of this ordinance was an established
usage of the Church. The rite itself he de
clares to be an apostolical tradition, and by no
means to be lightly esteemed. ' The custom of
our mother-church, in baptizing little children,
is by no means to he disregarded, nor accounted
as in any measure superfluous. Neither, indeed,
is it to be regarded as any other than an apos
tolical tradition.' This he also declares to be
the practice of the whole Church, not instituted
by councils, but always observed, ' quod universa
tenet ecclesia nee conciliis insiitutum, sed semper
retentum.' Omitting other authorities, we go
back into the third century. In the time of
Cyprian there arose in Africa a question, whether
a child might be baptized before the eighth day,
or not. Fidus, a country bishop, referred the
inquiry to a council of sixty-six bishops, convened
under Cyprian, A.D. 253, for their opinion. To
77

this inquiry they reply at length, delivering it
as their unanimous opinion that baptism may,
with propriety, be administered at any time
previous to the eighth day. No question was
raised on the point whether children ought to be
baptized at all or not. In this they were unan
imously agreed. This passage is quoted by
Rheinwald, to show that the church in Africa,
in the third century, maintained the absolute
necessity of infant baptism. The authority of
Origen brings us still nearer to the age of the
apostles. This eminent father was born in
Egypt, of Christian parents, a.d. 185, and was
himself baptized at an early age, if not in child
hood or in infancy, as many suppose. He re
sided in Alexandria, in Cappadocia, and in
Palestine. He travelled in Italy, Greece, and
Arabia, and must have been in correspondence
with the churches in every country. He is
equally distinguished for his great learning, his
piety, and his love of truth. He is therefore an
unexceptionable and competent witness in this
matter. What is his testimony ? It is, ' that
little children are baptized agreeably to the usage
of the Church ; that the Church received it as a
tradition from the apostles that baptism should
be administered to children.' Origen lived within
a century of the apostolic age, and, according to
Eusebius (lib. xvi., c. 19), received this tradition
from his own pious ancestry, who, of the second
or third generation from him, must have been
contemporary with the apostles themselves. This
explicit testimony of Origen, in connection with
that of Augustine, of the universal practice of
the Church, is, in the opinion ofthe Psedobaptists,
strong evidence that infant baptism is an ordi
nance established by the authority ofthe apostles.
We come next to Tertullian. He objects strongly
to the hasty administration of baptism to children,
and inveighs against the superstition of the age
in this respect in such a manner as to show,
beyond dispute, the prevalence of the custom in
his days. 'According to the condition, dispo
sition, and age of each, the delay of baptism is
peculiarly advantageous, especially in the case
of little children, parvulos. Why should the
godfathers [of these baptized children] be brought
into danger ? For they may fail, by death, to
fulfil their promises, or through the perverseness
of the child. Our Lord, indeed, says, " Forbid
them not to come unto me." Let them come,
then, when of adult age. Let them come when
they can learn ; when they are taught why they
come. Let them become Christians when they
shall have learned Christ. Why hasten that in
nocent age to the forgiveness of sins [by bap
tism] ? In worldly things men observe greater
caution, so that he is entrusted with divine
things to whom those of earth are not confided.'
Whatever were the particular views of Tertullian
on other religious subjects, he is sufficiently ex
plicit in opposing infant baptism as a prevailing
custom. He flourished some years before Origen,

478

PAL
and in less than one hundred years of the apos
tolic age. Within this brief period it appears,
therefore, that the rite of infant baptism is ob
served with such superstitious care as to call
forth from him these severe animadversions, and
that, too, without any intimation that his own
church is peculiar in its observance of this rite,
or that ihere was any example in favour of the
correction for which he pleads. Indeed, it
deserves particular notice that Tertullian neither
refers to the authority of Scripture nor to the
usage of the Church in opposition to the baptism
of infant children. Is it possible that this father
of tradition could have overlooked so important
a point, had there been any authority, usage, or
tradition, in favour of his own peculiar views ?
Next in order, and at an age still nearer to the
apostles, lived Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons. By
some he is believed to have been born before
tbe death of John the Evangelist ; others, per
haps with greater probability, assign this event
to a period somewhat later. It is, however,
agreed that he lived, in early life, in Asia Minor,
and enjoyed the friendship and received the in
structions of Polycarp, the disciple of John. He
therefore received apostolical instructions through
the tradition of a single individual, the venerable
martyr, Polycarp. What, then, does he say in
relation to the subject before us ? That Christ
' came to save all persons through himself— all,
I say, who through him are regenerated unto God;
infants, and little ones, and children, and youth,
and the aged. Therefore, he passed through the
several stages of life, being made an infant for
infants, that he might sanctify infants ; and for
little ones, a little one, to sanctify them of that
age.' The relevancy of this celebrated passage
turns wholly on the meaning of the phrase —
regenerated unto God. If in this expression the
author has reference to baptism, nothing can be
plainer than that the passage relates to infant
baptism. It is indeed a vexed passage." (See
the Works of Wall, Gale, Carson, Wilson, Ward-
law, Halley, Thorn, &c.)
Pagans (villagers), a name given in early
times to the idolatrous heathen, because, as some
say, after being prohibited in the towns, they
resorted to the country, that they might not be
disturbed in their superstitious observances ; or,
a3 others say, because the inhabitants of towns
were first converted, while those of remote rural
places remained attached to their ancestral
polytheism. Palatini, one of the three classes of sub-
deacons in Rome, and especially appointed to
wait upon the bishop.
_ Pall, the covering of the altar in ancient
times, made of linen or of some more costly
material. Pallium (pallium, a covering), an eccle
siastical cloak or mantle worn by the pope, and
by the archbishops of the Roman Catholic Church.
On the day of the virgin St. Agnes, which is

PAL
the one-and-twentieth of January, when, in the
mass that is said in St. Agnes's Church in Rome,
they come to the words Agnus Dei qui tollis
peccata mundi ! two white lambs are laid upon
the altar, wbich are afterwards given to two
sub-deacons of St. Peter's Church, who put them
out to grass, and in due time shear them. The
wool that comes from them being mingled with
other wool, is spun and afterwards woven into
these palls, which are three fingers broad, and
hang down from the shoulders to the middle of
the breast before, and to the reins behind : at
tbe end are three pieces of lead of the same
breadth. When they are thus woven they are
carried to the bodies of St Peter and St. Paul,
and after some prayers said are left there all
night ; next day after, the sub-deacons receive
them again, and decently lay them up, and keep
them until an archbishop that needs one of them,
or his proctor, comes to demand it Then it is
delivered with many ceremonies, and they who
carry it are charged not to rest above one night
in a place if possibly they can. Before the
receipt of his pall an archbishop cannot perform
the functions of his office, even if he has been
translated, nor is the archiepiscopal cross borne
before him. None but the pope himself wears
it on all occasions ; an archbishop uses it only
at the celebration of mass, on high festivals, at
the dedication of a church, the ordination of a
priest, the consecration of a bishop, or when
giving the veil to a nun. At his burial it is
interred with him.
Palmer, a pilgrim who, under a vow, has no
settled residence.
Palm Snnday, the Sunday before Easter. —
In the " Capelle Pontificie," the only authorized
rubric of the mode in which these high ceremonies
are to be conducted, is the following account of the
ceremony of the palms : — Before describing the
blessing of the palms, it is necessary to remem
ber that the festival, the blessing and the pro
cession of palms, was instituted for the solemn
entrance of Jesus Christ into the city of Jerusa
lem, that by the faithful united, it might be not
only represented in spirit every year to the
Christian multitude, but might be also renewed
in some other mode. Besides which, the church
wished to signify by this solemn ceremony, the
glorious entrance into heaven which the Divine
Redeemer will make with the elect after the
general judgment. Seymour thus describes the
ceremony, — "The pope, as the vicar of Jesus
Christ, and therefore his most suitable represen
tative, is carried into St. Peter's, not indeed
' meek and lowly, riding upon an ass,' but seated
in his chair, and carried on the shoulders of
eight men. He is arrayed in all possible
magnificence, preceded by the long line of
bishops and cardinals in their robes of splen
dour, accompanied by all the high officers of
state, and surrounded by the naked swords of
his guardsmen. After he descends from the

PAN
litter, and takes his place upon the throne, and
has received the homage of each cardinal, as
usual on those state occasions, the ceremonies
peculiar to the day commence. Three priests,
each carrying aloft =., palm, descend from the
high altar, and slowly approach the throne.
The pope receives them, reading over them a
prescribed form of prayer, sprinkling them with
holy water, and thus blessing them. Each
cardinal, archbishop, bishop, prelate, ambas
sador, &c, &c, then approaches the throne, and
on his knees, receives a palm from the pope,
which he receives with the usual forms of
kissing the hand, or knee, or foot of the pope,
according to his rank, and then retires to his
place. When every person is thus supplied,
the procession of palms is formed; the pope
leaving his throne again, enters his chair on
the men's shoulders, and preceded by candles
lighted, the choir singing, the incense burning —
the whole column in their magnificent and
many-coloured robes moved down the aisle by
one side of the high altar, and returned by the
other. Borne above all hy the height of the
litter, his holiness moved, the conspicuous re
presentation of ' the meek and lowly One.' And
as the procession moved slowly along, the splen
dour of the costumes, their brilliant colours,
and their gold and silver brocade — the long
array of mitres, and many branches of palms
moving among them — the strains of sacred
music from tbe choir, mingling with the heavy
tramp ofthe guardsmen — the long and brilliant
lines of military extending the whole length of
the church, and the procession itself, with the
pope lifted on high above all ; and all this in
the most magnificent temple in the world,
presented to the eye a scene of pageantry most
striking and beautiful, but wholly ineffective,
because unsuitable, as representing the entrance
of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem. When the
procession has ended, and the pope has returned
to the throne, and the cardinals, archbishops,
bishops, &c, have retired to their places, the
high mass is celebrated, and an indulgence
granted to all present, a special rubric being used
on this occasion." — See Lent.
Panis Benedictus (blessed bread), a por
tion of bread in the ancient African Church,
which, being seasoned with salt, was given with
milk and honey at baptism. — See Honey, Milk.
Pantheism (all God), a form of philosophi
cal unbelief which identifies Creator and creature.
In its lower form it deifies matter — in its higher
form it denies creation as a voluntary act, looks
upon the universe as a necessary development of
deity, and affirms that the divine consciousness
is in the consciousness of humanity. The sys
tem was found in ancient Greece, and among the
Brahmins. Spinoza proposed one form of it,
and not a few of the mystics prior to the Refor
mation were involved in it, or something scarce
to be distinguished from it — See Mystics.

479

PAP
Recent German philosophy is full of it — especially
the left wing of Hegelianism, the anticbristian
spirit of which culminated in Strauss's Life of
Christ, denying * personal God and a histori
cal Christ. The doctrine of Scripture is, that
God pre-existed the universe, and is ever apart
from it and above it; for he made it by a spon
taneous act, and in infinite wisdom and 'power
still upholds it It is a revelation of him, but
no part of him; not God, but the voluntary
manifestation of God. It is not what he is, but
what he has willed to be.
Papa (father), a name given at first to all
bishops, and still by Greek Christians to all their
priests, but was soon appropriated to the four
patriarchs, and now, and in the western Church
specially applied to the Bishop of Rome, since
the period of Gregory VII  See Pope.
Papacy. — To write a history of the Papacy
would far exceed our limits. We can only pre
sent chronologically some salient points, refer
ring our readers to Pope and Popery for a list
of the pontiffs and an account of Romish doc
trine. Hippolytus, of Portus, at the close of the
second century, talks of " the grace, both of high-
priesthood and of teaching, as belonging to the
order of bishops." — Bunsen's Hippolytus, vol. i.,
333. This assumption had worked itself into the
most exorbitant claims by the fourth and fifth
centuries. The Apostolical Constitutions say, —
" 0 bishop, be careful worthily to maintain your
place and dignity, as . . . presiding over all
mortals, be they priests, kings, princes, fathers,
children, doctors; for all are alike subject to you.
In the same manner as the Levites, who
ministered at the tabernacle of testimony, which
is the exact type of the Church, received liberally
their portion of all those things that were offered
unto God ... so likewise, ye bishops, who
labour in the field of God, shall live by tbe
Church ; since, in your quality, ye also are both
priests and Levites to your people in the holy
tabernacle, wbich is the holy Catholic Church."
The laity are exhorted to pay to their bishop,
"as the priest of God," their first-fruits and
their tithes, their heave-offerings and their gifts,
the first produce of their corn-fields, their
wine and their oil, their fruits, their wool —
"in short, of all that God had given" unto
them. A separate jurisdiction grew up in the
heart of Christianity, apart from the civil
power. Questions of marriage, morals, property,
soon arose, with increasing numbers of pro
selytes, requiring a judicious and vigorous ad
ministration — a necessity which at once tended
to clothe official persons with growing influ
ence and power. The influence of the ecclesi
astics, during the troubled period of its growth,
became all the greater from its being, in a
large degree, a moral influence, and from the
Christian institution being a permanent one,
while imperial Rome was torn with dynastic
and civil convulsions. By this time, too, what

PAP
with bequests, donations, and exactions, what
with trusteeships, the leading officers of the
churches had become rich and powerful. The
Church had grown to be a corporation, and places
of prominence in it had become offices charged
with influence and loaded with emoluments —
objects for ambition to aim at and avarice to
covet. Its functionaries grew into supreme
authorities in their own circle, and were hailed
as coadjutors, in the government of the state,
by the civil ruler. They also exercised that
right of censure which was not simply con*
fined to the exclusion of unworthy members,
but dealt in temporal pains and penalties.
Long before the transfer of the imperial seat
from Old Rome to New, a.d. 329, the bishops
of the western capital of the empire claimed,
by their metropolitan position, and on the
ground of their supposed connection with the
Apostle Peter, jurisdiction over all the churches
of Christendom. The Patriarch of Constants
nopie, a new creation of the emperor, could only
boast of his political consideration as ecclesias
tical head of the new capital and diocese of
Thrace; yet, on all ecclesiastical grounds, must
rank inferior to Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria,
The claims of so ancient a see as that of Rome
only shone the more signally in comparison with
the novel rank and installation of the Byzantine
dignitary, while the political importance of the
Italian bishop took enormous strides from the
date which found him residing in Rome, away
from the immediate control of the emperor, and
the eclipsing contrast of courtly splendour.
There appears to have grown up, indeed, from its
stability, its antiquity, its political influence, its
wealth, its numbers, its intelligence, its habitual
orthodoxy, and, even from its own presumption
on all these grounds, a degree of deference in
other churches towards the Church of Rome
and its prelates, which afterwards was demanded
as a right upon other and fictitious grounds.
Tertullian refused to acknowledge the title of
poniifex maximus, and episcopus episcoporum,
assumed at that early day by the Bishop of
Rome (De pudicilid, sect. 1). But after the
accession of Constantine, these claims of pre
cedence and authority were more freely ac
knowledged, as Rome became invested with the
twofold character of the religious as well as
the political capital of the world. Accordingly,
her admonitions assumed the tone of mandates,
her interferences the character of rescripts and
ordinances ; her discipline was presented to the
world as the model by which other churches
were to shape their own ; aud her ritual as the
pure apostolic order of devotion, from which
none could depart without the sin, or at least
the danger, of schism. The title of " papa," or
pope, common enough in the East and in Egypt
became exclusively applied to the Bishops of
Rome somewhere in the fifth century. — See
Papa. Innocent I. is dignified with it in

480

PAP
the African councils of Carthage and Milevis,
A.D. 416. To the bishops of Vienne, and Nar-
bonne, in France, Pope Celestine writes in
428, claiming an "appointment by God to
watch over his whole Chnrch," and a "pas
toral superintendence which knows no bounds."
Celestine, a.d. 420, displayed sufficient arro
gance of language' in dealing with Nestorius
on the ground of his heretical opinions, requir
ing of him, within ten days of the receipt of
the pope's rescript, an assent to the Catholic
doctrine respecting the person of Christ, on pain
of excommunication if he refused. But Leo,
440, seems to have first laid definite hold of the
idea of Petrine prerogative, based upon succes
sion to Peter in the episcopate of Rome: " In
his chair dwelleth the ever-living power, the
superabounding authority. Let the brethren
therefore acknowledge that he is the primate of
all bishops, and that Christ, who denieth his
gifts to none, yet giveth unto none except
through him." To Leo the Great belongs the
distinction of enforcing his ecclesiastical decrees
by the aid of the civil power, Valentinian HI.,
at his instance, issuing a decree that " no bishop
of any province ... do anything without
the authority of the venerable the pope of the
eternal city; but, on, the contrary, to them, and
to all men, let whatever the authority of the
apostolic see hath ordained, or doth, or shall
ordain, be law." By his more immediate pre
decessors, and by his own agency, Leo succeeded
in transforming the see of St. Peter, which
before existed as a symbol of Catholic com
munion, into a visibly existing power. There
could be no communion of saints, according to
the developed idea of the fifth century, but in
union with Rome, and in subjection to the
pontiffs. As the emperor represented the whole
state, so the Bishop of Rome represented the
whole Church. By a general consent at that
day, and with seemingly as good a title as that
of the emperor to temporal dominion, the pope
stood out as the visible autocrat of the great
invisible unity of the Church catholic. The
Patrimony of St. Peter was claimed as early as
Gregory the Great, a.d. 600; the territory thus
designated consisting of nearly all the Byzantine
duchy of Rome. This estate, belonging to the
holy see, extended from near Naples, in the
south, to Viterbo, in the north, besides many
outlying fiefe in all directions. In the wars
between the Lombards of Italy and the Greek
emperors, all that the popes could shield, or
claim, or extort from either party in the struggle
became the inalienable property of the church.
Pepin bestowed upon the Roman pontiffs, Ra
venna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Cesena, Sinigaglia,
Eso, Forlimpopoli, Forli, Eugnbio, Montfer-
rata, Comachio, Urbino, Narni, and other places,
the lawful inheritance of the Greek sovereign,
which these latter had long coveted and intrigued
to possess. This is called the donation of Pepin,

PAR
and dates in a.d. 754. Shortly afterwards, the
donation of Charlemagne, his son, doubled the
pontifical territories, and added thereto a moral
ascendancy of still greater value. — See Canon
Law, Donative, Decretals. (Eclectic Review,
1860.) Papellards, a name given in the thirteenth
century to a class of French pietists, and sup
posed to be derived from the attention which
they gave to their papas, or spiritual fathers.
Parabolani, an order in the early Church
who took care of the sick. In Alexandria there
were 600 of them. Being a powerful and organ
ized body, and little caring for their lives, they
were apt to be turbulent and dangerous in
periods of excitement. They were, therefore,
put under a special civil officer, and were not
allowed to appear in any puhlic places, as
theatres and courts of law. In times of plague
and of epidemics they were especially useful,
and in discharge of their duties boldly ventured
their lives — hence their name. The Greek term
is found in Philippians ii. 30.
Parabolarii. — This, as well as the preceding
term, being the name of those desperadoes who
fought in the public shows with wild beasts for
hire, was applied to Christians generally, and
especially to the martyrs exposed to wild beasts
in periods of persecution.
Parafrenarii (coachmen), the charioteers or
grooms of the higher orders of the clergy. They
seem sometimes to have been reckoned an in
ferior order of clergy.
Paramonarios. — See Mansionarii.
Paranymph (from xaqa, near to; vufiQi,
the bride) a bride's-man. The paranymph was
recognized in the Christian Church, as appears,
among other places, by the thirteenth canon of
the fourth council of Carthage.
Paraphrases — See Targums. — The term
is also applied in Scotland to a small collection
of hymns, authorized for public worship by the
general assembly. — See Psalmody.
Paratorium (preparation table). — See Ob-
lationarium. Parclose, a screen employed for various
purposes, such as to protect a tomb, or separate
a chapel from the main body of the church.
Pardon. — See Indulgence.
Pardoner, one that trafficked in relics and
indulgences. He is thus described by Chaucer : —
"But of his craft, from Berwick unto Ware,
Ne was there such another pardonere;
For in his mail he had a pillowbere,
Which, as he saide, was our Lady's veiL
He said, he had a gobbet ofthe sail
That Saint Peter had, when that he went
Upon the sea, till Jesu Christ him hent.
He had a cross of laton full of stones.
And in a glass he hadde' pigges bones.
But with these relics, whenne that he fond
A poore parson dwelling upon lond,
Upon a day he gat him more money
Than that the parson gat in monetlis tway;
And thus with feigned flattering and japes,
He made the parson, and the people, his apes."

481

21

PAR
Parents and Children. — By the old Roman
law parents had power of life and death over their
children, and in certain cases could sell them
into slavery without redemption. The Theodosian
code modified this rigour, by taking away the
power of life and death, allowing children to be
redeemed if sold, and, if in danger of being sold,
to be maintained out of the public revenue.
But as long as children were under age parents
had still considerable power over them. Children
were not allowed to forsake their parents on pre
text of adopting a religious life, till the time of
Justinian; nor, as the rule of Basil implies, could
they enter a monastery without their parents' con
sent. They were taken as a parental gift, if their
parents gave their sanction. Nor were parents,
as Augustine testifies, to disinherit their children
in order to enrich the Church. The good father
returned an estate to a son which an angry
parent had willed to ecclesiastical purposes.
Sometimes, however, parents dedicated their
children to the Church from infancy, and young
persons were often employed as readers. They
were also carefully trained at home in the know
ledge of the holy Scriptures. Children were
likewise enjoined not to marry against the will
of their parents, who claimed by law the right
so to dispose of them. Thus the Theodosian code,
— " If any one, without first obtaining the con
sent of parents, steal a virgin against her will,
or carry her off by her own consent, hoping that
her consent will protect him, he shall have no
benefit from such consent, as the ancient laws
have determined ; but the virgin herself shall be
held guilty as partaker in the crime. If any nurse
be instrumental or accessory to the fact by her
persuasions, which often defeat the parents' care,
her detestable service shall be revenged by pour
ing molten lead into her mouth that ministered
to such wicked counsels. If the virgin be de
tected to have given her consent, she shall be
punished with the same severity as the raptor
himself, seeing she that is stolen away against
her will is not suffered to go unpunished, because
she might have kept herself at home ; or, if she
was taken by violence out of her father's house,
she should have cried out for help to the neigh
bourhood, and used all means possible to defend
herself. But on such we impose only a lighter
punishment, denying them the right of succeed
ing to their father's inheritance. But the raptor
himself, being clearly convicted, shall have no
benefit of appeal. If parents, who are chiefly
concerned to prosecute the crime, connive at it,
they shall be banished. All who are partners
or assistants to the raptor shall be liable to the
same punishment, without distinction or sex.
And if any such he slaves, they shall be burnt
alive." The raptor, in some cases, was put to
death. Parish Clerk. — See Clere.
Parishes (from va^tixia, a dwelling near).
— A parish and a diocese were originally the

PAR
same, denoting a city, with the towns and the
country round about. In the fourth and
fifth centuries we find both names promis
cuously given as well to country parishes as
episcopal or city churches. For now these
smaller divisions of dioceses began to be called
"parochiae" — parishes, as also "tituli" — titles,
in contradistinction to the bishop's church, being
such churches as had particular presbyters and
deacons assigned to them, who, upon that ac
count, are said to have a title — -See Title.
Necessity, no doubt, and convenience gave rise
to the division of parishes ; for when the num
ber of believers so increased in large and popu
lous cities, that a single church could not main
tain them, there was a necessity of erecting
other churches. Rome had above forty churches
in it before the end of the third century. In
France the council of Vaison speaks of country
parishes in the beginning of the fifth century.
In England we have not so early an account
of them, because the records we have remain
ing of the ancient British Church make no
mention of parishes. Dugdale and others think
Honorius, the fifth Archbishop of Canterbury,
divided so much of the nation as was converted
into parishes about the year 640; but others
understand this division rather of dioceses than
parishes. Parishes were probably divided in Eng
land about the latter end of the seventh century.
Parish churches were served in common by
the clergy of the bishop's church. In country
churches presbyters were more early fixed, and
peculiarly appropriated to them. Settlement
in a parish, whether in city or country, did
not immediately entitle a man to the revenue
arising from that cure, whether in tithes, ob
lations, or any other kind ; for anciently all
church revenues were delivered into the com
mon stock of the bishop's church, whence,
by direction and approbation of the bishop, a
monthly or annual division was made among
the clergy under his jurisdiction. At Constan
tinople no parish church had any appropriated
revenues till the middle of the fifth century.
In the Western Church, particularly in Spain,
in the middle of the sixth century, the bishops
and city clergy had still their revenues out of a
common fund. — See Mensa. But the country
clergy were upon a different footing; and from
this time we may date the appropriation of
revenues in Spain to the country parochial
churches. In Germany and France the reve
nues of the parochial churches seem to have
continued in the hands of the bishops some
ages longer. Broughton says, — " Some are of
opinion that the bishops had their portion of the
ecclesiastical revenues, with the parochial clergy,
for a considerable time after the first settle
ment of parishes ; for they suppose that origi
nally the bishop's cathedral was the only church
in a diocese from whence itinerant or occasional
preachers were sent to convert the country people,

482

PAR
who for some time resorted to the cathedral for
divine worship. Afterwards, by degrees, other
Churches were built ft>r the conveniency of such
as were at too great a distance from the ca
thedral, some by the liberality of the people
themselves, others by the bishops, and others
by the Saxon kings; but chiefly the lords of
manors were the great instruments in this work
of founding parish churches. The bishops seem
voluntarily to have relinquished their title to
parochial revenues, though whether they made
any canon about it is uncertain." In England
there are about 10,700 parishes, and in Scotland,
as recognized by law, 948. The parishes vary
much in size, being probably at first of the
same area and bounds as the manor of him
who built or endowed the parish churches. —
See Churchwardens ; Heritors; Glebe;
Manse; Rates, Church.
In England the legislature alone can alter
the bounds of a parish, but in Scotland the
Court of Session, with the consent of three-
fourths of the heritors, can disjoin a portion
of a parish, and order the erection of a new
church. A parish quoad saci-a is an ecclesiasti
cal district for religious purposes only, and does
not affect the management of the poor. Though
disjoined quoad sacra, such a district may remain
attached quoad dvilia. In Massachusetts a par
ish signifies an ecclesiastical society, without local
reference, — that is, the inhabitants of a town who
belong to one church, though they live among
people belonging to different churches.
Parish Schools. — See SCHOOLS.
Parson (persona ecclesice), in law, properly
signifies the rector of a parish church, because
during the time of his incumbency he represents
the church, and in the eye of the law sustains
the person thereof, as well in suing as in being
sued in any action touching the same. A parson
has during his life the freehold in himself of the
parsonage-house, the glebe, the tithes, and other
dues. The distinction between a parson and a
vicar is, that the parson has for the most part
the whole right to all the ecclesiastical dues in
his parish ; but a vicar has generally an appro
priator over him, who is entitled to the best part
of the profits. In order to become a parson,
where the parsonage is not appropriated, four
requisites are necessary : Holy Orders, Present
ation, Institution, and Induction (see these
terms), and when a clerk is presented, insti-
tuted, and inducted into a rectory, he is then,
and not before, in full and complete possession,
and is called in law, persona impersonata, or
parson imparsonee. One may cease to be a
parson, by death, cession in taking another bene
fice, consecration, promotion to a bishopric, resig
nation, or lastly, deprivation, either by sentence
of the ecclesiastical court, or in pursuance of
divers penal statutes, which declare the bene
fice void for some neglect or crime. It is j
the duty of the parson to keep the chancel of

PAS
the church in repair. — See Cession, Depriva
tion. Parvise or Paradise, the name given to
the court in front of a church, which is usually
surrounded with cloisters. The name is also
given sometimes to a churchyard. The cloister-
garth at Chichester is still called paradise ; and
the space round a church is usually termed
parvise in France. The latter term is often,
however, employed to denote a room over the
porch of a church, which is often used for a
Ubrary. Pasagii, a party of Judaizing Christians of
the twelfth century in Lombardy, who, as far as
possible, practised the Levitical ritual, and held
Ebionite views of the person of Christ. They
stood at the extreme from the Manichseans in
their opinion of the authority of the Jewish
Scriptures. Pasch (Passover, Easter.) — Thus spoke
King James VI. at a meeting of the general
assembly in 1590: — "He praised God that he
was born in such a place as to be king in such
a kirk, the purest kirk in the world. The kirk
of Geneva," continued his majesty, "keepeth
Pasch and Yule. What have they for them ?
They have no institution." — See Easter, Good
Friday, Lent.
Paschal Controversy. — See Easter.
Paschal Light or Taper. — See Lychno-
SCOPE. Passalorynchites, a party of Montanists
who observed perpetual silence, giving literal
obedience to Psalm cxli. 3, " Set a watch, 0 Lord,
before my mouth; keep the door of my lips."
Jerome found some of them in Galatia, obeying
this miserable literalism.
Passing BeU. — Canon lxvii. of the Church
of England enacts, — " When any is passing
out of this life a hell shall be tolled, and the
minister shall not then slack to do his last duty.
And after the party's death, if it so fall out,
there shall be rung no more than one short peal,
and one other before the burial, and one other
after the burial."
Passion Week, the week preceding Easter,
and so called from the Lord's passion, or suffer
ings and death, being supposed to have hap
pened on it  See Easter, Lent, Day. Of
this week Chrysostom says, — " It was called the
Great Week, not because it consisted of longer
days, or more in number than other weeks, but
because at this time great things were wrought
for us by our Lord. For in this week the an
cient tyranny of the devil was dissolved, death
was extinguished, the strong man was bound,
his goods were spoiled, sin was abolished,
the curse was destroyed, paradise was opened,
heaven became accessible, men and angels were
joined together, the middle wall of partition was
broken down, the barriers were taken out of the
way, the God of Peace made peace between
things in heaven and things in earth ; therefore

483

PAS
it is called the Great Week. And as this is the
head of all other weeks, so the Great Sabbath is
the head of this week. Therefore, in this week,
many increase their labours, some adding to
their fastings, others to their watchings, others
give more literal alms, testifying the greatness
of the divine goodness by their care of good
works and more intense piety and holy living."
Passover, one of the names anciently given
to the Lord's Supper. — See Eucharist.
Pastophoria, chambers apparently on either
side of the church, the gazophylacium being
included among them. According to the Apos
tolic Constitutions the deacons carried the remains
of the Eucharist into these buildings. The word
was taken from Ezekiel xl. 17, where it signi
fies the chambers in the outer court of the
temple. The pastophorus, in Egypt, was the
priest who carried the sacred pastos or shawl,
and thus the word crept into the Alexandrian
version. — See Church, Exedra, Gazophy
lacium. Pastor (shepherd), a general name of Chris
tian ministers, and one found in Scripture, and
containing the two ideas of spiritual teaching
and government. — See Doctor.
Pastoral Staff. — See Crosier.
Pastoral Theology. — See Theology.
Patareni. — As in the East, so in the West,
Gnostic speculations had in all probability con
tinued to exist, though by secret tradition. In
point of fact, we know that the Vandals had
transported shiploads of Manichseans to the
shores of Italy, while tbe Priscillianists openly
avowed their tenets in Spain so late as the
seventh century. Probably, however, the move
ment issued again from the East, in all likeli
hood from Bulgaria, where, since the time the
Paulicians had settled in that district, Gnostic
and Manichcean views were widely entertained
and zealously propagated. Even the names of
these sects prove the correctness of this assertion.
The most general designation was that of
Cathari (xaSagti); but they were also called
Bulgari (whence, in popular parlance, the
opprobrious name Bougre) or Gazari, perhaps
after the inhabitants of the Crimea (the Chazars),
or else a different mode of pronouncing the word
xaS-a^ti, and Publicani, probably a transposition
by which the foreign term of Paulicians was
converted into a well-known term of reproach.
They were also designated Patareni or Paterini,
either in the original sense of thai: term, or
because, since the contest between the Pataria
at Milan and the clergy, the term implied in
general a spirit of hostility to the priesthood.
The name of Tisserands originated from the
circumstance that many of their adherents were
weavers by trade. The common characteristic
of all these sects was opposition to the clergy and
the hierarchy. They differed in the extent to
which, and the grounds on which, they opposed
the prevailing ecclesiasticism, or attempted to 484

PAT
set up a church of their own.

Several of the
charges preferred against them may probably
have arisen from misunderstanding or calumny —
See Bogomiles, Paulicians. (See Kurtz.)
Pataria of Milan. — Among the Lombard
clergy simony, concubinage, and marriage of
priests were very common. Accordingly, the
changes introduced by Hildebrand met with
most strenuous resistance from them. The op
position was headed by Wido (Guido), Arch
bishop of Milan, whom Henry IIL, had, in
1046, appointed to that diocese. Wido was
supported by the nobility and clergy. But two
deacons, Ariald and Landulf Cotta, organized a
conspiracy among the common people, which
their opponents, by way of derision, designated
pataria, paterini (i. e., blackguards). The papal
party adopted this name, and began a warfare
against married priests, which for thirty years
led to continual scenes of violence and bloodshed.
Paten, the plate on which the sacramental
bread is placed.
Pater noster (our Father), the first words
of the Lord's Prayer in Latin, and used to
signify sometimes the rosary, and sometimes
every tenth large bead, at which devotees repeat
the Lord's Prayer, saying at the nine inter
vening ones only an Ave Maria. — See Mary,
Rosary. Patres (fathers). — Bishops were called
"patres," " patres ecclesice" "patres clericorum"
and "patres patrum" — fathers, fathers of the
church, fathers of the clergy, and fathers of the
fathers, according to the Oriental idiom, by which
every teacher or governor is respectfully entitled
" abba " — father. Presbyters were called "patres
laicorum," and simply "patres " — fathers of
the laity, fathers ; the term patres patrum was
applied to their superiors. So that the name
"papa" — pope, is a term of reverence and affec
tion, corresponding to a$fia, vdvvas. This
title Of papa was first given to the Bishop of
Alexandria, and the first Bishop of Rome who
assumed it in any public document was Siri
cius, a.d. 384. It was not, however, employed
officially until the time of Leo the Great ; and
it was afterwards applied exclusively to the
Bishop of Rome, according to an order of
Gregory the Great This ancient title was
attributed to all bishops alike, until about
the sixth century. Jerome, for example, in
writing to Augustine, salutes him as Domine
vere sancte et beatissime papa (Ep. 94) ; and he
gives the same title to other bishops. The
Bishop of Constantinople was anciently called
iirbis papa ; and the Bishop of Rome, in like
manner, urbis papa, or Romance urbis papa, and
simply papa. The title continued in general
use through the fifth and sixth centuries. — See
Abbot, Fathers, Papa, Pope.
Patriarch. — Anciently, all bishops were
called patriarchs, because they were recog
nized as fathers of their own respective churches,

PAT
the members of which constituted their several
spiritual families; but when certain sees rose
to great eminence above the rest, such as
Rome and Constantinople, the title was given
the bishops of those sees as their appropriate
designation. When the title of patriarchs,
as an official designation, was first introduced
has been a matter of dispute : Baronius, Schel-
strate, and others, contend for an apostolic
origin, deriving it from St. Peter, as they do the
pope's supremacy ; others assert that patriarchs
took their rise a short time previous to the council
of Nice; and a third party, among whom is
Balzamon, and other Greek writers, maintain
that they were first instituted by that council.
In confutation of the last opinion, it may be
stated that the evidence in favour of an earlier
origin is too strong to be easily set aside ; and
further, that the words of Jerome, upon which
the error is founded, refer to the canonical confir
mation of those rights, titles, and privileges which
custom had already established, and not to tbe
creation of any new dignities. And notwith
standing the acknowledgments of the patriarchal
title by the council of Nice, it is yet doubtful
whether any supremacy was then ceded to the
five patriarchates of Rome, Constantinople, Jer
usalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, over the me
tropolitans of provinces. By degrees, however,
the supremacy of the patriarchate rose paramount
to all other ecclesiastical dignities ; for we find
that about the close of the fourth century the
established privileges of the patriarchs included,
among other things, the right of consecrating
bishops, summoning district councils, appointing
vicars for remote provinces, invested with their
own authority, and giving a decisive judgment
in those cases of appeal which came before them
from other courts. In short, nothing was done
without consulting them, and their decrees were
executed with the same regularity and respect
as those of princes.
The patriarch by eminence is the supreme
head of the Greek Church. He resides at
Constantinople, and is styled the thirteenth
apostle. The right of election is vested in
the archbishops and bishops, but the power
of confirming the appointment is exercised by
the Turkish emperor, who exacts twenty-five
thonsand crowns, and sometimes more, on the
occasion of the patriarch's instalment Besides
this immense sum, the various fees of the min
isters of state and other officers swell the oppres
sive amount so much, that the patriarch is
generally encumbered with heavy debts during
the period of his patriarchate. Before an election,
it is usual for the bishops to apply to the grand
vizier for his license to proceed ; he replies by
summoning them to his presence, when he de
mands if they are fully determined to proceed
with the election. Being answered in the affir
mative, his consent is then given. The election
over, the vizier presents the patriarch with a

PAT
white horse, a black capnche, a crosier, and an
embroidered caftan. A pompous and magnifi
cent procession is then formed, consisting of the
patriarch, attended by a long train of Turkish
officers, the Greek clergy, and a vast concourse of
people. The patriarch is received at the church
door by the principal archbishops, who hold wax
tapers in their hands ; and the Bishop of Hera-
clea, as chief archbishop, takes him by the hand
and conducts him to his throne, by whom he
is invested with the insignia of his office. When
the patriarch subscribes any ecclesiastical docu
ment his title is, "By the mercy of God, Arch
bishop of Constantinople, the new Rome, and
(Ecumenical Patriarch." Besides the Patriarch of
Constantinople, there are the inferior Patriarchs
of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. These
acknowledge the superiority, and in all im
portant matters, the authority of "the thirteenth
apostle." Patrimony, a name applied in mediaeval
times to the estates or revenues of churches.
— See Revenue, Church.
Patripassians, a title given by their
opponents to those who deny the distinct person
ality of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. The
first to whom it was applied were the followers
of Praxeas, against whom Tertullian published,
about the year 200, one of his celebrated treatises.
Praxeas was a Phrygian, who had come to
Rome and exerted himself there with great effect
against the Montanists, whom the Roman bishop
was almost on the point of admitting into the
communion of the church. His peculiar views
on the Trinity were overlooked at the time.
But Tertullian shortly afterwards became a
Montanist, and as such had a double motive for
attacking Praxeas and his followers. His
treatise is our chief authority for the opinions
they held, but there is some obscurity about
it. From some passages it would appear that
Praxeas admitted no distinctions in the godhead
previous to the appearing of God in the person
of Christ, From others it rather seems that he
supposed him to have manifested himself as the
Son under the old dispensation. But there can
be no doubt that Praxeas believed, as the Sabel-
lians did after him, that Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost were merely names for the different modes
under which one and the same person operated
or manifested himself. And Tertullian argued
that if this view was carried out to its legitimate
consequences, it must be admitted that the
Father was born of the Virgin Mary, and suffered
on the cross. — See Monarchians, Sabellians.
Patristics, the life, history, and literary
character of the fathers of the Church-,-
Patrology, the doctrinal and ethical systems
found in their writings.
Patronage, the right which, about the
fifth century, those who built and endowed
churches acquired to present a minister to them.
The name is from the Latin "patronus" — one who

485

PAT
took another under his protection.— See Elec
tion of Pastors. The founders of churches
had been mentioned in the public prayers at
an earlier period. The council of Orange,
in 441, granted the right to bishops to present
clergy to churches founded by themselves,
and Justinian conceded the same right to lay
men and their heirs. At length, in the eighth
century, patronage became general. Patronum
fadunt dos, adificatio, fundus, was the current
maxim of the canon law. Churches were some
times built by patrons on speculation, the
builders pocketing the revenue; but the synod of
Braga, 572, forbade bishops to consecrate them
on such conditions. In the time of Charlemagne
patronages were bought and sold. In the
twelfth century the popes began to interfere
with the patronage of churches, and to ask, by
means of a papal brief, presentations in favour
of some friends, but such requests gradually grew
into commands, the preces into mandata. Ulti
mately the claim, when resisted, was enforced, so
that papal nominees soon filled the most impor
tant places. The collation allowed for a time to
the patrons after this period was only a decent
form. But in 1210, Pope Innocent III. claimed
absolute right to dispose of all vacant benefices.
The way was thus opened up for the grossest
simoniacal practices, so that, prior to the Refor
mation, joint-stock companies sometimes bought
presentations from papal agents in wholesale
quantities, and retailed them at great profit.
A lay patron, if he presented an unqualified
person, might correct his error, and make another
choice, but the ecclesiastical patron in these cir
cumstances took his right for that turn. No
ecclesiastical patron could present bimself, and
no patron could present unless there were a
vacancy, but the pope occasionally gifted away
the reversion of benefices. — See Investiture,
Provisors. In the Church of England, the
greater part of the benefices are presentative 
See Advowson ; England, Church op.
Patronage arose in Scotland as in other coun
tries. Ecclesiastics in popish times engrossed the
most of them. Of the parochial benefices, amount
ing to nearly a thousand, all except 262 had been
annexed permanently, by grant of the patrons,
to abbacies and other religious institutions which
came in place of the rector, and as such drew
the tithes; while the spiritual duty was per
formed either by a member of the establishment,
or a stipendiary substitute, no presentation being
ever required to be made, as the benefice
was always full by the continued existence
of the abbacy or other religious institution
to which it had been granted. Three-fourths
of the benefices were in the hands of ecclesias
tical patrons. When King James assumed
the reins of government, he resorted to the
practice of including a right of presenting
to the annexed churches, in his erections of
the greater benefices into temporal lordships

PAT
re-erecting the parochial benefices, and sub
jecting them to patronage. In 1567 parlia
ment passed an "Act anent the admission of them
that shall be presented to benefices having cure
of ministry." " It shall be lawful to the patron,"
so runs the statute, " to appeal to the superin
tendent and ministers of that province where the
benefice lies, and desire the person presented to
be admitted, which if they refuse, — to appeal to
the general assembly of the whole realm, by
whom the cause being decided, shall take end as
they decern and declare." The First Book of
Discipline says, — " It appertaineth to the people,
and to every several congregation, to elect their
minister. No man suld enter in the ministrie
without ane lawfuU vocatioun. The lawful!
vocatioun standeth in the electioun of the peopilL
examinatioun of the ministrie, and admissioun
be thame baith. The extraordinar vocatioun
has ane uther consideratione, seing it is wrocht
only be God inwartlie in nienis hartis. No
minister suld be intrused upon any particular
kirk without thair consent ; bot gif ony kirk be
negligent to elect, than the superintendent with
his counsail suld provyde ane qualifeit man
within fortie dayis." The Second Book qf Dis-
dpline declares, — " Election is the chusing out of
a person or persons maist abile to the office that
vaikes, be the judgement of the elderschip and
consent of the congregation, to whom the person
or persons beis appointed. The qualities in
generall requisite in all them wha sould beir charge
in the kirk, consist in soundness of religion and
godlines of lyfe, according as they ar sufficiently
set furth in the Word. In this ordinar election
it is to be eschewit, that na person be intrusit
in ony of the offices of the kirk contrar to
the will of the congregation to whom they ar
appointed, or without the voce of the elderschip."
In 1649 the parliament passed an act abolishing
patronage ; but in 1660 this act was cancelled.
In 1690 lay patronage was also done away by
parliament, pecuniary compensation being voted
to the patrons. According to this act, " the heri
tors of the parish, being protestants, and the
elders, were to name and propose the person to
the whole congregation, to be approven or disap-
proven by them." But under Queen Anne, in
1712, patronage was unexpectedly restored, the
patrons retaining, however, the compensation
which had previously been given them in 1690.
The general assembly often remonstrated against
it, but in vain. As, however, the moderate party
gained the ascendency, the hostility to patronage
ceased. The Secession and Relief had in the
meantime both gone off, the second altogether on
account of the violent enforcement of patronage.
Matters began to change not long after the
beginning of the present century ; anti-patronage
feeling grew stronger and stronger, the voluntary
controversy stirred the country, and in 1834 was
passed the veto act. In 1842 a motion for the
entire abolition of patronage was carried in tbe

486

PAU
general assembly by 216 votes to 147. — See
Jus Devolutum, Non-intrusionists, Veto.
Patronage is now regulated in the Church by
what is called Lord Aberdeen's Act, which
allows the presbytery to pay regard to the char
acter and number of objectors, and to judge
whether, in all the circumstances, it be for edifi
cation that the settlement take place. A statute
so vague is apt to be interpreted so as to pro
duce widely different results.
Paul, Festival of the Conversion of,
a feast held by the Church of Rome on the 25th
of January. — See Peter.
Paulians, or Paulianists, or Samosa-
tians, the followers of Paul of Samosata, who
was made Bishop of Antioch in 260, and deposed
by the unanimous sentence of a great council
held in that city in 269 or 270. The council
had assembled in 265, but had broken up with
out making a formal decision, deceived, it is said,
by a, promise from Paul to alter his opinions.
He was Gharged with reviving the heresy of
Artemon, denying that the Son of God came
down from heaven, and teaching that Jesus
Christ was a mere man "from below." We
learn this from Eusebius, and from what he has
preserved of an encyclical letter issued by the
council, which also contains very serious charges
against Paul of rapacity, arrogance, and vanity,
and even of licentious conduct. For a fuller
account of his heretical opinions, we are obliged
to have recourse to Epiphanius and others; and
Dr. Burton has endeavoured to show that he
believed Jesus to be a mere man, who became
Christ by being united to the Mind or Reason of
God. He refused to submit to the decision of
the council, and the exercise of Aurelian's autho
rity to enforce their decree is memorable as the
earliest instance on record of the interference of
the secular power in the internal affairs of the
Church. — See Artemonites.
Paulicians, a sect which originated in
Armenia, with one Constantine, about the year
660. Their name was probably derived from
their high esteem for the Apostle Paul. But
they were undoubtedly believers in two princi
ples ; while they combined with this dualism a
high value for the universal use of the Scripture,
a rejection of all external forms in religion, and
a special abhorrence of the use of images.
They were charged by their enemies with gross
immorality, and at one time there seems to
have been good ground for the accusation.
Baanes, their leader, at the end of the eighth
century, was notorious for his immorality ; but
about the year 800, a reformer arose among
them, named Sergius, whose opposition to this
immorality, together with his exertions to extend
the sect, gained him the reputation of a second
founder. Both before and after this reform they
were subject to much bitter persecution, and
many of them were driven to take refuge among
the Saracens, where they met with toleration and

PEC
security. About 844 the adherents of Baanes
united with the Sergists under Karbeas as their
leader, and supported by the Saracens, they were
able to make successful inroads upon the Byzan
tine territories, and in 867 reached as far as
Ephesus; but they were overpowered and forced
to submit, and in 970 the greater part of them
were removed into the neighbourhood of Philip-
popolis, in Thrace, where they were allowed
religious freedom.
Pauperes (poor men). — Thus, " pauperes
Catholid " — poor Catholics, a name given to an
order founded in the twelfth century, and consist
ing of Waldenses who had been won over to
the Church. "Pauperes Christi" — poor men of
Christ, an order composed of persons of both
sexes, which arose also in the twelfth century,
but had no distinctive peculiarities. " Pauperes
de Lombardia" — poor men of Lombardy, a
provincial name given to the Waldenses.
Pax (peace), same as Osculatorium.
Pax Vobiscum (peace be with you). — This
salutation has been used in public worship from
the earliest period to which our information
on such subjects extends, Tertullian is sup
posed to allude to it when he complains of the
heretics, — " quod pacem cum omnibus misceant."
Ambrose, Augustine, and especially Chrysostom,
speak of it as in constant use. " When the
bishop first enters the church he says, ' peace be
unto you all.' When he rises up to preach, he does
not begin before he has given the ' peace to all.'
When the priests are about to make the benedic
tion prayers, they first use this salutation, and
then begin their benedictions. When the deacon
dismisses you from this assembly, he prays for
you in the same manner, saying, ' Go in peace.'"
— Chrysostom's Third Homily on Colossians. In
other homilies he speaks of this salutation as
used more than once in the celebration of tbe
Lord's Supper, and mentions also the ordinary
response of the people to the minister's " Peace
be with you," — viz., " And with thy spirit."
Pectorale (breast-covering), same as Pal
lium. — See Pallium.
Peculiar, in law, is an exempt jurisdiction,
which is not subject to the ordinary of the dio
cese in which it is locally situated, but has an
ordinary of its own. There are various kinds of
peculiars, — 1. Royal peculiars, subject only to
the king. 2. Archbishops' peculiars, exclusive
of the jurisdiction of bishops and archdeacons.
3. Bishops' peculiars, exclusive of the jurisdiction
of the bishop of the diocese in which they are
situated. 4. Peculiars of bishops in their own
diocese, exclusive of archidiaconal jurisdiction.
5. Peculiars of deans, deans and chapters, pre
bendaries, and the like, which are places wherein,
by ancient compositions, the bishops have parted
with their jurisdiction. Under the statute 1
George I. and II., c. 10, all donatives (which
are in their nature peculiars) receiving augmen
tation from Queen Anne's bounty are thence-

487

PED
forth to become subject to the jurisdiction of the
bishop of the diocese. — See Donative.
Pedilavium (washing of feet). — See Wash
ing op Feet.
Pelagians. — Pelagius, sometimes sumamed
Brito, is usually supposed to have been a native of
this country, his Greek name being a translation
of his Celtic one — Morgan. The opinions which
he afterwards advocated were probably the growth
of many years ; for at first, during his residence
in Rome, whither he came in the year 400, he
was noted only for his earnest zeal and austere
activities. He had even the address to hold
intercourse with Augustine, when he visited
Africa, and also with Jerome, without his being
suspected of heresy. At length the agitation
commenced. Pelagius, who had meanwhile gone
to the East, was accused before John of Jerusa
lem and the synod of Diospolis, but acquitted,
though he was formally anathematized by Pope
Innocentius in a.d. 417. The tenets of Pela
gius, as charged upon him by the council of
Carthage, are comprised in the following parti
culars: — 1. That Adam had mortality in his
nature, and whether he had sinned or not would
certainly have died. 2. That the consequences
of Adam's sin were confined to his own person,
and the rest of mankind were not involved in it.
3. That the law qualified men for the kingdom
of heaven, and was founded on equal promises
with the Gospel. 4. That before the coming of
our Saviour there were some men who lived
without sin. 5. That newly born infants are
in the same condition with Adam before his fall.
6. That the death and disobedience of Adam is
not the necessary cause of death to all mankind,
neither does the general resurrection of the dead
follow in virtue of our Saviour's resurrection.
7. That if man exert himself to the utmost he
may keep the Divine commands without diffi
culty, and preserve himself in a state of inno
cence. 8. That unless rich men parted with
their whole estates their virtues would be of no
avail, notwithstanding the advantage of their
baptism, neither could they be qualified for the
kingdom of heaven. 9. That the grace and
assistance of God are not granted for the perfor
mance of every moral act; the liberty of the
will and information in the points of duty being
sufficient for this purpose. 10. That the grace
of God is given in proportion to human merit.
11. That none can be called the sons of God
unless they are perfectly free from sin. 12.
That our victory over temptation is not gained
by God's assistance, but by the liberty of the
will. A more palatable modification of the doc
trines of Pelagius was given by Cassian, a monk,
who came from the East into France, and erected
a monastery near Marseilles. Vitalis of Car
thage, however, has been thought by some to be
its author. In Gaul the doctrines of Cassian
spread with great rapidity, but they were com
bated by Prosper and Hilary. The leading

PEN
principles of the semi-Pelagians have been thus
stated,— 1. That God did not dispense his grace
to one' more than another, in consequence of an
absolute and eternal decree, but was willing to
save all men if they complied with the terms
ofthe Gospel. 2. That Christ died for all man
kind. 3. That the grace purchased by Christ,
and necessary to salvation, was offered to all
men. 4. That man before he received this grace
was capable of faith and holy desires. 6. That
man was born free, and was consequently capable
of resisting the influences of grace, or of com
plying with its suggestions. — See Arminianism,
Calvinism, Predestination.
Pelican. — A figure ot this bird "vulning
herself"— that is, feeding her young with her
own blood — was common in old churches, the
allusion being obvious. A brass pelican was
employed as a lectern prior to the use of the
eagle. — See Eagle, Lectern.
Penal Laws, laws enacted for the secular
punishment of those who are supposed to be in
religious error. Thus the laws against noncon
formists in England were as follows: — "1. An
act for well governing and regulating corpora
tions, 13 Car. II., c. 1. By this act all who bear
office in any city, corporation, town, or borough,
were required to take the oaths and subscribe
the declaration therein mentioned, and to receive
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according
to the rites of the Church of England. This
turned the dissenters out of the government of
all corporations. 2. The Act of Uniformity,
14 Car. II., t. 4. By it all parsons, vicars,
and ministers, who enjoyed any preferment in
the church, were obliged to declare their un
feigned assent and consent to everything con
tained in the Book of Common Prayer, &c. or
be ipso facto deprived ; and all schoolmasters
and tutors were prohibited from teaching youth
without license from the archbishop or bishop,
under pain of three months' imprisonment. 3.
An act to prevent and suppress seditious conven
ticles, 16 Car. II., c. 4, in which it was declared
unlawful to be present at any meeting for re
ligious worship, except according to the usage
of the Church of England, where five besides
the family should be assembled. First and
second offences were made subject to a certain
fine, or three months' imprisonment, on con
viction before » justice of the peace on the
oath of a single witness ; and the third offence,
on conviction at the sessions, or before the
justices of assize, was punishable hy transportation
for seven years. 4. An act for restraining
nonconformists from inhabiting in corporations,
17 Car. IL, c. 2. By it all dissenting min
isters, who would not take an oath therein speci
fied against the lawfulness of taking up arms
against the king on any pretence whatsoever,
and that they would never attempt any altera
tion of government in church and state, were
banished five miles from all corporation towns,
488

PEN
and subject to a fine of £40 in case they should
preach in any conventicle. 5. Another act
to prevent and suppress seditious conventicles,
22 Car. IL, c. 5. Any persons who teach
in such conventicles were subject to a penalty
of £20 for the first, and £40 for every subse
quent offence; and any person who permitted
such a conventicle to be held in their bouse is
liable to a fine of £20 ; and justices of peace
were empowered to break open doors where they
are informed such conventicles are held, and
take the offenders into custody. 6. An act
for preventing dangers which may happen from
popish recusants, commonly called the Test Act,
whereby every person is incapacitated from hold
ing a place of trust under the government, with
out taking the sacrament according to the rites
of the Church of England."
It may be added, that in Scotland about
1568 it was enacted that every examinable girl
or stripling must communicate in the parish
church or pay a fine. In 1600 and in 1641
fines were imposed on all non-communicants
above fifteen years of age. Dr. Lee prints portion
of a session record, in which occurs the follow
ing: — " Megget, spous to Thomas Clark, in
Rosline, and Helen Denholme, spous to James
Clerk, yr, for not communicating at this last
communion, confessit, and credit them never to
omit the said occasion, and payet 10s. Aug.
22. — Two men iu Roslin, for not communicating,
were penitent, and payed everie ane of them
4s. 6d." Severe laws were enacted against
Papists or trafficking priests, and again, against
all who would not conform to prelacy in the days
of the Stuarts. Ministers were banished and for
bidden to preach, and torture from the thumbkin
and boot in many cases was resorted to. Pro
testant penal laws against Papists are as bad in
principle as popish penal laws against Protes
tants. As late as 1700, in Scotland, a statute
was sanctioned by King William to the follow
ing effect : — It re-enacts a great number of tbe
old acts which make the hearing of mass a
capital punishment, impose fines and imprison
ment upon every man who should harbour
Papists, or sell them books, or remove their
children out of the country without the authority
of the presbytery. It then goes on to state at
great length : 1. That every one who shall seize
a popish priest in the country shall receive a
reward from government ; and if the priest shall
attempt to conceal his profession, he shall be
banished; and if he should return, be put to
death. 2. If any person whatever shall be found
in a place where there are any of the vestments
or images used in popish worship, and refuse to
purge himself of Popery, he shall be banished,
with certificate of death if he shoald return.
3. That the children of Papists shall be taken
from them by their Protestant relations. 4. No
papist shall purchase land ; and should he do so,
and the seller come to the knowledge of the fact,

PEN
he shall retain both the price and the land, and
the Papist shall have no redress. 5. That no
Papist, above fifteen years of age, shall inherit any
property left to him by another; and when he
comes to fifteen years of age, if he does not then
become a Protestant, it shall be again taken from
him. 6. That it shall not be in the power of
any Papist to sell and dispone any heritable
property whatever. 7. That no money can be
left to any Roman Catholic institution. 8. That
if any person apostatize from Protestantism to
Romanism, he shall forfeit his estate to his next
Protestant heir. 9. That no Papist can be a
curator, a factor, a schoolmaster, a teacher of any
kind whatever. 10. That no Protestant shall
keep a domestic servant who is a Papist.
11. The presbytery of the bounds has power to
apply the oath of purgation, which was as solemn
and inquisitorial as man could frame it When
will men learn that the forcible repression of
opinion is not the way to change it ? When it
was proposed to alter some of those last penal
laws, Scotland rose in terrible uproar, and the
first attempt had to be abandoned. Those who
enjoy freedom themselves will not allow it to
others; those who had smarted under Popery
made it smart in turn, for they had not learned
the lesson of toleration.- — See Magistrates. For
examples, Bee under Sabbath ; Swearing,
Propane : and for the mannner in which fines
so levied were often applied, see under Poor.
Penance is the performance of some acts of
ecclesiastical discipline, enjoined or authoritatively
imposed either as a punishment for offences which
had exposed the party to the censures of the
church, or as an expression of his penitence.
During the severe persecutions which the Chris
tians suffered in the early ages of the Gospel,
many, through fear of tortures and death, aposta
tized from the faith. It frequently happened,
after the danger was past, that these persons
were desirous of returning to communion with
the church; but they were not re-admitted to
communion until they had made a public con
fession of their offence. In this manner confes
sion began tobeapartof ecclesiastical discipline •
and being thus, in the first instance, applied to a
crime of a public nature, it was afterwards ex
tended to private sin. Besides the shame of
public confession, the offending party was com
pelled to submit to public reproof, to acts of
penance, to exclusion from the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper, and to the temporary suspension
of all the privileges of a Christian.— See Peni
tents. During the fourth and fifth centuries
numerous councils were held for regulating the
nature and duration of ecclesiastical eensures,
and for settling the degree of discretionary power
to be vested in bishops for the purpose of relax
ing and shortening them, according to the cir
cumstances of the case. As public confession
was soon found to be attended with many in
conveniences, offenders were permitted to con-

489

PEN
fess their sins privately, either to the bishops
themselves or to priests deputed by them to
hear such confessions. When the punishment,
which was still public, though the sin remained
secret, was finished, the penitent was formally
received into the church by prayer and im
position of hands. In the fifth century public
penance was submitted to with difficulty and
reluctance; and it was thought expedient to
allow penance, in certain cases, to be performed
in monasteries, or in some private place, before
a small, select number of persons. This pri
vate penance was gradually extended to more
and more cases; and before the end of the
seventh century the practice of public penance
for private sins was entirely abolished. Strenu
ous opposition was made to this at first, but the
laxer custom prevailed. About the end of the
eighth century penance began to be commuted :
in the room of the ancient severities, prayers,
masses, and alms were substituted ; and in pro
cess of time the clergy of the Romish Church
gained such an ascendancy over the minds of
the people, as to persuade them that it was
th'eir duty to confess all their sins, however pri
vate or heinous, to the priests, who had power to
prescribe the conditions of absolution.
In the Romish Church penance is affirmed to
be " truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by
Christ our Lord, for the benefit of the faithful, to
reconcile them to God as often as they shall fall
into sin after baptism." — Council of Trent, sess.
14, can. i. Besides fasting, alms, abstinence,
which are the general conditions of penance in
the Romish Church, there are others of a more
particular kind, such as the repeating a certain
number of Ave Marias, paternosters, and cre
dos, the wearing hair shirts, self-flagellation,
&c The acts of the penitent are stated to be
the matter, as it were (quasi materia), of this
sacrament, the form of which resides in the
words of absolution (Ibid., sess. 14, cap. 3). The
following is the manner in which public penance
is inflicted in the Romish Church, according to
Gratian (Decret, pars i., Dist. I., c. 64, p.
290, Paris, 1612). On the first day of Lent the
penitents present themselves before the bishop,
clad in sackcloth, with naked feet, and eyes cast
down on the ground. This was to be done in
the presence of the principal clergy of the diocese,
by whom the penitents were introduced into the
church, where the bishop, weeping, and tlie rest
of the clergy repeated the seven penitential
psalms. Then, rising from prayers, they threw
ashes upon the penitents, and covered their heads
with sackcloth, declaring to them, with mourn
ful sighs, that as Adam was ejected from para
dise, so must they be turned out of the church.
The bishop then commanded the officers to turn
them out of the church doors ; and all the clergy
followed after, repeating the curse pronounced
upon Adam, — " In the sweat of thy face shalt
thou eat bread," (Genesis iii. 19). A similar

490

PEN
penance was inflicted upon them the next time
the sacrament was administered, which was the
Sunday following. All this was done to the end
that the penitents, observing in how great a dis
order the church was, by reason of their crimes,
should not lightly esteem of penance.
Instead of the ancient discipline practised
against offenders, the United Church of Eng
land and Ireland at present contents herself
with an office " called a commination, or de
nouncing of God's anger and judgments against
sinners," which is annually read on Ash- Wed
nesday after the morning service. Penance,
according to the ecclesiastical law of England,
is a punishment affecting the body of the
delinquent, by which he is obliged to give a
public satisfaction to the church, for the scandal
he has given by his example. In case of
incest or of incontinency, the offending party
is usually enjoined to do a public penance
in tbe cathedral or parish church, or in tbe
public market, bare-legged and bare-headed, in
a white sheet, and to make an open confession of
his crime in a prescribed form of words. This
penance is augmented or moderated according to
the quality of the fault and the discretion of the
judge. In smaller faults and scandals a public
satisfaction or penance, as the judge of the eccle
siastical court shall decree, is to be made before
the minister, churchwardens, or some of the
parishioners, respect being had to the quality
and circumstances of the offence; as in the case
of defamation or laying violent hands on a min
ister, or the like. And as these censures may
be modified by the judge's discretion, so also
they may be totally altered by the commutation
of penance, by the oblation of a sum of money
for pious uses, which shall be accepted as a
satisfaction of public penance. Anciently such
commutation money was to be applied to the
use of the church, in the same manner as fines,
in cases of civil punishment, are converted to
the use of the public (Burn, Ecclesiastical Law,
vol. iii., pp. 77, 80). In Scotland, in former
times, penance was done publicly in the churches.
— See Cutty Stool. Thus in the records of
the general assembly, 1576, we find this enact
ment, — " The kirk ordaynes sic persones as are
convict of incest or adulterie, and hes not stub
bornly contemnit the admonitions of the kirk,
nor sufferit the sentence of excommunication for
their offences, shall make publict repentance in
sackcloath, at their owne kirks, bareheaded and
barefooted, three severall dayes of preaching, and
after the said third day, to be receavit in the
societie of the kirk, in their owne cloathes. The
uthers that hes been excommunicat for their
offences shall present themselves bareheaded and
barefooted sax preaching dayes, and the last,
after sermone, to be receavit in their owne
cloathes, as said is. Give they be excommunicat
for their offences, they shall stand bareheaded at
the kirk doore, every preaching day, betwixt the

PEN
assemblies, secluded from prayers before and
after sermone, and then enter in the kirk, and
sit in the publick place bareheaded, all the tyme
of the sermons, and depart before the latter
prayer. The uthers that are not excommunicat
shall be placeit in the publick place where they
may be knawne from the rest ofthe people, bare
headed the tyme of the sermones, the minister
remembering them in his prayer in the tyme
after preaching ; all the saids persons to bring
their ministers' testimonialls to the next assem
bly of their behaviour in the meantyme, accor
ding to the act made thereupon be the kirk in
the 2d sessione, balden July 7, 1569." "No
superintendent nor commissioner, with advyce
of any particular kirk of their jurisdictione, may
dispense with the extreamitie of sackcloath pre-
scryvit be the acts of generall discipline, for any
pecuniall soume adpios usus." These laws were
impartially executed : peers and peeresses, as the
Earl and Countess of Argyle, Eari and Countess
of Arran — Arran being at the time prime min
ister — were laid under public censure. Felons
were subjected to such discipline, and then
executed. Penitential (Codex Pcenitentialis) is an
ecclesiastical book in the Romish Church, which
contains everything relating to the imposition
of penance and the reconciliation of penitents.
Such are the Roman Penitential, and the
Penitentials of Bede, and of Theodore of Tarsus,
Archbishop of Canterbury, &c.
Penitential Psalms. — These are usually
reckoned seven. The chief of them is Psalm
li., and the others are vi., xxv., xxxii., xxxv.,
xxxviii., and cxxx.
Penitentiaries, in the ancient Christian
Church, were certain presbyters, appointed in
every church to receive the private confessions
of the people; not in prejudice to the public
discipline, nor with the power of granting abso
lution before any penance was performed, but in
order to facilitate the exercise of public disci
pline by acquainting men what sins the laws of
the church required to be expiated by public
penance, and by directing them in the perform
ance of it, and to appoint private penance only
for such private crimes as were not proper to
be publicly censured, (Bingham, Orig. Eccles.,
book xviii., ch. iii.) The office of penitentiary
priests was abrogated in the East in the reign of
the Emperor Theodosius. It subsists, however,
to this day in the Romish Church, where the
penitentiaries are of various rank and dignity.
Thus there are — 1. The cardinal grand peni
tentiary, who presides over the tribunal of the
penitentiaries at Rome; and 2. Penitentiary
priests, established for the hearing of confessions
in the three patriarchal churches at Rome —
viz., those of the Vatican, the Lateran, and of
Santa Maria Maggiore. 3. Penitentiary priests,
established in the cathedral churches for the
purpose of absolving cases reserved to the

PEN
bishops of the several dioceses. The council of
Trent (sess. 24, c. 8) decreed that every bishop
should establish in his cathedral church a peni
tentiary, who must be either a master, a doctor,
or a licentiate in theology or in the canon law,
and of the age of forty years.
Penitents were usually divided into four
distinct classes, called by the Greeks srjair-
xXaitvTis, ax^od/isvtt, brovivrtwis, and trvvir-
ra/iivti; and by the Latins ./fates, audientes,
substrati, and consistentes — that is, the mourners
or weepers, hearers, kneelers, and co-standers.
Thefientes, or mourners, were rather candidates
for penance, than penitents strictly so called.
Their station was in the church porch, where,
according to Tertullian (De Pcenit., c. ix.), they
lay prostrate, imploring the prayers of the faith
ful as they went in, and desiring to be admitted
to the public penance of the church. The
audientes, or hearers, were those who, being
admitted to penance, had the privilege of entering
into the church ; in the narthex, or lowest part
of which they were allowed to stay, and hear the
Scriptures read and the sermon preached, but
they were obliged to depart before any of the
common prayers began. In this station they
were to continue one, two, or three years, accord
ing to the magnitude of their offence. The
substrati, or kneelers, were permitted to remain
in the church after the hearers had been dis
missed, and join in certain prayers which were
specially offered up for them while they were
kneeling, and to receive the bishop's benediction.
Their station was within the nave or body of the
church, near to the ambo, or reading-desk.
The consistentes, or co-standers, had the liberty,
after the other penitents were dismissed, to stand
with the faithful at the altar, and join in the
common prayers, and see the oblations offered ;
but they were not allowed to make their own t
oblations, nor to partake of the Lord's Supper
with the other communicants. At length, when
they had passed through these several degrees of
penance, they were admitted to the Eucharist,
and were then said to attain to perfection, the
participation of the Eucharist being deemed the
highest state, or consummation and perfection, of
a Christian. When a penitent desired to be
admitted to do public penance, and his petition
was accepted, the first step was to grant him
penance hy imposition of hands ; at wbich time
he was obliged to appear in sackcloth, and with
ashes upon his head. Some think that this was
always done precisely on Ash- Wednesday, the
first day of Lent, which was thence called dies
cinerum, or the day of sprinkling ashes. But of
this practice there is no certainty. Some canons
likewise obliged the male penitents to cut off
their hair, or shave their heads, and the women
to wear a penitential veil, and either to cut off
their hair or to appear with dishevelled tresses,
as a further indication of their deep sorrow
and affliction. All penitents, moreover, were

491

PEN
required to abstain from bathing and other
innocent recreations: and as they exercised
themselves in private abstinence and mortifica
tion, so were they more especially obliged to
observe all the public fasts of the church. Mar
riage was prohibited during the time of public
penance ; and lastly, in some churches, the peni
tents were obliged, by way of discipline and
exercise of charity, to take upon them the office
and care of burying the dead. But the most
eminent act of penance was the exomologesis,
or confession of sins, which was a public acknow
ledgment of their offences, and a declared resolu
tion of never relapsing into the like. (Bingham,
Origines Eccles., book xviii., ch. i.-xiii.)
In the Romish Church there are various orders
or fraternities of penitents, who are distinguished
by the prevailing colour of their dress. Thus
there are the White Penitents, of which there are
several different sorts at Rome, the most ancient
of which was constituted in 1264. Black Peni
tents, the most considerable of which are the
Brethren of Mercy, instituted in 1488 by some
Florentines, in order to assist criminals during
their imprisonment, and at the time of their
death. There are also blue, gray, red, green,
and violet penitents, all which are remarkable
for little else besides the different colours of their
habits. Penitents or converts of the name of
Jesus are a congregation of religious at Seville,
in Spain, consisting of women who have led a
licentious life, founded in 1550. Penitents of
Orvieto are an order of nuns instituted by
Antony Simoncelli, a gentleman of Orvieto, in
Italy. The monastery he built was at first de
signed for the reception of poor girls abandoned
by their parents, and in danger of losing their
virtue. Order of Penitents of St. Magdalen
was established about the year 1272, by Bernard,
a citizen of Marseilles, who devoted himself to
the work of converting the courtezans of that
city. Congregation of Penitents of St. Mag
dalen of Paris. By virtue of a brief of Pope
Alexander, Simon, Bishop of Paris, in 1497,
drew them up a body of statutes, and gave them
the rule of St. Augustine.
Penny Weddings. — See Marriage, p.
409. Pentecost, Pentecostals  See Whitsun
day. Pcntecostaria, the Greek service-book for
the festival of Pentecost.
Pcpuzians, a name given to the Montan
ists from PepuZa, a city where they expected the
millennium to commence. — See Montanists.
Perambulation. — Dr. Hooke says, — "Per
ambulations for ascertaining the boundaries of
parishes are to be made by the minister, church
wardens, and parishioners, by going round the
same once a-year, in or about Ascension Week.
The parishioners may justify going over any
man's land in their perambulations according to
usage ; and, it is said, may abate all nuisances in

PER
their way. There is a homily appointed to be
used before this ceremony." — Church Dictionary.
Perataj.— See Ophites.
Perfect! (perfect)  See Initiated.
Perfectionists, those who lay. claim to
perfection, or maintain its possibility. They
may be divided into three classes, as they rest
their claims on three different grounds. 1. There
are the advocates of imputed perfection. These
are perfect, not in their own righteousness, but in
the imputed righteousness of Christ. The in
dividual who fancies himself in possession of all
Christ's righteousness holds usually, not only
that he does not, but that he cannot sin. What
would be sin in others is no sin in him. But
moral character is not transferable property. It
adheres to its possessor, and to him alone, and
can never become the character of any other
being. 2. The second class are those who claim
what they call an evangdical perfection. They
do not profess to obey perfectly the Divine law,
or think that this is at all necessary. The moral
law has been superseded by the law of faith.
To this theory it is sufficient to reply, that the
moral law has not been superseded or annulled,
but is in full force now throughout the universe.
Our Saviour came to vindicate and honour the
law, not to annul it. 3. The third class are
those who profess to fulfil perfectly the law of God.
They admit that the moral law — the great law
of love — stands in unabated force ; tbat it is
binding on themselves ; and insist that they can
and do fulfil it. It is strange to hear Mr. Wesley,
in his " Plain Account " describe some of his
perfect followers in London. " Some," says he,
" are wanting in gentleness. They resist evil,
instead of turning the other cheek. If they
are reproved or contradicted, though mildly, they
do not take it well. Some are wanting in good
ness. They are not kind, mild, sweet, amiable,
soft, and loving at all times, in their spirit, in
their words, in their looks and ah-, in the whole
tenor of their behaviour. Some are wanting
in fidelity, or a nice regard to truth, simplicity,
and godly sincerity." " Some are wanting in
meekness, composure, evenness of temper."
" Some are wanting in temperance." Alas for
their perfection !
Periamma, a cross of gold that hung from
the neck, and was a distinctive ornament of a
bishop's dress. — See Bishop.
Peribolaeon. — See Pallium.
Peribolos, the wall enclosing the area round
the church. — See Church.
Pericopre, the lessons or divisions of Scrip
ture read in the early Church, after the style of
the Jewish paraschioth. It is doubtful when
the custom originated, but the necessity of it
pleads for its antiquity.!
Pcriodeutas. — See Chorepiscopus.
Peristerion (irtjiirTejn, a dove), the place
over the altar where hung the silver dove, the
emblem of the Holy Ghost. — See Dove.

492

PER
Peristyle, the court or cloister of a church,
with a colonnade round it.
Permoctation  See Vigil.
Perpendicular Style of Gothic, the last
of the Gothic forms which prevailed in this
country, having succeeded the decorated toward
the conclusion of the fourteenth century. The
name is derived from the perpendicular lines of
which the tracery consists. The four-centered
arch is also a prominent characteristic. — See
Early English, Gothic Architecture.
Perpetual Curate. — See Curate, Per
petual. Persecution, the subjecting of a man to
civil pains and penalties for his conscientious
religions opinions. — See Penal Laws. Christ
ianity was persecuted from the very first, and
was a religio illidta for some centuries. The early
persecutions are sometimes spoken of as ten, —
1. The first under Nero, thirty-one years after
our Lord's ascension, when that emperor, having
set fire to the city of Rome, threw the odium of
that execrable action on the Christians. 2. The
second was under Domitian, in the year 95, when
40,000 were supposed to have suffered martyr
dom. 3. The third began in the third year of
Trajan, in the year 100, and was carried on with
great violence for several years. 4. The fourth
was under Antoninus, when the Christians were
banished from their houses, forbidden to show
themselves, and were reproached, beaten, hurried
from place to place, plundered, imprisoned, and
stoned. 5. The fiifiVi began in the year 127,
under Severus, when great cruelties were com
mitted. 6. The sixth was under Maximums, in
235. 7. The seventh was the most dreadful,
in 250, under the Emperor Decius, when the
Christians were in all places driven from their
habitations, stripped of their estates, tormented
with racks, &c. 8. The eighth happened in 257,
under Valerian. Both men and women suffered
death, — some by scourging, some by the sword,
and some by fire. 9. The ninth took place
under Aurelian, in 274. 10. The tenth, under
Dioclesian, in 303, lasted ten years: houses
filled with Christians were set on fire, large
companies were tied together with ropes and
thrown into the sea; 17,000 were slain in one
month's time; and in Egypt alone 144,000 died
by violence, besides more than half-a-million
that perished through ill usage.
Christian sects have also persecuted one an
other. Men are loath to learn and recognize
the rights of conscience. — See Bartholomew's
Day. Fifty thousand perished in the Low Coun
tries under Spanish tyranny. Grotius says that
even 100,000 were executed by their Spanish
masters. Nigh 50,000 Protestants were mur
dered in Ireland in the reign of Charles ; and
there is a noble army of martyrs in Scotland.
A despatch of the French ambassador, in the
time of Henry VIIL, says, — " You will have
heard of the execution of Master Cromwell and

PER
Lord Hungerford. Two days after, six more
were put to death ; three were hanged as
traitors, Fetherstone, Abel, and Cook, late Prior
of Doncaster, for having spoken in favour of the
pope; three were burnt as heretics, Garret,
Jerome, and Dr. Barnes. It was a strabge
spectacle to see the adherents of two opposite
parties die thus on the same day and at the
same hour; and it was equally disgraceful to
the two divisions of the government who pre
tended to have received offence. The scene was
as painful as it was monstrous. Both groups of
sufferers were obstinate or constant ; both alike
complained of the mode of sentence under which
they were condemned. They had never been
called to answer for their supposed offences; and
Christians under grace, they said, were now
worse off than Jews under the law. The law
would have no man die unless he were first heard
in his defence, and heathen and Christian, sage
and emperor, the whole world, except England,
observed the same rule." (See Works of Fox,
Limborch, Neal, Woodrow; Scots Worthies.)
Perseverance. — See Arminianism, Cal
vinism. Person of Christ. — See Arianism; Creed,
Athanasian; Eutychians; Monophysites;
Monothelites ; Nestorians; Sabellians;
Soctniavs. The term person, as applied to the
Godhead, is not used in its ordinary sense, as
denoting a separate being, but represents the
Latin persona, or tbe Greek hypostases, which
means, that which stands under or is the subject
of certain attributes or properties. Three per
sons are not thus three parts of one God, nor are
three Gods; nor yet are Father, Son, and Spirit
only three names, but distinct hypostases with
characteristic attributes. In modern times, espe
cially in Germany, and through a prevalent philo
sophical mysticism, opinions are being propagated
about the person of Christ which are quite opposed
to the doctrines of all the orthodox and evangeli
cal confessions. The second article of the Church
of England, and the eighth of the Westminster
Confession, express the general view. So does
the Quicunque vult of the liturgy. But the
modern theory teaches a different dogma, thus : —
Martensen and Ebrard seem to adopt a view
very similar to that of Beron in the early ages,
who held that the Logos assumed the form of a
man, that is, subjected himself to the limitations
of humanity. The infinite became finite, the
eternal and omnipresent imposed on himself the
limitations of time and space; God became man.
The statement of Ebrard is, " The eternal Son of
God, by a free act of self -limitation, determined
to assume the existence-form of a centre of
human life, so that he acted as such from the
conception onward, and having assumed this
form, he fashioned for himself a body, &c." Ac
cording to this view there are not two natures
in Christ, in the established sense of the word
nature, but only two forms of existence, a prior

493

PER
and posterior form of one and the same nature.
The most common mode of presenting the doc
trine is to say that the Logos assumed our fallen
humanity. But by this, we are told, is not to
be understood that he assumed an individual
body and soul, so that he became a man, but
that he assumed generic humanity, so that he
became the man. And by generic humanity is
to be understood a life-power, that peculiar law
of life, corporeal and incorporeal, which develops
itself outwardly as a body, and inwardly as a
soul. The Son, therefore, became incarnate in
humanity, in that objective reality, entity, or
substance, in which all human lives are one.
Thus, too, Olshausen, in his comment on John i.
14, says, " It could not be said that the Word
was made man, which would imply that the
Redeemer was a man by the side of other men,
whereas, being the second Adam, he represented
the totality of human nature in his exalted com
prehensive personality." To the same effect he
says, in his remarks on Rom. v. 15, " If Christ
were a man among other men, it would be im
possible to conceive how his suffering and obedi
ence could have an essential influence on man
kind: he could then only operate as an example;
but he is to be regarded, even apart from his
divine nature, as the man, i. e., as realizing the
absolute idea of humanity, and including it
potentially in himself spiritually as Adam did
corporeally." To this point Archdeacon Wilber
force devotes the third chapter of his book on
The Incarnation, and represents the whole value
of Christ's work as depending upon it If this
be denied, he says, " the doctrines of atonement
and sanctification, though confessed in words,
become a mere empty phraseology." In fine,
Dr. Nevin, of America, in his Mystical Pre
sence, p. 210, says, — "The Word became flesh ;
not a single man only, as one among many;
but flesh, or humanity, in its universal concep
tion. How else could he be the principle of a
general life, the origin of a new order of exis
tence for the human world as such ? How else
could the value of his mediatorial work be made
over to us in a real way by a true imputation,
and not a legal fiction only?" The hypostatic
union, on those hypotheses, is the assumption on
the part of the eternal Son of God, not simply or
primarily of a true body and a reasonable soul,
as the Church has always held, but of humanity
as a generic life, of our fallen humanity, of that
entity or substance in which all human lives are
one. The effect of this union is that humanity
is taken into divinity: it is exalted into a true
divine life. The life of Christ is one, and it may
be designated as divine or as human. On this
point, more than any other, its advocates are
specially full and earnest. Schleiermacher ignores
all essential difference between God and the
world. They differ in our conception, and func
tionally, but are essentially one. Dorner, also,
the historian of the doctrine concerning Christ's

494

PET
person, avows that the church view of two dis
tinct substances in the same person involves end
less contradictions, and that no true Christology
can be framed which does not proceed on the
assumption of the essential unity of God and
man ; while Ullmann makes this essential one
ness between the divine and human the funda
mental idea of Christianity.
Perth, Articles of.— See Articles, FtVe.
Peter and Paul. — That Peter was not the
only name used as a foundation for building up
the Roman Church is attested even by the bulls
or leaden seals which its bishops appear to have
adopted in the eleventh century. Irenseus and
other Greek authors make the Roman Church to
have been built upon the labours of St. Feter and
St Paul conjointly. First the names, afterwards
the figures of both apostles are found upon the
papal bulls, with a cross between them, and, what
has occasioned no small amount of mortified and
embarrassed speculation, St. Paul is placed upon
the right hand. Various modes have been taken
for explaining away or neutralizing the effect of
this arrangement. On a single anniversary,
hence called by Frudentius a bifestal day, both
were duly celebrated by the Roman Church.
For this a reason has been found in the tradi
tion which makes both apostles to have suffered
on the same day of the month, but in different
years. However true these things may be, it is
clear that a common day for honouring the two
martyrdoms must have suggested some notion of
an equality between the holy sufferers them
selves. Nay, the Anglo-Saxon divines, in some
respects, thought of St Panl more than of his
illustrious Roman coadjutor. People in those
times reckoned upon going to judgment behind
their spiritual guides, and accordingly expected
the great apostle of the Gentiles to lead forth
almost all the world. St. Peter's ship, which
many moderns consider as typical of the papacy,
passed among the Anglo-Saxons for a type of
that Jewish minority which joined the Chris
tian Church. (Soames's Latin Church.)
Peter's Pence, the yearly tribute of a penny
from every family to the Roman see. It was
first paid by Ina, King of the West Saxons, when
on a pilgrimage to Rome about the year 740.
The payment ceased in England under Henry
VIII. — See Romescot.
Peter's, St., Day, a festival observed in the
Catholic Church on the 29th of June.
Petrobrussians, the followers of Pierre de
Bruys, who about the year 1110 began to de
claim against tbe corruptions of the church, and
the vices of its ministers, and continued for twenty
years successfully to disseminate his opinions
especially in Provence and Languedoc. These
opinions are only known through the accounts
of his enemies ; but the errors with which the
sect were charged are combated in the writings*
of Peter of Cluni, under five heads: — 1. The
rejection of infant baptism. 2. The contempt

PEW
ot churches and altars as not required for
spiritual worship. 3. The destruction of
crucifixes. 4. The disparagement of the
sacrifice of the Eucharist. 5. The denial of
the efficacy of oblations, prayers, &c, for the
dead. The third of these errors seems to have
proved fatal to its author, for he was burnt
alive in a popular tumult excited against him
on that account.
Pews. — Prior to the Reformation there were
no pews of the present form in churches, nor were
they in general use before the middle of the
seventeenth century. Sometimes, however, the
naves of churches had fixed seats, parted from
each other by wainscotting. In France the area
of the Catholic churches is open, and the con
gregation, for a very small sum, are provided
with chairs or stools.
Phagophania, a name sometimes given to
Epiphany, because the miracle of feeding the five
thousand, and giving them to eat, was connected,
in thought or tradition, with the first manifesta
tion of divine power at Cana of Galilee.
Phantasiasts, a name given to the Docetse,
and of the same import with that term. — See
Docetism. Phenoliou QpaiviXiov)  See Chasible.
Phiala (font). — See Cantharus, Font.
Philadelphia!! Society. — It was founded
by a man named Pordage, during the protector
ate, and carried out by Mrs. Leadley, a widow
from Norfolk, a woman of subtle mind, vigorous
imagination, and fond of occult studies. The
study of Jacob Behmen increased the mysticism
of the party, and the disciples caricatured the
master, rose on the wings of fancy to the vision
of spirits and the claim of working miracles.
One of their tenets was that of universal restora
tion. The sect did not exist long in England,
but found its way into Holland.
Philip St., and St. James. — This festival
is held on the first of May.
Philopoftehins, a sect of dissenters in
Russia noted for their extreme asceticism, such
as their weekly fasts on Wednesday and Friday,
their great annual fasts of many days, and
their vegetarian diet — See Raskolniks.
Philoponists, a sect of tritheists in the
sixth century, named after a famous Alexan
drian grammarian. Nature and hypostasis,
he affirmed, were identical, unity not being
something real, but only a generic term, accord
ing to the Aristotelian logic.
Philotheos Historia (iptXthos \&ro$ja, God-
loving history), the name given by Theodoret,
the well-known commentator, Bishop of Cyrus,
to his lives of thirty ascetics or Eastern monks.
" Their virtues," he confesses, " cannot be ade
quately described," and he relates the most
astounding prodigies of them. The tract is in
the third folio of Sirmond's edition of his works.
Phonascus. — See Precentor.
Phos (<p2s, light). — This and the allied terms,

PHO
" — enlightened ;
rion"— place of enlightenment, often refer to
baptism. — See Baptism, Illuminated.
Photian Controversy. — In the reign of
Leo the Isaurian, the bishops of Constantinople,
supported by the emperor, withdrew several
provinces from the authority of tbe Roman pon
tiffs. But in the ninth century animosity arose
to an excessive height, in consequence of the
deposition of the Patriarch Ignatius, and the
promotion of Photius in his room. This
was the act of the Emperor Michael, and its
cause was the treason of Ignatius. The pro
ceeding was justified by a council assembled
at Constantinople, but it was far from being
followed with general approbation. Ignatius
appealed from that council to the Roman pontiff
Nicholas I. ; and a council, which assembled
in consequence at Rome, excommunicated Pho
tius and all his abettors. Photius was so little
terrified by this excommunication that he as
sembled another council in the capital of the
Eastern empire, and retorted the anathema on
Nicholas. This learned patriarch also drew up a
charge of heresy against the Church of Rome in
general. It consisted of the following articles :
— 1. That the Church of Rome kept the Sab
bath a3 a fast ; 2. That it permitted milk and
cheese in the first week of Lent; 3. That it
prohibited the marriage of priests; 4. That it
confined the rite of anointing persons baptized
to the bishops alone ; 5. That it had corrupted
the Nicene creed by the addition of the words
filioque. This charge was answered by Ber-
tramn, at the suggestion of Nicholas I. The con
troversy was attended with civil tumults, until
Basilius, the Macedonian, who ascended the
imperial throne by the murder of his predecessor,
recalled Ignatius from exile, and confined Photius
in a monastery. A council at Constantinople,
with its accustomed obsequiousness, solemnly ap
proved this act of authority. In tbat assembly
the legates of the Roman pontiff, Adrian II.,
possessed great influence, and it is acknowledged
by the Latin Church as the eighth oecumenical
council. But however favoured by the Roman
pontiff, Ignatius refused to cede the provinces
which had been withdrawn from the jurisdiction
of the see of Rome; and his death paved the
way for the reinvestment of Photius with the
patriarchal dignity. His restoration was agreed
to by the Roman pontiff, John VIII., on condi
tion that he would yield the province of Bulgaria
to the Romish see. To this demand Photius
gave an explicit consent, and the emperor a
seeming acquiescence. But the promise was so
far from being fulfilled, that the restored patri
arch, by the advice of the emperor, refused to
transfer Bulgaria to the Roman pontiff. Irri
tated at this disappointment, John VIII. sent
his legate, Marinus, to Constantinople, announc
ing that he had changed his opinion concerning
Photius, whom he regarded as a heretic, and

495

PHO
just]}' excommunicated ; but the minister was
imprisoned by order of the emperor. The legate
soon obtained his liberation, and being raised to
the pontificate on the death of John, did not
forget his former injurious treatment; and a
new sentence of excommunication, expressed
in terms of the greatest severity, was levelled
against Photius. The haughty patriarch treated
the sentence with contempt, and continued in
the possession of uncontrolled authority during
the reign of Basilius. But Leo, surnamed the
Philosopher, the successor of Basilius, and the
pupil of Photius, deposed him from the patri
archal see, and confined him in an Armenian
monastery. There he ended his days ; but his
removal did not terminate the schisms between
the Greeks and Latins ; they were not even par
tially closed.
Photinians, a sect of the fourth century,
named after Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium. His
theology was a species of rationalism, opposed
alike to Arianism and to orthodoxy, denying a
plurality of persons in the Godhead, maintaining
the mere humanity of Christ, and that he was
born of Mary and of the Holy Ghost — the Holy
Ghost being only, in his system, the name of a
divine influence. Photinus was speedily con
demned, and died in exile in 372.
Phrontisterion. — See Monastery.
Phthartolatrae (worshippers of what is
corruptible). — See Severians.
Picards. — See Adamites.
Pictures. — See Image. — Seymour tells us
the following in his Pilgrimage: — "There is
scarcely an incident in the life of our Lord
that has not its rival incident or parallel in the
legendary life of Mary. For example : A pic
ture represents the angel announcing to Mary the
miraculous conception of the Messiah; it is
rivalled by another representing an angel announc
ing to Anna, the legendary mother of Mary, the
miraculous and immaculate conception of Mary
in the womb. A picture represents the birth of
our Lord ; it is paralleled by another representing
the nativity or birth of the Virgin Mary. If there
is one representing our Lord sitting on the throne
and bearing the crown as King of kings, there is
a rival picture representing Mary sitting on the
Same throne, bearing the sceptre, and wearing
the crown as Queen of Heaven. There are two
classes of miraculous pictures. One class com
prehends those which are said to have had a
miraculous origin; that is, to have been painted
in part or in whole by no human hands, but by
an angel, or some mysterious visitant from the
world of spirits. The second class of miraculous
pictures is far more numerous, and comprehends
all those which have performed miracles. At the
Church of St. Giovanni e Paolo, near Rome, is a
small picture of the Virgin Mary, which was
seen to shed tears on the French invasion of
Italy. At Arezzo we were shown a picture in
the cathedral church, which wept many tears at

PIE
the language of some drunkards. It was a
Madonna, and the bishop made it the means of
collecting sufficient funds to build a new chapel
to commemorate it In the Church of St. Pietro
de Montorio is a singularly ugly representation
of Mary and our Lord. Indeed, it is positively
hideous; but an inscription on a marble slab
announces that ' this sacred likeness of the mother
of God, holding her son and a book, is illustrious
for miracles more and more every day.' In St.
Peter's, however, is a very important one, not
only for the miracle, but for its authentication.
It is in the subterranean chapel, usually called
the Grotto. It is a picture of the Virgin with a
mark under the left eye; and the following is
the inscription : ' This picture of the Most Holy
Virgin Mary, which stood between the pillars of
the porch of the ancient Basilica, having been
struck by an impious hand, poured forth blood
(sanguinem fudit) on the stone, which is now
protected by a grating.' On one side is a large
stone, on the other are two small stones. All
three are covered with a strong iron grating, to
preserve them, as on them the blood of this mira
culous picture is said to have fallen."
Pie. — The pie is a table or rule in the old
Roman offices, showing in a technical way how
to find out the service which is to be read upon
each day. What was called the pie by the
clergy before the Reformation was called by the
Greeks vri-va.%, or the index (literally a plank,
by metonomy a painted table or picture) ; and
because indexes or tables of books were formed
into square figures resembling pictures or painters' „
tables hung up in a frame, these likewise were
called vitaxis, or being marked only with the
first letters of the word, av's, or pies. Pie is the
familiar English name for the Romish pica, ordi
nal, or service-book.
Pietists. — Pietism was a recoil from that
dead and narrow orthodoxy which crept over
Germany, and chilled it, after the period of the
Reformation. It arose in the Lutheran Church
much as Methodism in the Church of England.
Spener, the founder, had his heart set on the
revival of true godliness, and lamented the for
mality and lukewarmness of the churches. His
Pia Desideria excited attention, and the labours
of Francke, Thomasius, and others in Saxony,
sprang from the best of motives. But their
schemes were frowned on as innovations, and bitter
controversies ensued. Colleges were opened by
them for young men, to teach thein a simple
Bible theology, instead of the dull, dry, meta
physical scholasticism. But some of their ad
herents became quite fantastical, would have
overturned the existing churches, and laboured
with crazy enthusiasm to create turmoil. What
was good in creed, life, labour, and self-denial in
the earlier pietists, became in many of their
followers hallucination, extravagance, and mere
mechanical process. People used their language
who were strangers to their feelings. Wiirtem-

496

PIL
berg and Halle were the chief seats of the better
forms of pietism. There are also popish pietists,
an order founded in 1678, devoting themselves
to the education of the poor.
Pilgrimages. — The word is from the Latin
peregrinus, through the Italian pelegrino. A
pilgrimage is a visit to a shrine, or to some place
of extraordinary sanctity, or where relics are
kept. The shrine of St. James of Compostella in
Spain was once famous, and so is that of Loretto
in Italy. The holy sepulchre in Jerusalem drew
thousands to it The shrine of Thomas a Beckett
was 'long resorted to in England, and that of St.
Andrew, in Scotland, along with that of St.
Ninian at Whithorn, jn Galloway. The shrine
of the first-named saint was immensely popular.
The devotion towards this saint had quite
effaced, at Canterbury, the adoration of the Deity.
At God's altar, for instance, there were offered
in one year £3 2s. 6d. ; at the Virgin Marv's,
£63 5s. 6d.; at St. Thomas's, £832 12s."3d.
But the next year the disproportion was still
greater. There was not a penny offered at God's
altar ; the Virgin's gained only £4 Is. 8d. ; but
St. Thomas had got for his share £954 6s. 3d.
— See Loretto, Holy House at.
Pilgrim Fathers, a name often given to
the early settlers of New England. The ship
"May-flower," that bore the- first of them, left
Plymouth, 6th September, 1620, and on the 6th
December the passengers landed on a rock in
Cape Cod harbour. The men engaged in the
formation of the New England colonies have
been seldom surpassed in sagacity and prowess
— in piety and benevolent exertion. Many of
them were men of education and rank — they were
eminently free from the low and degrading vices
of the statesmen of that age. The political trust
committed to them was felt to be an awful
deposit It was their constant aim, one which
they carried with them to the council-chamber,
and bore back with them to the closet in their
religious exercises, that each colonist should
exhibit the lofty mien of a freeman, and wear
the dignity of an heir to heaven — that he should
bow the knee to none but God, and bear no yoke
but his who is meek and lowly in heart. The
grief of bidding farewell to friends, country, and
home, did not produce in them a sentimental
lethargy, but was borne with manly courage
and Christian heroism. In the long and tedious
voyage their hearts sunk not Their spirit did
not fail them in the midst of those difficulties and
dangers with which foreign adventure abounds.
The sultry climate, the swamp and the forest,
the solitary encampment, and the whoop of the
savage, were calmly and successfully encoun
tered. Like their leaders, the majority of them
were men of God. The men that landed from
the " May-flower " on the rock of Plymouth felt
themselves to be "chosen vessels," and the
consciousness of their solemn consecration was
the deepest sensation of their religious experience.

PLE
The preservation of the ordinances of religion
was a principal endeavour with them. The first
tree3 of the virgin forest were felled for the
sanctuary — "a man was famous according as
he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."
Truly did they vow, "If I forget thee, O Jeru
salem, let my hand forget her cunning."
Their inner life nourished itself by frequent days
of fasting and prayer. These were seasons of
coveted enjoyment. Their firmness might be
somewhat stern, their rigidness of observance
might generate formality, yet their heart was
with God, his law their guide, his glory their
aim. In every crisis they inquired at the
oracle of Jehovah ; in seasons of deliverance
they entered his courts with praise — " a multi
tude that kept holiday ; " in times of impending
danger they placed themselves under the protec
tion of him to whom the shields of the earth
belong. They were a people worthy of those
high-souled patriots who were their leaders, both
in civil polity and religion. Few statesmen of
that day had the purity of Winthrop, few minis
ters the learning of Cotton, the endowments of
Hooker, or the self-sacrificing spirit of Roger
Williams. — See Puritans.
Pillar Saints. — See Stylites.
Pirke Avoth, — See Masora.
Piscina. — Usually annexed to the consessus
or seats of the priests in the ancient churches, for
the most part similarly decorated, and sometimes
appearing as an additional compartment, is a
small niche, or fenestella, containing the pisrina
or lavacrum, basin. It is sometimes also found
alone in the southern walls of chancels and aisles,
sometimes in the eastern walls on the right, and
there are one or two instances in which it occurs
on the left. When two channels occur in it, one
was to receive the water in which the priest had
washed his hands, the other that in which he had
rinsed the chalice. Du Cange limits the piscina,
as it is restricted above, to the lavacrum. By
Bingham it is received in a more enlarged
meaning. " The font," says that author, " by
the Greek writers is commonly called xaXufifiiHaa,
and by the Latins piscina, for which latter name
Optatus affords a mystical reason. He says it
was called piscina in allusion to our Saviour's
technical name )%Hs, which was an acrostic
composed of the initial letters of our Saviour's
several titles, Jesus Christ the Son of God, our
Saviour." — See Fish, Font.
Piscis, Pisciculus (fish, little fish). — See
Fish. Placebo, an office in the Romish Church
for the good of souls, so called from its first word.
Planeta. — See Chasible.
Platonists, New.— See New Platonists.
Plenariy (opposed to a vacancy), a name
denoting that an office or parish is filled.
Plenary Indulgence. — See Indulgence.
Plenary Inspiration. — See Deists, and
Biblical Cyclopaedia, under " Inspiration."

497

2K

PLE
Pleroma (.fullness), the Gnostic term for
that fullness of light and perfection in which the
Divine Being was supposed to dwell, and whom
they named Bytbus. — See Gnostic.
Plough Monday, the first Monday after
twelfth-day; so called from a diversion called
fool-plough, which was formerly in use on Ash-
Wednesday, but afterwards transferred to this
day. Pluralities, more benefices than one held by
the same person. These were generally for
bidden in the early Church. A bishop could not
hold two dioceses ; a presbyter, however, might
officiate in more than one parochial church, but
not in two dioceses. In the Church of England
pluralities are common, the custom having ori
ginated in the poorness of many of the livings.
Originally a clergyman might hold two or moi e
livings if under the nominal value of £8. The
distance between them was fixed by the canon
law as not to be greater than thirty miles ; but
custom now tolerates forty-five. Two thousand
parishes, it is said, want, in this way, a resident
pastor. In Scotland, before the Reformation,
pluralities were also common. Abbacies and
priories were likewise often bestowed in commen
dam. — See Commendam. Of the twenty abbots
that sat in the parliament which decreed the
Reformation, fourteen were commendators. Thus
speaks the Second Book ofDisdpline : — " Meikle
less is it lawfull, that ony person amang these
men sould have fyve, sax, ten, or twenty kirks,
or mae, all having the charge of saules : and
bruik the patrimonie thairof, either be admission
of the prince, or of the kirk, in this licht of the
Evangell ; for it is but mockage to crave refor
mation where sic lyke hes place." The question
of pluralities in the Church of Scotland was
raised in 1779, renewed in 1813, and the general
assembly decided against them in 1814, by an
act which, however, was repealed in 1816. In
1817 it was enacted that no professor could hold
a parish unless it was near the seat of the uni
versity. The question was again raised and
keenly debated in 1824 — to wit, the holding of a
chair in a college and of a parochial charge at tbe
same time. The university commission soon after
disapproved of the practice, but not tbe general
assembly of that period.
Plymouth Brethren, a Christian confra
ternity which arose in England about 1830,
and so called from their first church being at
Plymouth. Of late years they have increased
with considerable rapidity; in 1851, by the
census returns, they numbered 132 places of
worship (the number is probably greater) in
England and Wales, and about 7,000 " Breth
ren:" in America they have at present many
adherents. They possess, by reason of the
earnestness, wealth, and social position of their
members, very considerable influence in England.
In the simplicity of their dress and habits, and
in the peculiar prominence they assign to the

498

POO
Holy Spirit in the Christian Church, they so far
resemble Quakers. They differ from them in
recognizing baptism and the Lord's Supper as
permanent institutions; and from other Chris
tian communities in rejecting human ordination
to the ministerial office. Hence all can baptize
or " break bread." The possession of suitable
gifts — gifts for edification — and the inward call,
constitute any one a minister, and warrant him
to exercise them in preaching. They seek a
return to what they conceive the primitive
Apostolic Church to have been. They recognize
the sole authority of the Word of God: they
reject the use of human creeds. They desire the
church to possess a visible catholicity. They
object to dissenters, as sectarians dividing the
body of Christ ; and to National Churches, as
latitudinarian, because " they treat as Chris
tians many who are not" Those only are
brethren who are " led by the Spirit." As such
they do not pray for blessings they already
have, but for their increase. Their creed is
evangelical. Generally they anticipate a mil-
lenninm, with the personal reign of Christ on
the earth ; and according to Gardner (though of
his accuracy on this point we doubt), they reckon
themselves " no longer under the law as a rule
of life, having been delivered from it by Christ"
They resemble Quakers in having a large pam
phlet literature ; but a great proportion of their
tracts are controversial, rather than dogmatic
exhibitions of the principles of their brotherhood.
On the Continent they are usually called Darby-
ites, after a leading minister. (See Marsden's Dic
tionary; Gardner's Faiths ofthe World.)
Pneumatomachi (deniers ofthe Spirit). —
See Macedonians.
Podcris, a name given to the alb, because it
reached down to the feet — See Alb.
Podonipta; (feet-washers), a name some
times given to a section of the Mennonites on
account of their literal obedience to the injunction
in John xiii. 14, " If I then, your Lord and
Master, have washed your feet, ye also ought to
wash one another's feet."
Poloni Frntrcs. — See Socinians.
Polygamy. — See Marriage.
Polyglots. — See Bible.
Polystnuriou (many crossed), a name given
to the cloak of the Greek patriarchs, on account
of the many crosses which ornament it.
Pomoryians, a sect of extreme dissenters in
Russia, holding that Antichrist has come, and is
doing Iiis predicted work ; opposing the altera
tions introduced by Nikon in the service-books of
tbe church; advocating celibacy and retirement;
and requiring all who join them to be re-bap
tized. Pontiff (pontifex). — See Pope.
Pontifical.— See LlTURGY, p. 387.
Poor. — In the distribution of the revenues in
the early Church a fourth part fell to the poor,
the other three parts going respectively to the

POO
bishop, the clergy, and the maintenance of the
fabric In Antioch, in the time of Chrysostom,
three thousand poor people were thus provided
for, and half that number were similarly sup
ported at Rome in the days of Cornelius. In
times of famine the plate of the church was some
times melted down to support the poor. How
pointedly Ambrose replies to the charge of sacri
lege brought against him on this account by
the Arians, — " Is it not better that the bishop
should melt the plate to sustain the poor, when
other sustenance cannot be had, than that some
sacrilegious enemy should carry it off by spoil
and plunder? Will not our Lord expostulate
with us upon this account? 'Why did you
suffer So many helpless persons to die With
famine, when you had gold to provide them
sustenance? Why were so many captives car
ried away and sold without redemption ? Whv
were so many suffered to be slain by the enemj' ?
It had been better to have preserved the vessels
of living men than lifeless metals.' What an
swer can be returned to this? For what shall a
man say ? I was afraid lest the temple of God
should want its ornaments. But Christ will
answer, — ' My sacraments do not require gold,
nor please me the more for being ministered in
gold, which are not bought with gold; the
ornament of my sacraments is the redemp
tion cf captives ; and those are truly precious
vessels which redeem souls from death.' " The
very poor were often placed in the portico of
the church to ask alms. Severe censure was
also directed against those who permitted the poor
to starve, or defrauded the church of those dues
which were set apart to maintain them.
The poor law of England, and recently of Scot
land, too, is a civil enactment. Formerly, in Scot
land, many shifts were tried. Beggary was often
resorted to, and as often condemned by statute.
In Scotland, at the end of the seventeenth cen
tury, Fletcher says, there were 200,000 beggars,
— more on account of national distress at that
time than at other times, — but never less, he
affirms, than 100,000. Various severe acts had
been passed from time to time, and cruel punish
ments threatened— such as scourging and brand
ing with a hot iron. The famous act of 1579,
in enumerating the various classes of beggars
condemned, has the following: — " All minstrelles,
sangsters, and tale-tellers, not avowed in special
service, by some of the lords of parliament or
great burrowes, or by the head burrowes and
cities, for their commoun micstrelles; all com-
moun labourers, being persones abill in bodie,
living idle, and fleeing labour ; all counterfaicters
of licencrs to beg, or using the same, knowing
them to be counterfaicted ; all vagabound schol
lers of the universities of Saint Andrewes, Glas
gow, and Abirdene, not licensed by the rector
and deane of facultie of the universale to ask
almes; all schipmen and mariners, alledging
themselves to be schipbroken, without they have

POP
sufficient testimonials." The fines levied for
ecclesiastical offences were often given to tbe
poor, as may be seen in the notes to Principal
Lee's second volume of Church History. In
1643, 1644, and 1645, the general session of
Edinburgh gives the following to the poor: —
" 1643.
Feb. 10.— Penalties and gifts for tlie use ofthe poor-
Given by Dr. Pont as a voluntary gift, 100 merks.
Penalty for Neill Turner and his partie, 16 merks,
Feb. 15.— Given in by Geo. Stuart, advocat,
for not coming to the ile, . . . 20merka,
Given by Col. Hume's lady for private .
marriage with young Craigie, . . 20 merks.
Given by Sir John Smyth as a yearlie
voluntary gift,  100 merks.
Given by Mr. Robt Smyth for private
marriage,  20 merks.
"1644. The six sessions ordain the ordinar poor enrolled
to be threatened if they learn not the grounds
of religion, and to be deprived of their wee&lie
pensione if they cannot answer to the Calhechue.
May 9  By Mr. Luis Stuart and Isbell
Geddes, for fornication, . . 21 lib. 6s. 8d.
By Robert Martin, for his private
marriage,  20 merks.
"1649.
March 13.— Given for Wm. Salmond, re
lapse in fornication, . . . 53 1. 6s. 8d."
Poor Pilgrims, a body of religious beggars
who came out of Italy into Germany in the year
1500. They did daily penance by walking with
out covering for head or feet, living on herbs and
roots — some for three, some for five, and others
for seven years.
Pope (father), the head of the Latin or
Romish Church, and also a temporal prince.
His usual title is holy father, or his holiness. —
See Papa, Papacy. For five centuries the pope
was chosen by the clergy and people, or the
clergy by themselves, but the people assenting.
Odoacer in 483 infringed on this privilege, and
made it imperative on the electors to consult the
prince. After several variations, tbe law was
modified in 681, and abrogated in 824. The
secular prince, however, interfered again with
the election, and tbat frequently; and after
various turns of fortune, the power of choice was
in 1274 given over to the cardinals, with whom
it still rests. — See Investiture. The factions
of the Guelphs and Ghibellines rose out of those
disputes between the emperor and the pope. — See
Cardinal. For the modes of electing a pope,
see Conclave. The installation of the pope
is a matter of great pomp and ceremony. We
give it in the words of an eye-witness:—
"About eleven o'clock the procession began to
arrive from the Quirinal palace. It was im
mensely long. The cardinals were in their state
carriages, and each was accompanied by several
carriages full of attendants. The senator and
governor of Rome formed part of the train. The
pope was in a state coach, drawn by six black
horses, and preceded by a priest riding on a
white mule, and bearing a large crucifix. The
procession went round by the back of St. Peter's,
and the pope went up to the Sistine chapel,

499

POP
.where various ceremonies were performed whjch
I did not see. In about half-an-hour the pro
cession entered the centre door of- St. Peter's.
In all these processions the lowest orders of the
clergy came first, then bishops, archbishops,
cardinal, and lastly, the pope. He was borne
aloft on his throne, carried by twelve bearers, the
choir singing ' Ecce sacerdos magnus ' — Behold
the great priest ! At the chapel of the Santis-
simo he stopped and adored the host. He was
then borne forward to the high altar, and passing
by the north side of it, alighted in a space en
closed for the use of the pope and cardinals on
the east side. He walked up to the altar, prayed
at the foot of it, ascended the steps, and seated
himself on the middle of the altar, on the very
spot where the ciborium or pyx, containing the
host, usually stands. The cardinals in succes
sion went through the ceremony of adoration.
This ceremony is performed three times: first,
before quitting the conclave; secondly, in the
Sistine chapel before the procession came into
St. Peter's; and now, for the third time,
each cardinal prostrated himself before the pope,
then kissed his toe, or rather his slipper, next
kissed his hand, which was not bare, but covered
by the cape of his robes ; and lastly, tbe pope em

braced each twice, and when all had gone 139 Hyginus.

POP
your sins, space for true and fruitful repentance,
a heart always penitent, and amendment of life,
the grace and consolation of the Holy Spirit, and
final perseverance in good works." Two keys
are also given him in the Church of St. John
Lateran. For the papal court, see Bull, Curia
Papalis. It has been usual for a long period for
the pope to change his name on his election.
Sergius III. is said by some to have been the
first who did so, his previous name being " Os
Porci '' — Swineface. (See, however, the follow.
ing list.) The pope now is usually, if not always,
an Italian. His patrimony, or the States of the
Church, are held at this moment (1861) by a
precarious tenure — the priest-king is supported
by French bayonets. The following is a list of
the popes. There is no little uncertainty and
conflict about some of the earlier ' bishops of
Rome :—
A.D. Linus.
78 Anacletus.
91 Clement.
100 Evaristus.
109 Alexander.
119 Xystus.
129 telesphorus.

through this ceremony, the pope rose and
bestowed his blessing on the people present, and
retired in a sedan chair, on the back of which
there is embroidered in gold a dove, to represent
the Holy Spirit." On the Sabbath after his
solemn installation, his holiness performs mass at
an altar of the richest decoration, the pontifical
mantle being placed on him by the oldest cardinal
deacon, who addresses him thus, — " Receive
the holy mantle, the plenitude of the pontifical
offices, to the honour of Almighty God, and of
the most glorious Virgin Mary, his mother, and
of the blessed apostles Feter and Paul, and of the
holy Roman Church." After this comes the
public coronation on the balcony above the great
door of St. Peter's. His mantle as a priest is
taken off, and his triple crown as a king is put
on, with these words,— "Receive the tiara
adorned with three crowns, and know that thou
art the father of princes and kings, the governor
of the world, on earth vicar of our Saviour,
Jesus Christ, to whom is honour and glory
for ever and ever. Amen." His holiness then
pronounces this prayer : " May the holy apostles
Peter and Paul, in whose power and authority
we confide, intercede for us with the Lord.
By the prayers and merits of the blessed
Mary, always a virgin, of the blessed Michael,
the archangel, of the blessed John the Baptist,
and tbe holy apostles Peter and Paul, and all the

saints; may Almighty God have mercy upon
you, and may Jesus Christ, having remitted all
your sins, lead you to life everlasting. Amen."
"May the Almighty and merciful Lord grant _ 
you indulgence, absolution, and remission of all I 401 Innocent I., of Albano,
600

142 Pius.
157 Anicetus.
168 Soter, M.
177 Eleutherus.
193 Victor.
202 Zephyrinus,
219 Callistus, M.
223 Urban.
230 Pontian.
235 Anterus, M,
236 Fabian, M.
251 Cornelius.
252 Lucius, M,
255 Stephen.
257 Sixtus, M.
258 Dionysius,
259 Felix, M.
274 Eutychianus.
283 Caius.
296 Marcellinus.
304 Mareellus.
310 Eusebius.
310 Melchiades.
314 Sylvester.
336 Marcus, of Rome.
337 Julius I., of Rome.
352 Liberius, a Roman, banished by Constantius.
Felix, substituted by Constantius, and con
sidered by most as an intruder.
366 Damasus I., a Spaniard, elected after the
death of Liberius.
Ursicinus, antipope against Damasus.
384 Siricius, a Roman, succeeded Damasus.
Anastasius I„ a Roman.

POP
A.D.
417 Zosimus, a Greek.
418 Boniface I., a Roman.
422 Celestinus I., a Roman.
432 Sixtus III., a Roman.
440 Leo I., of Rome, called the Great.
461 Hilarius, of Sardinia.
467 Simplicius, of Tibur.
483 Felix IIL, of Rome.
492 Gelasius I., of Rome.
496 Anastasius IL, of Rome.
498 Symmachus, of Sardinia.
514 Hormisdas, of Frusino.
523 John I., a Tuscan.
626 Felix IV., of Beneventum.
530 Boniface IL, of Rome.
532 John IL, of Rome.
535 Agapetus I., of Rome.
636 Sylverins, of Campania
540 Vigilius, a Roman.
555 Pelagius I., a Roman.
560 John III., of Rome.
674 Benedict I., of Rome.
578 Pelagius IL, of Rome.
590 Gregory I., of Rome, styled the Great.
604 Sabinianns, of Tuscany.
607 Boniface III., of Rome.
608 Boniface IV., of Abruzzo.
615 Deusdedit, or Deodatus I., of Rome.
619 Boniface V., a Neapolitan.
625 Honorius I., of Capua.
638 Severinus, of Rome.
640 John IV., of Dalmatia.
641 Theodoras, a Greek.
649 Martin I., of Tudertum.
654 Eugenius I., of Rome.
657 Vitalianus, of Signia.
672 Deusdedit II., of Rome.
676 Domnus I., of Rome.
678 Agathon, a Sicilian.
682 Leo IL, a Sicilian.
684 Benedict IL, of Rome.
685 John V., of Syria.
686 Conon, of Thrace.
687 Sergius I., of Palermo.
701 John VI., of Greece.
705 John VII., of Greece.
708 Sisinius, of Syria.
708 Constantine, a Syrian.
715 Gregory IL, of Rome.
731 Gregory IIL, a Syrian.
741 Zacharias, a Greek.
753 Stephen IL, died within a few days.
753 Stephen III., of Rome.
757 Paul I., a Roman.
763 Stephen IV., a Sicilian.
772 Adrian I., a Roman.
795 Leo III., a Roman.
816 Stephen V., a Roman.
817 Paschal I., a Roman.
824 Eugenius II., a Roman.
827 Valentinus, a Roman.
827 Gregory IV., a Roman.

A.D. 843847

855858867872882884 885891

894 897
897897900 903
904911913914928 929
931936939943946 956

963964965 972
973 974983985986996999
1003
1009 10121024
103310441047 10481049105510571058 1059

POP
Sergius IL, a Roman.
Leo IV., a Roman.
Between Leo and his successor some chroni
clers place Joan, — a popess.
Benedict III., a Roman.
Nicholas I., a Roman.
Adrian II., a Roman.
John VIII., a Roman.
Martin II., called by some Marinus I.
Adrian IIL, a Roman.
Stephen VI., a Roman.
Formosus, Bishop of Porto.
Sergius, antipope, and after him Boniface,
styled by some Boniface VI.
Stephen VII., a Roman.
Romanus, a Tuscan.
Theodoras IL, a Roman.
John IX., of Tibur.
Benedict IV., a Roman.
Leo V., of Ardea.
Christopher, antipope.
Sergius III.
Anastasius III., a Roman.
Lando, of Sabina.
John X., a Roman.
Leo VI., a Roman.
Stephen VIII., a Roman.
John XL, son of Sergius III.
Leo VII., a Roman.
Stephen TX., a Roman.
Martin III., called by some Marinus II.
Agapetus II.
John XIL, Ottaviano Conti.
Supposed by some to have really been the
first who changed his name on his election.
Leo VIII., by some styled antipope. ,
Benedict V., a Roman.
John XIII., a Roman.
Benedict VI., killed in a tumult,
Domnus II., a Roman.
Benedict VII., ofthe Conti family.
John XIV., put to death by Franco, anti-
pope, styled Boniface VIII.
John XV., a Roman.
John XVI., a Roman.
Gregory V., a German.
Sylvester IL, Gerbert, of Auvergne.
John XVIII., a Roman.
Sergius IV., a Roman.
Benedict VIII., of Tusculum.
John XIX., of Rome.
Benedict IX., deposed.
Sylvester, Bishop of Sabina, antipope.
Gregory VI., of Rome, abdicated.
Clement II., of Saxony.
Damasus IL. Poppo, Bishop of Brixen.
Leo IX., Bishop of Toul.
Final separation of the Greek Church.
Victor II., Bishop of Eichstadt.
Stephen IX., Abbot of Monte Casino.
Benedict X., abdicated.
Nicholas IL, of Burgundy.

501

POP
A.D.
1061 Alexander II., of Milan.
1073 Gregory VII., Hildebrand, a monk.
Guibert, antipope, assumed the name of
Clement III.
1086 Victor III., a native of Beneventum.
1088 Urban II., of France.
1099 Paschal IL, of Tuscany.
Albert and Theodoric, antipopes.
1118 Gelasius II., of Caieta.
1119 Calixtus II., of Burgundy.
1124 Honorius II., Cardinal Lamberto.
1130 Innocent IL, a Roman.
Anacletus, antipope.
1143 Celestinus II., a Tuscan.
1144 Lucius II., of Bologna.
1145 Eugenius III., of Pisa.
1153 Anastasius IV., a Roman.
1154 Adrian IV., an Englishman.
1159 Alexander IIL, Cardinal Orlando Bandi-
nelli of Sienna.
Cardinal Octavian, antipope, by the name
of Victor. Cardinal Guido, antipope, by
the name of Paschal. Calixtus, antipope.
1181 Lucius II., Cardinal Ubaldo of Lucca.
1185 Urban III., Dberto Crivelli.
1187 Gregory VIII., of Beneventum.
1188 Clement III., Paul, Bishop of Prseneste.
1191 Celestinus III., Hyacinthus, a Roman.
1198 Innocent III., Cardinal Lothariusof Sigina.
1216 Honorius III., Cardinal Savelli of Rome.
1227 Gregory IX., Cardinal Hugo of Anagni.
1241 Celestinus IV, of Milan.
1242 Innocent IV., Cardinal Fieschi of Genoa.
1254 Alexander IV, Rinaldo Conti of Anaqui.
1261 Urban IV., a Frenchman.
1265 Clement IV., of Languedoc.
1272 Gregory X., Tebaldo Visconti of Piacenza
1276 Innocent V., of the Tarenteise.
1276 Adrian V., Ottobono Fieschi of Genoa.
1276 John XXI., of Lisbon.
1277 Nicholas III., Cardinal Orsini of Rome.
1281 Martin IV., a Frenchman.
1285 Honorius IV., Cardinal Savelli of Rome.
1288 Nicholas IV., Cardinal Jerome of Ascoli.
1294 Celestinus V., abdicated.
1295 Boniface VIII., Cardinal Caetani of
Anagni.
1303 Benedict XL, Cardinal Nicholas of Treviso.
1305 Clement V., Bertrand of Bourdeaux, re
moved the Papal See to Avignon.
1316 John XXII., James of Cahors in France.
Nicholas, antipope, in Italy.
1334 Benedict XII., a Frenchman.
1342 Clement VI., of Limoges in France.
1352 Innocent VI., Stephen Aubert of Limoges.
1362 Urban V., Wm. Grimoard, a Frenchman.
1370 Gregory XL, Peter Roger, a Frenchman,
restored the Papal See to Rome.
1378 Urban VI., a Neapolitan.
Clement at Avignon, antipope.
1389 Boniface IX., Peter Tomacelli of Naples.
Pedro de Luna, a Spaniard, antipope.

POP
A.D.
1404 Innocent VII., Migliorati of Sulmona.
1406 Gregory XII., Angelo Corrari of Venice,
abdicated at Constance.
1409 Alexander V., Peter Philargiusof Candia.
1410 John XXIII., Cardinal Cossa, deposed by
the council of Constance.
1417 Martin V., Otho Colonna, a Roman.
1431 Eugenius IV., Condulmero, a Venetian.
Felix, antipope.
1447 Nicholas V., Cardinal Thomas of Sarzana.
1455 Calixtus III., Alfonso Borgia, a Spaniard.
1458 Pius II., jE. S. Piccolomini of Siena.
1464 Paul II., Peter Barbo of Venice.
1471 Sixtus IV., F. della Rovere, a Genoese.
1485 Innocent VIII., G. B. Cibo, a Genoese.
1492 Alexander VI., R. L. Borgia, a Spaniard.
1503 Pius III., F. T. Piccolomini.
1503 Julius II., Julian della Rovere, a Genoese.
1513 Leo X., Giovanni de' Medici.
1522 Adrian VI., of Utrecht.
1523 Clement VII., Giulio de' Medici.
1534 Paul III., Alessandro Farnese of Rome.
1550 Julius III., Giovan Maria Giocci of Home.
1565 Mareellus IL, Cardinal Cervini.
1555 Paul IV., G. P. Caraffa, a Neapolitan.
1559 Pius IV., G. A. Medichini of Milan.
1566 Pius V., Michele Ghislieri of Alessandria.
1572 Gregory XIII., of Bologna.
1585 Sixtus V., of Montalto in the Marca
d'Ancona.
1590 Urban VII., G. B. Castagna, a Genoese.
1590 Gregory XIV., Nicolo Sfrondati of Milan.
1591 Innocent IX., G. A. Facchinettiof Bologna.
1592 Clement VIII., Ippolito Aldobrandini, of
Fan a.
1605 Leo XL, Alessandro de' Medici of Florence.
1605 Paul V., Camillo Borghese of Rome.
1621 Gregory XV., A. Ludovici of Bologna.
1623 Urban VIII., M. Barberini, a Florentine.
1644 Innocent X., G. B. Pamfili of Rome.
1655 Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi of Siena.
1667 Clement IX., Giulio Rospigliosi of Pistoia.
1670 Clement X., Emilio Altieri of Rome.
1676 Clement XL, B. Odescalchi of Como.
1688 Alexander VIII., P. Ottoboni of Venice.
1691 Innocent XIL, A. Pignatelli of Naples.
1700 Clement XL, G. F. Albani of Urbino.
1721 Innocent XIII., M- A. Conti of Rome.
1724 Benedict XIII., V. M. Orsini of Rome.
1730 Clement XII., Lorenzo Corsini of Florence.
1 740 Benedict XIV., P. Lambertini of Bologna.
1758 Clement XIII., Carlo Rezzonjco of Venice.
1769 Clement XIV., Gian Vincenzo Ganganelli.
1775 Pius VI., Angelo Braschi of Cesena.
1800 Pius VII., G. B. Chiaramonti of Cesena.
1823 Leo XII., A. della Genga of Romagna.
1829 Pius VIII., Cardinal Castiglioni of Cingoli.
1831 Gregory XVI., Mauro Capellari.
1846 Pius IX., Cardinal Ferretti of Imola.
(Ranke, Bowyer.)
Pope, Supremacy of. — A few samples
of pontifical arrogance may suffice for illus-

602

POP
tration of what is meant by the terms : — Pope
Paschal II., in 1099, deprived Henry IV., and
excited enemies to persecute him ; telling them
that they could not "offer a more acceptable
sacrifice to God, than by impugning him who
endeavoured to take the kingdom from God's
church." Pope Gregory VII. says, — " For the
dignity and defence of God's holy church, in
the name of Almighty God, the Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost, I depose from imperial and royal
administration King Henry, son of Henry some
time emperor, who too boldly and rashly hath
laid hands on thy church; and I absolve all
Christians subject to the empire from that oath
whereby they were wont to plight their faith
unto true kings ; for it is right that he should
be deprived of dignity who doth endeavour
to diminish the majesty of the church. Go
to, therefore, most holy princes of the apostles,
and what I said, by interposing your authority,
conflrm; that all men may now at length
understand, if ye can bind and loose in heaven,
that ye also can upon earth take away and
give empires, kingdoms, and whatsoever mor
tals can have; for if ye can judge things
belonging unto God, what is to be deemed
concerning these inferior and profane things?
And if it is your part to judge angels, who
govern proud princes, what becometh it you
to do toward their servants? Let kings now,
and all secular princes, learn by this man's
example, what ye can do in heaven, and in what
esteem ye are with God; and let them hence
forth fear to slight the commands of holy church ;
but put forth suddenly this judgment, that all
men may understand, that not casually, but
by your means, this son of iniquity doth fall
from his kingdom." Pope Boniface V1IT., in
1294, has a decree extant in the canon law
running thus, — " We declare, say, define, pro
nounce it to be of necessity to salvation, for every
human creature to be subject to the Roman pon
tiff. One sword must be under another, and
the temporal authority must be subject to the
spiritual power, — whence, if the earthly power
doth go astray, it must be judged by the spirit
ual power." Before him, Pope Innocent tbe
Third did affirm "the pontifical authority
so much to exceed the royal power, as the
eun doth the moon;" and applies to the
former that of the prophet Jeremiah, — " Ecce,
constitui te super gentes et regna" — see, I have
set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms,
to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy,
and to throw down, &c. Of this power that
pope made experiment, by deposing the Emperor
Otho IV., " whom," saith Nauclerus, " as rebel
lious to the apostolical see, he first did strike
with an anathema ; then him persevering in his
obstinacy, did, in a council of prelates, held at
Rome, pronounce deposed from empire." This
monstrous authority was avowed by that great
council under this pope, which, according to the

POP
council of Trent, did represent or constitute the
church, when it was ordained, that if a " tem
poral lord, being required and admonished by the
church, should neglect to purge his territory
from heretical filth, he should, by the metropo
litan and the other comprovincial bishops, be
noosed in the band of excommunication ; and
that if he should slight to make satisfaction
within a year, it should be signified to the pope,
that he might from that time denounce the
subjects absolved from their fealty to him, and
expose the territory to be seized on by Catho
lics," &c. Pope Pius V., in 1570, begins his
bull against Queen Elizabeth in these words, —
" He that reigneth on high, to whom is given
all power in heaven and in earth, hath committed
the one holy catholic and apostolic church, out
of which there is no salvation, to one alone on
earth, namely, to Peter, prince of the apostles,
and to the Roman pontiff, successor of Peter, to
be governed witli a plenitude of power. This
one he hath constituted prince over all nations,
and all kingdoms, that he might pluck up, de
stroy, dissipate, ruinate, plant, and build." And
in the same bull he declares, that " he thereby
deprives the queen of her pretended right to the
kingdom, and of all dominion, dignity, and pri
vilege, whatsoever ; and absolves all the nobles,
subjects, and people of the kingdom, and who
ever else have sworn to her, from their oath, and
all duty whatsoever, in regard of dominion,
fidelity, and obedience." The bull of Pope
Sixtus V., in 1585, against Henry, King
of Navarre and the Prince of Conde', begins
thus, — " The authority given to St. Peter and
his successors, by the immense power of the
eternal King, excels all the powers of earthly
kings and princes. It passes uncontrollable
sentence upon them all. And if it find any
of them resisting God's ordinance, it takes
more severe vengeance of them, casting them
down from their thrones, though never so
puissant, and tumbling them down to the
lowest parts of the earth, as the ministers of
aspiring Lucifer." And then he proceeds to
thunder against them, — " We deprive them and
their posterity for ever of their dominions and
kingdoms ; " and accordingly he depriveth those
princes of their kingdoms and dominions, absolv-
eth their subjects from their oaths of allegiance,
and forbiddeth them to pay any obedience to
them. " By the authority of these presents, we
do absolve and set free all persons, as well jointly
as severally, from any such oath, and from all
dutv whatsoever in regard of dominion, fealty,
and" obedience : and do charge and forbid all and
every of them, that they do not dare to obey
them, or any of their admonitions, laws, and
commands." Popery. — The system of doctrine so called
will be best known by reading the creed of Pope
Pius IV., published in 1564, and embodying
authoritatively the decisions of the council of

503

POP
Trent Every Catholic is bound by it, and all
Romish officials swear to it. After repeating the
Apostles' Creed, it goes on, — " I most firmly admit
and embrace apostolical and ecclesiastical tradi
tions, and all other constitutions and observances
of the same church. I also admit the sacred Scrip
tures according to the sense which the holy
mother church has held, and does hold, to whom
it belongs to judge of the true sense and interpre
tation of the holy Scriptures; nor will I ever
take and interpret them otherwise than accord
ing to the unanimous consent of the fathers. I
profess, also, that there are truly and properly
seven sacraments of the new law, instituted by
Jesus Christ our Lord, and for the salvation of
mankind, though all are not necessary for every
one — viz., baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, pen
ance, extreme nnction, order, and matrimony;
and that they confer grace ; and of these, bap
tism, confirmation, and order, cannot be reiter
ated without sacrilege. I also receive and admit
the ceremonies of the Catholic Church, received
and approved in the solemn administration of all
the above said sacraments. I receive and
embrace all and every one of tbe things whieh
have been defined and declared in the holy
council of Trent concerning original sin and
justification. I profess likewise, that in the
mass is offered to God a true, proper, and pro*
pitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead ; and
that in the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist
there is truly, really, and substantially, the body
and blood, together with the soul and divinity,
of our Lord Jesus Christ ; and that there is
made a conversion of the whole substance of the
bread into the body, and of the whole substance
of the wine into the blood, which conversion the
Catholic Church calls transubstantiation. I con
fess, also, that under either kind alone, whole
and entire, Christ and a true sacrament is received.
I constantly hold that there is a purgatory, and
that the souls detained therein are helped by the
suffrages of the faithful. . Likewise that the
saints reigning together with Christ are to be
honoured and invocated, that they offer prayers
to God for us, and that their relics are to be
venerated. ' I most firmly assert that the images
of Christ, and ofthe mother of God, ever virgin,
and also of the other saints, are to be had and
retained, and that due honour and veneration
are to be given to them. I also affirm that the
power of indulgences was left by Christ in the
church ; and that the use of them is most whole
some to Christian people. I acknowledge the
holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church,
the mother and mistress of all churches ; and I
promise and swear true obedience to the Roman
bishop, the successor of St. Peter, prince of the
apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ. I also pro
fess and undoubtedly receive all other things
delivered, defined, and declared by the sacred
canons and general councils, and particularly by
the holy council of Trent ; and likewise I also

604

POP
condemn, reject, and anathematize all things
contrary thereto, and all heresies whatsoever,
condemned and anathematized by the church.
This true Catholic faith, out of which none can
be saved, which I now freely profess and truly
hold, I, N., promise, vow, and swear most con
stantly to hold and profess the same whole and
entire, with God's assistance, to the end of my
life. Amen."
Middleton's famous letter from Rome showed
that in many things Popery had borrowed from
Paganism. To take an example or two: —
" What better opinion, then, can we have
of all those of the same stamp in the popish
legends, which seem plainly to be built on this
foundation, and copied after this very original?
For they show us, in many parts of Italy, the
marks of hands and feet on rocks and stones,
said to be effected miraculously by the appari
tion of some saint or angel on the spot ; just as
the impression of Hercules's feet was shown of
old on a stone in Scythia, exactly resembling
the footsteps of a man. They have many stories
likewise of saints and angels fighting visibly for
them in their battles against the infidels, with
churches and public monuments erected in testi
mony of such miracles ; which, though full as
ridiculous as that above mentioned, are not yet
supported by half so good evidence of their
reality. Their miraculous images, which we
see in all their great towns, said to be made by
angels, and sent to them from heaven, are but
tbe old fables revived of the image of Diana
dropt from the clouds, or the palladium of Troy,
which, according to old authors, was a wooden
statue three cubits long, which fell from heaven.
In one of their churches here they show a picture
of the Virgin, which, as their writers affirm, was
brought down from heaven with great pomp,
and after having hung awhile with surprising
lustre in the air, was, in sight of all the
clergy and people of Rome, delivered into the
hands of Pope John I., who marched out in
solemn procession in order to receive this celestial
present. And is not this exactly of a piece with
the old pagan story of King Numa, when in
this same city he issued from his palace, with
priests and people after him, and with public
prayer and solemn devotion, received the ancile,
or heavenly shield, which, in the sight of all the
people of Rome, was sent down to him with much
the same formality from the clouds? . . .
As to that celebrated act of popish idolatry, the
adoration of the host, I must confess that I cannot
find the least resemblance or similitude of it in
any part of the pagan worship, and as oft as I
have been standing by at mass, and seen the
whole congregation prostrate on the ground,
in the humblest posture of adoring, at the eleva
tion of this consecrated piece of bread, I could
not help reflecting on a passage of Tully, where
speaking of the absurdity of the heathens in the
choice of their gods, 'But was any man,' says he,

POP
¦ever so mad as to take that which he feeds upon
for a god ? ' This was an extravagance reserved
for Popery alone; and what an old Roman could
not but think too gross for Egyptian idolatry to
swallow, is now become the principal part of
worship, and the distinguishing article of faith in
the creed of modern Rome."
Popoftschins, a great division of the Rus
sian dissenters, or Raskolniks. — See Raskolniks,
Russian Church.
Porch. — See Church, Architecture of.
Porteoas Slob. — This tragical incident is
introduced here from its connection with the
ecclesiastical history of Scotland. Some new
custom-taxes were felt to be odious and galling
in Scotland, and revenue officers were specially
obnoxious in some of the sea-ports. Two men,
named Wilson and Robertson, who had robbed the
collector of Pittenweem, in Fife, were apprehended
and condemned. Some attempts to break out of
jail, after sentence had been passed upon them,
had proved abortive. On the Sabbath before the
execution the criminals, as usual, were taken to
church, under custody of four soldiers of the city
guard, when, as the congregation was dismissing,
Wilson, laying hold of two of the soldiers, one in
each hand, and seizing the third with his teeth,
called on Robertson to run. The latter at once
knocked down the remaining guard, and fled,
without any one trying to arrest him. The
romantic pity of Wilson for his junior accom
plice, and his successful deliverance of him, created
great sympathy for him. At his execution, on
the 14th of April, 1736, the mob became unruly,
rushed to the scaffold, and cut down the dead
man. Captain Porteous, of the city guard, who
was at that time surly and excited, ordered his
men to fire, nay, fired a musket himself on the
crowd. Six or seven persons were killed by the
first volley, and more by the second. Some
respectable citizens were shot as they were look
ing out from their windows. Captain Porteous
was tried before the High Court of Justiciary,
and condemned to death. Queen Caroline, in
the absence of George II. on the Continent, sent
down a reprieve. The populace was filled with
terrible indignation, and resolved to take the law
into their own hands. On the 7th Of September
a crowd assembled under some unknown com
mand, secured all the military posts, locked the
gates, opened the prison, took out Captain Por
teous, entered a shop, brought away a halter,
leaving a guinea on the counter to pay it, and
hanged him on a dyer's pole. The mob dispersed
with perfect order, and did no other violence.
The riot is enveloped in mystery — no one of the
parties was ever apprehended. But a bill of
great and vindictive penalties was prepared, and
though shorn of many of its original terrors in
passing through parliament, it contained the
enactment, tbat every minister in the Church
of Scotland was to read a proclamation against
the rioters from the pulpit, during public worship, !

POR
on the first Sabbath of each month during a
whole year. If any minister refused, he was, for
the first offence, to be declared incapable of sitting
and voting in any church court, and, for the
second, he was pronounced incapable of" taking,
holding, or enjoying any ecclesiastical benefice
in Scotland." The majority of the ministers
bowed to this edict, some used ludicrous shifts to
evade it, and only a few pointedly refused. The
act was felt by many to be a wanton infringe
ment on the rights of the Church — a dictation
to which none but an Erastian community could
submit. The parliament had assumed the power
of declaring what ministers should do, and of
inflicting discipline if they should refuse. Com-'
pliance with the enactment raised commotion in
many parishes, and aided the spread of the first
Secession. The seceders were accused of disloy
alty, because they unanimously, and without
hesitation, refused to read the edict. In Carlyle's
Autobiography will be found a graphic account.
Carlyle saw the rescue and witnessed the execu
tion. (Scott's Heart of Midlothian.)
Portesse, Portasse, Porlens, or Ports-
forium, the Breviary, or, a portable book, con
taining the mass, and the other parts of the
church service to be said through the year at
canonical hours, with the exception of the
marriage service.
Port-Royalists, The, occupy a most im
portant position, not only in the literary, but also,
and chiefly, in the ecclesiastical history of France
in the seventeenth century. In their struggle with
the Jesuits they maintained within the Church
of Rome a position analogous to tbat occupied
by Calvinists of the Reformed Church in their op
position to the Arminian party. In a damp, low
situation, in a forest on the road from Versailles
to Chevreuse, and about six leagues from Paris,
is situated the ancient Cistertian monastery of
Port-Royal des Champ, founded in 1204 ; but
the strict rule of St. Benedict was little regarded
by its gay unsecluded inmates at the period of
which we write. In 1600 Jaqueline Marie An-
gelique Arnaud was appointed to the coadjuterie
of the monastery when eight years old, and two
years after, by the death of the abbess, succeeded
to that dignity, when she adopted the name Mere
Angelique. Heryounger sister Agnes (known as
de St. Paul) was appointed Abbess of St. Cyr at
the same time. The Mere Angelique, with but
slight alterations, suffered the nuns to continue
their gaieties, till, one evening, when seventeen
years of age, she heard a sermon on the death of
Christ by a wandering Capuchin friar, Father
Basil, which produced a complete change in her
character. With love and kindness, but with un
yielding firmness and great wisdom, she restored
the rule of the order in all its severity. After a
time she was appointed by the general ofthe order
to restore discipline in the dissolute convent of
Maubisson, where she successfully laboured for
five years, and by the aid of her sister accom-

505

POR
plished a like reformation of morals in nearly
all the French Cistertian convents. Many -of
the reformed nuns of Maubisson accompanied
her on her return to Port-Royal; but the
malaria of the damp surrounding marshes
threatening death to all, the sisterhood re
moved to a house purchased for them by her
mother in a suburb of Paris, known as the Fort-
Royal de Paris. Here she became acquainted
with John du Vergier de Hauranne, Abbot of St.
Cyran (circiter 1614). From this introduction
dates the rise of the Port-Royalists. St. Cyran,
whilst he had alienated Richelieu, had drawn
towards him, and won the complete command of,
Arnauld, Nicole, Pascal, the Port-Royal nuns,
and others. The intimate friend of Jansenius
(see Jansenists), he held to the same doctrinal
opinions, and was determined to secure their
spread throughout France, and oppose the teach
ing and morality of the Jesuits. Intellectually
and spiritually he was a singularly great man.
The sisterhood of the Port - Royal, now at
Paris, permitted St. Cyran to form a society of
men imbued with Jansenistic opinions, deeply
read in science, literature, and theology, in the
neighbourhood of their deserted monastery, Port-
Royal des Champ. Here studied and wrote, and
practised manual toil, educational pursuits, and
penitential discipline, the Port-Royalists, num
bering such names as Le Maitre, the greatest
forensic pleader France has seen, who at twenty-
seven retired to this spot, tired of the vanities
of the world ; his brother, De Saci, the translator
of the best French version of the Bible; Tille-
mont, the church historian ; Arnauld, that great
controversialist; Pascal, whose Provincial Let
ters, to say nothing flf his other works, entitle
him to undying fame; Racine, the poet; and
many others of note. They were strict ascetics,
but came under the obligation of no vow ; many
of them, however, took orders. They did much
good to the poor of this district, and published
many Grammars and similar useful elementary
works, by which they designed to wrest tbe edu
cation of the young from the exclusive control
of the Jesuits. They set themselves also, and
not unsuccessfully, to countermine their power
in the confessional : for the integrity and piety
of the Port-Royalists caused them to be much
sought after as confessors. They discovered
and maintained the famous distinction of fait
and droit in respect to papal infallibility. As
to doctrine, the pope could not err; as to facts
he might, When required, they were willing to
condemn, as doctrines, the five propositions which
were said to comprise the Jansenistic heresy ; but
they denied that these conclusions were to be
found in or inferred from Jansen's Augustinus.
No papal bulls or persecution could make them
recede from this position. In their maintenance
of Jansen's real doctrines, ip their refusal to ac
knowledge papal infallibility as to facts, in their
continual warfare against the Jesuits, they were

PRjE
exposed to constant persecutions from Jesuits,
king, cardinals, and bishops. Circumstances occa
sionally produced a brief respite, but only to ex
perience on its renewal severer persecution. St.
Cyran was immured in a dungeon for five years
—a dungeon he only left to die. Their con
fessor, De Singlin, was confined in the Bastile.
The poor nuns suffered all manner of hardships —
their companions were scattered, their goods
confiscated, and more than twenty of them sepa
rately imprisoned. Nicole and Arnauld were
saved only by voluntary exile; Pascal by an
early grave. Tbe harassing persecution the nuns
suffered was spread over a long period ; but the
destruction of the party was at last complete.
When the estates were confiscated, and the
societies of Port-Royal broken up, party rage,
one might anticipate, would have been sa
tiated ; but no, monastery and church must be
hurled to the ground (this was effected in
1709) — the very graves of the nuns dese
crated — so that a broken arch alone now marks
the site of that ancient and famous seat of
profound learning, of consistent adherence to
truth, earnest and humble charity, painful peni
tence, and ardent piety. They were the most
Bible-loving, Bible-studyihg, and Bible-circu
lating party that ever existed within the Church
of Rome, and only lacked the requisite degree
of intellectual boldness to have joined the Re
formers ; for in many essential points of religious
faith they agreed. (See M'Crie's Historical In
troduction to Pascal's Letters ; Sir J. E. Stephen's
Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography; Stebbing's
Church History.)
Postil (post ilia, after these), something given
after the text as a gloss on the margin; the
short notes and explanations on the gospel and
epistles. Thus we have the postillai of Nicholas
de Lyra, and postils on the epistles and gos
pels, compiled and published by Richard Taver
ner, 1546 ; new edition by Cardwell, Oxford,
1841. Poverty, one of the three vows of a Romish
monk. — See Monachism, and names of the
various orders.
Praadamites, followers of Isaac de la
Pereyra, who, in 1655, published a book to
prove that races of men existed in the world
before Adam, and that the Bible only records the
origin of the Jewish people. The inquisition at
Brussels imprisoned the author, and he soon
recanted and became an orthodox Catholic.
The same theory has been recently revived in a,
philological and ethnological volume, edited by
R. S. Poole.
Prcemonstratenses, a religious order found
ed by St. Norbert, who was descended from a
noble family in the diocese of Cologne. Leav
ing the Emperor Henry Fifth's court, at about
thirty years of age, he was ordained deacon and
priest; and soon after, entering upon a very
strict and mortified method of living, he resigned

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his church preferments, and distributed a large
patrimonial estate to the poor. He embraced the
rule of St. Augustine, and retiring with thirteen
companions to a place called Premonstratum, in
the diocese of Laon, in Picardy, he there founded
his order about the year 1119. This ground,
with the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, was
given to St. Norbert by the Bishop of Laon, with
the approbation of Lewis tbe Gross, King of
France, who gave the Premonstratenses a charter
of privileges. The place was called Premonstra
tum, because it was pretended the blessed Virgin
herself pointed out (premonstravit) this place for
the principal house of the order, and at the same
time commanded them to wear a white habit. The
brethren of this order were at first so poor, that
they had nothing they could call their own but
one ass, which served them to carry wood, which
they cut down every morning and sent to Laon,
where it was sold to purchase bread. But, in a
short time, they received so many donations,
and built so many monasteries, that thirty years
after the foundation of this order, they had above
an hundred abbeys in France and Germany.
The popes and kings of France granted many
privileges, and were very liberal to the Prae-
monstratenses. Besides a great number of
saints, who have been canonized, this order had
several persons of distinguished birth. It has
likewise given the church a great number of
archbishops and bishops. The order once had
a thousand abbeys and five hundred nunneries ;
but it is now the mere skeleton of what it was.
These monks, vulgarly called white canons, came
first into England in the year 1146, where the
first monastery, called New-house, was built in
Lincolnshire by Peter de Saulia, and dedicated
to St. Martialif. In the reign of Edward I.,
when that king granted his protection to the
monasteries, the Prsemonstratenses had twenty-
seven houses in this kingdom.
Praemunire (to defend in front of), in law,
is so called from the mandatory words with
which the writ, directing the citation of a
party charged with the offence, commences.
The different statutes of praemunire were ori
ginally framed in order to restrain the en
croachments of the papal power. They com
mence with the 27 Edw. III., st. i., c. 1, and
continue from that period down to the reign of
Henry VIII., when the kingdom entirely re
nounced the authority of the Roman pontiffs.
The exorbitant powers exercised by the pope in
presenting to benefices, and in other ecclesiastical
matters, and the privileges claimed by the clergy,
who resisted the authority of the king's courts,
and recognized no jurisdiction but tbat of the
court of Rome, rendered some enactments abso
lutely necessary to uphold the law of the country
and the independence of the nation. This, then,
is the original meaning of the offence which we
call praemunire — viz., introducing a foreign
power into the land, and creating an imperium

PRA
in imperio, by paying tbat obedience to the
papal process which constitutionally belonged to
the king alone. Its penalties have been subse
quently applied to other heinous offences ; some
of which hear more and some less relation to this
original offence, and some no relation at all;
as neglecting to take the oaths of allegiance,
transgressing the statute of habeas corpus, per
forming marriage without license or banns, or
a chapter refusing to elect as bishop the person
nominated by the sovereign. The penalties of a
prasmunire are thus shortlv summed up by Sir
E. Coke (1 Inst, 129): ""That from the con
viction the defendant shall be out of the king's
protection, and his lands and tenements, goods
and chattels, forfeited to the king, and that his
body shall remain in prison during the king's
pleasure, or (as others have it) during life."
Propositus (the term contracted into
provost). — See Magister Discipline.
Pragmatic Sanction was a general term
for all important ordinances of church or state,
— those perhaps more properly which were
enacted in public assemblies with the counsel of
eminent jurisconsults or pragmatici. But the
most familiar application of the term is to the
important articles decided on by the great
assembly held at Bourges in 1438, convoked
and presided over by Charles VII. These
articles have been regarded as the great bul
wark of the French Church against the usurpa
tion of Rome. They were chiefly founded on
the decrees of the council of Basle. Some of
them relate to the periodical assembling and
superior authority of general councils ; some to
the celebration of divine offices, and other
matters not connected with papal prerogation;
but of the rest it has been truly said, that the
abuses of the papal prerogation, against which
they were directed, were chiefly connected with
its avarice. This was the most unpopular of
the vices of the holy see, and was at the
bottom of more than half the grievances which
alienated its children from it. The Pragmatic
Sanction continued in force till Francis I,'s con
cordat in 1516.
Praise. — See PsALMODT.
Praxeans, a sect named after Praxeas. —
See Monarchians, Patripassians.
Prayer., — See Evening Service, Morning
Service. — All the services of the early Church
had forms of prayer in them, and all of them
included the Lord's Prayer. There were special
prayers for all classes of catechumens and peni
tents — for the whole church, and all orders in it.
Adoration was offered to Christ as God, and to
God alone. No creature, saint, or angel, shared
in such homage. Prayers were always made in
the common tongue, so as tp be understood by
the people who intelligently joined in the service.
Fixed or canonical hours of prayer came gra
dually into the church,— the first, third, sixth,
and ninth hours  See Canonical Hours. In

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these devotions the heads of the men -tvere un
covered, and occasionally the hands were lifted
toward heaven. At ordinary seasons, as on
week days, the suppliants knelt, or they bowed
the head, or sometimes prostrated themselves
altogether, but they never sat. But on the
Lord's Day the people stood, as well as on the
fifty days between Easter and Pentecost. Thus
an early author, long supposed to be Justin
Martyr, says, — " Forasmuch as we ought to
remember both our fall by sin, and the grace of
Christ, by which we rise again from our fall,
therefore we pray kneeling six days, as a sym
bol of our fall by sin ; but our not kneeling on
the Lord's Day is a symbol of the resurrection,
whereby, through the grace of Christ, we are
delivered from our sins and from death, that is,
mortified thereby. And this custom took its
original from the times of the apostles, as St.
Irenseus says in his book concerning Easter,
wherein he also makes mention of Pentecost,
during which time we kneel not, because it is
of the same nature with the Lord's Day, accord
ing to the reason that has been given." Not
long after, Tertullian speaks of it as an observa
tion, among many others, handed down from
ancient tradition. And Cyprian may be sup
posed to hint it when he speaks of their standing
in prayer. It is mentioned also by Clement of
Alexandria, and Peter, Bishop of Alexandria,
who died some years before the council of Nice.
He says, — " We keep the Lord's Day as a day of
joy, because then our Lord rose from the dead ;
and our tradition is not to kneel on that day."
In the time of the council of Nice there was some
disagreement about this practice; and therefore
that council made a canon to bring all churches
to an uniformity in this matter : " Because there
are some who kneel on the Lord's Day, and in
the days of Pentecost, that all things may be
uniformly performed in every parish or diocese,
it seems good to the holy synod that prayers
be made to God standing." After this Hilary
speaks of it again as an apostolical practice
neither to fast nor worship kneeling on the Lord's
Day, or the fifty days between Easter and Pente
cost. Epiphanus says that " on the appointed
days they prayed kneeling; but during the
whole fifty days of Pentecost they neither fasted
nor kneeled." St. Jerome reckons it among the
traditions of the universal Church neither to fast
nor kneel on the Lord's Day or Pentecost. St.
Augustine is a little doubtful as to the practice of
the Church universal ; but he assures us that, as
far as he knew, all churches in Africa forbore fast
ing, and prayed standing, and sung hallelujah
at the altar every Lord's Day, and all the days
of Pentecost, in token of our Saviour's resurrec
tion. We find the same in St. Basil, who de
rives it from apostolical practice. And Cassian
testifies of the Egyptian churches, that from
Saturday night to Sunday night, and all the
days of Pentecost, they neither kneeled nor fasted,

PRA
And in another place he gives the reason ot this ;
because kneeling was a sign of deep repentance
and mourning, which they omitted on those days
out of respect and reverence to our Saviour's
resurrection. Hence It was that the author of the
Constitutions makes it one of his apostolical orders,
" that all men should pray three times, or three
prayers, on the Lord's Day, standing, in menioty
of Him who rose the third day from the dead."
And from hence came that usual form so often
mentioned by St. Chrysostom and others, of the
deacons calling upon the people in prayer, " l£l£j
t-rSfitv xaXZt" — Let ns stand upright with
reverence and decency, alluding to the posture
then commonly used in prayer on the Lord's
Day. (Bingham, Augusti, Coleman.)
Prayer, Common, Book of. — See
LlTURGT. Prayer for the Dead. — This custom is
alluded to in the Apostolical Constitutions, and
Tertullian mentions how every widow prayed
for the soul of her deceased husband, and the
husband for the soul of his deceased wife. Such
" oblations " were also made for the martyrs on
the anniversary of their martyrdom. Cyril of
Jerusalem even declares it to be a considerable
advantage for the souls of the dead to be prayed
for. The same custom is found in many of the
ancient liturgies. Chrysostom says, — " Prayers
were made for all deceased in the faith." "While
this was the common practice, it had no reference
at all, in many aspects of it, to the notion of a
purgatory. Many of the fathers regarded such
prayers as little more than a thanksgiving, a
commendation of souta of the deceased to the
mercy of God, and a commemoration of their
spiritual excellencies. Still there is no doubt that
not a few of the fathers believed that the souls
Of departed believers were not taken at once to
heaven, but were in some separate place — Hades
or Paradise — out of which the fervent prayers of
survivors might help to remove them. So that
the idea of purgatory sprang out of such views
in no long space of time. In the Church of
England burial service of 1549, under Edward
VI., one prayer was, — " We commend into thy
hands of mercy, most merciful Father, the soul
of this our brother departed . . . that
when the judgment shall come, which thou hast
committed to thy well-beloved Son, both this
our brother and we may be found acceptable
in thy sight, and receive thy blessing." " Al
mighty God, we give thee hearty thanks for this
thy servant, whom thou hast delivered from the
miseries of this wretched world, from the body
of death and all temptation ; and, as we trust,
hast brought his soul, which he committed into
thy holy hands, into sure consolation and rest :
Grant, we beseech thee, that at the day of judg
ment his soul and all the souls of thy elect, de
parted out of this life, may with us, and we with
them, fully receive thy promises, and be made
perfit altogether, thorough the glorious resurrec-

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PRA
tion of thy Son Jesus Christ our Lord." And
the next prayer was, — "0 Lord, with whom do
live the spirits of them that be dead ; and in
whom the souls of them that be elected, after
they be delivered from the burden of the flesh,
be in joy and felicity; Grant unto this thy
servant, that the sins which he committed in
this world be not imputed unto him, but that
he, escaping the gates of hell, and pains of
eternal darkness, may ever dwell in the region
of light, with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, in
the place where is no weeping, sorrow, nor heavi
ness ; and when that dreadful day of the general
resurrection shall come, make him to rise also
with the just and righteous, and receive this
body again to glory, then made pure and incor
ruptible." The prayer was ultimately changed
into a thanksgiving. Prayer for the dead does
not necessarily imply a belief in purgatory.
Prayer, Lord's. — See Prayer. — We enter
not into the question whether the Lord meant
this form simply as an illustration or " manner "
of the characters, objects, and spirit of prayer, or
whether he intended it to be used as a prescribed
formula in private and public devotion. It seems
plain that it was not used in this latter way in
the apostolic age, but it was used statedly in the
second and third centuries. Tertullian again and
again insists on its use. Cyprian, Chrysostom,
and Augustine use similar language. It was em
ployed in all the offices of the church, particularly
in the celebration of baptism and of the Eucharist.
As soon as a person was baptized he was to repeat
this prayer, and the prayer of eucharistic bene
diction ended with it. It held also a distinct
and prominent place in the morning and evening
services. At marriages, funerals, and ordinations,
it was also repeated. The Apostolic Constitutions
enjoin it to be used three times daily, and the
fourth council of Toledo make it a sin worthy
of deprivation for a clergyman to omit employing
it daily. — See Quotidiana Oratio. The use
of the Lord's Prayer in churches was restricted,
however, to communicants, and not allowed to
catechumens ; so that, besides being named " our
public and common prayer," it was specially
called the " prayer of the faithful." (Lord
King's Inquiry, part ii.)
Preachers, Local. — See Methodists.
Preaching. — See Sermon.
Preaching Friars. — See Dominicans.
Prebend, an allowance or an endowment
given to support a secular priest —ad praebendum.
A prebendary is a member of a cathedral chap
ter enjoying this prebend. — See Canon, Chap
ter, Cathedral.
Precentor, chanter or leader of music, and
called phonascus in the early Chnrch. The
precentor also belonged to the old religious
houses, and still holds office in cathedrals. The
choir service is under his charge, and in dignity
he is next the dean. The duties of the precentor
in Scotland have been greatly curtailed. He

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seems to have succeeded to the reader of earlier
times. — See Reader. It was the habit of the
precentor to repair to church about half-an-hour
before the minister came, and read to the people
several passages of Scripture. When the minis
ter entered, the precentor gave out a psalm and
led the singing. After the beginning of last
century, he ceased by degrees either to read the
Scriptures or prescribe the psalm. But his desk
is still, from its original use, oalled by the old
people the lectern — that is, reading-desk. — See
Desk, Lectern, Singing, Worship.
Preceptories or Commandries, estates or
benefices of the Knights Templars, and under the
government of one of the preceptares templi.
Precisians, a name sometimes given to the
Puritans, the meaning of which is quite apparent.
Preconisation, according to Broughton, is
a term used in the promotion of an ecclesiastic to
a bishopric, by nomination of the French king.
The person nominated, after receiving his war
rant from the crown, is furnished with three
letters — one from the king to the pope, another
to the cardinal protector of France, at Rome,
and the third to his majesty's ambassador at the
pope's court. When this is done, a certificate of
the life and behaviour of the person nominated is ¦
given in to the pope's nuncio. He likewise
makes profession of his faith, and gives in a
schedule of the condition of the bishopric to
which he is nominated. The letters being trans
mitted to Rome, the cardinal protector declares
in the first consistory that, at the next consis-
torial meeting, he intends to propose such a
person for such a see, wbich declaration is called
preconisation. Predestinarian Controversy. — See Pel
agians.- — In the ninth century this controversy
ran high. In monastic retirement Gotteschalcus
drunk deep into the spirit of Augnstine, and he
reproduced in a prominent form his views on
grace and predestination, especially in a discus
sion before Noting, Bishop of Verona ; but his
tenets were condemned by the synod of Mentz
in a.d. 847. His fierce antagonist Rabanus
Maurus then sent him to Hincmar, Archbishop
of Rheims, to whose see the so-called heretic
belonged. Hincmar immediately arraigned him
before the synod of Chiersey, in 849, degraded
him, scourged him severely, and incarcerated
him in the monastery of Hautevilliers, in the
diocese of Rheims, where, after twenty-one years
of confinement, the noble confessor died. In his
last illness the communion was refused him, and
his corpse was denied Christian burial. The
controversy raised by Gotteschalcus agitated the
Romish Church for many years. Prior to his
polemical appearances, Gotteschalcus, for the
brilliancy of his scholarship, had been named
Fulgentius. That his enemies caricatured his
opinions is plain, but it is no less true that bis
naked and extreme statements were liable to
misconception, and unnecessarily stirred up pre-

PRE
judice. The controversy, meanwhile, was going
on, and Ratramnus and Remigius, in defence of
Augustinianism, battled with Scotus Erigena,
and at another council at Chiersey Gotteschalcus
was condemned as a heretic. In 855, however,
at a council in Valence, these two decisions were
reversed, and five canons were issued, declaring
the doctrine of predestination. The council of
Langre adopted them in 859, and that of Toul
the following year. Jesuits and Jansenists are
strongly opposed to each other on this doctrine.
Considering the prevailing theology of the time,
the most probable supposition is that the true
and natural sense of the Thirty-nine Articles is
the Calvinistic sense; and the works of Heylin,
Winchester, Archdeacon Daubeny, Bishop Tom-
line, and Archbishop Laurence, on the other
side, are met by the treatises of Prynne, Hick
man, Toplady, Scott, Overton, and Goode. —
See Arminianism; Calvinism; Dort, Synod
of ; Predestination ; Quinquarticular
Controversy. Predestination. — Article xvii. of the
Church of England says, — " Predestination to
life is the everlasting purpose of God, whereby
(before the foundations of the world were laid)
he hath constantly decreed by his counsel, secret
to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those
whom he hath chosen in Christ out of man
kind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting
salvation, as vessels made to honour. Wherefore,
they which be endued with so excellent a benefit
of God be called according to God's purpose by
his Spirit working in due season : they through
grace obey tbe calling : they be justified freely :
they be made sons of God by adoption : they be
made like the image of his only-begotten Son
Jesus Christ: they walk religiously in good
works," and at length, by God's mercy, they
attain to everlasting felicity. As the godly con
sideration of predestination, and our election in
Christ, is full of sweet, pleasant, and unspeakable
comfort to godly persons, and such as feel in
themselves the working of the Spirit of Christ,
mortifying the works of the flesh, and their
earthly members, and drawing up their mind to
high and heavenly things, as Well because it
doth greatly establish and confirm their faith of
eternal salvation to be enjoyed through Christ,
as because it doth fervently kindle their love
towards God. So, for carious and carnal persons,
lacking the Spirit of Christ, to have continually
before their eyes the sentence of God's predesti
nation, is a most dangerous downfall, whereby
the devil doth thrust them either into despera
tion or into wretchlessness of most unclean living,
no less perilous than desperation." The West
minster Confession declares, — " 1. God from all
eternity did, by the most wise and holy counsel
of his own will, freely and unchangeably ordain
whatsoever comes to pass: yet so as thereby
neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence
offered to the will of the creatures, nor is the

PRE
liberty or contingency of second causes taken
away, but rather established. 2. Although God
knows whatsoever may or can come to pass upon
all supposed conditions, yet hath he not decreed
anything because he foresaw it as future, or as
that which would come to pass upon such con
ditions. 3. By the decree of God, for the mani
festation of his glory, some men and angels are
predestinated unto everlasting life, and others
foreordained to everlasting death. 4. These
angels and men, thus predestinated and fore
ordained, are particularly and unchangeably
designed; and their number is so certain and
definite, that it cannot be either increased or
diminished. 5. Those of mankind that are
predestinated unto life, God, before tbe foundation
of the world was laid, according to his eternal
and immutable purpose, and the secret counsel
and good pleasure of his will, hath chosen in
Christ unto everlasting glory, out of his mere
free grace and love, without any foresight of
faith or good works, or perseverance in either of
them, or any other thing in the creature, as con
ditions, or causes moving him thereunto; and
all to the praise of his glorious grace.- 6. As
God hath appointed the elect unto glory, so hath
he, by the eternal and most free purpose of
his will, foreordained all the means thereunto.
Wherefore they who are elected, being fallen in
Adam, are redeemed by Christ; are effectually
called unto faith in Christ by his Spirit working
iu due season; are justified, adopted, sanctified,
and kept by his power through faith unto salva
tion. Neither are any other redeemed by Christ,
effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified,
and saved, but the elect only. 7. The rest of
mankind God was pleased, according to the
unsearchable counsel of his own will, whereby
he extendeth or withholdeth mercy as he pleas
eth, for the glory of his sovereign power over his
creatures, to pass by, and to ordain them to
dishonour and wrath for their sin, to the praise
of his glorious justice. 8. The doctrine of this
high mystery of predestination is to be handled
with special prudence and care, that men attend
ing the will of God revealed in his^Word, and
yielding obedience thereunto, may, from the
certainty of their effectual vocation, be assured
of their eternal election. So shall this doctrine
afford matter of praise, reverence, and admira
tion of God, and of humility, diligence, and
abundant consolation, to all that sincerely obey
the Gospel." We have elsewhere said, — The
doctrine of predestination was held in its leading
element by the ancient Church, by the Roman
Clement, Ignatius, Hermas, Justin Martyr, and
Irenseus, before' Augustine worked it into a sys
tem, and Jerome armed himself on its behalf. It
is foreign to our purpose to review the theory of
Augustine, the revival of it by Gotteschalcus, or its
re-assertion by Calvin and Janssen ; nor can we
criticise the assault made upon it by Pelagius,
or describe the keen antagonism of Calistus and

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Julian, followed up in later times by Arminius,
Episcopius, Limborch, and Tomline. Suffice it
to say, that many who imagine that they have
explained away a difficulty by denying one phase
of the doctrine, have only achieved the feat of
shifting that difficulty into another position.
The various modifications of what we reckon the
truth contained in the apostolical statement do
not relieve us of the mystery, which belongs as
well to simple theism as to the evangelical
system. Dr. Whately has, with characteristic
candour, admitted that the difficulty which
relates to the character and moral government of
God presses as hard on the Arminian as the
Calvinist ; and Sir James Mackintosh has shown,
with his usual luminous and dispassionate power,
how dangerous it is to reason as to the moral
consequences which the opponents of this and
similar doctrines may impute to them. In short,
whether this doctrine be identified with pagan
stoicism or Mohammedan fatalism, and be rudely
set aside, and the world placed under the inspec
tion of an inert omniscience; or whether it be
modified as to its end, and that be declared to be
privilege, and not holiness ; or as to its founda
tion, and that be alleged to be not gratuitous and
irrespective choice, but foreseen merit and good
ness ; or as to its subjects, and they be affirmed
to be not individuals, but communities; or as to
its result, and it be reckoned contingent, and not
absolute; or whether the idea of election be
diluted into mere preferential choice : whichever
of these theories be adopted — and they have been
advocated in some of these aspects, not only by
some of the early fathers, but by Archbishops
Bramhall, Sancroft, King, Lawrence, Sumner,
and Whately; and by Milton, Molina, Faber,
Nitzsch, Hase, Lange, Copleston, Chandler,
Locke, Watson, and many others — such hypo
theses leave the central difficulty still unsolved,
and throw us back on the unconditioned and
undivided sovereignly of Him " of whom, to
whom, and through whom are all things," — all
whose plans and purposes wrought out in the
Church, and designed to promote his glory, have
been conceived in the vast and incomprehensible
solitudes of his own eternity.
Pre-cxistence of Christ, in a general sense,
his existence before his incarnation — a doctrine
admitted by the Arians, though they denied his
proper divinity. Some divines — as Goodwin
and Isaac Watts — advocated the pre-existence
of Christ's human soul, and maintained what is
called the Indwelling Scheme.
Prefaces, Proper, short forms in the com
munion service of the Church of England, intro
duced on peculiar festivals.
Prelate, one, such as an abbot or bishop,
who has jurisdiction over other ecclesiastics. —
See Abbot, Bishop.
Premonstratenses. — See Pr^monstra-
TBN8ES. Prerogative Court, the court of the Arch-

PRE
bishop of Canterbury or Primate of Ireland, in
which wills are proved and administrations taken
out. Presanctified, Mass of. — See Mass. — In
Rome this mass is peculiar to Good Friday
and to the Sistine Chapel. There is no imme
diate consecration of bread and wine; but the
host is brought from the Pauline Chapel, and the
wine is not consecrated at all. Some Romish
divines therefore deny it to be a mass at all. In
the Greek Church a similar service is observed
during the whole of Lent, with a few exceptions,
such as Saturday, Sabbath, and the Annuncia
tion. Prcshyter or Elder, an order of apostolic
foundation. At an early period, however, the
presbyters were the rank of clergy beneath
the bishop. — See Bishop, Episcopacy. In
several things the presbyter was held to be in
ferior to the bishop. The presbyter could not
do many things which the bishop could, what
ever he did was as under authority from the
bishop, and by the bishop he could be at any
time called to account. Presbyters might
preach and baptize, but they could not ordain,
though they might join with the bishop in the
imposition of hands. By the bishop's commis
sion they might confirm or grant absolution.
They were the working clergy of the church,
and the business of instruction was specially
committed to them. They sat on chairs in a
semicircle around the bishop, and formed the
council of the church. — See Clergy, Orders.
Presbyters were ordained with imposition of
hands and prayer. — See Ordination.
Presbytercss, a female presbyter. It U
doubtful if any such office ever existed. Epipha-
nus expressly denies it. It would have mani
festly contravened the apostolic mandate, 1 Tim.
ii. 12, "I suffer not a woman to teach." The
term, however, might mean a presbyter's wife.
— See Deaconess.
Presbytery, an ecclesiastical court in the
Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian
churches, superior to the " kirk-session." It con
sists of a minister and a ruling elder from every
church within a certain district. This court has
control over the churches and ministers within its
own district in matters relating to the exami
nation, admission, ordination, and censuring
of ministers; licensing probationers for the
ministry; Censuring of heretics and heresies;
rebuking contumacious offenders ; deciding upon
appeals brought up from any kirk-session ; and
explaining difficulties in discipline. An appeal
from the judgment of the presbytery is permitted
to the provincial synod. — See Session ; Synod,
Provincial. Presbytery, Presbyterianism. — It stands
opposed to prelacy; for the supreme govern
ment is in the hands of the presbyters, and there
is no rank above it, save the mere official posi
tion of any one of its members, chosen from

511

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time to time to preside over their deliberations.
— See Moderator. As under the article
Episcopacy, we produce a few citations from
the defenders of this form of church govern
ment. Coleman writes, — " The controversy on
this subject has arisen chiefly from the equivo
cal import of the term noio-Unoo;, which, in the
peculiar phraseology of the Church, denotes both
a superior and a teacher. The first-mentioned
signification earliest prevailed. The arsuriin-
(u, — presbyters or elders of the Christian
Church, correspond to the D'?P1 — elders of the
Jews. Both denote precedence in office, not
seniority in age. But as seniority of age and
precedence in office are very naturally united in
the same person, and in the Christian Church
ever have been united, so also in the New
Testament there are examples of the union of
both in the same person. The apostles style
themselves elders and fellowTlabourers, veoio-ZvTi-
otos and truf&x-pia-GursBtvs, with evident reference
to this twofold relation. The passage in 1 Tim.
v. 17, is peculiarly pertinent in this connection.
' Let the elders that rule well be counted wor
thy of double honour; especially they who
labour in the Word and doctrine.' In other
passages these elders are styled shepherds and
teachers. It is equally evident also, that both
bishops, inio-KOTra, and elders, a-aecrSfasffti, are
of similar import both in the Scriptures and
ecclesiastical writings of the first centuries of the
Christian era. In the Scriptures, in the following
passages : Acts xvii. 28 ; Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1 ;
Titus i. 5, 7; comp. Acts xv. 2, 4, 6, 22, 23; 1
Cor. xii. 28-30 ; Eph. iv. 11, &c. The follow
ing passages are sufficient to illustrate the usage
of early ecclesiastical writers: — Chrysostom says
that the elders or presbyters were formerly called
bishops and deacons of Christ, and that the
bishops were called elders. Oi trsiaSuTi^ti to
xaXatav ixaXtovrt %Ttt-xotrtl xa) didxovtt tou
XptfTov, xa) tt Itrio-xtirot (ixaXtvvrt) vpsffSu-
noti. Theodoret styles both the elders and the
bishops watchmen, alleging that at that time
they were called by both names, aptfirtga yao
ti%ov xar IxlTvtv riv xatoov va tvip.ara. In
another passage he also says that those who
were called bishops evidently held the rank of
presbyters, elders, — 'tis &ai inXtv 'in btri rturtv
IriXovv ol Iv TflJ vrgotlfiiop xXtj^vres l^riffxtvti,
Ttv vrpiffGuvigou o'nXtvin t«w rdfyv xXvotutTig.
The famous Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons, in his
official letter to the Roman Bishop Victor, enu
merates all the bishops who preceded Victor at
Rome, and styles them presbyters, who formerly
presided over that apostolic church at Rome.
' Jerome, one of the most learned of the Latin
fathers, who had before him all the testimonies
and arguments of earlier writers, has placed this
matter in its true light with peculiar distinct
ness. In his annotation on the first chapter of
the Epistle to Titus, he gives the following account

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of the nature and origin of the episcopal office: —
"A presbyter is the same as a bishop. And
until, by the instigation of the devil, there arose
divisions in religion, and it was said among the
people, ' I am of Paul, and I of A polios, and
I of Cephas,' churches were governed by a com
mon council of the presbyters. But afterwards,
when every one regarded those whom he bap,
tized as belonging to himself rather than to
Christ, it was everywhere decreed that one per
son, elected from the presbyters, should be placed
over the others, to whom the care of the whole
church might belong, and thus the seeds of divi
sion might be taken away. Should any one
suppose that this opinion — that a bishop and
presbyter is the same, and that one is the deno
mination of age, and the other of office — is not
sanctioned by the Scriptures, but is only a private
fancy of my own, let him read over again the
apostle's words to the Philippians: 'Paul and
Timotheus, the servants of Jesus Christ, to all
the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi,
with the bishops and deacons: grace be unto
you, and peace from God our Father, and from
the Lord Jesus Christ,' &c Philippi is a single
city of Macedonia; and certainly, of those who
are now styled bishops there could not have
been several at one time in the same city. But
because at that time they called the same per
sons bishops whom they styled also presbyters,
therefore the apostle spoke indifferently of bishops
as of presbyters." The writer then refers to the
fact that St. Paul having sent for the presbyters
(in the plural) of the single city of Ephesus only,
afterwards called the same persons bishops, (Acts
xx.) To this fact he calls particular attention ;
and then observes, that in the Epistle to the
Hebrews also, we find the care of the church
divided equally amongst many: "Obey them
that have the rule over you, and submit your
selves ; for they watch for your souls, as they
that must give account ; that they may do it
with joy, and not with grief; for that is [unj^
profitable for you." "And Peter," continues
Jerome, " who received his name from the firm
ness of his faith, says in his epistle, ' The presby*
ters who are among you I exhort, who am also
a presbyter, and a witness of the sufferings of
Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that
shall be revealed ; feed the flock of God which
is among you [he omits the words, taking the
oversight thereof, tmirxasriiuiiris-^i. e., superin
tending it], not by constraint, but willingly.'
These things we have brought forward to show '
that with the ancients presbyters were the same
as bishops. But in order that the roots of dis
sension might be plucked up, a usage gradually
took place that the whole care should devolve
upon one. Therefore, as the presbyters know
that it is by the custom of the ohurch that they
are subject to him who is placed over them, so
let the bishops know that they are above presby
ters rather by custom than by the truth of our

PRE
Lord's appointment, and that they ought to rule
the church in common, herein imitating Moses," &c.
The same views are maintained by this father
in his Epistle to Evagrius, with the additional
mention of the fact, that from the first founda
tion of the Church of Alexandria down to the
days of Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters
of "that church made (or, as we should say, con
secrated) their bishops. The passage, which is
quoted at some length in the note, is very im
portant. Having referred to several passages
of the Acts and Epistles in proof of an assertion
which he had made, to the effect that bishop
and presbyter were at first the same, he proceeds
to say, that " afterwards, when one was elected,
and set over the others, this was designed as a
remedy against schism. . . . For at Alex
andria, from the evangelist Mark down to the
Bishops Heraclas and Dionysius, the presbyters
always gave the name of hishop to one whom
they elected from themselves, and placed in a
higher degree; in the same way as an army
may create its general, or as deacons may elect
one of their own body whom they know to be
assiduous in the discharge of duty, and call him
archdeacon. For what does a bishop perform,
except ordination, which a presbyter may not
do ? " &c. The fact which Jerome here states
respecting the appointment and ordination of
bishops in the Church of Alexandria by presby
ters alone, for the space of more than two cen
turies, is attested also by Eutychius, Patriarch of
Alexandria. And the opinion of Jerome respect
ing the original equality, or rather identity of
presbvter and bishop, is in perfect accordance
with the language of a still earlier writer, Ter
tullian' — De Bap., c 17. The identity of bishops
and presbyters is further evident from the cir
cumstance that they both received the same
honorary titles, *£t>tt-rw?ts, vrgto-ra'rai, xoiihoti,
preposili, antisies, equivalent to presidents,
moderators, chairmen, or presiding officers.
Presbyters were also denominated a-vvfytvat and
tl too Soivtv — partners of the throne. A
distinction is sometimes made between those
of the first and of the second throne ; in which
case the latter evidently designates presbyters.
But it is still plain that, in such instances, the
pre-eminence ascribed to the bishop is only that
of 'primus inter pares' — chief among equals.
Even the most zealous advocates of the epis
copal system in the Greek, Roman, and English
Church, are constrained to recognize and admit
the identity of the terms Wurxtnts and woic&v-
vtots, according to .the usus loquendi of the
ancient Church. They are constrained to admit
that the distinction between the office of bishop
and presbyter, wbich prevailed about the third
and fourth centuries, and to a period still
later, was unknown in the first two centuries."
Schaff, in his History ofthe Christian. Church,
adduces, in favour of the view which denies the
apostolic origin of the episcopate as a separate

PRE
office or order, the following facts: — " 1. The
undeniable identity of presbyters and bishops in
the New Testament, conceded even by the best
interpreters among the church fathers, by
Jerome, Chrysostom, and Theodoret. 2. Later
in the second century the two terms are still
used in like manner for the same office. The
Roman Bishop Clement, in his First Epistle to
the Corinthians, says that the apostles, in the
newly-founded churches, appointed the first-
fruits of the faith, i. e., the first converts, itio-
xin-ovs xa) haxivtug. He here omits the vreic-
iirt^ti, as Paul does in Phil. i. 1, for tbe simple
reason that they are in his view identical with
mrxtxu ; while, conversely, in c. lvii., he en
joins subjection to presbyters, without mention
ing bishops. Clement of Alexandria distin
guishes, it is true, the deaconate, the presbyter-
ate, and the episcopate ; but he supposes only a
twofold offlcial character, that of presbyters and
that of deacons — a view which found advocates
so late as the Middle Ages, even in Pope Urban
II., a.d. 1091. Lastly, Irenasus, towards the
close of the second century, though himself a
bishop, makes only a relative difference between
episcopi and presbyteri ; speaks of successions of
the one in the same sense as of the other; terms
the office of the latter episcopatus ; and calls the
Bishops of Rome KoiaGuTioti. Sometimes, it is
trpe, he appears to use the term 'roso-Gunoti, in a
more general sense, for the old men, the fathers.
Bpt in any case his language shows that the
distinction between the two offices was at that
time still relative and indefinite. 3. The ex
press testimony of the learned Jerome, that the
churches originally, before divisions arose through
the instigation of Satan, were governed by the
common council of the presbyters, and not till a
later period was one of the presbyters placed at
the head, to watch over the church and suppress
schisms. He traces the difference of the office
simply to ecclesiastical custom as distinct from
divine institution. 4. The custom of the Church
of Alexandria, where, from the evangelist Mark
down to the middle of the third century, the
twelve presbyters elected one of their number
president, and called him bishop. This fact
rests on the authority of Jerome, and is confirmed
independently by the Annals of the Alexan
drian patriarch, Eutychius, of the tenth century."
Killen, in his Ancient Church, asserts : " Though
the senior presbyter presided in the meetings of
his brethren, and was soon known by the name
of bishop, it does not appear that he originally
possessed any superior authority. He held his
place for life ; but as he was sinking under the
weight of years when he succeeded to it, he could
not venture to anticipate an extended career of
official distinction. In all matters relating
either to discipline, or the general interests of the
brotherhood, he was expected to carry out the
decisions of the eldership, so that, under his
presidential rule, the church was still substan-

513

2L

PRE
tially governed by ' the common council of the
presbyters.' The allegation that presbyterial
government existed in all its integrity towards
the end of the second century does not rest on
the foundation of obscure intimations or doubtful
inferences. It can be established by direct and
conclusive- testimony. Evidence has already
been adduced to show that the senior presbyter
of Smyrna continued to preside until the days of
Irenseus, and there is also documentary proof
that meanwhile he possessed no autocratical
authority. The supreme power was still vested
in the council of the elders. This point is
attested by Hippolytus, who was now just
entering on his ecclesiastical career, and who,
in one of his works, a fragment of which has
been preserved, describes the manner in which
the rulers of the church dealt with the heretic
Noetus. The transaction probably occurred
about a.d. 190. 'There are certain others,'
says Hippolytus, 'who introduce clandestinely
a strange doctrine, being disciples of one Noetus,
who was by birth a Smyrnean, and lived not
long ago. This man, being puffed up, was led
to forget himself, being elated by the vain fancy
of a strange spirit. He said that Christ is him
self the Father, and that the Father himself had
been born, and had suffered and died. . . .
When the blessed presbyters heard these things,
they summoned him, and examined bim before
the church. He, however, denied, saying at first
that such were not his sentiments. But after
wards, when he had intrigued with some, and
had found persons to join him iu his error, he
took courage, and at length resolved to stand by
his dogma. The blessed presbyters again sum
moned him, and administered a rebuke. But he
withstood them, saying, — " Why, what evil am
I doing in glorifying Christ?" To whom the
presbyters replied, — " We also truly acknowledge
one God; we acknowledge Christ; we acknow
ledge that the Son suffered as he did suffer,
that he died as he did die, and that he rose
again tbe third day, and that lie is at the right
hand of the Father, and that he is coming to
judge the quick and the dead; and we declare
those things which we have been taught."
Then they rebuked him, and cast him out of the
church.'" Archbishop Usher proposed a method for the
reduction of episcopacy, by which he would
have moderated it to such an extent as to
have brought it very near the presbyterian
government of the Scotch churches, — the weekly
parochial vestry answering to their kirk-session;
the monthly synod to be held by the chorepis
copi answering to their presbyteries; the dio
cesan synod to their provincial synod; and the
national synod to their general assembly. The
meeting of the dean and chapter, practised in
the Church of England, is but a faint shadow of
tbe second, the ecclesiastical court of the third,
and the convocation of the fourth. The follow-

PRE
ing is an approximate view of Presbyterianism
— excepting those portions of the Continent, such
as France, Switzerland, and Rhenish Prussia —
where it exists: —
UNITED STATES. Minister..
Associate Reformed Synod of New York,  ]s
Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church, South, 68
Associate Synod of North America,  n
Cumberland Presbyterian Church,  927
Free Presbyterian Church,  43
Presbyterian Church (Old School) ,  2,578
Presbyterian Church (New School),  1,55s
Reformed Dutch Church,  411)
Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Synod, 54
Reformed Presbyterian Church, Synod,  63
Reformed Protestant Dutch Church  410
United Presbyterian Church,  a 03
United Synod of the Presbyterian Church, .... 113
BRITISH PROVINCES.
Free Church of Nova Scotia,  32
Presbyterian Church in Canada, in connection *
with the Church of Scotland  107
Presbyterian Church in New Brunswick,  18
Presbyterian Church of Canada,  183
Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia  38
Synod of New Brunswick in connection with the
Church of Scotland,  11
Synod of Nova Scotia in connection with the
Church of Scotland  20
United Presbyterian Church in Canada  66
GREAT BRITAIN, <fcc
Church of Scotland,  1,173
Eastern Reformed Presbyterian Cn. in Ireland, 6
Free Church of Scotland,  790
Presbyterian Church of Victoria,  137
Presbyterian Church in England,  S8
Presbyterian Church in Ireland  560
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland, .... 29
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland, .... 39
Seceding Presbyteries of Ireland,  10
Synod of Jamaica,  25
Synod of the Church of Scotland in England, .. 15
United Original Seceders of Scotland,  23
United Presbyterian Church of Scotland,  519
Total,  10,555
See Scotland, Churches in.
Presbyterium. — See Chancel.
Prescription, a law adopted in presbyterian
churches. If a scandal has not been noticed for
five years after it has happened, it is not to be
revived, but is then said to be prescribed.
Presence. — See Real Pbesence.
Presentation, in law, is the form by which
the patron of a benefice offers a clergyman to
the bishop of the diocese to be instituted. The
right of presentation is called the advowson. —
See Advowson. Any clerk may be presented
to a parsonage or vicarage, provided he be in
priest's orders before admission. But the bishop
may, from what he deems incapacity, refuse
institution. — See Institution. In such case
the patron may bring an action at law (called
from the form of the writ, a quare impedit)
against the bishop, and require him to assign
his reasons for refusal, upon the validity of
which reasons the court will decide. If the
patron neglect to present within six months
after the benefice becomes vacant, the right of
presentation accrues to the ordinarv by lapse.
In the Established Church of Scotland the

514

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patron must present within six months, or the
right falls to the presbytery tanquam jure
devoluto. — See Jcs Devolutcm. The follow
ing is the form of a Scotch presentation, and is a
copy, indeed, of the one which led to the disputes
and processes that ended in the disruption of the
Scottish Church: — "The Right Honourable
Thomas Robert Drummond Hay, Earl of Kin-
noull, undoubted patron of the parish church
and parish of Auchterarder, lying within the
presbytery of Auchterarder and sheriffdom of
Perth, considering that the said church and
parish is now vacant, and become at my gift
and presentation by and through the death of
the Rev. Charles Stewart, late minister of the
Gospel at the said church of Auchterarder; and
I, being sufficiently informed of the literature,
loyalty, qualifications, good life, and conversa
tion of Mr. Robert Young, preacher of the Gos
pel, residing at Seafield Cottage, Dundee, do
therefore, by these presents, nominate and pre
sent the said Robert Young to be minister of
the said parish and church of Auchterarder
during all the days of his lifetime, giving,
granting, and disponing to him the constant,
localled, and modified stipend, with the manse
and glebe, and other profits and emoluments
belonging to the said church, for the crop and
year 1835, and during his lifetime, and his
serving the cure of the said church, requiring
hereby the reverend moderator and presbytery
of Auchterarder to take trial of the qualifications,
literature, good life, and conversation of the said
Robert Young ; and having found him fit and
qualified for the function of the ministry at the
said church of Auchterarder, to admit and receive
him thereto, and give him his act of ordination
and admission in due and competent form, re
commending hereby to the lords of council and
session, upon sight of this presentation and the
said presbytery's act of ordination and admission,
to grant letters of horning, on a simple charge of
two days only, and other executorials necessary
at the instance of the said Robert Young, against
all and sundry the heritors, life-renters, feuars,
tacksmen, tenants, possessors, and occupiers of
lands within tbe said parish, subject and liable
in payment of the said localled and modified
stipend, for causing the said Robert Young, and
others in his name, be readily answered and paid
thereof in such due and competent form as effeirs.
And I consent to the registration hereof in the
books of council and session, or others competent,
therein to remain for preservation : and for that
effect I constitute   my procurators.
In witness whereof, &c., (signed) Drummond
Kinnoull. R. A. Yates, witness. Thomas
Neatham, witness." — See Patronage.
Presentation of the Virgin, Feast of, a
Romish festival held on the 21st of November.
It is not older than the thirteenth century. — See
Mart. Prester or Presbyter John. — In Asiatic

PRI
Tartary a great revolution took place, near the
beginning of the twelfth century, very favourable
to the cause of Christianity. On the death of
Coiremchan or Kenchan, a priest of the Nesto-
rians, whose name was John, made so successful
an attack upon the kingdom, while destitute of a
head, that he gained possession of it, and from
a presbyter became the sovereign of a great
empire. This was the famous Prester John,
whose country was for a long time deemed by
the Europeans the seat of all felicity and opu
lence. Because he had been a presbyter before
he gained the kingdom, most persons continued
to call him Prester John after he had acquired
royal dignity. His regal name was Ungchan.
The exalted opinion of the power and riches of
this Prester John, entertained by the Greeks and
Latins, arose from this, that being elated with his
prosperity and the success of his wars with the
neighbouring nations, he sent ambassadors and
letters to the Roman Emperor Frederick I., to
the Greek Emperor Manuel, and to other sove
reigns, in which he extravagantly proclaimed
his own majesty and wealth and power, exalting
himself above all the kings of the earth ; and
this boasting of the vain-glorious man the Nes-
torians laboured with all their power to confirm.
He was succeeded by his son or brother, whose
proper name was David, but who was also gen
erally called Prester John. This prince was
vanquished and slain near the close of the cen
tury, by that mighty Tartar Emperor, Genghis
Khan. (Mosheim.)
Prevention, the right which, by the canon
law, the pope has of preventing an ordinary col
lator to appoint to a benefice, and making the
appointment himself. — See Peovisors.
Priest. — See Biblical Cyclopaidia. — This word
has two significations, — the one according to its
etymology, through the French pretre, or presire,
and the Latin presbyterus, from the Greek &eit—
fcinots — elder ; in which sense it is used in the
liturgy and rubrics of the Church of England,
and signifies merely " one belonging to the order
of presbyters," as distinguished from the other
two orders of bishops and deacons. But the
other signification of the word priest, in which
it is more commonly used, is the same as that
of the Latin word sacerdos, and the Greek
word Uoiis, i. e., one who stands as a mediator
between God and the people, and brings them
to God by the virtue of certain ceremonial
acts which he performs for them, and which they
could not perform for themselves without pro
fanation, because they are at a distance from
God, and cannot in their own persons venture
to approach towards him. In this sense of the
word priest, the term is applied to the ministers
of the Romish Church. Thus Dens defines the
priesthood, as " a sacred order and sacrament, in
which power is conferred of consecrating the
body of Christ, of remitting sins, and of admin
istering certain other sacraments." Accordingly,

515

PRI
at the consecration of a priest, after unction and
prayer, the chalice, with wine and water, and the
paten upon it with the host, are given to him,
with these awful words, " Receive power to offer
the sacrifice of God, and to celebrate mass for
the living and the dead." Moreover, he receives
formally the power to forgive sins.
Primacy of Peter. — We subjoin the heads
of Barrow's famous argument against it in his
Treatise On the Supremacy (Works, vol. iii., Lon
don, 1841). He says there may be, — " 1. A pri
macy of worth or personal excellency ; 2. A pri
macy of reputation ; 3. A primacy of order or bare
dignity and precedence ; 4. A primacy of power
and jurisdiction. The first — a primacy of worth
— we may well grant it to Peter, for that prob
ably he did exceed the rest of his brethren in
personal endowments and capacities. 2. As to
a primacy of repute, which Paul means when
he speaks of those who had a special reputation,
of those who seemed to be pillars of the super-
eminent apostles (Gal. ii. 6, 9 ; 2 Cor. xi. 5 ; xii.
11), this advantage cannot be refused him. 3.
As to a primacy of order or bare dignity, im
porting that commonly, in all meetings and
proceedings, the other apostles did yield him
the precedence, may be questioned ; for this does
not seem suitable to the gravity of such persons,
or their condition and circumstances, to stand
upon ceremonies of respect ; for our Lord's rules
seem to exclude all semblance of ambition, all
kind of inequality and distance between his
apostles. 4. As to a primacy importing a supe
riority in command, power, or jurisdiction, this
we have great reason to deny upon the following
' considerations : — (1.) For such a power it was
needful that a commission from God, its founder,
should be granted in absolute and perspicuous
terms; but no such commission is extant in
Scripture. (2.) If so illustrious an office was
instituted by our Saviour, it is strange that no
where in the evangelical or apostolical history
there should be any express mention of that
institution. (3.) If Peter had been instituted
sovereign of the apostolical senate, his office and
state had been in nature and kind very distinct
from tho common office of the other apostles, as
the office of a king from the office of any sub
ject. (4.) There was no office above that of an
apostle known to the apostles or primitive Church,
(Ephes. iv. 11; 1 Cor. xii. 28.) (5.) Our Lord
himself declared against this kind of primacy,
prohibiting his apostles to affect, to seek, to
assume, or admit a superiority of power, one
above another, (Luke xxii. 14-24 ; Mark ix. 35.)
(6.) We do not find any peculiar administration
committed to Peter, nor any privilege conferred
on him which was not also granted to the other
apostles, (John xx. 23; Mark xvi. 15.) (7.) When
Peter wrote two Catholic epistles, there does not
appear in either of them any intimation or any
pretence to this arch-apostolical power. (8.) In
all relations which occur in Scripture about con-

616

PRI
troversies incident of doctrine or practice, there
is no appeal made to Peter's judgment, or allega-r
tion of it as decisive ; no argument is built on his
authority. (9.) Peter nowhere appears intermed^
dling as a judge or governor paramount in such
cases. (10.) The consideration of the apostles'
proceeding in the conversion of people, in the
foundation of churches, and in administration of
their spiritual affairs, will exclude any probar
bility of Peter's jurisdiction over them. (11.) The
nature of the apostolic ministry, their not being
fixed in one place of residence, but continually
moving about the world, render it unlikely that
he had such a jurisdiction over the apostles as
some assign him. (12.) It was, indeed, most
requisite that every apostle should have a com
plete, absolute, independent authority in manag
ing the duties and concerns of the office, that he
might not anywise be obstructed in the dis
charge of them, not clogged with a need to con
sult others, not hampered with orders from those
who were at a distance. (13.) The discourse and
behaviour of Paul towards Peter doth evident
that he did not acknowledge any dependence on
him, or any subjection to him, (Gal. ii. 11.) (14.)
If Peter had been appointed sovereign of tbe
Church, it seems that it should have been requi
site that he should have outlived all the apostles ;
for otherwise the Church would have wanted a
head, or there must have been an inextricable
controversy who that head was. But Peter died
long before John, as all agree, and perhaps before
divers others of the apostles."
Primate. — See Archbishop, Metropoli
tan, Patriarch.
Prime (first), the service said at sunrise.—
See Canonical Hours.
Primer, King's, was published in 1545.
It contained the Calendar, the Ten Command
ments, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the saluta
tion of the Virgin, the seven penitential psalms,
a litany, and prayers for various occasions. Be
sides this, there is also the Goodly Prymer of
1535, and the Manual qf Prayers, or the Primer
in English, of 1539. Primer means first book,
and was used often as analogous to the term
prayer-book, though it contained selections of
services made according to the discretion of the
compiler. The Prymer of Salisbury Use bears
the date of various years, the first edition being
published in 1527.
Primitive Chnrch, — See Church, De
velopment, Tradition.
Primitive Methodists. — See Methodists.
Prior, the head of a convent, and next in
dignity to an abbot. — See Abbot.
Priory is a monastic institution either of men
or women. Sometimes the prior was chosen by
the convent, and sometimes, because of its depend
ence on another religious house, by its abbot.
Alien priories were such as were subject to abbeys
in other countries.
Priscillianists, a sect which arose in Spain

FRI
in the fourth century, holding opinions of Gnostic
and Manichsean origin, which are supposed to
have been immediately derived from Africa.
Priscillian, their founder, was a Spaniard of high
birth, fortune, and eloquence. His opinions were
condemned in a council at Saragossa in 380, but
he was immediately afterwards made Bishop of
Avila; and although he was banished from Spain
by order of the Emperor Gratian, he was soon
restored to his country and his see. He was
again condemned by a council at Bordeaux in
384, and having appealed to the Emperor Maxi
mus, he was examined by torture before his
tribunal, and, finally, was beheaded at Treves,
with six of his followers. This cruelty was
regarded with great horror, and was especially
offensive to the celebrated Martin of Tours, who
had exerted himself with success, for a time, to
prevent the execution of such a sentence, and
had left Treves with a promise from the emperor
that their lives should be spared. Leo I., sixty
years later, expressed his approbation of the deed.
This sect, though never very numerous, survived
the death of their leader, and so late as 563
their opinions engaged the serious attention of a
council held at Braga. In the canons of that
council may be found an elaborate specification
of the errors attributed to Priscillian, among
which astrology has a place.
Private Judgment, Right of, the right
by which any one reads and interprets the Word
for himself, in opposition to the popish dogma,
that an infallible church must determine it
for him.
Privy Censures. — In old presbyterian Scot
land, members of presbytery sat in judgment
upon themselves. Each was questioned in turn,
and on his retirement judgment was pronounced.
Nay, at a critical period in the Secession Church
the ministers, after an exciting and bitter debate,
came forward in succession, made confession,
and craved to be rebuked. This strange custom
became at length a mere form, and by and bye
it came to an end. — See Visitation.
Probation (trial), a period of trial before a
novice finally assumed the vows. A licentiate
in Presbyterian churches, as being on trial of his
gifts before the vacant churches, is called a pro
bationer. — See License.
Procession of the Holy Ghost. — See
Filioque, Nicene Creed.
Processions. — The Latin processio signified
originally a public meeting or religious assembly,
then sometimes church-going and sometimes the
series of communicants. Processions at festivals
were, in course of time, quite common. By an
edict of Justinian, a.d. 541, they were protected
from interruption. Various ceremonies were ob
served, crucifixes and images were carried. The
clergy sometimes took their place at the head of
the line, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes
in the rear. In processions of joy they attended
in their most splendid vestments, the laity were

PRO
dressed in their best attire, and bells and music
enlivened the scene; but on occasions of mourn
ing the procession was marked by plain vest
ments, bare feet, a deep silence, or only sounds
of lamentation and mournful prayer, and some
times the exercise of penitential flagellation. It
was usual to walk two by two at regular dis
tances. The sexes walked apart. Lighted wax
tapers were often carried in procession, especially
on the festival of the Purification of the Virgin
Mary, which was hence called festum or missa
candelamm. — See Candlemass. Prayers and
hymns, many of which were composed expressly
for the occasion, were repeated, in Latin, as the
company moved on. (Riddle.)
Proclamations, Royal. — These documents
in former times were almost equal in authority
to an act of the constitutional legislature. They
often interfered with religion, and dealt largely in
reformation of manners. In 1529 King Henry
VII. issued a proclamation for resisting and
withstanding of most dampnable heresyes sowen
within the realme by the discyples of Luther
and other heretykes, perverters of Christes re-
Iygyon." In June, 1530, this was followed
by the proclamation " for dampning (or con
demning) of erronious bokes and heresies, and
prohibitinge the havinge of holy scripture trans
lated into the vulgar tonges of englishe, frenche,
or dutche." " And that having respect to the
malignity of this present tyme, with the inclina
tion of people to erronious opinions, the trans
lation of the newe testament and the old into the
vulgar tonge of englysshe, shulde rather be the
occasion of contynuance or increase of errours
amonge the said people, than any benefit or com-
modite towards the weale of their soules;" and he
determines, therefore, that the scriptures shall
only be expounded to the people as heretofore,
and that these books "be clerely extermynate
and exiled out of this realme of Englande for
ever." Under Edward VI. there is a proclama
tion against such " as innovate any ceremony,"
and who are described as " certain private
preachers and other laiemen, who rashly attempt
of their own and singular wit and mind, not only
to persuade the people from the old and accus
tomed rites and ceremonies, but also themselves
bring in new and strange orders according to
their phantasies. The which, as it is an evident
token of pride and arrogancy, so it tendeth both
to confusion and disorder." There is a procla
mation also to abstain from flesh on Fridays and
Saturdays ; enforced on the principle, not only
that " men should abstain on those days, and
forbear the pleasures and the meats wherein they
have more delight, to the intent to subdue their
bodies to the soul and spirit, but also for worldly
policy." Charles the Second issued a proclama
tion against " vicious, debauched, and profane
persons!" — "A sort of men of whom we have
heard much, and are sufficiently ashamed ; who
spend their time in taverns, tippling-houses, and

517

PRO
debauchees; giving no other evidence of their
affection to us but in drinking our health, and
inveighing against all others who are not of their
own dissolute temper ; and who, in truth, have
more discredited our cause, by the license of their
manners and lives, than they could ever advance
it by their affection or courage. We hope all
persons of honour, or in place and authority, will
so far assist us in discountenancing such men,
that their discretion and shame will persuade
them to reform what their conscience would
not; and that the displeasure of good men
towards them may supply what the laws have
not, and, it may be, cannot well provide against;
there being by the license and corruption of the
times, and the depraved nature of man, many
enormities, scandals, and impieties in practice
and manners, which laws cannot well describe,
and consequently not enough provide against,
which may, by the example and severity of
virtuous men, be easily discountenanced, and by
degrees suppressed." Some parties in Scotland
who had no objection to national fasts, or
even to the royal recommendation of them, yet
objected to royal command and dictation as
worded in the usual form, they being charged to
keep the fast "as they tender the favour of
Almighty God, and would avoid his wrath and
indignation." According to counsel learned in the
law, obedience to such mandate is not impera
tive, for it is affirmed, — " 1. That in England,
where by statute the sovereign is head of the
church as well as of the state, that headship
applies only to the clergy and members of the
national church, and does not include those who
are not of her communion. 2. That in Scotland
— where seceding or dissenting churches (ex
cept it be the nonjurors) stand not upon any
statute of toleration, but upon the free basis
and constitution of the country — no such rela
tion exists, but is excluded by the Act 1690,
c. 5, ratifying the Confession of Faith; whereby
an antagonistic principle is established, it being
declared that ' there is no other Head of the
Church but the Lord Jesus Christ,' and that he,
' as King and Head of the Church, hath therein
appointed a government in the hand of church-
officers distinct from the civil magistrate,' who
' may not assume to himself the administration
of the Word and sacrament, or the keys of
the kingdom of heaven.' 3. That, in point
of fact, proclamations for the observance of na
tional fasts and thanksgivings in Scotland were,
for a considerable period after the date of that
act, and until the union between England and
Scotland, passed by the three estates of the Scot
tish parliament, and not by the sovereign alone.
And, 4. That no statute can be found author
izing such proclamations in Scotland; and the
phraseology used in them seems to have grown
out of the practice in England, or to be founded
on what appears to be an unwarranted exten
sion of the two statutes cited in the proclamation

PRO
of June, 1857, which refer exclusively to prayers
for royal personages, and apply at most to minis
ters and preachers of two denominations."
Procliauites, followers of Proclus, and ex
treme Montanists, who about 154 laboured to
spread Montanism in Rome and in Phrygia.
Proctor, contracted from procurator, one
who acts for another. Thus the representatives
of the clergy in convocation are called proctors,
and two officers in the English universities,
chosen by the colleges in turn, to guard the
morals and peace, are called by the same name.
Procuration. — See Synodal.
Prodiciani, a licentious sect among the
Gnostics, the followers of Prodicus.
Profanation. — See Sacrilege.
Profaneness. — See Swearing, Profane.
Prolocutor, the chairman of convocation. —
See Convocation.
Pronaos (ante-temple), same as narthex. —
See Narthex.
Propaganda. — See Congregation, p. 169.
Property ofthe Church.— See Revenue.
Prophesyings, a method of public teaching
adopted in some dioceses in the reign of Elizabeh .
The clergy met together and expounded a pas
sage. But irregularities and debates crept in.
Archbishop Parker ordered their suppression in
1574, and in 1577 the queen sequestered Arch
bishop Grindal for refusing to act against them
as decidedly as her majesty desired.
Proses, a portion of the mass in Latin
rhyme, in which the ordinary laws of prosody
are not observed. The Stabat Mater is an
example. Prostration. — See Prater.,
Protestant, one who protests against the
errors and renounces the communion of the
Romish Church. The title was originally given
to those who, at the diet of Spires, in 1529, pro
tested against the decision that no changes should
be introduced into the doctrine, discipline, or
worship of the established religion till a council
should be held, and its determination made
known. In Germany the term was afterwards
applied to the Lutheran Churches as distinguished
from the Calvinistic or Reformed. We add a
portion of the famous challenge of Bishop Jewel,
being from a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cross
in 1560: — "Wherefore, besides all that I have
said already, I will say further, and yet nothing
so much as might be said. If any one of all our
adversaries be able clearly and plainly to prove,
by such authority of the Scriptures, the old doc
tors, and councils, as I said before, that it was
then lawful for the priest to pronounce the words
of consecration closely and in silence to himself;
or that the priest had then authority to offer up
Christ unto his Father ; or to communicate and
receive the sacrament for another, as they do ;
or to apply the virtue of Christ's death and pas
sion to any man by the mean of the mass;
or that it was then thought a sound doctrine

518

PRO
to teach the people, that the mass, ex opere
vperato, that is, even for that it is said and done,
is able to remove any part of our sin ; or that
then any Christian man called the sacrament
his Lord and God ; or that the people were then
taught to believe that tbe body of Christ
remaineth in the sacrament as long as the acci
dents of the bread remain there without corrup
tion; or that a mouse, or any other beast, or
worm, may eat the body of Christ (for so some
of our adversaries have said and taught); or,
that when Christ said, Hoc est corpus meum, this
word hoc pointeth not tbe bread, but individuum
vagum, as some of them say ; or that the acci
dents, or forms, or shows, of bread and wine, be
tbe sacraments of Christ's body and blood, and not
rather the very bread and wine itself; or that
the sacrament is a sign or token of the body of
Christ that lieth hidden underneath it ; or that
ignorance is the mother and cause of true devo
tion and obedience; — these be the highest mys
teries and greatest keys of their religion, and
without them their doctrine can never be main
tained and stand upright ; — if any one of all our
adversaries be able to avouch any one of all
these articles, by any such sufficient authority of
Scriptures, doctors, or councils, as I have re
quired, as I said before, so say I now again, I
am content to yield unto him, and to subscribe.
But I am well assured, that they shall never be
able truly to allege one sentence. And because
1 know it, therefore I speak it, lest ye haply
should be deceived."
Protesters. — See Resolutjoners; Scot
land, Churches in.
Protevangelium, a spurious gospel ascribed
to James, containing an account of the birth of
Mary and of Christ. It is supposed to have
been originally composed in Hebrew. Postellius
brought the MS. of this gospel from the Levant,
translated it into Latin, and sent it to Oporinus,
a printer at Basle, where Bibliander, a Protes
tant divine, and the professor of divinity at
Zurich, caused it to be printed in 1552. Pos
tellius asserts that it was publicly read as
canonical in the Eastern churches.
Prothesis, a small altar' in Greek churches
corresponding to the credence table. The name
is taken from the shew-bread, which was called
" v\ xoifagis tuv agraiv "—the setting out 0I" the
loaves. Proto (first). — This adjective is prefixed to
the name of several officers in the Greek Chnrch,
denoting that he who holds it is the chief of his
class — such as protonotary, protopapas, proto-
psaltes, proto-syncellus. — See Papa, Psai>
mister, Sv.ncki.lus.
Province, the jurisdiction of an archbishop.
— See Diocese.
Provincial Synod. — See Svsop.
Provisors, Statute of. — Clement V., in
the beginning of the fourteenth century, went
beyond all his predecessors, by declaring that

PSA
the disposal of all ecclesiastical benefices belonged
to the pope. The pope accordingly made re
versionary grants, or provisions, as they were
called, during the lives of the incumbents ; and
he reserved such benefices as he thought fit for
his own peculiar patronage. England in par
ticular suffered greatly from these papal en
croachments during the reign of Henry III.
The parliament assembled at Carlisle in the
thirty-fifth year of Edward I. sent a strong
remonstrance to Pope Clement V. against the
papal encroachments. But this remonstrance
produced no effect. The first prince who was
bold enough to assert the power of the legisla
ture to restrain these encroachments was Edward
III. After complaining ineffectually to Clement
VI. of the heinous abuse of papal reservations,
he procured the famous statute of Provisors (25
Edw. III., stat 6) to be passed (a.d. 1350).
This act ordained that all elections and colla
tions should be free according to law; and
that in case any provision, collation, or reser
vation should be made by the court of Rome of
any archbishopric, bishopric, dignity, or other
benefice, the king should for that turn have the
collation of such archbishopric or other dignities
elective. This statute was fortified by several
others in this and the succeeding reigns down to
the 3 Henry V., c. 4.
Provost. — See Propositus, CEconomus.
— The chief magistrate of a Scottish city or
royal burgh has the same title, as also the heads
of several colleges in Oxford and Cambridge.
Prozymites (for leavened bread), an epithet
given to the Greek Church because they con
tended for the use of unleavened bread in the
Eucharist. The Latin Church was Azymite. —
See Azymites, Bread, Eucharist.
Psalmister or Psaltes (singer), one of the
inferior orders in the early Church, mentioned first
by the council of Laodicea. The form used in
their designation was, according to the fourth
council of Carthage, — " See that thou believest
in thine heart what thou singest with thy mouth,
and approve in works what thou believest in thy
heart." — See Precentor.
Psalmody, or the singing sacred songs, has
ever been considered an important part of pub
lic worship. The compositions of " the sweet
psalmist of Israel " were uniformly sung by the
first Christians, one or more persons leading the
singing, while the rest of the congregation united
their voices in the chorus, standing as they sang,
for this was regarded as the only proper and be
coming attitude. The practice of alternate sing
ing is said to have originated with Ignatius,
Bishop of Antioch, in the early part of the second
century. — See Antij?hony. In the third or
fourth century Christian worship was conducted
by reading the Scriptures and the Psalms of David
alternately ; and on certain occasions particular
psalms were sung. The morning service in
variably commenced with the sixty-third psalm,

519

PSA

and that in the evening with the hundred and
forty-first psalm. — See Evening Service,
Morning Service. Proper psalms were also
appointed by the bishops for particular festivals.
But the first Christians did not confine them
selves to the Psalms of David. About a.d.
107, Pliny, describing the worship of the perse
cuted Christians, says that they were ac
customed to sing among themselves a hymn
to Christ as God (Epist, lib. v., ep. 95). In
the second century, Origen states that hymns
were sung to God, and to the Only-begotten,
(Contra Cels., lib. viii., c. lxvii.) Eusebius, in
the following century, speaks of psalms, and
odes or hymns, as furnishing historical evidence
of the constant belief of the Christian Church
in the divinity of Jesus Christ, (Eccl. Hist,
lib. v., c. xxxiii.) And there are still extant
hymns composed in the third and fourth cen
turies, in the ancient Syriac and Greek languages,
for the use of the Eastern churches, and in the
Latin language, for the churches in the west of
Europe, while those several languages were in
common use. Bingham (Orig. Eccl, book xiv.
ch. ii.) has given a particular account of the most
noted hymns which were sung in the services of
the ancient Christian churches. Many of the
ancient Latin hymns, composed by Prudentius
and other Christian poets, were subsequently
incorporated in the Breviary of the Romish
Church, from which Dr. Richard Mant, some^
time Bishop of Dromore, in 1837, published a
selection translated into English verse.
During the long and disastrous period empha
tically termed " the dark ages " (from the ninth
to the sixteenth century), the people were de
barred from joining in psalmody. Not only
were the words which were sung composed in a
language unknown to them, but the music was
of a nature so elaborately complex that none
could take part in it unless they had studied
music as a science. A complete collection of all
the ancient hymns, &c, in use in the different
services of the Romish Church, has been
published by Hermann Adalbert Daniel, entitled
Thesaurus Hymnologious, &c, Halle, 1841-
1846, in three volumes, 8vo. The editor has
illustrated this work with a critical apparatus
and notes. Yet psalmody was not entirely lost
during the dark ages. " The Albigenses, during
the hottest season of persecution, are stated to
have solaced themselves, in the very prospect of
death, with singing the psalms and hymns of
their church. Psalmody was cherished by the
disciples of Wycliffe in our own country. The
Bohemian Brethren published a hymn-book with
musical notes, from which it appears that the
melodies they used originated in the chants to
which the ancient Latin hymns of the Western
Church were sung." — Conder, The Poet of the
Sanctuary, p. 6. That psalmody was cultivated
by the persecuted ancient Vaudois is evident
from the fact that a large manuscript collection 520

PSA
of their psalms and hymns is preserved in the
library of Geneva (Monastier Hist, de I'Eglise
Vaudoise, tom. i., p. 124). But it was the
Reformation in the sixteenth century which
restored to the people their right to participate
in this primitive and edifying part of public
worship. Metrical versions of the Psalms of
David were executed in the principal vernacular
languages of Europe ; and some of the venerable
Reformers are recorded to have applied themselves
to the study of music, in order that they might
be enabled to compose plain and solemn tunes
in which all might be able to join.
In Germany, foremost among the revivers of
psalmody was Dr. Martin Luther, who, sO early
as the year 1525 — eight years after the com
mencement of the Reformation — caused to be
printed at Wittenberg a small collection of
psalms and hymns, the greater part of which
seem to be of his own composition. In the course
of the following years he either published, or
assisted in publishing, several other hymn-books,
containing numerous additional hymns, com
posed by Paul Speratus, Justus Jonas, Hans
Sachs, Nicholas Decius, and other contemporary
divines and reformers, as well as by authors of
older date. The century of the Reformation, and
that which followed it, continued to be rich in
hymnologic talent; and the names of Nicholas
and J. Heermens, Richard Selnecker, John Ger
hard, John Angelus, and, above all, Paul Ger-
hardt, are still deservedly held in the highest
estimation for their beautiful and devout contri
butions to psalmody. Through the labours of
these, and a host of later Christian poets, the
Reformed Churches of Germany have gradually
acquired a treasure of hymnology such as no
other country possesses, and which has furnished
materials for numerous hymn-books, compiled for
the use of the respective churches in almost
every state or district in Germany. The fol
lowing may be mentioned among the most
complete collections at present extant, — viz.,
1. The Geistlicher Liederschatz, containing 2,020
hymns, Berlin, 1832, in 8vo; 2. Archdeacon
Knapp's Evangelischen Liederschatz fur Kirche
und Haus, containing 3,572 hymns, Stuttgardt,
1837, in 2 vols., 8vo ; and 3. The Chevalier
Christian Carl Josias B unsen's Allgemeines Evan-
gelisches Gesang und Gebet Buch, second edition,
Hamburg, 1846, 8vo. This work is deservedly
held in the highest estimation in Germany. Be
sides a selection of 440 of the choicest hymns of
the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, it contains
a table of lessons from the Old and New Testa
ment for the whole of the ecclesiastical year, a
series of formularies, and a collection of prayers,
adapted to ordinary public worship, to the festi
vals celebrated by the universal Christian Church,
and to sacramental and other occasions. Nor
has the Episcopal Church of the Dnitas Fratrum,
or United Brethren (more commonly known by
the appellation of Moravians), been neglectful of

PSA
psalmody. Some of its hymns, composed in the
Bohemian and German languages, are of older
date than the Reformation, and were highly com
mended by Luther bimself for their scriptural
and devotional character. In the renewed church
ofthe Brethren psalms and hymns continue to
form an integral part of every religious service,
Count Zinzendorf, who eminently contributed to
itrfrevivalin 1722, havinghimself been a Christian
poet of no common order. The German hymn-
book in general use among the churches of the
Brethren was completed in 1778 by Bishop
Gregor, and has passed through numerous edi
tions: it contains many hymns derived from the
Lutheran Church, and some even from the primi
tive Christian Church. Some of the best hymns
in this collection have been translated into
English verse, and, with the addition of a number
of English hymns, constitutes the hymn-book
now in use among the congregations of the
Brethren in this country. The latest edition,
comprising 1,260 hymns, is entitled Liturgy and
Hymns of the Protestant Church of the Unitas
Fratrum, or United Brethren. It was published
at London in 1849, in 8vo. Several of the finest
hymns in the collection published by the Rev.
John Wesley are translations from the German
of Paul Gerhardt, Gerhard Tersteegen, Count
Zinzendorf, and others, admirably executed by
himself and by his brother, the Rev. Charles Wes
ley. France was indebted for the introduction of
modern metrical psalmody to " Clement Marot,
the favoured bard of Francis I., whose learned
friend Vatable, the Hebrew professor, ' probably
to reclaim him from profane rhymes,' suggested
the project of translating the Psalms into French
verse ; and no doubt he assisted the bard, for
they are said to be ' iraduite en rithme Francois
selon la Verite Hebraique.'" — Conder, The Poet
of the Sanctuary, p. 3. Marot published fifty-
two psalms in varions metres, which were so
eagerly received by all classes, that they sold
faster than the printers could take them off their
presses; but as they were understood to be songs,
and yet were not accompanied with music, every
one set them to favourite tunes, commonly those
of favourite ballads. Each of the royal family
and every nobleman chose a psalm or song which
expressed his own personal feelings, adapted
to his own tune. Spanish as well as French
composers hastened to set the psalms of Marot
to music. The fashion lasted, for Henry II.
set one to au air of his own composing.
Catherine de Medici had her psalm ; and it seems
that every one at court adopted some particular
psalm for themselves, which they often played on
lutes and guitars. The universal reception of
Marot's psalms induced Theodore Beza to com
plete the collection (DTsraeli, Curiosities of
Literature, vol. ii., p. 474, London, 1858). The
first edition of the entire Book of Psalms in
verse appeared in France in 1561, with the royal

PSA
privilege, and 10,000 copies were immediately
dispersed. These were speedily set to music, and
were generally sung in the Reformed churches
of France, Geneva, and French Switzerland, not
withstanding their condemnation by the college
of the Sorbonne. Some expressions having be
come obsolete, the task of retouching them was
undertaken, first by Valentine Convart, the first
secretary of the French Academy, and hy one of
the elders of the church at Charenton ; and after
wards by the pastors of Geneva, who revised
their undertaking, and almost recast the work of
Marot and Beza. So dear, however, was the
memory of these two first poets of the French
Reformation, that it was found necessary to pre
serve the very number of their stanzas and tbe
quantity of syllables of their verses, so that the
ancient music of the sixteenth century is to this
very day adapted to the singing of the revised
and corrected psalms. (Musee des Protestans
Celebres, tom. iv., part ii., pp. 11, 12.)
Of late years the Protestant churches in
France have paid much attention to the improve
ment of their psalmody. To the metrical version
of Marot and Beza they have added collections of
hymns, with music, for various occasions. The
French version of Marot and Beza was translated
into Dutch metre by Peter Dathen, pastor of the
first reformed cburch at Frankfort-on-the-Maine,
about the year lf>60, and adapted to the French
tunes and measure. A new Flemish metrical
version of the Psalms was executed by Philip de
Marnix, Lord of St. Aldegonde. A Bohemian
'version by Stryx, said to be of high merit, was
published in 1590; and a Polish version by
Bernard Woiewodka, of Cracow, was printed at
Brecsz, in Lithuania, about the year 1665, under
the auspices of Prince Radzivil. (Bayle, Dic-
iionnaire, par des Maizeaux, tom. iv., p. 124;
Milner's Life of Dr. Isaac Watts, p. 350, note.)
Coeval with the Reformation in England was
the introduction of psalmody. Probably in 1538,
and certainly before 1539, the venerable confessor,
Myles Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter, during the
reign of King Edward VI., published a metrical
version of thirteen Goostly Psalmes and Spirituall
Songes drawn out cf the Holy Scripture. Tbe
first verse of each psalm is accompanied by
musical notes, which evidently show that they
were designed to be sung (Coverdale's Remains,
p. 533). The next attempt to versify the Psalms
in English was made hy Thomas Sternhold,
groom of the robes to King Henry VIII. and
to King Edward VI., who published nineteen
psalms, most probably in 1549. These were in
creased to thirty-seven in 1551, with seven ad
ditional psalms translated by John Hopkins ; to
eighty-seven, most probably in 1561, by Stern
hold and others ; and in 1563 was published the
entire Book of Psalms, translated by Sternhold,
Hopkins, and others. This version seems to
have been authoritatively introduced into the ser
vice of the Reformed Church of England, being

521

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sanctioned both by the crown and convocation ;
and it soon became exceedingly popular. The
public singing of psalms by the whole congrega
tion first commenced in the month of September
1559, at the parish church of St. Antholin, in
the city of London, whence it spread first into
the neighbouring churches, and from them into
distant towns. Bishop Jewel, in a letter to
Peter Martyr, dated March 5th, 1560, says, —
" You may sometimes see at Paul's Cross, after the
service, six thousand persons, old and young, of
both sexes, all singing together, and praising
God." — Zurich Letters, p. 71. Although several
metrical versions of the Fsalms were published
with the royal license, bj* Archbishop Parker
(1560), Henry Dod (1603), George Wither
(1623), King James I. (1631), and George
Sandys (1631) ; the "old version" of Sternbold
and Hopkins continued to be used in the churches
until after the Restoration, notwithstanding the
efforts made, during the rebellion, to recommend
the introduction and adoption of the metrical
versions of Barton and Rous. The version of
Sternhold and Hopkins fell into disuse after the
publication of A New Version ofthe Psalms qf
David, fitted to the Tunes in Churches, by Nabum
Tate and Nicholas Brady, London, 1696 (second
edition, 1698), 8vo. This version was intro
duced to the public under the sanction of an
order in council issued by King William III.,
of no legal force or authority whatever since his
decease, and permitting it to be used "in all
such churches, and chapels, and congregations,
as think fit to receive the same." In 1703, it
being found necessary to have a supplement con
taining " the usual hymns, creed, Lord's Prayer,
&c, with the church tunes, Messrs. Tate and
Brady obtained a similar order in council for its
adoption in such churches, &c, as should think
fit to receive the same." Although the " new
version," as it is now commonly termed, en
countered much animadversion and opposition at
its first publication, it is at present used in most
churches and chapels in England and Ireland,
as well as in the chapels of the Episcopal com
munion in Scotland and in the British colonies.
This extensive use of the new version may be
ascribed to its intelligibility as a whole, tame as
the largest portion of it confessedly is, and to
the fact that, almost ever since its first publica
tion, the copyright property has been vested in the
Stationers' Company, hy whom, until of late years,
it has almost exclusively been published.
In 1603 was printed a Welsh translation of
the Psalms, made by William Myddleton, a cele
brated poet and navigator. Another version
appeared about the commencement of the seven
teenth century, from the pen of another eminent
Welsh poet, Edmund Prys, Archdeacon of
Merioneth. A revised edition of this version, by
the Rev. Peter Williams, is now in use through
out the principality of Wales. An entire ver
sion of the Fsalms in the Erse, or native Irish

PSA
language, made by the Rev. Dr. M'Leod, the
Rev. F. H. Beamish, Mr. Thaddeus Connellar,
and Mr. David Murphy, was published at London
in 1836. And some portions of the Psalms
have been translated into the Mohawk language
by an unknown author (London, 1787, and
Hamilton, Toronto, 1839); and into the language
ofthe Munceys, a native tribe of North Americans,
by the Rev. Richard Flood, a missionary to them
from the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts. Admirably as most of
the psalms are adapted for general use in public
worship, it has long been felt and acknowledged
that something is yet wanting, which may con
vey those clearer views of God's dispensations,
those astonishing hopes and consoling promises,
which are contained in the New Testament.
Bp. Maltby published A Selection qf Psalms and
Hymns before his elevation to the episcopate.
Various selections were made and published
by various individuals, principally (as it appears)
since the year 1770, and these selections are
derived from Dr. Watts's Imitation of the Psalms
of David in the Language of the New Testa
ment, 1707, and from his Hymns, 1719 ; the
Hymns of the Rev. Dr. Doddridge ; those of the
Rev. Messrs. John and Charles Wesley; tbe
Olney Hymns, composed by William Cowper and
John Newton ; and the sacred compositions dis ¦
persed through the works of the British poets of
the eighteenth century and of the present time.
Of the state of psalmody among the Puritans at
the close of the sixteenth, and in the former part
of the seventeenth century, we have no certain
information. During the commonwealth, William
Barton published a metrical version in 1644,
reprinted in 1645 with the license of the Protec
tor CromweU. This version was received with
much favour, and appears to have retained its
popularity for many years. In 1646 Francis
Rous, the presbyterian provost of Eton College,
published his version of the psalms, sanctioned
by the imprimatur of the House of Commons, in
pursuance of the recommendation of the West
minster assembly of divines. This version was
subsequently revised by William Barton for the
optional use of churches in England, but it never
became popular. But the greatest improvement
in psalmody, not merely among Protestant dis
senters, but among all English congregations,
was effected by the learned and Rev. Dr. Isaac
Watts, who in 1707 published his first volume
of Hymns (which was soon followed by a second
and third); and in 1719 appeared his metrical
verson of the Psalms of David, imitated in the
Language qf the New Testament, and applied to
the Christian State and Worship. For a just
appreciation of the value of these publications
the reader is necessarily referred to Mr. Conder's
Poet of the Sanctuary, pp. 48-105, in wbich
work will be found notices of some eminent
versifiers of psalms and hymns, both episcopalian
and nonconformist, who preceded Dr. Walts.

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The best compositions of Dr. Watts, and of his
learned and pious friend, tbe Rev. Dr. Doddridge,
whose hymns were published after his decease
in 1 751, are found in every selection of psalms
and hymns which has been published since the
year 1770. All the great bodies of dissenters
from the Church of England now have denomi
national hymn-books, containing the best
versions or imitations of the Psalms of David,
together with hymns selected from the most
eminent modern devotional poets.
The old version of Sternhold and Hopkins, and
their associates, was early introduced into the
public worship of the Kirk of Scotland, in which
it was retained until the commission of the
general assembly, in pursuance of a reference
made to them in August, 1649, on the 23d of
November following, issued their decision in
favour of the revised version of Francis Rous.
It was adopted in the main, and has ever since
been used as the only authorized metrical ver
sion of the Psalms for the Kirk of Scotland.
In 1787 a committee of the general assembly,
duly empowered, published a selection of Para
phrases in Verse of several Passages of Scrip
ture . . . . to be Sung in Churches.
It retains, in substance, the translations which
had been published in 1745, under the author
ity of the general assembly, and which had
been in use in several churches; and a con
siderable number of new paraphrases has been
added, chiefly from the psalms or hymns of
Doctors Watts, Doddridge, and Blacklock, and
Mr. Logan. In 1781 a faithful and beautiful
version of the psalmody of the Church of Scot
land, in the Gaelic language, was made by the
Rev. John Smith, by whom it was revised and
published in 1783.
Nothing certain is known concerning the psal
mody used by the first settlers in North America.
But in 1636 there was appointed a committee of
ministers of the Congregational or Independent
Churches, who, in 1640, completed from the
Hebiew a metrical version of the Psalms, which,
between the years 1755 and 1757, was carefully
revised by the Rev. Thomas Prince, M.A., whose
revised edition was published in the following
year. In 1783. Mr. Joel Barlow, an American
statesman and poet, published a corrected and
enlarged edition of Dr. Watts's version of the
Psalms, and a collection of hymns, with the
recommendation of the General Assembly of tbe
Congregational Ministers of Connecticut, at whose
request the work had been undertaken. Many
ofthe psalms were altered; several were written
anew, and several, which had been omitted by
Dr. Watts, were supplied. This collection was in
general use in that state until the bad character
of the author (who died a wretched infidel)
brought them into disrepute; and in the year
1800, the Rev. Timothy Dwight, D.D., Presi
dent of Yale College, Connecticut, published a
revised edition of Dr. Watts's version of the

623

PSA
Psalms (in which he versified upwards of twenty
psalms omitted by Watts), with the approba
tion of the General Assembly of Ministers in
the State of Connecticut, at whose request it
had been originally undertaken. This edition,
with the contributions of Dr. Dwight, has never
been adopted by the Congregationalists of this
country. Many of the leading denominations
in the United States of America now have their
own separate psalm and hymn-books. In 1789
the new version of the Psalms by Messrs. Tate
and Brady was adopted entire by the Protestant
Episcopal Church in the United States of America,
with the addition of a few hymns. Since the
year 1826 a collection of 212 hymns has been
in use under tbe authority of the general conven
tion of that church, composed of the house of
bishops and of clerical and lay delegates; and
since October, 1832, under the same authority,
124 selections of entire psalms, or of portions
of psalms, from the new version (with certain
necessary alterations or corrections, and occasion
ally with the substitution of a better version),
has been in use in all the churches of that com
munion. (Christian Obserrer for the year 1847,
pp. 618-633; The Psalmists of Britain, by John
Holland, London, 1843, 2 vols., 8vo ; &c, &c.)
— T. H. H.
In addition to what is stated in the previous
portion of this article about psalmody in Scot
land, it may be mentioned that there was pub
lished at the period of the Reformation a Com
pendious Booke qf Godly and Spirituall Songs.
Many of these are satires on the Romish clergy,
and many are profane songs ("prophaine sangis")
metamorphosed. The Romish clergy published
a canon against this book — such was its popu
larity — and the fifth parliament of Queen Mary
passed an act against such rhymes. The version
of Rous or Rouse, to which reference has been
made, was largely indebted to a version of the
period commonly ascribed to King James, and
therefore held in little estimation. The version,
however, was in reality the production of Sir
William Alexander of Menstrie, afterwards
Earl of Stirling. The general assembly, in
ordering a revision of the version of Rous,
instructed their committee to compare the
versions of the Laird of Rowallan and the
well-known Zachary Boyd. The result was,
the version so long and so commonly used in
Scotland — rough, vigorous, and graphic — with
less of dilution and paraphrase than in most
similar productions (See Baillie's Letters and
Journals.) In 1706 the assembly commended
the Scripture songs of Mr. Patrick Sympson for
use in private families, and to prepare them for
public use the act was renewed in the following
year, and in 1708 the commission is author
ized to compare the remarks of presbyteries on
these songs. Thus matters passed on for years.
In 1742 the assembly anew expressed a
wish for an addition to the psalmody; and

PSA
in 1751 forty-five paraphrases had been se
lected. In 1781, after many delays, a new
and fuller collection was made, twenty-two
being added to the previous forty-five selec
tions. This collection, though never formally
sanctioned by the assembly, is that now in use,
and printed along with the Psalms in Scottish
Bibles. Some of the paraphrases have an Ar
minian taint. From 1807 to 1822 the subject of
a revision of the metrical psalms was before
every assembly. Sir Walter Scott, when applied
to, was wisely against the project; for the
Psalms, said he, " often possessed a rude sort of
majesty, which would be ill exchanged for mere
elegance." In 1860 an addition to the collection
of paraphrases was published by the general
assembly. The Relief synod published a hymn-
bbok for their churches in 1794, and enlarged it
in 1832. The Burgher branch of the Secession
had, in 1748, requested Ralph Erskine, the
author of the Gospel Sonnets, to undertake the
duty of enlarging the psalmody. But the pro
posal led to no result. The United Presbyterian
Church, after some years' preparation, published,
in 1851, a hymn-book for the useof their churches.
The most of the paraphrases are incorporated
into it. This is not the place to dwell on the
history or merits of private hymn-writers, ancient
or modern. Prudentius, Bernard, and Bede,
enjoy great eminence. Adam, St. Victor, Am
brose, and others, are in high esteem. Many of
their productions are in rhyme, and accent is
substituted for quantity. The Dies ires, often
ascribed to Thomas of Celano, is universally
known, and has been often translated and imi
tated. The music of the early Church was a
simple chant, and often a responsive chorus. — See
Ambrosian Chant, Gregorian Chant. Ela
borate or complicated pieces are indeed Wholly
out of place in public worship, if the people are
to praise God themselves, and not by the proxy
of hired performers. Much more attention is
being paid to sacred music than formerly, and
there is correspondent Improvement in the various
churches. The congregation should be able to
chant a prose psalm, or any other devotional
portion of Scripture, without the necessity of its
being clipped and tortured into rhyme. — See
Okgan. Psathyrians, a party of Arians who, at
the council of Antioch, held that the Son was
created out of nothing, and that in God genera
tion and creation were identical.
Public Worship. — See Church, Clergy,
Evening Service, Litany, Morning Servicf,
Praise, Praybr. The rubrics in the Anglican
service-book present the form and order of public
worship. The Westminster Directory enacts : —
"Let all enter the assembly, not irreverently,
but in a grave and seemly manner, taking their
6eats or places without adoration, or bowing
themselves towards one place or other. The
congregation being assembled, the minister, after

PUR
solemn calling on them to the worshipping of the
great name of God, is to begin with prayer.
The public worship being begun, the people are
wholly to attend upon it, forbearing to read
anything, except what the minister is then
reading or citing; and abstaining much more
from all private whisperings, conferences, saluta
tions, or doing reverence to ally person present,
or coming in ; as also from all gazing, sleeping,
ahd other indecent behaviour, which may disturb
the minister or people, or hinder themselves or'
others in the service of" God. If any, through
necessity, be hindered from being present at the'
beginning, they ought not, when they come into
the congregation, to betake themselves to their
private devotions, but reverently to compose
themselves to join with the assembly in that
ordinance of God which is then in hand." The
reason why the injunction to begin with prayer
has been so universally departed from in Scot
land seems to be this : The reader or precentor
began the service with reading a chapter, and
gave out a psalm as the minister came into
church — so that the minister, the psalm being
sung, began with prayer. But the precentor's
function has ceased since the middle or toward
the end of last century, and the minister now
begins with praise, doing himself what used to
be done by his suhordinate. The innovation is
thus easily explained. — See Peecentok,
Reader. Pulpit. — Pulpits were erected not only in
churches, but also in monkish refectories, and
occasionally in public thoroughfares. They were
usually placed in the nave of a church, attached
to a wall or pillar, were formed of stone as well
as wood, and surmounted with a canopy.
Purgatory is defined by Cardinal Bellarmin
to be " a certain place in which, as in a prison,
souls are purged after this life, which were not
fully purged in this life ; viz., that so they may
be able to enter into heaven, where no unclean
thing enters in." — De Purgat, lib. i., c. i. And
the council of Trent decreed it as an article of
faith, to be received on pain of an anathema,
that " there is a purgatory, or place of torment
after this life, for the expiation of the sins of good
men, which are not sufficiently purged here ; and
that the souls there detained are helped by the
masses, prayers, alms, and other good works of
the living." — Council of Trent, sess. 6, can. xxx.,
sess. 25. The Popish theologians differ, how
ever, concerning the place and the medium of
punishment. Bellarmin has enumerated eight
variations of opinion concerning the situation of
purgatory ; and the medium of punishment is as
uncertain as the situation of the place, though
the general opinion favours the agency of fire.
This notion is adopted in the catechism of the
council of Trent, in which, among the different
meanings assigned to the word "hell" in the
Apostles' Creed, mention is made of " the fire of
purgatory, in which the souls of just men are

524

PUR
cleansed by a temporary punishment, in order to
be admitted into their eternal country." Pur
gatory, in all its representations and forms, is a
variation from scriptural authority : divine reve
lation affords it no countenance. The doctrine
of an intermediate state, from which the merits
of Jesus Christ cannot deliver us, is not only
" grounded on no warranty of Scripture," but is
so far positively "repugnant to the Word of God,"
as it is contrary to the absolute and unreserved
offers of mercy, peace, and happiness, contained
in the Gospel, and as it derogates from the fullness
and perfection of the one expiatory sacrifice made
by the death of Christ for the sins of man
kind. The Gospel represents Lazarus as at once
conveyed to a state of comfort and joy (Luke
xvL 22, 23); our Saviour promised to the peni
tent thief upon the cross, " This day shalt thou
be with me in paradise" (Luke xxiii. 43);
Paul exults in the prospect of a "crown of
righteousness after death " (2 Tim. iv. 8) ; and
he represents " to depart and to be with Christ"
(PhiL i. 23), and "to be absent from the body
and present with the Lord " (2 Cor. v. 8), as
states which were immediately to follow each
other. The doctrine of purgatory is contrary to
the sense of antiquity : it was unknown in the
Christian Church for the first six hundred years,
and it has never been received by the Greeks.
It does not appear to have been made an article of
faith until the tenth century, when "the clergy,"
says Mosheim, " finding these superstitious ter
rors admirably adapted to increase their authority
and promote their interest, used every method to
augment them ; and by the most pathetic dis
courses, accompanied with monstrous fables and
fictitious miracles, they laboured to establish the
doctrine of purgatory, and also to make it appear
that they had a mighty influence in that for
midable region." — Mosheim, Eccl. Hist, cent, x.,
part ii., ch. iii., sect. 1. (See Bishops Beveridge,
Burnet, and Tomline, on Article xxii. of the
Confession of the United Church of England and
Ireland; Edgar, Variations of Popery, ch. xiv.;
Faber, Difficulties of Romanism, p. 157-192,
448-471, second edition; and especially Hale's
Doctrine qf Purgatory, and the Practice qf
Prayer for the Dead, Examined, London, 1843.)
Purification, Feast of. — See Candlemass.
Puritans. — See Cathari, Novatians. — The
name is usually given to those who, prior to the
Act of Uniformity, in 1662, wished a further
reformation in the Church of England. When
the English exiles returned from the Continent
to their native land, after the death of Queen
Mary, they brought with them a liking for the
Genevan model, and advocated many more inno
vations on popish forms and ceremonies than had
been allowed under Henry VIII. The queen and
court wished simply for the restoration of King
Edward's liturgy. A meeting of convocation
was held in 1562, at which proposals for more
extensive reformation were discussed, and by a

PUR
very narrow majority rejected. The six points
insisted on by the advanced reformers were, — the
abolition of religious holidays, the omission ot
the signing of the cross in baptism, the laying
aside of the organ in worship, that the surplice
should be used only occasionally, that the aged
and sick should not be forced to kneel at the
Lord's Supper, and that, in praying, the minister
should turn his face to the people. The reforming
party avowed that no law could render imperative
what Christ had left indifferent — such as in the
matter of sacerdotal vestments, which soon be
came the prominent and testing point in discussion.
In the previous reign Hooper had refused to be
consecrated in popish costume. Their opponents
appealed for authority to the queen's supremacy
and the law of the land. Queen Elizabeth made
many attempts to enforce her authority, but
without success. Having conceived a strong
aversion to the Puritans, she pointed all her
artillery against them ; for besides the ordinary
courts of the bishops, her majesty erected a new
tribunal, called the court of high commission,
which suspended and deprived men of their liv
ings, not by the verdict of twelve men upon oath,
but by the sovereign determination of three com
missioners of her majesty's own nomination,
founded, not upon the statute laws of the realm,
but upon the intricacies of the canon law.
Instead of producing witnesses in open court to
prove the charge, they also assumed a power of
administering an oath ex officio, by which the
prisoner was obliged to answer all questions the
court should put him, though never so prejudicial
to his own defence : if he refused to swear, he was
imprisoned for contempt ; and if he took the oath,
he was convicted upon his own confession  See
Court. This court did many daring things, such
as sending their pursuivants to bring ministers out
of the country, and keeping them in town at exces
sive charges ; putting interrogatories upon oath,
a practice almost equal to the Spanish inquisi
tion; examining and imprisoning ministers,
without bail or bringing them to a trial ; and
all this not for insufficiency, or immorality, or
neglect of their cures, but for not wearing a
white surplice, for not baptizing with the sign of
the cross, or not subscrihing to certain articles
that had no foundation in law. A fourth part
of all the preachers iu England were under sus
pension at a time when not one beneficed clergy
man in six was capable of composing a sermon.
The edge of all those laws that were made against
popish recusants, who were continually plotting
against the queen, was turned against Protestant
nonconformists; nay, in many cases, they had
not the benefit of the law ; for, as Lord Clarendon
rightly observes, Queen Elizabeth carried her
prerogative as high as in the worst times of King
Charles I. " They who look back upon the
council books of those times," says his lordship,
" and upon the acts of the Star-chamber then,
Bhall find as high instances of power and sove-

525

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reignty upon the liberty and property of the
subject, as can be since given. But the art,
order, and gravity of those proceedings (where
short, severe, constant rules were set, and smartly
pursued, and the party felt only the weight of
the judgment, not the passion of his judges),
made them less taken notice of, and so less griev
ous to the public, though as intolerable to the
person." These severities, instead of reconciling
the Puritans to the church, drove them farther
from it; for men do not care to be beat from
their principles by the pressure of canons, injunc
tions, and penal laws ; nor could they be in love
with a church that used such methods of conver
sion. A great deal of ill blood was bred in the
nation by these proceedings; the bishops lost
their esteem with the people, and the number of
Puritans was not really lessened, though they
lay concealed, till in the next age they got the
power into their hands, and shook off the yoke.
Grindal succeeded Parker in 1576, but his
leniency toward the Puritans, and his toleration
of prophesyings, lost him her majesty's favour,
and he was placed under sequestration. — See
Prophesyings, Sequestration. He died in
1583, and was succeeded by Whitgift.
According to all accounts, it was Bancroft who
fanned most bitterly the flame of discontent. He
insisted on the divine right of bishops, and that
all not ordained by a bishop had no claim to be
regarded as ministers of the church. The Martin
Marprelate Tracts were also fuel to the flame.
James ascended the throne in 1603, and the Mil
lenary Petition was presented, (which see.)
The result was the famous conference at Hamp
ton Court. — See Conference. After the acces
sion of Charles I., persecution was practised of
every sort, and many Puritans emigrated to New
England, and founded those flourishing States.
Charles was beheaded, and Cromwell favoured
Independency; the Restoration took place, and
penal laws were again enacted, under the two
last of the Stuarts, against the nonconformists.
The Revolution at length brought toleration with
it. The Puritans flourished in New England.
Dr. Baird says, — " Those bodies of emigrants
which, from 1628 onward, planted Salem and
Boston, Hartford, and New Haven — the emi
grating Puritans, who were the actual founders
of New England, and whose character gave
direction to its destiny — were men who con
sidered themselves as belonging to the Church
of England till their emigration into the Amer
ican wilderness dissolved the tie. They were
Puritans in England, it is true, but tbe Puri
tans were a party within the church, con
tending for a purer and more thorough re
novation, and not a dissenting body, with
institutions of their own, out of the church. The
ministers who accompanied the Puritan emi
grants, or, rather, who led them into the wilder
ness, and who were the first pastors of the
churches in New England, were, before their 526

PUR
emigration, almost without exception, ministers
of the Church of England, educated at the uni
versities, episcopally ordained, regularly inducted
into livings : nonconformists, it is true, as refus
ing to wear the white surplice, to baptize with
the sign of the cross, or to use other ceremonies
which seemed to them superstitious, but yet
exercising their ministry as well as they could
under many disabilities and annoyances. Cotton
and Wilson, of Boston, Hooker and Stone, of
Hartford, Davenport and Hooke, of New Haven
— not to extend the catalogue — were all beneficed
clergymen before their emigration. Congrega
tionalism in America, instead of being an offset
from that in England, is the parent stock. No
congregational Church in England, it is believed,
dates its existence so far back as the Act of Uni
formity, in 1662 ; but many of the New England
churches have records of more than 200 years.
It may also be remarked that American Congre
gationalists are not ' dissenters,' and never were.
In New England the Congregational churches
were for a long time the ecclesiastical establish
ment of the country, as much as the Presbyterian
Church is now in Scotland. The whole economy
of the civil state was arranged with reference to
the welfare of these churches ; for the state ex
isted, and the country had been redeemed from
the wilderness, for this very purpose. At first
no dissenting assembly, not even if adopting the
ritual and order of the Church of England, was
tolerated. Afterward dissenters of various names
were permitted to worship as they pleased, and
were not only released from the obligation to
contribute towards the support of the established
religion, but so incorporated by law that each
congregation was empowered to tax its own
members for the support of its own religious
ministrations. But still, till the principle was
adopted that the support of religion is not among
the duties of civil government, the Congrega
tionalists maintained this precedence — that every
man who did not prefer to contribute to the sup
port of public worship in some other form, was
liable to be taxed as a Congregationalist. The
whole number of Congregational churches in the
United States is probably not far from 1,500, of
which more than 1,000 are in New England. The
number of ministers is about 1,350, and the mem
bers or communicants may be stated at 1 80,000."
— See Act; Court op High Commission;
Dissenters ; England, Church of; Inde
pendency; Indulgence; Nonconformist;
Penal Laws. (Neal's History ofthe Puritans.)
Purity of Morals. — In the relations of the
sexes purity was strictly guarded in the early
Church. It needed to be so, for heathenism around
it was one mass of defilement, as the first chapter
of the Epistle to the Romans, the satires of Ju
venal, the poems of Catullus, Petronius Arbiter,
Johannes Secundus, &c, abundantly show.
Women were, therefore, forbidden to wash in the
same bath with men. If a clergyman bathed

PUS
with women he was to be deposed, and a lay
man so guilty was to be excommunicated. A
man, by one of the laws of Justinian, might
divorce his wife if she had been found bathing
with men. Certain kinds of dancing and songs
were also strictly forbidden, especially at marriage
feasts, for they were the remains pf old pagan
obscenities. Women, also, were not allowed to
keep vigils in churches under pretence of devo
tion, because the practice led to secret wickedness,
as the council of Elvira intimates. Lascivious
books were condemned, and these at the period
must have been common. Stage-plays were no
less put under ban. Cyprian says, " Adultery was
learned by seeing it acted." To know what this
means, the reader has only to be referred to the
English comedies of the reign of Charles II. The
heathen deities in those primitive times were
brought upon the stage — the wanton Venus and
the rake Jupiter — and men, as Cyprian says
again, " imitate the gods whom they worship."
The impurities of the stage were virtually the
"pomps of Satan," which Christians renounced
at baptism. For similar reasons intemperance
was reprobated. " Drunkenness and lust," said
Tertullian, " are two devils combining." Chang
ing of their respective dresses on the part of
the sexes was also condemned. " If any woman,"
said the council of Gangra, " on pretence of

QUA
living a religious life, take the apparel of men,
let her be anathema." Similar enactments may
be found in more recent times. " The General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland, by their
act, July 19, 1649, finding that scandal and
abuse arose from promiscuous dancing, do there
fore discharge the same ; the censure is referred
to the several presbyteries." By the church disci
pline of France, cap. xiv., art. 27, "those who
make account to dance, or are present at dancing,
after having been several times admonished, shall
be excommunicated upon their growing obstinate
and rebellious, and all church judicatures are to
see this act put to execution." And by art. 26,
" all persons who wear habits to have open marks
of dissoluteness, shame, and too much newness,
as painting, naked breasts, and the like, the con
sistory shall use all possihle means to suppress
such badges of immodesty by censures. All ob
scene pictures, which are apt to dispose and incite
to unclean thoughts and desires, are declared to
be most improper furniture for the bouses of
Christians, and therefore the users of them may
fall under church censure, if they be not re
moved." Puseyism. — See Tractakians.
Pyx, the box made of silver or ivory in
which the host is kept. — See Ciborium.

Q

Quadragesima (fortieth), a name some
times given to the season of Lent, and some
times to the first Sunday in Lent. Whence the
Sunday next preceding was called by the next
round number, "Quinquagedma" — fiftieth; the
Sunday before that, " Sexagesima" — sixtieth;
and the next, i. e,, the third before Lent, " Sep-
tuagedma" — seventieth. The name of Sep-
tuagesima was also given to the whole week
preceding Septuagesima Sunday. — See Lent.
Quadratuni (quadrangle), a name which was
given to the nave of a church because of its
square form. — See Church, Nave.
Quakers, a well-known sect of Christians,
whose origin is to be traced to the religious
agitation which prevailed in this country about
the beginning of the seventeenth century. The
causes of their origin, as assigned by them
selves, are thus expressed: — "Many pious
persons had been dissatisfied with the settle
ment of the Church of England in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth. Various societies of dis
senters had accordingly arisen, some of whom
evinced their sincerity by grievous sufferings
under the intolerance of those who governed
church affairs. But these societies, notwith
standing their honest zeal, seem to have stopped
short in their progress towards a complete
reformation, leaving their most enlightened
members still to lament the want of some

thing more instructive and consolatory to the
soul. Dissatisfied and disconsolate, they were
ready to follow any teacher who seemed able to
direct them to that light and peace of which
they felt the need. Many such engaged their
attention in succession, until, finding the insuffi
ciency of them all, they withdrew from the
communion of every visible church, and dwelt
retired and attentive to the inward state of their
own minds. These people were at first hidden
from each other, and.each probably conceived his
own heart to be the single repository of a dis
covery so important ; but it did not consist with
Divine goodness that the candle thus lighted
should always remain under the bed or the
bushel. Our honourable elder, George Fox,
could not satisfy his apprehensions of duty to
God, without bearing public testimony against
the common modes of worship, and directing
the people where to find the like consolation
and instruction. As he travelled in this service
he met with diverse of those seeking persons (the
people now known as 'Quakers' or 'Friends'
were first called ' Seekers : ' they professed to
be seeking after truth), who had been exercised
in a similar manner: these readily received his
testimony ; several of tbein also became preachers
of the same doctrine ; multitudes were convinced
of the reality of this inward manifestation, and
many meetings were settled." The circumstance

527

QUA
which led to their designation as Quakers is
as follows:—" George Fox was one of the first
of our Friends who were imprisoned. He was
confined at Nottingham, in the year 1649, for
having publicly opposed a preacher on a point of
doctrine, and in the following year, being brought
before two justices in Derbyshire, one of them,
scoffing at George Fox for" having bidden him
and those about him to tremble at the word of
the Lord, gave to our predecessors the name of
'Quakers;' an appellation which soon became
and hath remained our most usual denomina
tion; but they themselves adopted, and have
transmitted to us, the endearing appellation of
' Friends.' " The persecution of the early Quak
ers was severe and cruel. We shall" give a
few paragraphs from their own documents re
specting the constitution and discipline of their
society. Worship — And, first, as to the time of public
worship, — "Although true worship is not con
fined to time and place, we think it incumbent
on Christians to meet often together, in testi
mony of their dependence on their heavenly
Father, and for a renewal of their spiritual
strength. We, therefore, in common with almost
all who profess the Christian name, are in the
practice of assembling for this purpose on the
first day of the week ; and it is also our practice
to hold a meeting for worship on some other daj',
about the middle of the week. The due observ
ance of one day in seven as a day of rest, and a
day more especially set apart for the purpose of
public worship, and for other duties of a religious
nature, we believe to be incumbent on a Chris
tian community, agreeably to the authority of
holy Scripture, and of incalculable importance
in its results." With reference to the mode of
conducting public worship, they say, — " We dare
not depend for our acceptance with God on a
formal repetition of the words apd experiences of
others ; but we believe it to be our duty to lay
aside the activity of the imagination, and to wait
in dience to have a true sight of our condition
bestowed upon us, believing a single sigh, aris
ing from such a sense of our infirmities, and of
the need we have of Divine help, to be more
acceptable to God than any performances, how
ever specious, which originate in the will of man."
Ministry. — The Quakers refuse to sustain a
stated ministry. They deny, moreover, the neces
sity of collegiate training for the right exercise
of ministerial gifts ; and they permit their women
to " speak in the church" — a practice which St.
Paul explicitly forbade, (1 Tim. 11, 12.) " We
believe," say they, "that the renewed assistance
of the light and power of Christ is indispensably
necessary for all true ministry; and that this
holy influence is not at our command, or to be
procured by study, but is the free gift of God to
chosen and devoted servants. Hence arises our
testimony against preaching for hire, in contra
diction to Christ's positive command, ' Freely

QUA
ye have received, freely give;' and hence our
conscientious refusal to support such ministry by
tithes or other means. As we dare not encourage
any ministry but that which we believe to spring
from the influence of the Holy Spirit, so neither
dare we attempt to restrain this ministry to per
sons of any condition in life, or to the male sex
alone ; but, as male and female are one in Christ,
we hold it proper that such of the female sex as
we believe to be endued with a right qualifica
tion for the ministry should exercise their gifts
for the general edification of the church; and
this liberty we esteem a peculiar mark of the
Gospel dispensation, as foretold by the Prophet
Joel, and noticed by the Apostle Peter," (Acts ii.
16-18.) Those who believe themselves required
to speak in meetings for worship are not im
mediately acknowledged as ministers by their
monthly meetings ; but time is taken for judg
ment, that the meeting may be satisfied of their
call and qualification. It will also sometimes
happen that such as are not approved will obtrude
themselves as ministers, to the grief of their
brethren ; but much forbearance is used towards
these before the disapprobation of the meeting is
publicly testified.
Ordinances. — They reject the sacraments of
baptism and the Lord's Supper. Of the former
they say,- — " We hold that as there is one Lord
and one faith, so his baptism is one, in nature
and operation ; that nothing short of it can make
us living members of his mystical body; and
that the baptism with water, administered hy his
forerunner, John, belonged, as the latter con
fessed, to an inferior and decreasing dispensation."
And of the latter they are of opinion " that com
munion between Christ and his Church is not
maintained by that, or by any other external
performance, but only by a real participation of
his divine nature through faith ; and that where
the substance is attained, it is unnecessary to
attend to the shadow, which doth not confer
grace, and concerning which opinions so differ
ent, and animosities so violent, have arisen."
Qatlis  They refuse to take oaths of any
kind and under any circumstances. " We abide
literally by Christ's positive injunction, delivered
in his sermon on the mount — ' Swear not at all.' "
War. — Quakers have ever been consistent in
their protestation against war. " From the
sacred collection of the most excellent precepts of
moral and religious duty contained in the sermon
on the mount, from the example of our Lord
bimself, and from the corresponding convictions
of his Spirit in our hearts, we are confirmed in
the belief that wars and fightings are, in their
origin and effects, utterly repugnant to the Gos
pel, which still breathes peace and good-will to
men. We also are clearly of the j udgment, that
if the benevolence of the Gospel were generally
prevalent in the minds of men, it would effect
ually prevent them from oppressing, much more
from enslaving their brethren (of whatever colour

628

QUA
or complexion), for whom, as for themselves,
Christ died, and would even influence their con
duct in their treatment of the brute creation,
which would no longer groan, the victims of their
avarice, or of their false ideas of pleasure. During
the commotions which terminated in the separa
tion of the United States from the dominion of
Great Britain, Friends were involved in great
trouble, by refusing to join in the military ser
vices which were required of them ; and many
were reduced from circumstances of ease, if not
of affluence, to the verge of want, by the excessive
seizures which were made of their property to re
cover the fines imposed for their refusing to serve
personally, or by substitute, in war. . Difficulties
of this kind, it may be observed, though not to
the same extent, still exist with respect to militia
service, and several instances of imprisonment on
that account have of late years occurred ; as thev
also have, though for very limited periods of de
tention, in this country.''
Subscription to Articles  One of the Quaker
documents states, — " Although, for tbe preserva
tion of the testimonies given us to bear, and for
the peace and good order of the society, we deem
it necessary that those who are admitted into
membership with us should be previously con
vinced of those doctrines which we esteem essen
tial; yet we require no formal subscription to
any articles either as a condition of membership
or a qualification for the service of the church.
We prefer judging of men by their fruits, and
depending on the aid of Him who, by his pro
phet, hath promised to be 'for a spirit of judg
ment to him that sitteth in judgment.' "
Marriage. — "Those who intend to marry ap
pear together, and propose their intention to the
monthly meeting (see Meeting, Monthly);
and if not attended by their parents or guar
dians, produce a written certificate of their con
sent, signed in the presence of witnesses. The
meeting then appoints a committee to inquire
whether they are clear of other engagements
respecting marriage; and if at a subsequent
meeting no objections are reported, they have
the meeting's consent to solemnize their intended
marriage. This is done in a public meeting for
worship, towards the close whereof the parties
stand up, and solemnly take each other for hus
band and wife. A certificate of the proceedings
is then publicly read, and signed by the parties,
and afterwards by the relations and others as
witnesses. Of such marriages the monthly
meeting keeps a record."
Minor matters. — " The naming of children is
without ceremony. Burials are also conducted
in a simple manner. The body, followed by the
relations and friends, is sometimes, previously to
interment, carried to a meeting, and at the
grave a pause is generally made ; on both which
occasions it frequently occurs that one or more
Friends present have somewhat to express for
the edification of those who attend; but no

QUA
religious rite is considered as an essential part of
burial." Quakers are very careful that their
members shall not have any connection with
illicit trade, nor in any manner defraud tbe
revenue. They esteem compliments, superfluity
of apparel and furniture, and of provision for tbe
table, outward shows of rejoicing and mourning,
and the observation of days and times, as incom
patible with Christian simplicity ; and they con
demn all public diversions, gaming, and other
vain amusements. They also refuse to acknow
ledge the names of the days and months, because
they originated in the flattery or superstition of
the heathen towards their heroes or false gods.
Nor will they pay church rates or any other
ecclesiastical assessment. The custom of speak
ing to a single person in the plural number they
also reject, " as having arisen from motives of
adulation." Warburton's opinion of the nature
and constitution of Quakerism, as inferred from
we writings of William Penn, is thus expressed
in his Alliance between Church and State, —
" Penn argues for this common policy from the
benefits resulting from it to civil life ; and thus,
instead of a church, he hath helped to make
Quakerism, considered in its discipline, a civil
community or corporation." It is understood
that of late years there have been considerable
doctrinal differences among the Friends, and also
on minor matters.
Quaker principles were early carried to Amer
ica, and their advocates being wholly mis
understood, were cruelly persecuted — often, in
deed, whipped from town to town. In 1691,
a Scotchman, George Keith, who had emi
grated to Pensylvannia, began to controvert the
usual views on the human nature of Christ,
and taught otherwise in a captious and defiant
manner. He proudly scorned all attempts at
explanation and conciliation. After prolonged
agitation and conflict his appeals were carried to
London, and by the yearly meeting of 1695 he
was cut off. His followers in America soon
separated into parties, and some became Baptists,
though they retained the dress of Quakers.
Keith himself opened a conventicle in London.
But in 1700 he conformed, and was episcopally
ordained, and went to America to combat the
Friends, where, according to his own account,
he had great success in bringing them back to
mother church. After his return, the living of
Edburton, in Sussex, was conferred on him.
In 1827, Elias Hicks and his party, having sunk
into deplorable rationalism, were separated from
the main body. The orthodox portion accused
tbem justly of an " open denial of the funda
mental doctrines of Christianity." The Hicksites
are a numerous party, about double that of the
evangelical Friends. They are generally strong
abolitionists, and advocates of what are called
woman's rights — See Meetings, Monthly,
Quarterly, and Yearly. (Barclay's Apol
ogy; Bevan s Defence; Clarkson's Portraitures.)

529

2M

QUA
Qnare impedit (why he hinders), a writ
that is employed when, on the death of the in
cumbent, some one presents to the vacancy who
has no right, or otherwise disturbs the possessor
of the advowson in exercising his patronage.
Quare incnmbravit (why he has cumbered
or taken possession). — During a plea between
two persons for the possession of an advowson,
if the bishop admits the presentee of one of
them within six months, the other can have a
writ of this form against the bishop.
Quare non admisit (why he has not ad
mitted). — When one has recovered an advowson,
and the bishop refuses to admit his presentee,
such a writ may be employed.
Quarterly Meeting. — See Meeting.
Qnartodecimani. — See Easter.
Quasimodogeniti (as new born babes). —
See Easter.
Queensferry Declaration. — After the
defeat at Bothwell Bridge tbe stricter and mo"
violent portion of the Covenanters drew off from
the main body, and adhered exclusively to the
ministers Cameron and Cargill. An outline of
their opinion bad been composed, and the docu
ment was found in possession of Hall of Haugh-
head, on his apprehension at Queensferry on the
3d of June, 1680. Hall was mortally wounded
as he was defending himself, and Cargill, his
companion, escaped. This document, unsigned
and unfinished, and named after the place where
it was seized, after affirming adherence to the
Scriptures and the covenanted work of reforma
tion, goes on, however, to say, — " We do declare,
that we shall set up over ourselves, and over
what God shall give us power of, government
and governors according to the Word of God; —
that we shall no more commit the government
of ourselves, and the making of laws for us, to
any one single persoh, this kind of government
being most liable to inconveniences, and aptest
to degenerate into tyranny." This bold avowal
of revolution was soon charged against the
entire Presbyterian body, and increased perse
cution was the result. — See Covenanters,
Rutherglen Declaration, Sanquhar De
claration. Questmen, helpers to the churchwardens. —
See Churchwardens.
Question, Modern, is " Whether it be the
duty of all to whom the gospel is preached to
repent and believe in Christ? " and it is called
Modern, because it is supposed never to have
been agitated before the early part of the last
century. It originated in Northamptonshire, in
the churches in which Mr. Davis of Rothwell
preached, though it does not appear that he
took an active part in it. The question thus
started was pursued by a variety of inferior
writers down to the time of Andrew Fuller, who
very ably supported tbe positive side of the
question, namely, tbat faith is the duty of all
men, although, through the depravity of human

QUI
nature, men will not believe till regenerated by
the Holy Spirit. On the other side, it was con
tended, " that faith was nota duty, but a grace;"
the exercise of which was not required till it was
bestowed. On this subject Mr. Fuller published
The Gospel worthy of all acceptation; or, the Duty
of all Men to believe in Jesus Christ. On this
subject Mr. Fuller was attacked by Mr. Hutton,
a Supralapsarian, on the one hand, and by Mr.
Daniel Taylor, an Arminian, on the other, to
whom he replied by A Defence of his former
tract. Quietists. — 1. A name sometimes given to
the Hesychasts of Mount Athos. The direc
tions of the Abbot Simon for producing the visions
of Quietism (supposed to have been written in
the eleventh century) are still in existence : —
" Alone in thy cell, shut thy door, and seat thy
self in a corner ; raise thy mind above all things
vain and transitory ; recline thy beard and chin
on thy breast ; turn thy eyes and thy thoughts
toward the middle of thy belly, the region of the
navel ; and search the place of the heart, the seat
of the soul. At first, all will be dark and com
fortless ; but if you persevere day and night, you
will feel an ineffable joy ; and no sooner has the
soul discovered the place of the heart than it is
involved in a mystic and ethereal light." — See
Hesychasts. 2. To the followers of Molinos,
a Spanish priest, whose opinions, published at
Rome towards the end of the seventeenth cen
tury, called forth violent opposition from the
authorities of the church, but met with many
supporters in Italy, Spain, France, and the
Netherlands. He seems to have held " that reli
gion consists in the perfect tranquillity of a mind
removed from all external and finite' things, and
centered in God, and in such a pure love of the
Supreme Being as is independent of all prospect
of interest or reward." Madame Guyon came
forward as one of the chief promoters of Quietism
in France, and hence arose a celebrated contro
versy between Bossuet and Fenelon — the former
of whom attacked, and the latter defended seve
ral of that pious lady's opinions.
Quinisexline Council, the seventh general
or Trullan council, so called because it supplied
some defects in the fifth and sixth councils.
Quinquagesima (fiftieth), the Sunday
which, reckoned in round numbers, is the fiftieth
day before Easter.
Quinquarlicular (containing, consisting of
five articles). — The word is the usual term refer
ring to the five points disputed between the
Calvinists and the Arminians, originally at the
synod of Dort, and subsequently in innumerable
controversies. — See Arminianism, Calvinism,
Pelagians, Predestination. The dispute in
this country arose at Cambridge in 1 594. James
I. considered the points so mysterious that he
forbade any clergyman, unless he were a bishop, or
at least a dean, to treat them from the pulpit. In
1630 Bishop Davenant preached on the points,

530

QUI
and gave great offence to Charles I. (Heylin's
Historia Quinquarticularis; Whitby's Discourse
concerning the true Import of the Five Points ;
Tomline's Refutation of Calvinism; and Scott's
Reply.) — See Dort, Synod of.
Quintillians, followers of Quintiila of Car
thage, in the second century, who deemed women
admissible to all sacred offices, and denied the
ordinance of baptism. Tertullian alludes to
Quintiila in his book On Baptism, and the

RAB
| council of Laodicea, in 867, reprobated priestesses
and female presbyters.
Quod permiltat, a writ granted to the suc
cessor of a parson in the Church of England for
the recovery of pasture by the statute of 13 Ed
ward I., c. 24.
Quotidiana Oratio (daily prayer), a
name which was given to the Lord's Prayer on
account of its daily use by Chi'istians". — Sea
Prayer; Prayer, Lord's,

R

Rab, Rabbi.— See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Rnbbinism, the system of traditional belief
and interpretation which has so long enslaved
the Jewish mind. It was, to a great extent,
that tangled mass of oral teaching, which, age
after age, the Jews had unwarrantably engrafted
on the written law. The farrago of unwritten
statute and ritual is contrasted by Jesus with
the "commands of God." It scrupled to eat
with unwashed hands, but was forward to
worship with an unregenerate heart. It was
eloquent and precise about cleaning of cups, but
vague and dumb about the purifying of con
science. It converted religion into a complicated
routine, with a superstitious and perplexing
ritual, as if man were to be saved by the
observance of ceremonies as puerile as they were
cumbrous — a series of postures, ablutions, vain
repetitions, and amulets. It lost sight of the
spirituality of worship, but enjoined a careful
genuflexion. It buried ethics under a system of
miserable and tedious casuistry. It attempted to
place everything under formal regulation, and
was now busied in solemn trifling, and now
lost in utter indecency. It was mighty about
the letter, and oblivious of the spirit. It rejoiced
in the oblation of a ram, but had no sympathy
with the "sacrifice of a broken and contrite
heart." It drew water every year from the well
of Siloam with a pompous procession, but had no
thirst for the living stream which its prophets
had predicted and described. It would drill
man into a fatiguing devotion. It trained to
the mere mummery of worship when it pre
scribed the movement of eye and foot, of head
and arm. It intruded its precepts into every
relation, and attempted to fill out the Divine
law by laying down direction for every suppos
able case. It was not content with leading
principles, but added innumerable supplements.
It surrounded the rite of circumcision with many
ridiculous minutiae. It professed to guard the
sanctity of the Sabbath by a host of trifling
injunctions, descending to the needle of the tailor,
the pen of the scribe, and the wallet of the
beggar. The craftsman was told that he was
guilty if he tied a camel-driver's knot, or a
Bailor's knot, on that day, but not guilty if he
merely tied a knot which he could loose with

531

one of his hands ; and that he might leap over
a ditch, but not wade through the water that
lay in it. It declared by what instrument the
paschal lamb should be roasted, and how a jar
of wine must be carried during a festival ; with
what gestures a phylactery was to be put on,
and with what scrupulous order it was to be
laid aside. It left nothing to the impulse of
a living piety. It was ignorant that a sanc
tified spirit needed no such prescriptions; that
the " due order " could only be learned from the
inner oracle; and that obedience to all its rami
fied code, apart from the spirit of genuine faith
and devotion, was only acting a part in a heart
less pantomime. The Mishna is, on the whole,
a faithful record of many such traditions, and
the recurring formula is — Rabbi Eleazar said
this, but Rabbi Gamaliel said that ; this was the
opinion of Rabbi Meir, but that of Rabbi Jehu-
dah ; Hillel was of this mind, but Beth Shammai
of that ; Rabbi Tarphon pronounced in this way,
but Rabbi Akivah in that ; thus thought Ben
Azai on the one hand, but thus thought Rabbi
Nathan on the other ; such was the decision of
Jochanan Ben Sacchai, but such was the oppo
site conclusion of Mathias Ben Harash. It never
rose above a mere human dictum, and it armed
its jurists with supreme authority. It never
shook the mire off its wings, or soared into that
pure and lofty empyrean which enveloped the
Divine tribunal, so that in His light it might
see light. What had been thus conceived in the
dry frivolity of one age was handed down to
another, and the mass was swiftly multiplied in
its long descent. — Eadie On Colossians.
Rabbling, a term employed to denote the
summary ejectment, on Christmas Day, 1688,
of episcopal clergymen and their families by the
Scottish populace, after the Revolution. The
incumbents were turned out of their houses, and
often into the snow ; the church doors were locked,
and the key was taken away. These measures
were certainly harsh and uncalled for; but the
people had been exasperated, especially iu the
West country, by twenty-five years of bloodshed
and persecution. Though they were " rude, even
to brutality," yet, as Lord Macaulay says, " they
do not appear to have been guilty of any inten
tional injury to life or limb." The better part

RAB
of the people put a stop to the riotous proceed
ings on the part principally of the Cameronians ;
but a form of notice, or a threatening letter, was
sent to every curate in the Western Lowlands.
Rabbling Act. — This act was passed by the
Scottish parliament in 1698, to prevent dis
turbance and riots at the settlement of ministers.
The Episcopalians in the north rabbled the Pres
byterians, especially on the day of an ordination ;
for they did not like to see their incumbents
supplanted. So violent were their measures,
that the legislature had thus to interfere against
them.— See Revolution Settlement.
Racovian Catechism. — See Socinians.
Ranters. — See Methodists.
Raskolniks (schismatics), the general name
of all who have seceded from the Greek Church
in Russia. The more important branches of
them are the Strigolniks, who adopted a secret
Judaism; the Popofschins, who have priests;
and the Bezpopofschins, who have none. The
most numerous class of the Raskolniks are ad
herents of the old text, who call themselves
Starovertzi, those of the old faith, and are offi
cially called Starobradtzi, those of the old rites.
The other remarkable sects are the Skoptzi, or
eunuchs ; the Khlestovschiki, or flagellants ; the
Malakanes ; the Duchobortzi ; and the Martin-
ists. — See Martinists, Russian Church.
Rates, Church, money raised annually in
the parishes of England for the maintenance
or repair of the parish church, &c. Rates are
agreed on by the parish in vestry assembled,
and they are charged, not on the land, but on
the occupier. The parish meetings are sum
moned by the churchwardens, who, if they
neglect to do so, may be proceeded against
criminally in the ecclesiastical courts. — See
Churchwardens. Not less than eighteen bills
have been before parliament these last twenty-
years for the modification or settlement of church
rates. Rationale, another name apparently for the
pall (to xiyitv). The word also denotes an
explanation or defence of the ceremonial which
was thought fit to be retained in England in
1541. Rationalism, the name usually given to
that species of interpretation which imposes a
meaning on Scripture, instead of honestly and
humbly educing one. It will receive no interpre
tation save what is consonant to its reason, and
denies any province to faith. It will not bow to
revelation as of sole and divine authority. It
proudly settles for itself what it ought to believe,
and will receive nothing beyond the self-imposed
boundary. It disparages what is repugnant to
its taste, and rejects what is above the sphere of
its comprehenkion. It has existed in every age
of the Church. It was the germ of almost all
the heresies of former days. That spirit, that
led so many sects to tamper with the canon, and
exclude or receive the sacred treatises from mere

RAT
fancy or opinion — that prompted them to set
aside the deeper mysteries of the faith, deny the
divinity and deride the atonement of the Son of
God, and reduce the Gospel to a bare annuncia
tion of duty, scarce distinguished from any
human theory of amelioration and improvement,
— is the essence of Neology. It rose with Cer-
intbus and the Ebionites. It animated Marcion
and tbe Manichees. It guided the Arian inter
pretation of the fourth century. It is the soul
of all Socinian exegesis. It has happened to be
allied in Germany to prodigious learning and
powerful talent, and has appeared adorned with
the speculations of abstruse psychology, the
splendid phantasma of Teutonic imagination,
and the subtle researches and wonders of philo
logy. It was a base negation in England, in
the form of vapid, meagre, and lifeless Socinian
ism, with little to recommend it but its arro
gance. It rose in France like a portentous
comet, and the land 'was deluged with blood.
English infidelity flung the Bible from it; but,
eastward of the Rhine, the German spirit clings
to that book whose divine origin it denies,
and labours upon it with unwearied assiduity,
framing grammars and lexicons for its language,
writing commentaries for its elucidation, and
systems of divinity to embody its truth and
hopes. It has great rapture in settling peculiar
readings, and feels peculiar ecstasy in dealing
with particles and prepositions. Neology was
introduced into Germany amidst a variety of
favouring circumstances. It has been shown by
Pusey, in his excellent volume on this subject,
that after the Reformation, the leading divines
of the Lutheran Church, forsaking free language,
clung with tenacity to the verbal peculiarities of
their creeds and symbols; and that as human
language is necessarily ambiguous, there was no
clause in their confessions, the meaning of which
was not disputed by contentious sophists. Free
dom of thought "and opinion, introduced by the
Reformation, degenerated into licentiousness.
On every point of faith and doctrine they exer
cised their ceaseless and subtle metaphysics.
From this source sprang the fierce controversies
termed the Adiaphoristic, the Synergistic, the
Flaccianist, the Ossiandrian, the Stancarian,
— the three last of these named after their
authors and promoters. Such fierce and continued
wrangling produced, in course of time, a dead
orthodoxy. The language of faith was more
valued than the life of faith. Purity of creed
was more highly prized than holiness of heart.
Piety languished and died. The "form of
sound words" swathed a lifeless skeleton. The
German mind was worn out by these rash and
furious disputations, and faith and love left the
turmoil. This procedure was opposed, indeed, by
such sound men as Calixtus, and by such holy
men as the Pietists, Arndt, Spener, and Francke.
The fearful opposition made to the latter only
prolonged and augmented the contest. It became

632

RAT
now a battle against the Pietists, and, through
them, notwithstanding the excesses of some of
their followers, a battle in the end against true
religion. At this period infidelity was making no
ordinary efforts in England. Herbert, Collins,
Tindal, Blount, and Shaftesbury had directed all
their strength against Christianity, its source, its
evidences, its morals. Their works, either in
translations or imitations, found their way into
Germany, and met with a cordial reception.
Frederick had long patronized the French infi
dels, and the cleverest of Voltaire's objections
are taken from Morgan and Tindal. The Ger
man Rationalism was thus only a modified form
of English Deism. It was imported from the
shores of England. It fell upon Germany, worn
out with theological controversy, and reposing
in a state of indifference, if not gradually
assuming an attitude of scorn and contempt.
It was in unison with the wishes and feelings of
many, and so gave a new impulse to thought
and feeling. Voltaire had been already dissemi
nating the poison in Prussia, and the Royal
Frederick had aided his unhallowed enterprise.
The soil was thus prepared in Germany, when an
enemy openly sowed the tares. The oldest
theory of Rationalism, that Christianity is but
a republication of the religion of nature, we have
in Tindal's book, Christianity as Old as the Crea
tion. If we survey the early objections against
miracles and prophecy, we may find them in
Woolston and Collins. Bahrdt, Lceffler, Lessing,
Reimarus, Jerusalem, Damm, and Paulus, were
mere imitators of the English sceptics, or, at
most, only so adorning their tenets as to recom
mend them to the German people. In its first
form, Neology was only English Deism in a
German dress, and j'et busying itself with the
interpretation of the sacred records. Men were
installed as teachers of theology in the uni
versities solely for their scholarship and ac
quirements. It was not required of them to
be religious themselves, that they might the
better unfold the science of religion to others.
Christianity was thus given over to the keeping
of its enemies, and they kissed and betrayed it.
For the , thirty pieces of a professor's salary
Christ was betrayed in schools of divinity, the
chairs being filled by infidel hebraists and pan
theistic metaphysicians, by godless historians
and sceptical antiquaries. They taught the
language of Abraham as the readiest means of
scoffing at Abraham's faith, and descanted on
the tongue of apostles as the most effectual way
of undermining that religion which they had
founded. They lectured on the mental constitu
tion of man to prove its independence of God,
and its natural superiority to the so-called vul
gar superstition enforced from the pulpits; and
they brought together the records and manners
of bygone ages, and other people, to throw dis
credit on the scriptural narration as a collection
of Oriental fables and bigoted traditions. Need

REA
we wonder at the progress of Neology, when
prelections on the existence and attributes of
Divinity were formally assigned to men who said
in their hearts " there was no God," or believed
only in such a cloudy impersonal deity as the
metaphysics of Fichte could create and en
throne; — when the defence of Christianity was
entrusted to lecturers who spent their time and
influence in translating and circulating the works
of the English Deists of the seventeenth century;
— when the argument for the immortality ofthe
soul was to be wrought out by Materialists, the
avowed disciples and abettors of modern Saddu-
ceism. Rationalism passed through various
phases till, as in Strauss's Life of Christ, it re
duced the gospels to a myth, or, as in some
recent English works, it holds that Scripture is
virtually superseded, and that the religious con
sciousness has no need of an external revelation.
RatiBbon, Diet of, was held at Ratisbon
in 1541, in order to effect some agreement be
tween Protestants and Papists. The only result
was a mutual agreement to refer the settlement
of their differences to a general council.
Rattles  Prior to the introduction of bells,
rattles of wood or iron were shaken or struck by
the hand, to summon the people to worship. —
See Bell.
Reader, one of the five inferior orders of the
Romish Church. The office dates as far back
as the third century. At tbe setting apart of
a reader imposition of hands does not seem to
have been practised ; but according to the council
of Carthage the Bible was put into his hands, in
presence ofthe people, with these words, — " Take
this book, and be thou a reader of the Word of
God, which office thou shalt faithfully and pro
fitably perform. Thou shalt have part with those
who minister in the Word of God." Readers
are admitted still in the Church of England, in
places where regular divine service cannot be
performed. There are also readers of prayers
in certain hospitals. At the Reformation readers
were to subscribe to the following pledges: —
" Imprimis, I shall not preach or interpret, but
only read that which is appointed by public
authority. I shall not minister the sacraments
or other public rites of the church, but bury the
dead, and purify women after their childbirth.
I shall keep the register-book according to the
injunctions. I shall use sobriety in apparel, and
especially in the church at common prayer. I
shall move men to quiet and concord, and not
give them cause of offence. I shall bring in to
my ordinary testimony of my behaviour from
the honest of the parish where I dwell, within
one half-year next following. I shall give place,
upon convenient warning, so thought by the
ordinary, if any learned minister shall be placed
there at the suit of the patron of the parish. I
shall claim no more of the fruits sequestered of
such cure where I shall serve, but as it shall be
thought meet to the wisdom of the ordinary. I

533

REA
shall daily, at the least, read one chapter of the
Old Testament, and one other of the New, with
good advisement, to the increase of my know
ledge. I shall not appoint in my room, by
reason of my absence or sickness, any other man,
but shall leave it to the suit of the parish to the
ordinary for assigning some other able man. I
shall not read but in poorer parishes, destitute of
incumbents, except in the time of sickness, or
for other good considerations to be allowed by the
ordinary. I shall not openly intermeddle with
any artificer's occupations, as covetously to seek
a gain thereby, having in ecclesiastical living
the sum of twenty nobles, or above, by the year."
In Scotland, also, at the Reformation, readers
were appointed to read the Scriptures and the
common prayers— that is, the forms of the
Church of Geneva. They were not allowed
to preach or administer the sacraments. The
readers were tempted now and then to overstep
these limits, and were as often forbidden by the
general assembly, till, in 1581, the office was
formally abolished. The First Book qf Discipline
says, — " To the churches where no ministers can
be had presentlie must be appointed the most
apt men that distinctlie can read the common
praiers and the Scriptures, to exercise both
themselves and the church, till they grow to
greater perfection : and in process of time he
that is but a reader may attain to a farther de
gree, and, by consent of the church and discreet
ministers, may be permitted to minister the
sacraments ; but not before that he be able some
what to perswade by wholesome doctrine, beside
his reading, and be admitted to the ministerie,
as before is said. . . Nothing have we spoken
of the stipend of readers, because, if they can do
nothing but reade, they neither can he called
nor judged true ministers, and yet regard must
be had to their labours ; but so tbat they may
be spurred forward to vertue, and not by any
stipend appointed for their reading to be retained
in that estate. To a reader, therefore, that is
newly entered, fourty merkes, or more or lesse,
as parishioners and readers can agree, is suffi
cient : provided that be teach the children of the
parish, which he must doe, besides the reading
of the common prayers, and bookes of the Old
and New Testament. If from reading he begin
to exhort and explain the Scriptures, then ought
his stipend to be augmented, till finally he come
to the honour of a minister. But if he be found
unable after two yeares, then must he be re
moved from that office, and discharged of all
stipend, that another may be proved as long;
for this alwaies is to be avoided, that none who
is judged unable to come at any time to some
reasonable knowledge, whereby he may edifie
the kirk, shall be perpetually susteined upon the
charge of the kirk. Farther, it must be avoided,
that no child, nor person within age — that is,
within twentie-one yeares of age — be admitted
to the office of a reader." The name occurs,

REA
however, in church records long after that pe
riod; for more than half the office was tacitly
permitted. The precentor sometimes bore it;
and exhorters — persons who read the Scriptures
and added a few words of remark — were found
in various towns  See Precentor, Public
Wobship. Reading-Desk. — See Desk, Lectern.
Reading in, a form required of each incum
bent on taking possession of his cure in the
Church of England. The minute of the pro
cedure is as follows: — " Memorandum, — That
on Sunday, the day of ,
in the year of our Lord , the Reverend
A B, clerk, rector, or vicar of, in the
county of , and diocese of , did read
in this church of aforesaid, the articles
of religion commonly called the Thirty-Nine
Articles, agreed upon in convocation in the year
of our Lord 1562, and did declare his unfeigned
assent and consent thereto; also, that he did
publicly and openly, on the day and year afore
said, in the time of divine service, read a decla
ration in the following words, viz. : — ' I, A B,
declare that I will conform to the liturgy of the
United Church of England and Ireland, as it
is now by law established.' Together with a
certificate under the right hand of the reve
rend , by divine permission, Lord
Bishop of , of his having made and
subscribed the same before him ; and also that
the said A B did read in his parish church
aforesaid, publicly and solemnly, the morning
and evening prayer, according to the form pre
scribed in and by the book intituled, the Book
of Common Prayer and Administration of the
Sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies of
the church, according to the use of the Church
of England; together with the Psalter or Psalms
qf David, printed as they are to be sung or
said in churches; and the form and manner of
making, ordaining, and consecrating bishops,
priests, and deacons; and that immediately
after reading the evening service, the said A B
did, openly and publicly, before the congregation
there assembled, declare his unfeigned assent
and consent to all things therein contained and
prescribed, in these words, viz. — ' I, A B, do
declare my unfeigned assent and consent to all
and everything contained and prescribed in and
by the book intituled, the Book qf Common
Prayer and Administration qf the Sacraments,
and other rites and ceremonies qf the church ;
according to the use of the Church of England,
together with the Psalter or Psalms of David,
printed as they are to be sung or said in
churches, and the form and manner qf making,
ordaining, and consecrating bishops, priests, and
deacons.' And these things we promise to tes
tify upon our corporal oaths, if at any time we
should be duly called upon so to do. In witness
whereof we have hereunto set our hands, the day
and year first above written."

534

REA
Readings, Various. — See Bible.
Realism. — See Nominalism.
Real Presence, a term commonly employed
to denote the supposed presence of the body and
blood of Christ in the bread and wine at the
Lord's Supper. No Christians can deny or doubt
that where that sacred ordinance is duly cele
brated in obedience to the Saviour's command, he
is really and spiritually present; and the Church
of England teaches in her catechism tbat the bene
fits received by partaking of that sacrament are
"the strengthening and refreshing of our souls by
the body and blood of Christ, as our bodies are
by the bread and wine." But those who claim to
be in an especial manner believers in the " real
presence" are not satisfied with teaching that
the faithful communicant feeds by faith on the
body and blood of Christ, but will have it that
this heavenly food is actually taken by the hand
and put into the mouth. And this doctrine is
generally associated with the idea that the bread
and wine become the body and blood of Christ,
by virtue of, or in connection with, certain words
of consecration pronounced over them by a
divinely appointed priest. It is a doctrine,
which, in some form or other, has prevailed in
the Church from a very early period, and has
been the parent of many bitter dissensions, and
many debasing superstitions. Irenams and
Justin appear to have supposed that something
corporeal was, by virtue of the consecration,
united with the bread and wine, and so entered
into the corporeal substance of the communicants.
And this was the most common representation
of the matter in their day. Tertullian and
Cyprian, though they made spiritual communion
the prominent point, and spoke of the bread and
wine as symbols of the body and blood, yet
seem to have regarded tbem as efficacious
symbols, and to have supposed the communi
cants to have had some kind of contact with the
actual body of Christ. Origen is the earliest
writer who has clearly distinguished between the
signs and the things signified, between "the
typical and symbolical body of Christ," and '• the
true feeding upon the Word." He remarks that,
as it is not that which enters into the mouth that
defiles a man, even though it be something wbich
by the Jews is considered unclean, so nothing
which enters into the mouth sanctifies a man,
though the so-called bread of the Lord is by the
simple supposed to possess sanctifying power. In
the next century nearly the same gradation of
opinion may be traced, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chry
sostom, Ambrose, and others, appearing to believe
in a supernatural communion with Christ, partly
spiritual, but partly corporeal, through the inter-
penetration of the bread and wine by the body
and blood of Christ, while Augustine considered
the consecrated outward elements as symbols
merely, and clearly separated and held apart the
eacramentum and the res sacramenti, so that the
Anglican reformers could appeal to him in the

REC
twenty-ninth article for that very important
doctrine, that " the wicked and such as be void
of a lively faith, though they do carnally and
visibly press with their teeth the sacrament of
the body and hlood of Christ, yet in nowise are
partakers of Christ." Some writers of this
period, in describing the efficacy of the conse
cration in the Lord's Supper, have employed
figures and expressions which might denote tran
substantiation. But yet the way in which the
condition of the elements after consecration was
brought forward to illustrate the union of the
two natures in Christ shows plainly that the idea
of a change of substance by consecration had
not yet found its way into the Church. It was
reserved for Paschasius Radbert, in a treatise first
published in 831, to teach distinctly that, by
virtue of the consecration, through a miraculous
exertion of Almighty power, the substance of
the bread and wine is actually converted into
the substance of Christ's body and blood, — that
very body which was born of Mary and suffered
on the cross, and rose from the sepulchre. This
novel statement gave rise to a long succession of
controversies, among which the stand for a more
spiritual doctrine made by Berengar of Tours,
about the middle of the eleventh century, is espe
cially remarkable.— See Berengarians. But
Radbert's opinions were more suited to the spirit
of those times, and they ultimately obtained the
stamp of authority from Innocent III., at the
fourth Latin council in 1215. The earliest
occurrence of the word transubstantiation is in a
treatise bearing the name of Damiani, but prob
ably written after his death, which took place
in 1072, published by A. Maii in Scriptt. vett.
nov. coll., vi., ii., 215 (Gieseler, ii., p. 407).
Towards the end of the thirteenth century the
doctrine afterwards known as that of impanation
or consubstantiation was introduced, or rather
revived in the Church, by a Dominican, John of
Faris. According to this, the body and blood
are really and corporeally present in the elements,
but the substance of the bread and wine also
remains. This was the view which Luther
adopted at the Reformation, and which the
Lutheran Churches still maintain. It was the
occasion of much dissension among the Reform
ers; for Carlostadt, and Zwingli, and all the
Swiss congregations, as well as many in Ger
many, entirely rejected the idea of any change
in the elements after the consecration, or of any
presence of the body and blood of Christ in the
bread and wine, which they regarded as nothing
more, from first to last, than signs or symbols.
— See Eucharist, Mass, Transubstantia
tion. Re-baptism  See Heretics, Baptism or.
Receptorium (audience chamber or re-
podtory)  See Diaconicum, Ceimeliarch^e,
Church. Recollects, a name which was given to a
reforming party of Franciscans, because they

635

REC
endeavoured to recollect or revive the rules
and discipline of St. Francis. They originated
about 1592, and they used to administer the
sacrament to the French army — a custom com
menced by Louis XIV.
Reconciliation. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Rector (ruler). — In ecclesiastical law rector
is synonymous with Parson, (which see.) The
title is also applied to the head-master of several
large schools, to the principal officer in some
foreign universities, and to the superiors of the
seminaries and colleges among the Jesuits.
Rectory. — "A rectory or parsonage," say8
Spelman, " is a spiritual living, composed of land,
tithe, and other oblations of the people, separate
or dedicate to God in any congregation, for the
service of his church there, and for the mainte
nance of the governour or minister thereof, to
whose charge the same is committed."
Recusants. — Those who, after the year 1534,
refused to acknowledge the supremacy of the
English sovereign, but maintained that of the
pope, were called popish recusants. The bloody
penal statutes against recusancy have been
repealed. Redemption (buying back), the name given
as well to the process as to the results of that
gracious scheme by which, through the shed
ding of Christ's blood as the ransom, sinners are
bought back from sin and death. — See Adoption,
Justification, Pkedestination, Satisfac
tion, and other theological terms.
Redeniptorists. — The Congregation of the
Most Holy Redeemer, or Order of Redemptorists,
was founded by Alphonsus de Liguori (priest, and
now a canonized saint in the Catholic Church),
in the city of Scala, in 1732. The end of this
institute was the association of missionary priests,
who should minister by special services to the
spiritual wants of the abandoned in towns and
villages, without undertaking regular ordinary
parochial duties. After St. Alphonsus had
founded several houses of his community, Pope
Benedict XIV. solemnly approved of his rule
and institute, under the above title, on 25 th
February, 1749. About 1775, on the suppres
sion of the Order of Jesus, the Redemptorists
were furiously attacked as Jesuits in disguise;
and in 1780 the holy see was induced, by alleged
misrepresentations, to deprive Alphonsus of his
authority as superior general, and even to expel
him from the order. Alphonsus bore this trial
with resignation, and humbly besought the
newly appointed superior, to whom he vowed
obedience, to admit him into any of the houses
of the order he might appoint ; and this request
was granted him. The Redemptorists still ad
here to the rule of their original constitution.
We find in the Catholic Directory for England
for this year, after mention of their church at
Bishop Eton, Liverpool, » memorandum to the
effect that " this is not a parochial church, —
hence the fathers do not baptize children, or 536

REF
assist at marriages and funerals, except in cases
of necessity ; but they are always ready to hear
confessions, visit the sick, administer the sacra
ments, preach and instruct." The Redemptorists
have also a house at Clapham, Surrey. Of late
years they have been busily pursuing their mis
sion in various parts of Ireland.
Reformatio Ijegum Rcclcsiasticarum,
a code of church laws projected by Cranmer,
and finished in 1551. King Edward VI. died
before it could receive his sanction, and the
enterprise therefore came suddenly to an end.
The document is of value, though of no legal
authority. Reformation. — The term is commonly ap
plied to the great religious revolution which took
place in Europe in the fifteenth century. — See
England, Church of; Prance, Churches
in ; Germany, Churches in ; Netherlands,
Churches in the ; Scotland, Sweden and
Norway, Churches in; Switzerland,
Churches in. Various attempts had been
made at earlier periods to reform the Church.
There were reformers before the Reformation.
The first synod called for this purpose was held,
under Charlemagne, at Aix-la-Chapelle, a.d.
789 ; another was held at the same place, and for
the same purpose, ih the reign of Louis the Pions,
a.d. 816. Other synods were summoned with the
same intentions. Such convocations had the fol
lowing objects in view : — The public reading of
the Scriptures was enjoined on the clergy ; and
they were commanded to preach according to those
inspired records. A version of the Old and New
Testament, in the vernacular language, was
ordered to be made ; and subjects of preaching,
relative to faith and practice, were prescribed.
Many traditions and superstitions were ordered
to be abolished, particularly the worship of
images, private masses, pilgrimages to places
reputed sacred, the use of a language not under
stood by the hearers, and the superstitious trial
by the cross, and by cold water. Morality was
not overlooked. The sloth of the priests, monks,
and canons, called for condemnation ; the luxury,
avarice, rapacity, inebriety, simony, and concu
binage of the bishops, merited censure. The
synods therefore prescribed rules by which the
ecclesiastics were to be governed, both in their
public duties and private life. In several points
the ancient discipline was restored, particularly
public penitence and its several degrees ; but this
change did not continue long. By the arts of the
Romish clergy private confession was speedily
re-adopted, and with it private penance, &c.
Charles the Bald, and other princes, followed
the great example of Charlemagne, and con
voked councils in various parts of Europe for the
same purpose, but without any considerable effect.
He was not intimidated by the mischance of
his father, Louis the Pious, who was conspired
against by his sons and the popish clergy, with
Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims, and actually de-

REF
posed in a synod held in France a.d. 833. So
perilous was it to attempt a reformation at that
time. Louis was afterward restored, and the
authors of the rebellion punished. In Britain,
toward the close of this age, many abuses were
abolished in the church by Alfred the Great.
This reformation was effected by royal, and not
by papal authority : the pope was adverse to it.
A desire to spread knowledge distinguished such
men as Charlemagne, Louis, and Alfred ; and to
this circumstance it is owing that they are not
numbered in the order of the Romish saints. The
Albigenses, Waldenses, Wycliffites, Hussites,
Bohemians, and Moravians, had all forsaken
their mother church, on account of the impuri
ties with which she was chargeable. There
were, moreover, a great multitude of pious and
learned men, holding similar opinions respecting
the necessity of a change in doctrine and prac
tice, who still remained in communion with the
Roman Church, although their minds were much
averse to her abuses. Many of these might be
named in the list of witnesses for the truth; but
an infinite number lay hid, who, from fear of the
inquisitors and the reproaches of heresy, did not
dare to avow their opinions publicly. It was
doubtless designed by Divine Providence that,
before the attempt of Luther, Zwingli, and
others, a reformation of the church should be
urged by the united voices of kings, princes,
prelates, universities, and all who had any regard
for piety, purity of doctrine, and good morals.
That this was undeniably the fact has been
made evident in the writings of Peter Alliacus,
Nicholas de Clemangis, Gerson, and others, and
in the decrees of the councils of Pisa, Constance,
Sienna, and Basle. So vehement was the desire
of all Europe that, on the death of Alexander
VI., a reformation of the church, in the head
and in the members, was immediately sought
after by numbers of great influence. The cardi
nals bound themselves by an oath, that whoso
ever should be elected pope should directly call
a general council for this especial purpose. When
Pope Julius II. violated this oath, the council
of Pisa was convoked without bis consent, and
a decree was passed, " that the synod should
not be dissolved, nor could be dissolved, until
the universal Church was reformed." It was,
however, dissolved by the death of Pope Julius
II. and of Louis XII. The hopes of Christen
dom were then turned to the council of Lateran.
Many specious promises were made by Leo X.,
but his design was only to beguile Europe,
or, as the French Catholic writers observe, " to
whiten over the abuses of the Roman court."
So urgent were the remonstrances of a very large
part of Europe on the subject of a reformation,
and its necessity was so evidently demonstrated,
that at length Popes Pius III., Adrian VI., and
Mareellus IL, endeavoured to enter upon this
important business. The instructions which
Adrian sent to the emperor and the electors are

REF
remarkable: — " We know that there have been
in this holy see, for some years, many abomina
tions ; nor is it surprising, if the disease should
descend from the head to the members, from the
high pontiff to the inferior prelates." Again, —
" We promise that we will give all attention,
first, that this court, from whence all the evil
proceeds, be reformed ; to procure which reforma
tion we consider ourselves strictly bound, foras
much as we see that the universal Church ar
dently desires this reformation." But the popes,
who had the real good of the Church in view,
were soon removed into another world by poi
son, according to popular suspicion; and after
their death nothing further was attempted ; inso
much that many thought a reformation would
be impossible, and openly declared. " that the
court of Rome, in things of that nature, would
always seek its own interest, and not the things
of Jesus Christ." In England Wycliffe was
twice tried and greatly persecuted for his evan
gelical opinions ; and in the beginning of the fif
teenth century John Huss and Jerome of Prague,
for tbe same Bible truths, were burned at the'
stake. The star of reformation, often clouded,
and sometimes almost entirely obscured, yet
broke forth, and sometimes shone with uncom
mon brightness in the sixteenth century. Many
great men filled the thrones of Europe at this
period. France had her Francis I., England
her Henry VIII., Germany her Charles V.,
Turkey her Solyman II., and Rome her Pope
Leo X. Cardinal Pucci advised Leo to publish
a sale of indulgences through Europe, and by the
proceeds to replenish the pontifical exchequer,
and finish St. Peter's Church at Rome, the won
der of the Roman Catholic world, the building
which Julius I. had begun, and which was 111
years in building. Leo granted to tbe Archbishop
of Magdeburg the right to sell indulgences and
share the proceeds in Germany in 1517. The
archbishop employed Tetzel, a Dominican friar,
whose boldness and impudence in the sale of his
wares roused. the deepest opposition. The spirit
of Luther, an Augustinian monk, was tired
against tbe bold impostor. He affixed to the
church door of Wittemberg ninety-five theses
against indulgences, and appointed a day to meet
opponents, but none appeared. He soon opposed
the Papist doctrines of purgatory, auricular confes
sion, absolution, and questioned even thesupremacy
of the pope. Moved by the same Divine Spirit,
without any intercourse with Luther, Zwingli
commenced the Reformation in Switzerland, and
Calvin in Geneva. After the death of Maxi
milian, Francis I. and Charles V. were candi
dates for the imperial crown. Charles V., the
grandson of Maximilian, was successful, and
obtained the crown in 1518. Tbe emperor soon
showed his disposition to persecute the Reformers.
In 1521 he called the diet of Worms, and Luther
was required to attend. To his friends that
would dissuade him from attending he replied,

637

REF
that he would attend the diet " if there were as
many devils in Worms as there were tiles on the
houses." He appeared, and ably maintained his
cause : yet so soon as he was gone he was put
under the ban of the empire. In 1530 Charles
V. called a diet of the empire at Augsburg, and
directed Luther and Melanchthon to give an
account of their tenets in German and Latin.
They furnished a confession of twenty-eight
chapters of doctrines and religious opinions,
and seven of the errors and superstitions of Rome.
This is known still as the Augsburg Confession —
See Common Lot, Brethren of the ; Lol
lards ; Mystics. Even in Italy itself the Re
formation gained a footing. Money from all parts
was poured into the hands of the papacy there,
and was made the means of aggrandizing all the
leading dignitaries of the church and the noble
Italian families related to them. A sort of
patriotic feeling, as well as feelings of personal
interest, united them to support the papacy.
Moreover, as long as Italy continued to be an
aggregation of really free states, the oppressive
power of the popes, and their hostility to
liberal studies and opinions, were not felt. At
the revival of letters, it is surprising to find
the freedom with which the Italian poets re
buked the vices of the papacy, in its head and
members. Many even of the priests and digni
taries saw, and at the various councils, or even
in the pulpit, proclaimed the necessity for reform
in order to the church's preservation; many
spiritually minded men were earnest in the
matter from higher motives ; but a cold indiffer
ence and infidelity so prevailed in most minds as
to make them zealous for no other cause than that
their patriotism and wealth were concerned in the
preservation of the papacy, and for its preserva
tion reform was needed. The dispute between
Reuchlin and the court of Rome, and then that
with Luther, fixed the attention of Italy on Ger
man affairs ; and in course of time, in spite of all
possible priestly vigilance, the writings of Luther
and the other Reformers were introduced into the
country, and read by all men of letters. To give
time for the circulation of works before they
could be seized, it was customary to attach ficti
tious titles and names of authors to the books.
Gradually the minds of many noble and learned
men opened to the truth, and their opportunities
as professors, in their daily instructions, or, if in
orders, then their pulpit ministrations, were the
means of spreading simple views of evangelical
truth, and exciting a spirit of biblical inquiry.
Numerous Italian versions of the Bible were
published and widely circulated. Many of the
learned maintained a close correspondence with
the Swiss and German Reformers. The war be
tween Charles V. and Popp Clement — the patron
age of Renee, the Duchess of Ferrara— the secret
influence and instructions of Juan Valdes, the
Spanish secretary to the Viceroy of Charles V.
at Naples, and, in general, the numerous indepen-

REF
dent and disunited Italian States, were favouring
external conditions to the progress of the truth.
It was essentially in Italy a reformation of the
noble and learned, and the extent to which
evangelical truth had spread throughout Italy by
the middle of the sixteenth century is surprising.
But from the year 1542 onwards, desultory
attacks on individuals gave place to a regular
systematic exertion of every force of diplomacy
or power the Romish court could employ to crush
the Italian Reformers. Cardinal Caraffa, after
wards Paul IV., was the leader of this persecu
tion. Fines, degradation, imprisonment, fire, and
sword, were the weapons employed by the in
quisition. Many sought safety in flight to the
Grisons, Switzerland, France, Germany, England,
and Holland. In 1550 the exiles were esti
mated at 200, " of whom a fourth or a fifth part
were men of letters." "Before the year 1559,
the number had increased to 800. From that
time to the year 1568, we have ground to
believe the increase was fully as great in pro
portion." — M'Crie. Perhaps the most fearful
episode in this persecution was the massacre of
the Waldensian settlers in Calabria. By the
close of the sixteenth century the Reformation in
Italy may be regarded as finally crushed.
In Spain, the church, till the time of King Don
Ramiro I., who died 1063, unquestionably re
tained its independence of the Roman see ; and in
the northern parts of the country the purer faith
of the Vaudois or Albigenses was widely diffused,
owing to their intimate relations with southern
France, over much of which the King of Arragon,
as Count of Provence, was feudal superior. In
the thirteenth century, through the influence of
the pope, a bitter persecution — the effects of
which extended even to those of high rank —
was waged against all favourers of Albigensian
opinions. This persecution never ceased its
operations during the thirteenth or fourteenth
centuries. The labours of Vives, Valla, Le-
bi'.xa, and others, as also the patronage of Car
dinal Ximenes, created in the Spanish youth
a taste for literature, a dislike of the scholastic
theology, and a tendency to scriptural studies,
The earliest traceable introduction of Lutheran
ism was in the year 1519, when John Froben of
Basle, a well-known printer, conveyed a con
siderable number of Luther's controversial writings
into Spain. The Spanish merchants in the Low
Countries also translated and printed numerous
works which were secretly brought in. Various
Spaniards, who accompanied Charles V. into
Germany, and were thus brought into contact
with the Reformers, imbibed their opinions and
propagated them on their return. The risk was
great, owing to the bigotry of their monarchs and
the dreadful powers with which the inquisition
was invested — See Inquisition. It is mar
vellous that the favourers of Lutheranism so
long on the whole preserved secret their success
in spreading their opinions. Many of the noblest

538

REF
men as well as the most learned and best of the
ecclesiastics — some of the latter men high in
office, numerous monks, particularly of the
Hieronymite order, became converts to the new
opinions, and sedulously, but secretly, propagated
them. Those in orders, whilst avoiding any
occasion of offence, yet incurred suspicion by the
altered tone of their preaching; but on the whole
no active measures against them were proceeded
with till the commencement of 1558. Then all
at once, a woman's treachery having given the
clue to the inquisition, on one night over the
whole country, precautionary measures to pre
vent escape having been taken, the leading Pro
testants by hundreds were arrested, and incar
cerated in the secret prisons of the Holy Office at
Valladolid, Seville, and elsewhere, and the most
fearful of persecutions began to be waged. Full
powers for the inquisition to deliver over to death
all heretics, even such as recanted, were, at the
desire of Philip II., obtained from Paul IV.,
and death was denounced against all even pos
sessing books prohibited by the Holy Office.
After long sufferings these Protestants began to
be brought out to die in the autos-da-fe', which
took place from 1559 and onwards in all the
chief towns, till at last Lutheranism was extir
pated in Spain about the year 1570. The num
ber of Spanish refugees was considerable in
Switzerland, France, the Low Countries, and
England. As their doctrinal opinions were Cal
vinistic, on the whole they experienced greater
kindness from the Reformed than from the
Lutheran churches. — See Act of Faith.
Reformed Churches, the name usually
given to all the churches of the Reformation,
except the Lutheran, which is called Protestant.
— See Protestant, Reformation.
Reformed Presbyterian Church. — See
Scotland, Churches in.
Refuge,— See Church, Sanctuary.
Regale, the name given to the privilege
by which the King of France claimed to enjoy
the revenues of a see during its vacancy. — See
France, Churches in.
Regalia Petri, the various rights and high
prerogatives which, according to Romanists,
belong to the pope as a kind of universal sove
reign and king of kings.
Regeneration is usually, in theological sys
tems, defined to be that act by which life is
imparted by the Spirit to a dead soul. The
result is conversion and progressive sanctification.
In regeneration the soul is receptive — in conver
sion and sanctification it is active under the
grace of God and by its co-operation. But
regeneration has been virtually identified with
baptism. Thus, at the Savoy Conference, it was
maintained by the court party, " that it is a mis
take to suppose that children have no other right
to baptism than in their parents' right, and that
the Church's primitive practice (S. Aug., Ep. 23)
forbids it to be left tp the pleasure of parents

REG
whether there shall be sureties or not ; that the
Church's appointment of sureties is agreeable to
the best laws, wbich allow guardians to contract
for their minors to their benefit; and that her
practice ought to satisfy doubters, — that the
sentence ' receive remission of sins by spiritual
regeneration ' is proper, for that baptism is our
spiritual regeneration (John iii.), ' Born again of
water and the Spirit,' &c. ; and that by this is
received remission of sins (Acts ii. 3) ; so also
the Nicene creed, ' One baptism for the remis
sion of sins,' — that in answer to the objection,
' We cannot in faith say that every child that is
baptized is regenerated by God's Holy Spirit,'
seeing that God's sacraments have their effects
where the receiver doth not 'ponere obicem,'
put any bar against them (which children cannot
do), we may say in faith of every child that is
baptized, that it is regenerated by God's Holy
Spirit ; and the denial of it tends to anabaptism,
and the contempt of that holy sacrament, as
nothing worthy, nor material whether it be
administered to children or po," In this spirit
Dr. Hook argues against those whom he calls
ultra-protestants. "The importance of holding
this doctrine, besides its being scripturally true,
must be at once apparent to those who reflect,
that the whole moral education of a Christian
people is altered, if, instead of teaching them, as
we ought to do, that God has given them a gift
which they may use to their own salvation, but
for losing which they will be awfully punished,
— if instead of this we tell them to wait, and to
expect the gift of grace, before receiving which
tbey cannot please God. The orthodox would
preach to all baptized persons, telling them
that they may and can serve God if they will :
the heterodox would address baptized persons as
heathens, and warn them that, until they have
an effectual calling, they can do nothing. It is
easy to trace much of the evil which disgraces
the religion of the present day to the prevalence
of the latter notion," — See Renovation, Teao-
tarians. Regionarii, a class of sub-deacons at Rome,
appointed in the eleventh century, and employed
in the regions or districts around the city.
Regium Donum or Ring's Gift, an an
nual parliamentary grant made to poor dissenting
ministers, to the amount generally of about
£5000. The name is a misnomer ; for instead of
the sum being a voluntary donation of the sove
reign, towards necessitous ministers among the
dissenters, it formed one of the regular parlia
mentary votes, and was presented with them at
the close of each session, and of course is liable
to the same vicissitudes as are the other public
votes, arising from amendments proposing its
abolition or curtailment. The origin of the
annual grant was thus : George II. granted by
way of royal bounty, in the year 1723, the sum
of £500, to be paid out of the treasury, for
assisting, first, the widows of dissenting ministers,

639

REG
and afterwards either ministers or the widows of
ministers that wanted help. We believe that the
grant is now discontinued.
Regium Donum, Irish, a pecuniary grant,
voted annually by the British parliament, out of
the national exchequer, to aid certain bodies of
Presbyterians in Ireland in providing stipends
for their ministers. This grant, which now
amounts to about £40,000 a-year, is divided
among six different bodies of Presbyterians, viz. :
— I. The General Assembly, comprising the two
bodies formerly known as the Synod of Ulster
and the Synod of Seceders. 2. The Secession
Synod, consisting of six congregations which re
fused to acquiesce in the union of the two bodies
just mentioned, in 1840. 3. The Remonstrant
or Unitarian Synod of Ulster. 4. The Presby
tery of Antrim, also a Unitarian body, consisting
of a few congregations. 5. The Synod of Mun
ster, also Unitarian, consisting of only four con
gregations. And 6. The Presbytery of Munster,
an orthodox body, with eight congregations. It
was during the reign of James I. that Presby
terianism was introduced into Ireland by the
Scottish settlers, with whom that monarch col
onized Ulster. Many of these emigrants had
left their native land to escape the troubles occa
sioned by the attempt ofthe government to force
episcopacy on the people of Scotland, and being
anxious to enjoy the ordinances of religion in
greater purity, and with more freedom than had
been allowed them at home, they obtained the
services of several eminent Presbyterian ministers
from Scotland. The state of matters in Ireland
at this time were peculiarly favourable for the
introduction of presbytery. Under the mild
sway of Usher, the Irish Church was much
more tolerant of dissent than either of its sister
Churches in England or Scotland. Several,
therefore, of the Presbyterian ministers were
allowed to exercise their ministry within the pale
of the established church. They became the
incumbents of parishes, and were permitted to
enjoy the tithes and other ecclesiastical emolu
ments belonging to the benefices they occupied.
Tt was not, however, as Presbyterians, but as
clergymen of the established church, that these
ministers enjoyed the emoluments referred to.
Their doing so, as the Marquis of Londonderry,
in his Memoirs qf Lord Castlereagh, clearly
shows, was, " by a comprehension and conniv
ance, dictated by the necessity of the times."
Their title to these tithes was never strictly
legal ; but as the bishops did not oppose it, the
arrangement continued till the time of the Com
monwealth, when the tithes were all confiscated,
and the proceeds paid into the national treasury,
At the restoration of the monarchy, in 1660,
the Irish Presbyterian ministers expected that
Charles II. would have given them some sub
stantial acknowledgment of tbeir zeal for his ser
vice. But they were doomed to disappointment.
They got fair promises, and nothing else, and

640

REG
until the year 1672 they were wholly dependent
on their own flocks for their support. But, dur
ing that year, the king gave Sir Arthur Forbes
£600 of unappropriated surplus from the Irish
revenue to be divided amongst them, and in the
government accounts for that year this sum is
put down as money " for secret service." This
pension, however, was paid only for one year,
although it was regularly drawn out of the pub
lic treasury from 1672 to 1682. What became
of it for the other nine years has never yet been
ascertained. It was not until the accession of
William III. that the Irish Presbyterians again
obtained a maintenance from the public funds.
In response to an address of congratulation on
his arrival in London, in which government help
was implored, the king, on the 19th of June, 1690,
issued his famous order, authorizing the pay
ment of £1,200 to Patrick Adair, and other six
Presbyterian ministers named, for the subsistence
" of themselves and the rest of the Presbyterian
ministers of their persuasion in these northern
parts of our kingdom." In the following year
this bounty was removed from the customs, and
made payable out of the Irish exchequer. Such
was the origin of the Regium Donum in its
present permanent character. The patent, how
ever, by which it was secured, as Dr. Reid
admits in his History of Irish Presbyterianism,
had force only during William's lifetime, and, at
his death in 1701, became legally void. Queen
Anne, it is true, renewed it, although it was
opposed both by the High Church party and the
Irish parliament, who passed a resolution declar
ing the £1,200 given to the Ulster Presbyterian
ministers, to be " an unnecessary branch of the
establishment." In the new patent, however, a
most important change was made both in the
character of the grant and the mode of its
distribution, in order, as Dr. Reid acknow
ledges, to render its recipients more directly de
pendent on the government. Up till this time the
trustees had the power of allocating the amount
among the ministers; but that power was now
taken from them and transferred to the lord
lieutenant, who was empowered to distribute it
in such portions, and to such ministers, as he
pleased. Instead of the former designation, " To
Presbyterian ministers," it henceforth stood, " To
be distributed amongst such of the nonconform
ing ministers, by warrant from the lord lieu
tenant, or other chief governor, or governors, for
the time being, in such manner as he or they
shall find it necessary for our service, or the good
ofthe kingdom." But even this arrangement
was not lasting : the queen and home govern
ment were so indifferent on the subject that, for
some time before the queen's death, the Donum
was actually discontinued by the Irish govern
ment. When George I. acceded to the throne,
the Irish Presbyterians lost no time in supplicat
ing the king and his ministry, not only to restore
the suspended bounty, but to increase its amount

REG
Nothing, however, was done till 1718, when the
£1,200 was restored, and an augmentation of
£800 granted out of the civil list of England.
But this increase was not only of short duration,
but became an occasion of unbrotherly dissension
and strife. In 1719 began the distracting con
troversy about subscription to the Westminster
Confession of Faith. A number of the ministers
were opposed to subscribing any human creed or
confession, and both held and taught opinions
which, in course of time, ripened into Arian and
Socinian heresy. To prevent the orthodox ma
jority from expelling their heterodox brethren,
and to overawe them in the exercise of discipline,
the latter party managed, through the influence
of the Rev. Dr. Calamy, of London, to get the
additional, or English Donum, as it was called,
transferred from the control of the synod, and
made over in trust to Dr. Calamy and other
ministers who were favourable to the non-sub
scribing party, to be distributed by them among
the Irish ministers, and they were to " take eare
that such among the synod as were like to carry
matters too high in church affairs might find
themselves obliged to walk more soberly." But
as the synod refused to be overawed in this way,
the additional bounty was immediately sus
pended, and was not restored during the remain
der of the reign of George I. On the accession of
George II., the additional, or English portion of
the bounty was restored, and the arrears paid up
for the years it had been suspended. This was
effected mainly by the friendly interference of
Archbishop Boulter with Sir Robert Walpole,
the prime minister of the time. No further ad
dition was made to the Donum until the year
1784, when a considerable augmentation was
given. The object of this increase, accord
ing to Professor Killen, in his continuation of
Reid's History, was to secure to the government
the influence of the ministers, with their respec
tive flocks, so that, in case of a French invasion,
their loyalty might be effectually depended on.
It was at first intended to give an addition of
from £5,000 to £10,000; but, in consequence of
the determined opposition of the High Church
party, only £1,000 was given. Up to this time
the seceders had no bounty; but having grown
into political importance, and having mainly in
fluenced the return of the eldest son of the
Earl of Hillsborough to parliament, for the county
of Down, the earl, to reward their services, pre
vailed on the home government to confer on
them also a bounty of £500 per annum. The
next addition to the Donum was in 1792, when
a further sum of £5,000 was granted; but on the
motion to this effect passing through the Irish
parliament, the original words, "province of
Ulster," were altered to " this kingdom," in order
to include the ministers of Dublin and tbe south,
and also the seceding ministers, now forty-six in
number. It appears that up till this time the
Irish ministers distributed the Donum themselves.

REG
Equal shares were given to all of them, no
matter what the size of their congregations.
But in 1803 Lord Castlereagh, in proposing an
increase of tbe Donum, submitted a new arrange
ment — viz., that the congregations should be
divided into three classes, and that the stipends
of the ministers should vary in proportion to the
numbers and influence of their several congrega
tions. When first proposed, this scheme was
strongly objected to hy the synod of Ulster, but
it was obliged to submit The congregations of
the synod of Ulster and the presbytery of Antrim
were divided into three classes. The ministers of
the first class congregations were to receive £100
of yearly bounty ; those of the second class, £75 ;
and those of the third class, £50. Before this,
the bounty given to these two bodies amounted
to £6,329 16s. lOd. a-year, but by this new
arrangement itwas increased to £14,970 18s. lOd.
Irish currency, exclusive of what was paid to
the southern association, and the Secession
synod. As the above addition to the Donum
did not extend to the seceders, they, no doubt,
were disappointed at being so invidiously over
looked; but they lost no time in laying siege to
the government for a similar augmentation.
This was granted in 1809, but with some very
humiliating peculiarities. Not only were they
subjected to the same principle of classification,
but the Donum given them was lower in amount
than that granted to the synod of Ulster. The
ministers of their first class congregations received
only £70 per annum ; those of the second class,
£50; and those of the third, £40. The seceders
felt themselves insulted, and at two successive
synods refused to accept it so long as the classi
fication principle was retained; but at length
they yielded, and with one solitary exception
took the proffered bounty on the terms dictated
by the government. The solitary exception to
which we refer, was the Rev. James Bryce of
Killeug, near Aghadoey, who, for his conscien
tious persistency in refusing to accept of the
Donum on such terms, was suspended from
office. He afterwards became the founder of the
Associate Presbytery of Ireland, now forming a
part of the United Presbyterian Church of Scot
land. In 1831 the grant was removed from the
civil list, and placed on the Irish miscellaneous
estimates, annually voted by the House of Com
mons. In 1838 the classification principle was
abandoned by the government, and a uniform
stipend of £75 Irish currency (£69 4s. 8d.
English) was promised to every minister con
nected with the synod of Ulster and the Seces
sion synod. In 1840 it was found necessar}' to
issue a regulation, in order to prevent the un
necessary multiplication of congregations, tbat
no bounty would be paid unless the minister re
ceived at least £35 of independent yearly stipend.
Of this sum, however, only £20 was required to
be raised by the congregation, and the balance
might be made up by a free manse, or a perma-

641

REG
nent bequest, or a donation. Such is the history
of the Irish Regium Donum. It now amounts
to upwards of £40,000, and is steadily increasing
at the rate of £400 a-year, to meet the demands
of new congregations. — See Bounty.
Regulars are the clergy, such as the monks
who are bound by rules (regulos) in opposition
to the seculars, or parish priests, with cure of
souls. Relics. — By this term is usually understood
the bodies or clothes of saints and martyrs,
which are so revered in the Romish Church as to
be worshipped and carried about in procession.
— See Martyr. Respect was shown to the
remains of the martyrs in early times — as was
most natural — and the spot of their martyrdom
was reckoned sacred by survivors. But in
course of time superstitious veneration for such
things grew up, the graves of good men were
ransacked, and the Church of Rome paid homage
to " dead men's bones, and all uncleanness." Of
such relics Italian churches are full. The
following is only a sample of those in the
Church of Santa Croce de Gerusalemme: —
Three pieces of the true cross, deposited by
Constantine, and kept in a case of gold and
jewels. The title placed over the cross, with the
writing in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. One of
the most holy nails with which our Lord Jesus
Christ was crucified. Two thorns from the
crown of our Lord Jesus Christ. The finger of
St. Thomas the apostle, which touched the most
holy rib of the risen Lord Jesus Christ. The
transverse beam of the cross of the repentant
thief. One of the pieces of money supposed to
be given for the betrayal of our Lord Jesus
Christ. The cord by which our Lord Jesus
Christ was bound to the cross. The sponge that
was extended to our Lord with gall and vinegar.
A large piece of the coat of our Lord Jesus
Christ. A large piece of the veil and ofthe hair
of the most holy Virgin. Some earth from
Mount Calvary, saturated with the precious
blood of our Lord Jesus Christ. A phial full of
the precious blood of our Lord Jesus Christ. A
phial full of milk of the most blessed Virgin
Mary. A piece of the spot whence our Lord
ascended to heaven. Some of the cotton in
which was collected the precious blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ. Some of the manna with
which God fed the Israelites in the wilderness.
A portion of the rod of Aaron that budded. A
part of the head of John the Baptist. A tooth
of St. Peter. A stone from the house of St.
Peter the apostle. Some bones of Mary Mag
dalene. Some relics of Saints Bridget, Galian,
Felicite, Catherine, and Margaret, the virgins
and martyrs. Before the Reformation, too,
relics were in demand in Scotland:— In Glas
gow, for example, among other relics by which
the priests sought to impose upon the credulity
of their fiock, mention is made of a gold phial
containing part of the coat of St. Kentigern,

REN
and of a bag containing the oil which emanated
from his tube ; the mouth of St. Ninian in a
golden casket ; part of the zone of the blessed
Virgin, and a small phial of crystal containing
a portion of her milk ; a bit of the manger in
which Christ lay ; a small bag, with part of the
sweat of St. Martin; and other superstitious
relics, equally childish and debasing. The sale,.
as well as exhibition of such relics, was a fertile
source of revenue to the monks.
Relief Church. — See Scotland,
Churches in.
Religion. — See Theology.
Religious. — The term is often applied, in
popish countries, to those men and women who
are under monastic vows.
Reliquary, a casket in which relics are kept,
sometimes also called a shrine.
Rellvanitcs. — See Universalists.
Remonstrance, the document presented by
the Commons, in 1628, to Charles I., complain
ing of the increase of Popery, the relaxation of the
penal laws, the preferments given to Papists, and
tbe discouragement shown to sound teachers of
religion. Remonstrants, a name given to the Ar
minians on account of the remonstrance which, in
1610, they made to the States of Holland against
the decree of the synod of Dort, which stigma
tized them as heretics. The Calvinists presented
an opposition address, and were therefore called
Contra-remonstrants. Renovation. — Those who hold baptismal
regeneration make a distinction between renova
tion and regeneration. "Regeneration," Dr;
Hook says, " comes only once in or through
baptism; renovation exists before, in, and
after baptism, and may be often repeated."
Waterland, adopting the baptismal theory, makes
the following distinction : — " 1. Regeneration
and renovation differ in respect to the effective
cause or agency; for one is the work of the Spirit
in the use of water — that is, of the Spirit singly —
since water really does nothing, is no agent at
all ; but the other is the work of the Spirit and
the man together. Man renews himself at the
same time that the Spirit renews him, and the
renovation wrought is the result of their joint
agency, man concurring and operating in a sub
ordinate way. 2. Another difference between
regeneration and renovation is, that regeneration
ordinarily is in or through baptism only, a tran
sient thing, which comes but once ; whereas re
novation is before, and in, and after baptism, and
may often be repeated, continuing and increasing
from the first preparations to Christianity
through the whole progress of the Christian life.
So it is in adults ; but in infants regeneration
commences before renovation, which again shows
how distinct and different they are. 3. A third
observable difference is, that regeneration once
given can never be totally lost, any more than
baptism, and so can never want to be repeated

REN
in the whole thing; whereas renovation may be
often repeated or may be totally lost. Once re
generate and always regenerate, in some part, is
a true maxim in Christianity, only not in such a
sense as some moderns have taught. But a per
son once regenerated in baptism can never want
to be regenerated again in this life, any more than
he can want to be re-baptized." — See Regener-
tion. Renuuciantes (renouncers), a name given to
monks because they had formally renounced the
world. Renunciation, a form which constitutes a
characteristic portion of the baptismal ceremonial
in the Popish Church. The question is—" Hast
thon renounced Satan ? and all his works ? and all
his pomps ? " The candidate for baptism, or the
sponsor, is expected to answer in the affirmative.
The form is an old one, for it is found in the
Apostolical Constitutions, and was sometimes
an address to the evil spirit — I renounce thee,
devil, &c. The renunciation was to be thrice
repeated according to the Sacramentary of
Gregory, and it is also so presented in the Ordo
Romanus. Reordination. — The question in the early
Church turned on this point — Whether ordination
by schismatics and heretics could be sustained ?
No distinct rule seems to have been laid down.
Thus ordination granted by Donatists and Nova
tians was accepted, and that by Meletians was
rejected, because, in all probability, the latter
party had taken part in favour of the Arians.
It was, therefore, in some circumstances, a matter
of discretion, and not of fixed principle. A similar
point was raised as to the baptism of heretics.
— See Donatists; Heretics, Baptism of;
Meletians, Egyptian ; Novatians.
Repairs of Churches.— Canon lxxxv. of
the Church of England enacts, — " The church
wardens or questmen shall take care and provide
that the churches be well and sufficiently re
paired, and so from time to time kept and main
tained ; that the windows be well glazed, and
that the floors be kept paved, plain, and even,
and all things there in such an orderly and
decent sort, without dust, or anything tbat may
be either noisome or unseemly, as best becometh
the house of God, and is prescribed in an homily
to that effect The like care tbey shall take
that the churchyards be well and sufficiently
repaired, fenced, and maintained with walls,
rails, or pales, as have been in each place accus
tomed, at their charges unto whom by law the
same appertaineth ; but especially they shall see
that in every meeting of the congregation peace
be well kept ; and tbat all persons excommuni
cated, and so denounced, be kept out of the
church." Canon lxxxvi. adds, — " Every dean,
dean and chapter, archdeacon, and others which
have authority to hold ecclesiastical visitations
by composition, law, or prescription, shall survey
the churches of his or their jurisdiction once in

RES
every three years in his own person, or cause the
same to be done; and shall from time to time
within the said three years certify the high com
missioners for causes ecclesiastical, every year,
of such defects in any the said churches, as be
or they do find to remain unrepaired, and the
names and surnames of the parties faulty therein.
Upon which certificate we desire that the said
high commissioners will ex officio mero send for
such parties, and compel them to obey the just
and lawful decrees of such ecclesiastical ordi
naries, making such certificates." Usually the
repair of the church belongs to the rector, and
that of the nave to the parishioners.
The repairing of established churches in Scot
land belongs to the heritors, who, if they resolve
to build a new church, must build it so large as to
accommodate two-thirds of the examinable per
manent population, or persons above twelve years
of age. The presbytery can ordain the heritors
to make the necessary repairs. It can appoint a
visitation of a decayed church, receive the report
of tradesmen, and come to a decision. Its judg
ment, however, is subject to the review of the
Court of Session, before which court it may be
brought, either by advocation or suspension ; but
it cannot be reviewed by any of the superior
church judicatories. Unendowed congregations
build and repair their own places of worship. —
See Dilapidation, Heritors.
Repentance. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Reprobntion. — See Calvinism, Pelagians,
Fbedestination. Requiem, a mass chanted for the dead, and
named from those words in it — "requiem eternam
dona eis, Domine" — 0 Lord, grant them ever
lasting repose.
Rcredos, the wall or screen at the back of
an altar, of ornamented wood or stone, with a
profusion of niches, statues, and pinnacles. The
cathedrals of Durham and Winchester present
magnificent examples. The reredos was often
of alabaster, and was often painted ; sometimes,
however, embroidered hangings of tapestry sup
plied its place. The last syllable of the word,
dos, seems to be a contraction of " dorsale," " dos
sier," "doser " — of or belonging to the back; the
first syllable, " rere," signifying behind.
Rescissory Act, an act of the Scottish par
liament passed on the restoration of Charles II.,
annulling all acts passed between ] 638 and 1650
for religion and the Reformation, denouncing the
Solemn League and Covenant, and the Glasgow
Assembly of 1638, and declaring that the govern
ment of the church, as an essential royal pre
rogative, belongs alone to the crown. —See Act.
Rescript, or Codex rescriptus, or Pal
impsest, a MS,, the original writing of which
had been virtually wiped out, and the works of
some saint or father written over it A codex of
this class is that called Codex Ephraemi, in the
Imperial Library of Paris. Several works of the
Syrian father were written on portions both of

543

RES
the Old and New Testament. It has been pub
lished by Tischendorf, with a curious fac-simile of
the older and newer handwriting. By the chemi
cal application of a certain tincture, the original
writing of a rescript can now be well deciphered
Reserve. — The term is applied to those forms
of religious teaching which keep back from the
mass of the people certain truths which are sup
posed to be invested with mysterious sanctity.
The early Church had notions of this kind. — See
Arcani Disciplina. Sometimes reserve is em
ployed when a system, if wholly disclosed, would
show its real nature and provoke opposition
(See Oxford Tracts, No. 90). But the suppres
sion of truth in such cases is only dishonesty.
Reserved Cases are certain sins which are
to be dealt with by higher ecclesiastics than the
mere priest, who may, however, bestow absolution
if the penitent be at the point of death. To this
class of sin belong heresy, simonj', sacrilege, and
certain offences against the priesthood.
Residence. — See Pluralities. — Non-
residence is now regulated by 1 and 2 Vict., u.
1 06. The penalties for it without a license from
the bishop are — one-third of the annual value of
the benefice when the absence exceeds three, but
does not exceed six months ; one-half of the
annual value, when the absence exceeds six, but
does not exceed eight months; and when it has
been for the whole year, three-fourths of the
annual income are forfeited. Certain persons
are exempted from the penalties of non-residence,
as the heads of colleges at Oxford and Cam
bridge, the warden of Durham University, and
the head-masters of Eton, Winchester, and
Westminster schools. Privileges for temporary
non-residence are granted to a great number of
persons who hold offices in cathedrals and at
the two universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
Resignation happens when a beneficed
clergyman gives up his charge to those from whom
immediately he received it. — See Donation,
Institution, Orders, Ordination. It must
be made personally, without any condition, and
without compulsion, pure, sponte, absolute et sim-
phciter. It is not valid till it be accepted by the
ordinary; but the ordinary, it is said, may refuse,
or is not bound to accept it. When the resig
nation has been accepted by the ordinary, notice
is at once sent to the patron, and till this point
the period of lapse does not begin to run. A
preshyterian minister resigns to the presbytery
in whose bounds his charge is. — See Demission.
Rcsolnlioncrs. — The party called by this
name about 1651 supported a resolution agreeing
to the admission into the army of persons who
had not signed the covenants, the commission of
the assembly having partially sanctioned it, and
the parliament having repealed the act of classes.
The protesters were most vehemently opposed
to such laxity, as they deemed it. Twenty-two
of them in the general assembly solemnly de
nounced the measure, and three of the most

REV
violent of them were deposed. Patrick Gillespie,
James Guthrie, and Samuel Rutherford, belonged
to this party. They were great favourites with
the people, who flocked in crowds to hear them
in season and out of season. Cromwell had
apparently some regard for them too. To their
zeal, and to this period, belongs the origin ot
week-day services at Scottish sacraments. The
protesters are sometimes called Remonstrants, and
the opposite party Malignants. Malignants
proper were such as had been compromised in
any way with the royal cause, or had shown any
hostility against the covenants or its leading
supporters. Respoud, before the Reformation, a short
anthem sung after a few verses of the chapter
had been read.
Responsalcs. — See Apocrisiarii.
Response, an answer made by the congre
gation in public worship. — See Pax.
Responsoria. — The meaning of the term as
applied to certain psalms is somewhat doubtful.
Some suppose that the allusion is to the repeti
tion of some verses by the people ; others imagine
tbat the repetition was only of the concluding
words with tbe amen or doxology. Bingham
seems tp think that psalms were called respon-
sorial when they corresponded with the subject
of the lesson. — See Antiphony.
Restoration of Jews to Palestine. —See
Millennium. Restorationists, a recent Unitarian sect
found principally in America, who maintain that
the whole human race will be finally restored to
God in his infinite goodness. Some of the old
fathers believed in the restoration of all fallen
intelligences. — See Universalists.
Resurrection. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Revelation. — See Theology.
Revelations, Spurious. — Many of these
have been in circulation, but many of them have
long ceased to exist. Among those which have
perished, but which are referred to by ancient
writers, are the following: — The Apocalypse of
Elijah, The Apocalypse of Zephaniah, The
Apocalypse of Zechariah, The Apocalypse of
Adam, The Apocalypse of Abraham, The
Apocalypse of Moses, The Prophecies of Hys
taspes, The Apocalypse of Peter, The Apoca
lypse of Paul, Revelations of Cerinthus, The
Apocalypse of Saint Thomas, The Apocalypse
of Stephen the Martyr. Those which are still
extant are, The Ascension of Isaiah the Prophet,
The Book of Enoch, The Fourth Book of Ezra,
The Sibylline Oracles, The Testament of the
Twelve Patriarchs, The Shepherd of Hennas,
The Apocryphal Apocalypse of John.
Reveuues. — The ministers and the ordi
nances of the Church were at first supported by
voluntary contributions. It was not till the
fourth century that the Church acquired pro
perty. By a law of Constantine, in 321, the
clergy could accept bequests, and the same

544

F.EV
emperor made liberal grants to the Church.
Upon the abolition of heathenism under
Theodosius and his sons, the property of the
heathen temples and priests, which accrued
to the state, was handed over to the Christian
clergy, or appropriated to ecclesiastical uses,
The ecclesiastical property of heretics was also
confiscated, and made over to the Church. The
property of such of the clergy as died without
heirs, and of those who had relinquished their
duties without sufficient cause, lapsed also to
the church funds. The Church also became the
heir of all martyrs and confessors who died
without leaving any near relatives. Tithes too
were paid. — See Tiends, Tithes. The salaries
of the early Scottish clergy have often been com
mented on, and it is difficult to form a compara
tive estimate. The stipend of John Knox was
400 merks. According to one valuation, Knox's
salary would be, in sterling money, £22 4s. 5d.
But the fact is, that at this time the Scottish
coinage had not depreciated so much in value,
though ultimately it fell to about a twelfth
part of the value of sterling coin, so that a
pound of the one was worth no more than Is.
8d. of tbe other. But at the time we speak of,
the Scotch money, in its downward fall, had
reached only half way to this deterioration, and
the 400 merks were probably equal to £44 8s.
lOd. of sterling coin. Comparing it with the
price of grain, Principal Lee states that Knox's
salary was equivalent to a stipend of about fifteen
chalders, which is beyond the average of benefices
in Scotland. In Scotland the price of a sheep
was Is. 8d. sterling, and butter sold for 16d. the
stone. So that, taking all things into account, it
would appear that £44 in the middle of the
sixteenth century is very nearly equivalent to
£600 in the middle of the nineteenth. The
judges of the Court of Session in those days had
smaller salaries than Knox, each being entitled to
little more than £30 sterling. In 1545 the Chief
Justice of the King's Bench in England had a
salary of £70. At the accession of Henry each
Baron of the Exchequer had but £46 13s. 4d.,
the Chief Baron £100, and the Chancellor of
the Exchequer £26 13s. 4d. Roger Ascham, as
Latin Secretary to Queen Mary, had a salary of
£20. About the same period the professor of
Greek in King's College, Cambridge, had a salary
of £40, the king's professor of Divinity in Ox
ford a similar sum. Compared with his con
temporaries, therefore, it will be seen that Knox
was liberally paid. Besides he had a house rent
free; nay more, in addition to this income, he had
another salary, consisting of 500 merks in money
and some twelve chalders of grain, as extraordi
nary pay for extraordinary services.
Reverend, a title usually given to clergy
men — bishops being right reverend, abbesses and
prioresses being called reverend mothers. The
Puritans objected to the title, though really it is
now nothing more than an official designation. 545

REV
Revivals. — The term in itself signifies the
quickening of spiritual life in the soul, and is
therefore different from regeneration or conver
sion. But in a general sense it denotes a period
of intense excitement and general awakening of
thought and inquiry on spiritual things. The
word reformation refers to theology and doctrine ;
but revival to religion and its personal emotions
and fruits. Every Sabbath, every sacrament,
ought to be a revival. But periods of revival
have happened in all ages of tbe Church, from
Pentecost downwards; and, indeed, the great
Reformation was itself a revival. Revived piety
characterized many a party that still remained
in the bosom of the Romish Church. — See
Albigenses; Common Lot, Brethren op
the; Lollards; Mystics; Pietists; Wal
denses. In more recent periods these revivals
have been more strictly scrutinized. For ex
ample, in the seventeenth century, — " In 1623,
amongst other ministers who went to Ulster, in
Ireland, was Robert Blair, a man, we are told,
of ' a notable constitution of body and mind, of
a majestic yet amiable countenance, thoroughly
learned, of solid judgment, and of a most pub
lic spirit for God. He was seldom, if ever,
brangled in his assurance of salvation. He
spent many daj-s and nights in praver. Was
one very intimate with God.' 'The Lord
was pleased,' says a contemporary (Living
stone), ' by his Word to work such a change,
that I do not think there were more lively
and experienced Christians anywhere than were
at this time in Ireland.' 'The blessed work
of conversion,' says Blair, ' which was of seve
ral years' continuance, spread beyond the
bounds of Down and Antrim to the skirts of
neighbouring counties ; and the resort of people
to the monthly meeting and communion occa
sions, and the appetites of the people, were
become so great, that we were sometimes con
strained, in sympathy with them, to venture
beyond any preparation we had made.'
"The settlement of the Pilgrim Fathers in
New England was marked by an unusual mani
festation of piety. The home they had sought
beyond the Atlantic for religious liberty, driven
out of England, was hallowed signally by
Him who blessed Obed-edom because of the
ark. ' To the great glory of God be it spoken,'
says Prince, in his Christian History, 'there
never was, perhaps, before seen such a body of
pious people together on the face ofthe earth.'"
— See Pilgrim Fathers. In 1625, under
the ministry of David Dickson, of Irvine, a
great effect was produced in his own parish,
and especially in Stewarton, and the excite
ment lasted for about five years. " This,"
says Fleming, " by the profane rabble of that
time was called the Stewarton sickness; for in
that parish first, but afterwards through much of
that country, particularly at Irvine, under the
ministry of Mr. Dickson, it was remarkable,
2N

REV
where it can be said (which divers ministers and
Christians yet alive can witness) that for a con
siderable time few Sabbaths did pass without
some evidently converted, or some convincing
proof of the power of God accompanying his
Word. And truly this great spring-tide, as I
may call it, of the Gospel, was not of a short
time, but of some years' continuance; yea thus,
like a spreading moor-burn, the power of godli
ness did advance from one place to another,
which put a marvellous lustre on those parts of
the country, the savour whereof brought many
from other parts ofthe land to see its truth." " In
no individual instance, probably, was the convert
ing power of the Spirit more signally displayed
than at the kirk of Shotts, on Monday, the 21st
of June, 1630. It appears that John Livingstone,
a young man of about twenty-seven years of age,
who was at that time domestic chaplain to the
Countess of Wigton, had gone to attend the dis
pensation of the Lord's Supper at the kirk of
Shotts. There had been a great confluence of
both ministers and people from all the adjoining
countrj'; and the sacred services of the com
munion Sabbath had been marked with much
solemnity of manner, and great apparent depth
and sincerity of devotional feeling. When the
Monday came, the large assembly of pious Chris
tians felt reluctant to part without another day
of thanksgiving to that God whose redeeming
love they had been commemorating. Living
stone was prevailed upon to preach, though re
luctantly, and with heavy misgivings of mind
at the thought of his own unworthiness to
address so many experienced Christians. He
even endeavoured to withdraw himself secretly
from the multitude; but a, strong constraining
impulse within his mind caused him to return and
proceed with the duty to which he had been
appointed. Towards the close of the sermon the
audience, and even the preacher himself, were
affected with a deep, unusual awe, melting their
hearts and subduing their minds, stripping off
inveterate prejudices, awaking the indifferent,
producing conviction in the hardened, bowing
down the stubborn, and imparting to many an
enlightened Christian a large increase of grace
and spirituality. ' It was known,' says Fleming,
' as I can speak on sure ground, that nearly five
hundred had at that time a discernible change
wrought on them, of whom most proved lively
Christians afterwards. It was the sowing of a
seed through Clydesdale, so that many of the
most eminent Christians of that country could
date either their conversion, or some remarkable
confirmation of their case, from that day.'"
In the century following, a remarkable revival
occurred under Jonathan Edwards, in North
America. Mr. Stoddart — Jonathan Edwards's
predecessor — used to talk of his five harvests at
Northampton. Edwards says, — "A great and
earnest concern about the great things of religion
and the eternal world became universal in all

646

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parts of the town, and among persons of all ages;
the noise among the dry bones waxed louder and
louder; all other talk but about spiritual and
eternal things was soon thrown by. The minds
of people were wonderfully taken off from the
world ; it was treated amongst them as a thing
of very little consequence. Religion was, with
all sorts, the great concern. The only thing in
their view was to get the kingdom of heaven,
and every one appeared pressing into it. It was
then a dreadful thing amongst us to lie out of
Christ, in danger every day of dropping into
hell. There was scarcely a single person in the
town, either old or young, that was left uncon
cerned about the great things of the eternal
world. In the spring and summer, 1735, the
town seemed to be full of the presence of God."
Cambuslang, in Scotland, also, was the scene of
a remarkable revival in 1742. One result was,
that in twelve weeks the minister could say, —
" The number of persons awakened to a deep
concern about salvation, and against whom there
are no known exceptions, has amounted to above
three hundred." VV hitfield's sermons created pro
digious commotion in many places, especially
at Cambuslang, during his second visit ; and, in
spite of much that was objectionable, great per
manent spiritual good seems to have been effected.
The vehemence of his oratory, and the power of
his appeals, threw his audiences often into con
vulsions. Some fainted and others shrieked,
some tossed their arms wildly about them, and
others shouted in vociferous prayer. The con
fusion was indescribable : visions were seen, and
revelations received, while the language employed
was that of the wildest frenzy. Looking too
much at the strangeness of such proceedings, the
seceding fathers condemned the entire revival, or
" Cambuslang work," as it was called, held it up
to scorn as an infernal delusion, ahd appointed
a fast that they might mourn over it, so that the
plague might be stayed. A bitter contest ensued.
Some ministers of the establishment taunted the
seceders with their separation, and told them
that such a divine visitation betokened that the
Church of Scotland was still owned of God as a
true church, and that therefore it was schism
to leave her pale. The seceders might have
admitted that Whitfield's preaching was sig
nally successful, though there might be no little
delusion and mere nervous excitement mixed up
with the effect it produced; and they might
have been thankful for an exhibition of evan
gelical power in the church they had left, while
they felt that the causes of secession were not, on
that account, either diminished in number or
weakened in strength. In 1752 occurred a revival
in the Scotch Church at Rotterdam. As Mr. B.
Van Velsen preached, the commotion came among
tho men in the church, and the number greatly
increased among them from time to time, gene
rally younger persons. There were among them
some who in a wonderful manner regretted and

REV
lamented their former life. Not long after this
the commotion came among the children from
eight to eleven years old, who were strongly
troubled, and their distress continued for some
time. In Wales there was a revival under
Howell Harries, in 1742. Another, " The Great
Revival," as it is called, in 1762. Athirdinl791.
At various times during the present cen
tury similar periods have occurred in Amer
ica, especially in some of the colleges. Pre
sident Humphrey, of Amherst College, says,
— " It was near "the close of the spring term, in
1827, that God poured out his Spirit for the
second time upon Amherst College. The revival
began in the church, as is most commonly the
case. For several weeks there was a manifest
increase of concern for those who were ready to
perish, till there came to be mighty wrestlings
with the Angel of the covenant, such as I believe
always prevail. The noise and shaking among
the dry bones was sudden, and the work was
rapid in its progress. The word of God was
quick and powerful. In many cases convictions
of sin were extremely pungent. In some they
may be said to have been overwhelming, but in
most instances they were short. In a few days
about thirty, and among them several who had
been very far from the kingdom, and leaders in
the broad way, were raised up, as we trust, and
made to sit together in heavenly places in Christ
Jesus. In the next year, 1828, God poured out
his Spirit again upon the college, and to a con
siderable number of the students the Gospel, as
we believe, was the power of God unto salvation.
In the spring of 1831 the Divine Saviour once
more came to our unworthy seminary upon the
chariot of salvation. The number of apparent
conversions in the revival of which I am now
speaking was about the same as in 1827."
About twenty years since there was great excite
ment at Kilsyth, as at the same place in 1742.
In 1858 an extensive revival took place in Amer
ica, immediately after the great commercial
panic. It was not the fruit of preaching, as in
the days of Whitfield, Edwards, and Tennant,
but the calm result of meetings for prayer.
The North of Ireland experienced soon after a
remarkable visitation, which has reached Scot
land, passed along the eastern sea-board, and
is extending at this moment (1861) through
various parts of the country. Extraordinary
physical manifestations sometimes accompany
these revivals. Persons are struck down into
convulsions, or into a dreamy state like a
trance, often the result of nervous excitement,
and the contagious sympathy produced by a
crowd, but sometimes happening in a way that
cannot be easily explained. Individuals are said
to have been struck down in solitude, as if over
come with a sudden mesmeric influence, and
when, so far as they can remember, their minds
were not touched with religious emotion. The
susceptibilities of the nervous system are yet a

REV
mystery, and such physical manifestations are
found under many false forms of religion. It is
wrong to encourage them, though they may
come in great assemblies — from hysteria and a
morbid imagination. The shriek of some Irish
females, at revival meetings, is declared, on good
authority, to be in tone precisely that of Edward
Irving's prophetesses. The visible effect of such
nervous ecstasy or catalepsy is extraordinary.
Archdeacon Stopford says, — "I have, in former
times, seen a countenance, not plain, and yet
hardly pretty, transformed, after a paroxysm of
distress, into a perfection of personal, moral, and
intellectual, beauty, such as I have never other
wise witnessed — such as I had never before con
ceived — such as I can now but imperfectly re
alize in memory. Time after time I have gazed
for a moment in entranced admiration upon that
resplendent vision of all that is beautiful in
woman, heightened as it was by a brilliancy of
intellectual light, and a flow of words of inex
pressible beauty. But the stern call of duty
interfered (for that case was entrusted to me by
a friend), and I soon found that my control was
as necessary then as in the paroxysm of distress.
How movingly she would entreat me to let her
brilliant thoughts and words have flow, as being
the source of the most exquisite happiness she
had ever experienced! An absolute injunction
of silence and quiet never failed to bring it to a
close. Many a time I have thus destroyed a
vision on which I could have gazed for ever, and
which I never expect to see again in like per
fection." But such manifestations can be
guarded against, and are, in a great measure,
under control. John Wesley, in his Journal,
records rather archly, — " To-day one came who
was pleased to fall into a fit, for my entertain
ment. He beat himself heartily. I thought it
a pity to hinder him ; so, instead of singing over
him, as had often been done, we left him to re
cover at his leisure. A girl, as she began her
cry, I ordered to be carried out. Her convulsions
were so violent as to take away the use of her
limbs, till they laid her without at the door, and
left her ; then she immediately found her legs and
walked off. Some very unstill sisters, who
always took care to stand near me, and tried who
could cry loudest, since I have had them removed
out of my sight have been as quiet as lambs.
The first night I preached here, half my words
were lost, through the noise of their outcries. Last
night, before I began, I gave public notice that
whosoever cried so as to drown my voice, should,
without any man's hurting or judging them, be
gently carried to the furthest corner of the room;
but my porters had no employment the whole
night." Dr. M'Cosh states that in one village
where those symptoms appeared, the people were
reasoned with, and there were no more of them.
We can attest the same result, and that these
physical tremors may be almost wholly re
strained. We quite agree with Mr. Stoughton

647

REV
in his Exeter Halt Lecture: — "As to certain
paraphernalia of revivals — such as anxious pews
and the like in America, and certain proceedings
in some quarters on this side the water, such as
calling people out to give some public visible
sign that they seek peace or have found it, or
praying for individuals by name, and entering
into particulars about their character and history
— I must say that to my mind such things seem
adapted only to promote unhealthy excitement,
and to foster false notions of religion, as if it were
a matter of momentary feeling rather than of in
telligent and lasting principle. I do not see how
they can minister to the final and grand end of
all revivals, which is to make men good," What
every revivalist should wish for is not noisy de
monstration, but permanent results. Excitement
soon evaporates, and a collapse follows. It is
only when saving truth is lodged in the heart
that lasting effects can follow.
Revocation, Act of. — See Tiends.
Revolution Settlement. — The settlement
of the Church of Scotland under William and
Mary is so called. In the opinion of many
in Scotland, it did not secure what many
had hoped for. It was dictated by policy.
It did not restore tho platform of 1638, but
adopted; the ratification of 1592. Its object
was to restore peace and order, to put an end to
agitation, and by the aspect of moderation to
curb extremes, to take away all pretext for
violence, and induce all classes of the people to
exhibit a loyal spirit to the new occupants of
the British throne. King William wished for
universal toleration, though he had no liking to
any form of ecclesiastical independence. He
was willing to accede to the wishes of the people,
not because they were either just or scriptural,
but because they were deeply cherished, and had
been openly expressed. Besides, the king was
afraid to excite the anger of the English Episco
palians by the appearance of any hard or cruel
measures towards- their brethren in tho north.
Nor did he believe in the divine right of' any
form of church government: he was himself a
presbyterian at the Hague, and an episcopalian
at Whitehall, and was willing that any form of
spiritual jurisdiction which the people preferred
should be secured to them, provided it yielded
to the rsyal superintendence and control. The
first parliament which met after the revolution
declared that prelacy was " a great and insup
portable grievance to this nation, and contrary
to the inclination of the generality of the people
ever since the Reformation." In the second
session of the same parliament presbytery was
established, and the ministers who had been
ejected at the Restoration, and still survived,
were restored to their position and authority.
On the first convention of the estates they in
serted in their Claim of Right the abolition of
episcopacy. The privy council had also ordered
every minister to pray for William and Mary,

548

REV
on pain of deprivation ; and in the eastern parts
of Scotland, south of the Forth, many had been
ejected for non-compliance. Parliament had
also authorized the sixty presbyterian ministers
who survived, " to try and purge out all insuffi
cient, negligent, scandalous, and erroneous minis
ters by due course of ecclesiastical process and
censures." These veterans found certainly
abundance of work, though they lay claim to
great impartiality in the performance of it. The
general assembly, which had not met for thirty
years, was convened on the 16th of October,
1690 ; and when these sixty ministers, who had
been ejected at the period of the Restoration,
took their seats, they showed not only no desire
to retaliate, but rather facilitated the admission
of their episcopalian antagonists. The record of
their proceeding bears, "that it was not the
mind of the assembly to depose any incumbent
simply for his judgment anent the government
of the church, or to urge reordination On any
incumbent whatsoever." This declaration seems
to reserve the right of judgment in matters of
doctrine and character. That the latter element
was before their mind is plain from another
portion of their minutes, which warns the
commission to be " very cautious of receiving
accusations against the late conformists, and
that they proceed in the matter of censure very
deliberately, so as none may have just cause to
complain of their rigidity." Such examinations
into the lives of many ofthe " late conformists"
was all tbe more necessary, if, as Burnet asserts,
many of them were openly vicious, " a disgrace
to their order and the sacred functions, and
indeed the dregs and refuse of the northern
parts." The ministers who formed the assembly,
now that presbytery was re-established, were
anxious that its restoration should, in unison
with the wishes of the government, be accom
panied with as little noise and hardship as
possible. Accordingly, at subsequent assem
blies, as in 1694, they enjoined the commission
"to receive into ministerial communion such of
the late conformist ministers as, having qualified
themselves according to law, shall have sub
scribed the formula," — that formula being simply
a declaration of fact, " that the church govern
ment, as now settled by law, is the only govern
ment of this church." This rather latitudinarian
measure was productive of fatal .consequences ;
and it was inconsistent in a church which
regarded presbytery as a divine institution, and
had suffered so grievously fur such a belief, so to
tamper with its own convictions and creed.
But, in fact, the whole initiatory movement of
the church was Erastian. It submitted to the
dictation of the political powers, and had no
independent action: nor, indeed, would such
action have been willingly allowed it. William's
whole purpose was to keep it in check. The
privy council had inflicted ecclesiastical punish
ment on the recusant curates, and the parliament

RHE
summoned the presbyterian remnant into official
existence, and not only prescribed its work, but
told it in what spirit the task was to be pursued.
The persons admitted by the measure referred to
were, in too many instances, the class described
by Burnet " as generally very mean and despic
able in all respects, and the worst preachers
which he had ever heard." At the period of the
union with England, eighteen years after the
Revolution, there were officiating within the
pale of the Church of Scotland one hundred and
Bixty-five episcopal clergymen. The assembly
holds this boastful language to Queen Anne
in 1712, — "We cannot but lay before your
majesty this pregnant instance of our modera
tion, that since our late happy establishment
there have been taken in and continued hun
dreds of dissenting ministers on the easiest
terms." There began in this way, at an early
period, a gradual deterioration in the pulpits
and courts of the Church of Scotland, and a
gradual separation of her ministers into two
parties. The facile remnant of the old episco
pacy, so easily and opportunely converted into
presbyterian pastors, only exchanged their sur
plice for a Genevan gown, and read homilies
instead of prayers. The church of the Revolu
tion settlement was thus founded in compromise;
and, while it was openly branded as lax and
perfidious by the Covenanters without, its pliancy
was painful to not a few within its own pale.
Rheinsbergers. — See Collegiants.
Rhemish Testament. — See Bible, p. 95.
Riding Committees, committees of the
general assembly sent to supersede a presbytery
which had refused to ordain a presentee over a
reclaiming parish. The first instance occurred in
1717, when the presbytery of the bounds refused
to ordain a Mr. John Hay in the parish of
Peebles, and the general assembly passed an act,
" 'appointing certain brethren to correspond with
the presbytery of Peebles, and to act and vote in
their meetings at their next ensuing diet, and
thereafter, until the settlement of Mr. John Hay in
the parish of Peebles be completed, and to concur
with them in his ordination.' By this device
both the opposition of the people and the conscien
tious reluctance of the presbytery were sur
mounted, and an unwelcome minister intruded
upon an unwilling congregation. The second
instance of a settlement by means of a ' riding
committee,' took place in 1730, in the case of
New Machar, and soon afterwards the practice
became prevalent, in order to avoid tbe hazard
of a direct collision with the conscientious unwill
ingness of presbyteries to take part in transactions
of a character so violent. Under the moderate rule,
the device had the desired effect, until Principal
Robertson's unflinching policy enforced universal
compliance on the part of presbyteries. Thus the
case of Torphichen was decided in the year 1751.
It had arisen three years before, when, after the
death of Mr. Bonar, the last of the Marrow-men,

RIN
a Mr. Watson, was presented to the parish by the
patron, to whose settlement the parishioners could
not be persuaded to consent. Twice was the case
brought before the assembly — in the years 1749
and 1750 — and the presbytery of Linlithgow
were each time enjoined to admit Mr. Watson ;
but they declined. They were rebuked by tho
assembly of 1751, and again ordered to proceed;
but in case they should still delay, a riding com
mittee was empowered to effect the settlement,
which was done on the 30th of May, 1751, by
the aid of a military force. This was the last
instance of a settlement effected by means of a
riding committee. — See Patronage, Settle
ments, Violent. (Hetherington's History.)
Righteousness of Christ. — See Imputa
tion, Justification.
Rigorists, a name sometimes given by their
opponents to the Jansenists. — See Jansenists.
Ring. — The ring was anciently worn by the
bishop, usually on the middle finger of his right
hand, as a pledge of his being betrothed to the
church. — See Bishop. Rings were also used in
marriage — given to the bride, says Clement,
" not as an ornament, but as a seal." In more
recent times it is regarded as the token or pledge
of the matrimonial covenant Thus Dean
Comber says, — " As to the matter of it, which is
gold, the purest and noblest of all metals, and
which endures the longest uncorrupted, to inti
mate the generous, sincere, and durable affection
which ought to be between the married persons.
As to the form of it, it is circular, the most per
fect of all figures, which hath no end in itself;
and, therefore, it was of old the hieroglyphic of
eternity, the round form being also that which is
most proper to connect such things as were
separate ; from whence we may learn, that the
conjugal love ought to be the most perfect of all
others, and such as ought to endure for ever,
since it hath now united two persons that were
distinct before. As to the part where it is
placed, being the fourth finger of the left hand,
which the Romans of old usually called the ring
finger; and the antients generally affirm that
there comes a considerable vessel from the heart
to this finger, which therefore they thought
ought to bear this pledge of love, that from hence
it might be conveyed to the heart; and though
some modern critics will not allow this, yet it
hath been asserted by very eminent authors of
antient and latter times, as well Gentiles as
Christians, as well physicians as divines; and
however the moral ought to be retained — viz.,
that the husband doth hereby express the
dearest love to his spouse (Luke xv. 22), which
ought to penetrate her heart, and engage her
affections to him again. If we shall add that
other reason of placing the ring on the least
active finger of the less used hand, as being less
subject to wearing and injury there, and so
likely to remain longest in view; this may also
teach us that these persons should carefully pre-
649

EIT

serve and cherish each other's love, that so it
may remain for ever. But these being only
accidental documents, we come to that which the
ring signifies by the positive institution of the
church — viz., 'To be a token and pledge of the
covenant made betwixt them,' as is manifest
from the words spoken at the delivery thereof,
and from the prayer following."
Rites. — See Ceremony, Ordinances.
Rituale, a liturgy. — See Liturgy.
Rochctte, a portion of clerical dress belong
ing to abbots and bishops, not unlike a surplice,
but with narrow sleeves. It seems to have been
worn under the chimere. — See Alb, Chimere,
Cope. Rock, — This term, taken from Matt. xvi.
18, is a frequent and an important one in the
popish controversy. Four interpretations have
been given of it, even among distinguished
Romanists themselves. One class refers the
rock or foundation to Peter. This interpretation
is held by Tertullian, Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose,
Cyril, Basil, Epiphanius, and Gregory Nazian
zen. These, in more modern times, were followed
by Baronius, Calmet, and Maldonatus. Pope
Leo the First patronized the same . opinion.
Fontidonius and Cardillu's, in the council of
Trent, advocated this explanation, without any
contradiction; and therefore, it appears, expressed
the mind of that assembly. A second class
supposes the rock or foundation to signify the
apostles. A third class interprets the rock or
foundation to signify Peter's faith or confession.
This signification was held by Justin, Hilary,
Eusebius, Theodoret, John Damascenus, Theo
phylact. The popes, Leo, Felix, Hormisdas,
Gregory, Nicholas, John, Stephen, Innocent,
Urban, Alexander, and the two Hadrians also
maintained it. Luther embraced this view. A
fourth class makes Christ himself the rock or
foundation. Launoy enumerates sixteen fathers
or popish doctors of this opinion ; and the list
might be vastly increased. This was the view
of Augustine and of Calvin. In fact, however,
the fathers vary in their interpretations of the
words, or give alternative explanations. The
probable meaning of the declaration of Christ
to Peter is, that he should not only be a
foundation, in the sense in which all the apos
tles were foundations (Eph. ii. 20 ; Rev. xxi.
14), but tbat, as he was the first to confess
Jesus to be the Messiah, he should have the
honour of being the first of the twelve to found
the Church, as was seen at Pentecost in reference
to the Jewish section of it, and in the house of
Cornelius, in reference to the Gentile section of
it. The honour was personal, and in no sense
official. — See Primacy of Peter.
Rogation Days (rogo, I ask), three days
before the festival ofthe Ascension. The custom
of chanting prayers or litanies on these days
was originated by Mamercus, Bishop of Vienne,
in the fifth century, in order to avert an im- 550

ROG
pending calamity  See Litany. The Church
of England has retained these days ; and the
perambulation of parishes was made upon one
of them. There is a homily for Rogation Week,
divided into four parts, the last to be used at
the parochial procession. Thus does it proceed,
— "Although we be now assembled together,
most principally to laud and thank almighty God
for his great "benefits, by beholding the fields
replenished with all manner of fruit, to the
maintenance of our corporal necessities, for our
food and sustenance ; and partly, also, to make
our humble suits in prayers to his fatherly
Providence, to conserve the same fruits in send
ing us seasonable weather, whereby we may
gather in the said fruits, to that end for which
his fatherly goodness hath provided them, yet
have we occasion secondarily given us in our
walks on those days, to consider the old ancient
bounds and limits belonging to our own town
ship, and to other our neighbours bordering about
us, to the intent that we should be content with
our own, and not contentiously strive for others',
to the breach of charity, by any encroaching one
upon another, or claiming one of the other,
further than that in ancient right and custom
our forefathers have peaceably laid out unto us
for our commodity and comfort. And it is the
part of every good townsman to preserve, as
much as lieth in him, the liberties, franchises,
bounds, and limits of his town and country : but
yet to strive for our very rights and duties with
the breach of love and charity, which is the only
livery of a Christian man, or with the hurt of
godly peace and quiet, by the which we be knit
together in one general fellowship of Christ's
family, in one common household of God, that
is utterly forbidden. Let us therefore take such
heed in maintaining of our bounds and posses
sions, that we commit not wrong by encroaching
upon other. Let us beware of sudden verdict in
things of doubt. Let us well advise ourselves to
avouch that certainly, whereof either we have
no good knowledge or remembrance, or to claim
that we have no just title to. Thou shalt not
(commandeth almighty God in his law) remove
thy neighbour's mark, which they of old time
have set in their inheritance. Thou shalt not,
saith Solomon, remove the ancient bounds which
thy fathers have laid. And, lest we should
esteem it to be but a light offence so to do, we
shall understand that it is reckoned among
the curses of God pronounced upon sinners.
Accursed be he, saith almighty God by Moses, who
removeth his neighbour's doles and marks, and
all the people shall say, answering Amen thereto,
as ratifying that curse upon whom it doth light
They do much provoke the wrath of God upon
themselves, which use to grind up the doles and
marks, which of ancient time were laid for the
division of meers and balks in the fields, to bring
the owners to their right. They do wickedly
which do turn up the ancient terries of the fields,

ROM
that old men beforetimes with great pains did
tread out, whereby the lord's records (which be
the tenant's evidences) be perverted and trans
lated sometime to the disheriting of the right
owner, to the oppression of the poor fatherless or
the poor widow. Oh consider, therefore, the ire of
God against gleaners, gatherers, and encroachers
upon other men's lands and possessions ! It
is lamentable to see in some places how greedy
men used to plough and grate upon their neigh
bour's land that lieth next them : how covetous
men now-a-days plough up so nigh the common
balks and walks, which good men beforetime
made the greater and broader, partly for the
commodious walk of his neighbour, partly for
the better shack in harvest-time, to the more
comfort of his poor neighbour's cattle. It is a
shame to behold the insatiableness of some covet
ous persons in their doings : that where their
ancestors left of their land a broad and sufficient
bier-balk, to carry tbe corpse to the Christian
sepulchre, how men pinch at such bier-balks,
which by long use and custom ought to be in
violably kept for that purpose : and now they
either quite ear them up, and turn the dead body
to be borne farther about in the high streets ; or
else, if they leave any such meer, it is too strait
for two to walk on." The Sunday preceding
these days is called Rogation Sunda}r, the week
being termed Rogation Week.
Rome or Romish Chnrch. — The Church
of Rome may be indicted on the following
counts : — That she practises the worship of
angels, saints, relics, images, the cross, and the
host in the Eucharist; that she appeals to the
Bishop of Rome as the one supreme head ; that
she upholds the necessity of a visible head to
keep the unify of the Catholic Church; that
she maintains the necessity of subjection to the
Pope of Rome; that she adds the apocryphal
books to Scripture; that she keeps divine ser
vice in an unknown tongue; that she enjoins
celibacy of the clergy, and exempts them from
the power of the civil magistrate ; that she
commands auricular confession, and makes
confirmation a sacrament; that she denies the
cup to the laity, and has communion only in
one kind; that hers is a great abuse of ex
communication in deposing kings, and depriv
ing magistrates of their civil rights, and burning
heretics, under pretence of discipline; that she
consecrates the Eucharist by muttering privately
" Hoc est corpus meum," instead of public and
audible prayer ; that she employs interdicts and
indulgences ; that she encourages mendicant
orders, disannuls the marriage of monks, forbids
the marriage of spiritual relations, and makes
the marriage of cousins-germ an to be incest;
that she has the mass as a sacrifice for the
quick and dead, and holds transubstantiation;
that she teaches a purgatory — that she enjoins
penance, and allows commutation- of penance,
and permits a sanctuary for the worst of crimi-

do.

48

do.

do.

45

do.

do.

14

do.

do.

S8

du.

do.

IS

do.

do.

14

do.

. —

5

do.

do.

14

do.

ROM
nals. The official return of bishoprics in the
Roman Directory, 1860, presents a remarkable
anomaly, inasmuch as Italy shows an enormous
preponderance to prelacy over the rest of Europe.
A glance at this tabular array will surprise most
people: —
Italy, . . 1 pope, 1 patriarch, 47 archbishops,) or.
215 bishops,  j" ltA
France, ., .. 16 arch blsh., 65 bishops '
Austria, .. ..16
Spain, .. .. 9
Portugal, 1 patriarch, 2
Gt. Britain and Ireland, 5 do, 38 do. J- 314
German Confederation, 6
Baltic Kingdoms, . . 2
Switzerland, Malta, Greece, Turkey, 6
The following statistics show the increase of
Popery in Britain: — In the year 1780 there
were only 200 popish chapels in England. In
1829 they had increased to 394. It appears
from the Catholic Directory of the present year,
that the number of popish chapels in England
and Wales, in 1858, was 749, and in Scotland,
177, giving a total in Great Britain of 926.
The number of priests in Great Britain in 1829
was 477; in 1858, their number, including
bishops and priests unattached, was 1,222, being
an increase of 745. In 1829 there were no
monasteries in Great Britain; now there are 34
monasteries, although, by the Catholic Emanci
pation Act, such are illegal. In 1829 there were
no nunneries in Great Britain; now there are
not fewer than 110. In 1829 there were no
popish colleges in Great Britain ; now there are
11 — of which number, 10 are in England and
one is in Scotland. The parliamentary report
for 1857-8 shows that the number of such
schools are as follows: — In England, 241; in
Wales, 5; in Scotland, 26; making in all 272.
The number of popish teachers, as appears from
the Minutes of Privy Council on Education, is
as follows: — Male teachers, 307; female, 543;
making a total of 850 : to which are to be added
3 popish inspectors. There are 145 popish
chaplains in the army in Great Britain, with a
pay of £7,229. The number of chapels in Ireland
is 2,284; giving a total of popish chapels in
Great Britain and Ireland of 3,210. The num
ber of priests in Ireland is 2,925 ; giving a total
of priests in Great Britain and Ireland of 4,147.
The number of popish schools in Ireland receiv
ing grants from government is 4,251 ; making
a total of popish schools in Great Britain and
Ireland (exclusive of private schools) of 4,523.
The number of popish teachers in Ireland is
6,048 : making a total of popish teachers in
Great Britain and Ireland of 6,898. In Ireland
there are 31 Romish colleges, 220 convents and
nunneries, 111 monasteries, 36 chaplains in the
army, 130 chaplains in poor-law unions, and
56 chaplains in various prisons and asylums.
In Duhlin alone the " Christian Doctrine Con
fraternities" of that city have under them 1,642
teachers and 20,430 pupils. There are besides,

551

ROM
in and near Dublin, 40 nunneries, with 639
" religieuses," besides chaplains and prioresses,
having under them 7,500 pupils; and all in
addition to the national schools, under the con
trol of priests and popish teachers. In all,
government gives now £130,000 for popish
education — See Auricular Confession ; In
dulgence; Mass; Papacy; Penance; Pope;
Popery ; Real Presence ; Scriptures ;
Transubstantiation; Unction, Extreme.
Rouiescot, same as Peter's Pence. The
money was paid for the support of an English
school or college in Rome. Some of the popes
held it to be a proof of the dependence of Eng
land on the Roman see. It was paid by Alfred,
and among the laws of the Confessor's reign it is
called "the king's alms." It was abolished 15tb
January, 1534.— See Peter's Pence.
Rood or Rode, the Anglo-Saxon name ot
the cross. — See Cross, Crucifix.
Rood IiOft, the upper storey of Romish
churches or cathedrals, in which a crucifix is kept
or placed. These rood lofts have been converted
in Protestant churches into organ lofts. The
rood screen separated the chancel from the nave.
Rosary, an instrument of devotion for the
less instructed members of the Roman Catholic
Church. The rosary of St. Dominic consists of
150 beads, each of which represents an "Ave
Maria," and between every ten " aves " there is
a larger bead personifying a " paternoster." The
fifteen larger beads are the symbols of so many
sacred mysteries respecting the birth of Christ,
the casualties that befell him in his infancy, and
not only in the private and unknown part of his
life, but also in the glorious part of it. These
fifteen mysteries are divided into three classes : the
first five are the mysteries of joy; the second five
are those of sorrow, because they represent the
Saviour's passion; and the last five are tbe mys
teries of glory, on account of their reference to
Christ's resurrection, &c. The fraternity of this
order thus perform their devotions upon the
rosary. Having taken the rosary in hand, the de
votee crosses himself, repeats the Apostles' Creed,
then says a " pater " and three " aves," because
of the threefold relation which Mary bears to the
Trinity. He then passes on to the fifteen large
beads, each counting ten courses of "aves,"observ-
ing to use a prayer prescribed in the proper book
of devotions at each large bead, in order to admit
himself into the respective mysteries of each
course. The rosary once got through, the litanies
and other prayers follow ; after which the sup
plicant lifts up his heart to the Virgin, the queen
of the rosary, empress of heaven and earth, high
treasurer of the spiritual finances and celestial
riches, with holy gratitude and devout devotion.
The reverence paid to this instrument by the
order of St. Dominic is increased by the belief
that the Virgin herself brought Dominic a
chaplet " after a miraculous manner," composed
of the same number of beads as above described.

652

ROU
The "rosary of St. Dominic" is regarded as
one of the most valuable exercises of devotion
by the Catholics, although the best instructed
of them cannot deny that the chaplet itself,
instead of being after the Virgin's model, was
copied from the Mohammedans by Peter the
Hermit, who, quickly taking the hint, thought
it a capital contrivance for aiding the devotional
exercises of those soldiers of the Holy War who
were unable to read. We are, however, gravely
informed by the legendary writers of tbe Catho
lic Church that the society of St. Dominic was
appointed by the Virgin at a time when Dominic ¦
was piously engaged in endeavouring to convert
the Albigenses, and to reduce tbe refractory to
the obedience of the church by such coercive
measures as comported with his notions of hu
manity, toleration, and Christian charity. Do
minic, it must not be forgotten, was the founder of
the "holy office of the Inquisition." — See In
quisition. St Dominic's society is divided
into two branches, one the " common," and
the other the "perpetual;" the former has to
get through the fifteen courses once a-week, and
to communicate once a-month; and the latter
must say the rosary without intermission, i. e.,
every society must make such arrangements as
to secure the unremitting salutation, by one
or other of them, of the blessed Virgin Mary,
in the name of the whole society. The common
chaplets, or rosaries, consist of fifty " Ave
Marias " and five " paternosters."
Rosary, Fraternity of. — See Fraterni
ties, Rosart.
Rosemary (ros marinus). — Wheatly says,
— " To express their hopes that their friend is
not lost for ever, each person in the company
usually bears in his hand a sprig of rosemary ; a
custom which seems to have taken its rise from
a practice among the heathens, of a quite differ
ent import. For they, having no thoughts of a
future resurrection, but believing. that the bodies
of those, that were dead would for ever lie in the
grave, made use of cypress at their funerals, which
is a tree that, being once cut, never revives, but
dies away. But Christians, on the other side,
having better hopes, arid knowing that this very
body of their friend, which they are now going
solemnly to commit to the grave, shall one day
rise again, and be reunited to his soul, instead of
cypress, distribute rosemary to the company,
which, being always green and flourishing the
more for being cropt, and of which a sprig only
being set in the ground will sprout up immedi
ately and branch into a tree, is more proper to
express this confidence and trust."
Rose Window, the circular window in
ecclesiastical buildings, and often called a
Catherine wheel. — See Gothic Architecture.
Rota or Rnola. — See Curia Papalis.
Roundheads, the well-known name of
the Puritans, republicans, or parliamentary party
during the great civil war. They wore their

ROW
hair close cut all round, in opposition to the cava
liers with their loose flowing locks. Neale, in his
History ofthe Puritans, says — it was first given
on account of their " hair which was cut close
about tbeir ears," to the London apprentices when,
in 1641, they carried up their famous petition to
the king, which was the source of some tumults
and bloodshed.
Row Heresy. — In 1831 Mr. Campbell,
minister of Row, was deposed by the general
assembly for holding, among other errors, the
doctrine of universal pardon and a peculiar view
of the nature of faith, not very different from that
of the Sandemanians. On some other points
Mr. Campbell's views touched those of Edward
Irving. But his doctrine never spread to any
extent. In 1856 he published a volume on
the Nature of Atonement, in which he declares
that it was not a satisfaction, but only " an ade
quate repentance ; was in no legal sense substitu
tionary," and that Christ's suffering arose " from
seeing sin and sinners with God's eyes, and feel
ing in reference to them with God's heart."
Royal Supremacy. — See Supremacy.
Rubric (from the Latin ruber, red), direc
tions in the Book of Common Prayer originally
written or printed in red colour, but in modern
editions in Italic character. They are still printed
in red in the Missal and other books of the
Romish Church. At this very time we observe
that the Rev. G. Gould of Norwich has addressed
a public letter to his bishop, in which he makes
the following statement as to the rubric after
the office for the public baptism of infants: —
" But how came that rubric, in its present shape,
into the Book of Common Prayer f Is it there
by law, or through a fraud ? The question is
one of much consequence, and ought to receive a
prompt and satisfactory reply. Let me remind
your lordship, therefore, that a MS. copy of the
Book of Common Prayer was originally attached
by a string to the Act of Uniformity (13 and 14
Car. II., c. 4), by which it was ratified; and
that in 1819 the editor of the folio Statutes of the
Realm stated that it was then ' in the parliament
office.' Many years afterwards Mr. Rickman,
the late clerk in the House of Commons, told
Sir Francis Palgrave 'that he had then recently,
(i.e., about the year 1834), seen the engrossed
copy of the Book qf Common Prayer which had
been annexed to the Act of Uniformity of Charles
IL, but that he bad some difficulty in finding
the MS., and when he did find it, it was detached
and upon a shelf below the shelf in which the
statute roll was placed; that it had been ap
pended to the roll by a string, but that a clergy
man (whose name Mr. Rickman mentioned), had,
for a greater convenience of perusal or collation,
cut the string.' That original MS. Book of
Common Prayer is now no longer to be found
among the parliamentary records : no reference,
therefore, can be made to its pages, upon this
or any other subject, and we must now accept

RUS
such evidence as the case admits of. There is
preserved in the library of the British Museum,
a copy of the edition of the Prayer Book, pub
lished in 4to, in the year 1792, which formerly
belonged to Bishop White Kennett, and which
contains some very curious and valuable manu
script notes by him. Amongst others I find the
following : — ' The Archbishop of Canterbury told
me by his bed-side on Monday, February 12,
1710-11, that in the Review of the Liturgy upon
the Act of Uniformity, the book which was con
firmed by that act, and was to be the standard
of all other copies, had some mistakes in it ; and
particularly in the rubric after baptism. " It is
certain, by God's Word, that children which are
baptized, dying before they commit actual sin,
are undoubtedly saved." The words, which are
•baptized, were left out, till Sir Cyril Wyche,
coming to see the Lord Chancellor Hyde, found
that book brought home by his lordship, after
passing the two Houses, and happening to cast
his eye upon that place, told the Lord Chancellor
of that gross omission, who supplied it with his
own hand.' If this account be relied upon —
and I cannot conceive any reason for questioning
its accuracy — the houses of convocation for both
provinces adopted the rubric as set forth in the
engrossed copy of the Prayer Book. That copyT
was confirmed under the great seal, and sent
with a royal message to the select committee of
the House of Lords ; and both houses of parlia
ment passed the Act of Uniformity with the
rubric unaltered, and in these words: — 'It is
certain, by God's Word, that children dying before
they commit actual sin are undoubtedly saved.'
It is also certain that in that case the preroga
tives of the legislature were dishonestly super
seded by Clarendon."
Rnle of Faith.— See Faith, Rule of. —
Scripture contains all necessary to be known in
order to salvation, and while it lays down great
principles for our guidance, it leaves a latitude in
things of subordinate importance. It bids us
read itself, but does not say how often or how
large a portion at once. It commands us to
worship, but it does not prescribe the hours nor
the order of public worship  See Tradition.
Ruling Elders. — See Elders.
Rural Dean. — See Dean.
Russian or Rnsso-Crrcek Church, The.
For an account ofthe doctrines, ritual, and con
stitution of this church, see Greek Church,
to whose forms it adheres, only differing in
its higher ecclesiastical polity. Christianity
was first, though very partially, introduced
into Eussia by the Eastern Church, about the
time of Rurik, Prince of the Waragians or
Russ, who conquered the original Sclavic in
habitants of the country. Photius, Patriarch
of Constantinople, in an encyclical letter, dated
866, refers to the existence of Christianity
amongst the Russians at that time. In the
year 900 we read of an archbishop being con-

553

RUS
secrated at Constantinople, and sent to Kiev,
to reside there as head of the Russian Church.
In the treaty of 945 between the Russian Prince
Igur and the Greeks, mention is made of the
Christian Church at Kiev, the then capital of
the country. During a visit to Constantinople,
in 955, the widowed Russian Princess Olga, a
daughter-in-law of Rurik, was solemnly baptized.
Her conversion gave an impetus to the progress
of the Christian religion in Russia, though she
failed to induce her son, the Prince Swatoslav,
to abjure paganism. After a time her uncle,
the famous Vladimir, the reigning king, having
begun to lose confidence in his heathen super
stition, sent an embassy of ten to investigate
and report on the various religions of the
different peoples over whom he reigned. To
learn concerning the Greek Church they visited
Constantinople. Vladimir was so impressed by
the account they transmitted of the solemn
ritual they had witnessed in the Church of St.
Sophia, that he determined to become a member
of the Greek Church, and establish Christianity
as the national church of his realm. He was
baptized at Cherson on the Dnieper, married
the Greek Princess Anna, and authoritatively
required of his subjects the profession of Chris
tianity. The outward symbol of initiation,
baptism, was submitted to by multitudes who
were as innocent as newborn babes of every
element of that faith they were supposed thereby
savingly to profess. The stain of ignorance
which thus early disfigured the Russian Church
has never ceased to be one of its character
istics. His next and wiser steps were the
establishment of schools at Kiev, the building
of churches and monasteries, the introduction
of Cyril's Sclavic alphabet, and Cyril's Sclavic
version of the Bible. These measures were
further carried on by his successor Yaroslav
(1019-1054), who also founded the national
Christian literature, by procuring tbe translation
of many theological works. The archbishop of
the country, though elected by a synod of
Russian bishops, required, in order to the
validity of his title to the office, the sanction
of the Patriarch of Constantinople. His resi
dence was at Kiev. When that city was de
stroyed by the Mongols in 1250, the seat of
archiepiscopal jurisdiction was transferred to
Moscow. The eruption of the Mongol hordes
at first threatened the total subversion of Russian
Christianity. They for a time bitterly persecuted
the Christians. But as their permanent domi
nance in tbe country became certain, this hos
tility to the church diminished ; and gradually it
gained their highest favour and protection. The
former nobility of tho country, now, in order to
save the remnant of their wealth and estates
from the Mongol rulers, freely poured it into the
coffers of the church, and many of them retired
into the solitude of its cloisters, or sought a new
field for their ambition by entering the ranks of

RUS
its clergy. Its power and wealth rapidly ,in-
creased, "but the ignorance of the people was
little if at all lessened. The dependence of the
Russian archbishops on the patriarchate of
Constantinople was intolerable to the pride of
Russian monarchs, and they sought its ter
mination. When Jeremiah II., Patriarch of
Constantinople, fleeing tbe vengeance of the
Turkish Sultan Amurath, sought shelter in
Russia, he was courteously received, but com
pelled to concede much to Russian pride. In
1589 he consecrated Job, Archhishop of
Rostow, first Patriarch of Moscow and Metro
politan of all the Russias. On account of the
higher antiquity of the other patriarchates, those
of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Constan
tinople, they were entitled to precedence. This
the Czar resisted, and the point was so far j'ielded,
that none but Constantinople retained the right.
Each Patriarch of Moscow, however, on his
election, was to ask the consent of the Patriarch
of Constantinople, and to pay a tribute of 500
gold ducats. This agreement was ratified, in
1593, at a Constantinopolitan council. At last,
from the Patriarch Dionysius II., the Czar ex
torted all his desires. Complete independence
was granted, as well as exemption from this
tribute. This independence, as cutting the
Russian Church off from tbe refining and elevat
ing influence of foreign culture, was a question
able advantage. The ignorance of the people
remains, as it was then, extreme ; hence they are
credulous to a degree — easily moved by every
wind of doctrine, and the prey of the most abject
superstitions. But as the church in effect, at this time, held
a co-ordinate rank with, and was independent of
the emperor, Peter the Great set about its dislodg- .
ment from such a position. This he accomplished,
in part, by taking the church property under
the management of the state, and altering the
application of it. To do this he required to
be the administrative head of its ecclesiastical
affairs. Not only did he administer the church
property, but he decreed monasteries to be in
capable of holding or possessing any ; a portion
of the funds he applied to educational purposes,
and appropriated more. In 1764 Catherine
completed this work of spoliation. The clergy
were for the most part made pensioners on the
crown, their position in tbe country was lowered,
and the means of fostering learning in the clergy
and country removed. This state of ignorance,
which has too long continued their normal state,
effectually checked their moral influence. But
this was not enough— another part of Peter's de
sign was to bring the whole management of the
internal affairs of the church under his control.
On the demise of the Patriarch Adrian of
Moscow he appeared amongst the synod of
bishops convened for a new election, stopped
the proceedings, proclaimed himself to be patri
arch, and then dismissed them. He kept the

554

RUS
office for twenty years in his own hands, acting
by a deputy, Stephen Gavonisky, and when the
old forms were wellnigh forgotten he set about
constituting the church so as to be in harmony
with his own autocracy. He framed a constitu
tion to which he now, without difficulty, obtained
the assent of the highest clergy. The supreme
power was nominally lodged in a court of twelve
or more members, one of whom was always a
commissioner from the Czar, to watch his
interests — "the Czar's eye," as he was called.
But the power vested in this lay officer was
such as to enslave, virtually and without appeal,
the whole church to the Czar. Authorization
of this form of government was easily extorted
from the Patriarch Jeremiah of Constantinople,
in 1723, owing to the peculiarities of his political
position at the time. To keep this synod thor
oughly under imperial supervision and control,
it was transferred, along with the government,
from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Its obsequious
ness is unexceptionable. "It is usually com
posed of two metropolitans, two bishops, the
chief secular priest of the imperial staff, the
procurator, two chief and five under secretaries,
and a certain number of clerks." This council,
besides governing the church, supervises tbe
educational institutes of the country. The
clergy are compelled to educate their sons, who
must take orders, unless they are specially
licensed to change their profession. The clergy
are either white, i. e., secular or parish priests, or
black, i. e., regulars or monks. Very curiously,
under this most absolute of governments dissent
abounds, and is tolerated. When a, religious
party arises, asserting some peculiar ideas of
doctrine or practice, the nobility prevent the
bishops reporting thereon, lest they should lose
their serfs by government ordering them off as
a punishment to Siberia. When it does at last
become known, they who have joined the sect
are too numerous to be dealt with without caus
ing excitement and remark, which imperial
policy always avoids ; hence they are let
alone. The first appearance of Raskolniks —
dissenters or schismatics — is at Novgorod in
1375. — See Raskolniks. The ignis fatuus,
in this case, was the supposed necessity, in
order to salvation, of a baptism by fire. In
this belief thousands voluntarily burned them
selves to death. The Raskolniks who retain
a priestly order are the Starovertzi — those of
the old faith — who arose in 1659 in conse
quence of the Patriarch Nicon having corrected
the liturgy, and modified some parts of the
ritual. All these alterations they reject. Their
peculiarities are not pronounced heretical, and
latterly attempts, hitherto unsuccessful, have
been made to bring them again within the pale

RUT
of the church. They are very numerous. They
were bitterly persecuted by Peter the Great,
whom they regard as Antichrist Of the
Raskolniks who reject a priestly order are the
Skoptzi, or eunuchs. They are numerous
amongst the wealthier middle class. Their
tenets are secret. They practise the severest
bodily mortifications. A similar ascetic sect
amongst the lower orders are the Khlisti, or
flagellants. The Morelstschiki, or voluntary
martyrs, practise self-immolation by burning as
a religious rite. The Pbilippons seem to be a
remnant of the ancient Manichees : they are
remarkably abstemious. The Bej'poportchines
hold the necessity of true apostolical succession,
the real possession of which, and the attainable-
ness of which, at the present day, they deny to
the Russian clergy, whom they therefore regard
with antipathy. Malakanes, so called from
milk (malako), used by them on fast-days,
believe the Bible to be God's Word, the existence
of a Trinity of persons in the Godhead, the
fall of Adam, the true resurrection of our Lord,
the authority of the Ten Commandments, &c.
They forbid the worship of images. With these
tenets they mix up many foolish superstitions
which have led to extravagances of conduct.
Like nearly all the other Russian sects they are
firm believers in a future appearance and tem
poral reign of Christ. To these may be added
the Martinists, named after the Chevalier St.
Martin, distinguished, not by their speculative,
but by their practical Christianity. They are
" a society for the promotion of Christian know
ledge and virtue," and have been alternately
persecuted or favoured since the time of Cathe
rine, according as imperial policy was more or
less absolute, for liberal it never has been. — See
Martinists. (See Neander's Church History;
Marsden's Dictionary.)
Rutherglen Declaration. — In 1679 an
armed party of the Covenanters, to the number
of eighty, assembled at this old burgh, burned
some obnoxious acts of parliament, read a pro
testing declaration of their own, and affixed a
copy of it, to the market-cross. On Saturday,
31st May, Claverhouse was sent from Glasgow in
search of the party. The result was, a few days
afterwards, the battle of Drumclog, in which the
bravery of the Covenanters prevailed, and the
royalist forces were routed. But the battle of
Bothwell Bridge followed on Sabbath, June 22,
in which the covenanting forces, having little in
ternal unity, were scattered. Twelve hundred
prisoners were taken on the field, and suffered
most cruelly afterwards. Claverhouse and his
troopers then swept through the western counties
like a whirlwind of death.

655

SAB
Sabreans, Sabians, Mcndaites, Christi
ans of St. John, are names commonly, but
probably erroneously, given to a certain sect
who, according to some, are neither Jews, Chris
tians, Mohammedans, nor Sabians ; as they re
vile the apostles of the three first as magicians
and impostors, and violate the distinctive tenet
of the last, by severely condemning all rever
ence for the planets. The Menda'ites are called
in their own books Nasurayi — a name of uncer
tain origin and interpretation ; they also call
Christians Khristiani, but themselves Mendai,
or Mendai Yahya, literally Gnostics, or endowed
with knowledge, or disciples of John. That this
John was the Baptist appears probable from
their reverence for baptism, and from the mention
of him in their books ; but the Mendaites them
selves have a tradition that the John from whom
they derive their doctrine died in Shuster, on or
near the site of the ancient Snsa. Their books,
moreover, can hardly be older than the eighth
century. It is therefore more probable tbat the
John from whom they are named was some
Hemerobaptist of that age, who pretended to
have communications with genii and spirits, and
engrafted on his former faith such portions of
the Gnostic and Valentinian doctrines as ac
corded with the reveries of his own brain, and
seemed likely to suit his purpose. It is not im
possible that he may have once embraced the
creed of the Gnostics or Valentinians, and,
having been expelled from their body on ac
count of some irregularity, may have deter
mined to publish a new revelation, which, by
incorporating the most attractive parts of all the
systems known to him, might draw over to his
party a large number of the ignorant and fanati
cal among the various hostile sects then existing
in Asia. — See Hemerobaptists, Mendaeans.
Sabanus (ed/lavcs, linen-cloth), a name given
to the dress of a newly baptized infant  See
Alb, Chrisome.
Sahba, St., Festival or, observed by the
Greek Church on the 5th of December.
Sabbatarian, properly the name of those
parties who hold that the seventh day of the
week is the sabbath of divine or permanent
authority. — See Baptist. But the name is often
applied contemptuously to such as would preserve
the Lord's Day free from secular or political en
croachments. Sabbath (see Biblical Cyclopaedia), the Jew
ish or seventh-day Sabbath.
Tbe Christian day for social worship was called
the Lord's Day. This was the first, and not the
last day of the week, and it finally superseded
the Jewish Sabbath. The apostles and early
Christians, though they observed both the Jew
ish Sabbath and the Lord's Day, were in the

s

SAB

former case induced to do so, not because they
considered it as obligatory, but as a compliance
with the prejudices ofthe Jewish converts; and
the apostles often resorted to the synagogues on
that day for the purpose of introducing the
Christian doctrine. The apostles positively
claim freedom from the Jewish law, and the
early Christian writers not only follow their
example, but endeavour to mark the distinc
tion more clearly between the Lord's Day and
the Jewish Sabbath. Ignatius even uses a
phrase founded upon this contrast, pnxLn t-afi-
(Sar/^oVTEf, aXXa xara xvgtaxkv ^U9iv %mvls \
and the council of Laodicea denounces those
who should rest on the Jewish Sabbath, declar
ing that such as do so Judaize. In the epistle
ascribed to Barnabas, it is said, — "We observe
the eighth day with gladness, on which Jesus rose
from the dead." A cluster of references is thus
given by Bingham : — " Sometimes the ancients,
when they write to the Gentiles, scruple not to
call it ' Sunday,' to distinguish it by the name
best known to them. As Justin Martyr, in
his Apology to the Heathen, says, — ' We all meet
together on Sunday, on which God, having
changed darkness and matter, created the world ;
aud on this day Jesus Christ arose from the
dead.' In like manner, Tertullian, answering the
objection made by the heathens, that the Chris
tians worshipped the sun, says, — 'Indeed, they
made Sunday a day of joy, but for other reasons
than to worship the sun, which was no part of
their religion.' At other times, when he writes
only to Christians, he commonly uses the name
of the Lord's Day, and especially when he would
distinguish it from the Jewish Sabbath. And
the like may be observed in the laws of the first
Christian emperors. Constantine uses the name
Sunday, when he forbids all lawsuits on this day.
Valentinian uses the same name upon the same
occasion. So does also Valentinian junior, and
Theodosius senior, and Theodosius junior, in
settling the observation of this day. But they
use the name indifferently, styling it sometimes
the Lord's Day, which was more proper among
Christians, as is particularly noted in one of the
laws of the younger Valentinian, which runs
thus :— 'Solis die, quem Dominicuin rite dixere
majores,' &c. — 'On Sunday, which our fore
fathers have rightly and customarily called the
Lord's Day.' His reference to ancient custom is
confirmed, not only from what has been alleged
out of Ignatius, and Clemens Alexandrinus, and
Tertullian, but from the use of the word xvyuxii,
in the epistle of Dionj'sius, Bishop of Corinth, to
Pope Soter, recorded by Eusebius, where he says,
' To-day we observed the Lord's holy day, ' rhv
xu^iaxm ayiav np.i^av ttriydytljr.lv. And from
what Eusebius says of Melito, Bishop of Sardis,

656

SAB
'Tljat he wrote a book, trig xuyaxr,;, concerning
the Lord's Day.' In like manner, Irenasus, in
his epistle to Pope Victor, says, — ' The mystery
of the Lord's resurrection, of the Paschal festival,
ought to be kept only on the Lord's Day,' rji
ts! xa^iaxfis ri/ti(a. And Origen, to distinguish
it from the Jewish Sabbath, says, ' that manna
was rained down from heaven on the Lord's Day,
and not on the Sabbath, to show the Jews that
even then the Lord's Day was preferred before
it.' This evidences not only the antiquity of
the name, but that the observation of the day,
in memory of our Lord's resurrection, was the
universal practice of the Church from the time of
the apostles."
Constantine, on obtaining supremacy, com
manded the Christian Sabbath to be universally
observed. It was enacted that no suits of law
should be carried on nor debts demanded on
that day, though works of mercy might be
done, such as the emancipation of slaves.
Theodosius the Great prohibited also all public
shows. No ordinary labour was to be done,
with the exception of works of necessity and
mercy, such as works in spring and harvest,
under certain circumstances. Sunday was never
to be a fast-day; even in Lent fasting and kneel
ing were forbidden on it, for it was a day of joy.
The Saturday, or Jewish day, was differently
treated. In the East it was a festival, and in
the West a fast — though the usage at Milan
seems to be an exceptional conformity to Eastern
practice. Saturday in Italian is still technically
called Sabato, and the French Samedi is said
to be contracted from Sabbato-di. Various ele
ments of observance belonged to theearly Christian
Sabbath. Public worship was observed, and all
who could were expected to attend, and engage
in the various exercises, the order of which is
thus given by Justin the Martyr: — "On the
day called Sunday all that live in city or
country meet together, and the writings of the
apostles and prophets are read to them, after
which the bishop or president of the assembly
makes a discourse to the people, exhorting them
to follow the good things they have heard : then
we all rise and make common prayer, and when
prayers are ended, bread and wine and water are
brought to the president, who prays and gives
thanks with all possible fervency over them, the
people answering ' Amen.' After which distribu
tion of the elements is made to all that are
present, and they are sent to the absent by the
hands of the deacons." Such services were so
valued, that in days of persecution many attended
them at the hazard of their lives. Those who
neglected ordinances were severely censured.
Absence from church for three consecutive Sab
baths was to be visited with excommunication.
Frequenting the public games on the sacred
day, or fasting on it, met with a similar penalty.
Irregularities during attendance, such as
refusing to join in prayers, or receive the

SAB
communion, or leaving church during sermon,
were also strongly condemned.
The authority for keeping a Sabbath or day of
rest has been variously regarded, and several hy
potheses have been put forward in more recent
times. Some there are who maintain that all dis
tinction of days is abolished, and that every day
is a Sabbath. Another extreme party believes
that the original Sabbath of creation and of the
moral law has an unalterable obligation, and
that therefore only on the seventh day can a
Sabbath be held to God. A third party gives out
that the Sabbath is only an ecclesiastical insti
tute, for its authority expired with the Jewish
economy. Thus Paley says (Mor. Ph., b. v., c.
7), "The assembling upon the first day of the
week for the purpose of public worship and reli
gious instruction, is a law of Christianity of
divine appointment ; the resting on that day from
our employments longer than we are detained
from them by attendance on these assemblies is
to Christians an ordinance of human institution,
binding, nevertheless, upon the conscience of every
individual of a country in which a weekly Sab
bath is established, for the sake of the beneficial
purposes which the public and regular observance
of it promotes, and recommended perhaps in some
degree to the divine approbation, by the resem
blance which it bears to what God has pleased
to make a solemn part of the law which he
delivered to the people of Israel, and by its sub
serviency to many of the same uses." Another
party holds, again, that the patriarchal Sabbath
was re-enacted by Moses, and that, though there
be changes in the day, the Sabbath must be kept
much as the old Jewish law enacted. This is
virtually the view of the Westminster books.
A modified form of this view is held by
many both in England and Scotland. Thus
Hawkins, in the Bampton Lectures for 1840,
says, " With respect to the Mosaic Sabbath, the
Fourth Commandment is not, I apprehend, the
true foundation of our Christian duty. Nay, I dare
not appeal directly to that, as a commandment
obligatory upon Christian men, which no Chris
tian church has ever yet enjoined or observed.
Neither may any Christian church presume to
teach as a divine commandment one portion of a
positive precept, whilst of her own authority she
abrogates another. That is the privilege of
inspiration alone. We say, indeed, and we say
justly, that not hallowing the seventh day, j'et
hallowing one day in seven, we fulfil the spirit
of the law. But a positive institution, if obliga
tory at all, is to be obeyed also in the letter ;
and what now appears so slight a change (to say
nothing here of the total abandonment in the
Christian Church of the awful strictness in the
commanded observance of the Mosaic rest), the
mere alteration of the day would scarcely, in the
first instance, have appeared a trivial change.
. . . It is to the spirit of the command
ment that we appeal, not to its letter. The letter

557

SAB
we believe to have been abrogated, but the spirit
survives. In this sense, and in this sense alone,
the Church of England, I believe, prays that we
may observe the Fourth Commandment— the
spirit, namely, of the Mosaic law — as it still lives
in the Christian ordinance of the Lord's Day."
Lastly, some maintain that the Sabbath is solely
a Christian institute, based on Christ's authority,
and that the obligation to observe it is perpetual,
though it be disjoined entirely from every pa
triarchal and Jewish element. Thus Richard
Baxter says, — "I believe, — 1. That Christ did
commission his apostles to teach us all things
which he commanded, and to settle orders in his
Church. 2. And that he gave them his Spirit to
enable them to do all this infallibly, by bringing
all his words to their remembrance, and by
leading them into all truth. 3. And that his
apostles by this Spirit did de facto separate the
Lord's Day for holy worship, especially in church
assemblies, and declared the cessation of the
Jewish Sabbaths. 4. And that as this change
had the very same author as the Holy Scriptures
(the Holy Ghost in the apostles), so that fact
hath the same kind of proof that we have of the
canon, and of the integrity and uncorruptness of
the particular Scripture books and texts : and
that, if so much Scripture as mentioneth tbe
keeping of the Lord's Day, expounded by the
consent and practice of the universal Church
from the days of the apostles (all keeping this
day as holy, without the dissent of any one sect,
or single person, that I remember to have read
of), I say, if all this history will not fully prove
the point of fact, that this day was kept in the
apostles' times, and consequently by their ap
pointment, then the same proof will not serve to
evince that any text of Scripture is canonical
and uncorrupted ; nor can we think that anything
in the world, that is past, can have historical
proof." A peculiar view was held by the late
Professor Samuel Lee of Cambridge. He sup
posed, — 1. That the patriarchs had a Sabbath
day. 2. That the heathen inherited it from them,
but perverted it to sun worship, calling it ' Dies
Solis.' 3. That the patriarchs and the heathen
together represented the world. 4. That the
Jewish Sabbath, which falls on our Saturday,
was chosen peculiarly for a temporary covenant
and a temporary dispensation. And, 5. That on
the annulling of such temporary covenant and
dispensation, the original Sabbath, i. e., the ' Dies
Solis,' was restored to its dignity. In other
words, that the Christian festival of the first
day of the week is the primal Sabbath of God ;
and that in keeping it holy Christians are, un
consciously, fulfilling the Fourth Commandment.
This vexed question about the origin and
authority of Sabbath-keeping was keenly agitated
in the Puritan times. The Sabbatum of Dr.
Bownd, published in 1595 and reprinted in
1606, made a great sensation. The stricter view
was maintained by him, and by Perkins, Babing-

SAB
ton, and Greenham. Of the book of Bownd
Thomas Fuller says, — " About this time (12)95),
throughout England began the more solemn and
strict observation of the Lord's Day (hereafter,
both in writing and preaching, commonly called
the Sabbath), occasioned by a book this year set
forth by one P. (dc) Bound, doctor of divinity
(and enlarged with additions, anno 1606)."
After giving an abstract of its doctrines the his
torian proceeds to say, — " It is almost incredible
how taking this doctrine was, partly because of
its own purity, and partly for the eminent piety
of such persons as maintained it, so that tbe
Lord's Day, especially in corporations, began
to be precisely kept, people becoming a law to
themselves, forbearing such sports as yet by
statute permitted ; yea, many rejoicing at their
own restraint herein. On this day the stoutest
fencer laid down the buckler, the most skilful
archer unbent his bow, counting all shooting
besides the mark; May-games and Morris-
dances grew out of request, and good reason that
bells should be silenced from gingling about
men's legs, if their very ringing in steeples were
adjudged unlawful; some of them were ashamed.
of their former pleasures, like children which,
grown bigger, blushing themselves out of their
rattles and whistles. Others forbear them for
fear of their superiors, and many left them off
out of a politic compliance, lest otherwise they
should be accounted licentious." Bownd was
answered by Rogers in 1599. This author says,
in addressing Archbishop Bancroft, — " It is a
comfort unto my soul, and will be to my dying
hour, that I have been the man and the means
that the Sabbatarian errors and impieties are
brought into light and knowledge of the state,
whereby whatsoever else, sure I am, this good
hath ensued, namely, that the said books of the
Sabbath . . . hath been both called in and
forbidden any more to be printed and made
common. Your grace's predecessor, Archbishop
Whitegift, by his letters, and officers at synods,
and visitations, ann. 99, did the one; and Sir
John Popham, Lord Chief-Justice of England,
at Bury S. Edmonds, in Suffolk, ann. 1600, did
the other." Twisse, at a later period, in 1641,
defended the views of Bownd, the magisterial
condemnation of whose book aided the popularity
of its opinions. The controversy was revived
in 1632, and was followed up by various writers
and disputants, such as Brabourne and the
notorious Peter Heylin. The conflict was
keen, so that, as the witty Fuller says, "The
Sabbath itself had no rest." The one class
of views, looking back to earlier economies,
has been called Sabbatarian and the other
Dominical. Without entering into the practical
part, or referring to the history of opinions
as to how the Sabbath should be spent or
kept, we may only add that many writers
broadly carricature the keeping of a Scottish
Sabbath at the present day. Not to speak of

658

SAB

Mr. Buckle, who thinks and affirms that a fast
in Scotland means literal abstinence from food,
even Dr. Hessey, the Bampton lecturer for 1860,
falls into some mistakes on the subject. Yet, in
the olden time, keen measures were employed to
secure Sabbath observance, and which could only
in many cases induce hypocrisy, or mere exter
nal attendance at church. The kirk-sessions in
1574 appointed "searchers,"or" captors," to make
the round of the parish, and take notice of such
as were " vaging abroad." The strange practice
lasted for nigh a century and a-half. Some of
the records of the period are curious. The records
of the session of St. Andrews have the following :
—"Feb. 18, 1572. Tweddell, accused for break
ing of the Sabbath in threshing corn, for four
hours morning till four hours at even : the cor
rection is committed by the seat to the magis
trates. Nov. 18, 1641. Archibald Russel, in
Wester Balrymont, and his servant-woman, for
leading corn on the Sabbath evening, were or
dained to crave God mercy on their knees before
the session, and to pay 40s. penalty, which was
given to ane Gordon, a distressed woman come
from Ireland. May 31, 1649. James Allan, for
breaking of the Sabbath, to be scourged in the
Tolbooth by one of the town officers, at the sight
of the magistrates." In the records of the Pres
bytery of Glasgow is the following : — " Feb. 6,
1592. The presbytery has fund William Craig,
at Walkmill of Partik, to have been absent fra
his kirk this lang time bygane, and thairby to
have contravenit his obligations, quhairin he
oblagit him, under the pane of ten merks, to keep
his kirk on Sunday to heir God's Word ; is de-
cernit to pay to the thesaurer of his kirk the
said ten merks, and to make his repentance in
his kirk for absence fra his kirk the twa Sundays
next to cum, and that he be not absolved till he
shew evident tokens of repentance, and that he
find suretie, under the pain of ten pundis, to be
present to hear God's Word on the Sunday in
tymes cuming. May 7. The presbyteiy of Glas
gow statutes and ordenis that gif Mungo Craig
sail playe on his pypes on the Sondaye, fra the
sunrising till the sun going to, in ony place within
the bonds of this presbyterie, that he inconti
nent thereafter sail be summarlie excommunicat.
Anstruther, July 18, 1594. Because of the con
tempt of the Word and evil-keeping of the Sab
bath, the session ordains that the maister and
maistress of every house, and sa mony as are of
years and judgment (except when need requireth
otherwise), sail be present in the kirk in due time
every Sabbath to hear the sermon before and
after noon, under pain of 12d. the first, 2s. the
second, and for the third, 5s.; also 5s. toties
quoties thereafter ; as also, for the third fault to
be debarred fra the benefits of the kirk till they
make repentance, as the session sail enjoin."
For the literature of the controversy, see Hessey's
Bampton Lecture, 1860, and Gilfillan's The Sab
bath, &c, 1861. — See Spokts, Book of. 559

SAC
Sabians. — See Sab.eans.
Sabbatinns, a party among the Novatians
who, led by a violent man, named Sabbatius,
refused to communicate with any but those who
adopted with them the Quartodeciman rule in
regard to the paschal festival. They assumed
the name of Protopaschites, and are condemned
under that name to confiscation and banishment
by one of the laws of Theodosius II. — See
Easter. Sabbatum Magnnm (great Sabbath), the
day following Good Friday. It was anciently
observed as a most solemn fast, which some per
sons even joined to the fast of the preceding day,
with the idea of literally fulfilling the prediction
of our Lord, — " When tbe bridegroom shall be
taken away from them, then shall .hey fast in
those days." The fast was continued till cock-
crowing the next morning, which was supposed
to be the time of the resurrection, and the earlier
part of that night was spent in religious exercises,
heing the Easter Vigil. The early Christians
expected the second coming of the Saviour to
take place in the middle of that night.
Sabellians, the followers of Sabellius, who
taught at Rome, early in the third century, hereti
cal doctrines of the same description as those of
Praxeas, denying the distinct personality of the
Son and Holy Ghost, and maintaining that the
names of the Three Persons denote so many
energies proceeding from the one God, or so
many characters assumed by him. The sect was
anathematized in the first canon of the council
of Constantinople (381), and is said to have
lasted into the fifth century. But it was never
very numerous. The term Sabellianism is still
sometimes applied to those modal views of the
doctrine of the Trinity which are supposed to
have too much tendency to a " confounding of
the persons." — See Patripassians, Praxeans.
Saboticrs, a nickname of the Waldenses, on
account of the sabots or wooden shoes which
they wore.
Saccophori (sack-carriers), a name of a
small party of professing penitents in the fourth
century, who went about always dressed in the
coarse apparel which their name implies.
Sacellanns, The Grand, an officer in the
Greek Church, whose title denotes, " head-master
of the chapel." He exercises inspection over
monasteries and nunneries, presents all candidates
for ordination to the patriarch or his deputy, and
assists the patriarch in the performance of several
of the ceremonies of the church, and in the
administration of his judicial functions.
Sack, Brethren of the, a religious order of
the thirteenth century who dressed in sackcloth
and abstained from flesh and wine.
Sacra, circa, and In sacris. — The power
of the magistrate is scarce allowed by any party
in sacris, in sacred things, but many allow his
power circa sacra, about sacred things  See
Erastianism; Inveshtuke; Jurisdiction;

SAC
Keys, Power or; PenalLaws; Magistrate.
The twenty-third chapter of the Westminster
Confession says, however, — "The civil magistrate
may not assume to himself the administration of
the word and sacraments for the power of the
keys of the kingdom of heaven: yet he hath
authority, and it is his duty, to take order, that
unity and peace be preserved in tbe church, that
the truth of God be kept pure and entire, that
all blasphemies and heresies be suppressed, all
corruptions and abuses in worship and discipline
prevented or reformed, and all the ordinances of
God duly settled, administered, and observed.
For the better effecting whereof, he hath power
to call synods, to be present at them, and to
provide that whatsoever is transacted in them
be according to the mind of God." It is note
worthy that one of the proof-texts in the West
minster Confession, under this head, is Matthew
ii. 4, 5, Herod's calling together the sanhedrim
when startled by the news of the birth of Christ
— a rival prince, as he thought, and whom he
proposed to destroy. A large party object to
this doctrine of the magistrate's power as Erastian
and unscriptural, and maintain that the church
should be free of all control on the part of the
state, and alike independent of its pay and its
patronage. — See Erastianism. How the com
promise is effected between the two powers in the
Chnrch of Scotland may be seen in the way in
which the general assembly is annually dis
missed at the end of the statutory period beyond
which it cannot prolong its sittings. Thus, this
present year, 1861, the moderator concluded his
address by saying, "As this general assembly
was convened in tbe name and by authority of
the Lord Jesus Christ, so in the same name and
by the same authority I now dissolve it, and ap
point the next meeting of the General Assembly
of the Church of Scotland to be held in this place
on Thursday, the 22d day of May, 1862." The
Lord High Commissioner then said, " Right
reverend and right honourable, it is now my
duty, in my sovereign's name, to dissolve this
assembly; and, accordingly, I hereby declare
this assembly dissolved in her name, and by the
same authority I appoint the next general
assembly to meet on Thursday, the 2 2d day of
May, 1862." — See Secular Power.
Sacra, Quoad, the name of a certain class of
chapels in Scotland  See Paeish.
Sacrament (sacramentum) literally means
that by which a person sacredly binds himself to
any person or thing. Among the Roman authors
it is taken for a formal depositing of a certain sum
of money with the pontifex in civil suits, as well as
the money so deposited; which sum was forfeited
by the party losing the suit. It also denoted the
oath of fidelity which was taken by soldiers to
their commanding officer ; and under this idea,
according to some, it was first adopted into the
language of religion, as affording a convenient
term for an assemblage of ideas which no single

SAC
scriptural word would exactly express. In the
earlier ages of Christianity its ecclesiastical mean
ing was very indefinite; and we find it used
by the writers of the Latin or Western Church,
in order to denote anything mysterious in reli
gion. It represents the Greek fiaa-r^itv in the
Vulgate. The definitions vary a little even
before we come to the mere Protestant notion.
As a specimen we may quote that of Gregory
the Great: "Sacramentum est per quod sub in-
legumento rcrum visibilium divina virtus saluiem
secretius operatur." The Anglican Church has
confined the meaning of the word within some
what narrower limits, and, like most Protestant
bodies, excludes all but the two ordinances of
baptism and the Supper of the Lord from the
name of sacraments, while she differs from them
in her notions of the value of these ordinances.
She defines a sacrament to be " an outward and
visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace
given unto us, ordained by Christ himself, as a
means whereby we receive the same, and as a
pledge to assure us thereof." The Westminster
Confession thus speaks on the same subject: —
" 1. Sacraments are holy signs and seals of tlie
covenant of grace, immediately instituted by God,
to represent Christ and his benefits, and to con
firm our interest in him; as also to put a visible
difference between those that belong nnto the
church and the rest of the world; and solemnly
to engage them to the service of God in Christ,
according to his Word. 2. There is in every
sacrament a spiritual relation, or sacramental
union, between the sign and the thing signified ;
whence it comes to pass, that the names and
effects of the one are attributed to tbe other. 3.
The grace which is exhibited in or by the sacra
ments, rightly used, is not conferred by any
power in them ; neither doth the efficacy of a
sacrament depend upon the piety or intention of
him that doth administer it, but upon the work
of the Spirit, and the word of institution ; which
contains, together with a precept authorizing the
use thereof, a promise of benefit to worth}' re
ceivers. 4. There be only two sacraments or
dained by Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is
to say, Baptism, and the Supper of the Lord ;
neither of which may be dispensed by any but
by a minister of the Word, lawfully ordained.
5. The sacraments of the Old Testament, in re
gard of the spiritual things thereby signified and
exhibited, were, for substance, the same with
those of the New." Hooker says, — "Respect
the time of their institution, and it thereby ap
peareth that God hath annexed them for ever
unto the New Testament, as other rites were
before with the Old ; regard the weakness which
is in us, and they are warrants for the more
security of our belief: compare the receivers of
them with such as receive them not, and sacra
ments are marks of distinction to separate God's
own from strangers : so that in all these respects
they are found to be most necessary."

560

SAC
¦The Romish Church authoritatively decreed, in
the seventh session of the council of Trent, " If
any shall say that the sacraments of the new law
were not all instituted by our Lord Jesus Christ,
or that they are more or fewer than seven, to
wit, baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist, pen
ance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony,
or that any of these seven is not truly and pro
perly a sacrament, let him be accursed." — Decret
Cone. Trid., sess. 7, canon i. To omit the
speculations of some earlier divines of the Romish
Church, Otto, Bishop of Bamberg, was the first
who, a.d. 1124, enumerated seven sacraments;
and through the influence of Peter Lombard, and
of Gratian, who introduced the same sentiment
into his Decretum, the admission of this number
became general among the Romish clergy, and
received the approbation of Pope Eugenius IV
at the council of Florence held in 1439; and,
finally, in 1537, the Tridentine assembly, on pain
of anathema, decreed that there are seven sacra
ments, instead of the two originally instituted by
Jesus Christ (Muenscher's Elements of Dogmatic
History, p. 112). The Reformed Protestant
Churches, on the other hand, reject the five
sacraments thus unscripturally superadded by
the Romish Church ; which, the Anglican
Church declares, " are not to be counted for
sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have
grown partly of the corrupt following of the
apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the
Scriptures, but yet have not like nature of sacra
ments with baptism and the Lord's Supper, for
that they have not any visible sign or testimony
ordained of God." — Art. xxv. For instance,
" Matrimony, orders, and penance have the word
of God, but they have no outward creature or
element; extreme unction and confirmation have
neither word nor element. Wherefore these five
latter, in proper use of speech, are not taken for
necessarj' sacraments of the Church. The ancient
learned fathers, Irenseus, Justin Martyr, Tertul
lian, Ambrose, Cyrillus Alexandrinus, and others,
speak only of two sacraments, baptism and the
Lord's Supper, and name no other." " To be short,
Cardinal Bessarion says, 'Haic duo sola sacramenta
in evangeliis manifeste iradita legimus.'" The
Romish Church asserts that the sacraments pro
duce justification in their recipients, as a matter
of course, ex opere operato ; the Anglican Church
teaches that the " sacraments ordained by Christ
be not only badges or tokens of Christian men's
profession, but rather they be certain sure wit
nesses and effectual signs of grace and God's
good- will towards us, by the which he doth work
invisibly in us, and doth not only quicken, but
also strengthen and confirm our faith in him."
— Art. xxv. The Romish Church pronounces an
anathema, " If any say that there is not required
in the ministers, while they perform and confer
the sacraments, at least the intention of doing
what the Church does." — Decret. Cone. Trid.,
sess. 7, canon xi. In opposition to this tenet,

SAC
the Church of England teaches that " the effect
of Christ's ordinances is not taken away by the
wickedness" of the persons administering them;
" nor is the grace of God's gift diminished from
such as by faith and riglitly do receive the sacra
ments ministered unto them ; which be effectual
because of Christ's institution and promise,
although they be ministered by evil men."
— Art. xxvi. (Dr. Barrow, "Doctrine of the
Sacraments," Works, vol. i., p. 517, 518, folio;
Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, book v., sect. 50-57;
Bishops Burnet, Beveridge, and Tomline, On the
Thirty-nine Articles; and Dr. Waterland, Charge
on the Doctrinal Use of ihe Christian Sacra
ments.) According to the Greek Church, " Jesus
Christ established in his Church mysteries or
holy ordinances, in which, under sensible signs,
the invisible grace of God is communicated to
believers." This church holds that, in the New
Testament, there are " seven mysteries — viz.,
baptism, the chrism, the Eucharist, repentance,
ordination, marriage, and tbe sanctified oil." —
Platon, Orthodox Doctrine, translated^ from the
Sclavonian by Dr. Pinkerton, p. 171, 172, 175.
Sacramentals, a name given to rites of a
sacramental nature, which yet are not true sacra
ments — such as confirmation.
Sacramentary, the name of a book in the
Romish Church which contains the collects and
the canon, or that portion of the sacramental
service which is invariable.
Sacrarium or Sanclnary, a name given to
the bema or chancel. — See Bkma, Chancel. It
was sometimes given to the oblationarium, or side
table on which the oblations collected by the
deacons were placed prior to the Eucharist. — See
Credence Taelb, Oblationarium.
Sacred Heart of JTesus, a Popish society
which has for its object to excite in the hearts of
those who belong to it a feeling of love to Jesus.
The instructions for each day in tbe week are
peculiar. Thus : — " Sunday — You will enter into
the opened heart of Jesus as into a furnace qflove,
there to purify yourself from all stains contracted
during the week, and to destroy the life of sin,
that you may live the life of pure love, which
will transform all into itself. This day will be
dedicated to a special homage to the blessed
Trinity. Monday — You will look on yourself
as a criminal, who desires to appease his judge
by sorrow for his sins, and who is ready to
make satisfaction to his justice. You will enter
in spirit into the heart of Jesus, in order to
enclose yourself in that prison qflove. Tuesday
— You will enter into the heart of Jesus as into
a school, in which you are one of his disciples.
In this school is learnt the science of the saints,
the science of pure love, which makes us forget
all worldly sciences. V/ednesday — You will
enter into the heart of Jesus as a passenger
into a ship. Thursday — You will enter into
the heart of Jesus Christ as a friend who is
invited to the feast of his friend. On this day

561

20

SAC
you will perform all your actions in the spirit of
love. Friday — You will contemplate Jesus on
the cross as a tender mother, who has brought
you forth in his heart, with inexpressible pains ;
you will repose in his arms as a child in the
arms of its mother. Saturday — You will offer
yourself to the heart of Jesus as a victim coming
up to the temple to be immolated and led before
tbe sacrificer."
Sacrificati (sacrificers), Christians who, in
days of persecution, had, to save their lives, done
sacrifice to the heathen gods. — See Libellatici,
Novatians, Traditores.
Sacrifice (sacrifidum.) — See Biblical Cyclo
paedia. Sacrifice, a name sometimes given to the
Lord's Supper. — See Eucharist, Mass, Priest,
Tract arian.
Sacrilege (taking holy things). — The term
had a wide extent of meaning in the early Church.
It was sacrilege to break or burn the furniture of
the church, or deliver it to be broken or burnt ;
to give the use of a church to heretics; to molest
the clergy in the discharge of their duty, or offer
any insult to divine service. The wilful defraud
ing of the poor, or dishonest acting in the matter
of church funds ; the robbery of graves, depriv
ing men of the use of the holy Scriptures and of
the cup in the Eucharist — tbe last being con
demned by Gelasius and Pope Leo — were also
reckoned sacrilege.
Sacristan (contracted into sexton), an officer
who had charge of the vestments and utensils of
the church. In Western churches and monastic
houses the sacristan held a higher rank than he
held in the East.
Sacristy, the treasury of a church or a con
vent, in which are kept church vessels and the
consecrated wafer.
Sadducee.— See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Saint (holy one). — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. —
The name is given in the New Testament to all
believers ; but in the Popish Church it is spe
cially given to such only as have been canonized.
— See Canonization. How saints may be some
times made, the following incident will show: —
In 1802 a skeleton was found in one of the Roman
catacombs under a broken stone, on which were
distinguishable the olive branch and the anchor,
ordinary emblems on Christian tombs, and, be
sides, two arrows and a javelin, which appeared
to indicate the burial-place of some martyr.
These symbols were accompanied by an inscrip
tion, the beginning and end of which were want
ing, " . . . . lumena pax tecum fi . . . . "
It was impossible to make it out; lumena was
either the end of some word or an unknown
word, fi the commencement of another word. At
last, a clever fellow extricated the Romish clergy
from their difficulty. He wrote the inscrutable
inscription in a circle, and then joined the syl
lable fi to the truncated word lumena. The
whole, thus arranged, signified, " Peace to thee,

SAL
Philomena!" — a charming name for a saint,
meaning " beloved." In this way the saint was
compounded of several pieces — of the end of one
word and the beginning of another. Pius VII.
presented the skeleton of this new saint to a
Neapolitan prelate who was sent to compliment
him. Soon afterwards a priest was favoured
with a vision, in which the saint appeared to
him, and informed him that she had suffered
martyrdom because, having made a vow of celi
bacy, she refused to marry the emperor; and
these interesting historical details were further
supplemented by an artist, who also had a vision,
in which it was revealed to him that the name
of the emperor was Diocletian. Thanks to the
Jesuits, St. Philomena has met with a rapid
success; she has churches in Naples and in
Paris ; and thus, in this nineteenth century, with
some unknown bones, and some fragmentary
syllables, they have created a name, a saint,
a complete legend, and a new worship. — See
Invocation op Saints. In Scotland, prior to
the Reformation, a great variety of saints were
worshipped. St. Roche was appealed to for de
liverance from the pestilence ; St. Apollonia was
invoked for relief from the toothache, St. Tredwell
for sore eyes, and St. Germane for a headache; St.
Margaret was implored for assistance in childbed,
and St. Barbara for protection from thunder and
lightning. The recovery of stolen property was
sought from St. Syith ; St. Eloy, who was pic
tured with a new horse-shoe in his hand, was
prayed to for a safe journey ; St. Anthony, who
is said to have been a swineherd, was entreated
to take care of the swine, and St. Bride of the
cows and calves. St. Sebastian was prayed to
by the soldier for protection from the arrows of
bis enemy. Insane persons were brought from
all parts of the country, and bound to the cross
of St. Mungo, the tutelary saint of Glasgow, in
the full belief that they would thereby be re
stored to their right mind; and consumptive
persons were carried all the way to the East
Nook of Fife, in the hope that they would be
restored to health by kissing the " old cross of
Crail." — See Relics.
Saint's-all Day. — See All-Saints' Day.
Saints' Days. — See Calendar, Feasts.
Salary. — See Revenues, Stipend.
Salt. — See Honey. — Salt was used in bap
tism. Augustine refers to it in his Confessions,
and so does the fifth canon of the council of Car
thage. The Sacramentary of Gregory the Great
contains a form for its consecration. — See Bap
tism. Salt is naturally the symbol of preserving
power. Salutation. — In the Romish Church, the
words of the angel to Mary are called the angelic
salutation. It is sometimes repeated at the
beginning of a sermon, ending with a prayer or
a pro nobis, and bells are tolled to put people in
mind of it. In the Church of England service a
species of salutation occurs. Dean Comber says,

662

SAL
— " In token of our mutual charity the church
appoints (instead of the ancient kiss of peace) a
hearty salutation to pass between the minister
and the people, he beginning in the phrase of
Boaz to his reapers, — ' The Lord be with you'
(Ruth ii. 4 ; Psalm cxxix. 8) — which was after
drawn into common use as a form of salutation
to all, and used by St. Paul in his epistles, (2
Thes. iii. 16.) To which the people are to return
a good wish for their minister, in a form taken
from the same apostle (2 Tim. iv. 22 ; Gal. vi.
18), desiring the Lord may be with his spirit :
which is no invention of our own, but mentioned
in an antient council, and there affirmed to have
been instituted by the apostles, and (as it there
also appears) retained in the liturgies, especially
of the Greek Church. But sure it never had a
fitter place than in our excellent sendee, where
it succeeds the creed as the symbol and hond of
peace." Salntatorinm (place of salutation), a room
adjoining an ancient church, in which the bishops
and clergy sat to receive the salutations of the
people, or to be consulted by them on any spe
cial business. — See Diaconicum, Church.
Salvation, the general name to denote de
liverance from the penalty and power of sin, and
introduction at length into eternal glory.
Salvation of Infants. — This is not the
place to treat this subject theologically. A few
remarks, therefore, may suffice. It was an early
opinion that the baptism of infants was essential
to their salvation, while yet such baptism might,
for many reasons, be impossible. While some of
the fathers thought there might be an inter
mediate state for infants dying unbaptized,
othere, like Cyprian and afterwards Augustine,
rejecting this idea as unscriptural, believed them
to be consigned to eternal punishment for the sin
of their nature. This continued to be the belief
of the Romish Church generally until the Refor
mation, except as it was modified by the doctrine
of purgatory, which furnished a 'limbus infan
tum.' Some of the Reformers, rejecting purgatory,
some of them rejecting also baptismal regenera
tion, retained the theory of depravity as a
corruption of the essential nature, the very
substance of the soul, by descent from Adam,
and held generally that infants of believing
parents are saved on account of the faith of
their parents, but other infants cannot be saved.
The Augustinian and Calvinistic doctrine of
election or predestination was also held by some of
Calvin's followers to be applicable to infants as to
adults, — Some, however, like Zwingli, rejected
this belief in its relation to infants, or held that
all infants who die are chosen to salvation.
Others, like Watts and Ridgely, did not main
tain it in all its extent and consequences, though
they do not seem to have found methods of
setting it aside which were quite satisfactory to
their own minds. It is not unusual with writers
of a later period to say, as Pelagius did long

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before, they 'do not know what is done with
infants,' or, as president Dickinson of the college
at Princeton says, ' it concerns us to leave them
in the hands of that God whose tender mercies
are over all his works.' Now, and for some
generations past, theological writers who refer to
the subject, very commonly express the hope,
and many of them the full belief, that all infants
who die are saved. This method of speaking is
not peculiar to any class of theologians, and is
scarcely more common with those of one school
than another. At no period of the church has it
been denied that the children of believing parents,
if they die after being truly consecrated to God,
have life eternal. The promise of God — 'unto
you and your children ' — seemed to make this
unquestionable. The severest creeds also speak
of ' elect infants ; ' and if such have been saved,
there is nothing in the depravity of the human
race, and the nature of regeneration, to make it
impossible that all who die in their infancy
may be.
Samaritan Pentateuch, the Pentateuch
ih old Hebrew or Samaritan characters. Copies
were procured two centuries ago from the East,
so that Kennicott collated several of them. The
Samaritan Pentateuch would naturally spring
from the copies of the law in the hands of the
ten tribes at the disruption under Rehoboam. It
has several characteristic forms of reading or
emendations, aud is of no high critical value.
Based upon it, there is also a Samaritan version
of the Pentateuch, or a version in the Samaritan
dialect. It is printed in Walton's Polyglot
Samaritans. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Samosatenians, followers of Paul of Sam-
osata. — See Paulians, Artemonites.
Sampsaans* — See Elcesaites.
San Benito. — See Inquisition, p. 343.
Sancte Bell, a bell rung to prepare the
people when the sanctus was read. — See Sanctus.
Sanctification, the process of being made
holy by the Spirit and the truth — the one the
agent and the other the instrument. — See Re
generation, Renovation.
Sanctimoniales, a name given in early
times to nuns on account of their profession of
sacredness. Sanctuary. — See Asylum, Church. — In
popish times the privilege of sanctuary was
common in Scotland. Innes says, — " In several
English churches there was a stone seat beside
the altar, where those fleeing to the peace of the
church were held guarded by all its sanctity.
One of these still remains at Beverley, another at
Hexham, i To violate the protection of the frith-
slol — the seat of peace, or of the ferlre — the
shrine of relics behind the altar, was not, like
other offences, to be compensated by a pecuniary
penalty: it was bot-leas, beyond compensation.
That the church thus protected fugitives among
ourselves we learn from the ancient canons of
the Scotican councils, where, among the list of

563

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misdeeds against \yhich the church enjoined
excommunication, after the laying of violent
hands upon parents and priests, is denounced
' the open taking of thieves out of the protection
of the church.' The most celebrated, and prob
ably the most ancient of these sanctuaries, was
that of the church of Wedale, a parish which is
now called by the name of its village, 'the
Stow.' There is a very ancient tradition, that
King Arthur brought with him from Jerusalem
an image of the Virgin, ' fragments of which,'
says a writer in the eleventh century, ' are still
preserved at Wedale in great veneration.' About
the beginning of his reign, King William issued
a precept to the ministers of the church of
Wedale, and to the guardians of its 'peace,'
enjoining them ' not to detain the men of the
Abbot of Kelso, who had taken refuge there, nor
their goods, inasmuch as the abbot was willing
to do to them, and for them, all reason and jus
tice.' In the year 1144 David I. granted the
church of Lesmahago as a cell to Kelso, and by
the same charter conferred upon it the secular
privilege of sanctuary in these terms, — 'Whoso,
tor escaping peril of life or limb, flees to the
said cell, or comes within the four crosses that
stand around it; of reverence to God and St.
Machutus, I grant him " my firm peace." ' To
incur the censure and vengeance of the church
was sufficiently formidable ; but to break ' the
king's peace ' brought with it something of more
definite punishment. In granting the same
privilege to Inverlethan, Malcolm IV. ordains,
' that the said church, in which my son's body
rested the first night after his decease, shall have
a right of sanctuary in all its territory, as fully
as Wedale or Tyningham ; and that none dare
to violate its peace " and mine," on pain of for
feiture of life and limb.'" — Cosmo Innes, Scot
land and ihe Middle Ages.
Sanctus. — See Cherubic Hymn, Ter-
sanctus. Sandals, a necessary and distinctive portion
of a bishop's dress in the early Church. — See
Bishop. Sandemanians or Glassites. — John Glas,
minister of the parish of Tealing, was deposed
by the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland in 1730, the special charges against
him being his peculiar views of church govern
ment, and his denial of the scripturality of a
national church. Several congregations holding
his views were formed in various parts of the
country, and two clergymen of the established
church joined him. In 1739 Mr. Glas was
restored by the general assembly, but with no
practical result. Robert Sandeman in 1755
embraced Mr. Glas's opinions, and directed an
acute, powerful, and dogmatic mind to their ad
vocacy. Under Sandeman various congregations
were formed in England, his Letters on Hervey's
Theron and Aspasio having won him no little
notoriety. Sandeman died in America while on

664

SAN
a mission to that country in 1771, and Mr.
Glas died two years afterwards. The Glassites
have a plurality of elders in every congregation,
and they retain the kiss of charity. They have
also love-feasts, and a weekly celebration of the
Lord's Supper. They do not practise family
prayer, and they will not eat with an excom
municated brother. They reject all spiritual
communion with other churches or Christians.
Robert Haldane says, — " While the Glassites
had, on many points, the better of the argu
ment, it was unfortunate that they were so
directly opposed to many who were real Chris
tians, and who, amidst various errors, were
truly exemplary characters. This gave a cast
to both their doctrine and practice by no
means favourable to pure and undefiled religion ;
for, in both, they proceeded to the opposite
extreme from their rivals. Under the idea of
magnifying the atonement, they ridiculed what
they termed ' heart religion ; ' and in guarding
against self-righteousness, they encouraged, in
some respects, a very improper degree of laxity
of conduct. Many writers have adopted an
improper style; but Mr. Sandeman stands pre
eminent for his systematic contempt of all bis
opponents, more especially of those who seemed
to be in earnest about religion. He always
speaks of infidels and men who made no profes
sion (of belief) with mildness and good humour ;
but those who differed from him met with no
quarter." Sandeman's view of faith has often
been animadverted on. His main position is
that justifying faith is nothing more than a
simple assent to the Divine testimony passively
received by the understanding. " Towards worldly
men, indeed, who make no pretence to religion,
the Sandemanian system," as Andrew Fuller
remarks, "seems to bear a friendly aspect; but
it discovers no concern for their salvation. It
would seem to have no tears to shed over a
perishing world, and even looks with a jealous
eye on those that have, glorying in the paucity
of its numbers." (Works of Sandeman; Glas's
Testimony to the King qf Martyrs?)
Sandomir, Consensus of, a union of the
three great Protestant bodies of Poland, Lutheran,
Bohemian, and Swiss, agreed upon at Sandomir,
on 14th April, 1570. Terms of union were
agreed upon, and formally ratified. But the
union was a hollow compromise, which was can
celled in the following century.
Sanhedrim. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia, under
" Council." Sanquhar Declaration. — See Queens
ferry Declaration  After Hall of Haugh-
head had been killed at Queensferry, on the 3d
of June, 1680, an unsigned paper was found in
his possession, which was never recognized by
the party of the Covenant. But on the 22d
of June, 1680, a party of twenty-one armed men
boldly entered the little burgh of Sanquhar, and
marched to the market cross, where they read and

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posted np a paper, throwing off all allegiance to
the government, and proclaiming themselves in
defiant rebellion. Large rewards were offered
for the apprehension of Cameron and Cargill,
the principal actors in the scene — five thousand
merks for Cameron, dead or alive. Cameron
was killed in a skirmish at Ayrs-moss in the
following month, and Cargill not long after
died a heroic martyr on the scaffold. The Stu
art tyranny in Scotland was intolerable, and
oppression often makes wise men mad. The
Sanquhar paper was as follows : — " It is not
amongst the smallest of the Lord's mercies
to this poor land, that there have been always
some who have given their testimony against
every course of defection (that many are guilty
of), which is a token for good, that he doth not
as yet intend to cast us off altogether, but that
he will leave a remnant in whom he will be
glorious, if they, through his grace, keep them
selves clean still, and walk in his way and
method, as it has been walked in and owned by
him in our predecessors of truly worthy memory,
in their carrying on of our noble work of refor
mation in the several steps thereof, from Popery,
Prelacy, and likewise Erastian supremacy, so
much usurped by him, who (it is true so far
as we know) is descended from the race of our
kings, yet he hath so far deborded from what he
ought to have been, by his perjury and usurpa
tion in church matters, and tyranny in matters
civil, as is known by the whole land, that we
have just reason to account it one of the Lord's
great controversies against us, that we have not
disowned him and the men of his practices,
(whether inferior magistrates or any other) as
enemies to our Lord and his crown, and the true
Protestant and Presbyterian interest in thir lands,
our Lord's espoused bride and church. Therefore,
although we be for government and governors,
such as the Word of God and our covenant allows,
yet we for ourselves, and all that will adhere to
us, as the representative of the true Presbyterian
kirk, and covenanted nation of Scotland, con
sidering the great hazard of lying under such a sin
any longer, do by thir presents disown Charles
Stuart, that has been reigning (or rather
tjTannizing, as we may say) on the throne of
Britain these years bygone, as having any right,
title to, or interest in the said crown of Scotland
for government, as forfeited several years since,
by his perjury and breach of covenant both to
God and his kirk, and usurpation of his crown
and royal prerogatives therein, and many other
breaches in matters ecclesiastic, and by his tyranny
and breach of the very leges regnandi in matters
civil. For which reason, we declare, that several
years since he should have been denuded of being
king, ruler, or magistrate, or of having any power
to act, or to be obeyed as such. As also, we being
under the standard of our Lord Jesus Christ,
Captain of salvation, do declare a war with such
a tyrant and usurper, and all the men of his

SAT
practices, as enemies to our Lord Jesus Christ,
and his cause and covenants; and against all
such as have strengthened him, sided with, or
anywise acknowledge him in his tyranny, civil
or ecclesiastic, yea, against all such as shall
strengthen, side with, or anywise acknowledge
any other in the like usurpation and tyranny, far
more against such as would betray or deliver, up
our free reformed mother-kirk unto the bondage
of Antichrist, the Pope of Rome. And by this we
homologate that testimony given at Rutherglen,
the 29th of May, 1679, and all the faithful tes
timonies of these who have gone before, as also
of these who have suffered of late. And we do
disclaim that declaration published at Hamilton,
June, 1679, chiefly because it takes in the king's
interest, which we are several years since loosed
from, because of the foresaid reasons, and others,
which may after this (if the Lord will) he published.
As also, we disown, and by this resent the recep
tion ofthe Duke of York, that professed papist,
as repugnant to our principles and vows to the
most high God, and as that which is the great,
though not alone, just reproach of our kirk and
nation. We also by this protest against his
succeeding to the crown; and whatever has
been done, or any are essaying to do in this land
(given to the Lord) in prejudice to our work of
reformation. And to conclude, we hope after
this none will blame us for, or offend at our re
warding these that are against us, as they have
done to us, as the Lord gives opportunity. This
is not to exclude any that have declined, if they
be willing to give satisfaction according to the
degree of their offence. — Given at Sanquhar,
June 22d, 1680."
Santa Casa (holy cottage)  See Loretto,
Holy House at.
Santo Tolto (holy countenance). — See Hand
kerchief, Holy.
Sarabaites, wandering imposters in the
fourth century, who moved from place to place
and traded in relics, spurious miracles, and other
superstitious deceptions.
Sarmentitii. — See Semaxh.
Sarum. — See Use.
Satanael, a being believed by the Bogomiles
to be the first-born of the Most High, but who
turned out to be a rebel against the divine
government. The Logos came to dislodge him
from earth, and he also forced him to give up
the last syllable of his name, el, which signified
God, and to retain simply the appellation of Satan.
This superstition is evidently Manicha?an in
origin and tendency — an attempt' to explain in
some form the origin and continuance of evil.—
See Bogomiles, Euchites.
Satanians, said to be a branch of the Massa-
lians, who paid court to the devil out of fear of
his power.
Satisfaction, a name often given to the
atonement — the sufferings of Christ being said
to satisfy divine justice. The word is used as a

665

SAT
legal one, and seems to have been first employed
by Tertullian, though the idea may be found in
earlier writers. In the early Church the work of
Christ was sometimes viewed in special refer
ence to Satan and our deliverance from his power.
The term satisfaction obtained currency from the
use and vindication of it by Anselm. Accord
ing to Anselm's theory, as man owes reverence to
the character of God and obedience to his laws,
whoever withholds this reverence and obedience
due to God, robs him of what belongs to him,
and must not only restore that which he with
held, but pay an additional amount, as amends
for the dishonour brought upon God. There
fore the payment of this debt is the satisfaction
which every sinner must make to God. This
man could never do, nor indeed any other than
God himself. But the Son of God, as God-man,
by his death makes this satisfaction. He was
able to make this satisfaction only as God ; but
as man he was also able to be surety for men,
and then himself actually to pay the debt, or
make satisfaction for them. The system of
Anselm had been extending through the Ro
mish Church ever since the twelfth century,
through the influence of the schoolmen, who
added to it various new subtleties, distinctions,
and terminologies. This same system was
adopted, in main, though with the slight altera
tion of some terms and representations, by a
considerable number of Protestant theologians.
Luther, Melanchthon, and the other early reform
ers, adhered more to the language of Scripture ;
but after the death of Luther, the theologians of
the Lutheran Church took sides in great num
bers with Anselm and Thomas Aquinas. As
we have elsewhere said, " On the governmental
relations of tlie death of Christ, which Coleridge
and others are so disposed to overlook, Dr Pye
Smith's theory is greatly clearer and sounder than
that of Magee ; for he shows that the efficacy of
Christ's sacrifice does not arise simply from the
divine appointment, but from its intrinsic virtue
— the dignity of his nature, the extent of his
humiliation, the perfection of his obedience, and
the substitutionary and representative character
of his death. His book in defence of the common
view is still an able protest against all dilutions of
the great central doctrine of vicarious suffering,
both by past and present disputants — either the
theory of Socinus, that the representation of Christ's
death as a sacrifice was meant to conciliate Jewish
prejudice ; or that of Grotius, that it was a great
penal example ; or that of Halley, that its effi
cacy sprang chiefly from the manifestation of
the personal virtues of the sufferer ; or that of
Maurice, that the redeeming element is not suf
fering but love ; or that of others, that it was a
fitting and graceful conclusion to a self-denied
life ; as well the notion of Jowett, that sacrifice
is only a Hebrew figure — an empty Orientalism,
as the notion of Hofmann, that the decease of
the God-Man was but his last contact with the

SAV
world's sin; or the more vague hypothesis of
Schweitzer, that Christ's being made a curse,
was simply his being doomed by the Jews to die
by law an ignominious death, and his being
made sin for us, merely his being treated as a
sinner by unjust judges.
Satisfaction, in a popish sense, is an impor
tant element in the sacrament of penance, it
being held that the penitent must satisfy divine
justice in order that temporal punishment may
be remitted, and this satisfaction may be made
by doing penance, or procuring an indulgence,
&c. The council of Trent, sess. 14, cap. 8,
The nature of divine justice seems to

demand that in one manner they who through
ignorance have sinned before baptism be received
into grace; and in another, those who, after
having been freed from the servitude of sin and
of the devil, and having received the gift of the
Holy Ghost, have not feared knowingly to
' defile the temple of God,' and ' to grieve the
Holy Spirit.' And it becomes the divine clem
ency that sins be not in suchwise remitted unto
us without any satisfaction, as that, occasion
being obtained, thinking sins less grievous, we
having done, as it were, an insult and a despite
unto the Holy Ghost, should fall into more
grievous sins, treasuring up ' wrath against the
day of wrath.' For without doubt these satisfac
tory punishments greatly recall from sin, and
restrain, as it were with a bridle, and make
penitents more cautious and watchful for the
future." Saturninians, a Gnostic sect founded at
Antioch early in the second century by Satur-
ninus. He taught that a number of spiritual
beings were created by " the unknown Father "
in successive gradations, in the lowest of which
came the spirits of the seven planets. These
seven, of whom the God of the Jews was chief,
formed the world and created man, in whom the
Father afterwards implanted a spark of his own
divine life. But in opposition to these spirits of
the planets — these creators and rulers of the
world— stood the evil principle, Satan, who also
created a race of evil men as antagonists to the
former, and the two races are ever continued
side by side. To put down the evil principle,
and to guide the souls of the children of light
back to the eternal Father, the jEon vails, or
Christ, came down in corporeal appearance, but
with no real body. Those who desire to enjoy
the benefits thus provided for them must abstain
from marriage, and also from eating flesh. — See
Gnostic. Sauces, a Coptic name, according to Jerome,
given to the Coenobites, as distinct from the
Anchorets. — See Anchorets, Cohnobites.
Sarigni, Order of, was founded in the
twelfth century, but soon merged into that of the
Cistertians. — See Cistertians.
Saviour, St., Order of, a name given to the
religious order founded by St. Bridget, because
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SAV
she gave out that its rules were given by Jesus
himself. — See Brigettins.
Savoy Conference, a series of meetings
held by commission at the residence of the
Bishop of London in the Savoy, in 1661, between
eleven episcopal dignitaries, along with the Arch
bishop of York at their head, and eleven emi
nent nonconformist ministers, including Baxter,
Calamy, and Manton. The interviews and dis
cussions led to no satisfactory result. — See
Liturgy. The nonconformists wished some
reform of the liturgy and some alterations of
ceremonial. — See Nonconformist, Puritans.
The points of dispute were at length summed
up, and the nonconformists declared that they
thought it sinful, — " 1. That no minister might
baptize without using the cross. 2. That none
might officiate who had scruples about the
surplice. 3. That none might communicate who
declined to kneel. 4. That ministers were forced
to pronounce all baptized children regenerate
by the Holy Ghost, whether they be the off
spring of Christians or not. 5. That ministers
are obliged to deliver the communion to the
unfit. 6. That ministers are obliged to absolve
the unfit, and in absolute terms. 7. That
they are forced to give thanks for all whom
they bury as those whom God hath in mercy
taken to himself. 8. That none may be a
preacher that dare not subscribe that there is
nothing in the Common Prayer, Ordination
Service, and Thirty-Nine Article's, that is con
trary to the Word of God." Ultimately the dis
cussion was concentrated on one point, viz.,
kneeling at the Sacrament, but with no better
success. In fine, the expiration of their commis
sion, July 24, 1661, left the parties farther than
ever from an agreement.
Savoy Confession of Faith, a declaration
of faith and order on the part of the Indepen
dents, agreed upon at a meeting in the Savoy in
1658. Chapters i. to xix. of the Savoy Con
fession correspond verbally to the Westminster
Confession; but chapter xx., " Of the Gospel and
the extent of the grace thereof," is additional :
"in which chapter, what is dispersed and in
serted by intimation in the Assembly's Confession
is here brought together and more fully under
one head." Chapters x^i. to xxvii. correspond
to chapters xx. to xxvi. of the Westminster,
with the following exceptions : — Clause four of
chapter xx., clauses five and six of chapter xxiv.,
and tbe third clause of chapter xxvi. are omitted;
the third clause of chapter xxiii. is modified; and
chapter xxv. is materially altered, a clause heing
added relating to the expectations of the Church.
Chapters xxx. and xxxi. are omitted ; but the
remaining chapters correspond. The Westmins
ter has thirty-three chapters ; the Savoy thirty-
two. — See Independency.
Scala Santa (holy stair). — This stair, con
sisting of twenty-eight white marble steps, is in
a chapel of the Church of St. John Lateran, at 667

SCH
Rome. It is affirmed to be the stair which
Christ ascended as he appeared before Pilate,
and that it was transported by angels from Jeru
salem to Rome. Myriads of" pilgrims creep up
its steps on their knees, carrying their rosaries
in their hands, kissing each step as they ascend,
and repeating a prayer at the top.
Scandal. — See Fama Clamosa ; Oath op
Purgation. Scapulary (from scapulae, the shoulder-
blades), a small garment thrown over the shoul
ders; worn by persons belonging to religious
orders as a mark of veneration for the Virgin.
The several fraternities are distinguished by
the colour, shape, and materials of these holy
badges. Breirut informs us tbat "The badge
which is called the holy scapulary is made of
two small pieces of woollen stuff, about the
extent of a hand, hanging by two little laces
down from the neck upon both the back and the
breast of the devout person who weal's it." It is
said to have been invented by Simon Stock, an
English Carmelite friar, in 1251.
Scarf, a piece of silk or other material, hang
ing from the neck, and worn over the surplice.
It is not referred to in the rubric, but dignitaries
of the Church of England use it  See Ora-
kium. Sceuophylaces, keepers of the vessels, the
place of deposit being the sceuophylacium. — See
CEIMELIARCH.E. Schartauans, a recent sect in Sweden, of a
sharp and fanatical character, and named after the
clergyman whom they profess to follow. Schar-
tau had some time ago preached for years in
Lund, had been the means of much good, and
when he died had left some skeletons of sermons
and a large number of devoted followers. They
had all been led into the study of God's Word,
the serious consideration of his commandments,
and of his greatest mercy to mankind in the gift
of his Son. So far it was well. But after the
death of their teacher, an idolatry of the man
and of his skeleton sermons commenced, and with
it a new era of Christian development, especi
ally in the southern parts of Sweden. It is
neither high church nor low church nor broad
church, but a sort of stony, hard, stereotype form,
a certain way of thinking, a certain way of
preaching, a certain way of talking, and looking,
and moving. All lay activity in the Christian
field is an abomination in the eyes of the Schar
tauans. They will join in no missionary work,
in no Bible society, because that is to be yoked
to unbelievers. They will not speak to you on
religious subjects, be you ever so interested,
unless you are an exclusive Schartauan. They
do not consider any one a really godly man unless
he every now and then speaks to 'the teacher,'
not 'the Great Teacher,' but the Schartauan
clergyman who may be nearest at hand and
considered most orthodox. Schartauism crept
into Gothenburg about twenty years ago. One

SCH
of its distinguishing features is a great horror of
the Moravians, founded on some unpleasant
experience of Shartau's own, in regard to some
one individual of that denomination. It shows
the character of the Schartauans, that from this
one circumstance they all feel the same indis
criminate horror of all Moravians. The humble,
quiet, Moravians have been persecuted and hunted
down by them. But another power is rising
against the despotism of the Schartauans, which
is gushing forth like a fresh, powerful fountain,
which no human force can control. It will, in
time, water the dry land around it, and make
even the Schartauan plantations bloom. We
hope that in a few years missionary efforts
will also be made. — See Sweden and Norway,
Churches in.
Schism. — Various great schisms are found
in the history of the Church. Thus there was
the great schism which divided the Eastern and
Western Churches. — See Eastern Church;
Creed, p. 187. Also, in the Western churches,
there were early schisms, thus : — 1. The Schism
of Hippolytus at Rome, about 220-235. Cal-
listus (Calixtus), a liberated slave, was, in 217,
raised to the see of Rome, not without stren
uous opposition from the more strict party in the
church. They charged him with a connivance at
every kind of transgression which was equally in
consistent with Christian earnestness and destruc
tive of all discipline. Besides, they also accused
him of holding the Noetian heresy. — See Noe-
tians. The opposition was headed by Hip
polytus, a presbyter, whom his adherents elected
counter-hishop. 2. The Schism of Felicissimus at
Carthage, about the year 250, was in reality an
opposition to the episcopal authority of Cyprian.
The moderate strictness of that bishop in dealing
with the lapsed was only made a pretext. Several
presbyters at Carthage were dissatisfied with the
appointment of Cyprian as bishop (248), and
sought to withdraw from his jurisdiction. At
their head was Novatus. — See Novatians. 3.
The Schism of Novatian, a Presbyter at Rome
(251). Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, exercised
a mild discipline, a practice opposed by the
more strict party, under the presbyter Novatian.
Wben Novatus of Carthage arrived at Rome he
joined the discontented party, although his own
views on ecclesiastical discipline had been the
very opposite of theirs, and incited them to sepa
ration. The strict party now chose Novatian as
their bishop. There was also the Schism qf
Meletius. — SeeMELETiANS, Egyptian. (Kurtz )
The Popish Church was rent by a great schism
in the fourteenth century. Seventy years did
the popes reside at Avignon; and after this
one party chose Urban VI., and another party
Clement VII. France held by the last, and
England by the first; and for the next half-
century the rival popes claimed each to be the
infallible head of the church, and each thundered
anathemas against the other. — See Pope.

SCH
Schism BiU, an act passed in Queen Anne's
reign, declaring that nonconformists teaching
schools were to suffer three months' imprison
ment, every schoolmaster being called on to
receive the sacrament and take the oaths. The
queen died, however, on the very day on which
the act was to have received her signature.
Schism Overture. — This overture came
before the Scottish general assembly of 1766, and
was produced by alarm at the rapid spread of the
secession. The overture affirms that a hundred
and twenty meeting-houses had been erected,
and the question was, what means should be
employed to remedy so great an evil, and
whether a committee might not be appointed to
correspond with presbyteries and with gentlemen
of property and influence, and to report? The
overture was rejected by a vote of nineteen to
eighty-five. The argument turned chiefly on
the law of patronage. The vote is usually
reckoned a great triumph of the moderate party.
Scholastic Theology. — See Theology.
Scholia, brief exegetical notes on Scripture,
their authors being usually called scholiasts.
Schoolmen, the writers and teachers during
the period of the scholastic theology. The most
famous of them were, — Albertus Magnus, a
Dominican friar, born in Suabia, and educated
in the university of Paris, and died at Cologne
in the year 1280. . Albert wrote a great number
of books, and, in those days of ignorance, was
accused of magic, and of having a brazen head,
which gave him answers. St. Bonaventure, sur
named the Seraphic Doctor, was born at B ago area,
a city of Tuscany, in 1221. He entered into the
order of the Minims in 1233, and followed bis
studies in the university of Paris, where he after
wards taught divinity. Gregory X. made him a
cardinal in 1272. St. Thomas Aquinas, sur
named the Angelical Doctor, was born in the
year 1224, in the castle of Aquin, in the territory
of Lahore, in Italy. In 1244 he went to
Cologne to study under Albertus Magnus ; thence
he went to Paris, where he took his doctor's
degree in 1255. He returned into Italy in
1263; and, after having taught scholastic
divinity in most of the universities of that
country, he settled at last in Naples. Scotus,
or John Duns Scotus, surnamed the Subtile
Doctor, was a Scotchman by birth, and came to
Paris about the year 1300. He particularly
taught the immaculate conception of the blessed
Virgin. He died soon after at Bologne in 1303.
William Occam, surnamed the Singular Doctor,
was born in the village of that name, in the
county of Surrey, in England, and was head of
the sect called the Nominalists. He flourished
in the university of Paris in the beginning of
the fourteenth century, and wrote a book con
cerning the power of the church and of the state,
to defend Philip the Fair against Pope Boniface
VIII. Raymond Lull}', surnamed Illuminatus,
descended of an illustrious family in Catalonia,

568

SCH
was born in the island of Majorca in 1236. He
was of the order of the Minims, and had acquired
a great knowledge of the oriental languages.
Durandus, surnamed the most Resolving Doctor,
was of St. Pourcain, a village in the diocese of
Clermont, in Auvergnes, and flourished in the
university of Paris from 1313 to 1318, in which
year he was named by the pope Bishop of Puy,
whence he was transferred to the bishopric of
Meaux. Thomas Bradwardin, an Englishman,
surnamed the Profound Doctor, was author of a
treatise De Causa Dei against Pelagius. — See
Doctor, Theology.
Schools (schola, leisure). — See Libraries.
— In ancient times schools were taught in the
church, or in some building attached t6 it. Thus
Julian is said by Socrates to have frequented the
Church of Constantinople, in which the schools
were kept. Catechetical and charity schools
were also established, especially for instruction
in scriptural knowledge. The second council of
Chalons, in 813, enacted, that bishops should
set up schools to teach ordinary literature and
a knowledge of the Scriptures. Other councils
issued similar enactments — as the sixth general
council of Constantinople, which recommends
the erection of charity schools in rural parishes,
in which all the children might be taught with
out the payment of fees, the teachers getting
only what the parents might bring of their own
accord, sua voluptale. Schools were sometimes
also attached to monasteries. — See Catechetic
Schools. Schools and churches have thus been
associated in all ages and lands. — See Sunday
Schools. It falls not within our province pre
cisely to take account of such of them as the
public schools, free schools, endowed schools,
or national schools of England ; but as the pa
rish schools of Scotland had a special connec
tion with the church, and were for many a day
the only sources of instruction to the young, and
did such good for the country, we present a brief
account of them in the following article. It may
be premised, however, that these schools have
not of late years educated a-half of the popula
tion, and that the higher branches of education
are generally taught elsewhere. Scotland stands
in great need of more gymnasia — that is, inter
mediate or grammar schools.
Schools, Parish, in Scotland. — Asearlyas
the reign of David I. there were grammar schools
in the principal towns of Scotland, and in many
of the monasteries. There were also "lecture
schools," as tbey were called, in which the young
were taught to read the vernacular language.
These seminaries were placed under the superin
tendence of the clergy, who held a monopoly of
the learning of these remote times. We find, for
example, in the cartulary of Kelso that all the
churches and schools in Roxburgh were bestowed
by David I. on the monastery of Kelso, and the
schools of Perth and Stirling were confirmed to the
monks of Dunfermline by Richard, Bishop of St.

SCH
Andrews, from 1163 to 1173. The first effort of
the Scottish parliament to promote tbe education
of the people was made in the year 1494, when
it was enacted, under a penalty of twenty pounds
Scots, that all barons and substantial freeholders
" should put their eldest sons and heirs to the
schools, fram they be six or nine years of age,
and to remain at the grammar schools until they
be competently founded and have perfect Latin ;
and thereafter to remain three years at the schools
of arts and jure (law), so that they have know
ledge and understanding of the laws, through
the whilk justice may remain universally through
all the realm." No provision, however, was
made for the education of the common people
until the period of the Reformation. In the
First Book of Disdpline, chap, vii., the import
ance of schools is strongly inculcated, in order
that the youth may have knowledge and learning
to profit and comfort the church. It is declared
to be a matter of necessity that " every parish
should have one schoolmaster appointed — such a
one, at least, as might be able to teach grammar
and the Latin tongue, if the town were of any
reputation. If it were a country parish, where the
people convened to the doctrine only once in the
week, then must either the minister or the reader
there appointed take care over the children and
youth of the parish, to instruct them in the first
rudiments, and especially in the Catechism, as
we have it now translated in the Book of Com
mon Order, called the 'Order of Geneva.'" It
was further provided that " no father, of whatso
ever rank, should use his children at his own fancy,
especially in youth, but that all were to be com
pelled to bring up their children in learning and
virtue. The rich and powerful were to be exhorted,
and, by the censure of the church, compelled to
dedicate their sons to the profit of the church
and commonwealth ; and this was to be done at
their own expense. The children of the poor
were to be supported at the charge of the church
if they showed a genius for letters." It was also
appointed, that when the ordinary curriculum
had been passed through, " the children should
either proceed to farther knowledge, or else they
must be set to some handie craft, or to some other
profitable exercise ; providing alwaies that first
they have the knowledge of God's law and com
mandments, the use and office of the same, the
chiefe articles of the beleefe, the right forme to
pray unto God, the number, use, and effect of
the sacraments, the true knowledge of Christ
Jesus, of his offices and natures, and such other
points, without the knowledge whereof neither
any man deserves to be called a Christian, neither
ought any man to be admitted to the participa
tion of the Lord's Table." At this period, how
ever, there was no law which compelled the
heritors or parishioners to establish schools or to
provide salaries for the teachers. The church
courts of the ministers, in their several parishes,
exerted themselves strenuously to supply this

569

SCH
defect. Measures were taken by many of the
kirk-sessions to provide education for the poor
out of the parochial funds, and in cases of youths
of promising ability and remarkable diligence, it
was not uncommon to give an additional sum
to prepare them for the university. It was
declared that "gif ony puir refuis to come to
school, help of sic thing as thay'neid and requyr
shall be refused to them. And as for sic as ar
able to sustein ther bairnes at the school, and do
ther dewtie to the teacher for them, thay shall be
comraandit to put them to the school, that thay
may be brought up in the fear of God and virtue ;
quhilk if thay refuise to do, thay shall be called
before the sessioun and admonished of their dew-
tie." A number of the ministers established and
endowed schools at their own expense. Their
zealous efforts to promote the education of the
people were attended with great success. It
appears from a report of the visitation of a num
ber of the parishes in the synod of Fife in 1611
and 1613, that at that early period, of the pa
rishes visited, " those which had were more than
double in number to those which had not schools."
In 1616 the privy council empowered the bishops,
in conjunction with the heritors, to establish a
school in every parish in their respective dioceses,
and to assess the land for that purpose, for the
advancement of true religion and the training of
children " in civility, godliness, knowledge, and
learning." This act, however, was not vigorously-
carried out, and in 1626 an effort was made by
Charles I. to remedy the defect. The aet of the
privy council in 1616 was confirmed by the par
liament in 1633, and under its authority a num
ber of additional schools were erected in the more
cultivated districts of the country. Five years
later the general assembly gave directions " for
the settling of schools in every parish, and pro
viding entertainment for men able for the charge
of teaching youth." A representation was made
to his majesty that the "means hitherto appointed
for schools of all sorts have both been little and
ill paid," and presbyteries were ordered to see
" that every parish should have a school where
children are to be bred in reading, writing, and
grounds of religion." The revival of the presby
terian form of church government, which took
place at this period, gave a powerful impetus to
the cause of education, and there is good reason
to believe that soon after that time schools were
generally established in almost every part of the
lowlands of Scotland. We are told by Kirkton
tbat before the restoration of Charles II. " every
village had a school, every family almost had a
Bible ; yea, in most of the country all the chil
dren of age could read the Scriptures." The
dissensions which Boon after broke out in Scot
land unfortunately prevented the nation from
reaping the benefits of this judicious policy, and
threatened to reduce the whole country to a state
of absolute barbarism. After the revolution,
however, had established peace and order in the

670

SCH
kingdom, an act was passed in 1696 which de
clared that "there be a school founded and a
schoolmaster appointed in every parish (not
already provided), by advice of the presbvteries ;
and to this purpose that the heritors do in every
congregation meet among themselves and pro
vide a commodious house for a school, and modify
a stipend to the schoolmaster, which shall not
be under 100 merks (£5 lis. 1yd.), nor above
200 merks (£11 2s. 2Jd.), to be paid yearly at
two terms." The teacher was required to sub
scribe the Confession of Faith, and to promise to
conform to the worship and to submit to the dis
cipline of the Established Church. The right of
appointing the schoolmaster and selecting the
branches to be taught was vested in the heritors
of each parish ; while the duty of examining the
teacher before his induction to office, and of judg
ing of his qualifications, and of superintending and
visiting the school, was entrusted to the presby
tery. This famous act laid the foundation of
Scotland's proudest distinction, and has proved
one main source of her subsequent prosperity.
For more than a century after the enactment of
this law the Scottish parochial schools were wholly
overlooked by the legislature. The emoluments
of the schoolmasters, in consequence, remained
stationary, while those of every other profession
and trade increased; and therefore their social
status, acquirements, and influence, were greatly
deteriorated. Their depressed condition at length
attracted the attention of the legislature, and in
1803 an act wa3 passed which declared " that
the salary of each parochial schoolmaster in every
parish in Scotland should not be under the sum
of 300 merks Scots (£16 13s. 4d.) per annum, nor
above the sum of 400 merks (£22 4s. 5 Jd.), except
in cases where it is necessary to have two or more
parochial schoolmasters in one parish." The
heritors were also required to provide a dwelling-
house, of not more than two rooms, for the teacher.
At the same time the right of electing the school
master and managing the school was limited to
thoselheritors who possessed a hundred pounds Scots
of valued rent, and to the minister of the parish ;
and the teachers were placed wholly under the
jurisdiction of their respective presbyteries, and
were deprived of the right of appeal to the supe
rior courts. The act further provided that the
salaries are to be revised every twenty-five years,
the average price of oatmeal during the preced
ing twenty-five regulating the salaries 'during
the succeeding twenty-five. At the first revision,
in 1828, an addition was made to the salaries of
the parochial teachers — the maximum was raised
to £34 4s. 4d., and the minimum to £25 13s. 3d. ;
but these sums were reduced nearly one-third at
the second revision, which fell due in 1853; but
was delayed by temporary acts until 1857.
Various attempts were made during the interval
to increase the emoluments of the schoolmasters,
and to adapt the system to the existing state of
the country, but the prejudices and conflicting

SCH
interests of rival sects rendered them abortive.
At length an act was passed in the session of
1861, mainly through the exertions of Lord
Advocate Moncrieff, which has made a number
of important changes in the constitution of the
parochial schools. The minimum salary has
been raised to £35, and the maximum to £70
a-year, with a house of not less than three apart
ments, besides the kitchen. Instead of the ex
amination by the presbytery, the schoolmaster
elect is to be examined by a Board chosen by
the University Court, of one or other of the four
Scottish universities, and composed of six pro
fessors (three of whom must be professors of
divinity), or by their deputies, one half of whom
must be graduates of arts, and the other ministers
or licentiates of the Church of Scotland. The
electors may, if they shall see fit, nominate two
or three persons to be tried by the examiners,
whose duty it shall be to determine which of
them is the best qualified for the office. The
parochial teachers are not now required to sub
scribe the Confession of Faith, or the formula
of the Established Church, or to profess that
they will submit themselves to its government
and discipline. But before induction into office,
the schoolmaster elect must solemnly declare,
that in the discharge of his official duties, he
will never endeavour, directly or indirectly, to
inculcate any opinions opposed to the divine
authority of the Holy Scriptures, or to tbe
doctrines contained in the Shorter Catechism;
and that he will faithfully conform thereto in the
instruction of his pupils ; and that he will not
exercise the functions of his office to the preju
dice or subversion of the Church of Scotland, as
by law established, or of its doctrines and privi
leges. If any schoolmaster should be guilty of
contravening this declaration, the Secretary of
State may, on the complaint of the presbytery
or heritors, appoint a commission to inquire into
the case, and to censure, suspend, or deprive the
offender, as they shall find to be just, provided
that this sentence shall not take effect until it
has been confirmed by the Secretary of State.
A schoolmaster charged with immoral conduct,
or cruel and improper treatment of his scholars,
is henceforth to be tried, not by the presbytery,
but by the sheriff of the county, on a complaint
being made by the heritors or minister, or of
any six heads of families in the parish whose
children are attending the school. The sheriff's
decision is final, and not subject to review.
When the schoolmaster of any parish is dis
qualified, through infirmity or old age, or
has been found, on a report by one of her
Majesty's inspectors of schools, to have failed,
from negligence or inattention, efficiently to
discharge his duties, » meeting of the heritors
and ministers may compel him to resign his
office. But they are empowered to grant him a
retiring allowance, amounting to at least two-
thirds of his salary.

SCO
Schwenkfeldians, the name of a religious
party which arose in Siberia in the sixteenth
century, and was named after Casper Schwenk-
feldt, a knight of the country. Schwenkfeldt
opposed Luther on the doctrine of the Eucharist,
maintaining that the words " this is my body,"
mean "my body is this," is as this bread,
genuine spiritual food. He denied, also, the
power of Scripture to enlighten, ascribing all
enlightenment to the internal Word, or Christ
himself. Nor, in fine, would he call the glorified
humanity of Jesus a creature ; for he held that
it was in some sense absorbed into the divine
essence. The followers of Schwenkfeldt suffered
no little persecution. In 1725 a number of
them fled into Saxony, and thence many of
them emigrated to America in 1734. They are
found principally in Pennsylvania, and are not
numerous. They have a special service for
new-born infants.
Scotists, or followers of Duns Scotus, who
died at Cologne in 1308. On many points, such
as grace and predestination, they were opposed
to the Thomists, or followers of Thomas Aquinas.
The Scotists mamtained the immaculate concep
tion of the Virgin against the Thomists, and
also the moral efficacy of the sacraments. The
Jesuits adopted the views of the Scotists, and
the Dominicans those of the Thomists. In phil
osophy Scotus was a Realist. — See Nominalism.
Scotland, Churches in. — See Culdees.
— Popery had ascendency in Scotland for many
centuries, though again and again the Scottish
Church mamtained a vigorous independence of
the holy see. As far back as in 1225 Pope Hono
rius reminded the church in Scotland of its sub
jection to the papal see ; but the northern bishops
would not listen. In 1242 the Scottish Church
passed a number of canons for itself, which were
confirmed by the king and parliament. Some
of these eighty-four canons are remarkable:—
Canon x. requires, "That as they who serve
at the altar ought to live by the altar, all vicars
shall receive adequate maintenance out of the
rents of the churches, the free and clear portion
of each, after deduction of all burdens, being at
least ten merks, if there be sufficient means, —
provided always that in the richer benefices
greater allowances shall be assigned to the vicars.
About this time the minimum of salaries to the
vicars in England was five merks, except in some
parts of Wales, where tbey were required to be
content with less. It appears from several docu
ments that ten or twelve merks sterling was the
usual provision in that age for the vicars in this
part of the country.— See Revenues. Canon
xiii. ordains, that every parish shall have a dwell
ing-house near the church, in which the bishop or
archdeacon may be respectably accommodated,
and that such mansion shall be built within the
year, at the joint expense of the parsons and
their vicars, in just proportions; but the support
of their fabrics shall be a burden upon the vicars,

671

SCO
who enjoy the use and advantage of them. The
eighteenth is more remarkable. It declares that
the beauty and order of the church are polluted
by the contagion of licentious passions, and that
there is a necessity for executing the decretals of
the Roman pontiffs on this head, lest the church
should be accused of conniving at such gross
irregularities. It therefore ordains " that all cleri
cal persons who publicly keep concubines, either
in their own houses or in other houses, shall
remove them entirely within a month, and shall
not attempt to keep others in the places of those
who are removed, under the penalty of being
suspended from their office and benefices. The
archdeacons and rural deans are required to make
a strict search into all such cases as may be re
ported to them, and inviolably to observe this
regulation." The last Scottish ecclesiastical
council was held at Edinburgh, March, 1558,
and was prolonged till April of the following
year, on the eve of the Reformation. It had
just concluded its sitting when word came that
Knox had landed at Leith. It promulgated
thirty-three canons, which, though in some of
them concessions were made to the spirit of the
age, for the most part but renewed the laws of
former councils. For example, with the view of
preserving uniformity in doctrine, the sixteenth
canon enumerates the following as the great
doctrines to be believed and taught : — 1. Tradi
tion ; 2. Invocation of saints ; 3. The right use
of images ; 4. Purgatory ; 5. Transubstantiation ;
6. Communion in one kind by the laity ; 7. Pro
fit of the sacrifice of the Mass-; 8. Regular ordi
nation for the ministering of the sacraments.
But this council did one notable thing, — it issued
a small treatise, called in derision The Twapenny
Faith. This catechism is commonly called Arch
bishop Hamilton's, because printed at his expense,
and having his name on the title page and colo
phon ; but there is no evidence to prove the primate
of all Scotland to have been the author. It was
printed in the vulgar language, and written, Dr.
M'Crie asserts, with great care, and in a style
by no means bad. It must he considered as
the first catechism published in Scotland. The
council ordered that it should be sent to all rec
tors, vicars, and curates, who were enjoined to
read a portion of it, instead of a sermon, to their
parishioners, on every Sunday and holy day,
when no person qualified for preaching was pre
sent. It is probable that John Winram or
Wynram, sub-prior of the abbey of St. Andrews,
and afterwards superintendent of Fife, was the
author of the catechism.— See Superintendent.
The various orders of the Romish clergy were
found in Scotland. The regular clergy were
the Augustinians, Benedictines, Carmelites, or
Whitefriars, Franciscans, or Greyfriars, and the
Carthusians. The Benedictines were subdivided
into the monks of Mairmointier, Chini, Tyron,
and Cistertiane, or Bernardines. Their principal
monasteries were Coldingham and Dunfermline,

SCO
Kelso, Kilwinning, Arbroath, and Lindoris,
Paisley, Crossraguel and Icolmkill, Melrose,
Newbattle, Dnndrennan, Kinloss, and Culross.
The Augustinians could discharge the duties of
parish ministers. They possessed twenty-eight
monasteries in Scotland; among them, Scone,
Inchcolm, St. Andrews, Holyrood House, Aber
nethy, Cambuskenneth, and St. Mary's Isle. The
monastery of St. Andrews, one of the most
wealthy in the kingdom, was a priory indepen
dent of an abbot, and its prior, by an act of
James I., had precedence of all other abbots and
priors. This king also gave permission to the
Carthusians to possess an establishment at Perth.
The number of abbeys and monasteries consider
ably exceeded a hundred. The nunneries were
not so numerous; there were above twenty,
some of which contained many inmates. " It
is impossible," says Dr. Lee, " now to obtain
an exact computation of the numbers, both
male and female, who devoted themselves to a
monastic life, but they must have amounted to
several thousands." The monasteries possessed a
great number of churches. Paisley had twenty-
eight ; Arbroath, thirty-two ; and Kelso, thirty-
six ; the cure was generally served by vicars.
The number of dioceses in the thirteenth century,
according to Mr. Innes, was twelve ; at the end
of the fourteenth century, and commencement
of the fifteenth, the number, according to Dr.
Lee, was thirteen, — the bishopric of Edinburgh,
which existed only for a brief period, having
been added. The primate of all Scotland was
the Archbishop of St. Andrews. The twelve
dioceses were as follows: — The diocese of St
Andrews, having two archdeaconries, St. An
drews and Lothian; the former had five rural
deaneries, Fife, Fothriff, Gowrie, Angus, Mearns ;
the latter three, Lothian, Linlithgow, and Merse.
The diocese of Dunkeld, divided into the four
rural deaneries of Atholl, Angus, Fife, and the
country south ofthe firth. The diocese of Aber
deen, having three rural deaneries, Mar, Buchan,
and Garvianch; two more were added after
wards, viz., Aberdeen and Boyne. The diocese
of Moray possessed four rural deaneries, Elgin,
Inverness, Strathspey, and Strathbolgy. The
diocese of Brechin was of limited extent, and
" had no subordinate divisions for rural deans"
— the diocese of Dunblane, sometimes called the
bishopric of Stratherne — the diocese of Ross —
— the diocese of Caithness — the diocese of Glas
gow, having two archdeaconries, viz., Glasgow
proper and Teviotdale ; the former had the five
rural deaneries of Rutherglen, Lennox, Lanark,
Kyle, and Carrie ; the latter, the four deaneries of
Teviotdale, Peebles, Nithsdale, and Annandale.
The diocese of Galloway had three deaneries, viz.,
Desnes, Fames, and Kinnes. The diocese of Ar
gyle, sometimes termed Lismore, possessed the
four deaneries of Kintyre, Glassary, Lorn, and
Morven. Lastly there was the diocese of the Isles
or Sodor. — See Sodoe. Immense sums were be-

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queathed in Scotland for the celebration of masses
in cathedrals, chapels, and altarages. In St.
Andrews alone, the chaplainries and altarages de
rived great revenues from the rents mortified out
of almost every dwelling-house and every field in
the neighbourhood. There were separate chaplains
to every altar, and sometimes a single altar had
a great number of chaplains. Dr. Lee gives a
list of twenty-four altars, exclusive of those
belonging to the cathedral or priory. The cele
brated Walter Chepman, who, along with An
drew Miller, printed the Aberdeen Breviary,
being a burgess of Edinburgh, founded and en
dowed by a charter, dated 1st August, 1513, an
altar in the south transept, or "holy blood aisle,"
of St. Giles's Church, the cathedral of the see of
Edinburgh, "in honour of God, the Virgin Mary,
Saint John the Evangelist, and all saints." Next
in rank to the cathedrals were the prcepositurce,
or collegiate churches, thirty-three being the num
ber in Scotland.
But a religious revolution had long been immi
nent, and various causes hastened it on. The
biographer of Knox gives the following sum
mary : — " The corruptions by which the Chris
tian religion was universally depraved before the
Reformation, had grown to a greater height in
Scotland than in any other nation within the pale
of the Western Church. Superstition and reli
gious imposture, in their grossest forms, gained
an easy admission among an ignorant and rude
people. By means of these the clergy attained
to an exorbitant degree of opulence and power,
which were accompanied, as they always have
been, with the corruption of their order, and of
the whole system of religion. The full half of
the wealth of the nation belonged to the clergy,
and the greater part of this was in the hands of
a few of their number, who had the command of
the whole body. Avarice, ambition, and the
love of secular pomp, reigned among the several
orders. Bishops and abbots rivalled the first
nobility in magnificence, and preceded them
in honours. They were privy-councillors, and
lords of session, as well as of parliament, and
had long engrossed the principal offices of state.
. . . There was not such a thing known
as for a bishop to preach. Indeed, I scarcely
recollect a single instance of it mentioned in
history, from the erection of the regular
Scottish Episcopate down to the period of the
Reformation. The practice had even gone into
desuetude among all the secular clergy, and had
wholly devolved upon the mendicant monks,
who employed it for the most mercenary pur
poses. The lives of the clergy, exempted from
secular jurisdiction, and corrupted by wealth and
idleness, had become a scandal to religion, and
an outrage upon decency. While they professed
chastity, and prohibited, under the severest
penalties, any of the ecclesiastical order from
contracting lawful wedlock, the bishops set the
example of the most shameless profligacy before

SCO
the inferior clergy, avowedly kept their mis
tresses, provided their natural sons with bene
fices, and gave their daughters in marriage to
the sons of the nobility and principal gentry,
many of whom were so mean as to contaminate
the blood of their families by such base alliances
for the sake of the rich dowries which they
brought. Through the blind devotion and mu
nificence of princes and nobles, monasteries —
those nurseries of superstition and idleness— had
greatly multiplied in the nation; and though
they had universally degenerated, and had be
come notoriously the haunts of lewdness and
debauchery, it was deemed impious and sacrile
gious to reduce their number, abridge their privi
leges, or alienate their funds. The kingdom
swarmed with ignorant, idle, and luxurious
monks, who, like locusts, devoured the fruits of
the earth, and filled the air with pestilential
infection. . . . The ignorance of the clergy
respecting religion was as gross as the dissolute
ness of their manners. Even bishops were not
ashamed to confess that they were unacquainted
with the canons of their faith, and had never
read any part of the sacred Scriptures, except
what they met with in their missals. Under
such pastors the people perished for lack of
knowledge. The book which was able to make
them wise unto salvation, and was intended to
be equally accessible to all, was locked up from
them, and the use of it in their native tongue
was prohibited under the heaviest penalties.
The religious services were mumbled over in
dead languages, which many even of the priests
did not understand, and some of them could not
read. ... Of the doctrine of Christianity
nothing remained but the name. . . Divine
service was neglected, so that, except on a few
festival days, the places of worship in many parts
of the country served only as sanctuaries for male
factors, places of traffic, and resorts for pastime."
Henry VIII. having seceded from the pope,
used all his influence with James V. of Scotland,
his nephew, also to break off all connection with
the Roman pontiff. He sent a messenger to per
suade James to this purpose, and to hold out the
possibility of succeeding to the throne of Eng
land should Edward die. He also appointed a
meeting with James at York, but the absence of
James enraged Henry, and war was declared.
Henry VIII. concerted that James V. should
marry his daughter Elizabeth, but Beaton and
the priests secured his marriage with the daugh
ter of the French king, and after her death, he
married Mary of Lorraine. For the active part
which Beaton took in the king's marriage he was
made Archbishop of St. Andrews. Patrick
Hamilton, cousin of James V., a noble and godly
youth, had imbibed Lutheranism, and after
travelling in Europe, holding intercourse with
Melanchthon, and attaining a knowledge of the
principles of the Reformation, he returned aud
laboured to make known those truths ; but through

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the influence of Cardinal Beaton, he was con
demned for heresy, and at the age of twenty-
four, he, the first martyr in Scotland, was burned
at tbe stake. In 1538 five men were burned in
one huge pile in the Castle Hill of Edinburgh.
One of them, Thomas Forrest, was called to
account by the Bishop of Dunkeld for preaching,
but the bishop said if he found any good gospel
or good epistle he might preach it. Thomas
Forrest said he had read the Old and the New
Testament, and never found any bad. The
bishop thanked God he had lived well many years,
and had never read either the Old or the New
Testament. — See Mortuary. When they pre
pared the pile to burn Thomas Forrest, and selected
for it a prominent point, in order that the flames
might be visible from the shores of Angus, a witty
friend said to the archbishop, " My lord, if ye
burn any more, except ye follow my counsel, ye
will utterly destroy yourselves. If ye will burn
them, let it be in how (hollow) cellars ; for the
reek (smoke) of Master Patrick Hamilton has
infected as many as it blew upon." Cardinal
Beaton now began again his persecutions at
Perth : five men and one woman were condemned,
the men to be hanged and the woman drowned.
The woman's name was Helen Stark. When in
the pain of child-bearing, urged by her nurse to
pray to the Virgin, she said she would only pray
to God in the name of Jesus Christ. The car
dinal's next victim was George Wishart, a heroic,
saintly minister. From the window of his cham
ber the cardinal gloried in the agonizing suffer
ings of the martyr in the flames, from which
window, a few days after, his own dead body,
pierced with many wounds by a band of assassins,
was exhibited. This was in 1546. John Rough,
in debate with Arran, a popish priest, being
inferior to his antagonist, called in John Knox
to his aid. From that time John Knox took a
leading hand in all the Reformation. Beaton,
by a fictitious will, was regent till the deceit
was discovered, and then divested of the office
so obtained by fraud, and the Earl of Arran was
appointed regent. The queen's mother laid
cunningly her plans to obtain the regency, and
succeeded in her schemes April 10, 1554. Ed
ward VI., son of Jane Seymour, succeeded his
father, Henry VIII., and, dying of consumption
in 1553, was succeeded by Mary, daughter of
Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, well
named Bloody Mary. On the persecution
Mary raised, many great and good men and
ministers were driven from England to Scot
land. Of these were William Harlow and
John Willox, the last named the after com
panion of John Knox. In 1555 John Knox
returned to Scotland, and engaged many noble
men in the interests of the Reformation. The
priesthood, alarmed at the progress of the Re
formation, summoned John Knox to appear in
the Blackfriars Church, Edinburgh, 1556. He
appeared, and had the field to himself, but,

SCO
receiving letters from his former church in
Geneva, he returned there the same year. The
Reformation still spread in Scotland. The queen
regent, in 1557, laboured much that the Scotch
parliament should confer the crown matrimonial
on Francis the dauphin, that there might be the
closest union between Scotland and France, the
king of the one being also the king of the other,
and that the French power might give the popish
clergy paramount influence in Scotland, and
enable tbem to extirpate the Reformation. The
nobles wrote to John Knox in Geneva. He
came to Dieppe, but there received discouraging
letters, and having written much to the nobles
and to Scotland, he returned to Geneva in 1558.
The nobles, much encouraged by Knox's letters,
resolved to pursue the Reformation. In 1557
the first covenant was ratified in Edinburgh,
engaging the true church and the pure and faith
ful ministry against Satan and all popish agents,
and calling God to witness, subscribed by earls,
lords, and commons. From the repeated word
congregation, the chief subscribers were after
this called the lords of the congregation, and
the people adhering to it, the congregation. In
1558 Walter Mill, a minister, aged eighty-four,
was burned at the stake. A plot was laid by
the princes of the House of Lorraine, to form a
league between France and Spain, for the utter
destruction of the Reformation in Europe, and
that as England was the most powerful Protes
tant kingdom, and Elizabeth on the throne, she
should be deposed, and the crown bestowed on a
popish monarch. As Mary was the nearest heir-
apparent to the English crown, therefore, through
Scotland, England should be assailed. Her plans
being at length matured, the queen regent im
mediately threw off the mask, and summoned
the reformed preachers to appear at St. Andrews
before the archbishop. A deputation of Protes
tants waited on the queen, stating they wonld
meet when their ministers were called, and see
justice done. The queen, alarmed, caused the
trial to be postponed, and summoned a conven
tion of nobility to meet at Edinburgh, March
7, 1559, to settle religion, and a provincial
council of the clergy to meet at the same place
on the 1st of March. The convention and
council met at the same time. To the council of
clergy the Protestants gave in some preliminary
articles of Reformation, which paper was thrown
out, and a paper presented by the friends of the
Church of Rome, craving redress of certain griev
ances, was answered. A recent plot had been
formed between the clergy and the queen, that
they would raise large sums of money to en
able her to try and maintain forces to suppress
the Reformation. The Protestants, discarding this
treaty, left the council, and as soon as they were
gone, a proclamation, by the authority of the
queen, was made at the market cross, forbidding
ministers to preach or administer the sacraments
without authority from the bishops; also that the

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feast of Easter should be celebrated according
to the rules of the Catholic Church. This pro
clamation the Protestants regarded as a declar
ation of direct hostility against them, and now
they must either maintain their ground or
abandon all that they held most sacred. The
queen, having gone too far to retract, summoned
four to stand trial before the justiciary court
at Stirling, for disregarding the proclamation,
teaching heresy, and exciting sedition. When
a committee remonstrated with the queen, she
said, " she would banish them if they preached as
soundly as Paul did." Knox now returned from
Germany, and went and preached at Perth.
There was a riot, and images were destroyed.
The queen employed the Earl of Argyle and
Lord James Stewart to treat with the Reformers
in Perth. But she broke the treaty, and Argyle
and Stewart forsook the queen's party and
joined the congregation. Before leaving Perth,
the lords of the congregation framed and sub
scribed a second covenant, subscribed in the
name of the whole congregation by the Earls of
Argyle and Glencairn, Lord James Stewart, Boyd,
and Ochiltree. The queen regent having broken
the treaty, raised an army. The question by
the congregation was, What must be done?
Lord James Stewart was Prior of St. Andrews,
and having cordially joined the Reformers, he
authoritatively invited John Knox to meet him
there on a certain day and preach publicly in
the Abbey Church. The Archbishop, alarmed,
notified the queen, and hastened with an army,
threatening Knox that if he preached his men
would shoot him. Knox preached on, " Christ
getting traffickers from the temple." On the
three following days he preached in the same
place, and such was the effect that the magistrates
and the town agreed to set up the reformed
worship in the town ; and immediately stripped
the church of images, pictures, and demolished
the monasteries. The parliament that met on the
10th 'of June adjourned till the 1st of August,
The business was introduced by a petition from
numerous Protestants, which asked that, — 1. The
antichristian doctrine of the Roman Chnrch be
discarded. 2. That purity of doctrine be restored.
3. That the ecclesiastical revenues be applied to
support a pious and active ministry, to promote
learning and supply the poor. A confession of
faith, drawn up chiefly by Knox, was adopted,
and other measures were carried, abolishing the
pope's jurisdiction in Scotland. In pursuance
of the acts of parliament, the first General
Assembly of the Reformed Church of Scotland
met on the 20th of December, 1560. It con
sisted of only twelve ministers and thirty ruling
elders, but we find these increased in 1567 to 257
ordained ministers, 151 exhorters, and 455
readers; and in 1581 the number of parish kirks
was fixed at 600, with an ordained minister
each — "so mightily grew the Word and pre
vailed." And thus, as honest, plain-spoken

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John Rowe, says, " the Reformation passed for
ward day lie; needless kirks, and idolatrous,
prophan, sumtuous buildings were demolished;
and I think it was true that Mr. Knox said,
' Doun with these crow nests, else the crowes will
big in them again 1 ' And was there any wrong
there? I will not justifie all particular things
done at that tyme, in casting doune some kirks
which had been usef ull for God's service, in taking
away bells, and rugging doune such ornaments
as might make the doers of that great commoditie
worldly riche ; for, can any think, tbat in such
a great alteration in a kingdome, everie man
did everie thing rightlie ? Yit, in the generall, I
say, in the work of Reformation, the rooting out
of idolatrie, and the planting of the sinceritie of
the gospell, was chiefly looked into; insomuch
that the faithfull servants of God, who were the
first preachers of his blessed word in this king-
dome, had little mynd of themselves, or how
they might be entertained ; butpansed (thought)
how this great work might be effectual to God's
glorie, and the salvation of his people's soulles.
For this I wish all men to know, that the Re
formation of religion came in otherwise to
Scotland than in other parts; because the
queen, who then had the autoritie, being a
malicious enemie to God's trueth, thought that
she should suppresse the Protestants in this
kingdome, by the bringing in of Frenchmen to
help the Papists who were upon hir side ; yit
the Lord disappoynted her. And, she dying,
the work of Reformation prospered: and the
ministers that were took not their pattern from
any kirk in the world, no, not fra Geneva itself;
but, laying God's Word before them, made Re
formation according thereunto both in doctrine
first, and then in discipline — when as they
might get it overtaken. But in other places (as
England), the Reformation coming in by autor
itie of the magistrat, nothing could be gotten
done but according to the magistrate desyre;
whilk hes bene the cause why other kirks pro
fessing the same trueth with us yit had never
the sinceritie of discipline amongst them, whilk
is the thing that very few magistrats or great
personages (who would have absolute and un
limited autoritie and power to doe what they
will both in the state tyrranicallie, and in the kirk
antichristian like) can away with." Immediately
after the meeting of the first assembly, Knox
and five other ministers drew up the First Book
of Disdpline. — See Discipline, Books of.
Meantime the settlement of ministers of the
Protestant religion, and other arrangements for
the national establishment of the Protestant
Church, proceeded. By act of parliament, 1567,
it was declared " that tbe examination and ad
mission of ministers within this realm be only in
the power of the kirk, now openly and publicly
professed within the same," " the presentation of
laic patronages being always reserved to the just
and ancient patrons." The general assembly

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continued to meet, usually twice in the year;
and for a time, during the unsettled state of the
church, superintendents were appointed over
different districts, whose office it was to set in order
all ecclesiastical affairs within their several dis
tricts. — See Superintendents. At length the
general assembly, in 1580, passed an act con
demning episcopacy; and thereafter presbyteries
began to he established. The Second Book of
Discipline, which was prepared in 1578, was
registered in the acts of assembly in 1581, as
approved by the church ; and by the statute of
1592, which is regarded as the fundamental
charter of the establishment of presbytery, that
part of the Second Book of Discipline was
formally enacted which declared the government
of tbe Church of Scotland to be by kirk sessions,
presbyteries, synods, and general assemblies.
Early in the following century, under the influence
of James VI., whose maxim was, " No bishop, no
king," bishops were again appointed as constant
moderators of presbyteries, the free election of
members of the general assembly was interfered
with, several episcopal forms were re-introduced,
and even sanctioned by general assemblies, and
ultimately the meetings of the general assem
bly were discontinued. In the reign of Charles
I., the reaction against episcopacy became so
strong, that a meeting of general assembly was
held in 1638, which deposed the bishops, and
declared prelacy to be abolished in the kingdom.
— See Glasgow. The general assembly continued
to meet annually, a representative from the king
being usually present, during the subsequent
troubled years of Charles's reign, and in 1643 it
sent commissioners to the assembly of divines at
Westminster. In 1647 the Confession of Faith
and Larger and Shorter Catechisms, prepared by
the Westminster Assembly, were approved and
ratified by act of assembly, and subsequently by
act of parliament in 1649, and, having been
again ratified by act of parliament in 1690, con
tinue to be the authoritative standards of doctrine
in the Church of Scotland. Cromwell, however,
did not allow the general assembly to meet : the
presbyterian ministers wereat the same timedivided
into two parties vehemently hostile to each other,
the Resolutioners and Protesters. — See Resolu-
tioners. When Charles II. was restored in
1660, episcopacy was re-enacted, presbyteries
were prohibited to meet, and some hundreds of
the ministers were driven from their charges.
¦ — See Covenanters, Covenants. After the
accession of William and Mary, the presby
terian form of church government was restored.
By act of parliament, 1690, it was declared
that " prelacy, and the superiority of any office
in the church above presbyters, is and hath
been a great and unsupportable grievance and
trouble to this nation, and contrary to the inclin
ations of the generality of the people ever since
the Reformation, and therefore ought to be
abolished :" the act of 1592, establishing pres-

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bytery, was ratified; and those ministers yet
alive who had been expelled in 1662 were re
stored. Dr. Cook in his sketch says, — " The num
ber of parishes in Scotland is 1009, with 1034
ministers, 25 of the charges being collegiate;
of the patronages, 292 are in the hands of
the crown, 572 in the hands of individual
noblemen or gentlemen, 60 in those of town
councils, 26 of congregations or of trustees
appointed by them, 34 of the crown and some
other party jointly, 34. of other persons jointly,
9 of universities and colleges, 5 of heritors and
kirk sessions, and 2 of societies. About 50
.new parishes have been created during the last
12 years, and a number more are in course of
erection. Besides the parish churches and min
isters, there are about 150 chapels with ordained
ministers or licentiates officiating in them. There
are 84 presbyteries, consisting generally of from
12 to 24 ministers, with an elder chosen half
yearly from each kirk session ; one presbytery in
Shetland has only 4 ministers, the presbytery of
Glasgow has 34 ministers, and Edinburgh 37.
There are 16 synods, comprehending each from
3 to 7 presbyteries. The synods meet generally
twice a-year, but a few of them in the more
remote districts meet only once a-j'ear. The
general assembly meets annually in Edinburgh
on the 3d or 4th Thursday in May. It consists
of representatives from all the presbyteries,
royal burghs, and universities. Presbyteries
send one minister for every six ministers, or
fraction of six, in their number, and one elder ;
unless when they send four ministers, in which
case they send two elders, or when they send six
ministers, in which case they send three elders.
The ministers must be members of the presby
teries by whom they are returned ; but the elders
returned by presbyteries may belong to any part
of the church. The 66 royal burghs each send
one elder, except Edinburgh, which sends two :
and the universities each send one representative,
who may be a minister or an elder. The total
number of members in the general assembly is
385, viz., from presbyteries, ministers, 217;
elders, 95 ; from royal burghs, elders, 67 ; from
universities, ministers or elders, 4 ; from church
in India, minister and elder, 2. In the general
assembly the sovereign is represented by a noble
man specially appointed by the crown, who is
styled the lord high commissioner. He addresses
the assembly at the opening and at the close ofthe
proceedings, but takes no part in the deliberations."
The Church of Scotland has six publicschemes
of home and foreign enterprise. In connection
with it there is a synod of three presbyteries
in England, and also a synod in Canada,
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Austra
lia. Ministers are located also in Holland,
British Guiana, Mauritius, &c. (Cook's Sketch in
Wilson's American Presbyterian Almanac, 1861;
Lee's Lectures and Cuningham's Histories;

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Histories by Row, Calderwood, Kirkton, Wood- i plaints, and submitted to admonilion.
row, Stevenson; Booke ofthe Universal Kirke, millan, refusing to drop tbe prosecuti
&c.)

Reformed Presbyterian Church. — This body
took its rise at the Revolution Settlement, and
from dissatisfaction with it. — See Revolution
Settlement. Dr. Symington says, — " They
saw the preceding ecclesiastical and civil Refor
mation overlooked and left under the infamous
ban of rescissory acts — prelacy re-established in
England and Ireland — supremacy over the
church restored to the crown — presbyterian
government granted to Scotland upon the prin
ciple of its being more agreeable to the taste
of the people, without the security given to it
between 1638 and 1650, and with ominous
reference to its imperfect establishment in 1592
— the Westminster Confession, enacted without
any reference to the act of assembly, 1647,
explicitly asserting the inherent right of the
church to call her own assemblies — the national
covenants left under tbe odium which had been
attached to them in the preceding persecution —
persons who had conformed to prelacy, and who
had been accessory to the persecution, admitted
into the supreme court. On these accounts,
and others of kindred complexion, a small
minority dissented from the proceedings of the
church, and protested against the actings of the
state; and in doing this they felt themselves
much in tbe position and feeling of the few who,
when the foundations of the second temple were
laid, having seen the former house in its glory,
wept when the many were shouting for joy.
This minority were joined by three ministers of
the same views, who preached and dispensed
ordinances among them for a time. These minis
ters united in submitting a paper to tbe general
assembly, stating their grievances, and craving
relief, which paper the committee of bills refused
to transmit. Some concessions or explanations
were made to exonerate the consciences of the
complaining ministers, and they acceded to the
Establishment. The dissenting minority were
thus left without public ordinances ; they met
in fellowship societies, and maintained corre
spondence with one another. They prepared a
petition to the general assembly, which the
committee of bills refused to lay before it.
They published their declaration and protest,
and continued their fellowship meetings and
correspondence, in the hope that the Head of
the Church would yet send them ministers who
would dispense the ordinances of religion accord
ing to their views of truth and duty. After a
long trial of their faith and patience, they ob
tained this in the accession of the Rev. John
Macmillan, minister of Balmaghie, in the pres
bytery of Kirkcudbright, who sympathized much
with their views. Having, with two of his
brethren in the presbytery, given in a paper,
craving redress of grievances, tbe two brethren
were prevailed upon to withdraw their corn-

SCO Mr. Mac-
prosecution of his
grievances, protested and appealed to the first
free assembly. He was afterwards in an irregu
lar and summary way deposed. He refused to
acknowledge the sentence ; and after waiting for
a little in the expectation of redress, but finding
this hopeless, excepting on conditions to which
he could not submit, he resumed his public
ministry, with the cordial welcome of his people.
The society people, satisfied that his views
of the reformation in church and state, and
of the evils of the Revolution, harmonized with
their own, gave him, in 1706, a harmonious
call to become their pastor, to which he cordially
acceded. Mr. Macmillan was joined by Mr.
John M'Neil, a licentiate of the Church of
Scotland, who entertained the same views with
himself and his people, and they laboured to
gether in preaching the Gospel. In 1708 they
concurred in laying before the commission of
the assembly a joint protestation and declina
ture, stating explicitly the grounds of their
separation from the establishment. In 1712
tbey renewed the public covenants. Mr.
M'Neil died in 1732. Mr. Macmillan con
tinued his ministrations alone till he was joined
by the Rev. Mr. Nairne, when the two minis
ters, along with ruling elders, constituted a
presbytery in 1743, under the designation of the
Reformed Presbytery. Mr. Alexander Marshal,
who had received the regular education of stu
dents in divinity, was soon after this licensed ;
and, having received a call, was regularly or
dained, and took his seat as a co-presbyter.
The presbytery received small accessions from
time to time, and soon obtained a footing in
Ireland and America." We shall submit a brief
statement of their peculiar principles. Their own
testimony explains: — "The Reformed Presby
terian Church has been organized on an adherence
to the principles of the Protestant Presbyterian
Covenanted Church of Scotland. Those princi
ples have been exhibited in the Covenants,
Westminster Confession, Catechisms, Form of
Presbyterian Church Governmtnt, Directory for
Worship, and in the Testimonies ofthe Martyrs;
and we believe them to be substantially founded
on the Bible. When we specify these writ
ings, we are not pledged to every sentiment or
expression to be found in them. We have
given a declaration of the scriptural principles
to which we adhere ; and, while we endeavour to
give the reason of our faith from the Holy Scrip
tures, we cheerfully refer to the testimonies of the
Church of Scotland, in proof that these principles
were embraced by her, and in testimony of our ap
probation of her zeal and fidelity." Dr. Syming
ton further adds, — " The Reformed Presbyterian
Church aims to preserve a connection with tbe
Reformed Church of Scotland, at the second
Reformation, and to follow the martyrs who
adhered to its principles. These principles they

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regarded as having been overlooked, and un
faithfully dealt with at the Revolution, the state
giving in 1690, and the church receiving as her
charter of presbytery, the act 1592, without
any reference to the act of assembly in 1647.
They proceed upon the admitted principle that,
when the prevailing part of a church make any
addition to, or alteration of, the Scripture system
of faith, worship, discipline, or government, an
essential condition of fellowship with them, in
this case the prevailing party are the real separa
tists, and they who are obliged to withdraw from
their communion, rather than sin, are the true
adherents to the church, cleaving to her constitu
tional laws. Schism, a reproach often cast upon
the few, is not to be tried by arithmetic ; it is
not a question of number, but of truth and
principle. The Reformed Fresbyterian Church,
while impressed with a sense of many benefits
resulting from the Revolution, are affected with a
sense of the guilt that was contracted in it, and
cannot regard it with the overweening and un
qualified approbation by which it is often spoken
of as glorious. The revival of the erastian su
premacy over the church, the establishment of
prelacy in England and Ireland, and things
connected with them, were in violation of Scrip
ture truth, attained reformation, and solemn
engagement; and if the Revolution be viewed in
the light of history, in the subsequent state of
religion in England and Ireland, and even in
Scotland, it does not afford ground of unmingled
gratulation. This church has also felt it her
duty to recognize the public covenants in their
matter and obligation." The Reformed Presby
terian Church has about forty ministers, divided
into six presbyteries, and nearly as many minis
ters in Ireland. In America they have a, con
siderable number of churches, but are somewhat
divided. The general synod of the Reformed
Presbyterian Church there has seven presbyteries
and fifty-six ministers. (Cyclopaedia of Religious
Denominations.) United Presbyterian Church. — This body, in
its present form, consists of what were called the
United Secession and Relief Churches. The
union took place at Edinburgh, 13th May,
1847. We shall first give a brief sketch of the
origin and history of the Secession and Relief.
One main reason of the first secession was the
law of patronage. — See Patronage, Presen
tation. From a secession point of view it has
been argued, — In 1712 the act of patronage was
passed, by which the cherished right of the
parishes to choose their pastors was forcibly
wrested from them. The assembly remonstrated
with the legislature, but in vain, — pleaded long
usage and constitutional right, but to no purpose.
The First and Second Books of Discipline, though
somewhat varying as to the mode of election, are
equally explicit against the intrusion of a minis
ter on a reclaiming congregation. In 1690 the
right of election was vested in the session and

SCO
Protestant heritors ; and the people, if not satis
fied with the choice made for them, possessed an
effective veto; but such privileges were in 1712
entirely and summarily superseded. The result
was, that the aristocracy became parochial dic
tators, and thrust upon unwilling churches their
own creatures and nominees — men, in many
cases, wholly unfit to be spiritual teachers. Vio
lent settlements became frequent throughout the
country, the military were summoned in to pre
serve peace, and the obnoxious presentee, with the
officiating presbytery, were protected from men
aced or apprehended danger by the sword and
scarlet of dragoons. Appeals on the part of the
insulted parish against such oppression were a
common resort ; but they generally failed in ob
taining redress from the general assembly. Tbe
church bowed to the civil authority, and acts
of parliament triumphed over popular franchise.
The spirit of independence was bribed or van
quished in the large and dominant majority of
the rulers of tbe Church of Scotland, and at
length the assembly, in violation of its constitu
tional forms, introduced a new machinery, and
appointed committees of unbounded power, to
superintend and execute their tyrannical acts
of intrusion. — See Riding Committees. So
keenly and widely, however, was such oppression
felt, that in the following year the supreme
court had twelve cases of complaint and appeal
to dispose of. During these discussions one of
the presbyteries had been enjoined to proceed
with a violent settlement; but several of its
members resolutely protested, and craved that
their dissent might at least be recorded. The
request was sharply refused; and it was then
enacted as a general law, that, in future, " no
reasons of dissent against the determination of
church judicatories" should be entered on record.
The very power of complaint was taken away,
and the injured were shut up to a dumb re
signation. Constitutional freedom was virtually
at an end — the last trace of right and privilege
was gone — and the despotism of the general
assembly ceased at length to blush at its own
rapacity and treason. Nay, in its haste to
strengthen the law of patronage, it transferred
from its own keeping the jus devolutum (a privi
lege which many presbyteries had employed so
as to favour popular election), and did so by an
express violation of the Barrier Act. — See
Barrier Act, Jus Devolutum. In such
circumstances, forty-two ministers addressed a
paper to the assembly of 1732, stating a number
of grievances ; but the document was not allowed
to be read ; and a similar manifesto, signed by
1,700 elders and laymen, met, of course, with a
similar fate. The excitement and alarm became
prodigious, — the disaffection of the pious people
had been created and augmented by repeated
provocations. A crisis had come, and on the
10th October of the same year Ebenezer Erskine
delivered that sermon which led to the secession.
578

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But parallel to all this usurpation and oppres
sion there was another and melancholy cause of
growing discontent. The Church of Scotland had
not only been rapidly secularized, but doctrinal
laxity seems to have kept pace with obsequious
ness to the court and parliament. Dissatisfaction
with doctrine, too, was alleged as another cause
of secession. In 1717 Professor Simson of Glas
gow was arraigned at tbe bar of the assembly
for error, involving in it no little of the Pelagian
heresy ; but the venerable court " prophesied
smooth things," and dismissed the culprit with
a bland advice to be more chary and cautious
in time to come. But the same assembly
which tolerated such deviations from orthodoxy
attempted also to stifle evangelical truth. The
presbytery of Auchterarder, in their desire to
check the growth of Arminianism, had drawn
up certain propositions to be suhscribed by
candidates for license. One of these testing
articles was thus announced : — " I believe that
it is not sound and orthodox to teach that
we must forsake sin in order to our coming to
Christ, and instating us in covenant with God."
The proposition is not happily worded, though
its reasoning could not be mistaken; but the
general assembly solemnly condemned this state
ment, and so were supposed to give virtual
countenance to the delusion, that men must save
themselves ere they come to the Saviour, — must
heal themselves before they resort to the physi
cian. An English book, named the Marrow of
Modern Divinity, had been republished in 1718
by some friends of the Gospel in Scotland, and it
was condemned by the general assembly. — See
Marrow Controversy. Mr. Erskine, as
moderator of the previous synod, preached in
Perth at the opening of the synod of Stirling and
Perth, 10th October, 1732. His text was Psalm
exviii. 22, — " The stone which the builders re
fused is become the head stone of the corner."
The sermon was a protest against prevalent
defection and error — a bold and magnanimous
appeal for the rights of tbe Christian people,
and the purity and freedom of the Christian
pulpits. The majority of the synod condemned
him, and proudly doomed him to a formal cen
sure. The preacher would not submit, but openly
vindicated his sentiments. The case was carried
to the assembly, and Erskine stood forth, sur
rounded by his three friends, Wilson of Perth,
Moncrieff of Abernethy, and Fisher of Kinclaven.
At eleven o'clock at night the four brethren
received a peremptory citation to appear at the
bar to-morrow. They were summarily dealt
with, and handed over to the mercies of the com
mission, by which, in August, they were first
suspended from ministerial functions, and then,
in November, were formally severed from their
ministerial charges. The following is the sen
tence : — " The commission of the general assem
bly did, and hereby do, loose the relation of Mr.
Ebenezer Erskine, minister at Stirling; Mr.

SCO
William Wilson, minister at Perth ; Mr. Alex
ander Moncrieff, minister at Abernethy ; and Mr.
James Fisher, minister at Kinclaven, to their
said respective charges, and do declare them no
longer ministers of this church : And do hereby
prohibit all ministers of this church to employ
them, or any of them, in any ministerial func
tion ; and the commission do declare the churches
of the said Mr. Erskine, Mr. Wilson, Mr. Mon
crieff, and Mr. Fisher, vacant from and after the
date of this sentence, and appoint that letters
from the moderator, and extracts of this sentence,
be sent to the several presbyteries within whose
bounds the said ministers have had their charges,
appointing them, as they are hereby appointed,
to cause intimate this sentence in the foresaid
several churches, any time betwixt and the first of
January next ; and also that notice of this sen
tence be sent, by letter from the moderator of
this commission, to the magistrates of Perth and
Stirling, to the sheriff principal of Perth, and to
the bailie of the regality of Abernethy." Against
such a sentence the four brethren protested in the
following magnanimous terms : — " We hereby
adhere to the protestation formerly entered before
this court, both at their last meeting in August
and when we appeared first before this meeting ;
and further, we do protest in our own name, and
in the name of all and every one in our respec
tive congregations adhering to us, that notwith
standing of this sentence passed against us, our
pastoral relation shall be held and reputed firm
and valid; and likewise we protest, that not
withstanding of our being cast out from minis
terial communion with the Established Church
of Scotland, we still hold communion with all
and every one who desire with us to adhere to
the principles of the true Presbyterian Covenanted
Church of Scotland, in her doctrine, worship,
government, and discipline ; and particularly with
every one who are groaning under the evils and
who are affected with the grievances we have
been complaining of, who are in their several
spheres wrestling with the same. But in regard
the prevailing party in this established church,
who have now cast us out from ministerial com
munion with them, are carrying on a course of
defection from our reformed and covenanted prin
ciples, and particularly are suppressing ministerial
freedom and faithfulness in testifying against the
present backslidings of the church, and inflicting
censures on ministers for witnessing, by protesta
tions or otherwise, against the same : Therefore
we do, for these and many other weighty reasons,
to be laid open in due time, protest that we are
obliged to make a secession from them, and that
we can have no ministerial communion with
them, till they see their sios and mistakes, and
amend them : And in like manner we protest,
that it shall be lawful and warrantable for us to
exercise the keys of doctrine, discipline, and go
vernment, according to the Word of God, and
Confession of Faith, and the principles and con-

679

SCO
stitution of the covenanted Church of Scotland,
as if no such censure had been passed upon us.
Upon all which we take instruments ; and we
hereby appeal to the first free, faithful, and
reforming general assembly of the Church of
Scotland." Some years passed away, and the
Secession was organizing itself, when, in 1740,
the general assembly passed the following sen
tence: — " And therefore the general assembly, in
respect of the articles found relevant and proven
against the persons therein and hereafter named
by the last and this assembly, as aforesaid, did,
and hereby do, in the name of the Lord Jesus
Christ, the sole King and Head of the Churoh,
and by virtue of the power and authority com
mitted by him to them, actually depose Messrs.
Ebenezer Erskine at Stirling, William Wilson at
Perth, Alexander Moncrieff at Abernethy, James
Fisher at Kinclaven, Ralph Erskine at Dunferm
line, Thomas Mair at Orwell, Thomas Nairn at
Abbolshall, and James Thomson at Burntisland,
ministers, from the office of the holy ministry,
prohibiting and discharging them, and every one
of them, to exercise the same, or any part thereof,
within this church in all time coming ; and the
assembly did, and hereby do declare all the pa
rishes or charges of the persons above named
vacant, from and after the day and date of this
sentence, and ordains copies hereof to be sent to
the several presbyteries of Stirling, Perth, Dun
keld, Dunfermline, and Kirkcaldy; and the said
respective presbyteries are hereby ordered to send
copies hereof to the kirk sessions of Perth and
Dunfermline, and session- clerks of the other
respective parishes hereby declared vacant, to be
communicated to the elders. And the assembly
appoints that letters be wrote by their moderator
to the magistrates of the respective burghs con
cerned, with copies of this sentence; and the
assembly recommends to the presbyteries within
whose hounds the parishes or charges declared
vacant do lie, to be careful in using their best
endeavours for supplying the same during the
vacancy, and for promoting the speedy and com
fortable settlement hereof."
By the year 1745 the Secession had formed a
synod, and numbered thirty congregations and
thirteen vacancies. But an unhappy controversy
was introduced into the synod about the pro
priety of the burgess oath  See Oath, Burgess.
The members could not agree in their interpreta
tions of one of its clauses. Some held, na
turally, that swearing such an oath was virtual
approval of the established church, with all its
corruptions : for to the men who framed the oath
the religion presently professed " was the religion
by law established ; " others maintained that the
oath only referred to the true religion as pro
fessed, but did not imply any approval of the
mode of its settlement. The oath was bad in
every sense, for it made citizenship depend upon
saintship, and associated the bribe of civil right
v. ith religious profession. After long and unhal- 580

SCO
lowed wrangling, and not a little ecclesiastical
thunder, the sharp contention ended in a separa
tion in 1747. The party who disapproved of
the religious clause in the oath were named the
General Associate Synod, and vulgarly styled
the Antiburghers — the other division kept the
title of Associate Synod, and were commonly
known as the Burghers. Both synods pursued
their aims of evangelization with nndeviating
fidelity in their separate state, both sent many
ministers to Nova Scotia and the American states,
and both contributed to the support of missions in
various forms. Both synods were also disturbed
with the questions of the magistrate's power in
matters of religion, and from both, half-a-century
after the first breach, seceded small parties, hold
ing the right of the civil power as it is thought
to be defined in the Confession qf Faith. One
party, headed by the eminent Dr. M'Crie,
broke off from the Antiburghers, or General
Associate Synod, and called itself the Consti
tutional Associate Presbytery, and was usually
called Old Light Antiburghers; the party that
left the Associate Synod called itself the Original
Burgher Presbytery, and was named Old Light
Burghers. The latter sect arose in 1799, and
the former in 1806. Both the Antiburgher and
Burgher synods adhered to the same platform of
doctrine and government, took a deep and deep
ening interest in all that pertained to the good of
their country, the welfare of the world, and the
glory of God ; and were especially captivated by
the institution of Bible and missionary societies,
which hallowed the commencement of the present
century. The ministers and people belonging to
both synods were frequently thrown into contact
in pursuit of a common object, — the animosi
ties of the olden times had gradually subsided,
seceders of both communions looked each other
in the face, and mutual sympathy was created.
The stumbling-block was in some burghs taken
out of the way, and there was no difference save
on this minor point. By and bye joint prayer
meetings were held, the desire of union spread
with amazing celerity, so that at the spring
meeting of both synods in 1819 their tables
were covered with petitions praying for union,
and that the "breach" might be healed. Both
synods looked on these promising appearances
with deep emotion, and gave thanks to God. The
various preliminary arrangements occupied some
time, a basis of union was ultimately agreed upon,
and the union was at length consummated in
September, 1820. Seventy-three years had passed
away since the breach, and in the church where
it occurred re-union was sealed. A few ministers
ofthe General Associate Synod stood aloof from
the union, and, protesting against it, formed a
separate fellowship. Thus was formed the United
Secession Church, which continued under this
honoured name till its union with the Relief in
1847. At the breach the Secession numbered
thirty-two congregations ; at the union it com-

SCO
prised 262 — 139 connected with the Associate
Synod, and 123 with the General Associate
Synod. In the next twenty years from the date
of this union, 100 new congregations were added
to the number. In 1841, and some following
years, the peace of the church was interrupted by
disputes on tbe extent of the atonement. Some
parties had fallen into serious errors on this sub
ject, and were at several synods cut off, one after
another, from communion. At the same time sad
misconception prevailed among the ministers of
tbe sjmod: heresy was charged on some without
the slightest foundation, as was proved by formal
trial, and the most prominent of the accusers
subsequently withdrew from the jurisdiction and
fellowship of the United Secession Church. The
United Secession Church, on that and other doc
trines, holds by the Confession, and her style of
illustrating those truths finds its prototype in the
writings of Erskine and Boston. For a full his
torical illustration of this controversy, from the
period of Mair, in 1754, to tbat of Morison, in
1841, the reader may turn to an excellent volume
— History ofthe Atonement Controversy, in con
nection with the Secesdon Church, from its origin
till the present time, by the Rev. Andrew Robert
son of Stow, Edinburgh, 1846. In the course
of a hundred years half-a-million sterling was
expended in the erection of churches and manses,
and that chiefly by the working classes, and a few
of the middle classes, in the country. It had also
mission premises, with a regular secretary, and
was supporting a band of sixty missionaries and
teachers in foreign lands. It had four chairs of
theology, to wit, hermeneutics and criticism,
exegesis, systematic theology, and homiletics,
with pastoral theology. Ninety-three students
were attending its theological institute, and it
had a staff of sixty-five probationers. During
the last five years of its separate existence it had
been paying off the debt on its churches and
manses at the rate of more than twenty thousand
pounds per annum. At the period of the union,
in 1847, £110,000 had already been raised for
this purpose.
Relief Church. — Mr. Thomas Gillespie was
the founder of the Relief denomination. In 1741
he was licensed and ordained in England to the
sacred office by a number of dissenting ministers,
his distinguished tutor, Dr. Doddridge, acting as
moderator. In the same year he returned to
Scotland, and before its close he was inducted
into the parish of Carnock, with the cordial con
sent of all parties. Before his settlement, he
objected to the doctrine of the Confession of
Faith on the power of the civil magistrate in
religion, and he was permitted to sign it, with
an explanation of its meaning. It is of the
more importance to record this incident, as well
because it proves how decided were his views on
this question at so early a period, as because it
throws much light on his subsequent conduct, in
asserting the rights of the individual conscience,

SCO
in opposition to the mandates of his superiors-
He laboured for about twelve years in Carnock,
beloved and esteemed by the people of his charge,
distinguished for his eminent holiness, his catho
lic spii it, and his experimental preaching. Mr.
Richardson of Broughton had received, in 1749,
a presentation to Inverkeithing. Only a few
signed the call, and these were principally non
resident heritors. The presbytery of Dunferm
line refused to induct bim in these circumstances,
believing that his settlement would prove in
jurious to the interests of religion. The question
was brought several times before the synod of
Fife and the commission of the assembly, but the
majority of the presbytery maintained their orig
inal position. The case was again referred to
the commission in March, 1752. A compromise
was made; the scruples of the recusants were
respected ; and the synod of Fyfe was appointed,
as a committee of the commission, to proceed
with the settlement of Mr. Richardson. Dr.
Robertson, the celebrated historian, with some
others, dissented from this decision of the com
mission, mainly on the ground that it encouraged
insubordination, and was a violation of the
presbyterian constitution. A great principle
was now at stake — Is passive obedience the law
ofthe Church of Scotland? — and its issues were
most momentous. On Monday, the 18th May,
the Inverkeithing case was taken up by the
general assembly. The doctrine of Principal
Robertson was triumphantly asserted; the pres
bytery of Dunfermline were ordered to proceed
with the settlement of Mr. Richardson on
Thursday first, five being appointed a quorum ;
and they were also commanded to appear upon
Friday, to give an account of their conduct.
This was peremptory enough; and it was also a
superfluous excess of tyranny. Three form a
legal quorum ; and it was well known that there
were three members of presbytery who were
quite willing to take part in the induction of Mr.
Richardson ; but yet, with the view of concussing
good men into a deed of which they disapproved,
the quorum was arbitrarily enlarged. On Friday
the presbytery of Dunfermline appeared before
the har of the assembly. No settlement had
taken place in Inverkeithing on the day before.
Three ministers were present, but as these were
not a quorum, according to the decision of tbe
assembly, nothing was done. Six still refused
to comply with the appointment of the supreme
court, and read a representation declaring that
"they had acted as honest men, willing to forego
every secular advantage for conscience' sake."
It was resolved that one of these six should be
deposed, but that the selection of the victim
should be deferred till next day. On Saturday
each of the six was singly placed before the bar
of the house. Three seemed to yield, two re
mained firm : Gillespie came forward with
another protestation defending his conduct. There
could be no doubt now, if there ever had been,

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as to the result. Prayer was offered up for the
divine direction, in accordance with the usual
practice. The votes were taken : 56 voted for
deposition; 102 declined voting. The modera
tor, Dr. Cumming, pronounced the following
sentence: — "The general assembly did, and
hereby do, in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ,
the sole King or Head of the Church, and by
virtue of the power and authority committed by
him to them, depose you, Mr. Thomas Gillespie,
minister at Carnock, from the office of the holy
ministry, prohibiting and discharging you to
exercise the same, or any part thereof, within
this church, in all time coming : and the assem
bly did, and hereby do declare the church and
parish of Carnock vacant, from and after the
day and date of this sentence." Meekly and
composedly did the Christian confessor listen to
this sentence of deposition ; and he replied : —
" Moderator, I desire to receive this sentence of
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
pronounced against me with real concern and
awful impressions of the divine conduct in it ;
but I rejoice that to me it is given on behalf of
Christ, not only to believe on him, but also to
suffer for his sake." It is not easy to write a
calm comment on this transaction, and we
prefer quoting the language of Dr. Erskine,
a pious and able minister of the church which
deposed him. " In the space of twenty-four
hours, without a libel or any formal pro
cess, he was arraigned, cast, and condemned,
merely for non-compliance with a particular order
of the assembly, appointing him to have an
active hand in carrying a sentence into execution
which, in his apprehension, he could not have
done without disregarding the true interest, the
constitution, and standing laws of the church,
and thus violating the solemn vows he had come
under when he was admitted minister of Car
nock." Rightly judging that he was illegally and
unrighteously deposed, Mr. Gillespie preached
next Lord's Day, in the open air, at Carnock.
He removed a few months afterwards to the
neighbouring town of Dunfermline, and thus
was laid the foundation of a new secession in
Scotland. At the first dispensation of the
Lord's Supper, in the following year, he declared
his catholic principles, — " I hold communion
with all that visibly hold the Head, and with
such only." This was new ground to take up in
Scotland ; for though this declaration is only an
epitome of the doctrine of the twenty-sixth
chapter of the Confesdon of Faith, on the com
munion of saints, which had been drawn up
more than a hundred years before, it was not
generally understood in this sense; and this
precious truth was almost repudiated. For six
years he stood alone, none of his former friends
in the established church affording him aid, on
communion occasions, though he sought it from
them. An attempt was made next year to
remove the sentence of deposition by the supreme

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court, but two things were required, to which he
could never submit,—" a personal application for
restoration," and his " acknowledgment and sub
mission as an offending brother." The attempt
was, of course, unsuccessful. After six years of
arduous and solitary labour, help came at last to
Mr. Gillespie ; and it came from a quarter of
peculiar interest, from the son of his own spirit
ual father, Thomas Boston of Jedburgh. At
his admission to the pastoral charge in Jedburgh,
a presbytery was constituted by the aid of Mr.
M'Kenzie, a dissenting minister lately from
England ; and "the questions usually put to
ministers at their admission were put to Mr.
Boston on this occasion, with a small variation
in one or two of them, arising from the peculiarity
of his case, which was so supplied as to bind him
to hold communion with, and be subject to his
brethren in the Lord, if an opportunity shall be
afforded him."
The first Relief Presbj'tery was formed in
1761. It was formed at the induction of the
Rev. Thomas Colier in Colinsburgh, which had
its origin in a disputed settlement. This eccle
siastical organization was an important step in
the history of the Relief Church. It conferred
upon it unity and strength. Numerous applica
tions were made for preaching, by forming con
gregations who were desirous to enjoy the pure
Gospel, in connection with the liberal principles
of the new denomination, which for a time could
not be granted. Aid came at last, in the accession
of a considerable number of ministers from all the
religious parties in Scotland, and from the Pres
byterian Dissenters of England. Many flourish
ing churches were organized. Two presbyteries
were speedily formed, called the Eastern and
Western presbyteries ; and these met, in 1773,
for the first time as a synod in Edinburgh.
The great success of this new religious movement
awakened no small measure of opposition. It
cannot be concealed that tbe greater part of the
opposition which was made to the Relief Church
was owing to her assertion of the principle of
Christian brotherhood, and to her abjuration of
the binding obligation of the national covenants.
Nor should it be forgotten, as a lesson for the
future, that much of this opposition had its
origin in this apprehension. Free communion
was confounded with promiscuous communion —
the communion of saints with the communion of
the ungodly. The distinction between eccle
siastical and Christian communion was altogether
lost sight of — between ~ member of the family
circle and an occasional guest; and it was
gravely argued, that you could not allow an
Episcopalian or Independent brother to partake
of the Lord's Supper in the church with which
you were connected, without approving of his
peculiar views. In 1794 a hymn book was
sanctioned by the synod, with the view of
affording greater variety to the expressions of
devotional feeling in the church's songs of

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prime. A widow's fund wa3 instituted, which
makes provision for the children as well as for
the widows of deceased ministers. Originally
it had something of a charitable character, but
in 1819 it was placed upon the scientific and
self-supporting basis of an insurance office. In
1823 a divinity hall was instituted. In 1827 a
home missionary society commenced operations
for preaching the Gospel in destitute localities,
and for aiding small churches. As regards
foreign missionary effort, the Relief Church had
no association which could be called exclusively
her own. The Caffrarian Society was, however,
one in which she always took a deep interest;
and for a considerable time it was dependent
principally upon her for its funds and mission
aries. The contemplated union with the Se
cession Church was the sole reason why the
Caffrarian Society was not formally connected
with the Relief Church ; and hence the old
catholic basis of the society was preserved until
the consummation of this union, when it became
one of the missions of the United Presbyterian
Church. At the union the Relief Church had
7 presbyteries and 114 congregations. The
members (persons in full communion) were up
wards of forty-five thousand. The number of
members and adherents may be set down as sixty
thousand. — Sketch by Professor M'Michael, in
Cyclopaedia of Religious Denominations.
After all preliminaries had been arranged,
both synods met in Edinburgh on the 10th of
May, 1847, and on the 13th of that month
union was consummated. The Secession Synod
was unanimous, but two ministers dissented in
the Relief Synod. The two synods walked in
procession to Tanfield hall — the famed scene
already of a memorable convocation and as
sembly. The following basis of union, previously adopted
by both synods, was then read by the clerk of
the Relief Synod, all the members of both courts
standing: — "Articles ofthe Basis as adopted
by the two Synods.— 1. That the Word of God
contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New
Testaments is the only rule of faith and practice.
2. That the Westminster Confession of Faith,
and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, are the
confession and catechisms of this church, and
contain the authorized exhibition of the sense in
which we understand the Holy Scriptures, it.
being always understood that we do not approve
of anything in these documents which teaches, or
mav be supposed to teach, compulsory or perse
cuting and intolerant principles in religion. 3.
That presbyterian government, without any supe
riority of office to that of a teaching presbyter,
and in a due subordination of church courts,
which is founded on, and agreeable to, the Word
of God, is the government of this church. 4.
That the ordinances of worship shall be adminis
tered in tbe united church as they have been in
both bodies of which it is formed ; and that the

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Westminster Directory of Worship continue to
be regarded as a compilation of excellent rules.
5. That the term of membership is a credible
profession of the faith of Christ as held by this
church — a profession made with inteUigence, and
justified by a corresponding character and deport
ment. 6. That with regard to those ministers
and sessions who think that the second section
of the twenty-sixth chapter of the Westminster
Confession of Faith authorizes free communion
— that is, not loose or indiscriminate commu
nion, but the occasional admission to fellowship
in the Lord's Supper, of persons respecting whose
Christian character satisfactory evidence has been
obtained, though belonging to other religious de
nominations, they shall enjoy what they enjoyed
in their separate communions, — the right of act
ing on their conscientious convictions. 7. That
the election of office-bearers of this church, in its
several congregations, belongs, by the authority
of Christ, exclusively to the members in full
communion. 8. That this church solemnly re
cognizes the obligation to hold forth, as well as
to hold fast, the doctrine and laws of Christ, and
to make exertions for the universal diffusion of
the blessings of his Gospel at home and abroad.
9. That as the Lord hath ordained that they who
preach the Gospel should live of the Gospel — that
tbey who are taught in the Word should com
municate to him that teacheth in all good things
— that they who are strong should help the weak
— and that, having freely received, they should
freely give the Gospel to those who are destitute
of it — this church asserts the obligation and the
privilege ofits members, influenced by regard to
the authority of Christ, to support and extend,
by voluntary contributions, the ordinances of the
Gospel. 10. That the respective bodies of which
this church is composed, without requiring from
each other an approval of the steps of procedure
by tbeir fathers, or interfering with the right of
private judgment in reference to these, unite in
regarding as still valid the reasons on which
they have hitherto maintained their state of seces
sion and separation from the judicatories of the
established church, as expressed in the autho
rized documents of the respective bodies ; and in
maintaining the lawfulness and obligation of
separation from ecclesiastical bodies in which
dangerous error is tolerated, or the discipline of
the church, or the rights of her ministers or
members are disregarded. The united church,
in their present most solemn circumstances, join
in expressing their grateful acknowledgment to
the great Head of the Church, for the measure of
spiritual good which he has accomplished by
them in their separate state — their deep sense of
the many imperfections and sins wliich have
marked their ecclesiastical management — and
their determined resolution, in dependence on the
promised grace of their Lord, to apply more
faithfully the great principles of church- fellow
ship — to be more watchful in reference to adinis-

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sion and discipline, that the purity and efficiency
of their congregations may he promoted, and the
great end of their existence, as a collective body,
may be answered with respect to all within its
pale, and to all without it, whether members of
other denominations, or 'the world lying in
wickedness.' And, in fine, the united church
regard with a feeling of brotherhood all the faith
ful followers of Christ, and shall endeavour to
maintain the unity of the whole body of Christ,
by a readiness to co-operate with all its members
in all things in which they are agreed."
The United Presbyterian Church holds by
the theology of the Westminster Confession and
of the Larger and Shorter Catechisms. It teaches
the good old-fashioned doctrines of the Reforma
tion, and of the days of the covenant. It has no
sympathy with an Arminian creed, nor does it
fall, on the other hand, into antinomian delusion.
Its favourite topics are the " doctrines of grace"
— nor does it sever them from the eternal and
merciful purpose of God, nor disconnect them from
the necessity of a holy life as their fruit and
result. It also gives special prominence to the
doctrine of divine influence — believing that a
saving change is effected only by the Holy Spirit.
In its form of government it is presbyterian — for
it believes that such a mode of administration is
in accordance with the leading features of the
scheme contained in the New Testament. This
representative form of government has been found
to work well, combining happily popular influ
ence with congregational stability. None of its
courts, as they are called, have any other than a
spiritual jurisdiction, and they consist of minis
ters and elders assembled together for deliberation
and judgment. The United Presbyterian Church
has no general assembly nor provincial synods,
though it ought to have them, and will be obliged
to have them soon. As a branch of the United
Presbyterian Church, there is a large, influential,
and growing denomination of the same name in
Canada, originated, and long supported by the
church at home. The United Fresbyterian
Church in Canada consists of nine presbyteries,
and of ninety churches, — some ministers, how
ever, have charge of two congregations ; but this
year (1861) it has joined with the body attached
to the Free Church of Scotland. In connec
tion with the United Presbyterian Church there
are eighteen missionary churches in Jamaica,
and along with the pastors of those churches
there is a staff of fifteen catechists and teachers.
At Montego Bay there is a flourishing academy,
with a classical teacher and a theological tutor.
In Trinidad there are two missionary churches,
and there are several stations in Caffraria. At
Old Calabar, on the west coast of Africa, there
is located a band of six missionaries, six cate
chists and teachers, with six subordinate agents
of various kinds. The United Presbyterian
Church has also obtained a footing in Southern
Australia, and some eight or ton congregations

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have rapidly sprung into existence. A union
among different bodies in that colony has also
been recently effected.
A few words may be added as to the
parties which broke off from tbe main stem of
the Secession. Besides those already mentioned,
when the Antiburgher and Burgher synods
joined in 1820, a small body of Antiburgher
ministers, with Professor Paxton at their head,
protested against the union, and would not join
it, but formed themselves into a separate body,
usually called the Protesters. In 1827 the two
Antiburgher bodies of separatists — that is, the
Constitutional Associate Presbytery and the Pro
testers—formed a union, and the new body
called itself the Associate Synod of Original
Seceders. In 1842 there was added to it the
small party of Original Burghers which refused
to join the established church when the majority
entered it in 1840. After this union, the body,
still small, called itself the Synod of United
Original Seceders. It has about thirty con
gregations, but several of them are vacant.
Free Church of Scotland. — This powerful eccle
siastical body professes to be the Church of Scot
land unlawfully thrust out of its proper position.
The struggles about non- intrusion and the pass
ing of the Veto Law, leading to the interference
of the civil courts, occasioned the disruption in
1843. — See Non-Intrusionists, Veto Law.
The claim of spiritual independence set up by the
church was declared by the civil power to be
inconsistent with the relations of a church by
law established. The Court of Session put forth
its power in various shapes. Thus, the pres
by terj' of Dunkeld was interdicted by the Court of
Session from admitting a licentiate of the church
to a pastoral charge in the parish of Lethendy,
when about to be done irrespective of the civil
benefice. The presbytery of Irvine was inter
dicted by the Court of Session from admitting a
licentiate of the church to a pastoral charge in
Stewarton " when there was no benefice — no right
of patronage — no stipend — no manse or glebe —
and no place of worship, or any patrimonial right
connected therewith." The Court of Session issued
"a decree requiring and ordaining the presby
tery of Strathbogie to take on trial and admit
to the office of the holy ministry" at Marnoch
" a probationer or unordained candidate for the
ministry, contrary to the will of the people,"
which had been repeatedly and emphatically
expressed. By repeated interdicts granted by
the Court of Session at the instance of minis
ters of the presbytery of Strathbogie, who
were first suspended aud finally deposed from
the office of the holy ministry, the ministers
of the established church were prohibited, under
the pains of law, from preaching the Gospel or
administering the sacraments in these parishes.
Seven ministers in the presbytery of Strathbogie
had been suspended from exercising the functions
of the ministry by the courts of the church.
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This sentence of suspension did not in any way
interfere with the civil rights or the emoluments
of the ministers. On an application to the Court
of Session the ecclesiastical sentence was set aside,
and the seven ministers continued to exercise
their functions as if it had never been passed.
At a subsequent period, and in the regular course
of ecclesiastical discipline, the seven ministers
were deposed from the office of the ministry.
The Court of Session interdicted the execution of
this sentence, and assumed the power of reponing
the parties to the status of which they had been
deprived, and of authorizing them to continue in
the exercise of their ministerial functions. The
seven Strathbogie ministers, who had been de
posed by the general assembly, were re-instated
in their office by the Court of Session. A large
party holds that, while spiritual independence
belongs of right to the church as a divine heri
tage, it cannot be fully maintained in any church
established by the state, and under its pay and
patronage; and, therefore, they condemn the
alliance between church and state as fatal to
freedom of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. But the
popular party in the Established Church of Scot
land did not hold these views, and yet tbey con
tended gallantly for what they believed to be the
inherent rights and privileges of the church,
believing that it forfeited none of them by
alliance with the state. Checked on all hands
by the civil power, the highest legal authorities
being against them, and the statesmen of the day
yielding them no countenance, they felt that they
could not submit; and accordingly nigh five
hundred ministers voluntarily and courageously
resigned their position and emoluments in the
established church. There had been previous
consultations about the weighty step, and a
solemn convocation also had been held. The
last scene of separation is thus described by a
leader in the warfare, and its accomplished
historian, Dr. Buchanan. The day was 18th
May, 1843, and the opening sermon had been
preached by Dr. Welsh in St. Giles's. " It was
about half-past two o'clock when the tramp
of the military cavalcade and the sounds of
martial music announced the approach of the
queen's commissioner to St. Andrew's Chnrch,
where the assembly had been appointed to meet.
Dr. Welsh had arrived and taken his place in
the moderator's chair a few minutes before. As
the commissioner entered the church, the assem
bly and the audience rose to receive him with
the deference due to the representative of the
crown. The lord advocate, the lord provost of
the city, the commander of the forces, and a
crowd of other distinguished personages, civil
and military, not unmingled with the .gentler
sex, thronged every inch of the space around the
throne. The central area of the church, allotted
to the members of assembly, was densely filled,
while on the front cross bench might be seen
representatives from various other churches, who

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had come, many of them, from distant continen
tal countries, to witness the transactions of this
memorable day. The rest of the building, from
the floor to the roof, presented one living mass,
which left no available spot unoccupied within
the walls. Hundreds had been there, making
sure of their places, since break of day, while
thousands more, unable to gain admission,
thronged the adjacent street, awaiting, in eager
expectancy, the result of those proceedings which
were now about to begin. The first movement
was towards the throne of God, the moderator
leading the devotions of the meeting in a solemn
and earnest prayer. As soon as the members
had resumed their seats, Dr. Welsh again rose
and, amid breathless silence, spoke as follows: —
' Fathers and brethren, according to the usual
form of procedure, this is the time for making up
the roll ; but in consequence of certain proceed
ings affecting our right and privileges — proceed
ing which have been sanctioned by her majesty's
government and by the legislature of the country
— and more especially in respect that there has
been an infringement on the liberties of our con
stitution, so that we could not now constitute
this court without a violation of the terms of the
union between church and state in this land, as
now authoritatively declared, I must protest
against our proceeding further. The reasons
that have led me to come to this conclusion are
fully set forth in the document which I hold in
my hand, and which, with permission of the
house, I shall now proceed to read.' This docu
ment embodied the solemn protest of the Church
of Scotland against the wrongs of the civil power,
and was signed by 203 members of the house.
' We, the undersigned ministers and elders,' —
these were its opening words, — ' chosen as com
missioners to the General Assembly of the Church
of Scotland, indited to meet this day, but pre
cluded from holding the said assembly by reason
of the circumstances hereinafter set forth, in con
sequence of which a free assembly of the Church
of Scotland, in accordance with the laws and
constitution of the said church, cannot now be
holden, — consider, that the legislature, by the
rejection of the claim of rights adopted by the
last general assembly of the said church, and
their refusal to give redress and protection against
the jurisdiction assumed, and the coercion of late
repeatedly attempted to be exercised over the
courts of the church, in matters spiritual, by
the civil courts, have recognized and fixed
the conditions of the church' establishment, as
henceforward to subsist in Scotland, to be such as
these have been pronounced and declared by tbe
said civil courts in their several recent decisions,
in regard to matters spiritual and ecclesiastical.'
Here the protest specified and described, under
eight distinct heads, the several vitally important
points in regard to which it had now been defini
tively declared by the supreme power of the state.
' We protest that, in the circumstances in which

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we are placed, it is, and shall he lawful for us,
and such other commissioners chosen to the
assembly, appointed to have been this day holden,
as may concur with us, to withdraw lo a separate
place of meeting, for the purpose of taking steps,
along with all who adhere to us, — maintain
ing with us the confession of faith and standards
of the Church of Scotland, as heretofore under
stood, — for separating in an orderly toay from
the establishment; and thereupon adopting such
measures as may be competent to us, in humble
dependence on God's grace and the aid of the
Holy Spirit, for the advancement of his glory,
the extension of the Gospel of our Lord and
Saviour, and the administration of the affairs of
Christ's house, according to his Holy Word: and
we now withdraw accordingly, humbly and
solemnly acknowledging the hand of the Lord
in the things which have come upon us, because
of our manifold sins, and the sins of this church
and nation; but at the same time, with an
assured conviction that we are not responsible
for any consequences that may follow from this
our enforced separation from an establishment
which we loved and prized, through interference
with conscience, the dishonour done to Christ's
crown, and the rejection of his sole and supreme
authority as King in his Church.' When the
last of these solemn sentences had left the moder
ator's lips, he laid the protest upon the table of
the house, and turning round towards the com
missioner, who rose in evident and deep emotion,
Dr. Welsh bowed respectfully to the representa
tive of the queen, and in so doing, bade the
Church of Scotland's farewell to the state. That
brief but solemn and significant action done, he
lifted his hat from the table and went forth from
the degraded establishment. As he moved with
calm dignity from the chair, Dr. Chalmers, Dr.
Gordon, Dr. Patrick M'Farlan, Dr. Thomas
Brown, Dr. M'Donald, the fathers of the church,
men who were its strength and glory, one after
another rose and followed him. It was a mo
ment of intense and overpowering interest. The
immense audience looked on, thrilled with feel
ings which it is impossible to describe, — but not
a voice, not a whisper was heard. The sensation
was too deep for utterance ; in very many, not
females alone, but strong-minded men, it found
vent in tears. The veteran warriors of tbe
church's conflict were leading the way — how
many were to follow? This evidently was the
agitating inquiry which at that moment absorbed
the minds of those who, with the incredulity of
infatuation, had hitherto treated the event which
had now come as a delusion and a dream. The
chief law officer of the crown, who stood beside
the commissioner, looked down from his elevated
position with an anxiety which no effort could
disguise, to mark how far his previous represen
tations to men in power and the facts now before
him might be found to agree. Dr. Candlish,
Dr. Cunningham, Mr. Campbell, of Monzie,

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Mr. Dunlop, and others, familiar names in the
struggle which had now reached its close, were
seen moving on after those who had gone before.
These are men committed, compromised, by the
prominent part they have played in this warfare
— thev cannot do otherwise — they cannot draw
back,— and the establishment will be quieter
when they have retired. But the quiet country
ministers occupying these crowded benches behind
— it is not possible that they can design to cast
themselves and their families into the midst of
poverty and want. Such, probably, were the
thoughts that were rivetting the feverish gaze of
more than one high legal functionary upon the
constantly expanding blank that yawned so
ominously on the left side of the house, — as bench
after bench poured its occupants into the stream
which kept constantly flowing towards the door
of the church. There was no hurry, no rush,
no confusion. Rank after rank the protesters
withdrew, with the order and steadiness of the
successive companies of a military host. One
entire side of the assembly and the whole of the
cross benches were left untenanted. The life had
departed from the establishment, and those who
remained gazed upon the empty space as if they
had been looking ihto an open grave. But where
was now the head of that column of confessors
which had marched forth from St. Andrew's
Church ? As those who led it on emerged into
the street, — as the gown and bands of the moder
ator, the gray hairs of the massive head of
Chalmers, and the majestic brow of Gordon, seen
through the opening crowd, proclaimed that the
deed was done, — a whisper ran like wildfire
through the congregated multitudes, ' They come!
they come!" — and the air was rent with the
shout of admiration and gratitude with which
the people gave Scotland's welcome to the de
fenders of the liberties of Scotland's church. It
was neither the design nor the wish of the pro
testing body to move in procession to their in
tended place of meeting, but the crowd con
strained them. By a spontaneous movement on
the part of the masses who filled the streets, a
lane was opened in their midst; and through
the surging sea of the excited but profoundly
respectful throng, did the host pass out of Egypt
to take possession of that 'large and wealthy
place ' which the Lord had provided for them. In
tho manner now described the procession moved on
towards Canonmills, a suburb lying at the north
ern extremity of the city. Here an immense
hall, capable of accommodating at least 3,000
persons, had been procured, and hastily fitted up
for the reception of the disestablished assembly.
From an early hour of the day the entire area,
with the exception of the space set apart for the
members, was crowded in every part ; and when
at length the eagerly expected moment arrived,
and the representatives of the protesting church
were seen entering the hall, the enthusiasm of
the audience knew no bounds. When this irre-

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pressible outburst of feeling had subsided, Dr.
Welsh, who had meanwhile taken the chair, rose
and lifted up his hands as the signal for prayer."
Dr. Chalmers was chosen moderator, and the
assembly proceeded to its work. The Claim of
Right — the charter of the Free Church — had
been presented to parliament in 1842. We pre
sent some sections of it. It has a long historical
preamble and vindication, and coming down to
the restoration of patronage under Queen Anne,
says, — " And whereas, while this church protested
against the passing of the above-mentioned act
of Queen Anne, as 'contrary to the constitution
of the church, so well secured by the late treaty
of union, and solemnly ratified by acts of par
liament in both kingdoms,' and for more than
seventy years thereafter uninterruptedly sought
for its repeal, she at the same time maintained,
and practically exercised, without question or
challenge from any quarter, the jurisdiction of
her courts to determine ultimately and exclusive
ly under what circumstances they would admit
candidates into the office of the holy ministry,
or constitute the pastoral relationship between
minister and people, and, generally, 'to order
and conclude the entry of particular ministers :'
And whereas, in particular, this church required,
as necessary to the admission of a minister to the
charge of souls, tbat he should have received a
call from the people over whom he was to be
appointed, and did not authorize or permit any
one so to be admitted till such call had been
sustained by the church courts, and did, before
and subsequent to the passing of the said act
of Queen Anne, declare it to be a fundamental
principle of the church, as set forth in her
authorized standards, and particularly in the
Second Book of Discipline (ch. iii., sect 5), repeat
ed by act of assembly in 1638, that no pastor
be intruded upon any congregation contrary to
the will of the people: And whereas, in especial,
this fundamental principle was, by the 14th act
of thegeneral assembly, 1736 (c. xiv.), redeclared,
and directed to be attended to in the settlement
of vacant parishes, but having been, after some
time, disregarded in the administration of the
church, it was once more redeclared, by the
general assembly, 1834 (c. ix.), who established
certain specific provisions and regulations for
carrying it into effect in time to come: And
whereas, by a judgment pronounced by the
House of Lords, in 1839, it was, for the first time,
declared to be illegal to refuse to take on trial,
and to reject the presentee of a patron (although
a layman, and merely a candidate for admission
to the office of the ministry), in consideration of
this fundamental principle of the church, and in
respect of the dissent of the congregation ; to the
authority of which judgment, so far as disposing
of civil interests, this church implicitly howed,
by at once abandoning all claim to the jus
devolutum, — to the benefice, for any pastor to be

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privilege which might otherwise have been com
petent to the church or her courts; and anxiously
desirous, at the same time, of avoiding collision
with the civil courts, she so far suspended the
operation ofthe above-mentioned act of assembly,
as to direct all cases, in which dissents should be
lodged by a majority of the congregation, to be
reported to the general assembly, in the hope
that a way might be opened up to her for recon
ciling, with the civil rights declared by the House
of Lords, adherence to the above-mentioned
fundamental principle, which she could not
violate or abandon, by admitting to the holy office
of the ministry a party not having, in her con
scientious judgment, a legitimate call thereto,
or by intruding a pastor on a reclaiming con
gregation contrary to their will ; and further,
addressed herself to the government and the
legislature for such an alteration of the law (as
for the first time now interpreted), touching the
temporalities belonging to the church (which
alone she held the decision of the House of Lords
to be capable of affecting or regulating), as
might prevent a separation between the cure of
souls and the benefice thereto attached : And
whereas, although during the century which
elapsed after the passing of the said act of Queen
Anne, presbyteries repeatedly rejected the pre
sentees of patrons on grounds undoubtedly ultra
vires of the presbyteries, as having reference to
the title of the patron or the validity of com
peting presentations, and which were held by
the Court of Session to be contrary to law, and
admitted others to the pastoral office in the
parishes presented to, who had no presentation or
legal title to the benefice, the said court, even in
such cases, never attempted or pretended to direct
or coerce the church courts in the exercise of
their functions in regard to the collation of
ministers, or other matters acknowledged by the
state to have been conferred on the church, not
by the state, but by God himself. On the
contrary, they limited their decrees to the
regulation and disposal of the temporalities
which were derived from the state, and which,
as the proper subjects of 'actions civil,' were
within the province assigned to the Court of
Session, by the constitution refusing to interfere
with the peculiar functions and exclusive jur
isdiction of the courts of the church. Therefore,
the general assembly, while, as above set forth,
they fully recognize the absolute jurisdiction of
the civil courts in relation to all matters
whatsoever of a civil nature, and especially in
relation to all the temporalities conferred by the
state upon the church, and the civil consequences
attached by law to the decisions, in matters
spiritual, of the church courts, — Do, in name and
on behalf of this church, and of the nation and
people of Scotland, and under the sanction of the
several statutes, and the treaty of union herein
before recited, claim, as of right, tbat she shall

settled by her, — and fo all other civil right or ' freely possess and enjoy her liberties, govem-
587

SCO
ment, discipline, rights, and privileges, according
to law, especially for the defence of the spiritual
liberties of her people, and that she shall be pro
tected therein from the foresaid unconstitutional
and illegal encroachments of the said Court of
Session, and her people secured in their Christian
and constitutional rights and liberties. And they
declare, that they cannot, in accordance with the
Word of God, the authorized and ratified stan
dards of this church, and the dictates of their
consciences, intrude ministers on reclaiming con
gregations, or carry on the government of Christ's
Church, subject to the coercion attempted by the
Court of Session as above set forth; and that,
at the risk and hazard of suffering the loss of the
secular benefits conferred by the state, and the
public advantages of an establishment, tbey
must, as by God's grace they will, refuse so to do :
for, highly as they estimate these, they cannot
put them in competition with the inalienable
liberties of a church of Christ, which, alike by
tbeir duty and allegiance to their Head and
King, and by their ordination vows, they are
bound to maintain, ' notwithstanding of whatso
ever trouble or persecution may arise.' And
the3r protest, that all and whatsoever acts of the
parliament of Great Britain, passed without the
consent of this church and nation, in alteration
of, or derogation to the aforesaid government,
discipline, right, and privileges of this church
(which were not allowed to be treated of by the
commissioners for settling the terms of the union
between the two kingdoms, but were secured by
antecedent stipulation, provided to be inserted,
and inserted in the treaty of union, as an unalter
able and fundamental condition thereof, and so
reserved from the cognizance and power of the
federal legislature created by the said treaty), as
also, all and whatsoever sentences of courts, in
contravention of the same government, discipline,
right, and privileges, are, and shall be, in them
selves void and null, and of no legal force
or effect; and that, while they will accord full
submission to all such acts and sentences, in so
far — though in so far only — as these may regard
civil rights and privileges, whatever may be tbeir
opinion of the justice or legality of the same,
their said submission shall not be deemed an
aquiescence therein, but that it shall be free to
the members of this church, or their successors,
at any time hereafter, when there shall be a pros
pect of obtaining justice, to claim the restitution
of all such civil rights and privileges, and tem
poral benefits and endowments, as for the present
they may be compelled to yield up, in order to
preserve to their office-bearers the free exercise
of their spiritual government and discipline, and
to their people the liberties, of which respectively
it has been attempted, so contrary to law and
justice, to deprive them. And, finally, the
general assembly call the Christian people of this
kingdom, and all the churches of the Reformation
throughout the world, who hold the great doc-

SCO
trine ofthe sole headship of the Lord Jesus over
his Church, to witness, that it is for their adher
ence to that doctrine, as set forth in their con
fession of faith, and ratified by the laws of this
kingdom, and for the maintenance by them of
the jurisdiction of the office-bearers, and the
freedom and privileges of the members of the
church from that doctrine flowing, that this
church is subjected to hardship, and that the
rights so sacredly pledged and secured to her are
put in peril; and they especially invite all
the office-bearers and members of this church,
who are willing to suffer for their allegiance to
their adorable King and Head, to stand by the
ehurch, and by each other, in defence of the
doctrine aforesaid, and of the liberties and privi
leges, whether of office-bearers or people, which
rest upon it; and to unite in supplication to Al
mighty God, that he would be pleased to turn
the hearts of the rulers of this kingdom to keep
unbroken the faith pledged to this church, in
former days, by statutes and solemn treaty, and
the obligations, come under to God himself,
to preserve and maintain the government and
discipline of this church in accordance with his
Word ; or otherwise, that he would give strength
to this church — office-bearers and people — to en
dure resignedly the loss of the temporal benefits
of an establishment, and the personal sufferings
and sacrifices to which they may be called, and
would also inspire them with zeal and energy to
promote the advancement of his Son's kingdom,
in whatever condition it may be his will to place
them ; and that, in his own good time, he would
restore to them these benefits, the fruits of the
struggles and sufferings of their fathers in times
past in the same cause; and, thereafter, give
them grace to employ them more effectually than
hitherto they have done for the manifestation of
his glory."
The Free Church has vigorously held on its
way since its origin, and its liberality is beyond
all praise on behalf of the sustentation fund, the
building of manses, and missionary objects both
at home and abroad. There is a synod of seven
presbyteries in virtual connection with it in Eng
land, and so is the General Assembly of Ireland.
The body representing it in Nova Scotia, Can
ada, and Australia, has recently joined with the
United Presbyterian Church in all these colonies
(Buchanan's Ten Years' Conflict; Bryce's Ten
Years ofthe Church of Scotland). For number
of Presbyterian churches in America planted
originally from Scotland, and as early as 1753,
by the Secession, see Presbytery. Statistical
numbers cannot be accurate for more than one
year, and therefore any discrepancy found in these
pages can be easily accounted for. — See Episco
pacy, Independency.
Scourging. — See Discipline, Flagellas-
tes, Flagellation  An eyo-witness, writing
from Rome, March, 1860, gives the following
account :— " The first portion of the service con-

588

SCR
sisted of prayers and litanies very hurriedly
chanted by a minister at the altar; to these a
loud, musical response, or an occasional 'Amen,'
was returned by the kneeling penitents. These
prayers ended, a sweet tenor voice sang a solo,
apparently some recital ; perhaps ihe story of our
Lord's suffering. As he closed, the lights above
and below were extinguished, and the church
was left in utter darkness. One almost imper
ceptible ray of light I did see, however, through
an opening in the closed curtain of an upper
window, or perhaps through the curtain itself.
At this point a voice was heard; of course no
one could be seen. A priest began an exhorta
tion founded upon our Lord's readiness and desire
to suffer for our sakes. He spoke with slow and
distinct articulation, and with the rich Roman
cadence. Alluding to the approaching com
memoration of our Lord's death, he quoted his
words, 'With desire have I desired to eat the
passover with you before I suffer,' and enlarged
upon the steadfast eagerness of Christ to fulfil
his labour of suffering — of expiation. , He became
more and more impassioned, and spoke more
rapidly and vehemently as he dwelt upon this
point, and upon the contrast which our own
ingratitude, coldness, and unwillingness to suffer,
presented to Christ's self-devotion. As ho warmed
with this subject I could bear the self-inflicted
scourges falling upon the backs of the penitents —
not indeed with their full force, for it was not
the proper time as yet — as if, like horses eager
for tbe race, they were impatient to manifest
their willingness to suffer in the likeness of
Christ. The orator closed by asking, ' Shall we
not at least show our love and willingness to
deny ourselves by subduing our rebel flesh?'
With these words, or rather with the words
'Miserere mei,' shouted by the penitents, the
flagellations began in earnest. On every side,
hard and fast the knotted scourges fell. The
rapid succession of reverberating blows sounded
like a fierce shower of hail. I held my breath
and bowed my head from a nervous and uncon
trollable sympathy with actual suffering. It
seemed as if the shower of blows would never end."
Screen, in ecclesiastical architecture, is what
separates one portion of the church from an
other. — See Parclose. When placed at the
west end of the choir it was called the rood-
screen. — See Reredos, Rood.
Scribe. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Scriptures.— See Bible.— The Scriptures were
read publicly as a part of divine service in the
early Church. At a very early period the various
books were read in succession. At Easter the gos
pels were read, especially the chapters containing
the resurrection of Jesus ; the season from Easter
to Whitsunday was set apart for the reading of
the Acts : Genesis was read during Lent, and Job
on Passion Week. According to Justin Martyr
the Scriptures were read by an officer set apart for
tbe purpose, and after the reading the minister

SCR
gave an address from the passage read — from the
lesson of the day. All men were enjoined to
read the Scriptures, and there were Bibles placed
in churches that worshippers might read them.
For this reason, too, translations of Scripture
were made into various languages, and it was
accounted sacrilege to forbid the people the
use of them. Sentences from the Bible were
often written on the walls of churches. Those
who delivered up their Bibles in days of per
secution were branded as traditors, betrayers.
— See Traditores. The public reading of the
Scriptures was a species of chanting probably
taken from the custom of the Jewish synagogue.
Before the meeting began, the deacon enjoined
silence, and often called aloud again, " 7t^otr^f/.iv,
attendamus, attention!" Then the reader pro
ceeded, saying, "Thus saith the Lord in the
lesson from the Old Testament, or from the gos
pels," &c. ;vor again, " Beloved brethren, in the
epistles it is written." This was done to awaken
attention and veneration for the word read. At
the close of tbe lesson the people responded fre
quently, if not uniformly, by saying, "Amen;"
or they said, "We thank thee, Lord;" " We thank
thee, 0 Christ," — for the previous Word. At
first the reading was performed from the ambo,
or desk, afterwards it was from the pulpit, with
the exception of that of the gospels and the
epistles, which, out of reverence for these parts
of Scripture, were rehearsed near the altar, the
former on the right hand and the latter on the left
of tbe altar. — See Ambo. It was the duty of
the sub-deacon to read or chant the epistles, and
of the deacon to rehearse the gospels. — See Gos
pel. The reader was at all times required to
stand in the discharge of his office ; the people
preserved the same attitude in the rehearsal of
the psalms, and the reading of the lessons from
the gospels and the epistles, at the celebration of
their festivals. Cyprian represents this to have
been, on all occasions, the custom in Africa. The
Apostolical Constitutions recommend both the
clergy and tbe people to stand in the reading of
the gospels. It was a general rule of the ancient
Church that the hearers sat during the ordinary
reading of the Scriptures, but arose when the
gospels were recited. If, in the delivery of a
sermon, the preacher introduced a passage from the
gospels, the assembly immediately arose, which
was the frequent occasion of much noise. The
reason for this usage in relation to the gospels is
thus given by Chrysostom : — " If the letters of a
king are read in the theatre with great silence,
much more ought we to compose ourselves, and
reverently to arise and listen, when the letters,
not of an earthly king, but of the Lord of angels
are read to us." Jerome is the first who mentions
tbe custom of burning lighted candles in the
Eastern Church, though not in the Western,
when the gospels were read. Riddle adds, —
" It may be recorded as a general rule, that none
but canonical books were read as Scripture, or

589

SEA
tbe Word of God, in the early churches. But
as opinions differed, for a considerable time,
respecting the extent of the canon, the practice
of different churches was subject to a correspond
ing variation in this particular ; so that in some
provinces or churches a book was read as Scrip
ture which did not receive the same honour
in other places. With respect to the Jewish
Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books of the
Old Testament, it may be asserted, in general,
tbat those books were not regarded as belonging
to the canon, or authentic; but the reading of
them was allowed, and they were recommended
to the diligent perusal of the catechumens.
Christian writers, however, did not appeal to
them in their apologetic, doctrinal, or controver
sial treatises. As to the Antilegomena, i. e.,
the doubtful or controversial books of the New
Testament, it appears that they were read in
public even before they were admitted as belong
ing to the canon. The Apocalypse, however,
was entirely excluded in the churches of Con
stantinople, Antioch, Caesarea, and other places.
Gregory of Nyssa includes this book among the
Apocrypha." The Westminster Directory says,
— " Reading of the Word in the congregation,
being part of the public worship of God (wherein
we acknowledge our dependence upon him, and
subjection to him), and one mean sanctified by
him for the edifying of his people, is to be per
formed by the pastors and teachers. How large
a portion shall be read at once is left to the
wisdom of the minister ; but it is convenient
that ordinarily one chapter of each Testament be
read at every meeting, and sometimes more,
.where the chapters be short or the coherence of
matter requireth it. It is requisite that all the
canonical books be read over in order, that the
people may be better acquainted with the whole
body of the Scriptures ; and ordinarily, where
the reading in either Testament endeth on one
Lord's Day it is to begin the next. We com
mend, also, the more frequent reading of such
Scriptures as he that readeth shall think best for
edification of bis hearers, as the book of Psalms,
and such like." For the practice of the Church
of England, see Lessons.
Seal. — Baptism in the early Church received
often this name, — " The seal of the Lord," " the
seal of Christ." The Emperor Constantine, ask
ing baptism on his death-bed, called it " the seal
of immortality." Baptism, as a seal, did dis
tinguish Christians alike from Jews and pagans.
The term is used with a somewhat different sense
in one of the canons of the council of Constan
tinople, — " Those who, from being heretics, be
take themselves to orthodoxy, and to the remnant
of the saved, we receive according to the method
and custom here subjoined, viz., Arians, Mace
donians, Sabbathians, and Novatians, who call
themselves Puritans, and Continents, and Quar-
todecimans, or Tetradites, and Apollinarians,
if they give in a written renunciation of their

SEC
errors, and anathematize every heresy contrary
to the sentiments of the Catholic Apostolic
Church, by sealing them with the sacred unction
on the forehead and eyes, and nose, and mouth,
and ears, and saying, — The seal of the gift of
the Holy Spirit." The term was also given to
confirmation  See Confirmation. In Scot
land baptism and the Lord's Supper are often
termed sealing ordinances — that is, ordinances
connected with a public and distinctive confes
sion of faith. The Westminster divines attached,.
indeed, a stronger meaning to the term seal — a
meaning which has also been by some strenuously
vindicated. But the Spirit of God is the one
seal ; and the baptism of one who has already
possessed the Spirit of God is only a token of
this possession, which it indicates, but which it
can in no sense secure as an inalienable gift. Seal,
in the Popish Church, is applied to the secrecy
of the confessional.
Sc-Baptists (self-baptizers), a small sect
formed in England about the middle of the seven
teenth century by John Smith of Amsterdam.
A small sect in Russia also held the same views.
Seceders, Secession, &c. — See Scotland,
Churches in.
Secretarium (same as diaconicum). — The
secretaria were the councils held in this place.
One father calls the protheds by the same name.
— See Diaconicum, Paratorium.
Secular Clergy. — See Clergy.
Secular Power. — When clergymen, in an
cient times, were delivered over to the secular
power, they were said to be curias tradi. The
curia, however, was not simply a court to inflict
civil punishment, but was also a corporation.
The degraded clergyman had to serve the curia or
civil corporation in some menial function — had to
be a slave to an earthly power — as he had left or
been dismissed from his spiritual function. And
as no curiales could be ordained, such degradation
was perpetual. The law of Honorius distinctly
describes such degradation, and one of tbe Novels
of Justinian confirms it. — See Magistrates,
Penal Laws. The secular power is some
times even yet appealed to. One of its earliest
manifestations is the following letter from the
Emperor Constantine in the year 325 : — " Victor
Constantine Maximus Augustus, to the bishops
and people. Since Arius has imitated wicked and
impious persons, it is just that he should undergo
the like ignominy. Wherefore as Porphyry, that
enemy of piety, for having composed licentious
treatises against religion, found a suitable recom
pence, and such as thenceforth branded him
with infamy, overwhelming him with deserved
reproach, his impious writings also having been
destroyed ; so now it seems fit both that Arius
and such as hold his sentiments should be deno
minated Porphyrians, that they may take their
appellation from those whose conduct they have
imitated. And in addition to this, if any treatise
composed by Arius should be discovered, let it
690

SEM
be consigned to the flames, in order that not
only his depraved doctrine may be suppressed,
but also that no memorial of him may be by any
means left. This therefore I decree, that if any
one shall be detected in concealing a book com
piled by Arius, and shall not instantly bring it
forward and burn it, the penalty for this offence
shall be death; for immediately after conviction
the criminal shall suffer capital punishment.
May God preserve you ! " So late as 1799 the
Ilaldanes were summoned before the justices as
vagrant teachers in Kintyre, and a justice sent
one of their missionaries aboard a ship of war,
from which he was relieved by legal measures.
—See Settlements, Violent.
Secnndians, a party of Valentinians, named
after their leader, Secundus. — See Valentin
ians. Sedcs (seat), the name of the bishop's throne.
Sedilia (seats), for the officiating minister
during the Eucharistic service in the Church of
England. They are generally on the south side
of the altar. — See Crown op Presbytery.
See (sedes, seat), the bishop's seat, or the ex
tent of his episcopal jurisdiction. Seat, in old
Scotland, was also the name of the kirk session.
See, Apostolical, the name given in early
centuries to every bishop's diocese, and not ex
clusively to that of the Bishop of Rome, to which
alone, by Romanists, it is now applied.
Seekers, a little sect which sprang up in
England in 1645. As their name implies, they
were seeking after truth, since they had no faith
in the ordinances dispensed around them ; nay,
they thought that uncertainty attached to the
Scriptures themselves.
Scleucians, followers of Seleucus, a teacher
who adopted the Gnostic opinions of Hermogenes.
— See Hermogenians, Valentinians.
Semaxii. — The Christians were so called in
contempt, from the semaxis or stake to which they
were tied as martyrs ; and they were also called
Sarmentilii, from the sarmenta, or faggots of wood
placed around them to burn them.
Scmbat. — The so-called " Children of the
Sun," or Arevurdis, an Armenian sect, originated
in the ninth century with Sembat, a Paulician.
They also bore the name of Thontrakians, from
the village of Thontrake, where their church
was formed. In 1002 no less a personage than
the metropolitan, Jacob of Harkh, joined them.
He gave a more distinctively Christian cast to
their tenets, journeyed through the country
preaching repentance and inveighing against
work-righteousness, and made numerous con
verts both among tbe clergy and laity. The
Catholicos of the Armenian Church had him
branded and imprisoned. He escaped, but was
ultimately killed by his opponents. (Kurtz.)
Semi-Arians. — See Arianism, Heter-
OUSIANS, HOMOOUSIAN.
Scmijrjunia (lialf-fasls). — See Stationes.
Seminaries, a name often given to foreign

SEN
Romish institutions for English youth, to qualify
them for the priesthood and for the conversion of
England. Many were erected: the first at
Douay, 1569, by Philip, King of Spain; the
second at Rome, 1579, by Pope Gregory XIII. ;
the third at Valladolid, 1589, by the'King of
Spain; the fourth at Seville, 1593, by the
same ; the fifth at St. Omer's, 1596, by the same ;
the sixth at Madrid, 1606, by Joseph Creswel,
Jesuit; the seventh at Louvaine, 1606, by Philip
III. of Spain; the eighth at Liege, 1616, by
the archbishop of that county; and the ninth
at Ghent, 1624, by Philip IV. The popish
nobility and gentry sent over their children to
these colleges for education ; and it is incredible
what a mass of money was collected in England
for their maintenance, by their provincials, sub-
provincials, assistants, agents, coadjutors, fami
liars, &c, out of the estates of such Catholics
as were possessed of abbey -lands — the pope
dispensing with their holding them on these
considerations. The oath taken by every student
at his admission was this: — "Having resolved
to offer myself wholly up to divine service, as
much as I may, to fulfil the end for which this
our college was founded, I promise and swear,
in the presence of Almighty God, that I am
prepared from mine heart, with the assistance of
divine grace, in due time to receive holy orders,
and to return into England, to convert the souls
of my countrymen and kindred, when and as
often as it shall seem good to the superior of this
college." The number of students educated in
these colleges may be inferred from this; that
whereas, according to Saunders, an eminent pop
ish writer, there were but thirty old priests
remaining in England in 1575, tbe two colleges
of Douay and Rome alone, in a very few years,
sent over three hundred. (Neal.)
Semi-Pelagians, a name first given by the
schoolmen of the Middle Ages to a party which
arose about the year 425, holding opinions between
those of Pelagius and those of his great opponent,
Augustine. Their leader was Cassian, a pupil
of Chrysostom, who had settled at Marseilles, and
founded two monasteries there; hence they were
originally called Massilians. The last two works
that Augustine wrote were directed against their
opinions. After his death their chief opponent
was Prosper ; while the Abbot of Lerins was one
of their great champions, and the well-known
name of Vincentius Lirinensis was to be found
among the members of the sect. Their tenets
were condemned by a synod held at Orange in
529, and the decisions of that synod were soon
after affirmed by a council at Valence, and finally
ratified by Boniface II. (See the Works of
Cassian.) — See Pelagians.
Scmi-lTniversalists. — See Amyraldism.
Senatorium (places for elders), a name
given, as some suppose, to the seat of the bishop
and presbyters ; others take it to be the seat set
apart for civil senators.

591

SEN
Scncs (seniors), a title given to the primates
of the African Church. — See African Church.
Senses of Scripture. — See Theology.
Sentences, portions of Scripture used before
the morning and evening prayer in the Church
of England. The ancient offices of the West
ern Church were, for many ages, interspersed, in
various parts, with verses, or small portions of
Scripture. Amalarius, a.d. 820, mentions tbat
in many of them a verse, or capitulum, was
read before the compline, or latest evening ser
vice, and in the ancient Gallican form the noc
turnal office, which for many ages was accounted
with matins but one office, began with a lesson
out of Scripture, — See Compline.
Separatists. — Various bodies have received
that name, or called themselves by it. In popish
times Protestants were sometimes so named and
condemned. In more recent times the well-known
John Walker of Dublin was pastor of a body of
most rigid separatists, who refused communion
with any other party. Another body of Irish
separatists was headed by Mr. Kelly. Separatists
too often become self-inflated, and they denounce
other bodies with a virulence which seems to
increase in proportion as those bodies approach
their own opinions and practices. Thus some
of them have called such books as Doddridge's
Rise ond Progress " a devout path to hell."
Scptimana in albis (Easter Week). — See
Alb, Easter.
Septuagesima, the Sunday which in round
numbers is seventy days before Easter.
Septuagint. — See Bible.
Sepulchre, Holy Church of the. — See
Biblical Cyclopaedia, article " Calvary "
Sepulchre, a niche on the north side of the
chancel, near the altar, employed in popish times
to represent the burial and resurrection of our
Lord. It was often a wooden erection, but some
times also of stone. The crucifix was placed in
the sepulchre on Good Friday, and watched till
Easter, when it was taken and placed again on
the altar. Thus we find the following : — " a.d.,
1558. Payde for making the sepulture, 10s.;
for peynting the same sepulture, 3s. ; for stones
and other charges about it, 4s. (id. ; to the sex
ton for meat and drink, and watching the sepul
ture, according to custom, 22d  'Accomptsof
S. Helen's, Abingdon,' Archaeol. vol. i., p. 16.
Within the Abbye Church of Durham, uppon
Good Friday, there was marvellous solemne ser
vice, in the which service time, after the passion
was sung, two of the eldest monkes did take a
goodly large crucifix, all of gold, of the picture
of our Saviour Christ, nailed uppon the crosse
. . . The seruice beinge ended, the two monkes
did carrye it to the sepulchre with great rever
ence (which sepulchre was sett upp in the morn-
inge on the north side of the quire, nigh to the
high altar, before the service time), and there lay
it within the said sepulchre, with great devotion."
— Rites qf Durham, pp. 9, 10.

SEP
Sepulchre, Regular Canons of, a reli
gious order said to have been founded by Godfrey
on tbe capture of Jerusalem in 1099. Many of
these canons came into Europe, but the order
was suppressed by Pope Innocent VIII., and its
revenues were ultimately bestowed on the knights
of St. John of Jerusalem. According to Brough
ton, the suppression of the order did not extend
to Poland.
Sequences, same as proses. — See Pkoses.
Sequestration, English. — When a judg
ment has been obtained against a beneficed
clergyman, and that judgment remains unsa
tisfied, the party entitled to the fruits of the
judgment is obliged to levy the sum recovered
by an execution. In the first instance he
issues the ordinary writ of execution, called a
fieri facias, to which all persons are subject,
directing the sheriff to levy the amount upon
the goods and chattels of the defaulter. If the
sheriff is able to do so, the amount is levied,
and there is an end of the matter; if, on the
other hand, he cannot find goods and chattels
sufficient, he returns the writ to the court,
stating his inability, and certifying that the
individual has a rectory or other ecclesiastical
benefice, as the case may be, in the county.
Upon this return a writ of sequestration, called
either a levari facias de bonis ecclesiasticis, or a
sequestrari facias, according to the mode in
which it is drawn up, issues to the bishop of the
diocese, requiring him to levy the amount upon
the ecclesiastical goods of the clergyman. Upon
this writ the bishop or his officer makes out a
sequestration, directed to the churchwardens or
persons named by the bishop, or, upon proper
security, to persons named by the party who
issues the writ, requiring them to sequestrate the
tithes and other profits of the benefice ; which
sequestration should be forthwith published, not
by reading it in church during divine service, a
ceremony which is, in our opinion, abolished by
the second section of 7 William IV. and 1 Vic
toria, c. 45, but by affixing a notice of its
contents at or near the church door before the
commencement of the service, as required by
that statute. The sequestration is a continuing
charge upon the benefice, and the bishop may be.
called upon from time to time to return to the
court an account of what has been levied under
it The court has the same power over the
bishop that it has over a sheriff in respect of
ordinary writs of execution; and if the bishop
is negligent in the performance of his duty, or
returns an untrue account of the proceedings
under the writ, he is liable, in the same way as
the sheriff is liable, to an action at the suit of
the party damnified thereby. Sequestration is
also a process of the ecclesiastical courts. When
a benefice is full, the profits may be sequestered
if the incumbent neglects his cure ; and if there
be a vacancy, the profits are to be sequestered,
and to be applied so far as necessary in providing

692

SER
for the service of the cure during the vacancy,
the successor being entitled to the surplus.
Sergiets or Sergists, followers of Sergius, a
leader among the Paulicians. — See Paulicians.
Sermons, discourses delivered in religious
assemblies. In the ancient Church, immediately
after the reading of the psalms and lessons out
of the Scriptures, and before the catechumens
were dismissed, the sermon by the bishop, or
some other appointed by him, was made to the
people. This being done in the presence of the
catechumens, was therefore reckoned a part of the
missa catechumenorum, or ante-communion ser
vice. Such discourses were commonly termed
homilies, from the Greek iuiXiai, which signi
fies any discourse or any instruction to the
people. Sometimes they were named "Xiyts " —
discourse, or " xfyvypa " — preaching. Among the
Latins they were called sermo or concio, and by
Tertullian and Cyprian tractatus, and the preach
ers tractatores. It would appear from Justin
Martyr that, in his day, the discourses were
usually taken from the lesson previously read
from Scripture. "The preachers," he says,
"admonish the people, exciting them to an imi
tation ofthe good works which have been brought
before their notice." Tertullian, in the second
century, says, — " We meet together for the purpose
of reciting the Holy Scriptures, in order to learn
from them that which, according to the circum
stances of the present time, may either serve as
instruction for the future, or may be applied to
immediate use. At least, hy means of the sacred
word, we confirm our faith, excite our hopes, and
establish our confidence ; and by tbe inculcation
of the divine precepts we bring our hearts under
the power of the saving doctrine. We exhort
and correct one another, and submit ourselves to
the guidance of the divine Word. For here the
judgment of God is of great weight, inasmuch as
no one doubts but that he is standing in the
divine presence." Origen also bears witness to
the same practice. "This," says he, "we do,
when the Scriptures are read in the church, and
when the discourse for explication is delivered to
the people." Many homilies of his upon the
Scriptures of the New Testament, delivered by
him in the assemblies of the churcb, are still
extant. Preaching, anciently, was one of the
chief functions of a bishop ; insomuch that, in the
African churches, no presbyter ever preached
before a bishop in his cathedral church till St.
Augustine's time. In the Eastern Church pres
byters were indeed allowed to preach before the
bishop ; but this was not to free him of the duty ;
for still he preached a sermon at the same diet
after them. In the lesser churches of the city and
country the office of preaching was always de
volved upon the presbyters, but deacons were
never allowed to perform it. There are number
less passages in the writings of the fathers which
speak of preaching as a duty necessarily incum
bent on a bishop. Many canons of councils either

SER
suppose or enjoin it ; and in the imperial laws
there are several edicts of the secular power to
the same purpose. Particularly, in the Theo
dosian code, there is one jointly made by the
three emperors, Gratian, Valentinian, and Theo
dosius, which bears this title, "De munere seu
officio episcoporum in prcsdicando verba Dei" — Of
the duty or office of bishops in preaching the
Word of God. A deacon might sometimes preach
in room of a presbyter, or at least read a homily
of one of the fathers. The laity were forbidden
to preach, though, as Eusebius states, there were
exceptional cases for the benefit of the heathen.
On no account were women to preach, and
Tertullian even condemns the Montanists for
allowing prophetesses to address their assemblies.
It was usual for preachers to commence their dis
course with a short prayer for divine assistance.
Sometimes before they began to preach they used
the common salutation, "Pax vobis " — Peace be
with you, to which the people answered, And with
thy spirit; and sometimes they prefaced the sermon
with a short form of benediction, especially in times
of calamity and distress, or of happy deliverances.
Occasionally they preached without any text,
and sometimes upon more texts than one ; that is,
upon selected passages. Their sermons usually
were not long, and scarce any of them would last
an hour, and many not half the time. They
always concluded their sermons with a doxology
to the Holy Trinity. The preacher usually
spoke from the ambo, but originally he preached
from the chancel, in front of the altar, or from the
bishop's seat. — See Ambo. He delivered his ser
mon sitting, and the people heard it standing ; but
the custom varied in different churches. The be
haviour of the audience was sometimes peculiar.
They testified their approbation by loud applause.
The practice, borrowed from the theatre, became
sometimes so excessive as to be sharply rebuked.
Chrysostom, who had met with no little popular
applause, and who, when he rebuked it, was
clamorously applauded for the very rebuke, thus
exclaims on one occasion, — " Whatdo your praises
advantage me when I see not your progress in
virtue ? Or what harm shall I receive from the
silence of my auditory when I behold the increase
of their piety ? The praise of the speaker is not
the xgirts (the acclamation of his hearers), but
their zeal for piety and religion ; not their making
a great stir in the times of hearing, but showing
diligence at all other times. Applause, as soon
as it is out of the mouth, is dispersed into the
air, and vanishes; but when the hearers grow
better, this brings an incorruptible and immortal
reward both to the speaker and the hearers. The
praise of your acclamations may render the orator
more illustrious here ; but the piety of your souls
will give him great confidence before the tribunal
of Christ. Therefore, if an)' one love the preacher,
or if any preacher love his people, let him not
be enamoured with applause, hut with the benefit
of the hearers." It was a common thing to note

593

2Q

SER
down the sermons during delivery; notaries, or
short-hand writers, often did the same, so that
Gregory Nazianzen says, in his valedictory dis
course, — "Farewell, ye lovers of my sermons;
farewell, ye pens, both public and private." These
notaries sometimes published discourses without
the author's consent, and the dishonest practice
has not died out. The topics of sermons were
usually momentous. Gregory says their sub
jects were, — " The world's creation and the
soul of man; of angels, as well those that
kept as those that lost their first integrity; of
providence and its wise laws and constitutions ;
of the formation of man and his restoration ; of
the two covenants, the types of the old, and tbe
antetypes of the new ; of Christ's first and second
coming ; of his incarnation and passion ; of the
general resurrection and end of the world ; of the
day of judgment, the rewards of the just, and the
punishment of the wicked ; and, above all, of the
doctrine of the Trinity, which was the principal
article of the Christian faith." In like manner,
Chrysostom puts his auditors in mind of what
matters he had used to preach to them, — " Of the
nature of the soul ; of the fabric of the body ; of
the state of immortality ; of the kingdom of
heaven and the torments of hell ; of the long-
suffering of God and the methods of pardon ; of
the powers of repentance ; of baptism and the
forgiveness of sins ; of the creation of the superior
and inferior worlds ; of the nature of men and
angels ; of the subtilty of Satan and bis methods
and policies ; of the different opinions of the
Christian world ; of the true faith and tbe gan
grene of heretics ; and other such mysteries, which
it behoves » Christian to be acquainted with."
Sermons seem to have been prepared with great
care as to the materials and arrangement, but not
as to words. They were not written, and then
committed to memory, but rather carefully
thought out, and mentally elaborated ; for many
of the fathers were famous as extemporaneous
orators. Sermons were sometimes read, but not
very commonly. The method was usually very
simple, the thoughts being taken up in the order
of the passage which formed the text. The
preacher had customarily a Bible in the pulpit
with him. Such artificial or scholastic divisions
and methods as are found in the structure of
modern sermons were then unknown, and were
only introduced in mediaeval times. (Riddle,
Broughton.) — See Pulpit.
Service of the Chnrch. — The reader will
find under different terms the order, parts, and
meaning of the service. We present, however, an
extract from Tertullian, describing the order of
service in the North African Church in his day :
— " We Christians, incorporated by our common
faith, worship, and hopes, meet for prayer, in
which we as it were take the kingdom of heaven
by a violence grateful to God, not forgetting to
offer up supplications for emperors, and all in
authority, for the prosperity and peace of the

SES
state, and for the delay ofthe final doom. We
assemble also for receiving instruction, warning,
and exhortation from the Divine Word, whereby
we nourish our faith, animate our hope, establish
our confidence, and stir up ourselves by every
argument to the practice of good works. On
these occasions discipline is administered with
all solemnity, and the censures pronounced on
offenders are regarded as anticipating the judg
ment to come. Every one puts something into
the public stock once a -month, or when he
pleases, and according to his ability and inclina
tion, for there is no compulsion; these pious
deposits being applied, not to the indulgence of
appetife, but in aid of the poor, orphans, the
aged, the shipwrecked, the persecuted, and for
burying tbe dead. Then follows a supper, a love-
feast, not an entertainment for the sensual, but a
refreshment to the hungry and the needy. To this
supper we do not sit down till we have previously
tasted the pleasure of prayer to God ; we sup in
the recollection that God is to be worshipped in
the night season, and we converse with the con
sciousness that he hears us. Praise succeeds,
and the whole is concluded with prayer, when
we depart ; not for the purposes of dissipation,
licentiousness, or violence, but with the same
regard to purity and moderation as in our coming
together, like men who have been enjoying a
spiritual banquet, rather than a common supper."
Serving Tables. — In Scotland it was cus
tomary to set apart certain pews, of no great
dimensions, for communicants. These were tilled
by parties of communicants in succession, to
whom, both before and after the distribution of
the elements, an address was given, the whole ol
which process was called serving the table. The
phrase is a misapplication from Acts vi. 2,
where it means to disburse funds or superintend
a common table. Simultaneous communion is
now common in Scotland. In fact, under the
practice of successive tables, none but the first
table was fully served.
Servites or Servants of the Virgin, a
Romish order, founded, about 1233, by seven
merchants of Florence, who themselves renounced
the world and formed a religious community at
a place about two leagues distant from the city.
The order was approved by Pope Alexander IV.,
and was allowed to have convents and churches.
Father Paul Sarpi belonged to this order. The
Annuntiado at Florence is the most famous of
its monasteries.
Session.— See Elders. — The business of the
session is to examine and admit members into the
communion of the church, or receive the certifi
cates of persons coming from other congregations
— to grant certificates to members leaving the
congregation— to watch over the Christian de
portment of the members of the congregation —
to exercise discipline over them when required,
by admonition, rebuke, suspension, or exclusion
— to restore members who have been suspended

694

SET

or cut off from privileges — to fix the hours and
order of public worship — to appoint the time of
the dispensation of the Lord's Supper, and make
provision for it — to appoint congregational fasts
or thanksgivings — to receive and distribute such
free-will offerings of the congregation as are
entrusted to them — to provide for the necessities
of the poor — to call congregational meetings
when they see it necessary — to examine and
judge of the qualifications of persons elected to
the eldership — to receive and judge of petitions
from the members — to transmit papers to the
presbytery — and, in general, to superintend the
religious interests of the congregation.
Scthites. — See Ophites.
Settlements, Violent, took place when a
patron in Scotland presented a clergyman whom
the people would not have, but whom the eccle
siastical courts were determined, in spite of all
opposition, to ordain. In such cases the parish
sometimes rose to oppose the settlement by force,
and obstructed the presbytery. The military were
occasionally called to protect the presbytery,
which did its solemn work surrounded by Herod
and his men-of-war. Such scenes happened in
many parts of the country. At the ordina
tion of Mr. Sj-me, the grandfather of Lord
Brougham, in the parish of Alloa, by a riding
committee, in 1750, four companies of soldiers
attended, as there had been a previous riot.
On the 7th of January following six men and
one woman were tried before the Justiciary Court
for participation in tbe riot. The jury returned
their verdict on the 8th, finding them guilty, art
and part, of the crimes libelled. The lords pro
nounced sentence on the 11th, — by which Wil
liam Sharp, William Paterson, and John and
William Clerks, were banished to the plantations
for seven years, to be computed from the time of
their landing; with certification, that such of
them as should return to Scotland within the
time limited, should, toties quoties, be whipped
through Edinburgh, and retransported for other
seven years. James Sharp was banished Scot
land for seven years, from and after the 30th
of January, and in case of his returning, to be
toties quoties whipped through Edinburgh, and
banished other seven years. James Anderson
was fined in 200 merks Scots to the private pur
suers, and ordained to be kept prisoner in Edin
burgh tolbooth till the 15th of May next; and
Jean Nicol was ordained to pass through Edin
burgh on the 29th of January, her hands tied
behind her hack with a rope, the hangman walk
ing immediately behind her, and holding the end
of this rope in one hand, and his whip in the
other, and then to be confined to the Edinburgh
correction-house, at hard labour, till the 15th of
May next. This took place accordingly on the
29th. (Annals ofthe Church qf Scotland.)
Scenes of another character sometimes oc
curred, as at St. Ninians, where the parish
had fought seven years against an obnoxious 595

SEV
candidate, but had been beaten in the end.
On the 29th of July, 1773, the presbytery met
at St, Ninians, by the peremptory command
of the assembly, to induct the presentee. Several
members were absent, though the assembly bad
enjoined all, under the pain of its censures, to
attend. Mr. Findlay, minister of Dollar, pre
sided, and in his prayer he asked no blessing
upon the service. After prayer he rose to address
the presentee, who stood up, according to custom.
" We are here met this day," said he, " in obe
dience to the sentence of the general assembly,
to admit you minister of St. Ninians. There
has been a formidable opposition made against
yon by six hundred heads of families, sixty
heritors, and all the elders except one. This
opposition has continued for seven years ; and if
you shall this day be admitted, you can have no
pastoral relation to the souls of this parish ; you
will never be regarded as the shepherd to go
before the sheep ; they know you not, and will
not follow you. Your admission can only be
regarded as a sinecure, and yourself as a stipend-
lifter. Instead of doing good you will bring ruin
and desolation on the parish, and be able to adopt
the answer of Marius to the Roman prsetor, —
' Go tell him that thou bast seen tbe exiled
Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage.' Now,
sir, I conjure you, by the mercy of God, give up
this presentation ; I conjure you, by the great
number of souls of St. Ninians, who are like
sheep going astray without a shepherd to lead
them, and who will never hear you, never submit
to you, give it up ; and I conjure you, by that
peace which you would wish to have in a dying
hour, and that awful and impartial account which
in a little time you must give to God of your own
soul, and of the souls of this parish, before the
tribunal of our Lord Jesus Christ, give it up!"
" I forgive you for what you have now said," was
the tart reply of Thomson, the presentee ; " may
God forgive you. Proceed to execute the orders
of your superiors." — See Non-Intrusionists,
Patronage, Riding Committees.
Seven Sacraments. — See Sacraments.
— The council of Trent, session 7, canon i.,
says, — "If any one shall say tbat the sacra
ments of the new law were not all instituted
by Jesus Christ our Lord, or that they are
more or less than seven, to wit, Baptism, Con
firmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme
Unction, Orders, and Matrimony ; or even that
any one of these seven is not truly and properly
a sacrament; let him be anathema." — See the
various terms.
Seventy.— See Bible, p. 88.
Severiani(/offowerso/<Sewer«s),anamegiven,
— 1. To the Encratites in the second century. —
SeeF.NCRATiTES. 2. TothemorerigidMonophys-
ites in tlie early part of the sixth century. Their
eminent leader, Severus, had rejected and ridiculed
the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, published in
482, and had anathematized all who received it.

SEV
It was therefore a great triumph to their party
when, in 612, the successor of Zeno procured his
elevation to the patriarchate of Antioch. From
that time he became apparently more moderate
in his opinions and conduct, though still uncom
promising in his opposition to the authority of
the council of Chalcedon, and the consequence
was that he succeeded in drawing together the
moderate and ultra-Monophysites, and so pre
pared the way for their permanent separation from
the orthodox church. The Jacobites, as they
were afterwards called, regard him to this day
with the greatest veneration. — See Henoticon,
Monophysites. Sereritcs. — See Angelites.
Sexagesima, the Sabbath, which in round
numbers is sixty days before Easter.
Sexes. — See Women.
Sext, or Sixth Hour, or Twelve o'clock,
a name given to the noon-day service.
Sexton (contracted from sacristan). — See Sa
cristan. — The sexton's duty in the Church of
England is to keep the church, dig graves, pro
vide necessary things for service-^-as for baptism
and the Eucharist — under the direction of the
churchwardens. The office may be held by a
woman, and the salary usually depends on the
annual vote of the parishioners. In Scotland the
sexton, whose duties are much the same as those
just stated, is usually called the beadle, from the
Saxon verb bydde, to cry, or to make proclama
tion. He is usually campanarius, or bell-ringer,
and also grave-digger. The appointment to the
office, in the established church, is with the
heritors. — See Doorkeepers, Heritors.
Shakers or The Millennial Church. —
This party trace their origin to the French pro
phets or Camisards. — See Camisards, French
Prophets. In 1705 some French prophets
came to England, and spread their views, com
municating inspiration, as they thought, to people
of both sexes. In 1747 a society was formed,
the members of which professed to be led by the
Spirit of God. James Wardley, who had once
been a Quaker, was a leading member of it.
His excitements and nervous agitations gave to
the people the name of Shaking Quakers. A
short time after its formation a woman named
Anna Lee joined this society, and by 1770 she
had come to be recognized as its inspired head,
very usually saluted as Mother Ann. Her proper
name was Mrs. Standley. Her followers named
her Ann the Word. In 1774 Mother Ann, with
some of the elders, emigrated to America, and
the church, after some wanderings, was finally
established at a place called Mount Lebanon.
Mother Ann died in 1784, and was succeeded by
James Whitatker, and after his death Father
Meaghar had supremacy. Their various com
munities of fifteen settlements comprise 6,000 or
8,000 souls. " They term themselves the Millen
nial Church : they hold that the millennium has
begun, and that they are the only true church,

SHO
and have all the apostolic gifts. They insist
that baptism and the Lord's Supper ceased with
the apostolic age; that the wicked will be
punished for a definite period only, except such
as apostatize from them, and these will he pun
ished for ever ; that Christ will not appear again
in the world, except in the persons of his fol
lowers, that is, the Shakers ; that marriage is
sinful, and that ' they that have wives should be
as though they had none,' even now, and that
thus alone purity and holiness, and the consequent
beatitude of the heavenly state, can be attained;
that sin committed against God is committed
against them, and can be pardoned only for
Christ's sake through them. The discipline of
their churches rests for the most part with ' their
elders,' who follow the instructions left by
' Mother Ann Lee.' In their religious worship
they range themselves at intervals in rows, and
then spring upwards a few inches. Sometimes
they become so excited in this exercise as to
throw off their upper garments, and jump as if
they would reach the ceiling, all, as they say, to
express their joy in the Lord. After this they
sit down and listen awhile to their preachers, and
then, when tired of hearing, resume their dancing.
They place holiness in a life of celibacy. Their
way of stating the argument is peculiar. The
essence of it is, that the resurrection spoken of in
the New Testament means nothing more than
conversion. Our Saviour declares that, ' in the
resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in
marriage;' therefore, on the conversion (or the
resurrection) of the individual, marriage ceases.
Not permitting marriage, much less concubinage,
their body cannot be expected to increase. It
appears they have a great accession of members
from the class of the ' unfortunate,' and from
widows and orphans, to whom their institutions
furnish an asylum. Their property is all in
common. They profess to have the power of work
ing miracles, and to be guided not so much by the
Scriptures as immediately by the Holy Spirit.
They maintain that it is unlawful to take oaths, to
use compliments, or to play at games of chance.
They hold general fasts, and have no order of
persons regularly educated for the ministry.
Their political principles are strictly republican,
viewing all hereditary rank, in civil or religions
government, as repugnant to the spirit of Chris
tianity. Such is the favourable opinion enter
tained of them, that the legislature of New York
have by law exempted them from all military
duty, and from any fine or tax in^lieu thereof.
They have likewise passed a law enabling in
dividuals who desire to join them to become
divorced ; but permitting the party who does
not join them to retain the children and the
property." (Marsden.)
Shere Thursday. — See Lent, p. 375.
Shoes. — On entering the church Orientals
took off their shoes, much in the same way as
those in the West take off their hats.

596

SHO
Shotts, Kirk of. — See Revival. — The pro
longed services at this place, under the ministry
of Mr. Livingstone, about 1636, gave rise to the
Monday sermon so common in Scotland after a
communion Sabbath.
Shrine, a place where relics are deposited.
Shrive, to administer confession.
Shroud, Festival of, is held in the Romish
Church on the Friday after the second Sabbath
in Lent. The festival is of course in honour of
the shroud in which our Lord was entombed.
Relics, or portions of the shroud, are believed to
work miracles, and an altar and chapel are dedi
cated to it. — See Sepulchre.
Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash-
Wednesday. The name, according to Wheatly
and others, is derived from the old Saxon words
shrive, shrift, or shrove, which, in that language,
signifies to confess; it being a constant custom
amongst the Roman Catholics to confess their sins
on that day in order to receive the blessed sacra
ment, and thereby qualify themselves for a more
religious observation for the holy time of Lent
immediately ensuing. But this in process of
time was turned into a custom of invitations,
and taking leave of flesh and other dainties;
and afterwards, by degrees, into sports and
merriments, which still in that church make up
the whole business of the carnival ! To this we
may indeed add that Shrove Tuesday is generally
a season of mirth, indulgence, and, it is to be
feared, of excess in most Catholic countries;
and it is a well-known fact that the Roman
Catholic clergy in Ireland derive no inconsider
able portion of their incomes from the vast num
ber of marriages which, especially in rural
districts, they are called upon this evening to
perform. This day in old Scotland was called
Pastern's Eve, probably the eve of the great
fast. It was common in Scotland on that day
for boys at school to buy cocks for the purpose
of fighting them ; the boy whose cock was victor
" bore the bell." In some schools a cock-penny
was paid to the master. Throughout England
the more savage custom of throwing at cocks was
all but universal. — See Carnival, Lent.
Sibylline Oracles. — We need not detail the
mythical accounts of the sibyl. Some, like Isaac
Vossius, have attached undue importance to those
oracles, as if they had been inspired, and had fore
told the birth of Christ. The leading prophecies
from the sibyl are quoted by several of the
fathers. All ages and countries abound in such
legends, and a dexterous ingenuity can easily
tarn them to present account by a little warping
or change of verbiage. Fabricius says of those
oracles, — "Nothing is more uncertain than
what is related of the number of the sibyls,
whether there was one or more. Concerning
the sibyls, some think that they were inspired of
God, others that they were possessed by evil
spirits, others that they were assisted by a strong
imagination and enthusiasm, and a kind of

SIG
natural divination ; to which must be added a
fourth opinion, that these oracles were all fraud
and human imposture, and that if any of them
were ever fulfilled, it was by hazard. It seems
an assertion too confident to ascribe all the pro
phecies of the sibyl, and of other pagans, to
knavery or chance, and it is more reasonable to
suppose that sometimes there might be some
thing preternatural in the case. In the time of
Cicero there were some sibylline oracles which
were acrostics, and which, as Cicero observes,
were the labour of a plodding impostor, and not
the prophecy of an inspired person. The Romans
had sibylline oracles in the time of their kings,
which were kept with great care in the capitol,
and consulted afterwards upon important occa
sions. They were burnt with the capitol, A.u.c.
670, and the Romans got a new collection from
various places. This second collection was burnt
by Stilicho in the time of Honorius. Besides
these collections, there were other oracles made
and handed about from time to time. Our present
collection contains not the books which were
offered to Tarquin, nor the second set of oracles
which were brought to Rome, nor yet those
oracles which were received by the pagans.
Nothing contained in it ought to be admitted as
made before the birth of Christ, unless we can
find as ancient vouchers for it. There are in
this collection some lines which the author took
from old pagan oracles, and from Homer, Orpheus,
and other poets; and much is taken from the Old
and New Testament. It contains not all the
sibylline oracles of which the fathers made use, but
it has the greater part of them. These oracles
were forged in the first, second, and third cen
turies, not by pagans or Jews, but by heretics
or orthodox Christians ; not by the fathers, but
by some unknown persons. There was no law
which made it a capital crime to read these
sibylline oracles." (See Jortin, vol. i., chap, xi.)
Sick, Communion of. — See Eucharist. —
The Church of England has a special office for
the communion of the sick
Sick, Visitation of. — Canon Ixxvi. enjoins
that duty on the clergy, and there is also an
order for it in the Book of Common Prayer. —
See Absolution.
Sidesmen (more properly or fully, synods-
men — testes synodales) are chosen to assist the
churchwardens, and were also sometimes called
questmen. — See Churchwardens.
Sigillnm Altaris (seal of the altar). — Ac
cording to Fosbrooke, "The authentic mark of
an altar was its five crosses ; and there was a
small stone called sigillum altaris, by which the
aperture for the insertion of relics was closed up
by mortar tempered in holy water."
Sign, a term used in defining a sacrament,
to show the relation between what is external,
or only a sign, and what is inner, or the thing
signified  See Cross, p. 197.
Siyuiflcavit. — The writ de excommunicato

597

SIG
capiendo was sometimes so called from the
words occurring at the beginning of it. — See
Excommunication. Sign of the Cross. — See Baptism.
Silcmiarii (men of silence), a significant
name given in early times to certain classes of
monks, and to certain civil officers, or apparitors,
in the emperor's household.
Simon Magus has been very commonly
regarded as the father of heresy and the founder
of Gnosticism. He was, perhaps, the first person
who introduced the name of Christ into anything
like a Gnostic system. But he was rather the
open opponent than the corrupter of Christianity ;
and while he gave a docetic explanation of the life
and death of the Saviour, he pretended that he
himself was "the great power of God" — i. e.,
that the greatest and mightiest of the iEuns
resided in his person. He added, that the
Ennoia, or thought of the divine mind, resided
in his mistress, Helena. Simon was a Samaritan
by birth, and is said to have studied at Alexan
dria. At the time when the preaching and tbe
miracles of Philip began to excite attention
among the Samaritans, he had been imposing
on his countrymen by his magic and his pre
tended miracles; and it was in the hope of
obtaining power to perform such wonderful
works as he saw wrought by Philip that, to a
certain extent, he embraced Christianity. The
sequel showed how little real impression had
been made on him ; for he speedily returned to
his former ways, and travelled about various
countries, and even as far as Rome, endeavour
ing to introduce everywhere his own blasphem
ous fictions. His followers were numerous, and
divided into several sects. Simon himself was
worshipped by the Samaritans after his death,
which is said, by old tradition, to have taken
place at Rome, after a dispute there with the
apostles Peter and Paul. — See Gnostic.
Simon, St., and St. Jude, Day of. — See
Jude's Day, St.
Simony, in English law, is the buying and
selling of holy orders, or of any benefice,
dignity, or promotion. The name is derived
from the resemblance wbich the offence bears to
the sin of Simon Magus. The cognizance of
simony, and punishment of simoniacal offences,
appear to have originally belonged to the eccle
siastical courts alone, though before the statutes
against simony, tbe courts of coimion law would
have held simoniacal contracts void, as being
contra bonos mores and against sound policy.
But since the passing of the statute 31 Eliza
beth, c. 6, questions relating to simony have
been principally discussed in the courts of com
mon law. The effect of the common law is aided
by the statutes of Eliz. and 12 Anne, c. 12, and
may be stated to be, — 1. That to purchase a
presentation, when the benefice is actually
vacant, is simony. 2. That for a clerk to pur
chase, either in his own name or others, the next

698

SIM
presentation, and be thereupon presented at any
future time to the benefice, is simony. 3. That
the contract for the sale of a next presentation,
the parties at the time knowing the incumbent
to be at the point of death, is simony, and the
presentation void, though the clerk be innocent
4. That the vacant presentation cannot be con-
veved to tbe grantee when an advowson is pur
chased during a vacany. 5. That the corrupt
purchase of an advowson during a vacancy, for
the purpose of enabling the purchaser to avail
himself of the vacant presentation, is simony.
6. That though a presentation be void, on the
ground that tbe patron has been guilty of
simony, yet the clerk so presented, if innocent,
incurs no forfeiture or disability, other than that
his presentation is void. 7. That a bond given
by a clerk on receiving a benefice, conditioned
to resign generally upon tbe patron's request, is
void. 8. That a bond so given, conditioned to
resign in favour of some particular person or
persons, is void also, unless when it falls within
the protection of the statutes 7 and 8 George-
IV, c. 25, and 9 George IV., c. 94, the effect of
which is stated below. 9. That it is not neces
sary to constitute simony, that the purchase of a
presentation should be a purchase for money;
and any reward, promise, contract, gift, profit,
or benefit accruing to the patron directly or indi
rectly, in consideration of which he makes the
presentation, is, equally with money, simoniacal..
10. That a contract made when the church is
full, to give money when it is void for the pre
sentation, and the purchase of the next presenta
tion when the church is full, with intent to
present a particular person, have both been held
offences within the statutes. 11. That if the
patron is guilty of simony in presenting, the
presentation is void, and the king may present
for that turn, and the patron forfeits double the
value of one year's profit of the benefice. 12.
Tbat if the clerk die without having been con
victed of simony, and if the patron has not been
convicted in the lifetime of the clerk, the for
feiture shall not be set up to the prejudice of
any other person than the patron originally
guilty ; the effect of which is, that if the patron
age has passed from the simoniacal patron and
vested in another, the crown loses the right of
presentation. This is by statute 1 William and
Mary, c. 16. 13. That if the clerk is guilty of
simony in procuring his presentation, his pre
sentation is void,, he forfeits double the value of
one year's profit of tbe benefice, and he is for
ever disabled from being presented to the same
benefice again. 14. That if any resignation or
exchange be effected in consideration of money
or any other benefit, both the giver and taker of
the benefit shall forfeit double the value thereof.
The statutes 7 and 8 George IV. and 9 George
IV. above referred to, were passed in consequence
of a decision of the House of Lords in the case
of Fletcher v. Lord Sondes, which was brought

SIM
before them upon a writ of error. The House
decided that a bond conditioned to resign in
favour of one of two persons named in the bond
was void. Before that decision an opinion very
generally prevailed that such bonds were good,
and as many such bonds were in existence, the
legislature interposed to give them validity. By
the statute 7 and 8 George IV. validity was
given to bonds and agreements made prior to
the 9th day of April, 1827, and intended to
secure the resignation of the incumbent ill favour
of one person named, or one out of two persons
named, and also to the presentations which had
been made in consideration of such bonds and
agreements. And it was also provided, that the
resignation in pursuance of such bond shall be
void, unless tbe person named be presented within
six months after the resignation. As this act
only gave validity to by-gone transactions, the
act of 9 George IV. was passed to give validity
to such transactions in future. But the last-
mentioned statute requires that such bonds or
contracts shall be deposited in the registry of the
diocese within two calendar months after their
date, otherwise they are void, and it does not
extend to bonds or contracts for resignation
entered into after presentation. If a cleric,
having been simoniacally presented, is also insti
tuted and inducted, the king cannot present
until the clerk be removed by legal process,
which is commonly a quare impedit. In addi
tion to the protections so provided against simony
by statute, there is a stringent oath administered
under the canonical law to persons presented to
ecclesiastical benefices. — See Oath.
Simultancum, a term employed in Germany
to signify the joint religious service of a con
gregation composed of Catholics and Protestants.
Thus a Catholic and Protestant may both officiate
at a marriage, the one preaching and the other
saying mass.
Sin. — 1. Sin is often divided into original and
actual, the latter being the guilt contracted by
such as are intellectual and responsible creatures.
Idiots and infants do not come within this cate
gory. — See Original Sin. 2. Sins are further
divided into those of commission and of omission,
the former being direct violations of known pre
cepts, and the latter the neglect of enjoined duty.
The one class runs, however, into the other. If
one omits to obey a law, he is guilty of violating
it. 3. In the Bomish Church there is a distinction
of sins mortal and venial. Mortal sins are those
which are wilful and deliberate transgressions;
venial such as may be forgiven, and are tbe
result of negligence or ignorance. In the opinion
of Bellarmin, no number of venial sins would
ever amount to a mortal sin. But such a dis
tinction is both false and unscriptural. All sins,
indeed, are not, and cannot be, of the same enor
mity, and though all are sinners, all are not
sinners in equal degree. But all are alike
dependent on the mercy of God, and need to be

SIN
washed in the atoning blood of the Lamb of God.
Sin, however, is not a substance, is not of the
very essence of the soul, as some have maintained.
It is only an accident, using the term as opposed
to essence — a quality of soul that did not belong
to it originally, is not necessarily connected with
it, but may be put away by the Divine Spirit.
4. Another class is sometimes called philosophi
cal sins. Philosophical sins, in opposition to
theological, according to the Jesuits, are those in
which a man at the time of committing them has
not God and his law before his mind; and
therefore, without thinking of God, transgresses
natural or revealed law. These sins the Jesuits
held to be venial; that is, such as do not draw
after them a loss of divine grace, and do not
deserve eternal, but only temporal punishment,
Sinaitic Codex, the name of the Greek
MS. recently brought by Tischendorf from
Mount Sinai. In the year 1858 this scholar
revisited the East under the patronage of the
Emperor of Russia. Portions of a MS. had been
already got by him from the convent at Mount
Sinai, and he had seen other portions in the
hands of the monks. He reached the convent
on the 31st of January, 1859, and so little
success did he meet with, that he thought of
returning by the 4th of February. But a casual
conversation with the providor of the convent
brought the coveted treasure to light. Tischen
dorf accompanied the monk to his room, and
there had displayed to him what his companion
called a copy of the lxx, which he owned. The
MS. was wrapped up in a piece of clotb, and on
it being unrolled, to the surprise and delight of
the critic, the very document presented itself
which he had given up all expectation of seeing,
and with it far more than he could calculate
upon seeing, even in case of success. His object
had been to complete a fragmentary Septuagint;
but with a good fortune that rarely falls to the
lot of literary explorers in the present day, he
alighted upon a copy of the Greek New Testa
ment attached, of the same age as the other,
perfectly complete, not wanting a single page or
paragraph. Tischendorf returned on 13th Feb
ruary, and within two months afterwards the
whole was carefully copied, — comprising more
than a hundred thousand of short lines, in which
the codex was written, — partly by the hand of
Tischendorf himself, but also partly by the
labour of two friends, whose tasks he revised
letter by letter. Much additional labour was
imposed by the emendations made in the original
text of the MS. in nearly eight thousand different
places. These, of course, had to be taken note
of no less than the unaltered readings, with a
view to a really accurate and satisfying edition
of the whole. The original MS. which had
been acquired so happily, and on which so
great value was at once placed, is now in the
Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. The
manuscripts which were the acquisitions of his

599

SIN
journey were submitted to the inspection of the
emperor, by whose command they were opened
to the public examination of the curious for a
fortnight, especially the Sinaitic Codex, whose
fame had been promulgated by native Russian
authors some few years before, no less than by
the Leipzig professor. With the publication of
this latter Tischendorf was charged, in the most
speedy and convenient manner possible; but so
as to exhibit correctly the ancient handwriting,
to be worthy of its imperial patron, and to meet
the just expectations of scholars devoted to the
study of the sacred texts. It is to be printed by
types cast in the form of uncial letters — a method
rendered the more easy in the present case by
the great uniformity observed throughout in the
characters of the MS. This Sinaitic manuscript
is intended to occupy three quarto volumes, of
which the two earlier will be devoted to the Old
Testament, and the remaining one to the New.
They are to exhibit the text in four columns on
each page, as in the codex itself, with the
poetical books — the Psalms and others — sticho-
metrically arranged in two columns. The New
Testament volume will include the Epistle of
Barnabas and that of Hermas — of both of which
the Greek originals had hitherto escaped detec
tion. A fourth volume will follow, dedicated to
a comment, critical and palseographical, on the
preceding text. The whole four volumes are to
appear in St. Petersburg in the middle of the
year 1862, and the impression will be limited to
three hundred copies. The special reason for
fixing this period, and hastening the execution
of the work, is, that in that year the Russian
empire completes a thousand years of its history.
The common edition will exhibit the text sticho-
metrically arranged, but in the ordinary Greek
type, of which Tischendorf gives a specimen in
his Notitia. All the other critical apparatus
will be available to the purchasers of this edition.
Toward the close of 1862 the whole New Testa
ment may be expected in a cheap and conveni
ent form. (See Tischendorf's Notitia Editionis
Codicis Bibliorum Sinaitici auspiciis Imperatoris
Alexandri II. susceptas. Edidit JEnoih. Frid.
Const. Tischendorf, Theol. et Phil. Doctor, $c,
Lipsics.) Singers. — Various regulations were laid down
about them in the early Church. One of the
canons of Laodicea says, that none should sing
in the church but canonical singers, who go into
the ambo and sing by book. One of the Apos
tolical Canons says, of those who enter bachelors
into the clergy, we order that only singers and
readers do marry afterwards, if they are so in
clined, but they were on no account to take
heterodox wives. They were forbidden to wear
the orarium. Singing, however, was allowed to
the whole assembly.
Singing. — See Choir, Fanaticism, Organ,
Precentor, Psalmody. — It was usual forty
years ago in Scotland for the precentor to read

SIQ
the psalm line by line as it was sung. When
the practice of continuous singing was introduced,
it was the source of great and numerous con
gregational disturbances, and it was popularly
stigmatized as an innovation. True, indeed, The
Westminster Directory says, — " That the whole
congregation may join herein, every one that can
read is to have a psalm book ; and all others, not
disabled by age or otherwise, are to be exhorted
to learn to read. But for the present, where
many in the congregation cannot read, it is
convenient that the minister, or some other
fit person appointed by him and the other ruling
officers, do read the psalm, line by line, before
tbe singing thereof." But that this had not been
the original custom in Scotland may be inferred
from the foUowing entry in Light foot's Diary:
— " Then was our directory for singing psalms
read over to the Scot's commissioners, who were
absent at the passing of it ; and Mr. Henderson
disliked our permission of any to read the psalms
line by line : and this business held us some
debate: which ended in this, — that the Scots
were desired to draw up something to this
purpose." Singing Cakes, a name once given to the
wafers used in private masses.
Sionites, a sect that arose in Norway about
the beginning of last century, and ultimately
emigrated to Altona. They got their name from
having the word Sion embroidered on their arms,
as if in some special and exclusive sense they
were children of Sion. They affected great
sanctity, and rejected outer ordinances. But
they gradually died out, as several emigrated,
and others renounced the distinctive badge of
beard and girdle,
Sion, Nuns of. — These nuns belonged to the
order of St. Bridget, and had their house at
Sion, near Brentford, Middlesex. It was broken
up by Henry VIII., re-assembled by Mary, and
finally dispersed under Elizabeth. Many of the
nuns settled in Lisbon. In 1810 the house there
was broken up, and many of its members sought
a refuge in England, some of whom were living
in 1825 in Staffordshire.
Si quis, the name of a notice, so called from
its two first words in Latin, equivalent in mean
ing and purpose to a presbyterian edict. — See
Edict. Before a person is admitted to orders,
the following notice is published in the church
of the parish where he usually resides: — " Notice
is hereby given, that A B, now resident in this
parish, intends to offer himself a candidate for the
holy office of a deacon (or priest) at the ensuing
ordination of the lord bishop of , and if
any person knows any just cause or impediment
for which he ought not to be admitted into
holy orders, he is now to declare the same, or to
signify the same forthwith to the bishop." In
the case of a bishop, the si quis is affixed to the
door of Bow Church by an officer of the Court of
Arches. — See Akches,' Court of ; Bishop.

600

SIR
Sir. — According to some, this was long ago the
title of all the clergy who were under the degree
of doctor. According to others, it was the title of
persons in orders, but who were not in degrees, or
had not graduated. Those who had graduated
were called masters.
Sirname. — See Surname.
Sitting. — See Standing.
Six Articles. — See Articles.
Six-Principle Baptists. — See Baptists,
p. 61.
Sizer or Servitor, a student in the univer
sities of Cambridge, Oxford, or Dublin, who re
ceives table allowances or sizes gratuitously.
Examples of the word sizes, used to signify al
lowances of food, may be found in Shakspeare.
Sizers were anciently compelled to perform cer
tain menial offices, as, for example, the learned
and excellent Joseph Mede, in one of his earliest
letters written from Christ's College, Cambridge,
of which he was then a fellow, mentions that
his sizer had not brought his candles ; but this
custom has been long since abolished, and sizer-
ships are regarded as the reward of distinguished
merit in poverty, and an encouragement to
future exertions. Many of the most distin
guished ornaments of the church and the bar
have risen from this class of students.
Skoptzi. — The Skoptzi of Russia, or Eun
uchs, bury their tenets in secrecy. They have
many followers amongst the tradesmen and
jewellers of St. Petersburg and other large
towns. Their origin is unknown; but they
entertain great reverence for the Emperor Peter
IIL, the murdered husband of the Empress
Catherine. They maintain that he was not
murdered, but escaped to Siberia, and that the
body of a ' soldier was buried instead. They
believe Peter to have been a true emanation
from Christ, and that, on his return, the great
bell of Moscow will be tolled, and its sound will
gather the true disciples from the farthest corners
of the earth. Largesses and rewards are freely
offered to those who join them. Whoever can
succeed in making twelve converts is called an
apostle. They are known by mysterious signs,
and spend the night between Saturday and
Sunday in performing their secret rites. It is
known that they inflict upon themselves the
most cruel tortures for the mortification of the
flesh. Their converts are forced to suffer self-
mutilation after the example of Origen. Their
penances far exceed in severity even the Romish
discipline. — See Russian Church.
Slaves, Slavery. — In the Roman empire
the aristocracy owned the soil and its cultiva
tors. The free citizens were poor and degraded.
The third class was the class of slaves. It was
three times as numerous as the others, though
the whole body belonged almost exclusively to
wealthy owners. Their numbers excited constant
apprehension; but care was taken not to dis
tinguish them by a peculiar dress. Their ranks

SLA
were recruited in various ways. The captives in
war were sold at auction. Cicero, during the
little campaign in which he was commander,
sold slaves enough to produce at half-price about
half-a-million dollars. The second mode of
supplying the slave market was by commerce ;
and this supply was so uniform and abundant
that the price of an ordinary labourer hardly
varied for centuries. There was hardly a port in
the Roman empire, convenient for kidnapping
foreigners, in which the slave trade was not pro
secuted. In most heathen countries, also, men
would sell their own children into bondage. The
legal condition ofthe slaves was extremely abject.
No protection was afforded his limb or his life
against the avarice or rage of a master. The
female had no defence for her virtue and her
honour. No marriages could take place among
slaves ; they had no property ; they could make
no valid compact ; they could hardly give testi
mony except on the rack. The ties of affection
and blood were disregarded. In the eye of the
law a slave was nobody. The runaway, if
retaken, was branded, or crucified, or sold for a
gladiator. The slave was valued only as property.
Slaves occupied every station from the delegate
superintending and enjoying the rich man's
labour, to the meanest office of menial labour or
obsequious vice ; from the foster-mother of the
rich man's child to the lowest condition of
degradation to which woman can be reduced.
Educated slaves exercised their profession for
the emolument of their masters. Their value
varied with their health, beauty, or accomplish
ments. The common labourer was worth from
seventy-five to one hundred dollars. A good
cook was worth almost any sum. Beauty was
a fancy article. Mark Anthony gave eight
thousand dollars for a pair of beautiful youths.
About as much was given for an illustrious
grammarian. The law valued a physician at
two hundred and forty dollars. Lucullus sold
an immense number of prisoners of war for
sixty-five cents ahead — probably the lowest price
for which a lot of able-bodied men was ever
offered. (Bancroft's Essay.)
But the Church soon leavened society with a
new element of mercy, and slaves might be manu
mitted even on the Sabbath Day. Yet, a slave
that fled from his master was not to be allowed
sanctuary in the church, or at least for more
than one day, when his master might reclaim
him on condition of forgiving his faults. Slaves
were allowed to inform against heretical masters,
and were freed on becoming orthodox Christians.
They could not be baptized or turn monks, or be
ordained or marry, without their masters' consent.
Persons of superior rank might not marry slaves,
and in this slaves were classed with actresses,
innkeepers, and women who sold wares in the
public markets.
In England, after the Norman conquest, accord
ing to Vaughan, " the not free, who dwelt among

601

SLA
the free, had come into that condition from vari
ous causes. Some by birth, some by crime, and
some by marriage. Some by losing their
possessions, and being seized in person by their
creditors. But conquest had reduced the greatest
number to this level. It did not, indeed, follow
that a vanquished people should always be an
enslaved people. In some cases that result
ensued — ensued rigorously ; but in general a less
severe course was taken. Circumstances, and
the temper or policy of the victor, sufficed to
break the force of the calamity. The not free
whose condition was in the least measure de
grading, consisted of men who ceased to possess
land, to bear arms, or to take any part in public
affairs, but who were protected by some chief or
lord, as the cultivators of certain lands, on condi
tion of their rendering certain services, or paying
a certain tribute. The condition of the Anglo-
Saxon serf of the lowest grade was truly grievous.
He could neither represent himself nor others. His
interests were all in the keeping of another hand.
He had no standing in any public court. His
oath was of no value. His lord claimed posses
sion of him, and of all that could belong to him,
as he would have claimed possession of a horse,
or of any other quadruped properly his own. As
the serf had no property, he could pay no fine ;
and, should he prove a delinquent, the mulct
must be exacted in torture upon his skin and
his flesh. Generally, the serfs passed from hand
to hand with the ground to which they were
attached. Their children of course inherited
their degradation. The number of slaves regis
tered in the Domesday Book at the Conquest is
25,000. One of the laws of Ina forbids the
master to sell his slave to be carried beyond sea,
even though he should have committed a crime,
(Laws, xi.) The wergild of the slave went half
to the master and half to the kindred of the
slave. Slaves in the above record are found to
be most numerous in Gloucestershire, where they
are as one in four to every freeman, and in
Cornwall, Devon, and Stafford, where they are
as one in five. The numbers diminish as we
remove from the Welsh border, until we come to
counties, as Lincoln, Huntingdon, Rutland, and
York, in which not a slave is registered. But
in these counties the lower class of the not free,
who at the same time were not slaves, increases.
The condition of this class often bore too near a
resemblance to that of the slave class elsewhere.
The word leet, which occurs in a law of Ethelbert,
is supposed to refer to a class of unfree Saxons
whom the invaders brought with them, (Ixg.
xxvi.) It was one of Alfred's laws that, if any
man bought a Christian slave, the slave should
be free after six years' service ; and the punish
ment for stealing a freeman to sell him into
slavery was death " — Ancient Laws and Institu
tions of England, 21, 22.
Of Scotland, Inues says,—" Of the inhabi
tants of the grange, the lowest in the scale

602

SLA
was the carl, bond, serf, or villein, who was
transferred like the land on which he laboured,
and who might be caught and brought back if
he attempted to escape, like a stray ox or sheep.
Their legal name of nativus, or neyf, which I
have not found but in Britain, seems to point to
their origin in the native race, the original
possessors ofthe soil. Earl Waldev, of Dunbar,
in a deed of four lines, made over a whole tribe
to the Abbot of Kelso, — ' I give and confirm to
the abbot and monks of Kelso, Halden and his
brother William, and all their children and all
their descendants.' Another later benefactor of
the abbey, after conveying lands in Gordun (by
a boundary so plain that it must be still easily
traced at the distance of five centuries), throws
into the bargain two crofts, occupied by Adam of
the Hog, and William son of Lethe, ' and Adam
of the Hog himself, my native, with all his
following,' with pasture in the mains for forty
beasts, with all their followers of one year, &c ;
and then he warrants to the abbey, ' the said
lands, meadows, men, and pastures.' Richard
de Morvil, the constable, sold to Henry St..
Clair, Edmund, the son of Bonda, and Gille-
michel, his brother, and their sons and daughters,
and all their progeny, for the sum of three merks ;
but on this condition, that if they leave St
Clair by his consent, they shall not pass to the
lordship of any other lord, nor to any other lord
or land than De Morvil. In the Register of
Dunfermline are numerous 'genealogies,' or
stud books, for enabling the lord to trace and
reclaim his stock of serfs by descent. It is
observable that most of them are of Celtic
names. We learn something of the price of
the serf from the efforts which were made by the
church for his manumission. Their own people
were evidently in progress of emancipation at the
period of the rental I have been quoting from.
The stipulation of a certain amount of service
implies that the rest was free. But when the
church wished to emancipate the slaves of others,
it was necessary first to purchase them. Adam
de Prendergest sold to the almoner of Colding-
ham, Stephen Fitz Waldev, with bis following
and goods. In 1247 Patrick de Prendergest,
burgess of Berwick, bought the freedom of
Renaldus, a slave, with his whole following, for
twenty merks sterling. This is a, remarkable
transaction ; for Patrick, the burgess, had former
ly been a slave, or at least a native, and obtained
his liberty through the house of Coldingham;
but what is more curious, Reynald, who was
thus emancipated for a sum of money, is styled
in the charter prepositus, meaning, no doubt,
alderman or bailie of the town of Berwick ; and
that accounts for the greatness of bis price ; for
about the same time tbe Abbey of Coldingham
purchased the freedom of Joseph, the son of
Elwald, and all his posterity, for the price of
three merks; of Roger Fitz Walter and all his
posterity for two merks; and Eustace of New-

SLA
Digging sold to the prior of Coldingham the
freedom of William of Newbigging, and Brun
hild hiswife, and Walter and Mabil their children,
and all their issue, for tbe sum of fifteen shillings.
These are instances of purchased emancipation."
Cunningham observes, — " It seems incredible to
many that there should have ever been slaves in
our countrj', and yet true it is that there were.
There is ample documentary evidence to prove
that a considerable proportion of our labouring
population must have once been in this sad con
dition. They were generally, though not always,
attached to tbe soil, and bought and sold with it
like beasts of burden. Their children and tbeir
children's children for ever were the property of
their lord, and accordingly their genealogies
were carefully preserved, not from ancestral
pride, but to serve as title-deeds do in the case
of houses and lands. In the year 1178 William
the Lion makes a grant of Gillandrean Macsuthen
and his children to the monks of Dunfermline.
In 1258 Malise, Earl of Strathern, bestowed
upon the monks of Inchaffray, in pure and per
petual alms, Gilmory Gillendes, and this he does
at Kenmore, on the day of the annunciation of
the Blessed Virgin. The same pious earl, in the
same year, bestowed upon tbe same religious
house John Starnes, the son of Thomas and
grandson of Thore, with his whole property and
children which he had begotten or might beget ;
and this he did for the salvation of his own soul,
the souls of his predecessors, and the souls of his
successors for ever. In some ancient documents
there is mention made of clerid nativi, and these
Tytler thinks must be serfs who had become
clerks, and still continued to be serfs; but we
know that personal slavery was inconsistent with
the sanctity anciently ascribed to the clerical char
acter, and are rather inclined to believe tbat the
clerid nativi were bondsmen belonging to the
church. Slavery existed in Scotland, and the
Church of Scotland gave it its sanction ; but it
must be remembered that a similar servitude
existed at the time in almost every country of
Europe, and was probably nearly inseparable
from the state of society which then existed. It
continued in Scotland till the fifteenth century,
but had gradually been losing ground, and then
every name and every circumstance indicative of
its existence disappeared; and for upwards of
three hundred years no one can touch our soil or
breathe our atmosphere without being free."
Colliers and salters were in Scotland still longer
kept in bondage. The statute of Habeas Corpus,
passed in 1701, specially excluded them from its
provisions — that is to say, they had no personal
liberty to protect. Thus, up to 1799 there were
slaves in Scotland, bought and sold as " part of
the gearing," in coal and salt-works. The first
link of their chain was broken in 1775, by the
fifteenth act of George III. cap. 28. It sets out
on the preamble, that 'many colliers and salters
are m u state of slavery and bondage.' It

SMA
emancipates future ones entirely, that is, those
who, after the 1st of July, 1775, 'shall begin to
work as colliers and salters.' But the existing
ones were only liberated gradually ; those under
twenty-one in seven years; those between
twent3'-one and thirty-five in ten years. The
liberation of the father was declared to liberate
his family. And the freed were put under the
act 1701. But this measure, though effective
in checking new slavery, was made very nearly
useless in its application to existing slaves, by
one of its conditions. Instead of becoming free
by mere lapse of time, no slave obtained his
liberty unless he instituted a legal proceeding in
the sheriff court, and incurred all the cost,
delay, and trouble of a law suit; his capacity to
do which was extinguished by the invariable
system of masters always having their workmen
in their debt. The result was that, in general,
the existing slave was only liberated by death.
But this last link was broken in June, 1799, by
the 39th George III. cap. 58, which enacted,
that from and after its date, ' all the colliers in
Scotland who were bound colliers at the passing
of the 15th George III. cap. 29, shall be free
from their servitude.' " And to come nearer
to our time, Chambers, in his Domestic Annals,
relates, — "About the year 1820, Mr. Robert
Bald of Alloa, mining engineer, being on a visit
to Mr- Colin Dunlop, at the Clyde Ironworks,
near Glasgow, found among the servants of the
house an old working man, commonly called
Moss Nook, who seemed to be on easy terms
with his master. Ono day Mr. Bald heard
the following conversation take place between
Mr. Dunlop and this veteran : — ' Moss Nook,
you don't appear, from your style of speak
ing, to be of this part of the country. Where
did you originally come from ? ' ' Oh, sir,'
answered Moss Nook, 'do you not know that
your father brought me here long ago from
Mr. M'Nair's of the Green [a place some miles
off, on the other side of the Clyde] ? Your father
used to have merry meetings with Mr. M'Nair,
and one day he saw me, and took a liking to
me. At the same time Mr. M'Nair had taken a
fancy to a very nice pony belonging to your
father; so they agreed on the subject, and I was
niffered away for the pony. That's the way I
came here.' The man had, in short, been a
slave, and was exchanged for a pony." Hugh
Miller also says, — " 1 regard it as one of the
most singular circumstances of my life, that I
should have conversed with Scotchmen who had
been born slaves." Thus it was long ere feudal
slavery passed away, even where nominal free
dom and love of civil right and independence
were predominant. Negro slavery in Ameri
can states comes under a different category, for
colour and servitude are popularly identified.
Smalcald, Article* of. — They resulted
from a convention held at Smalcald in 1537,
and were a protest against a council proposed to

603

SMA
be held at Mantua, under Pope Paul III.
These articles, divided into three parts, and
written by Luther in his own style, are a pro
test against popish superstition, and are dif
ferent in more respects than style from the
Augsburg Confession. One portion was objected
to by Melanchthon, and he wrote a somewhat
different paragraph. The Confession (article
xxiv.) says, — "We are unjustly charged with
having aholished the mass. For it is manifest
that without boasting we may say, the mass
is observed by us with greater devotion and
earnestness than by our opposers." But in the
Articles qf Smalcald (part ii., art. ii.) it is
said, "that the popish mass is the greatest
and most horrid abomination, as militating
directly and violently against these articles ; and
yet it has become the chief and most splendid of
all the popish idolatries."
Smalcald, League of. — On the 19th of
November it was agreed at Augsburg to employ
force against the Protestants. Immediately the
Elector of Saxony and his associates, in the year
1530 and the year following, assembled at
Smalcald, and afterwards at Frankfort, and
formed a league among themselves, for their
mutual protection against the dangers which the
edict of Augsburg portended, but excluding all
offensive operations against any one. They also
took measures to bring the kings of France,
England, and Denmark, as well as other princes
and states, into the confederacy. In their
meeting at Smalcald, a.d. 1531, after forming
a league for mutual defence for six years, they
drew up an apology for their procedure, in which
they gave a concise history of the Reformation,
the necessity for it, and the sufferings and dan
gers to which they were exposed on account
of it. Copies of this apology they sent both
to Francis I., the King of France, and to Henry
VIII. of England. Both those kings returned
very respectful answers; but nothing was said
on either side about an alliance for mutual
defence. Smectymnuus. — Bishop Hall had published
a book called Episcopacy qf Divine Right, de
fended it in a remonstrance to parliament, and
vindicated also the remonstrance. The bishop's
remonstrance was answered by a celebrated
treatise under the title of Smectymnuus, a ficti
tious word made up of the initial letters of the
names of the authors, viz., Stephen Marshal,
Edward Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew
Newcomen, and William Spurstow. When the
bishop had replied to their book, these divines
published a vindication of their answer to the
Humble Remonstrance. This being an appeal
to the legislature on both sides, may be supposed
to contain the merits of the controversy. The
debate was upon these two heads, — 1. Of the
antiquity of liturgies, or forms of prayer. 2.
Of the apostolical institution of diocesan episco
pacy.

604

SOC
Socinians. — This term is usually applied
to all those who deny the divinity of Christ;
but it more correctly belongs to the immediate
followers of Socinus. The person who is con
sidered to have been the earliest public advocate
of Antitrinitarianism, is Martin Cellarius, a
native of Stuttgart. He was born in 1499,
and educated in the university of Wittemberg.
His learning secured for him the friendship
of Luther and Melanchthon, whose principles
he embraced. He afterwards, however, re
nounced tbe Catholic doctrine respecting the
holy Trinity, and died at Basle, in Switzerland,
in 1564. Contemporary with Cellarius was
Michael Servetns. In 1531 appeared his first
work at Hagenau, De Trinitatis erroribus, in
which the notion of a Trinity was both discussed
and caricatured. The Anabaptists of Germany
and Holland appear to have been the first of
the reformed who, in any numbers, impugned
the doctrine of the Trinity; but the spirit
displayed towards them by the more orthodox
reformers, both in Germany and Switzerland,
soon compelled them to seek a safer asylum in
Poland; and to one of them named Spiritus,
a native of Holland, is the introduction (in
1546) of Antitrinitarianism into Poland to be
ascribed. About the same time a society was
formed at Vicenza (a small town in the district
of Venice), which maintained that Christ was,
as to his nature, a man, but not merely a man,
having been conceived of the Holy Spirit by the
Virgin Mary. The deliberations of this society
were suddenly interrupted by the inquisition;
three of its members were seized, and the rest
sought safety in flight. One of these, Laslius
Socinus (who was born at Sienna in 1525, and
educated for the law, which he abandoned for
theological pursuits), the uncle of the great here-
siarch, proceeded to Zurich, in Switzerland, and
in 1551 journeyed to Poland, which he revisited in
1558. On the former occasion he brought over
to his own doctrinal opinions Francis Lismain, a
Corsican monk, and confessor to Bona Sfortia,
the Queen of Sigismund I. Another accession to
the heretics about this period was made by the
conversion of Gregory Paul, a preacher of the
reformed party in the suburhs of Cracow. One
Peter Gonezius, or Conyza (at a synod held at
Seceminia in 1556) was the first person who, in
a public assembly, opposed the doctrine of the
Trinity. Till 1566, all the synods held in Po
land were composed indiscriminately of the mem
bers and teachers of all the reformed societies —
Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Antitrinitarian; and
continual disturbances resulted from this hetero
geneous union. In the above year, however,
the heretical party were thenceforth excluded
from these public assemblies, and from that time
formed a separate religious body in the country.
The heterodox all concurred in maintaining
the supremacy of the Father; but with re
spect to Jesus Christ, some thought him to

SOC
be a God of an inferior nature derived from
the supreme Deity; others held the doctrine
of Arius; and a third party believed him to
be a human being. These last were also
divided into two sections, of which one believed
the miraculous conception of Christ, and the
other considered him to be the son of Joseph as
well as Mary. Another point upon which these
persons differed among themselves was the wor
ship due to the Redeemer. Some, even among
those who maintained his simple humanity, con
tending that he was entitled to divine honours,
while others held that divine worship was to be
paid to the Father alone. All these parties
denied the personality of the Holy Ghost.
Their chief settlement was at Racow, a city
which was built for them in 1569 by J. Siemi-
enius, Palatine of Podolia. Here they had a
collegiate and printing establishment, and be
sides these, others on a smaller scale in other
towns. Their houses for worship were built in all
the chief cities, towns, and villages of the king
dom, but the principal were at Racow, Cracow,
Pinczow, Lublin, and Lubeck. They were first
distinguished by the name of Pinczovians, from
the town where they had their earliest settlement.
Some of the body were called Farnovians, others
Bndnseans; but the name by which they were
afterwards commonly known was derived from
their principal city, Racow. — See Faeno-
vians. In the year 1579 Faustus Socinns
arrived in Poland. He was born at Sienna, on
the 6th of November, 1539, and at a very early
age imbibed the sentiments of his uncle Lselius,
of whom mention has been before made. Quit
ting his native country, he resided some time in
Switzerland, from thence he went to Transyl
vania, and shortly afterwards withdrew, as above
stated, to Poland, where his writings brought
nearly the whole body of the heterodox to his
own sentiments (a sketch of which will be found
below) respecting the person of Christ. He died
at a village near Cracow, in his sixty-fourth
year, A. d. 1604. In the year 1638 a deadly
blow was given to the cause of Socinianism in
Poland. Some students of the college of Racow
desecrated a cross which had been set up over
one of the city gates, and in consequence of this
sacrilegious act the diet of Warsaw, in the same
year, passed a decree, commanding that tbe
Socinian place for worship at Racow should be
closed, the college broken up, the printing-house
demolished, and the teachers and professors pro
scribed and banished. This stroke was followed
by an invasion of the Cossacks, who marked out
the heretics as the especial objects of their ven
geance. In 1655 a formal accusation of aiding
the King of Sweden in his late invasion of the
kingdom was brought against them at the diet
held at Warsaw, and a decree was passed for
bidding the dissemination of their sentiments in
any way whatever, under pain of death. A new j
and more rigorous edict was pat forth against

SOC
them on the 20th of July, 1660. They fled in
large numbers from Poland, and took refuge,
some in Transjdvania and Hungary, some in
Prussia, Silesia, and Moravia, others in Holland
and the Low Countries, and some in England.
Thus terminated the public profession of Soci
nianism in Poland, about one hundred and
twenty years after its first introduction into that
country. For several years previously to its
suppression in Poland, Socinianism had made
considerable progress in Transylvania. It was
introduced into that country by George Bland
rata, a native of Piedmont, and physician to
Bona Sfortia. In 1558 he went to Poland, and
was appointed one of the elders of the reformed
society in Cracow, and in 1563 removed into
Transylvania to attend Sigismund IL, who was
labouring under a dangerous disorder. At the
time of his arrival the reformed party in Tran
sylvania were under the superintendence of
Francis David, who was soon persuaded by
Blandrata to exchange the Calvinistic for the
(so-called) Unitarian system. To the joint
efforts of these two individuals the growth of the
latter heresy in Transylvania may be ascribed.
In 1574, however, its progress was arrested by a
rupture which took place between them. The
question in dispute was the invocation of Christ.
Blandrata (who is allowed, even by the histo
rians of his own party, to have been an infamous
character) maintained that our Saviour ought to
be worshipped ; David, the contrary. In 1578
Socinus was invited by Blandrata to oppose the
objections of David. He came, but his visit
was unsuccessful. David was brought before
the diet assembled at Wiesenburg in June,
1579, and condemned for blasphemy. He died
in the castle of Deva in the November follow
ing. From this time the cause of Socinianism
in Transylvania declined. Dr. Thomas Rees, in
1818, estimated the number of Socinians in
that country at about 60,000. Poland and Tran
sylvania are the only countries on the Continent
where Socinianism obtained an extensive and
public establishment.
At the first dawnings of the Reformation
Antitrinitarianism appears to have been not
without its advocates in England. Bartholomew
Legatt and Edward Wightman were burnt for
this heresy, the one in West Smithfield and the
other at Litchfield, in the year 1611 ; but So
cinianism seems to have been first openly avowed
in this country by John Biddle, who died in
prison in 1662. The founder of the modern
school of Unitarianism in England was Dr.
Priestley. He retired to the United States
in 1794, and died there in 1804. To his writ
ings and influence the progress of Socinianism
during the latter part of the last century must
be chiefly ascribed. Among his principal co
adjutors may be mentioned the Rev. Theophilus
Lindsey, a beneficed clergyman, who, in 1773,
resigned his living, and afterwards collected

605

SOC
a society of persons of his own principles
in Essex Street, Strand. Several other clergy
men embraced the same system — viz., Drs.
Chambers, Jebb, and Disney; Messrs. Evanson,
Gilbert Wakefield, and Stone. All the efforts of
Priestley, Lindsey, and others, however, accom
plished little more than the conversion of the
teachers of Arianism among the dissenters into
Socinians, who exerted themselves with tolerable
success to disseminate their principles in their
respective congregations. Of the places now
occupied by Socinian congregations throughout
England, the greater part are maintained by the
old presbyterian endowments. In the United
States of America the Socinians have several
congregations, the majority of which are in the
State of Massachusetts. Of late years they have
been greatly agitated, some of their ministers verg
ing on infidelity, or on a transcendentalism which
ignores to a great extent historical Christianity,
and others, apparently, leaning more to the ortho
dox forms of truth. — See Transcendentalism.
The doctrine of the modern Socinians varies
greatly from that maintained by Socinus. Soci
nus held that our blessed Lord was a man, but
conceived by the Holy Ghost, and on this account
God's only-begotten Son, and was, moreover,
constituted the Son of God by his resurrection.
He believed that Christ is entitled to divine
worship, and that after he was born, and before
he entered upon the office assigned him by his
Father, he was in heaven, and remained there
some time; that nothing can be more incom
patible than a free pardon and satisfaction ; and
that in remitting the punishment of our sins by
Jesus Christ no propitiation intervened ; but
God hath from his free will exhibited himself so
propitious to us in Christ, as not to exact the
punishment of our sins, though he might justly
have done it. Socinus allowed, however, that
the death of Christ and the shedding of his blood
for us was an offering and sacrifice to God, and
tbat this sacrifice may be said to have been
offered up for our sins in order to their being
forgiven; but this sacrifice, so far as it was
expiatory, was not offered on the cross, but in
heaven itself after the resurrection. The modern
Socinians deny not only the miraculous con
ception, but also that any worship is due to
Jesus Christ. They assert that our Lord had
no existence until born of the Virgin Mary,
and that, being a man like ourselves, though
endowed with a large portion of the divine wis
dom, the only objects of his mission were to
teach the efficacy of repentance without an
atonement, as a medium of the divine favour —
to exhibit an example for our imitation — to seal
his doctrine with his blood, and, in his resurrec
tion from the dead, to indicate the certainty of
our resurrection at the last day. The modern
Socinians also deny utterly the universal in
spiration of the writers of the Old and New
Testament. (See The Racovian Catechism, edited 606

SOR
by Dr. T. Rees, 8vo, 1818; Toulmin, life
ofSodnus, 8vo, 1777; Lindsey, Historical View
qf the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and
Worship, &c, 8vo, 1783; Belsham, Calm Inquiry;
Works of Theodore Parker and Horace Bushnell.)
Sodalities (societies). — For an example of
one of these, see Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Sodor and Man. — Sodor signifies southern,
or southern islands, in contrast with the Nor-
dureyar, or the northern islands, off the coast of
Scotland. Solca, a portion of an ancient church,
supposed by many to be the same as senatorium,
— See Senatorium.
Solemn League and Covenant. — See
Covenants. Solifldians, those who held that justifi
cation depended on faith alone. But while
justification rests on faith alone, it does not rest
on that faith which is alone.
Solitaires, the name of an order of nuns
founded by Cardinal Barberini in 1670. Tho
patron is St. Peter of Alcantara, and they ob
serve silence and solitude, with the practice of
other austerities.
Sompnour (summoner), he that summoned
delinquents before the ecclesiastical courts. — See
Appaeitok. The sompnour is described by
Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales.
Sonship. — See Person of Christ and
the references under that article. — The Creed
of Nice declares, — "We believe in our Lord
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only begot
ten of the Father, that is, of the essence of the
Father, God of God, Light of Light, very
God of very God, begotten, not made, of one
essence with the Father." These sentiments
have been the faith of the Church in every age,
but they have been in many instances explained
by unjustifiable imagery and language, often
taken in tbe earlier centuries from the Platonic
ontology, and drawn in later times from ma
terial sources. The arguments against what is
called the eternal sonship, by Rbeli, Drew, Moses
Stuart, Wardlaw, Adam Clarke, and others, are,
with all their show of argument, without founda
tion in Scripture, for a sonship in the divine
nature appears to be plainly taught and implied
in it. But a sonship which affirms the divine
nature of the Son to be derived from the Father,
makes that Son only a secondary Deity. Not
only is the Son of the same essence with the
Father, but he is also " auriim; " — God in
and from himself. Sonship appears to refer
not to essence but to existence — not to being in
itself, but to being in its relations. The term
does not characterize nature so much as per
sonality. But such difference of position is not
inequality of essence, and when rightly under
stood, will be found as remote from the calum
nious imputation of Tritheism, as from the heresy
of Modalism or Sabellianism.
Sorbonnc. — This celebrated institution was

SOR
originally a college for the education of secular
clergymen at the university of Paris. It was
named from its founder, Robert de Sorbon, a dis
tinguished theologian, and chaplain to St. Louis.
In the year 1250 Robert applied to the king,
and obtained a charter of institution for this col
lege, wliich he endowed with an income from his
private fortune. Several ecclesiastical dignitaries
followed his example, and the funds of the col
lege soon amounted to a large sum. The teachers
were always doctors and professors of theology,
and to this subject they paid almost exclusive
attention. They acquired so much fame that the
name of the college was extended to the whole
theological faculty of Paris, which was called
Sorbonne till the end of the eighteenth century.
From the very commencement the doctors of the
Sorbonne were eminent for their dialectic skill;
but unfortunately they employed it too much in
the refinements of dogmatic theology and the
subtleties of casuistry. The opinions and de
crees of the Sorbonne produced a marked influ
ence on the character of Roman Catholicism in
France. The monarchs of that country seldom
took any steps affecting religion or the church
without having asked the opinion of this theolo
gical body; and even beyond the limits of France
its decisions on controverted points were more re
spected than those of any other academy. Though
rigid adherents to all the peculiar tenets of the
Romish Church, the Sorbonists were frequently
opposed to the supremacy of the popes both in
spiritual and temporal matters. They steadfastly
maintained the liberties of the Gallican Church,
and while they opposed the Reformation, they
were far from receiving implicitly the doctrines
of the council of Trent They were among the
most formidable enemies whom the Jesuits had
to encounter; they protested against tbe admis
sion of the order into France; they opposed the
Bull Unigenitus ; and in the Jansenistic disputes,
though the Sorhonne could not be said to take
part with the society of Port-Royal, it aided that
body by joining in tbe exposure of Jesuit arti
fices. — See Bull, Jansenists. In later times
the Sorbonne devoted itself much more to the
defence of the rights of the church than the per
fection of its doctrines. Its spirit often degene
rated into pedantic obstinacy, and not unfre
quently into blind zeal for the literal interpreta
tion of ancient doctrines. Its influence, and the
tenacity with which it clnng to the Romish creed,
prevented the gradual reform of the Gallican
Church. The institution bad long outlived its
fame and its influence when the French revo
lution put an end to its existence, and the efforts
since made for its restoration have signally failed.
The candidates for the degree of doctor in the
Sorbonne were subjected to a severe trial of their
patience. They were obliged to defend their
theses from six o'clock in the morning to six in
the evening uninterruptedly, and were merely
allowed a slight refreshment in their desk.

SPI
Sortes (lots). — See Bibliomancy.
Soul's, All, Day. — See All-Soul's Day.
Spain.— See Reformation, Inquisition.
Spinster, the name of an unmarried woman in
legal documents, and in banns or proclamations
of marriage. Spinster, with the old termination,
is the female of spinner, as songster is of singer,
and baxter (bakester) of baker, seamster or
semster, of seamer. Other terminations have
now supplied this old one. King Alfred, in his
will, calls the male side of his house the spear-
side and the female the spindle-side. The term
is derived from the old occupation of women.
Thus, too, the eulogy of a Roman matron —
domum mandt, lanam fecit — rendered by Gawain
Douglas, — " She keepit close the house, and birlit
at the quhele." According to some, wife has a
connection with weave ; Saxon, wefan, wef.
Spires, Diet of. — It was held in 1529, and
from the protest lodged at it the Reformers were
called Protestants. — See Protestants. Spires
is in Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the
Spirobach and the Rhine.
Spirit Holy, Sect of Ihe. — Kurtz says,
" Towards the close of the twelfth century a pan
theistic movement commenced in France, and
found expression in the so-called ' Sect of the
Holy Spirit.' The party originated with Amal-
ric of Bena, a teacher at Paris. The first
germs of this pantheistic mysticism were pro
bably derived from the writings of the pseudo-
Dionysius and of Erigena. The university of
Paris and Innocent III. obliged Amalric to
recant his apparently Christian, but, according
to his own interpretation of it, really panthe
istic statement, that none could be saved who
believed not that he was a member of the
body of Christ. Chagrin at this humiliation
may have hastened his death, which took place
soon afterwards (1204). In the hands of his
pupil, David of Dinanto, the pantheism of Am
alric received a more Aristotelian and dialectic
cast. Besides these two, Simon of Tournay, a
celebrated dialectician at Paris, entertained simi
lar views. While professing to teach the doc
trines of the ehurch, he took care to indicate
sufficiently that it was much easier to refute
than to demonstrate them. The opinions of
these men found way among the laity. Soon
afterwards a goldsmith proclaimed the advent of
the age of the Holy Spirit, when all positive
religion and every form of outward worship
should cease, and God be all in all. These
views were condemned at a synod held at Paris
in 1209, the writings of Erigena were repro
bated, and several members of the sect consigned
to the stake."
Spiritual Courts. — See Courts.
Spiiitualia  See Parish. — The term is
opposed to temporals or temporalia. — See Tem
poral; see also Erastianism ; Magistrates;
Sacra, circa ; Supremacy, Royal.
Spiritualism is the system of those who

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attempt to cultivate religious feeling without the
aid of an objective revelation. Many German
writers, and Francis Newman, Emerson, and
Parker, belong to this class. Thus Emerson
says, — " Whenever a mind is simple, aud receives
a divine wisdom, the old things pass away —
means, teachers, texts, temples fall ; it lives now
and absorbs past and future into the present
hour. All things are made sacred by relation
to it — one thing as much as another. All things
are dissolved to their centre by this cause, and
in the universal miracle petty and particular
miracles disappear. This is and must be. If,
therefore, a man claims to know and speak of
God, and carries you backward to the phrase
ology of some old mouldered nation in another
country, in another world, believe him not Is
the acorn better than the oak which is its full
ness and completion? Is the parent better than
the child into whom he has cast his being?
Whence then this worship of the past? In the
soul let the redemption be sought. Wherever a
man comes there comes revolution. The old is
for slaves. When a man comes all books are
legible, all things transparent, all religions are
forms. He is religious. Man is the wonder
worker. He is seen amid miracles. All men
bless and curse. He saith yea and nay, only.
The stationariness of religion; the assumption
that the age of inspiration is past, that the Bible
is closed ; the fear of degrading the character of
Jesus, by representing him as a man, indicate
with sufficient clearness the falsehood of our
theology. It is the office of a true teacher to
show us that God is, not was ; that he speaketh,
not spake. The true Christianity — a faith like
Christ's in the infinitude of man — is lost. None
believeth in the soul of man, but only in some
man or person old and departed." Newman, in
his book on The Soul, says, — " It is therefore a
gross blunder to aim at greater certitude, by
resting the truth of our special opinions in mo
rals and religion on our knowledge of the truth
of our national creed. . . . God has revealed
himself to us as to all things which pertain to
life and godliness ; and whoever despises as mean
and insufficient that inward revelation of the
heart, will never found anything so enduring in
its place, but will elaborately build mazes of
false theology for the wonder and contempt of
future days. Whole tons of such rubbish have
been shovelled away by universal consent : yet
the idolaters of Church and Bible take no warn
ing."  See Rationalism, Transcendentalism.
Spiritualists. — See Libertines.
Spirituals, a party attached to the order of
St. Francis, that rigidly maintained their original
vow of poverty.
Spital Sermons, two sermons preached
annually before the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs of
London, on Easter Monday and Tuesday, at
Christ Church, Newgate Street. The first ser
mon is preached by a bishop, the second by the

SPO
Lord Mayor's chaplain, or any clergyman ap
pointed by him. These sermons were preached
originally at the Spital or Hospital of St. Mary's
without Bishopsgate. The custom existed prior
to the Reformation.
Spitting. — See Exsufflation.
Sponsalia. — See Marriage.
Sponsors, those who engage or pledge them
selves, promise or give surety for another.
Sponsors are required in the baptismal service of
the Church of England. They promise, on be
half and in the name of those baptized (to quote
tbe words of the Catechism) — " 1. To renounce
the devil and all his works, the pomps and vani
ties of this wicked world, and all the sinful
lusts of the flesh ; 2. To beUeve all the articles
of the Christian faith ; and, 3. To keep God's
holy will and commandments all the days of
their life." — See Baptism, Godfathers. The
twenty-ninth canon of the Anglican Church
makes it necessary for every child to have
a godfather and godmother, and, in order to
secure this benefit to all the infantine mem
bers of the church, it prohibits the parents
assuming this office. The canon appears to
argue in this way: — No father or mother is
a real godfather or godmother: it is quite
true that they may stand at the font, and take
upon themselves the nominal office, but the
real godfather and the real godmother are the
creations of time, custom, and natural feeUng
working within the precincts of the church.
They are essentially persons outside of the home
circle, whose interest is engaged in the rising
young Christian by assuming this relation to
him. The parents themselves are already sponsors,
by the simple fact of being parents ; so that, if
you give the child only his parents for his
sponsors, you give him nothing at all, because
he has got them already. The reason of hav
ing a godfather and godmother is that they
are persons from without, who add friendly in
terest and attention to the parental one. Accord
ing to Gilpin, " The church demands the security
of sponsors, who are intended, if the infant should
be left an orphan, or neglected by ite parents, to
see it properly instructed in the advantages pro
mised, and the conditions required." — Sermon
xxiii., vol. iii., p. 259.
Sporta, Sportuale (basket), a name given
anciently to a clergyman's salary, in reference
probably to the custom described in Deuteronomy
xxvi. 2.
Sports, Book of. — It was a royal proclama
tion, and ran thus :—" By tlie King. — Our dear
father, of blessed memory, In his return from
Scotland, coming through Lancashire, found that
his subjects were debarred from lawful recrea
tions upon Sundays, after evening prayers ended,
and upon holidays ; and he prudently considered,
that if these times were taken from them, the
meaner sort, who labour hard all the week,
should have no recreations at all to refresh their

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SPO
spirits. And after his return, he further saw,
that his loyal subjects, in all other parts of his
kingdom, did suffer in the same kind, though,
perhaps, not in the same degree ; and did, there
fore, in his princely wisdom, publish a declaration
to aU his loving subjects concerning lawful sports
to be used at such times ; which was printed and
published, by his royal commandment, in the
year 1618, in the tenour which hereafter fol
loweth : — By the King  Whereas, upon our
return the last year out of Scotland, we did
publish our pleasure touching the recreations of
our people in those parts, under our hand ; for
some causes us thereunto moving, we have
thought good to command these our directions,
then given in Lancashire (with a few words there
unto added, and most applicable to these parts of
our realms), to be pubUshed to all our subjects.
Whereas, we did justly, in our progress through
Lancashire, rebuke some Puritans and precise
people, and took order that the like unlawful
carriage should not be used by any of them here
after, in tbe prohibiting and unlawful punishing
of our good people, for using their lawful recrea
tions and honest exercises upon Sundays and
other holidays, after the afternoon sermon or
service : we now find that two sorts of people,
wherewith that country is much infected (we
mean Papists and Puritans), have maliciously
traduced and calumniated those our just and
honourable proceedings ; and, therefore, lest our
reputation might, upon the one side (though
innocently), have some aspersion laid upon it,
and, upon the other part, our good people in
that country be misled by the mistaking and
misinterpretation of our meaning, we have, there
fore, thought good hereby to clear and make our
pleasure to be manifested to all our good people
in those parts. It is true, that at our first entry
to this crown and kingdom, we were informed
(and that too truly) that our county of Lancashire
abounded more in Popish recusants than any
county in England, and thus hath still con
tinued since, to our great regret, with little
amendment ; save that now of late, in our last
riding through our said county, we find, both
by the report of the judges and of the bishop of
that diocese, that there is some amendment now
daily beginning, which is no small contentment
to us. The report of this growing amendment
amongst them made us the more sorry, when,
with our own ears, we heard the general com
plaint of our people, ' that they were barred
from all lawful recreation and exercise upon the
Sunday's afternoon, after the ending of all divine
service,' which cannot but produce two evils:
the one, the hindering of the conversion of many,
whom their priests will take occasion hereby to
vex, persuading them that no honest mirth or
recreation is lawful or tolerable in our religion,
which cannot but breed a great discontentment
in our people's hearts, especially of such as are,
peradventure, upon the point of turning. The

SPO
other inconvenience is, that this prohibition
barreth the common and meaner sort of people
from using such exercises as may make their
bodies more able for war, when we, or our suc
cessors, shall have occasion to use them ; and in
place thereof, sets up filthy tipplings and drunk
enness, and hreeds a number of idle and discon
tented speeches in their ale-houses; for when
shall the common people have leave to exercise,
if not upon the Sundays and holidays, seeing
they must apply their labour and win their
living in all working-days? Our express plea
sure, therefore, is, that the laws of our kingdom
and canons of our church be as well observed
in that county as in all other places of this our
kingdom; and, on the other part, that no lawful
recreation shall be barred to our good people
which shall not tend to the breach of our afore
said laws and canons of our church, which, to
express more particularly, our pleasure is that
the bishop, and all other inferior churchmen and
churchwardens shall, for their parts, be careful
and diligent, both to instruct the ignorant, and
convince and reform them that are misled in
religion ; presenting them that will not conform
themselves, but obstinately stand out, to our
judges and justices ; whom we likewise command
to put the law in due execution against them.
Our pleasure likewise is, that the bishop of that
diocese take the like straight order with all the
Puritans and Precisions within the same, either
constraining them to conform themselves or to
leave the country, according to the laws of our
kingdom and canons of our church ; and so to
strike equally, on both hands, against the con
temners of our authority and adversaries of our
church. And as for our good people's lawful
recreation, our pleasure likewise is, that after the
end of divine service our good people be not
disturbed, letted, or discouraged from any lawful
recreation, such as dancing, either men or women;
archery for men, leaping, vaulting, or any such
harmless recreation ; nor from having of May-
games, Whitsun ales, and Morris-dances; and
the setting of May-poles, and other sports there
with used, so as the same be had in due and
convenient time, without impediment or neglect
of divine service; and that women shall have
leave to carry rushes to the church for the decor-
ing of it, according to their old custom. But,
withal, we do here account stiU as prohibited all
unlawful games to be used upon Sundays only,
as bear and bull-baitings, interludes, and, at all
times (in the meaner sort of people by law pro
hibited), bowling. And likewise we bar, from
this benefit and liberty, all surh known recusants,
either men or women, as will abstain from com
ing to church or divine service ; being therefore
unworthy of any lawful recreation after the said
service, that will not first come to the church
and serve God; prohibiting, in like sort, the
said recreations to any that, though conform in
religion, are not present in the church at the

609

2R

STA
service of God, before their going to the said
recreations. Our pleasure likewise is, that they
to whom it belongeth in office shall present and
sharply punish all such as, in abuse of this our
liberty, will use these exercises before the ends
of all divine services for that day. And we like
wise straitly command that every person shall
resort to his own parish church to hear divine
service, and each parish by itself to use the said
recreation after divine service ; prohibiting like
wise any offensive weapons to be carried or used
in the said times of recreations. And our plea
sure is, that this our declaration shall be pub
lished, by order from the bishop of the diocese,
through all the parish churches; and that both
our judges of our circuit and our justices of the
peace be informed thereof. Given at our manor
of Greenwich, the four and twentieth day of
May, in the sixteenth year of our reign of Eng
land, France, and Ireland ; and of Scotland the
one-and-fiftieth. — Now, out of a like pious care
for the service of God, and for suppressing of any
humours that oppose truth, and for the ease,
comfort, and recreation of our well-deserving
people, we do ratify and publish this our blessed
father's declaration ; the rather because of late,
in some counties of our kingdom, we find that,
under pretence of taking away abuses, there hath
been a general forbidding, not only of ordinary
meetings, but of the feasts of the dedication of
the churches, commonly called wakes. Now
our express will and pleasure is, that these feasts,
with others, shall he observed; and that our
justices of the peace, in their several divisions,
shall look to it, both that all disorders there may
be prevented or punished, and that all neighbour
hood and freedom, with manlike and lawful
exercises, be used. And we further command
our justices of assize, in their several circuits,
to see that no man do trouble or molest any of
our loyal and dutiful people, in or for their law
ful recreations ; having first done their duty to
God, and continuing in obedience to us and our
laws. And of this we command all our judges,
justices of the peace, as well within liberties as
without, mayors, bailiffs, constables, and other
officers, to take notice of, and to see observed, as
they tender our displeasure. And we farther
will, that publication of this our command be
made, by order from the bishops, through all the
parish churches of their several dioceses respec
tively. Given at our palace of Westminster, the
eighteenth day of October, in the ninth year of
our reign. God save the King." The Book of
Sports was drawn up by Bishop Morton, and
Charles, under Laud's direction, republished it.
The wide-spread and pernicious effects of it are
well known.
Stair, Pastoral. — Isidores Hispalensis is the
first writer who speaks of the staff or baculus
being given to a bishop at his consecration, to
signify that he was to govern his people, and it
may he inferred from his account that this was

STA
no new custom. The fourth council of Toledo
decreed that if a bishop had been unjustly
deposed, amongst other insignia, his "staff"
should he redelivered to him. It was also called
virga pastoralis or ferula, sometimes pedum,
because it was shaped like a shepherd's crook
with which he seizes the feet of his sheep or
goats, and cambuta, which signifies a crooked
piece of wood, &c. Archbishops, instead of a
staff, used a cross, with two horizontal bars,
which was called a crosier. It was ordered by
the first book of Edward VI. that, "Whensoever
the bishop shall celebrate the holy communion in
the church, or exeeute any other ministration, he
shall have his pastoral staff in-his hand, or else
borne or holden by his chaplain." When, how
ever, Dr. Matthew Parker was consecrated Arch
bishop of Canterbury, in December, 1559, no
pastoral staff was delivered to him. Its delivery
was prescribed in the ordinal of 1550, but not by
that of 1552; and some maintain that as the
ordinal was not authorized until after 1549, i. e.,
in March, 1550, it was introduced in the third
year of the reign of Edward VI., and therefore
the act of 1559, which restored the ornaments
used in the second year of Edward VI., would
not apply to those mentioned in the ordinal.
From that time the staff has been generally dis
used; but tbe crosier of Laud is said to be still
preserved. — See Crosier.
Stalls, the seats in the choir set apart for
the dignitaries in a cathedral. A benefice which
gives its holder a right to a seat with the chapter
is also called a stall.
Stancarists, followers of Stancarus in the
sixteenth century, who held that the righteous
ness of Christ was wrought out by or in his human
nature only. — See Osiandrian Controversy.
Standing.— See Prayer. — In the early
Church the people stood when they heard sermon.
In the Church of England the people sit at the
lessons of the morning and evening prayer, but
stand at the exhortation and at the ecclesiastical
hymns. (See Hook's Dictionary.)
Slarobradzi or Old Ceremonialists. —
They broke off from the Russian church in the
latter half of the seventeenth century, in conse
quence of alterations made in the printed copies
of the church service. Their other name is Star-
overtzi, or those of the old faith. — See Russian
Church.
Statio means, first, a station or fixed place for
religious worship, then the standing posture at
prayer and during the reading of the gospels,
and it is equivalent to fast. Riddle adds, — " The
term, however, is most frequently used by the
later writers in connection with processions and
pilgrimages ; and in that case it usually denotes
some particular place or object, such as an altar,
a cross, an image, a tabula voliva, either within
the walls of a church or elsewhere, at or near
which a worshipper performed his devotions,
either standing or kneeling, sometimes singing

610

STA
a psalm, sometimes repeating a prayer, some
times performing only an act of mental worship,
or engaging in religious meditation. There
are some comparatively modern words and
phrases of this class which may deserve a brief
explanation in this place. Thus, certain altars
or churches at Rome, in which the pontiff
officiates on certain days, are designated hy the
name of stations (ecclerics siaiionales; templa
stationum). The clergy who accompany or as
sist the Roman bishop on those occasions are
called stationarii, a term which bears reference
to the milites stationarii, apparitores, et ojficiales
vraesidum, in the time of the Roman emperors,
or mansionarii, corresponding to the Greek word
iTiffTaSftt). We find also sometimes ecclesia
mansionaria instead of ecclesia stationalis (Du
Cange, Glossar. s. v. Mansionarius). Crux
stationalis denotes a cross or crucifix, carried in
religious processions, and serving as a kind of
chief standard, or to denote a place of rendezvous
or head-quarters. Calix stationarius is the cup
or chalice which is taken from one station to
another, where mass is to be celebrated, or a
sorlitio sacra to he performed. Indulgentics
stationeries are indulgences published at certain
stations, and especially in the eccledos siaiionales.
Stationarii, one of tbe classes of sub-
deacons who had special charge of religious pro
cessions. — See Deacon, Sub-deacons.
Stallones, the ordinary weekly fasts on Wed
nesdays and Fridays, of which we have mention
as early as the time of Clemens Alexandrinus.
— See Fasting.
Statute, Bloody, or Six Articles. — See
Articles. Stephen's, St., Day, a festival observed on
the 26th of December in honour of the proto-
martyr. Stercoranists (dung), an opprobrious name
given to the followers of Bertram, or Ratramnus,
who held that the bread and wine of the Eucharist
were digested as other food is, in opposition to
the theory of Paschasius Radbert, who main
tained that the eucharistic elements were not
liable to the ordinary law and processes of our
physical constitution. The name was, however,
flung back on this party too.
Stewarton Sickness. — See Revivals.
Stigmata (marks), Gal.vi. 17. — Bonaventura
relates of St. Francis, that two years before his
death he retired, as was his custom, to Mount
Alverno, to keep a forty days' fast in the season
of Quadragesima. While praying there, a seraph
appeared flying in the heavens, and came near
to him, having six wings, under wbich he saw
distinctly the figure of Christ crucified. The
seraph talked with him; but he would never re
peat the conversation. After the seraph departed
he found on himself five wounds, one on each
side of his feet and hands, and one on bis side.
On the insides of his hands, and on the upper
sides of his feet, were hard, round, black sub-

STY
stances, representing the heads of nails ; and on
the back of his hands, and on the bottoms of his
feet, projecting, acuminated substances, which
bent round like clenched nails. In his side was
a wound three fingers long. From all these,
blood and a watery substance flowed occasion
ally, and he experienced continual and some
times exquisite pain from them. When he
descended from the mountain, with some hesi
tation he related the vision to a few trusty
friends. His wounds he concealed as much as
possible during his life. He languished two
years and died. After his death more than
fifty persons examined these wounds and found
them real, among whom were some cardinals.
Alexander IV., the Roman pontiff, in preaching
before tbe brethren, when Bonaventura was pre
sent, declared that he had seen those wounds on
Francis previously to his death. Other persons,
such as St, Catherine, have exhibited the same
marks. In the case of St. Francis they were
probably self-inflicted.
Stipends. — See Revenues. — Salary, as the
name implies, was originally money given for
salt, and then money for general purposes.
Stipend was the pay given to the Roman soldier,
while emolument, as the word denotes, was the
tithe of grist paid to him who owned the mola or
mill. In a state church the stipend is secured
by law, in non-established churches it depends
on the equity and generosity of the Christian
people. — See Tithes, Teind.
Stole. — See Orarium, Scarf. — Eden says, —
" Until within the last few years, the use of the
stole or scarf was confined, in the Reformed
Church of England, to bishops, chaplains of the
nobility, members of chapters, and graduates in
divinity : of late, however, it has been generally
worn by the London clergy; though, with what
authority, is not clear. The antiquity of this
vestment will hardly be disputed ; but the privi
lege (if it be one) of wearing it seems ambiguous.
The Eastern and Western Churches have worn
it from the sixth century ; but its use is nowhere
mentioned in the English ritual."
Stoup, a vessel to hold holy water, which
was usually set in the porch of the church, and
to the right hand of the person entering.
Strangers. — See Clergy.
Strigolniks, a Judaizing Russian sect which
arose in the fourteenth century, and spread
very rapidly. It was severely persecuted, and is
now found, so far as practice of Judaism is con
cerned, among the Seleznertchini who practise
circumcision and observe a seventh day Sabbath.
Scuditse. — See Accemet.e. — A nobleman of
Rome named Studius, having joined this order,
the name of the monastery built by him was
called Studum, and its inmates Studitse.
Stylitcs, a class of fanatics who got the names
of Pillar-saints, Holy Birds, jErial Martyrs,
&c, by following, as well as they could, the
example of Simeon the Stylite. This man was

611

SUB
originally a shepherd, and afterwards a monk of
Syria, who, about a.d. 423, invented a new
method of penitential devotion. Dissatisfied
with the insufficient austerities of his convent,
he retired to a mountain near Antioch, and
there, after practising various forms of solitary
asceticism, he caused a pillar to be erected, of the
height of six cubits, gradually increased to thirty-
six, on which he took up his abode, and passed
the remaining thirty or thirty-seven years of his
life. The enthusiasts of the East thronged round
his pillar, to witness his persevering devotions
and the strange postures in which he performed
them ; and he is said to have converted a whole
tribe of Arabs, besides many hundreds of other
Persians, Armenians, Iberians, who might have
been proof against more rational treatment.
Evagrius describes the pillar as only two cubits
in circumference.
Subarrhation, the espousals were the mutual
promise of marriage made in presence of wit
nesses; and the delivery of the ring and other
gifts to the woman was caUed subarrhation,
that is, giving or taking earnest — See Mar
riage, Wedding.
Sub-deaeons, assistants to the deacons. —
See Deacons. The sub-deacons seem first to
have been appointed in the fourth century, and
are supposed to correspond to the " servants " of
the New Testament. In number they were the
same as the deacons, whom they helped in
various subordinate duties. Thus in Rome seven
sub-deacons were given to the seven deacons.
But afterwards, in the eleventh century, the
number was tripled, and the twenty-one were
divided into three classes, — Palatini, who waited
on the bishop ; Regionarii, who laboured in the
regions or districts of Rome; and Stationarii, who
had charge of processions. In the Western Church
the sub-deacons gradually rose in importance, and
they were classed with the " superior orders."
Their duties were to watch the door of the church
during the eucharistic service, to deliver the
sacramental vessels into the hands ofthe deacons,
but they durst not consecrate or distribute the
elements, and to carry episcopal letters and mes
sages. It is a question whether sub-deacons
were ordained or not. Basil denies their ordi
nation, and speaks of them as " not made with
hands," and so does the fourth council of Carthage.
The Western Church, however, foUows the man
date of the Apostolic Constitutions, and ordains
them, putting into their hands an empty paten
and cup. The Roman catechism, describes both
the office and the ordination to it.
Sublapsnrians is the name given to those
Calvinists who maintained that God, in his de
crees of election and reprobation, had respect to
man, not as man, but as fallen man, or in his
lapsed condition. This tenet was first asserted
by two of the preachers at Delft, Arnold Cor
nelius and Renier Dunteklok, in a work en
titled, Answer to some Arguments qf Calvin and

SUM
Beza on the Subject of Predestination, which
appeared about 1590. — See Peedestinarian
Controversy. Submission, Act of, an act passed in the
reign of Henry VIII. in 1534, which makes royal
license necessary to the validity of certain acte of
convocation. Subscription. — Subscription to the creed of
a church is naturally asked of all its ministers. —
See Articles, Thirty-nine; Ordination. It
however, is received in different lights. Some in the
Church of England subscribe only as a condition
of entering office, or of holding it. Much in the
same spirit, Paley says, — "If, for instance, promises
of conformity to tbe rites, liturgy, and offices of
the church, be sufficient to prevent confusion and
disorder in the celebration of divine worship, then
such promises ought to be accepted in the place
of stricter subscriptions. If articles of peace, as
they are called, that is, engagements not to
preach certain doctrines, nor to revive certain
controversies, would exclude indecent altercations
amongst the national clergy, as well as secure to
the public teaching of religion as much of uni
formity and quiet as is necessary to edification;
then confessions of faith ought to be converted
into articles of peace. In a word, it ought to
be held a sufficient reason for relaxing the terms
of subscription, or for dropping any or all of the
articles to be subscribed, that no present necessity
requires the strictness which is complained of, or
that it should be extended to so many points of
doctrine." Subsellia, the seats of the presbyters in the
ancient church on each side ofthe bishop's throne.
Substance. — See Hypostatical Union,
Person op Christ.
Substitution. — See Satisfaction.
Substrati (prostrate), the third order of
penitents  See Genuflectentes, Penitents.
Also an order of catechumens. — See Cate
chumens. Succession, Apostolical. — See Apostoli
cal Succession.
Suffragans, a title given to bishops as under
an archbishop, who can summon them to give their
suffrages or opinions in a synod. An act was
passed at the Reformation to restore suffragan
bishops; but it was repealed under Mary, and
though revived under Elizabeth, it has never
been acted on. — See Bishop, p. 104 ; Chore
piscopus. Suffrage, a term used in the prayer-book as
the name of a brief petition. " The versicles after
the Creed have the same name.
Suggestio, the Latin name of the bema. —
See Bema.
Sumptuary Laws, — At an early period
Christianity controlled domestic habits in a great
variety of ways both in food and dress. Excesses
were condemned. Thus Clement of Alexandria
says, — " Other men, like the unreasoning animals,
may Uve to eat ; we have been taught to eat that

612

SUM
we may live. For the nourishment of the body
is not the work we have to do, nor is sensual
pleasure the object of our pursuit, but rather the
entrance into those mansions of incorruption,
whither the divine wisdom is guiding us. We
shall, therefore, eat simple food, as becomes
children, and merely study to preserve hfe, not
to obtain luxury. Great varieties of cookery are
to be avoided. Antipbanes, the Delian physician,
considers variety and research in cookery to be a
main cause of disease; yet many have no taste
for simplicity, and in the vain-glory of a fine
table, make it their chief anxiety to have choice
fishes from beyond sea. They have much-
sought mureena from the Sicilian straits, Maean-
drian eels, kids from Melos, mullets from Sciathos,
Pelorian scallops, oysters from Abydena, an
chovies from Lipara, Mantinaean turnips, or the
beet grown by the Ascrseans ; they seek out the
shell-fish of the Methymnaians, and the Athenian
soles, and the Daphnian flounders ; they bring
birds from Phasis, and Egyptian snipes, and
Median peacocks." They might " use a little
wine for the stomach's sake," as the apostle ex
horted Timothy; "for it is good to bring the
help of an astringent to a languid constitution ;
but in small quantity, lest, instead of benefiting,
it should be found to produce a fullness which
would render other remedies needful ; since the
natural drink of a thirsty man is water, and this
simple beverage alone was suppUed from the cleft
rock, by the Lord, for the use of the Hebrews
of old. . . . Water is the medicine of a wise
temperance. Young men and maidens should,
for the most part, forego wine altogether ; for to
drink wine during the boiling Beason of youth is
adding fire to fire. . . . Those who require a
mid-day meal may eat bread altogether without
wine ; and if thirsty, let them satisfy themselves
with water only. In the evening at supper, when
our studies are over, and the air is cooler, wine
may be used without harm perhaps ; for it will
but restore the lost warmth; but even then it
should be taken very sparingly, until the chills
of age have made it a useful medicine ; and it is
for the most part best to mix it with water, in
which state it conduces most to health." " Pre
cious vases, rare to be acquired, and difficult to be
kept, are to be put away from among us," says
the same writer that we have been quoting.
"Silver sofas, silver basins, and saucers, plates,
and dishes; beds of choice woods, decorated with
tortoise-shell and gold, with coverlets of purple
and costly stuffs, are to be relinquished in like
manner. The Lord ate from a humble dish, and
reclined with his disciples on the grass, and
washed their feet, girded with a towel. Our
food, our utensils, and whatever else belong to
our domestic economy, should be conformable to
the Christian institutions." " It is proper that
both the woman and the man should come into
the church decently dressed, with no studied
steps, in silence, and with a mind trained to

SUN
real benevolence; chaste in body, chaste in
heart, fitted to pray to God. Furthermore, it
is right that the woman should be veiled, save
when she is at home; for this is respectable, and
avoids offence." " It is enough to have the dis
position which becomes Christian women," says
Tertullian. " God looks on the heart. The out
ward appearance is nothing. Why make a
display of the change that has been wrought
in us? Rather are we bound to furnish tbe
heathen no occasion of blaspheming the Chris
tian name, and accusing Christianity of being
irreconcilable with national customs." Yet he
adds, — " What reasons can you have for going
about in gay apparel, when you are removed
from all with whom this is required ? You do
not go the round of the temples ; you ask for no
public shows; you have nothing to do with
pagan festivals. You have no other than serious
reasons for appearing abroad. It is to visit a
sick brother, to be present at the communion or
a sermon ; and if offices of courtesy or friend
ship call you among the pagans, why not appear
in your own peculiar armour, that so the dif
ference may be seen between the servants of God
and of Satan ?" Sumptuary laws have been
often enacted by the state and by the church too,
and as often have failed. — See Temperance.
Sumptnour. — See Sompnour.
Sunday. — See Sabbath.
Sunday Schools. — The Sunday school,
which has become an institution in Great Bri
tain, was one of the earliest institutions of a
public character for the education of the young
in this country. Up to the year 1783 the dame
schools, the national schools, and private adven
ture schools, were the principal instruments of
popular education. In that year, Mr. Raikes,
a newspaper proprietor in Gloucester, desiring
to prevent the profanation of the Sabbath,
gathered together a few refractory children
on the Sunday afternoon, and paid some poor
women a shilling a-day to teach them, and thus
he became the founder of an institution which,
for intelligence, numbers, and influence, has no
equal in the world. The original design, which
was to keep children out of the streets on the
Sabbath, advanced to a direct, effort to instruct,
first, in the secular branches of knowledge, read
ing, writing, and arithmetic, and then, leaving
these matters to the day school, it assumed its
direct legitimate work, viz., the religious instruc
tion and training of the scholars — its class-book
being the Bible, and its avowed aim religious
decision on tbe part of the young persons brought
within its influence. The apparatus used in the
Sunday school is very simple, consisting of a
Bible and hymn book, generally provided by tbe
children, and Scripture pictures, and a box of
moveable letters for the youngest children pro
vided by the school. The occupants of the
classes are drawn, for the most part, from the
homes of the respectable poor, and in the North

613

SUN
of England especially there is a large admix
ture of the children of the middle class. The
usual age is from four to sixteen, but in Lanca
shire, Yorkshire, and Wales there are a large
proportion of scholars between eighteen and
twenty-five years of age. The glory of the
institution is that it is purely voluntarj', and
these gratuitous teachers give their services
regularly, and through a long course of years.
In 1819 the sum paid to teachers was £4292;
at this rate, the sum required now would be
£989,000, whereas, we believe, not one shilling
is paid to any British Sunday school teacher.
The expenses of the Sunday school are very
slight, not exceeding two shillings per annum
per head in the best schools. The government
of the school is systematic and influential. The
superintendent is chosen by the teachers, who
elect their own committee and their own officers.
The teachers form themselves into a class in
the week to prepare the Scripture lessons of the
next Sabbath. They usually meet their class
twice in the day, and they are in the habit of
visiting their scholars during the week at their
own houses. The schools are furnished with
large lending libraries, and lectures and classes
are arranged for week night instruction. Banks
for savings, sick societies, bands of hope, for
the encouragement of temperate habits, are
frequently attached to the Sunday school.
Amongst a large number of schools in England
and Scotland an organization exists which is
called the "Sunday School Union," which carries
on benevolent operations of a very extensive
character. From this union have sprung
similar institutions in America and in France,
and its relations with Sunday schools of all
denominations abroad are very intimate.
The importance of the Sunday school can
scarcely be overrated. It is acknowledged,
by all classes of non-religious and secular, by
statesmen, philanthropists, and judges, to have
a most potent influence in raising the educational
and moral status of the youthful community, in
bringing together the upper and lower ranks of
society, and in cherishing a respect for the Word
of God and regard for the Christian Sabbath.
The census of 1851 presents the most reliable
statistical facts as to Sunday school operations.
An interesting digest of these returns was pre
pared by Mr. Charles Reed, and published in
1852 (file Census and Sunday Schools, London,
1852); and from this we learn that the youthful
population of Great Britain numbers four millions
and a-half, giving the proportion belonging to
the working classes as three millions. It appears
that on a given Sunday in 1851, there weie
2,407,409 children on the registers of schools.
Comparing this with the year 1818, the advance
will be seen. In 1818 in every 24 of the popu
lation was a Sunday scholar; in 1851, 1 in
every 7 J. The actual attendance at school was
9 out of every 12 on the school books. The

SUP
number of teachers was 2 to every 15 children,
or 302,000 voluntary teachers; in other words,
every sixtieth person in the country was a Sun
day school teacher. The school accommodation
throughout the country is admitted to be ample,.
and generally efficient, and the religious instruc
tion given in the school is mainly of an unsec-
tarian and catholic character. From the Sunday
school has sprung up the ragged school move
ment, the importance of wbich it is impossible to
exaggerate, acting as it does upon the lowest
and most degraded of our fellow-creatures, and
redeeming from crime and debasement multi
tudes who have hitherto been educated in the
streets and courts of our crowded towns and
cities. The literature of the Sunday school is
most remarkable for its extended circulation and
the general ability with which it is conducted.
Hundreds of thousands of magazines for teachers
and scholars are issued from the London and
Edinburgh press, in addition to multitudes of
local publications. Nor is this to be wondered
at, when it is considered that every congregation of
persons meeting for religious worship throughout
the country and the colonies considers it to be a
part of its recognized duty to maintain a Sunday
school for the religious instruction of the children
of the poor.
Supererogation. — This term in the Romish
theology means works done beyond what is asked
by God, or over and above what is necessary for
a man's salvation. A man on this theory may
be better and holier than God requires of him.
A stock of merit is thus laid up, the disposal of
which belongs to the church, that she may dis
tribute it in indulgences. — See Indulgences.
These works are sometimes called " counsels "
and sometimes " evangelical perfections." This
doctrine was invented about the eleventh century.
It discovers an amazing ignorance of the breadth
and spirituality of the divine law, which every
creature is bound to obey at every moment, and
with all his faculties
Supcrhumerale (covering of Vie shoulders).
— See Pallium,
• Superintendents. — In the Lutheran and Re
formed Churches in Germany and Switzerland
which do not admit of episcopacy, there is some
times an officer called by this name, who has the
oversight of the pastors of a district. Superin
tendents were appointed also in Scotland at the
Reformation. In the First Book of Discipline
the reason of their appointment is given, as a
thing most expedient at this time. Ten different
districts were mapped out, — One for Orkney, a
second for Ross, a third for Argyll, a fourth for
Aberdeen, a fifth for Brechin, a sixth for Fife and
Fotheringham, the region of the Forth, or from
Stirling to Fife, a seventh for Edinburgh, an
eighth for Jedburgh, a ninth for Glasgow, a
tenth for Dumfries. Though these ten pro
vinces were thus designed, only five persons
were appointed with the title of superinteu-

614

SUP
dent, — John Wynram, sub-prior of St. And
rews, to Fife, Fotheringham, and Strathern ;
John WiUock, to the diocese of Glasgow; John
Carswell, to Argyll and the Isles ; John Erskine
of Dun, to Angus ; and John Spotswood (father
ofthe archbishop), to Lothian. John Row was
appointed to the same duties in Dumfries and
Galloway, with the designation of commissioner.
The commissioner, properly so called, differed
from the superintendents in being appointed
merely to visit certain provinces from one as
sembly to another. The form ¦ of ordination for
a superintendent is given at length in the Book
of Common Order. M'Crie says, "The superin
tendents were elected and admitted in the same
manner as other pastors. They were equally sub
ject to rebuke, suspension, and deposition, as the
rest of the ministers of the church. In the ex
amination of those whom they admitted to the
ministry, they were bound to associate with them
the ministers of the neighbouring parishes. They
could not exercise any spiritual jurisdiction with
out the consent of the provincial synods, over
which they had no negative voice. They were
accountable to the general assembly for the whole
of their conduct. ' They must be preachers them
selves;' they are charged to 'remain in no place
above twenty daies in their visitation, tiU they
are passed through their whole bounds.' They
' must thrice everie week preach at the least'
When they return to their principal town of
residence, 'they must likewise be exercised in
preaching;' and having remained in it 'three or
foure monthes at most, they shall be compelled
(unless by sickness they be retained) to re-enter
in visitation.' " The office was only a temporary
expedient, and not, as Spotswood and others have
represented it, a kind of episcopal dignity. "The
First Book qf Discipline explicitly declares, that
their appointment was a matter of temporary ex
pedience, for the plantation of the church, and on
account of the paucity of ministers. Its words
are, ' We have thought it a thing most expe
dient at this time, that from the whole number
of godly and learned men, now presently in
this realm, be selected ten or twelve (for in so
many provinces we have divided the whole),
to whom charge and commandment should he
given, to plant and erect kirkes, to set, order,
and appoint ministers, as the former order pre
scribes, to tbe countries that shall be appointed
to their care where none are now.' "
Superpositio, a term applied to the lengthen
ing of a fast, or to the fast itself when length
ened, as was usual in the Passion Week, for
three, four, and five consecutive days  See
Fasting. Supper ofthe Lord. — See Eucharist.
Supplications, in the Romish Church,
is another name for . processions, which were
often used for public prayer. — See Proces
sions. Supralapsarians, those who hold that

SUR
the divine decrees bad respect to man as man,
supra lapsum, or before bis fall. The creation
and fall alike were present to the mind of God
a3 links in man's history. — See Predestina-
rian Controversy, Sublapsarians.
Supremacy. — See Papacy; Pope, Su
premacy OF.
Supremacy, Oath of. — See Oath of Su
premacy. Supremacy, Royal.— Canon ii. of the
Church of England says, — " Whosoever shall
hereafter affirm, that the king's majesty hath
not the same authority in causes ecclesiastical,
that the godly kings had amongst the Jews and
Christian emperors of the primitive Church ; or
impeach any part of his regal supremacj' in
the said causes restored to the crown, and by
the laws of this realm therein established; let
him be excommunicated ipso facto, and not
restored, but only by the archbishop, after
his repjntance and public revocation of those
his wicked errors." — See Magistrate, Sacra
circa. Surcingle, the belt by which the cassock
is fastened round the waist.
Surety. — See Baptism, Godfathers, Spon
sors. Surname (overname). — Names were at first
expressive, as those of Scripture. According to
Du Cange surnames were originally written, not
after the Christian name, but above it, and so
were " supernomina" — overnames. The first or
Christian name is usually given at baptism.
Hereditary surnames did not exist in this
country till after the Norman conquest. They
are taken from locality, as Field or Forest ; from
occupation, as Fisher or Miller, Pilgrim or Palmer ;
from personal qualities, as Black or Brown ; from
natural objects, as Lemon or Lamb, Peel or Hog,
Steel or Jewel, &c. As distinct from tbe surname,
the sirname or sire's-name is a natural addition,
with son, Mae, or Fitz, 0, ap, wich, or sky —
aU signifying son, as, Donaldson or Macdonald,
Fitzgerald, O'Connell, Alexandrowich, Petrou-
sky — ap Howel becoming Powel, and ap Richard
becoming Prichard.
Surplice, a long, loose, linen garment worn by
clergymen of the Church of England during the
performance of divine service. Surplices are also
worn by the fellows of colleges or halls, and by
all the scholars and students in the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge upon Sundays, holi
days, and even during their attendance at the
college chapels or churches. The origin of the
surplice is thus given by Durand : " It was so
called because anciently this garment was put
upon leathern coats made of the skins of dead
animals (super tunicas pellicas de pellibus mortuo-
rum animalium factas); symbolically to represent
that the sin of our first parents, which brought
man under the necessity of wearing garments of
skin, was now hid and covered by the robe of
Christ's innocence and grace." The fifty-eighth

615

SUR
canon of the Church of England commands that,
" Every minister saying the prayers, or minister
ing the sacraments, or other rites of the church,
shall wear a decent, comely surplice with sleeves,
to be provided at the charge of the parish. And
if any question arise touching the matter, decency,
or comeliness thereof, the same shall be decided
by the discretion of the ordinary."
Surrogate (one appointed in room qf
another). — The name is usually borne by the
officer appointed by the bishop to grant probates
for wills and licenses for marriages, to save the
trouble and expense of a journey to the episcopal
seat. SurBum corda (lift up your hearts),
words used to announce the commencement of
public prayer in the early Church. They are
found in the ancient liturgies. The brief in
junction and reply was, —
Priest. -Lift up your hearts. Sacerdos. Sursum corda.
Answer. We lift them up Respons. Habemus ad
unto the Lord Dominum.
Priest. Let us give thanks Sacerdos. Gratias agra-
unto our Lord God. mus Domino Deo nostro.
Answer. It is meet and Respons. Dignum et
right so to do. justum est.
Susceptores (undertakers, sureties). — See
Baptism, p. 55; Sponsors.
Suspension. — See Clergy, p. 153. — Any of
the laity might also be suspended from receiving
the communion, as is still practised in churches
which have ' order and discipline. A bishop
may exercise his power of suspension over any
clergyman in his diocese. The presbytery has
similar power over its clerical members, to sus
pend them either sine die, or for a certain
period. — See Fama Clamosa, Libel.
Swearing, Profane, was severely con
demned in the ancient Church, and seems to
have been a common practice. Swearing, or
foolish or wicked adjurations by any creature or
demon, by the emperor's genius, by angel, and
by saint, were reprobated. Perjured persons
were placed under special penance. Swearing is
punishable by the civil law of England. Black
stone says, — " By the last statute against it, 19
Geo. IL, c. 21, which repeals all former ones,
every labourer, sailor, or soldier, profanely cursing
or swearing shall forfeit Is. ; every other person
under the degree of a gentleman, 2s. ; and every
gentleman or person of superior rank, 5s., to the
poor of the parish ; and, on the second convic
tion, double ; and, for every subsequent offence,
treble the sum first forfeited ; with all charges of
conviction : and in default of payment shall be
sent to the house of correction for ten days.
Any justice of the peace may convict upon his
own hearing, or the testimony of one witness ;
and any constable or peace officer, upon his own
hearing, may secure any offender and carry him
before a justice, and there convict him. If the
justice omits his duty, he forfeits £5, and the
constable 40s. And "the act is to be read in all
parish churches and public chapels the Sunday

SWE
after every quarter-day, on pain of £5 to be
levied by warrant from any justice. Besides
his punishment for taking God's name in vain
in common discourse, it is enacted by statute 3
Jac. I., c. 21, that if, in any stage play, interlude,
or show, the name of the Holy Trinity, or any
of the persons therein, be jestingly or profanely
used, the offender shall forfeit £10 ; one moiety
to the king, and the other to the informer." So
in Scotland, — " By the 103d cap. Jam. VI.,
pari 7, magistrates to burgh and landward are
ordained to appoint censors in public markets and
fairs, with power to exact the pains of swearing,
and that householders delate offenders within
their houses, under the pain of being esteemed as
offenders themselves. By cap. 16., pari. 5, Queen
Mary, particular pains are ordained against pro
fane swearers, with gradual augmentations, and
ending in banishment: which acts are ratified
by Charles IL, pari. 1, sess. 1, cap. 19 ; and
further, it is enacted, That who shall swear or
curse, shall pay, the nobleman twenty pounds,
the baron twenty merks, the gentleman, heritor,
or burgess, ten merks, the yeoman forty shillings,
the servant twenty shillings, toties quoties ; and
tbe minister the fifth part of his stipend, to be
applied to pious uses, the one half in the parish
where the offence was committed, and the other
half to be betwixt the informer and prosecutor,
and other uses, at the sight of the judges, as in
the act about justices of the peace : and the in
solvent to be punished in their persons."
Swedenborgians. — Baron Emanuel Swe
denborg, the founder of this sect, which is also
known as the " New Jerusalem Church," was
born at Stockholm on the 29th of January,
1689. He gave early proofs of his ability, and,
having acquired an elegant Latin style, with
considerable skill in mathematics and natural
philosophy, he became an author in his twentieth
year. From the academy of Upsai he went to
the universities of England, Holland, France,
and Germany, and, returning to Stockholm in
1714, was soon after appointed assessor to the
Metallic College by Charles XII. On the death
of that monarch he found another patron in his
successor, Queen Ulrica Eleonora, by whom hav
ing been ennobled, he took his seat among the
equestrian order by the title of Baron Sweden
borg. He was made a fellow of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and of
several foreign societies, and enjoyed the respect
and friendship of the most distinguished scholars
in Europe. In the year 1743 he began to pro
mulgate his novel dogmas. At that time he
affirmed the Lord himself appeared to him, and
opened in him a sight of the spiritual world, so
that he was enabled constantly to see and con
verse with spirits and angels. " It was," he
says, " in London, that on a certain night a man
appeared to me in the midst of a strong and
shining light, and said, ' I am God the Lord,:
the Creator and Redeemer ; I have chosen thee

616

SWE
to explain to men the interior and spiritual sense
of the sacred writings.' " From this date he
devoted himself entirely to the promulgation of
the discoveries obtained by his pretended inter
course with the immaterial universe. He died
in London, March 29, 1772, and, after lying in
state, his remains were deposited in a vault in the
Swedish meeting-house near Radcliffe Highway.
His writings are voluminous. His Arcana Cceles-
iia, or Heavenly Mysteries (forming eight vols.
4to), were published between the years 1749 and
1756 : they contain an exposition of the internal,
spiritual sense of the books of Genesis and Exodus.
In 1758 appeared (in one vol. 4to) his treatise
De Ccelo et Inferno, or Heaven and Hell, from
things heard and seen, containing a particular ac
count of both kingdoms. This extravagant work
contains the following declaration : — " As often as
I conversed with angels face to face it was in
their habitations, which are like to our houses on
earth, but far more beautiful and magnificent,
having rooms, chambers, and apartments in
great variety, as also spacious courts belonging
to them, together with gardens, parterres of
flowers, fields, &c, where the angels are formed
into societies. They dwell in contiguous habi
tations, disposed after the manner of our cities,
in streets, walks, and squares. I have had the
privilege to walk through them, to examine all
round about me, and to enter their houses, and
this when I was fully awake, having my inward
eyes opened." In 1771 Swedenborg published
at Amsterdam (in one vol. 4to) what seems to
be an exposition of his entire system, under the
title of Time Christian Religion, or the Universal
Theology ofthe New Church. Besides these, the
Baron composed several smaller lucubrations,
the most remarkable of which, and the first of
his works which attracted attention in an Eng
lish translation, was a Treatise on Influx, or
concerning the Commerce of ihe Soul and the
Body. The translator was the Rev. T. Hartley,
rector of Winwich, Northamptonshire, who was
one of the first persons in this country who em
braced Swedenborgianism about the year 1770.
The same gentleman afterwards gave to the
world an English version of the Heaven and
Hell. The curiosity awakened by the publica
tions of Mr. Hartley produced a demand for
several editions, and led to the translation, by
degrees, of the Baron's other theological works.
The most zealous of his disciples was the late
Rev. J. Clowes, rector of St. John's Church,
Manchester, who organized a society among his
friends in that place for the purpose of circulat
ing the Swedenborgian doctrines, but continued,
however, a member of the English Church, and
held his benefice till his death, in 1831.
About 1788 the Swedenborgians formed them
selves into a distinct society, and named it the
"New Jerusalem Church." Robert Hindmarsh
was chosen by lot to ordain their ministers. In
the foUowing year " a general conference of the

SWE
members" was held in London, and a summary
of doctrine, compiled from the Baron's writings by
a committee of his disciples, was adopted as the
authorized exposition of their belief. A general
liturgy has since been drawn up for their use,
which contains forms of consecration, ordination,
&c, and as nearly resembles that of the Anglican
Church as the difference of doctrines will admit.
Among the alterations made in order to render it
perfectly Swedenborgian, the part called the
Gloria Patri is exchanged for the following
words : " To Jesus Christ be glory and dominion
for ever and ever." To which the congregation
answers, " He is Alpha and Omega, the begin
ning and the ending, the first and the last, who
is, and was, and is to come, the Almighty."
A general conference is now held annually, to
which each congregation sends one, two, or three
lay-delegates, according to its numbers, all the
teachers being members ex officio. At the fif
teenth conference, held at Newcastle-on-Tyne in
August, 1860, fifty churches were reported as
being in connection with the conference, with
a considerable number of smaU societies and
isolated receivers. The number of recognized
members is over 3000 ; but the amount of
attendants and general favourers is greater.
In the United States the number is above 4000,
and they have three conventions. They are
said to be scattered over France, Sweden, Ger
many, Switzerland, Holland, Russia, Poland,
Turkey, the East and West Indies, and Aus
tralia. The revelations of Swedenborg may,
however, have been received by many persons
rather as a system of philosophy than as a creed
of religion.
The first and principal of Swedenborg*s dogma3
is, that he was honoured with a divine mission to
men; not indeed to make an entire new revelation,
but to give, by means of visions and intercourse
with the world of spirits, such an exposition
of sacred writ as should lay the foundation of a
new dispensation of religion. He further main
tains that the sacred volume contains three distinct
senses, called celestial, spiritual, and natural; and
that in each sense it is divine truth, accommo
dated respectively to the angels of three distinct
heavens, and also to men on earth. To speak in
the language of Swedenborgianism, the sense
of the letter of Scripture is the continent, the
basis, or firmament of its spiritual and celestial
senses, being written according to the doctrine of
correspondences, which furnish the key to the
spiritual or internal sense, so that they equally
err who, on the one hand, neglect the natural
sense, or who, on the other, rest in the letter.
— See Correspondences. In the theology of
Swedenborg the unity of God is inculcated to
gether with a divine Trinity, but this Trinity
is not supposed to have existed from eternity,
but to have commenced from the creation in
the single person of Jesns Christ alone, and to
consist of a Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, just

6;7

SWE
like the human trinity in every individual man,
of bodj', soul, and proceeding operation. Hence
he affirms that our Saviour is the God of
heaven, and alone to be worshipped; that he
came into the world to glorify his humanity, by
making it one with the divine nature, so that
the humanity is itself divine ; that there is no
other access to God than by this divine hu
manity, and that " God is Jesus Christ, who is
Jehovah Lord, from eternity Creator, in time
Redeemer, and to eternity Regenerator." To
these heresies respecting the ever blessed Trinity
and the person of our Saviour, Swedenborg
adds sentiments as peculiar concerning redemp
tion, which he believes to consist in " bringing
the helb (evil angels) into subjection, and the
heavens into order and regulation, and thereby
preparing the way for a new spiritual church ;
checking the overgrown influence of wicked
spirits over the minds of men, opening a nearer
communication with the heavenly powers, and
making salvation, which is regeneration, pos
sible for all who believe in the incarnate God,
and keep his commandments." Swedenborg also
asserts that this redemption could be effected
only by an incarnate Deity — that without it no
man could have been saved, nor could angels
have remained in a state of integrity ; that the
passion of the cross was the final temptation
which the Lord endured as the grand Prophet,
and the means of the glorification of his human
ity by union with his Father; and tbat his death
was in no sense atoning or substitutionary. On
the contrary, Swedenborg held that the orthodox
doctrine of satisfaction by the death of Him
" who died for us," and " bore our sins," is the
fundamental error of the church. He denies
the doctrines of predestination, justification by
faith alone, the resurrection of the material
body, &c, and maintains, on the contrary,
that man is possessed of free-will in spiritual
things; that salvation is not attainable with
out repentance, that is, abstaining from evils,
because they are sins against God, and living
a Ufe of faith and charity, according to the com
mandments; that man, immediately on his de
cease, rises again in a spiritual body which was
inclosed in his material body, and that in the
spiritual body he lives as a man to eternit_v,
either in heaven or hell, according to the quality
of his past life. Swedenborg also affirmed that
the " books ofthe Word" are those only which
had the internal sense disclosed to him, and tbat
among these are included twenty-nine of the Old
Testament, but in the New Testament, only the
four gospels and the Revelation ; that in propor
tion as man is regenerated, in the same propor
tion his sins are removed, and that this removal
is what is meant in the Word by the remission
of sins ; and that now it is allowable to enter
intellectually into the mysteries of faith, contrary
to the ruling maxim of the old church, that the
understanding is to be kept bound under obe-

SWE
dience to faith. The doctrine of a divine infl'ix
holds a principal place in the Swedenborgian
creed. Every man is supposed to receive this
influx from God, but each one according to his
state ; for, by the evil nature of the wicked, good
influxes are changed into their opposites. We
are also subject to evil influences from the hells,
or evil spirits, as well as good from the Lord and
his angels; and all angels, whether good or bad,
were once men. By these opposite influences we
are kept in equilibrium, at perfect liberty to turn
which way we please. If we submit to God, we
receive real life from him ; if not, we receive that
Ufe from hell, which is called spiritual death. It
is also taught by the followers of Swedenborg
that all those passages in Scripture which are
generally supposed to refer to the destruction of
the world by fire, and the final judgment, must
be understood (according to the doctrine of cor
respondences) to mean the consummation of the
present Christian Church, and that the new
heavens are the New Church in its internal, and
the new earth, the Swedenborgian, or New Je
rusalem Church in its external form. The last
judgment, it is contended, was accomplished in
the spiritual world in 1757. That now is the
second advent of the Lord, and is a coming, not
in person, but in the power and glory of the
spiritual sense of his holy Word, which is him
self. Sweden and Norway, Churches of —
Commerce was the first means of bringing the
Swedish mind into contact with Christianity.
Thence was awakened the desire on the part of
many of a further acquaintance with its doctrines.
The conduct and sayings of Christian captives
contributed also to this result. On application to
the Emperor Lewis the Meek, Anschar, formerly a
monk of Corbie, and then acting as a missionary
in Denmark, was instructed to proceed to Sweden
on a like errand of mercy. He sailed in a mer
chant vessel, and landed, in 829, at Birka, a port
near the ancient Swedish capital, Sigtuna. He
laboured with encouraging success for upwards
of a year, and returned in 831 to the Emperor
Lewis with a favourable report on the prospect
of extending Christianity through the whole of
Northern Europe. Lewis and Gregory IV. estab
lished at Hamburg an archiepiscopal see for
these northern latitudes, over which Anschar was
placed. To aid him in his duties he consecrated
his nephew, Gauzbert (called also Simon), bishop,
specially entrusting him with the Swedish mission.
His labours were so visibly successful as at last
to excite against him the whole heathen popu
lace. At their hands the converts suffered
much, the mission went back, and in 845 Gauz
bert was compelled to leave the country. In
851 Anschar, accompanied by Ardgar, a hermit
in priest's orders, returned to the scene of his
former labours, and re-established the mission.
They were soon joined by Gauzbert. Their
former converts, though separated for six years

618

SWE
from their teachers, seem never to have receded
from the profession of Christianity, and gladly
welcomed their return. The prospects of the
mission were cheering. In 854, under King Olaf,
Christianity became the national faith, though
the worship of Odin and Thor long retained
a strong footing in the country, especially in
the more remote and mountainous districts,
—so much so, that Sweden cannot be said to
have become thoroughly Christianized before the
middle of the eleventh century. It was shortly
before that date (c. 1050) that the first Swedish
bishopric was constituted at Skara, in West
Gothland, to which an English priest was con
secrated. Into Norway Prince Hacon, who had
been educated and imbibed Christianity at the
court of the English monarch Athelstane, sought,
about the year 945, to introduce Christianity,
but failed in the attempt. In part he was tem
porarily forced to resile from his own profession
of it. Harald of Denmark, the conqueror of
Norway, 967, next sought to do this, but was
equally unsuccessful. This was accomplished
by Olaf Tryggweson, who freed the Norwegians
from the Danish yoke. He was much aided
in this by a priest, Thangbrand. To a great
extent we must regard the conversions Olaf
effected as the result of coercion; but being
succeeded by another Christian monarch, Chris
tianity at last took root in the affections of the
people, and its moUifying influence was seen in
gradually weaning them from their inveterate
piratical habits. We now pass to the period of
the Reformation, the intervening ecclesiastical
historj' of these countries being a complete blank,
enlivened only, in the case of Norway, by the
nautical pilgrimages her kings and nobles de
lighted to make to the Holy Land, — a trace of
their old piratical habits being seen in their
readiness to massacre and plunder any tribes
they visited on the way, who hesitated to adopt
the Christian faith. The Reformation in Sweden
followed close upon the revolution which secured
the political independence of the country by
placing Gustavus Vasa on the throne : it was a
necessary pendant to it. Without the destruc
tion of the overgrown power of the ecclesiastical
body, his power could not be secure. Without
the recovery of the wealth and fortresses they
had usurped, the government could not be car
ried on, unless means were provided by such
exactions as would soon goad the people on to
a new rebellion. At this period two priests
(Swedes by birth, sons of a smith in Orebro, a
town in one of the mining districts), returning
from the prosecution of their studies at Rome,
attracted by the fame of the Elector of Saxony's
new university at Wittemberg, turned aside
thither. They were speedily brought under the
influence of Lutheran doctrine, and on arriving
in Sweden at once came into collision with the
venders of indulgences. The names of these
reformers were Laurence and Olaf Petri. Gus-

SWE
tavus favoured them, but wisely at first limiting
his aid to protection from destruction, gave them
the opportunity of diffusing the knowledge of the
truth which they had attained. He attached
Olaf, naturally the more energetic of the two,
as a preacher to the cathedral of Stockholm,
and appointed him also one of the secretaries of
state. He encouraged disputations; and in 1524
Olaf engaged in one with a professor of theology
in the university of Upsala. This was broken
off near its close by the king, as the excitement
of the combatants was great, and a statement by
each disputant ordered to be drawn up and cir
culated. The Bible and liturgy were also trans
lated into Swedish, and widely circulated. In
1526 two-thirds of the annual revenues of the
clergy were, by a decision of the senate, confis
cated to the state, and the royal fortresses seized
by them during the civil wars demanded. The
emeutes, excited and headed by the clergy, were
speedily crushed ; and finally, longer opposition
being vain, in 1529, at a meeting of the clergy
at Orebro, tbe reformed doctrines were accepted.
In 1531, the former archbishop having been ban
ished, on account of his opposition to the royal
measures concerning the church property, Lau
rence Petri, brother of Olaf, the leader of the
reformed party, was elected to the archiepiscopal
and metropolitan see of Upsala. The further
progress of the Reformation, though checked
when the popish party recovered strength, was
slow but sure. By a decree of the states, as
sembled at Suderkopping, in 1600, the Con
fession qf Augsburg was anew declared the
standard of the Swedish Church. Commenced
under the fostering care of the state, and for
political reasons, it was checked by the state in
its progress, and continues still subordinated to it.
Many Romish rites and ceremonies are retained.
During the wars of Gustavus Adolphus a spiritual
torpor crept over the Swedish Church, but it was
broken at last by the simple earnestness of Ul-
stadt in preaching the Gospel. His denuncia
tions against clerical carelessness excited their
hostiUty, and on the plea of sacrilege, he was
condemned, in 1679, to perpetual imprisonment.
On a general amnesty being proclaimed, in 1719,
he was then offered his liberty. His labours had
roused the religious feelings of the country ; and
to oppose this " pietism," stringent acts against
conventicles were passed in 1716 and 1726.
The struggle for religious toleration which has
been going on during the last fifty years in
Sweden, is closely analogous to that which took
place in this country during the close of the
seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth
centuries. Imprisonment on religious grounds is
not yet with them a thing of the past. There
are many dissenters, especially Baptists, in the
country, but " secretly, for fear of the" govern
ment. In 1856 the diet so far repealed the
conventicle acts, and ordained as follows : — " No
members of the Swedish Church shall be forbidden.

619

SWE
to assemble for religious exercises, provided that
special permission be obtained for meetings dur
ing church hours, and free access be granted to
the clergy, churchwardens, or police authorities,
and that the last named may dissolve any meet
ing should they perceive anything unlawful or
disorderly. But if any one not a clergyman,
nor entitled, according to the church law, to
preach in public, stand up in such a meeting as
a teacher, and his address be considered like to
produce division in the church, or contempt for
the public service of religion, the church council
shall be empowered to prohibit his doing so."
This enactment refers only to members of the
national church, and does not legalize dissent.
" The tone of piety and morality in Sweden is
deplorably low ; " hut of late a revival has taken
place in the more northern parishes. This
has led to a large party in the church, dis
satisfied with the present Uturgy, requiring the
re-introduction of an older and better liturgy
into the parish church services, as the first
step towards reform. This was refused. They
then sought to obtain ordained pastors, remain
in connection with the national church, but sup
port churches of their own, where they might
worship, using the older and preferable liturgy.
The ordained pastors were refused. They then
seceded, chose and set apart individuals to the
pastorate, and braved government opposition.
In spite of fines, imprisonments, and other penal
ties and annoyances (for they are too numerous
to be banished), they continue in their adherence
to the service preferred, and maintain their eccle
siastical independence. Their eventual success
cannot be doubted. The Swedish is the type of
an Erastian church. How completely she is
enslaved to the civil power may be seen from
the fact, that the whole government of the
country, ecclesiastical as well as civil, is in the
hands of the king and a legislature of four
chambers: three consisting of lay members, —
nobles, burgesses, and peasant proprietors; one
chamber consisting of clerics. Each of these
four chambers has an equal vote. The minor
church courts, who present to the parishes, are
constituted and controlled by this legislature.
The parish minister has to combine with his
religious duties many of a secular character,
such as procuring census returns, &c. Baptism
must be performed on every child within eight
days after birth, under pain of civil penalties to
the parents neglecting this rite. Confirmation
takes place, on examination, about the age of four
teen, at the hands ofthe minister, and in presence
of the congregation. The Lord's Supper (called
in Sweden "high mass") must be annually par
taken, as an indispensable qualification for the
enjoyment of civil rights and privileges. Dis
prove the participation during the previous year,
in the case of any individual, and his evidence in
a court of justice is rejected. In Norway the
seeds of the Reformation were sown by those

SWI
youths who had studied at Wittemberg ; but it
commenced really when, in spite of ecclesiastical
opposition, the nobles of the country succeeded
in placing the Protestant Christian III. on the
throne. He, with his nobles and commons,
established the reformed religion, confiscating the
landed estates of the church to the crown ; reform
ing and opening the religious houses ; applying
their surplus revenues to charitable institutions ;
reserving lay-patronage, and giving to the patron
one-third of the tithe; the other two-thirds
being divided between the curate and the king,
who was to apply this money to the universities
and public schools of the realm. Their doc
trines were Lutheran, and the form episcopal,
though the bishops had no power beyond the
superintendence. A great revival was produced
in the church through the labours of a young
peasant, Hans Nielson Hauge, born 1771 at
Frederickstadt, who commenced preaching in
1795, and continued, with marvellous success, his
labours till 1804. At this time some of his
followers, carried away by an enthusiastic spirit,
committed such outrages as led to his arrest and
trial at Christiania. He was condemned (first,
for holding assemblies for divine worship without
lawful appointment, and, second, for teaching
error, and contempt of tbe established instructors,)
to hard labour and imprisonment for two years,
or a heavy fine. He lived quietly after this for
twenty years, doing much good in an unobtru
sive manner, and no longer itinerating. The
Norwegian Church adheres " to the constitution
of the Danish- Lutheran Church, as settled by
Christian V. in 1683, and also to the Danish
ritual, as laid down in 1685." — See Denmark,
Church of. Recent efforts to Uberalize their
ecclesiastical institutions, by giving the lay-
members a share in the government of the church,
failed ; but ultimately their efforts wiU succeed.
Vacancies are filled, through appointments by the
crown, from a list of three candidates, in each
case nominated by the bishop of the diocese
and the ecclesiasticarminister of state. Prior to
the separation of Denmark and Norway, in 1814,
rationalism was prevalent in the church ; but a
more healthful spirit now is animating it, partly
owing to the growth of a party who follow
the views of the celebrated Danish theologian,
Grundtvig. In many of their views they cor
respond to the English high church party, but
they labour diligently in the preaching of the
Word, and their preaching has been attended
with considerable success. (See Gardner's Dic
tionary; Stebbing's and Neander's Church His
tory.) Swithin's Day, Saint. — The foUowing is
said to be the origin of the old adage, — "If it
rain on St. Swithin's Day, there will be rain
more or less for forty-five succeeding days :" — In
the year 865 St. Swithin, Bishop of Winchester,
to which rank he was raised by King Ethelwolfe,
the Dane, dying, was canonized by the then

G20

SWI
pope He was singular for his desire to be
buried in the open churchyard, and not in the
chancel of the minster, as was usual with other
bishops, which request was complied with ; but
the monks, on his being canonized, taking it
into their heads that it was disgraceful for the
saint to Ue in the open churchyard, resolved to
remove his body into the choir, which was to
have been done with solemn procession on the
15th of July. It rained, however, so violently
on that day, and for forty days succeeding, as
had hardly ever been known, which made them
set aside their design as heretical and blasphem
ous ; and instead, they erected a chapel over his
grave, at which many miracles are said to have
been wrought (Brand). The value to be placed
upon the popular notion, that if it rains upon the
15th of July it will do so for forty succeeding
days, may be learnt from the following facts,
from the Greenwich observations for twenty
years :— It appears that St. Swithin's Day was
wet in 1841, and there were 23 rainy days up
to the 24th of August; 1845, 26 rainy days;
1851, 13 rainy days; 1853, 18 rainy days;
1854, 16 rainy days; and in 1856, 14 rainy
days. In 1842 and following years St. Swithin's
Day was dry, and the result was, in 1842, 12
rainy days; 1843, 12 rainy days; 1844, 20
rainy days; 1846, 21 rainy days; 1847, 17 rainy
days; 1848, 31 rainy days; 1849, 20 rainy
days; 1850, 17 rainy days; 1852, 19 rainy
days; 1855, 18 rainy days; 1857, 14 rainy
days; 1858, 14 rainy days; 1859, 13 rainy
days ; and in 1860, 29 rainy days. These figures
show the superstition to be founded on a fal
lacy, as the average of twenty years proves rain
to have fallen upon the largest number of days
when St. Swithin's Day was dry.
Switzerland, Churches of. — Christianity
was first introduced into Switzerland about the
year 610, after the expulsion of Columban and
his companions from the Burgundian territory.
Columban was soon compelled to flee into Italy,
and the name most usually associated with early
Swiss Christianity is that of one of bis com
panions, St. GaU, an Irish monk of noble birth,
who laboured amongst them till his death, 640.
There is a Swiss canton which bears his name.
It was mainly through the exertions of Irish
monks that the country was in course of time
Christianized. Popish influence in the cantons
was graduaUy undermined by the very means
designed to strengthen it. The supreme pontiff
having often occasion to engage their hardy moun
taineers as mercenaries in his service, made such
a distribution (to unworthy and incapable persons
attached to his interest) of the church offices in
the country from time to time, to render the
country agreeable to his purposes of enlistment,
as gradually undermined aU the veneration for
merly felt for those in the church, and deprived
it of former authority. With respect to the re
formation in Switzerland, — " From 1519 to 1526

SWI
Zurich was the centre of the reformation, which
was then entirely German, and was propagated
in the eastern and northern parts of the con
federation. Between 1526 and 1532 the move
ment was communicated from Berne ; it was at
once German and French, and extended to the
centre of Switzerland, from the gorges of the Jura
to the deepest valleys of the Alps. In 1532
Geneva became the focus of the light ; and the
reformation, which was here essentially Freneh,
was established on the shores of the Lem an
Lake, and gained strength in every quarter." —
D'Aubigne". With the commencement and
progress of the Swiss reformation the name of
Ulric Zwingli is inseparably connected. In
1513 he commenced the study of the Greek
language; and from 1516, when he began to
expound the Word of God, as preacher in the
abbey of Einsiedeln, Zwingli dates the Swiss
reformation. The influence of the pure faith
was soon extensively felt, so that, by the year
1522, we find Erasmus estimating " those" in the
cantons " who abhorred the see of Rome " at about
200,000 persons. Gradually changes in the
mode of worship were introduced ; in 1523 we
find the council of Zurich requiring that " the
pastors of Zurich should rest their discourses on
the words of Scripture alone;" the abolition of
images in churches soon foUowed ; marriage was
no longer prohibited to the clergy; and in 1525
the mass was superseded by the simple ordinance
of the Lord's Supper. In Appenzel the reforma
tion began about 1521, in Schafhausen about
the same time. The sacramentarian controversy
between Luther and ZwingU, and their respec
tive foUowers, was detrimental to the cause of
truth in both Germany and Switzerland; and
in the latter, as well as in the former, the rise of
the Anabaptist body was both a source of injury
and reproach. In the year 1527 Berne became
professedly a reformed canton, and for mutual
security alUed itself, in 1529, with the canton of
Zurich. In 1530, at the diet of Augsburg, when
the Lutheran Confession was presented/the Swiss
divines presented another drawn up by Bucer,
known, from the fourtowns it represented, namely,
Constance, Strasburg, Lindau, and Meiningen, as
the Tetrapolitan Confession. The two confessions
only differed as to the sense in which Christ was
understood to be really present in the Lord's
Supper. At this time also Zwingli individually
presented a confession to which we find Eck
replying. The five Romish cantons, having
made ample preliminary preparations, determined
by force of arms to check the further progress of
reformed principles in the confederation. The
French sympathies of Zwingli, and his hostility
to Charles V., deprived the Protestant cantons
of German support in the approaching conflict.
The Protestant cantons formed a confederacy, and
by a resolution come to at Arau, May 12, 1531,
instituted a strict blockade of the five cantons.
Goaded on by the consequent famine and its

621

SWI
attendant miseries, these last determined on war,
and entered the field on the 6th October of the
same year. They concentrated their forces on
Cappel, where the first engagement took place,
most disastrous to Zurich and fatal to Zwingli.
The Protestants had provoked a contest for which
they were not prepared, and the blow given at
Cappel checked for a time the general progress
of the reformation in Switzerland. The further
progress of the reformed opinions now took the
direction of Geneva. Here they were first pro
claimed by William Farel about the year 1532;
but he was banished speedily, through episcopal
influence. To him succeeded Anthony Froment,
soon to share the same fate. Their brief labours
were eminently successful, so that in the follow
ing year they were recalled, and the bishops fled.
Peter Viret soon joined the Reformers in their
labours, and in 1535 the council of the city
proclaimed their adherence to the reformed faith.
In 1536 John Calvin, arriving at Geneva on his
way from Italy to Strasburg, was compelled,
by the importunity of his friends, specially of
the now aged Farel, to remain and assume the
duties of the pastorate. On July 20, 1539,
the citizens abjured Popery and professed Pro
testantism. Prior to this a reaction of the
popish and conservative elements in the state
led to such dissensions and oppositions that
Calvin and Farel were banished; but from
Strasburg, to which he had retired, the earnest
petition of the citizens and rulers of Geneva
at last drew the former in 1541. On his return
he set about modelling the polity of the Genevese
Church on the principles of Presbyterianism, the
theory of which he had wrought out, and com
menced the dissemination of that theological
system which bears his name. Both his theology
and church polity became dominant throughout
Switzerland. By his vast correspondence and his
mighty intellect and force of character, he exer
cised a controlling power through all Europe. —
See Germany, Churches in, sect, ii., Reformed
Church. Calvin was born in 1509, and died in
1564. At his instigation the senate founded
the college of Geneva in 1558. Its fame declined
after the erection of the Dutch universities of
Leyden, Utrecht, and other places. Orthodoxy
in the Genevese republic comparatively soon
after Calvin's death began to wane. In 1675 a
formula consensus, drawn up by J. H. Heidegger,
was appended to the Helvetic Confession, to check
the progress of error, but without much effect. —
See Formula Consensus. Being powerless to
effect its end, it was abrogated by the Genevese
consistory in 1706. The low rationalism to
which their religion sunk may be inferred from
the following facts :— In 1817 it was resolved to
require the subscription of candidates for the
ministry to the engagement following: "We
promise to refrain, so long as we reside 'and
preach in the churches of the canton of Geneva,
from maintaining, whether by the whole or any

SYN
part of a sermon directed to that object, our
opinion, — 1. As to the manner in which the
Divine nature is united to the person of Jesus
Christ. 2. As to original sin. ' 3. As to the
manner in which grace operates, or as to effica
cious grace. 4. As to predestination. We
promise, moreover, not to controvert in our public
discourses the opinion qf any one of the pastors
on these subjects. Finally, we engage, should we
have occasion to express our thoughts on any
one of these topics, to do it without insisting upon
our particular views, by avoiding all language
foreign to the Holy Scriptures, and by making
use of the phraseology which they employ."
Thus, in short, evangelical preaching was pro
hibited, and scope given to the lowest Arian,
Socinian, or rationalistic views. This low state
of vital religion pervaded the whole country as
well as the canton of Geneva. Now, at length,
from Geneva the truth is again radiating. The
revival begun there through the teaching of
Robert Haldane, carried on by Gaussen, Malan,
D'Aubigne', and other members of the Oratoire
at Geneva, will, with God's blessing, spread
through the whole land. (Gardner's Dictionary;
Marsden's Dictionary; Stebbing's, D'Anbigne's,
Waddington's, and Neander's Church History;
Dr. Heugh's Religion in Geneva and Belgium.)
Symbol. — See Creed, p. 186. — Books con
taining the creed or subordinate standards of a
church are called symbolical books. The term
symbol is also sometimes appUed to the sacra
ment. — See Sacrament.
Symphony. — The term signifies originally
the union of voices; but it is now applied to an
instrumental composition, forming an introduc
tion to an anthem. These symphonies are
introduced often in the interval of voices, and are
called preludes when before the psalm, interludes
when they mark the distinction of verses, and
postludes when they are brought in at the close
of the psalm  See Organ.
Synagogue. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia.
Syncellus (a companion), one who lives in
the same apartments or the same chamber. In
the early ages of Christianity, but after its ori
ginal purity began to be corrupted, the bishops
and other high ecclesiastical dignitaries, to pre
vent any suspicions unfavourable to the purity of
their moral conduct, chose some other clergyman
to be witness of all their actions, to accompany
them on all their journeys, sit with them at
every meal, and sleep with them in the same
room; hence this functionary was called the
syncellus of the bishop. The Patriarch of Con
stantinople had several such officers, who took
their turns of duty in succession, the chief of
them being named protosyncellus. The con
fidence which the patriarch necessarily reposed in
these officers, the share which he gave them of the
administration, and the credit which their influ
ence over the church gave them in the Byzantinte
court, soon rendered their situations, especially

622

SYN
that of protosyncellus, objects of ambition. In
fact, the office of protosyncellus, Uke that of
archdeacon at Rome, was supposed to confer the
right of succession to the patriarchate. For
these reasons we often find the place filled by the
sons and brothers of the Byzantine emperors,
especially about the ninth century; and we also
find that it was an object of ambition, not only to
the bishops, but even to the metropolitans. By
degrees the protosyncelli began to regard them
selves as the personages next in dignity to the
patriarchs ; they deemed themselves superior to
bishops andmetropoUtans; and they claimed and
took precedency of them in all ecclesiastical
ceremonies. Their prerogatives were greatly
diminished after the Latin conquest of Constan
tinople, but the office of protosyncellus of the
patriarch is still one of high dignity in the
Greek Church. The syncelli have long since
ceased to be appointed in the western churches ;
and, with the exception of the protosyncellus,
their office in the East is merely nominal.
Syncretists (comprehensionists). — See Cal-
ixttnes. Syndics (aivtixti), same as defensors. — See
Defensor. In Geneva the syndic was the
chief magistrate, and there are syndics in the
university of Cambridge.
Synergists (ami^yua, co-operation), those
who joined with Melanchthon in asserting the
necessity of the concurrence of man's will with
the Word and grace of God in order to conversion
and sanctification. Melanchthon's views were
stated at the conference held at Leipzig in 1548,
after the publication of the Interim. They were
adopted by Pfeffinger, and fully set forth in a
work which he published in 1555, which gave
rise to the synergistic controversy, an unhappy
dispute, in which Strigelius was the great cham
pion on Melanchthon's side, and Flacius his chief
opponent. — See Adiaphobists, Amsdorfians,
Majoristic Controversy.
Synodals are certain small ecclesiastical pay
ments made by the parochial clergy, and dues
of common right, to the bishop only; but by
prescription they may belong to the archdeacon,
to a dean or chapter, or indeed to any other per
son. If payment is refused, they are recoverable
in the ecclesiastical courts. Their name has an
obvious relation to synods, and it is supposed
that they must have derived the name from the
circumstance of having been usually paid by the
clergy when they attended the diocesan synods,
not from any necessary connection between the
synod and the payment, but because the meet
ing between the bishop and clergy, upon the
occasion of holding the synod, afforded a con
venient opportunity. The payment is supposed
to have originated at the time when a separate
revenue was allotted to a parish, distinct from
the revenues of the bishop and his cathedral, and
to have been then reserved by the bishop in token
of the, obedience that was still to be due to him,

SYN
notwithstanding the separation in matters of
revenue between the parochial and metropolitan
churches. Synod, Associate, General Associate,
United Presbyterian, Reformed Presby
terian. — See Scotland, Churches in.
Synod, Holy, the highest court of the
Russo-Greek Church, established by the Czar
Peter in 1723, and meeting now at St. Petersburg.
Each diocese sends in a half-yearly report of its
churches and schools. The members composing
it are two metropolitans and as many bishops,
with procurators, attorneys, and other lay
officials. — See Russian Church.
Synod, Holy Governing, is the highest
court of the Greek Church, established in Greece
after the recovery of its independence. It met
first at Syria in 1833, and in 1844 was recognized
by the constitution, which also enacted that the
king should be a member of the established
church. The members of synod were at first
appointed by the king, but are now chosen by
the clergy, the Bishop of Attica being perpetual
president. In 1850 it was formally recognized
by the Patriarch of Constantinople, through the
mediation of Russia, but on the condition that it
should always receive the holy oil from the
mother church.
Synods,. — 1. Ecclesiastical courts belonging
to presbyterian churches, each exercising au
thority, in aU matters relating to doctrine
and discipline, over the presbyteries within its
own particular province. These synods usually
meet twice a-year, when appeals from the inferior
church courts are heard and disposed of; the
privilege of further appeal being permitted to
the general assembly. Each synod is composed
of the members of the several presbyteries
within its province. — See Assembly. 2. In
the ancient churches eonsistorial synods were
composed of the bishops and their presbyters, in
their several dioceses, " who weighed things by
common advice and consideration " (communi
consilio ponderare), whether they were matters
concerning the election and ordination of readers
or sub- deacons, or the exercise of discipline
towards penitents, &c. 3. Provincial synods,
called by metropolitans, met twice a-year, at which
complaints of clergymen against their bishops
were heard, and other important business trans
acted. These synods possessed the power of
confirming the election of bishops, and the ap
pointment and ordination of primates. Appeals
of the clergy from the censures of these synods
to foreign churches were punished by degrada
tion ; and those bishops who refused to attend
them were suspended. 4. National synods, or
councils, succeeded upon the establishment of
Christianity as the state religion ; but " before
emperors became Christians," says Hooker, the
" church had never any general synod; their
greatest meeting consisting of byshops and other
the gravest in each province." These early

623

SYR
synods are thus spoken of by Gibbon, in his
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: "Towards
the end of the second century, the churches of
Greece and Asia adopted the useful institutions
of provincial synods, and they may justly be
supposed to have borrowed the model of a repre
sentative council from the celebrated examples
of their own country, the Amphictyons, the
Achaean league, or the assemblies of the Ionian
cities." — Vol. ii., ch. xv., p. 334. Again, in a
subsequent part of his history, he says, — " The
representatives of the Christian republic were re
gularly assembled in the spring and autumn of

TAB
each year; and these synods diffused the spirit
of ecclesiastical discipline and legislation through
the hundred and twenty provinces of the Roman
world."— Vol. iii., ch. xx., p. 303.
Syrian Churches. — See Jacobites; Mar
onites; Nestorians; Thomas, St., Christians
of. — The Syrian Catholics are under the Patri
arch of Antioch. The Syro-Roman Christians
are the Romish converts, gained over by the
Portuguese in India, principally in Malabar and
Travancore, under a priesthood of their own, and
retaining their own language in their chnrch
service.

T

Tabernacle. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia  A
moveable church belonging to the Emperor
Constantine received this appellation. The name
is also sometimes given to certain nonconformist
places of worship both in England and Scotland.
A kind of cabinet or turret at the top of the altar
was anciently called the tabernacle ; it contained
the pyx with the host, and was sometimes named
area. — See Altar, Ciborium, Pyx.
Tabic — See Mensa.
Tables, Communion. — See Eucharist, p.
254. — The substitution in the Anglican Church
of a sacramental table, or " Lord's Board," for
an altar, has been ascribed to the influence of
Bishop Hooper. The royal council in 1580
ordered all the bishops to remove the altars;
the reasons aUeged for the change being these :
— " 1. Because our Saviour instituted the sacra
ment at a table, and not at an altar. 2. Be
cause Christ is not to be sacrificed over again,
but his body and blood to be spiritually eaten
and drunk at the holy supper, for which a
table is more proper than an altar. 3. Be
cause the Holy Ghost, speaking of the Lord's
Supper, calls it the Lord's table, 1 Cor. x. 21,
but nowhere an altar. 4. The canons of the
council of Nice, as well as the fathers St.
Chrysostom and St. Augustine, caU it the Lord's
table; and though they sometimes caU it an
altar, it is to be understood figuratively. 5. An
altar has relation to a sacrifice ; so that if we
retain the one, we must admit the other, which
would give great countenance to mass-priests.
6. There are many passages in ancient writers
that show that communion tables were of wood ;
that they were made like tables ; and that those
who fled into churches for sanctuary did hide
themselves under them. 7. Tbe most learned
' foreign divines have declared against altars ;
as Bucer, CEcolampadius, Zwingli, Bullinger,
Calvin, P. Martyr, Joannes Alasca, Hedio,
Capito, &c., and have removed them out of their
several churches; only the Lutheran churches
retain them."
Tables, Serving. — See Serving Tables.
Tables, the Four.— In 1637, during the

period of agitation, and when the presbyterian
community trembled for the extinction of its
rights by royal mandate, it was agreed to have
a permanent body of representatives at Edin
burgh. This body consisted of sixteen persons —
four noblemen, four gentlemen, four ministers, and
four burgesses ; and as they sat in four separate
rooms in the parliament house, they were called
the four tables. A member from each of the four
tables constituted a supreme council or table of
last resort. The governing body among the
Waldenses also receives the name of table.
Taboritcs. — See Hussites. — The party got
the name from a mountain in Bohemia where
they were accustomed to assemble. They went
much further in their views of reformation than
the Calixtines. The foUowing were the senti
ments of the more moderate of the body : — " 1.
The faithful ought not to receive and believe as
cathoUc truths what the fathers have written,
but only that which is clearly contained in the
canonical books of the Bible. 2. Whoever studies
the liberal arts, and takes the degrees of bachelor,
master, or doctor, is a vain man, a pagan, and
sins against the Gospel of Christ. 3. It is
not necessary to keep any decree of the fathers,
any human rite or tradition. 4. Chrism, holy
oil, extreme unction, the custom of consecrating
all things, sacerdotal vestments, &c, ought to be
aboUshed. 5. Children ought not to be exorcised
before baptism ; nor are godfathers or godmothers
necessary. 6. All missals, rituals, religious or
naments, ought to be removed and burned. 7.
Auricular confession ought not to be observed. 8.
The fasts of Lent, and others introduced by men,
ought not be kept. 9. The faithful are not bound
to keep any festival but the Lord's Day. 10.
Every priest who officiates with the tonsure, the
surplice, &c, or who says mass according to the
accustomed rite, ought to be despised as the
apocalyptic harlot. 11. It is not permitted to
evangelical priests to enjoy temporal posses
sions. 12. There is no purgatory: it is useless
and senseless to perform good works for the reUef
of the dead. 13. Prayer to departed saints
savours of heresy or idolatry." — See Bohemian

624

TAL
Brethren, Calixtines, Hussites, Morav
ians. Talmud (learning), the great repository of
Jewish law and learning, containing the Mishna
or text, and the Gemara or commentary  See
Gemara, Mishna. There are two works of
this name, one named the Talmud of Jerusalem,
and the other the Talmud of Babylon. The
Mishna was the work of Rabbi Jehudah the
Holy, the famed doctor of Tiberias, about the
end of the second century. Rabbi Jochanan
Ben Eliezer compUed a Gemara about the sixth
century, and this, with the Mishna, is called the
Talmud of Jerusalem. About the same period
the doctors in Babylon did a similar work, and
theirs is the more highly prized. Maimonides
made an abridgment of it in the twelfth cen
tury. The Talmud of Babylon was printed at
Amsterdam in twelve volumes, folio  See
Masora, Rabbinism, Zoharites.
Tauaites were Jewish doctors who ex
pounded the oral law from the days of Ezra down
to the compilation of the Mishna. They must
have handed down the accumulations which form
the Talmud. — See Talmud.
Tanqueliniaus. — Tanquelin laboured in the
Netherlands about the beginning of the twelfth
century. He was violently opposed to the clergy
and to external worship — was in fact a fanatic,
who boasted of his espousals to the Virgin, and of
his equality with Christ. He was slain by a
priest in 1124, though he had bands of armed
men about him. His followers cherished his
violent opinions.
Tapers or Candles. — See Baptism, p. 57,
Candlemass, Lights on the Altar.
Targum (a Chaldee word signifying a
translation or interpretation) is the name ap
propriated from very early times to the Chaldee
paraphrases of the Hebrew Scriptures. The
language of the Jews having altered much
during the captivity, it was found necessary on
their return, when the Hebrew Scriptures were
publicly read, to accompany the reading by a
paraphrase, in order to render it intelligible, as
the language of the original was now antiquated,
and from this custom the paraphrases now
in existence, though of later date, in part derived
their origin. It is thought by some tbat these
paraphrases were at first merely oral; but their
first origin is involved in considerable obscurity,
and has given rise to much difference of opinion.
Nor are biblical critics agreed upon the age to
which the paraphrases now extant are to be
referred. The following enumeration will show
their number and the dates assigned to some of
them:— 1. The Targum of Onkelos, supposed to
have been written in the first or second century.
2. The Targum falsely ascribed to Jonathan Ben
Uzziel, called that of the pseudo-Jonathan,
assigned to the seventh century. 3. The Jeru
salem Targum, assigned to the seventh, or per
haps the ninth century. The above are on the

TAX
Pentateuch. 4. The Targum of Jonathan Ben
Uzziel on the Prophets, assigned by some to
the time of our Saviour, by others to the fourth
century. 5. The Targum of Rabbi Joseph the
Blind, on the Hagiographa (Job, Psalms, and
Proverbs). 6. An anonymous Targum on the
Megilloth. 7, 8, and 9. Three Targums on
Esther. 10. The Targum on the two Books of
Chronicles, which was first discovered and pub
lished towards the end of the seventeenth
century. The last six of these targums are
probably of a later date than the first four, their
language being very impure, and tbeir contents
being far more tinged with fable, &c. The
Targum of Onkelos has more the character of
a version, and is written in the most pure
language. That of the pseudo-Jonathan more
nearly approaches it in this respect than the rest.
The targums are inserted in the Biblia Rabbin-
ica of Buxtorf.
Tascodi-ngita:, an obscure ancient sect, sup
posed to be a subdivision of the Montanists, so
named from two Phrygian words, meaning that
they put their finger on their nose while they
prayed. Jer. 'me, Augustine, and Theodoret refer
to them. — See Montanists.
Tatiaui, the followers of Tatian, an Assyr
ian, who was a cotemporary and disciple of
Justin Martyr, and was at Rome at the time
of that good man's death in 165. He returned
soon after to his native land, and there founded
a Gnostic sect, which continued till after the
fourth century. They were distinguished for
their abstinence, and thence acquired the name
of Encratitae, by which they are more commonly
known. — See Encratites.
Taxatio Ecclesiastica. — Anciently the
first-fruits of all ecclesiastical benefices were
paid to the pope. Innocent IV., in 1253, gave
the same for three years to Henry III., which
occasioned a taxation made by Walter, Bishop of
Norwich, whowas delegated to the task hy the pope
in the following year. It was sometimes called
the Norwich taxation and sometimes Pope Inno
cent's valor. In 1288 Nicholas IV. granted the
tenths to Edward I. for six years, towards
defraying the expense of an expedition to the
Holy Land ; and in order to their collection a
taxation by the king's precept was begun in that
year, and finished, as to the province of Canter
bury, in 1291, and as to York, in the following
year; the whole being superintended by John,
Bishop of Winchester, and Oliver, Bishop of
Lincoln. A third taxation, entitled nova
taxatio, as to some part of the province of
York, was made in 1318 by virtue of a mandate
directed by Edward II. to the Bishop of Carlisle ;
principally because the Scottish invasion had
rendered the border clergy unable to pay the
tax. Pope Nicholas's taxation is an important
record, because all taxes were regulated by it
until the valor beneficiorum of Henry VIII. was
completed; and because the statutes of colleges

625

2S

TEA
founded antecedently to the Reformation were
interpreted by this criterion, according to which
their benefices under a certain value were
exempted from the restriction respecting plural
ities in the 21 Henry, c. 13. It was published
in 1802 by the record commission, and the
original rolls for many dioceses are still pre
served in the exchequer. In pursuance of an
act of parliament of Henry VIII. commissioners
were appointed to inquire "of and for tbe true
and just whole and yearly values of all the
manors, lands, tenements, hereditaments, rents,
tithes, offerings, emoluments, and other profits,
&c, appertaining to any archbishopric, bishop
ric, &c." The result of their inquiries was the
Valor Ecclesiasticus, sometimes called the king's
books. It has been published by the record
commission. In 1647 the parliament issued
commissions for surveying all the crown and
church lands in England, and copies of the
surveys returned were deposited in most of our
cathedrals, but the originals were destroyed in
the great fire of London. In 1835 a report of
the ecclesiastical commissioners for England
and Wales was laid on the table of both houses
of parliament, which contains the results of their
inquiry into the revenues of the Church of
England. — See Annals, Dismes, First-fruits.
Teachers. — See Schools. — By 23 Eliza
beth, c. 1, sect. 7, a year's imprisonment is in
flicted on every schoolmaster not allowed by the
bishop, or not repairing to church. By the 13
and 14 Car. IL, c. 4, every schoolmaster neglect
ing to obtain a license, and to subscribe a de
claration of conformity, is disabled to teach, and
subjected to imprisonment and fine. By 17
Car. IL, c. 2, nonconformists are restrained by
similar penalties from teaching any public or
private school, or taking any boarders. The
12 Anne, c. 7 (repealed by 5 George I., c. 4),
prohibited dissenters from educating their own
children, and required them to be put into the
hands of conformists. — See Schools, Parish.
Teaching, JLay. — This question of lay teach
ing has been often raised, and been variously an
swered. — See Layman. Hooker says, — "Touch
ing prophets, they were such men as, having
otherwise learned the Gospel, had from above
bestowed upon them a special gift of expound
ing Scriptures and of foreshowing things to
come. Of this sort Agabus was, and besides
him in Jerusalem sundry others, who, not
withstanding, are not therefore to be reckoned
with the clergy, because no man's gifts or
qualities can make him a minister of holy
things unless ordination do give him power.
And we nowhere find prophets to have been
made by ordination ; but all whom the church
did ordain were either to serve as presbyters or
as deacons. . . . There is an error which
beguileth many who much entangle both them
selves and others by not distinguishing services,
offices, and orders ecclesiastical, the first of which

TEI
three, and in part the second, may be executed
by the laity ; whereas none have, nor can have
the third, but the clergy. Catechists, exorcists,
readers, singers, and the rest of like sort, if the
nature only of their labours and pains be con
sidered, may in that respect seem clergymen,
even as the fathers for that cause term them
usually clerks; as also in regard of the end
whereunto they were trained up, which was to
be ordered when years and experience should
make them able. Notwithstanding, inasmuch
as they no way differed from others of the laity
longer than during that work of service which
at any time they might give over, being there
unto but admitted, not tied by irrevocable ordi
nation, we find them always exactly severed
from that body, whereof those three before re
hearsed orders alone are natural parts."
Te Deum Caudamus, that beautiful and
inspiring composition which is read or chanted
at the morning service of the Church of England,
after the reading of the first lesson. The rubric
enjoins that it shall be said or sung dauy
throughout the year in the vernacular language.
The composition of this hymn has been ascribed
to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, who, as tra
dition records, was inspired to sing it at the
font in which he baptized St. Augustine, the latter
also partaking of the divine impulse, united his
voice responsively with that of his father in
Christ. It consists of three equal parts — praise,
confession of belief, and supplication. Others
reject this story, and attribute the origin of
the Te Deum to Nicetius, Bishop of Triers,
who lived about the middle of the sixth century.
He composed it no doubt for the service of
the Gallican Church.
Teiud (teynd, tenth, or tithe). — See Tithes 
Tithes are not mentioned during the earlier
periods of Christianity, nor in the codes of the
Roman emperors. A French provincial council
at Mascon, in 586, refers to them, and that is
perhaps the earliest reference. Alfred, however,
enjoined the payment of them in England.
When tithes originated in Scotland has been
disputed ; some refer them to the reign of Con-
vallus, in the sixth century; others to that of
David I. They are certainly mentioned dis-?
tinctly under this reign, as having existed in the
time of Alexander I., who reigned from 1107 to
1124. Tha right of the parish clergy to the
tithe was early recognized, hut churches, with
their tithes, were often conveyed to religious
bodies, especially by the crown; chaplains, or
vicars, being appointed to officiate as ministers,
and the small tithes in course of time were given
to them. — See Appropriation. Partial appro
priations of tithes were sometimes made for other
reasons. In 1239 Pope Gregory IX., in a
bull addressed to the Bishops of Glasgow and
Dunblane, granted to the Bishops of Dunblane,
on the recital of dilapidations of the revenues
and the poverty of the bishopric, a fourth part of

626

TEI
the teinds of all the parish churches within the
diocese, si absque gravi scandalo fieri poterit
— " if it could be done without grave scandal."
This grant was opposed by the monks of Cam
buskenneth, in right of their churches of Kincar
dine, Tullibody, and TUlicoultry, who founded
on grants to these churches ad proprius usus from
former Bishops of Dunblane. The dispute was
amicably adjusted by the arbitration of the
Bishops of Glasgow and Dunkeld, who decreed
that the monastery should pay eight merks
annually, in certain specified events, to the Bishop
of Dnnhlane, and the latter was enjoined to re
nounce ail right to' these churches. In the
fourteenth century parliament passed some acts
interposing the civU power on behalf of the pay
ment of tithes, but ecclesiastical authority only
was usuaUy employed.
Tithes were levied often by drawing the ipsa
corpora. The proprietor of the crop was entitled
to give notice, at the parish church, in time of
divine service, to the titular to teind the com
by a certain day. If, on the day appointed, no
attention was paid to this notice, the proprietor
might select two or three of his most reputable
neighbours to teind the corn, and stack the
teind sheaves on the ground ; and, after pro
tecting them until the first of November, he was
not bound to take any further charge. If
the crops were destroyed by a force which
could not be resisted, or were carried off by the
enemy, no tithes were due. Neither were the
proprietors on the borders liable, if, from just
fear of the enemy, the corn could not be reaped,
and perished on the ground. On the other hand,
if the titular met with any obstruction in levying
his teinds, the person interfering was liable in
the highest prices which such victual brought in
the market
While the Reformation was pending many
ecclesiastics had feued out both lands and
teinds belonging to their benefices, to their
friends and confidents. Attempts were made
to check these dUapidations, by acts both of the
privy council and of the convention of estates,
in 1560 and 1561; but these enactments do not
appear to have had the desired effect Spotis-
woode says,- — " The churchmen that were popish
took presently a course to make away all the
manses, glebes, tithes, and all other rents pos
sessed by them, to their friends and kinsmen."
The queen also appointed many lay commenda-
tors for life. It was soon arranged that the
third of the benefices should be bestowed on
the reformed clergy, " until, as the act says, the
Mrk come into the full possession of her patri
mony—that is, the teinds." — See Thirds.
Small as such stipends were, they were ill paid,
especially under the regency of the Earl of Mor
ton, who had persuaded the clergy to allow the
thirds to be uplifted by collectors appointed by
the crown. Under James VI. matters still
remained in a very unsatisfactory state. Many

TEI
of the lay commendators had their titles con
verted into hereditary rights, and direct grants,
with reservation of a third for the clergy, were
made to many of the nobles — who were called
lords of erection — not a few of whom understood
by the third what they in their miserliness sup
posed to be a "competent stipend." Various other
changes took place under James, and episcopacy
was restored in 1606. The stipends of mini
sters in general, from this period to 1617,
continued to be modified out of the thirds as
before, with this difference, that the commis
sioners named were chiefly bishops; and the
inferior clergy complained loudly, that their
provisions were not only scanty, but partially
distributed. Counell says, — " In 1617 a com
mission was issued by parliament, founded upon
a basis similar to that which had been proposed
in 1596, viz., that each minister should have a
stipend assigned to him out of the teinds of his
own parish. This act proceeds on the narrative,
' That their be divers kirks within this kingdom
not planted (provided) with ministers, where —
through ignorance and atheisme abounds amongst
the people; and that many of those that are
planted have no sufficient provision or mainten
ance appointed to them, whereby the ministry
are keeped in poverty and contempt, and cannot
fruitfully travel in their charges.' Therefore,
certain commissioners were nanied, with power,
' out of the teinds of every parochin (parish), to
appoint and assigne at their discretions, ane per
petual local stipend to the ministers present and
to come,' &c. The commissioners named consis
ted of eight prelates, eight nobles, eight smaller
barons, and eight burgesses, in all thirty-two,
five of each of the estates being requisite to form
a quorum. This enactment produced a great
alteration in the state of tithes, and a correspond
ing change in the stipends of the clergy. By
the act 1617, a minimum of stipend was fixed,
for which every clergyman was entitled to insist,
viz., five chalders of victual, or 500 merks
(£27 15s. 6£d. sterling) in money, or ' propor
tionally part of victual, and part thereof in
money, according as the fruits and rents of the
kirk may yield and afford, and as the said com
missioners shall think expedient;' a stipend
inferior both in point of nominal and of real value
to the lowest now modified, but much superior to
the average of stipends given by former commis
sions. The commissioners were also restricted
to a maximum, viz., eight chalders of victual,
or 800 merks (£ii 9s. sterling.)" The same
commission was renewed three years afterwards.
But a revocation of all previous grants was made
by Charles I. in 1625. It was vehemently
opposed, a commission was appointed, and sub
missions on certain conditions were at length
made by landholders, clergy, royal burghs, and
tacksmen. The proceedings involved in these
submissions and decreets arbitral were a few
years afterwards, viz., in 1633, ratified in a

627

TEI
parliament in which the king sat in person, by
special acts, in which are engrossed almost ver
batim the decreets arbitral pronounced. One
of these acts ordains and declares, that there
"shall be no teind sheaves, or other teinds,
parsonage or vicarage, led and drawn within the
kingdome, but that each heretonr and liferenter
shall have the leading and drawing of their owne
teind, the same being first truly and lawfully
valued, and they paying therefor the price after
specified, in case they be willing to buy the
same." By these proceedings was laid the
foundation of the present system. Valuations
were made anj-where by means of commissions
successively appointed, and at the union the
powers vested in former commissions were trans
ferred to the judges of the Court of Session, by an
act of the Scotch legislature, and it is, among
other things, authorized "to determine in all valu
ations and sales of teinds," conform to the rules
laid down, and powers granted bv acts 1633, c. J.9 ;
1690, c. 23 and 30; 1693, c. 23". Connell adds —
"The act 1 693, c. 23, renewing the teind commis
sion, provides, ' that the said commission shall not
be extended to the buyingor selling of teinds which
formerly pertained to bishops, and now belong to
their majesties by the abolition of prelacy^so
long as the said teinds shall remain in their
majesties' hands undisponed.' In this situation
the tithes which formerly belonged to bishops
stand, at the present day, all vested in the crown,
generally all valued, but remaining unsold, and
managed by the Barons of Exchequer, in Scot
land, for behoof of the crown. The tithes re
maining in the hands of inferior beneficiaries
or parsons were also disposed of bv the acts
of parliament 1690, c. 23, and 1693, c. 25,
whereby they were vested in the patrons of the
parishes from which they were due, subject to
the support of the parish minister, and subject,
too, both to be valued and to be bought by the
heritor at the rate of six years' purchase. Hence
it was found, 'parsonage teind may be purchased
by the heritor, as well while they are in tack, as
. where they are in possession of the patron.' But
both before and after the Reformation the colleges
of Scotland acquired grants of teinds from the
crown, or other titulars, for the education of youth,
or the support of their professors. These colleges
were no parties to the submissions to Charles I.,
and the decreets arbitral could not of course be ap
plicable to them. In a clause in the act 1663, c.
19, their teinds, so far as respects valuations and
sales, were put on the same footing as the tithes
of beneficed clergymen." In cases where the
teind has not been valued, a fifth part of the
rent paid for the land is taken as the teind of the
parish, and the portion of the stipend paid in
grain is valued according to the fiars prices;
that is, the average price of grain in a county,
ascertained annually by the sheriff and a jury, be
tween the 4th and 20th of February. In 1808 the
following statute was enacted: — "That from and

TEI
after the passing of this act, it shall not be com
petent to the said Lords of Council and Session,
as commissioners aforesaid, except as after speci
fied, to augment or modify any stipend which
shall have been augmented or modified prior to
the passing of this act, until the expiration of
fifteen years from and after the date of the last
final decreet of modification of such stipend.
That no stipend which "shall be augmented or
modified by a decreet after the passing of this
act, shall be again augmented or modified until
the expiration of twenty years from and after
the date of such decree or modification thereof;
nor shall any such stipend be augmented or
modified at any future period until the expira
tion of twenty years from and after the date of
the last decree of modification thereof respective
ly." It was also enacted that in future stipends
shall be modified in grain.
Curious cases sometimes came before tbe
court. Connell gives the following: — "In 1634
the 4ekids cf Kfoneder were valued at one
chalder, or sixteen boils of gray horse-corn,
which is the worst species of oats; and, in
December, 1794, these were modified to the
minister as a part of his stipend. At the date
of the valuation there were no oats raised
in the parish except gray horse-corn; but
when the augmentation was obtained white oats
were common. The proprietor of Kinneder,
however, sowed some gray horse-corn, and offered
sixteen holls thereof to the minister, who refused
it as unmarketable, and insisted for sixteen bolls
of white oats, as the ordinary growth of the
parish. A sample of the gray horse-corn was
produced in court The court thought that the
minister, on the one hand, was not obliged to
take it, and tbat the proprietor, on the other, was
not obliged to deliver the full quantity in white
oats; and it was decided that the minister should
have as many bolls of white oats as corresponded
to sixteen bolls of gray horse-corn, agreeably to
a pecuniary valuation that had beeu put on the
different kinds of grain in the parish recently
after the teinds were valued."
Whitsunday and Michaelmas are the terms
at which stipend is due. If a minister is ad
mitted before Whitsunday, he is entitled to the
whole year's stipend, because his entry is held
to have been prior to the sowing of the corn;
and if his interest has ceased before that term,
he has no claim on the fruits of the year. If
he is admitted after Whitsunday and before
Michaelmas, he is entitled to half the stipend,
the other half going to his predecessor. The
reason why the terra for the payment of stipends
is Michaelmas, and not Martinmas, is, that they
come in the place of tithes, which were due
in harvest. Ministers' stipends prescribe in five
years. Vacant stipends were formerly at the
disposal of the patron for pious uses, but they
have been given by statute to the Ministers'
Widows' Fund, with the exception of such

628

TEI
portions as had formerly been reserved to the
representatives of the deceased. As to these
the following is the rule: — If a clergyman die
after Whitsunday, his executors have right to
the first half of the year's stipend, and his widow
and nearest of kin to the other half as "ann."
If he survive Michaelmas, he has right to the
whole of the year's stipend, and his nearest of
kin draw the first half of the next year's stipend
as ann. The annual rates payable to the Min
isters' Widows' Fund are declared to be privi
leged debts, and preferable to all other debts of
tbe said ministers, &c, not only upon their
benefices and salaries respectively, hut also upon
their whole personal estate. — See Ann. What
are called unexhausted teinds are that portion of
the estates of landholders which is yet liable to
be assessed for ministers' stipends. (Lorimer's
Manual of the Law of Scotland.)
The Reformers proposed to divide the teind
into three shares, one for support of the ministry,
a second for education, and a third for tbe main
tenance of the poor. The ministers were to have
at least forty bolls of meal, twenty-six bolls of
malt, with a money salary to be fixed yearly by
his congregation. The following rather romantic
calculation is made by Cunningham in his Church
History: — " The church is said to have anciently
possessed one-half of the whole property of the
kingdom. The real property of Scotland now
amounts to upwards of ten millions annually;
had the church's proportion of this kept pace
in value with the laity's, it would be five
millions. Let us reduce our estimate to two
millions and a-balf, and then see how this might
have been used for the three great objects con
templated by the Reformers. The stipends of
the thousand ministers of the Church of Scot
land amount to about £200,000. But the
scheme < of the Reformers, being national, must
embrace all the clergy in the kingdom — so
that we have to support three thousand min
isters with stipends amounting to £600,000.
To this must be added a sum sufficient to build
and uphold churches, to build and uphold manses,
to provide glebes, to reward high services ren
dered to religion, so that altogether £1,000,000
would be required for this purpose. The pre
sent assessment for the poor amounts to about
£650,000 ; but with such an enormous fund at
our disposal we can afford to be liberal, and may
therefore set apart £750,000 for the sustenance
of our pauper population. An equal sum might be
expended on a widely-spread and liberally-en
dowed system of education. Thus, for £2,500,000
annually, might all our ecclesiastical, educational,
and pauper establishments be maintained, and
that on a much more munificent footing than
at present. We may safely conclude that the
property of the ancient church, if it had been
properly preserved, would have amounted to
more than this, and that thus the scheme of the
authors of the Book of Discipline would have

TEM
been abundantly carried out, and the community
saved from tliree of the heaviest taxes which
now press upon it. The Gospel would be
preached, our children educated, our poor pro
vided for, without cost. No one would lose
anything; only some of our great proprietors
would never have possessed their extensive
domains. Some great lords would be but
country gentlemen with small estates, untroubled
with dreams about nobility ; and others might
rejoice in ancient titles, hut lack the broad
acres which now give them support."
The legal regulation of teinds is under the
Teind Court. By the Act of Union, in 1707, the
powers of the last of these commissions, which
have been already referred to, were transferred
to the judges of the Court of Session. The
Teind Court, though it meets in the same place,
and is presided over by the same individuals,
is nevertheless distinct from the Court of Session,
having a special jurisdiction, and a separate
establishment of clerks and other officials. The
judges of the Court of Session sit in the Teind
Court every second Wednesday during session,
in the capacity of parliamentary commission
ers for the valuation of teinds and for their
application to the support of the established
church and clergy of Scotland. The judgments
of the Court of Teinds may be carried by appeal
to the House of Lords. The Teind Court has no
power to enforce its own decrees. This is done
by the intervention of the Court of Session. (Sir
John Connell's Treatise on the Law of Scotland
respecting Tithes.)
Teleology, the doctrine of final causes. — See
Theology. Temperance. — See Sumptuary Laws. — In
olden times in Scotland laws were passed to
enforce sobriety. Among the remedies proposed
against clerical degeneracy by the general as
sembly, 13th June, 1646, ministers are not only
to forbear drinking of healths, called Satan's
snare, leading to excess, but likewise to
reprove it in others ; and the following act of par
liament, punishing the sin of drunkenness, appoints
excessive drinking, especially under the name of
healths, to be punished. The Act is 19th sess.
1, pari. 1, Car. IL, which enacts, that every one
who drinks to excess, or haunts taverns, as
above, shall pay — the nobleman, twenty pounds;
the baron, twenty merks; the gentleman, heritor,
or burgess, ten merks ; the yeoman, forty shil
lings; and the servant, twenty shillings, toties
quoties; and the minister the fifth part of his
stipend: which fines are to be applied as the fines
for other immoralities ; and the insolvents are to
be punished in their persons.
TcDtiplars. — See Knights. — The order ac
quired immense wealth and no small renown.
But their pride grew and their vices multiplied,
so that the order was suppressed with terrible
severity in 1312.
Temple.— See Biblical Cyclopadia. — For the

629

TEM
first three centuries the word is never used of
a Christian church, but only of the heathen
fanes. After the period of Constantine, however,
the name came into general use among Christian
writers. In the reign of Theodosius many
heathen temples were converted into churches
— such as the temple of Heliopolis, and that of
the Dea Caslestis at Carthage. Before this time
temples had been defaced and shut up, and the
revenues of many of them were transferred to
ecclesiastical purposes.
Temporalities of Bishops, in law, are
the lay revenues, lands, tenements, and fees be
longing to the sees of bishops or archbishops, as
they are barons and lords of parliament, including
their baronies. They are defined as all things
which a bishop hath by livery from the king, as
manors, lands, tithes. From the time of Edward
I. to the Reformation, it was customary, when
bishops received their temporalities from the king,
to renounce in writing all right to the same by
virtue of any provision from the pope, and to
admit that they received them from the king
alone. The custody of these temporalities is
6aid by Blackstone to form part of the king's
ordinary revenue, and thus, a vacancy in the
bishopric occurring, is a right of the crown, ori
ginating in its prerogative in church matters, the
king being, in intendment of law, preserver of all
episcopal sees. For the same reason, before the
dissolution of religious houses, the sovereign had
the custody of the temporalities of all such ab
beys and priories as were of royal foundation.
There is another reason in virtue of which the
king possesses this right, which is, tbat as the
successor is not known, the property of the see
would be liable to spoil and devastation. The
law, therefore, has wisely given to the king the
custody of these temporalities until a new election,
with power to take to himself all intermediate
profits, and to present to all preferments falling
vacant during the vacancy of the see. This
revenue cannot be granted to a subject ; but the
14 Edward IIL, st. 4, ch. 4, 5, empowers the
king, on a vacancy occurring, to lease the tem
poralities to the dean and chapter, with a reserva
tion of all advowsons, escheats, and the like.
To remedy the wrongs to the church perpetrated
by former sovereigns, who sometimes kept bishop
rics vacant in order to enjoy the possession of
their temporalities, and when they did supply
the vacancy compelled the new bishop to pur
chase back his temporalities at an exorbitant
price, Henry I., by charter, agreed neither to
sell, let to farm, nor take anything from the
domains of the church till the successor was in
stalled. By Magna Charta provision was made
that no waste should be committed in the tem
poralities of the bishoprics, and that neither should
the custody of them be sold. ,At present this
revenue of the crown is of very small account ;
for as soon as the new bishop is consecrated
and confirmed, he usually receives restitution

TEN
of his temporalities entire and untouched from
the sovereign, to whom he at the same time does
homage, and then possesses, which he did not
before, a fee simple in his bishopric, and may
maintain an action for the profits.
Tempus Clausum (shut time), the period
in Lent commencing with the ninth Sunday
before Easter, when the Halleluiah of the mass
ceased, and the priests had begun to fast
Ten Articles. — In a convocation under
Henry VIII., in 1536, the following ten articles,
drawn up, perhaps, by Cranmer, were sanctioned :
— " 1. The Holy Scriptures and the three creeds
are declared to he the basis and summary of a
true Christian faith. 2. The sacrament of bap
tism is affirmed to convey remission of sins and
the regenerating grace of the Holy Spirit, as well
to children as to adults. 3. The sacrament of
penance is asserted to consist of contrition, con
fession, and reformation, and to be necessary to
salvation where it may be had. 4. The sacra
ment of the altar is explained in Romish terms,
intended probably to bear a Lutheran interpreta
tion, 'the very self same body and blood of
Christ that were born of the Virgin ' being
affirmed ' to be corporeally, really, and in the
very substance exhibited, distributed,' &c. 5.
Justification is defined to be the remission of
sin and reconciliation to God, attained merito
riously through the sufferings of Christ, mediately
through that contrition and faith with which
spiritual graces are concomitant, and good works
are said to follow after justification. 6. Images
are directed to stand as remembrancers, not as
objects of worship. 7. Saints are to be honoured
as in the enjoyment of glory, and as furthering
our prayers. 8. Saints may be invoked in sub
servience to the Almighty Giver of grace, and
their holidays observed. 9. Ceremonies are to
be observed for the sake of their mystical signifi
cation. 10. Prayers for the dead are sanctioned,
but the efficacy of papal pardons, and of soul
masses offered at particular localities, is alto
gether negatived." — See Articles.
Tenths, in EngUsh law, are the tenth part of
the yearly value of every spiritual benefice as it is
valued in the Liber Regis. This was an impost
formerly paid to the pope, and was annexed to the
crown by the 26 Henry VIII., c. 3, and the 1
Elizabeth, u. 4; but by the 2 Anne, c. 11, was
granted, together with the first-fruits, towards
the augmentation of poor clergymen. A tax on
the temporality, and also certain rents reserved
by the king out of the monastic possessions he
granted to his subjects, were also called tenths.
— See Taxatio Ecclesiastica, Temporali
ties of Bishops.
Tent Preaching. — See Field-Preach
ing. — We give the following description of a
sacrament scene in the days of the Covenant,
from Blackader, an eye-witness and minister on
the occasion : — " Meantime, the communion
elements had been prepared, and the people in

630

TEN
Teviotdale advertised. Mr. Welsh and Mr.
Riddell had reached the place on Saturday.
When Mr. Blackader arrived he found a great
assembly, and still gathering from all airts. The
people from the east brought reports that caused
great alarm. It was rumoured that the Earl of
Home, as ramp a youth as any in the country,
intended to assault the meeting with his men
and militia, and that parties of the regulars were
coming to assist, him. He had profanely threat
ened to make their horses drink the communion
wine, and trample the sacred elements under foot.
Most of the gentry there, and even the common
alty, were ill-set Upon this we drew hastUy
together about seven or eight score of horse, on
the Saturday, equipped with such furniture as
they had. Pickets of twelve or sixteen men
were appointed to reconnoitre and ride towards
the suspected parts. . . . We entered on
the administration of the holy ordinance, com
mitting it and ourselves to the invisible protec
tion of the Lord of Hosts, in whose name we
were met together. Our trust was in the arm of
Jehovah, which was better than weapons of war,
or the strength of hills. The place where we
convened was every way commodious, and seemed
to have been formed on purpose. It was a green
and pleasant haugb, fast by the waterside (the
Whittader). On either hand there was a spacious
brae, in form of a half-round, covered with de
lightful pasture, and rising with a gentle slope
to a goodly height. Above us was the clear
blue sky, for it was a sweet and calm Sabbath
morning, promising to be indeed one of the days
of the Son of Man. There was a solemnity in
the place befitting the occasion, and elevating the
whole soul to a pure and holy frame. The com
munion tables were spread on the green by the
water, and around them the people had arranged
themselves in decent order. But the far greater
multitude sat on the brae face, which was
crowded from top to bottom — full as pleasant a
sight as ever was seen of that sort . . . The
tables were served by some gentlemen and per
sons of the gravest deportment. None were ad
mitted without tokens, as usual, which were
distributed on the Saturday, but only to such as
were known to some of the ministers, or persons
of trust, to be free of public scandals. — See
Tokens. All the regular forms were gone
through. The communicants entered at one
end, and retired at the other, a way being
kept clear to take their seats again on the
hill-side. Mr. Welsh preached the action ser
mon and served the first two tables, as he was
ordinarily put to do on such occasions. The
other four ministers, Mr. Blackader, Mr. Dick
son, Mr. Riddell, and Mr. Rae, exhorted the
rest in their turn; the table service was
closed by Mr. Welsh with solemn thanksgiving ;
and solemn it was, and sweet and edifying,
to see the gravity and composure of all present,
as weU as of all parts of the service. The com-

TER
munion was peaceably concluded, all the people
heartily offering up their gratitude, and singing
with a joyful voice to the Rock of their salvation.
It was pleasant, as the night fell, to hear their
melody swelling in full unison along the hill ;
tho whole congregation joining with one accord,
and praising God with the voice of psalms.
There were two long tables, and one short across
the head, with seats on each side. About a hun
dred sat at every table. There were sixteen
tables in all, so that about three thousand two
hundred communicated that day."
Terininistic Controversy, a controversy as
to whether there be a final point or terminus in
each man's life up to which grace may be found,
but beyond which salvation is impossible. Pro
fessor Reichenberg of Leipzig held the affirma
tive, and his followers were called Terminists;
but Professor Ittig of that place maintained, on
the other hand, that the day of grace lasted for
a man's entire life.
Terms, in law, are the periods in England
when the courts of law hold their sittings at
Westminster for the discharge of their judicial
functions. There are four in every year, namely,
Hilary term, Easter term, Trinity term, and
Michaelmas term ; but the last of these is usually
at the commencement of the legal year. They
were supposed by Selden to have been established
by William the Conqueror ; but Spelman has
shown that they originated in the observances of
the church, and were no more than those leisure
periods when there was neither fast nor festival
nor rural avocation to withhold the suitor from
attending the court. At first the courts in Chris
tian countries continued open all the year round,
but the church interposed ; the sacred season of
Advent and Christmas originated the winter va
cation ; the time of Lent and Easter gave rise
to that of the Spring; the third we owe to
Pentecost; and the requisitions of agricultural
pursuits account for the long space that inter
venes between Midsummer and Michaelmas.
Sundays and other holy days were included
in the prohibition which, in 517, was estab
lished by a canon of the church, and, says Black
stone, fortified by an imperial constitution of the
younger Theodosius, comprised in the Theodosian
Code. In the commencement and duration of
these terms these regulations of the church were
kept in view. Edward the Confessor, in one of
his laws, says, that from Advent to the octave of
Epiphany, from Septuagesima to the octave of
Easter, from the Ascension to the octave of Pen
tecost, and from four in the afternoon of every
Saturday until the end of the succeeding Monday,
the peace of God and holy church should be kept
throughout the realm (Ancient Laws and Insti
tutions of England, p. 190 ). We learn from Brit
ton that in the reign of Edward I. no secular plea
could be held, nor any man sworn on the Evan
gelists during Advent, Lent, Pentecost, or the
times of harvest and vintage, and the days of

631

TER
the great litanies and all solemn festivals. The
bishops, however, he adds, granted dispensations
that assizes and juries might be taken at these
seasons; and afterwards, by statute Westminster
1, 3 Edward I., c. 51, it was enacted, that assizes
of novel disseisin mort d'ancester, and darrein
presentment, should be taken in Advent, Sep
tuagesima, and Lent. The portions not included
in the prohibitions became what are called terms,
and were denominated according to the saint to
whose feast they occurred most nearly.
Terms of Communion, those terms on
which the members of a particular church are
agreed, and which are the basis of their fellow
ship. Terms of communion are not to be identi
fied with terms of salvation ; nor should terms of
lay communion be as comprehensive and theo
logical as those of clerical fellowship.
Terrier (terra, earth) is a note or inventory
of certain lands, specially glebe lands, &c, laid
up in the bishop's registry, according to canon
Ixxxvii. A terrier of glebe lands made under
Queen Elizabeth is preserved in the exchequer.
Tcrsaucius (thrice holy). — See Cherubic
Hymn, Doxology.
Tcrtiaries (third class or rule), those who
adhered to the third rule of St. Francis, joining
themselves so far to his order, but not wholly
relinquishing the world, or vowing themselves to
celibacy. The Fratricelli, or strict Franciscans,
had Tertiaries too, called Bizocbi, in Italy,
Beguin-i, in France, and Beghards, in Germany.
These are not to be confounded with the Belgian
Beghards. — See Beghards.
Test Act. — See Act. — In 1681 the test was
introduced into Scotland. Eighty of the clergy
refused to take it, and resigned. The Earl of
Argyle subscribed with an explanation, which
was at first received, but next day he was
accused and imprisoned, and on being tried, was
condemned. Lord Halifax told King Charles
that " in England we would not hang a dog on
the grounds on which my Lord Argyle bad
been sentenced," He escaped, but on being
taken four years afterwards, be was executed.
Charles, under whom the law was enacted, dis
pensed with it in favour of his brother, the popish
Duke of York, and he, when king, often evaded
its requirement on behalf of ro}*al favourites.
Testament, Old and IVen-. — See Bible.
Testimonial. — 111 the Church of England
every candidate for admission to holy orders
is required to present to the bishop a testimonial
of good conduct from his college, or from three
beneficed clergymen. The usual form of this
document is as follows: — "Whereas our well-
beloved in Christ, A. B., hath declared to us his
intention of offering himself a candidate for the
sacred office of (a deacon), and for thai end hath
requested of us letters testimonial of his learning
and good behaviour : we, therefore, whose names
are hereunto subscribed, do testify that the said
A B., having been previously known to us for

THE
the space of (three) years last past, hath during
that time lived piously, soberly, and honestly,
and diligently applied himself to his studies : nor
hath he at any time, so far as we know and
believe, held, written, or taught anything con
trary to the doctrine or discipline of the united
church of England and Ireland ; and moreover,
we believe him in our consciences to be a person
worthy to be admitted to the sacred order of
deacons. In witness whereof," &c. In Scotland
testimonials are as trustworthy, though of a less
formal nature.
Testimony of Disownmcnt, an official
document issued by the monthly meeting of the
Society of Friends, against an obdurate and im
penitent member. The testimony of disownment
is a paper reciting the offence, and sometimes the
steps which have led to it; next, the means
unavailingly used to reclaim the offender ; after
that a clause disowning him ; to which is usually
added an expression of desire for his repentance,
and for his restoration to membership. In case
the expelled member repents, he is bound to
send in a written acknowledgment of his offence,
his penitence, and his desire for restoration to
the membership of the society.
Teutonic Knights, — See Knights.
Text, — The word is sometimes used to signify
the letter of Scripture, and sometimes the verse
or clause on which a sermon is based, or which
is adduced iu proof of any doctrine.— See
Sermons. Thanksgiving, the duty of all rational
creatures who live by God's bounty is to give
thanks to him. The Christian Church has always
delighted to give thanks to God, and many forms
of special thanksgiving are found in the liturgy
of the Church of England  See Psalmody.
Theatincs, an order of regular clergy in the
Roman Catholic Church. The congregation of the
Theatines was first established about a.d. 1514,
chiefly through the influence of Gaetano di
Thieni, afterwards canonized, and of Caraffa,
Bishop of Theati, or Chieti, in the kingdom of
Naples, afterwards pope under the title of Paul
IV. The first constitutions of the order, drawn
up by Caraffa, were very austere. Besides pre
scribing an extremely ascetic discipline, it pro
hibited the members from possessing any property
in their own right, and required them to maintain
themselves solely by the voluntary donations of
the charitable. The rigour of the rule was,
however, softened by various successive modifica
tions, and after many delays and objections on
the part of the pontiffs, it was definitively ratified
by Clement VIII., a.d. 1608. The costume
assumed by the Theatines was a cassock and
cloak, resembling those usually worn by the
secular clergy, with white stockings. The pro
fessed objects of the institution were to revive the
disinterested spirit of the primitive Christians
among the clergy; to promote the decent and
regular performance of public worship and ec-

632

THE
clesiastical rites ; to reform the corrupt style of
preaching then prevalent ; to visit sick persons
and criminals ; and to counteract the progress of
Lutheranism and other recent heresies. Their
first establishment at Rome was broken up in
consequence of the capture and plunder of that
city hy the forces of the Constable Bourbon;
and tbe members took refuge at Venice, where
the heads of the order continued for a long time.
They formed a separate establishment at Naples
in 1533, under the superintendence of Gaetano di
Thieni; but they did not return to Rome till
1555, when Caraffa succeeded to the pontificate.
Their congregation became pretty numerous in
Italy, Spain, and South Germany; in France
they had never more than a single establishment,
for which they were indebted to the influence of
Cardinal Mazarin. In the seventeenth century
they employed a number of missionaries in tbe
East, particularly in Mingrelia, Georgia, and
Circassia; but tbeir establishments in those
quarters were not of long duration. The go
vernment of the Theatines was first vested in a
general of the order, holding his authority for
three years. Afterwards the office of general
was discontinued, and all affairs of consequence
were determined by a majority of suffrages in the
chapter. In 1588 Sixtus V. directed the resto
ration of the original form of government by a
general. The order of Theatines has always been
distinguished for learning and piety, and many
eminent ecclesiastics and dignitaries of the church
have arisen among its members. There are also
two female establishments of Theatines, distin
guished by the appellations of Theatines of the
Congregation and Theatines of the Hermitage,
both founded by Ursula Benincasa. The first
only take simple vows ; the latter, who are sub
jected to a very rigorous rule, take the solemn vow
of the monastic orders. They are not allowed
animal food, except when prescribed by a physi
cian, and are enjoined to keep a number of fasts
in addition to those prescribed by the church.
Their noviciate lasts two years, and after profes
sion they are not permitted to see their relations,
nor even to hear them mentioned. In order that
their solitude and their religious exercises may
not be intruded upon, they renounce all inter
ference with their own temporalities, which are
administered on their behalf by the Theatines of
the congregation. Both classes are, we believe,
chiefly confined to the cities of Naples and
Palermo. Themistians.— See Agnoet^e, Monophy
sites. Theocracy (hox^aria, rule of God), a name
often given to the form of government established
among the Hebrews, God being first magistrate,
and Moses being only his vicegerent. To fear
God and honour the king were the same thing.
Theodicy, vindication of God, or ofthe di
vine character and government. For example, the
origin of evU has perplexed many, and therefore

THE
treatises have been written to prove the divine
rectitude and goodness, even though sin has been
permitted. (See the Theodice'e of Leibnitz, and in
more moderate times of Bledsoe and Fleming.)
Thcodosians, a numerous sect of Russian
dissenters who are bitter in their hostility to the
national church, and are an offshoot from the
Pomoryans. Whatever they buy from unbe
lievers they purify by prayer. They observe the
Sabbath with special strictness, and are very just
ill all their transactions  See Pomoryans.
Theodotiaus, followers of Theodotus. — See
Monarchians. Theology (hod xiyis, doctrine of God, or the
doctrine of his nature, character, purposes, works,
worship, and service) — Theology occupies so wide
a sphere that it has a great many subdivisions.
It is distinguished from religion, as it refers to
external truth or system ; and religion, to expe
rience and life. Theology professes to base itself
on Scripture; and therefore we have —
I. Apologetics, or investigation of the evi
dences of Scripture — evidences external, such as
miracles and prophecy; internal, such as the
harmony of all its parts, written by so many per
sons, in so many ages and countries; and experi
mental, its truths coming home to the heart and
conscience. The question of inspiration and the
extent and settlement of the canon of the Old
and New Testament is included under this gene
ral head. — See Bible, Inspiration.
II. Interpretation. — The Bible is to be
interpreted ; and we have, first, Criticism, or the
settlement of the text from comparison of MSS.,
versions, and quotations in the fathers. — See
Fathers. Secondly, Philology, or the know
ledge of the Hebrew and Greek languages, in
wliich the Bible was written. Thirdly, Intro
duction, or the history, origin, and contents of
the various books. Fourthly, Hermeneutics, or
the science of interpretation. Fifthly, Exegesis,
or the actual development of the sense by care
ful grammatical analysis and logical survey.
Sixthly, This study demands also acquaintance
with Biblical Antiquities and Geography.
III. Dogmatics, or arrangement and logical
combination of the doctrines found in Scripture.
First, Systematic Theology proper. Secondly,
Polemics, or orthodoxy argued and vindicated
against all opposing theories. Thirdly, History
of Doctrine (Dogmengeschichte), the various
doctrines treated historically, as found at various
epochs. Fourthly, Practical Theology, or theo
logy in a religious aspect — Christian Ethics.
Various subdivisions also may be traced, —
Angelohgy, or doctrine of angels; Anthropo
logy, or the doctrine of man ; Casuistry, or treat
ment of cases of conscience ; C'techetics, or the
presentation of truth in form of a catechism ;
Christology, or analysis of the Scripture sections
about the person of Christ ; Eschatology, or tho
last things — death, judgment, eternity ; Homi-
lelics, or the art of preaching; Pastoral Theo-

633

THE
logy, or discussion on the government and edifica
tion of a church ; Symbolism, or history of creeds ;
Scholastic Theology, or the subtle treatment of
such subjects by the mediaeval schoolmen; Tele
ology, or theory of final causes; Typology, or the
description of the types in the Old Testament as
verified in the New.
IV. Ecclesiastics. — The Church is the body
wliich conserves theology — so that we have
Church History, or annals ; Hagiology, or lives
of the saints; Ecclesiology, or the treatises on
church architecture, &c. ; Liturgies, or that
which deals with the church service ; the canon
law of the Middle Ages, including not a few of
those themes. All this includes Bibliography, or
accounts of the best books and authors on all
these subjects. The true theology is that which
is honestly based on the letter, and is in har
mony with the spirit of Scripture, and seeks
simply to understand what God has said of him
self. He has revealed himself in his works, and
the reading of such lessons is Natural Theology.
He has disclosed himself in his Word, the basis,
therefore, of revealed religion.
Theopaschites (hi; irdir%ui), those who held
such a view of the Trinity, that it was declared tp
beaconsequenceof their theory that God the Father
suffered upon the cross. — See Patripassians.
Thcophauy (fattpdvua, appearance of God),
a name given to the manifestation of God, as in
the 18th Psalm, or Habakkuk iii. The term is
applied also to the nativity of our Lord. — See
Christmas, Nativity of Christ.
Thcophori, a name given to the early
Christians, as if they carried God within them.
— See Christophori.
Theolokos (mother of God), an epithet ap
plied to the virgin. — See Mary, Mother of
our Lord.
Thernpeutae (healers), a name given us
by Philo to a Jewish sect in Egypt, alUed to
the Essenes in Palestine; it is also given to the
early Christians, and indeed some suppose that
Philo refers to them. One author also gives the
early monks the same appellation.
Theses. — The name known in church his
tory as that of the ninety-five propositions which
Luther nailed to the door of the great church of
Wittemberg, on the 31st October, 1517. They
are a protest against indulgences, and against
Tetzel, who had been making imprudent traffic
in them. We reprint a few of them : — " 1.
When our master and Lord, Jesus Christ,
says: Repent, he desires that the entire life
of believers on this earth should be one con
stant and continual repentance. 2. That say
ing cannot be understood as applying to the
sacrament of penance (that is to say, to confes
sion and satisfaction), as administered by the
priest. 8. The laws of ecclesiastical penance
ought to be imposed on the living only, and do
not at all affect the dead. 21. The commission
ers of indulgences are mistaken when they say,

THI
that hy the pope's indulgence man is delivered
from all punishment and saved. 25. Each
bishop in his own diocese, and each priest in his
own parish, have the same power over purgatory
that the pope has over it in the church at large.
32. Those who imagine themselves secure of
their salvation by indulgences, will go to the
devil with those who teach them. 37. Every
true Christian, dead or living, participates in the
benefits of Christ or ofthe Church, by the bestow
ment of God, and without a letter of indulgence.
38. Nevertheless, we must not despise the dis
tribution and the pardon of the pope; for his
pardon is a declaration of the pardon of God.
50. Christians must be taught that were the
pope aware of the exactions of the preachers of
indulgences, he would rather have the metropo
litan church of St. Peter burnt to ashes than see
it built with the fleece, flesh, and bones of his
sheep. 51. Christians should be taught that the
pope, as in duty bound, would give away his
own money to the poor folks who are now de
spoiled of their last mite by the preachers of
indulgences, were he even to seU the metropolitan
church of St. Peter for that purpose." (See
D'Aubigne'.) Theurgy (luupy'at, divine work), a science
which was cultivated among the followers of
Ammonius Saccas in Egypt Theurgy is the
science of the gods and the various classes of
superior spirits, of their appearances to men, and
their operations; and the art, by certain acts,
habits, words, and symbols, of moving the gods
to impart to men secrets which surpass the
powers of reason, to lay open the future to them,
and become visible to them. So it is described
in the book which bears the name of Jamblichus,
De Mysteriis JSgyptiorum, lib. i., caps. 26-29.
This worthless science is very similar to what
has been called allowable magic, and which is
distinguishedfrom necromancy or unlawful magic.
It was undoubtedly of Egyptian origin. As the
Egyptians imagined the whole world to be full
of good and evil spirits, they might easily be led
to suppose there must he some way to secure the
favour of these demons. (Mosheim.)
Thirds, a peculiar arrangement under
Mary Queen of Scots for the support of the
Protestant clergy. " The batons," says Knox,
" perceiving that the Book of Discipline was
refused, presented to the nobility certain articles,
requiring idolatry to be suppressed, the kirk to
be planted with true ministers, and some certain
provision to be made for them, according to
equity and conscience. . . . And so devised
the}-, that the kirkmen" (the former clergy)
" should have intromission with the two parts of
their benefices " (that is, with two-thirds), " and
that the third part should be lifted up hy such
men as thereto should be appointed, for such
uses as in the acts are more fully expressed."
Dr. Lee adds, — " Nothing could be more pre
carious and humiliating than the mode in which

634

THI
the ministers were appointed to be sustained.
Two-thirds of the benefices were retained by the
popish clergy. The remaining third was to be
delivered into the hands of a collector for the
queen. The ministers and superintendents were
to have a sum modified for » their support, and
the surplus was to become a part of the revenue
of the crown." Knox was exceedingly dissatisfied
with this arrangement, by which the ministers
of the Popish Church got full two-thirds of their
former overgrown revenues, and the queen, or
her favourites, the greater part of the remainder.
" If the end of this order pretended to be for the
sustentation of the ministers, be happy," he said ;
" my judgment fails me, for I see two parts freely
given to the devil, and the third must be divided
between God and the devil. Ere long the devil
will have three parts of the third, and then judge
what God's portion shall be."
Thirty-nine Articles. — See Articles,
Thirty-nine. Thomas, St., Christians of. — See Syrian
Churches. — When the Portuguese landed in
India, in the sixteenth century, they discovered
what they supposed to be a Nestorian Church
there, the members of which called themselves
Christians of St Thomas. They retained the
Syrian language, held the validity of only two
sacraments, and were governed by bishops under
a metropolitan. They rejected the authority of
St. Peter, and did not enforce sacerdotal celibacy.
They neither invoked saints nor worshipped
images. These churches were soon subjected to
severe persecution, and many were forced into Ro
manism. The inquisition also was established at
Goa, Dr. Claudius Buchanan found, however,
a remnant of them, in 1807, near Travancore.
They still retain some ecclesiastical independence.
That their creed is not directly Nestorian may be
seen from the declaration of the Metropolitan of
Malabar made in 1806: '"We believe in the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, three persons in
one God, neither confounding the persons nor
dividing the substance ; One in Three and Three
in One : the Father generator, the Son generated,
and the Holy Ghost proceeding. None is before
or after the other; in majesty, honour, might,
and power co-equal; Unity in Trinity and
Trinity in Unity.' The metropolitan disclaims
the heresies of Arius, Sabellius, Macedonius,
Manes, Manianus, Julianus, Nestorius, and the
Chalcedonians; adding, 'That, in the appointed
timC, through the disposition of the Father and
the Holy Ghost, the Son appeared on earth for
the salvation of mankind; that he was born ofthe
Virgin Mary, through the means ofthe Holy Ghost,
and was incarnate God and man.'" According to
a statement of some authority, the St Thomas
Christians number 70,000 individuals, and the
Syro-Roman Catholics 90,000, that is, the party
who have submitted to the papal jurisdiction. But
the church service, in Syriac, is not understood
by the people, who are ignorant and prejudiced

TIT
Thomas, St., Day of, a festival observed
on the twenty-first of September.
Thomists. — See Scotists.
Three Chapters. — See Chapters, Three.
Three Denominations. — See Denomina
tions, Three.
Throne, the bishop's seat in his cathedral.
Thus the throne of the bishop in Jerusalem was
sometimes called the " apostolical throne," from
its supposed relation to St. James. — See Bema.
The thrones of the presbyters stood in a semi
circle on each side of the bishop's, and were
called corona or crown. — See Cathedral,
See. Thundering legion. — SeeLEGiON, Thun
dering. Thnrificati (incense burners), a name given
to such Christians as, in days of persecution,
threw incense on a heathen altar to save their
lives. — See Lapsed, Libellatici, Sacrifi-
CATI, TrADITOK.
Thuroferary (incense-bearer), a priest who
bears the censer during the services of the Greek
Church. He also assists the officiating priest to
put on his sacerdotal vestments, and, during the
anthem, spreads a veU over the consecrated
vessels. Thnrsday, Maundy. — See Lent, p. 375.
Tiara, the name of the pope's triple crown,
which is the badge of his civil rank as the keys
are of his eoclesiastical functions. The tiara was
originally a round high cap. Pope John XIII.
first girded it with a crown; Pope Boniface
VIII. added a second crown ; and Pope Benedict
XIII. added the third. The tiara, when used
as an imperial portion of dress, had at the bottom
of it one golden circle, of a crown-like shape.
Tierce, the service for the third hour, or nine
o'clock in the morning, in the early Church. —
See Matin, Nones, Service of the Church,
Vespers. Tippet. — Canon lxxiv. says, — "Likewise
all deans, masters of colleges, archdeacons, and
prebendaries, in cathedral and collegiate churches
(being priests or deacons), doctors in divinity,
law, and physic, bachelors in divinity, masters
of arts, and bachelors of law, having any eccle
siastical living, shall usually wear gowns with
standing collars and sleeves straight at the
hands, or wide sleeves, as is used in the univer
sities, with hoods and tippets of silk or sarcenet,
and square caps. And that all other ministers
admitted or to be admitted into tbat function
shall also usually wear the like apparel, as is
aforesaid, except tippets only."
Tirones (newly-levied recruits), a name some
times given to catechumens.
Tithes, in English law, may be defined as the
tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the
profits of lands, stocks upon lands, and the industry
ofthe parishioner, payable for the maintenance of
a parish by every one who has things titheable, if
he cannot show a special exemption. The early

635

TIT
history of tithes is involved in some obscurity ;
but as the law now stands, tithes are due of
common right to the parson ofthe parish, unless
there is a special exemption. They may be paid
to, — 1. Spiritual rectors having the" cure of
souls within tbeir parishes. 2. Appropriate
rectors ; that is, spiritual owners of parsonages
appropriated or annexed to the use of ecclesias
tical corporations, who are bound to provide
for the service of the church. 3. Impropriate
rectors, or lay proprietors of parsonages originally
appropriated to monastic institutions, on the dis
solution of which they came to the crown. 4.
Parcellers, who are proprietors of certain parcels
of tithes originally part of a rectory, but alienated
by some person in whom the inheritance of
the rectory was vested. 5. Vicars. 6. Por-
tionists, who are owners of tithes which never
were appropriated to a rectory. 7. The crown,
which, by its prerogative, is entitled to the tithes
of extra-parochial places. — See Appropriation,
Impropriations, Rector, Vicar.
Tithes are due either of common right or
by custom. Tithes due of common right arise
from such fruits of the earth as renew annually ;
but not from anything that is of the substance
of the earth, nor from creatures of a wild
nature, whose increase is not annual but
casual. Tithes for deer and rabbits may, how
ever, be due of special custom. In most
ancient cities and boroughs there is a custom
to pay tithes for houses. Tithes which arise
from the fruits of the earth, such as corn, hay,
hemp, hops, and all kinds of fruit, seeds, and
herbs, are called predial, and of this kind is
agistment, which is the tithe of the grass eaten
by unprofitable cattle. Tithes not the imme
diate produce of the ground, but of animals
receiving their nourishment from the land, as
calves, lambs, pigs, &c, wool, cheese, eggs, are
called mixt Personal tithes arise from the in
dustry of man, but the tithes for mills and fish
due by special custom are all tbat fall within this
class. The occupiers of the land are the persons
by whom tithes are payable, or rather the person
who was owner of the crop when it was severed
from the ground. The obligation to pay is
wholly personal, and can be only enforced by
process of a character simply personal. The
owner of the tithes cannot enter upon the land
and take the tenth part of the titheable produce,
even although it had been severed from the
ground. If, therefore, the occupier carry away
tlie whole crop without setting out the tithe, no
remedy can be had against the tithes themselves.
The person to whom the tithes are due cannot
seize the tenth part of the produce, nor distrain
on it, nor bring an action of trespass, or any
action of a possessory nature. A suit or an
action in the ecclesiastical or temporal courts, or
a summary proceeding before a magistrate, are
the only courses open to him. The obligation to
pay tithes being thus personal, the tithe-owner

TIT
has no remedy for subtraction of tithes against a
subsequent occupier.
Commutations effected under act 6 and 7 of
William IV., u. 71, are either (1) voluntary
or (2) compulsory, both which classes of com
position are to be effected under the superin
tendence of a body created by the act, and
entitled "The Tithe Commissioners for England
and Wales." (1.) Voluntary commutations. — The
act authorizes the convocation of meetings of
the landowners and tithe-owners in every parish
for the purpose of making an agreement for the
general commutation of the tithes of the parish,
and declares that a parochial agreement for the
payment of an annual sum, by way of rent-
charge, instead of the great and small tithes
respectively, or instead of the great and small
tithes severally, to the respective owners thereof,
if executed by the land and tithe-owners present,
whose interest in the land and tithes of the parish
respectively shall not be less than two-thirds of
the lands subject to tithes, two-thirds of the
great tithes, and two-thirds of the small tithes,
shall, subject to the approval of the patron and
of the tithe commissioners, be an effectual com
mutation, and bind all persons interested as
owners of the tithes and lands of the parish.
Regulations are made in sections 2, 3, 4, 5,
respecting the appointment of valuers to appor
tion the rent-charge. (2.) Compulsory commu
tations. — Authority is given to the commissioners
after the 1st of October, 1838, to ascertain and
award the value of tithes in parishes in which no
previous commutation had been effected — the
value to be computed on an average of the tithes
for the seven years preceding Christmas, 1835,
deducting all expenses necessary for the collec
tion, preparing for sale, and marketing (where
tithes had in kind), but making no deductions on
account of parliamentary, parochial, county, or
other rates and assessments, to which tithes have
been liable. Power is reserved to the commis
sioners, in certain cases, to diminish or increase
the sum to be paid for commutation. Special
provisions are made for valuing the tithes of
hops, fruit, and garden produce, for the valua
tion of lands to which the average of seven years
will not apply, and for allowing for moduses,
compositions, real or customary, or prescriptive
payments in lieu of tithes, in the award.  See
Teinds, Thirds. ,
Title of Clergymen signifies some certain
place where they may exercise their functions.
A title, in this sense, is the church to which a
priest was ordained, there constantly to reside;
and there are many reasons why a church is
called titulus: one is, because, in former days, the
name of the saint to whom the church is dedi
cated was engraved on the porch, as a sign that
the saint had a title to that church; so that the
church itself came afterwards to be denominated
titulus. — See Titulus. Anciently, a title of clergy
was no more than entering their names in the,

63S

TIT
bishop's roll ; and then they had not only autho
rity to assist in the ministerial function, but had
a right to the share of the common stock or
treasury of the church ; but since then, a title is
an assurance of being preferred to some ecclesiasti
cal benefice, &c. — See Messa.
Titular Bishops are bishops with no stated
charge ; but who are bishops inpartibus infiddium.
The custom arose in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, in the assigning of bishops to those parts
which, though once Christianized, had at length
fallen under Saracen dominion. The Church of
Rome adopts the same custom, and has bishops
of Tarsus, Ephesus, Aleppo, &c. The primitive
Church made it a law that no one should be
ordained at large, but should have a specific
charge. Titulus, the Latin name given to early
churches, as if in contradistinction to the mar-
tyria, or those erected over the graves of martyrs.
— See Martyr, Mensa. The tituli of the
Middle Ages were parish churches under the care
of presbyters, who took their titles from them.
Tokens (tesserae), bits of lead or of pewter,
or cards, given to the members of a church
in full communion, which they hand to the
elders as they approach the Lord's table.
The object is to keep out those who are not
known, or who are under scandal, or for other
reasons are deemed unworthy.
Toleration Act. — See Act of Tolera
tion. — Toleration was a doctrine long in being
either understood or practised (See Locke's
Letters on Toleration; Jeremy Taylor's Liberty
of Prophesying). The general principle of the
Scottish Reformers was, that the judicial law of
Moses was of perpetual authority. John Knox
and Peter Dens use the same argument for pun
ishing heretics with death. They should die
because they are like those who falsify the " coin
of a king," says the First Book of Disdpline;
while Dens, by a marvellous coincidence in the
employment of the same figure, affirms that they
resemble falsarii pecuniae, and should be extir
pated. The good Samuel Rutherford, all but
canonized in Scotland, held that " punishment
even to blood and death" stands yet against
idolaters and apostates " in the plenitude of mo
ral obligation." In that once popular book, the
Hind let Loose, assassination as a means of " tak
ing off principal instruments and promoters of
war" in support of error is vindicated with no
Uttle dialectic ingenuity. Similar opinions were
not confined to Scotland. Calvin did not condemn
the burning of Servetus — nay, Servetus himself
maintained that blasphemy was a crime worthy of
death. Beza justified at full length the penalty
inflicted on Servetus, and the gentle Melanch
thon wondered that any should disapprove of it.
Bucer maintained that the Spanish fanatic should
be torn in pieces, and Turretine avowed that capi
tal punishment should fall without mercy " on
aU such pests and human monsters." About

TOR
the same period in England, and at Cranmer's
solicitation, Joan of Kent and George van Fere
were consumed to ashes ; and a few years after
wards the archbishop himself was led out to the
stake. The smoke that arose from the pile of
Servetus mingled in the air with that which was
ascending from those blazing fires in France
where five Genevan disciples of Calvin were ex
piating the crime of heresy. By the general
assembly of 1647, "Liberty of conscience" is
held to be synonymous with " liberty of error,
scandall, schism, heresie," &c. The principles
of religious liberty were not clearly compre
hended. — See Keys, Fower of; Magis
trates ; Penal Laws ; Persecution ; Sacra,
Circa; Secular Power.
Tolling of Bells. — See Bell, Passing
Bell.
Tonsure, the cutting off a portion of the hair
as a designation of the clerical or monastic state.
Some writers trace the tonsure to the apostolic
period, and attribute the institution of it to St
Peter and St. Paul. The legendary stories
brought in support of this statement are, how
ever, mere inventions of the dark ages ; and it
is doubtful whether the practice had anything
more than a very partial existence till late in the
fifth century. It is supposed to have been first
introduced by the African monks as a mark of
penitence and mortification, and afterwards im
posed by St. Benedict upon the members of his
order, whence it was gradually extended to all
who embraced the monastic or clerical profession,
in token of their separation from secular affairs.
In the eighth century three varieties of the
tonsure are mentioned; the Greek, which pre
scribed the shaving of the entire top of the head ;
the Roman, or tonsura S. Petri, which was of a
circular form, supposed to be in imitation of our
Saviour's crown of thorns ; and the tonsure of St
Paul, extending from the forehead to the crown.
The last was chiefly in use among the Irish and
British clergy, and gave rise to many disputes
with the adherents to the Roman discipline. In
the early period the tonsure was only conferred
at the time of actual ordination ; but about the
ninth century it became the practice to bestow
it upon mere candidates for orders. The usual
minimum age for receiving it is fourteen years ;
but in some dioceses it was allowed to be given
earlier. As a general principle, the bishop has
the exclusive right of conferring it in his own
diocese; but abhots have occasionally claimed
the power of giving it within their own jurisdic
tion, by a special privilege from the papal see.
In Roman Catholic countries there are bene
fices that may be held by simple tonsure; a
discreditable contrivance to enable laymen to
enjoy the revenues.
Torgau, Book or Articles of. — Seven
teen articles which had been agreed to at the
convention of Schwabach in 1529, by the
Lutheran party, were exhibited to the elector at

637

TOR
Torgau — whence their name. These formed
the basis of the Augsburg Confesdon. A con
vention was held at the same place in 1574,
under the prince elector Augustus, at which the
Crypto- Calvinists were condemned, and some of
them sentenced to imprisonment and banishment.
— See Crypto-Calvinists.
Torture. — It was commonly used in the
days of persecution, both in England and Scot
land, to induce confession. Boots and thumbkins
were used in Scotland, so that, under pressure of
agony, secrets might be disclosed. What may
be truly called torture was sometimes inflicted as
portion of a sentence. Let one example suffice.
Dr. Alexander Leighton, father of the good
archbishop, was condemned in 1630, by the Star
Chamber, for his Zion's Plea. The sentence was
literally and mercilessly carried out. Laud
himself, in his diary, has a formal notice of it.
He had taken off his cap and offered thanks to
God when he heard the sentence pronounced.
His diary says: — "Tuesday, 9th of November,
Leighton was degraded by the high commission.
That night he broke out of the Fleet, but was
taken in Bedfordshire, and brought back within a
fortnight. On the 16th of November part of his
sentence was executed upon him. 1. He was
severely whipped. 2. Being set in the pillory,
he had one of his ears cut off. 3. One side of
his nose slit. 4. Branded on the one cheek with
a red-hot iron with the letters S. S., and after
wards carried back to prison. On that day
se'nnight, his sores upon his back, ear, nose, and
face, being not cured, he was whipped again at
the pillory in Cheapside, and there had the
remainder of his sentence executed upon him,
by cutting off the other ear, slitting the other
side of the nose, and branding the other cheek."
Dr. Leighton remained in close confinement ten
years, when he was released by the long parlia
ment, who also remitted his fine. When he
obtained bis release he could scarcely walk, see,
or hear. Indeed, the severities to which he was
subjected can scarcely be matched except by the
records of the Inquisition. — See Covenanters.
Torwood Elxconimunication.— After the
skirmish at Airsmoss, and the execution of
Cameron, Cargill, during a field-preaching at
Torwood, near Stirling, publicly excommunicated
the king, the Duke of York, the Duke of Mon
mouth, the Duke of Lauderdale, the Duke of
Rothes, General Dalziel, and Sir George Mac
kenzie. According to tradition, Rothes, during
a dangerous sickness the following year, sent for
some of the presbyterian ministers, and in a fit
of remorse confessed the justice of the sentence.
The Duke of Hamilton added, "We banish these
men, and yet when dying we send for them."
Towers. — Churches had no towers for the
first seven centuries. They are first mentioned
in the age of Charlemagne. In 837 a church is
mentioned as having a tower; and in 873 a
chapel was built for the emperor, having two

TRA
towers for bells. Gothic towers seem to have
been originally erected as ornaments.— See Cam-
panarii. Towers, Round, are structures still pre
served principally in Ireland. They vary from
fifty to one hundred and fifty feet in height, end
ing with a conical roof of stone. They are from
forty to fifty feet in circumference at the base,
the wall at this point being sometimes three, and
often five feet thick, and the lowest storey heing
sometimes solid altogether. In the interior they
are divided into storeys. Similar structures are
found at Abernethy and at Brechin, in Scotland.
The conclusions of Petrie, in his famous prize
essay on the subject, are now generally acqui
esced in — " 1. That the towers are of Christian
and ecclesiastical origin, and were erected at
various periods between the fifth and thirteenth
centuries. 2. That they were designed to an
swer at least a twofold use. namely, to serve as
belfries and as keeps or places of strength, in
which the sacred utensils, books, relics, and
other valuables were deposited, and into which
the ecclesiastics to whom they belonged could
retire for security in cases of sudden predatory
attack. 3. That they were probably also used,
when occasion required, as beacons or watch-
towers." Tractarian, a name given to a party in the
Anglican Church from the tracts which they
published at the commencement of their history.
They are sometimes named Puseyites, after one of
their most famous leaders, Dr. Pusey; but they
call themselves Anglo-catholics. In 1833 ten
Irish bishoprics had been suppressed, and this,
with other acts of a liberal ministry, had produced
irritation and alarm among churchmen. About
this time a few clergymen met at the house of the
Rev. Hugh James Rose at Hadleigh in Suffolk
— Froude, Keble, and Newman being among
the number. A tract was prepared, called the
Churchman's Manual, and this was the first of
tbe series of famous tracts. After the tracts had
been issued for two years, they produced but
small impression. It was indeed believed by
many that the interests of the established church
were promoted by them. By and bye, how
ever, the excitement created by them became
great, and, by the year 1839, the country was
profoundly agitated by these efforts of the Oxford
party. Their objects and their theology became
more and more apparent as the issue of the tracts
went on. Tract 87, by Mr. Williams, advocated
reserve in the communication of religious truth,
and tract No. 90 brought the issue to an abrupt
close. A tendency to Romanism had been long
observed in the tracts, and indeed many Trac-
tarians had gone over to Rome. John Henry
Newman tried, in this last tract, to show that men
might hold Tractarian views and yet remain in
the Church ofEngland; that is, might hold papal
tenets and yet subscribe a Protestant creed. The
heads of houses in the university condemned the

638

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tract; bnt Dr. Pusey published a vindication of
it, saying, " In few words, this is our position,
that our articles neither contradict anything
catholic, nor are meant to condemn anything in
early Christianity even though not catholic, but
only the latter definite system of the Church of
Rome." Newman himself, however, foUowed out
his conclusion honestly, and joined the Romish
Church in 1845. . Many followed — such as Oakley
and Ward — the former of whom had the hardi
hood to affirm, that on becoming a Romanist he
had " nothing material to retract," and Mr. Ward
had been degraded by a majority of votes in the
Oxford convocation. The Gorham controversy
ensued. Archdeacon Wilberforce published on
the Eucharist, and maintained the doctrine of
the real presence, and he afterwards seceded to
Rome. There was great sensation in many
parishes, andbytheyear 1852 two hundred clergy
men and as many laymen had pubUcly abjured
Protestantism. Among the tenets of the Anglo-catholics,
apostolical succession occupies a prominent
place. The first tract says, — "Apostolic suc
cession means a commission to discharge the
offices of a spiritual priesthood, received at first
from Christ, and conveyed through the apostles
and those who followed them in the same office,
in an unbroken line of succession, from the
apostles to the present bishops. This commis
sion has been conveyed by the laying on of
the hands of the apostles and their successors ;
and the successors of the apostles now are
said to be the chief pastors in every place, who
have received the apostolic commission. All
apostolic churches are episcopal, but aU episco
pal churches are not apostolic; since in some
cases the chief pastors are called bishops, but
have not received the apostoUc commission."
In tract seven, The Episcopal Church Apos
tolical, the same doctrine is maintained in the
following words: — "The fact of the apostolic
succession — that is, that our present bishops are
the heirs and representatives of the apostles, by
the successive transmission of the prerogative of
being so — is too notorious to require proof.
Every link in the chain is known from St. Feter
to our present metropolitan. Can we conceive
that this succession has been preserved all over
the world, amidst revolutions through many
centuries, for nothing?" The right honour
able Mr. Gladstone has applied a mathematical
formula in proof of apostolical succession. " If
it be admitted that regular consecration was
the general practice, but only insinuated that
there may have been here and there an excep
tion through neglect, say, for example, 1 in 500
—for argument's sake let us grant so much;
upon this showing, the chances for the validity
of the consecration of every one of the three
officiating bishops in a given case are, : : 500 : 1.
For the validity of those of two out of the
three, : : 500 X 500 = 25,000 : 1. For the

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validitv of some one out of the three, : : 500 x
25,000" = 12,500,000 : 1. If, however, this be
not enough, let us pursue the numerical argu
ment one step further, and, instead of taking the
original chances at 1 in 500, let, us reduce them
lower than perhaps any adversary would de
mand; let us place them at 1 in 20. On this
extravagant aUowance, the chances in favour of
the validity of the consecration of a bishop who
receives his commission from three of the order
are only 20x20x20 = 8000: 1." After all this
calculation there is only a probability, but not a
certainty, that any clergyman really enjoj'S the
apostolical succession.
Baptismal regeneration is also a characteristic
doctrine of the party. Tract sixty-seven defines
regeneration to he " that act whereby God takes us
out of our relation to Adam, and makes us actual
members of his Son, and so his sons as being
members of his most hlessed Son, and if sons, then
heirs of God through Christ. This is our new
birth, an actual birth of God, of water and the Spirit,
as we were actually born of our natural parents;
herein also are we justified, or both accounted
and made righteous, since we are made members
of him who is alone righteous; freed from past
sin, whether original or actual, have a new prin
ciple of life imparted to us," &c. "Our
life in Christ begins when we are by baptism
made members of Christ and children of God;
but a commencement of life in Christ after
baptism, a death unto sin and a new birth unto
righteousness at any other period than at that
one first introduction into God's covenant, is as
little consonant with the general representations
of Holy Scripture as a commencement of physi
cal life long after our natural birth would be
with the order of his providence." On transub
stantiation Dr. Fusey says, in a published letter
to Dr. Jelf, "They (the articles) confess fully
the reality of Christ's presence in the sacrament;
they only do not define the mode of his presence;
they will not so tie down the omnipotence oi
Almighty God, that the bread and wine should
not also be the body and blood of Christ . . .
a real change, as I said, they gladly accept : a
true, real, substantia], sacramental presence of
our Lord and his flesh, the very flesh which was
born of the Virgin Mary, and is now glorified at
God's right hand, they reverently confess; they
only confess not that carnal, scholastic theory
which would explain away the mystery, that
the elements, although the body and blood of
Christ, are also bread and wine. They confess
the truth; the mode ofits being they leave, like
the mvstery of the incarnation, whence it is de
rived, "undefined, because incomprehensible by
man." For preaching the same doctrine in the
cathedral of Christ Church, Dr. Pusey was, by
the vice-chancellor, suspended for two years from
preaching in the university.
In a word, that via media of which the Trac-
tarians boasted so much, led off directly to Popery.

639

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Indeed, tbe death of one of the writers before the
"conspiracy," as he himself termed it, was ripe,
enabled them to make the dead responsible for
sentiment which the living had not as yet the
hardihood to avow. By the publication of
Froude's Remains it appeared that one of
the party had been actuated by an intense
hatred ofthe Reformation and its authors ; and
the editors, one of whom was the Rev. J. H.
Newman, at once brought upon themselves and
their coadjutors a suspicion of being engaged in a
systematic attempt to unprotestantize the Church
of England, which subsequent events strongly
tended to confirm. The Tractarian agitation has
greatly subsided, and in many quarters, as in
Oxford itself, may be witnessed a strong reaction.
But such a party, more or less developed, has
always existed in the Anglican Church; a party
who prefers the theology of the prayer book to that
of the articles. Baillie in his days describes a
party patronized by Laud not wholly unlike that
of the Tractarians. The headings of his chapters
are, — "The Canterburians professed affection
towards the Pope and Poperie in grosse. —
Once they were suspected of Lutheranisme, but at
last Poperie was found their marke: To make
way for their designes, they cry down the Popes
Antichristianisme: They are content to have
the Popes authoritie set up againe in England :
Their mind to the Cardinalat: They affect
much to be joined with the Church of Rome as
shee stands. The Canterburians joine with
Rome in her grossest idolatries. In the middes
of their denyalls, yet they avow their giving of
religious adoration to the very stock or stone of
the altar: As much adoration of the elements
they grant as the Papists require : In the matter
of images their full agreement with Rome.
About relics they agree with Papists: They
come neere to the invocation of saints. The
Canterburians avow their embracing of the
Popish heresies and grossest errors. — They joine
with Rome in setting up traditions in prejudice
of Scripture: In the doctrine of faith, justifica
tion, fulfilling of the law, merit, they are fully
popish: In the doctrine of the Sacraments,
behold their Poperie : They are for the re-erec
tion of monasteries, and placeing of monks and
nunnes therein as of old: How neere they
approach to purgatorie and prayer for the dead.
Anent their Superstitions. — Few of all Romes
superstitions are against their stomack: They
embrace the grossest, not only of their private,
but also of their public superstitions. The
Canterburians embrace the Messe it self. — Tbey
cry downe so farre as they can, all preaching:
They approve the masse both for word and
matter." Traetalio et Repetitio Syuiboli, the re
petition of the creed in which they had been
previously instructed on the part of persons
newly baptized. — See Baptism, Symbol.
Traclator, the Latin name given to a

TRA
preacher treating a theme, his sermon or treatise
being called traclatus  See Sermons.
TractoriK. — See Letters, Tractory.
Tract us. — See Gradual  The gradual
was called tractus when sung by one person;
when chanted alternately, it was called respon-
sory. — See Antiphony.
Tradition. — The famous traditional rule of
Vincentius Lirinensis, — quodsemper, quod ubique,
quod ab omnibus; that is, " what has been believed
always, everywhere, and by all," — has been well
handled by Henry Rogers, who shows that it
must have many limitations. " For when it is
asked, ' Is the word " all" to be taken abso
lutely ?' the answer is — ' By no means.' ' Who
are the " all," then ?' Answer — 'The orthodox
alone.' 'And who are the orthodox?' 'Those
who hold what has been delivered by " all."'
This is limitation the first. But now, let us sup
pose this difficulty evaded by some subterfuge,
and the authorities to which appeal is to be made
otherwise determined. We proceed to ask, then
— 'Does this rule mean, that whatever is delivered
for truth must be expressly asserted by all whom
the advocates of the rule itself invest with a vote ?
Are we, for example, to look for the whole circle
of affirmed Catholic verities in the writings of
each of the apostolical fathers ? ' ' No,' must be
the reply ; ' it is sufficient that they do not con
tradict them. Their silence must be supposed
" to give consent." To this it may be replied,
tbat this is at once to abandon the rule, or rather
to take for granted the very thing to be proved ;
while we have a sufficient explanation of the
silence of these earliest fathers in the fact, that
it was impossible for them to anticipate, and
therefore to condemn all the absurd innovations
and corruptions which after ages would bring in,
. . . This, then, is limitation the second. It
is not necessary that all that we are to belipve
should be expressly affirmed by all who are in
cluded in the circle of authorities ; that is, we are
to believe much which non ab omnibus traditum
est. . . . But we come to a third limitation.
When we ask — ' But is it true that the dissent
on any point, on the part of any one of those
whom you deem in the main orthodox — as Cle
ment of Alexandria, for example — is sufficient to
invalidate that article ? ' The answer is — ' No,
certainly ; ' but then, what becomes of your quod
ab omnibus ? for there is hardly an article (if we
except those great fundamental truths which we
can at once extract from the Scriptures without
any thanks to these worthies), there is hardly one
of tbe opinions which you peculiarly patronize,
but is denied by some of them. Answer — ' It is
not necessary that Catholic verity be asserted by
all absolutely, but only by the " greater part."
Limitation the third; — set down, then, that
omnes means the 'greater part.'" (See Isaac
Taylor's Ancient Christianity, and Goode's Rule
qf Faith)
Tradi tor, one who, in obedience to the edicts

640

TRA
of the persecuting emperors, delivered up the holy
Scriptures, or the sacred vessels of the church. —
See Scriptures.
Traducianism. — See Original Sin.
Transcendentalism, a name given to
some forms of recent German philosophy. Fichte
taught a subjective idealism, Schelling an ob
jective idealism, and Hegel an absolute ideal
ism—regarding thought and being as identical.
Nature is God coming into self-consciousness, for
he is ever striving after self-realization : — " In
order to philosophize aright, we must lose our own
personality in God, who is chiefly revealed in the
acts of the human mind. In the infinite develop
ments of divinity, and the infinite progress to
ward self-consciousness, the greatest success is
reached in the exertions of human reason. In
men's minds, therefore, is the highest manifesta
tion of God. God recognizes himself best in
human reason, which is a consciousness of God.
And it is by human reason that the world
(hitherto without thought, and so without exist
ence, mere negation) comes into consciousness ;
thus God is revealed in the world. After
arriving at an ideal God, we learn that philo
sophy and religion draw us away from our little
selves, so that our separate consciousness is dis
solved in that of God. Philosophy is religion ;
and 'true religion frees man from all that is low,
and from himself, from clinging to I-hood
(Ichheit) and subjectivity, and helps him to life
in God as the truth, and thereby to true life.'
In this ablation of personal identity, we must
not claim property even in our own thoughts.
Hegel teaches that it is God who thinks in us ;
nay, that it is precisely that which thinks in us
which is God. The pure and primal substance
manifests itself as the subject ; and ' true know
ledge of the absolute is the absolute itself.' There
is but a step to take, and we arrive at the tenet,
that the universe and God are one. The Hegel
ians attempt to distinguish this from the doc
trine of Spinoza, but their distinctions are in
appreciable; their scheme is Pantheism. And
as God is revealed by aU the phenomena of the
world's history, he is partly revealed by moral
action, and consequently by sin, no less than by
holiness. Sin is, therefore, a part of the necessary
evolution of the divine principle ; or rather, in
any sense which can affect the conscience, there
is no evil in sin — there is no sin. It was re
served for Hegel to abandon aU the scruples of
six thousand years, and publish the discovery—
certainly the most wonderful in the history of
human research — that Something and Nothing
are the same ! In declaring it he almost apolo
gizes, for he says that this proposition appears
so paradoxical that it may readily be supposed
that it is not seriously maintained. Yet he is far
from being ambiguous. Something and nothing
are the same. The absolute of which so much
is vaunted is nothing. But the conclusion which
is, perhaps, already anticipated by the reader's

TRA
mind, and which leaves us incapacitated for
comment, is this — we shudder while we record
it — that after the exhaustive abstraction is
carried to infinity in search of God, we arrive at
nothing. God himself is nothing ! " (Princeton
Essays.) These systems of philosophy in Germany, "tbat
nation of thinkers and critics," have, each in its
turn, influenced the science of biblical philology;
and whether it be the moralism of Kant, or the
idealism of Fichte, or the deeper transcendentalism
of Hegel, it makes Scripture speak its own dogmas,
and consecrates the apostles the Coriphaei of its
system. When Strauss wrote his Leben Jesu,
Germany was thrilled by the publication in all
classes of her divines and philosophers, historians,
and scholars. When, as in this work of Strauss,
all historical reality is denied to the Gospels, and
they are declared to be composed, not of facts,
but ideas, and are affirmed to describe, not a
personal God, or a historical Christ, but a
cluster of notions intensely prevalent in Judea ;
and when it is argued that the names and
events occurring in the evangelical narrations
are but symbols of inward emotions, and the
blasphemies of Fantheism are reasoned for from
the union of deity and humanity in Jesus, as
shadowing forth the identity of the forms vulgarly
named Creator and creature, it is easily seen that
the author uses the philosophy of Hegel as the
great organ of perverting and desecrating the
records of the evangelists, especially of polluting
the finer and more experimental portions of the
work of the beloved disciple. Weisse, the pro
ducer of a similar mixture of boldness and im
piety, declares it impossible for any one to under
stand his theology unless he have mastered his
philosophy. No one can comprehend the systems
of Daub, Schwartz, or Schleiermacher, till he has
mastered the philosophy which Schelling pro
pounded in his early and adventurous youth.
" A life beyond the grave," says Strauss, " is the
last foe which speculative criticism has to en
counter, and, if it can, to extirpate." So, to find
a place for such theories, this author commenced
a series of wild and unjustifiable attacks on the
Gospels, — finding discrepancies where there are
none, creating exaggerations where the narrative
is easy and simple, denying the possibility of
miracles, and involving the whole narrative in
confusion and mystery, in order to destroy its
historical character, and render its interpretation
possible only on the supposition of its being a
useless and disconnected mythology. Whatever
sophistry and perverted logic could supply, what
ever perplexity a shrewd and malicious criticism
could suggest, whatever reasoning a clever and
fascinating philosophy could produce, was used to
create and garnish the new hypothesis. The
whole system is a sad memorial of the proud and
unhallowed wisdom of this world, impugning the
revelation already given, delighting in every
high thing that exalts itself against the know-

Oil

2T

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ledge of God, and exulting in withdrawing every
thought from the obedience of Christ Well
might Eschenmayer speak of the " Ischariot-
ismus " of Hegelianism. While it kissed, it
betrayed, and at length proceeded to the trial and
condemnation of its victim. — See Df.ists, Pan
theism, Rationalism, Spiritualism.
Transept, that part of a church which pro
jects at right angles, north and south, from the
body of it, and gives it a cruciform arrangement.
Those transepts were sometimes called " cross
aisles." — See Nave.
Translation, the name given to a minister's
removal from one charge to another. It was
sometimes in Scotland called transportation. A
translated bishop, in his attestations, dates from
his translation, not his consecration. In presby
terian churches the presbytery which ordained or
admitted a minister can alone dissolve the pas
toral connection. — See Ordination.
Translations. — See Bible; Version, Au
thorized. Transom, a horizontal mullion or cross-bar
in a window. Transoms are very rare in the
early English style. They are more frequent in
the decorated style, though rarely in glazed
church windows; they are universal in the
large windows of the perpendicular style, nay,
are sometimes repeated several times in the
height. — See Windows.
Transubstantiation. — See Mass, Real
Presence. — The words of the institution —
" This is my body" — are a common figure of
speech, such metaphors being the trite usages of
every day oriental speech, as " Judah is a lion's
whelp;" " Benjamin is a ravening wolf." What
a ludicrous result if the popish method of inter
pretation were applied to such clauses ! It was a
sad error on the part of some Protestants to affirm
that the Syro-Chaldaic spoken by Jesus had no
word signifying token, symbol, or likeness ; and
it was scarcely worth Dr. Wiseman's pains to
break such a fly upon the wheel, as in his Horas
Syriacae. Seymour tells us, in his Mornings with
the Jesuits, how he put his Romanist disputant
into the following dilemma: — To obviate the
Protestant objection that the mass necessitates
frequent suffering on the part of Christ, if he be
really offered up, the Popish Church calls it an
" unbloody sacrifice," or says that Christ is offered
" in an unbloody manner." Seymour, after his op
ponent had admitted this, pressed him as foUows :
— " That the dogma of transubstantiation, as
defined by the council of Trent, and held univer
sally in "the Church of Rome, taught that the
bread and wine of the communion were truly,
literally, substantially changed, so as that their
whole substance was changed into the substance
of ' the body, and blood, and soul, and divinity'
of Jesus Christ. According to this doctrine, the
substance of wjne is annihilated, and the sub
stance of blood substituted in its stead, so as that
aU is no longer wine but blood, truly, literally,

TRE
substantially blood. In the offering, therefore, of
this there is blood, a bloody offering, and in the
sacrifice of this there is blood, a bloody sacrifice ;
and there is no point of doctrine in the whole
system of the Church of Rome on which she
usually makes so determined a stand as this
assertion, that after the words of consecration the
elements become flesh and blood, and thus tbe
inconsistency or contradiction to which I refer is
this — her teaching in one moment that in the
mass the sacrifice is an unbloody one, and in the
next moment, that it is transubstantiated into
blood; so that in one doctrine all is blood, and in
the other all is unbloody! My friend made no
attempt at concealing that he had never observed
this hefore." Transubstantiation involves the
logical anomaly that the accidents or qualities
of a thing may be unchanged, while its essence
is changed; to taste, sight, and touch, the wafer
is still flour and water, while it is said to be the
body and blood of Christ, and to be therefore
adored as divine.
Trent — Council of Trent. — Under the
pontificate of Clement VII. the idea of a general
council had been seriously agitated; but no defi
nite decision was come to, the revolution in
opinion caused by the Reformation, and the
unsettled state of the public mind, being the
argument against such a council ; its advocates
maintaining, on the other hand, that the reUgious
agitations should be settled by authoritative
decisions on the points so keenly discussed.
Paul III. succeeded in 1534, and his desires to
convene a council were vehemently opposed, and
a place of meeting was with difficulty found.
Mantua was thought of; but its duke laid down
too humiliating conditions. Charles V. would
have preferred Germany; but Francis I., his
rival, would not listen. In 1545 the council
opened at Trent, a town in the south of the
Tyrol. The papal legates proposed the topics
for discussion, which were debated both in
smaller and fuller assemblies, or committees, and
decreed finally in council. Three sessions passed
away without much being done. The next four
sessions issued various theological decisions. At
the eighth session, as the plague had" broken out
in Trent, the council transferred itself to Bologna,
and in that city the ninth and tenth sessions were
held. When here, the fathers heard of the death
of Henry VIII. of England, and gave thanks to
God. The next five sessions were held under
Julius III., beginning in 1551, and the sixteenth
session broke up in consequence of the war in
Germany. Under Pope Mareellus II., who
occupied the chair for only a month, and under
the pontificate of his successor, Paul IV., who
died in 1559, the council did not meet. Under
Pius IV. it re-assembled, for the third time, in
1562, and closed, after its twenty-fifth session, in
1563. The presidents of the first period were
the cardinal-legates, Di Monte, afterwards Pope
Julius III. ; Santa Croce, afterwards Mareellus

642

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IT.; and our countryman, Pole. Those of tbe
second period were Cardinal Crescentio, legate, and
Cardinal Pighino, Archbishop of Siponto, and
Lipoman, Bishop of Verona, nuncios. Those of
the third were Hercules Gonzaga, Cardinal of
Mantua, and Cardinal Seripando; to whom were
afterwards joined Hosius, Cardinal of Warmia,
and Cardinals Simoneta andAltemps; and, on
the deaths of Mantua and Seripando in March,
1563, the Cardinals Morone and Navaggiero — all
holding a legatine commission. The object of the
council was really to crush the Reformation.
The decrees were signed by 255 members; 4
being papal legates, 2 cardinals, 3 patriarchs,
25 archbishops, 168 bishops, 39 episcopal depu
ties, 7 abbots, and 7 generals of spiritual orders.
Its decrees have been often quoted in previous
articles. Of this councU Pallavicini is said to be
the eulogist, and Father Paul Sarpi the historian.
The latter eloquently opens his history thus, — " I
wiU relate thecauses and management of an ecclesi
astical convocation, by some, for divers ends and by
divers means, sought after and solicited, by others
hindered and deferred, for twenty-two years;
and for eighteen more sometimes assembled,
sometimes suspended, and always celebrated with
divers intentions; and which acquired a form,
and attained a conclusion, altogether contrary to
the design of those who procured it, and the fear
of those who, with all diligence, obstructed it —
a clear instruction to us to refer ourselves to God,
and not to trust in the wisdom of man. For
this councU, desired and procured by godly men
to reunite the church, which had begun to be
divided, hath so established the schism, and
made the parties so obstinate, that the discords
are become irreconcileable: demanded by princes
for the reformation of ecclesiastical discipline, it
hath caused the greatest derangement in the
church that ever was since Christianity began :
hoped for by bishops as the means of regaining
the episcopal authority, which had been mainly
usurped by the pope, it hath made them lose it
altogether, and brought them into greater servi
tude. On the contrary, feared and avoided by
the see of Rome, as a potent means to moderate
the exorbitant power which that see had ac
quired from small beginnings, but by degrees had
advanced to an unlimited excess, it hath so
established and confirmed the same, over. that
part which remains subject to it, that it was
never so great, or so soundly rooted."
Trental, a service of thirty masses for the
dead, usually said on as many different days.
Treves, Holy Coat of. — Treves is a cathe
dral town in Rhenish Prussia. In common with
twenty-two other places, it claims the possession
of the seamless coat of our Saviour, mentioned
by St. John (xix.24), and the genuineness of
the relic has been affirmed by a papal bull, and
attested by many signs and wonders wrought at
ite shrine. In vain is it objected that there can
only be one such garment; that the coat is alleged

TRI
to have been discovered 300 years after it fell by
lot into the hands of the Roman soldiers, and
that nothing was heard of it, even at Treves, till
the twelfth century. Two years after his ap
pointment lo the see of Treves, Bishop Amoldi,
on the 6th of July, 1844, issued a circular
epistle, to the following effect :— " That, in con
sequence of the urgent request of the clergy
and body of believers in tbe bishopric of
Treves, the holy relic preserved in the cathe
dral, being the coat without seam worn by our
Saviour, would be exhibited for the space of six
weeks, from the 18th of August following, that
the wish of all who have the pious intention of
making a pilgrimage to Treves, to behold and
venerate the holy garment of our divine Re
deemer, may be fulfilled, and each may gain the
entire remission of his sins, granted by Pope Leo
X., under date of July 26, 1514. The said
pope, — namely, with the wish that the cathedral
of Treves, which has the honour of preserving
the seamless coat of our Lord Jesus Christ, and
many other holy relics, may be distinguished by
suitable grandeur of establishment and splendour
of ornament, — gives, according to the words of
the aforesaid bull, a full remission of sins in aU
future time, to all believers who go in pilgrimage
to the exhibition of the holy coat at Treves,
sincerely confess and repent of their sins, or at
least have a firm intention to do so, — and who,
moreover, contribute with a liberal hand to the
suitable decoration of the cathedral, as recom
mended by the holy father, but which still
remains imperfect from the end of the last cen
tury." The consequence of this appeal wa s that
crowds flocked instantly to the spot, and pro
strated themselves before the relic, exclaiming,
" Holy coat, to thee I come !" — " Holy coat, to thee
I pray ! " — till considerably upwards of a million
of people, or about half the entire Catholic popu
lation of the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, had,
in the course of six weeks, gone through the cere
mony, and left behind them a million of dollars for
the decoration of the cathedral. Controversy at
once began, and Ronge, Czerski, and other
priests, with many followers, seceded. But the
new party wanted any profound religious element,
and gradually lost its influence and numbers.
Trials, the name given to those discourses
delivered before the presbytery by students who
have finished their course, and are seeking to be
licensed to preach. These discourses are a ser
mon, a lecture, a homily, an exegesis or exer
cise with additions, and a thesis. There are also
examinations on systematic theology and prac
tical piety, on church history, and on the Greek
and Hebrew Scriptures.
Tribunal. — Sometimes the ambo and bema
received this name.— See Ambo, Bema.
Trichotomy (threefold division), a name some
times given to the apostolic classification of our
nature into spirit, and soul, and body, 1 Thess.,
v. 23. Generally soul and body are opposed;

TRI
but spirit, so contrasted, is the highest portion of
our nature, allying it to God, and on which his
Spirit works. Soul is the lower portion, the
region of appetite, instinct, and of much besides
which we have in common with the lower crea
tion. This idea throws light on many passages
of Scripture. The body mediates between the
soul and the external world, the soul between the
spirit and body, and the spirit between both and
God. This view of human nature would have
prevailed, had not it been so keenly opposed by
Tertullian, and so slighted even by Augustine,
and had not Apollinaris adopted it to illustrate his
erroneous view of our Lord's nature. He denied
spirit, in this hnman sense, to Christ, but held
that its place was occupied hy the divine Spirit.
Triers, a body of thirty ministers, chiefly In
dependents, appointed by CromweU to sit at
Whitehall for the purpose of trying those that
applied for institution or induction. According
to Baxter, they did great good, and saved many
congregations from ignorant, drunken, and un
godly ministers. "Amongst other applicants
was the famous Dr. Thomas Fuller. ' You may
observe, sir,' said he to John Howe, one of the
triers, 'that I am a somewhat corpulent man,
and I am to go through a very strait passage ;
I beg you would be so good as to give me a
shove, and help me through.' Howe, as usual,
gave him his best counsel. When he appeared
before the examiners, and they proposed the
usual question, ' Whether he had ever had any
experience of a work of grace on his heart?' he
answered, that ' he could appeal to the Searcher
of hearts, that he made a conscience of his very
thoughts.' "
Triforium. — A species of gallery or arcade
in the wall, which looks into a church through
the arches, between the pier arches and the
upper row of windows. It commands a good
view of the ceremonial going on at the altar.
Trine Immersion, that is, immersion re
peated three times, sometimes said to be done
after the three persons of the Godhead, and
sometimes to symbolize the three days of Christ's
burial. The fourth council of Toledo, 633, de
creed only one immersion, but the Greek churches
hold to trine immersion. — See Baptism.
Trinitarian, one who beUeves in the Trinity,
and opposed to Unitarian. — See Socinians,
Trinity. Trinity (three-one), a name given to the
Godhead — Father, Son, and Spirit. Killen well
says, — " The theological term translated trinity
was in use as early as the second century ; for,
about a.d. 180, it is employed by Theophilus, who
is supposed to have been one of the predecessors
of Paul of Samosata in the church of Antioch.
Speaking of the formation of the heavenly bodies
on the fourth day of creation, as described in the
first chapter of Genesis, this writer observes, —
' The three days which preceded the luminaries
are types of the Trinity, of God, and his Word,

TRI
and his Wisdom.' Here, as elsewhere in the works
of the fathers of the early Church, the third person
of the Godhead is named under the designation
of Wisdom. Though this is the first mention of
the word trinity to be found in any ecclesiastical
document now extant, it is plain that the doc
trine is of far higher antiquity. Justin Martyr
repeatedly refers to it, and Athenagoras, who
flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, treats
of it with much clearness. ' We speak,' says he,
'ofthe Father as God, and the Son as God, and
the Holy Ghost, showing at the same time their
power in unity and their distinction in order.'
' We who look upon this present life as worth
little or nothing, and are conducted through it
by the sole principle of knowing God and the
Word proceeding from him, of knowing what is
the unity of the Son with the Father, what the
Father communicates to the Son, what is the
Spirit, what is the union of this number of persons,
the Spirit, the Son, and the Father, and in what
way they who are united are divided — shall we
not have credit given us for being worshippers of
God ? ' The attempts made in the latter half of
the second century to pervert the doctrine of
Scripture relative to the Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit, probably led to the appearance of the word
trinity in the ecclesiastical nomenclature; for,
when controversy commenced, some such symbol
was required to prevent the necessity of constant
and tedious circumlocution. ... It has been
sometimes said that the Church borrowed its idea
of a Trinity from Plato; but this assertion rests
upon no historical basis. Learned men have found
it exceedingly difficult to give anything like an
intelligible account of the Trinity of the Athenian
philosopher, and it seems to have had only a
metaphysical existence. It certainly had nothing
more than a fanciful and verbal resemblance to
the Trinity of Christianity. Had the doctrine of
the Church been derived from the writings of the
Grecian sage, it would not have been inculcated
with so much zeal and unanimity by the early
fathers. Some of them were bitterly opposed to
Platonism, and yet, though none denounced it
more vehemently than Tertullian, we cannot
point to any one of them who speaks of the three
divine persons more clearly or copiously. "—See
Arianism, Modalists, Monarchians, Pa-
trdpassians, Praxeans, Sabellians, Socin
ians, Swedenborgians.
Trinity, Brethren ofthe, or Trinitarians,
were canons regular of the Augustinian order,
and were founded by John of Matha in 1198,
and approved the same year by Pope Innocent
III. Their principal purpose was the redemp
tion of captives. They were to wear a white
habit, with a red or blue cross on the breast
Trinity, Fraternity of the, a religious
society instituted at Rome by St, Philip Neri in
1548. They had charge of the pilgrims who
were constantly coming to Rome from aU parts
of the world. Pope Paul IV. gave them the

644

TRI
Church of St. Benedict, near which they built a
large hospital, in which there was also a college of
twelve priests for the instruction of the pilgrims.
Trinity Sunday, the octave or first Sunday
after Pentecost or Whitsunday. It is not of
early date, but is thought to have been intro
duced through the Arian controversy.
Trisagion (thrice holy), same in Greek as the
Latin Tersanctus. — See Cherubic Hymn.
Trilheists (believers in three Gods). — See
Philoponists. — A sect of the sixth century.
" Its author was one John Ascunage, a Syrian
pMlosopher and a Monophysite. This man
imagined there were in God three numerically
distinct natures or subsistences, all perfectly
alike, and connected by no common vinculum of
essence; from which dogma his adversaries
deduced Trilheism. Among the patrons of this
opinion no one was more celebrated than John
Philoponus, a grammarian and philosopher of
great fame at Alexandria ; and hence he has by
many been accounted the founder of the sect, and
the members of it have been called Philoponists.
As the sect increased, it became divided into
two parties, the Philoponists and the Cononites ;
the latter so named from its leader, Conon,
Bisliop of Tarsus. These parties agreed respect
ing the doctrine of three persons in the Godhead,
but were at variance respecting the explanation
of the doctrine concerning the resurrection of the
body; for Philoponus maintained that both the
matter and the form of all bodies were generated
and corruptible, and therefore that both would
be resuscitated at the resurrection; but Conon
held that the matter only, and not the form of
bodies, was corruptible and to be resuscitated." —
Mosheim. Tron. — See Jougs. The tron itself was a
rude instrument for weighing heavy wares. It
was formed of two horizontal bars or beams
crossing each other and supported by a wooden
pillar. Tropaea (rtfxaia, monuments), a name
sometimes given to churches, and taken from the
appearance of the cross to Constantine, rtu
c-avem T^ivraitv. Churches erected in honour
of martyrs were called by the same names —
trophies^ monuments. — See Titulus, Martyr.
Truce of «od. — Wars and devastations
were frequent in France in the eleventh century.
To modify such rancours, and by the influence
of the clergy, it was specially enacted that
during three days every week no hostilities were
to be permitted, that is, from the evening of

UBI
Thursday to the morning of Monday. Such a
weekly truce, when no man durst attack his
enemy, nor any house within thirty yards of a
church, tended to moderate men's passions and
allay animosities. From its origin and nature,
such a cessation of hostilities was called the
truce of God.
Tryers. — See Triers.
Tschornaboltsi, a Russian sect which will
not pray for the emperor, nor take an oath, nor
shave their beards. They hold many things in
common with the other extreme sects of the
same country.
Tnlchans or Tulchan Bishops. — A
tulchan was the effigy of a calf, or rather it was
a stuffed calfskin, set up before a cow when she
was milked, under the belief tbat the animal
thereby yielded her milk more freely. The
custom has been long discontinued. Under the
Regent Morton, and after 1572, attempts were
made to introduce bishops into the Presbyterian
Church of Scotland. The men who consented to
take the title had bound themselves, as the price
of their elevation, to receive only a small part
of the revenues, the rest going to Morton and his
lordly colleagues. " The bishop had the title,
but my lord had the milk." Such bishops were
called tulchans by the people. The first tulchan
was John Douglas, appointed to the see of St
Andrews. Patrick Adamson, who afterwards
himself became a tulchan, said in a sermon, there
be " three kinds of bishops, my lord bishop, my
lord's bishop, and the Lord's bishop. My lord
bishop was in the papistry, my lord's bishop is
now, when my lord gets the benefice, and the
bishop serves for nothing but to make his title
sure ; and the Lord's bishop is the true minister
of the Gospel."
Tunicle (little coat), another name of the
dalmatic. — See Colobium, Dalmatic.
Tuukers. — See Dunkers.
Turlupins. — The origin of the name is un
known. The sect seems to have been allied to
the Brethren ofthe Free Spirit  See Beguines,
Brethren of the Free Spirit, Hommes
D'Intelligence. Twelfth Day. — See Epiphany.
Type. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. — See Theo
logy. Typns or Type, the name of an edict of
the Emperor Constans in connection with Mono-
thelism.  See Monothelites. The term
sometimes signifies the canopy over a pulpit,
and the cupola roof of a turret.

u

ITbiqnitarians (ubique, everywhere), those
who held the omnipresence of Christ's human.
nature. The Lutheran doctrine of consubstan
tiation implies it; but Luther himself never
based his theorv upon it He rested his proof

on the words of Scripture as he interpreted them.
He seems, however, to have held that, from the
union of the human nature with the divine, the
human nature might be everywhere, his assertion
being that the man Jesus could be in any place

645

UCK
where his presence was needed. This was a kind
of potential ubiquity. But the divines of Swabia
and Alsace went greatly farther than he did,
and maintained an absolute ubiquity. Brentius
avowed the same opinion in 1561. Flacius
Illyricus, Chemnitius, Osiander, Musculus, and
others stoutly advocated it ; and it was put into
the Formula of Concord. Some of them ascribed
ubiquity to Jesus always, and others to him only
after the ascension. — See Consubstantiation.
Uckewallists, named after Ucke Wallis,
and originating in 1637. Their tenets were
Mennonite ; but they held as a distinctive opinion
that Judas and the murderers of Christ were
saved, since up to the descent of the Holy Spirit
at Pentecost the times were " times of ignorance,"
which God " winked at."
Ultramontane. — The name signifies beyond
the mountains — that is, the Alps — and is the
epithet of the high party in the Romish Church,
who uphold the infallibility of the Italian pontiff,
and wish to subject implicitly all branches of
the church, such as the Gallican Church, to his
absolute sway. — See Papacy, Pope.
Cuam Sanctam, name of a papal bull
which affirms that there are two swords, a
spiritual and material, — the one to be employed
by the church and the other for the church
under the direction of its head; and that to deny
the subservience of the latter to the former is to
maintain the doctrine of two principles, and to
fall into the heresy of the Manichasans. " Where
fore," it concludes, " we declare, define, and pro
nounce that it is absolutely necessary for the sal
vation of every human being that he be subject
to the Roman pontiff." — See Bull.
Unction, Extreme, a ceremony in the
Church of Rome, which consists in the application
of "holy oil" to persons dangerously ill. The
popish rituals say, that "it is a sacrament which
gives all such Christians as are afflicted with any
dangerous fit of sickness, a final remission of their
remaining sins, inspires them with grace to suffer
with patience the pains and troubles of their
infirmity, endues them with strength sufficient
to die the death of the righteous, and restores
them to health, provided it be for the good of their
souls." Alet makes extreme unction the sacra
ment of compensation for the defects of past
repentance ; for his ritual states, that "it purges
away our moral dregs, or those sins wbich we
have not been careful enough to repent of." The
following is a brief outline of the manner of per
forming the ceremony : — The priest having dipped
the thumb of his right hand in the holy oil, pro
ceeds to mark the organs of his five senses with
the sign of the cross; and after each application
he wipes the part with a ball of cotton, for which
purpose he brings with him seven balls already
prepared. The order observed is this: the right
eye is first anointed, then thelefteye, the ears, and
after them the nostrils (not the tip of the nose)
are attended to in the same order, then the lips;

UNC
after which the palms of the hands and soles of
the feet receive the touch of the consecrated
unguent. Men are also anointed in the reins,
but this is dispensed with in the case of women.
At each application the priest says, "Hanc sacram
unctionem, et suam piisdmam misericordiam in-
dulgeat tibi Deus quicquid peccdsti, per visum,"
or "audilum," " olfacium," "gustum," "et tactum,"
as the case may be — " May God, by this holy
anointing, and by his most pious mercy, pardon
you the sins that you have committed by the
eyes," " ears," " nose," " taste," and " touch."
The anointing being ended, the priest rubs those
of his fingers which have touched the oil with
small pieces of bread, and then washes his hands.
The crumbs of bread and the water are next
thrown into the fire ; and the pieces of cotton
employed in the ceremony are carried into the
church and burned, the ashes of which must be
thrown into the sacrarium. Everything con
nected with the ceremony is to be performed by
a priest, or the efficacy of it will be lost. This
sacrament is not administered to criminals con
demned to die, because they are not in a state of
death by disease. It is refused also to those who
are dying impenitent ; but all who are afflicted
with some mortal disease, and those who, by rea
son of great age and its necessary infirmities, are
in a dangerous condition, are considered proper
subjects for this ceremony. The passage in
James v. 14, 15, referred to by Romanists,
speaks of unction as restoring a sick man to life,
not as preparing him for his departure from it
It was not till the eleventh century that the ap-
pUcation of oil to a sick person was decreed to
be a sacrament, the honour of the act belonging
to Pope Eugenius. It appears that the clergy
of the church having for several centuries con
tinued to apply oil for the performance of cures
without success, turned to speak of its spiritual
use in " raising up" the spiritually diseased or
dead. The schoolmen improved upon this idea
with all their usual subtilty, until at length
it was fastened both upon the Eastern and
Western Churches as a necessary rite in one, and
a sacrament in the other. Thus the council of
Trent (session xiv.) put forth the following
canons : — 1. " If any one shall say, that extreme
unction is not truly and properly a sacrament,
instituted by Christ our Lord, and promulgated
by the blessed apostle James, but only a rite re
ceived from the fathers, or a human invention ;
let him be anathema. 2. If any one shall say,
that the sacred unction of the sick does not con
fer grace, nor remit sins, nor alleviate the sick ;
but that it has already ceased, as though the
grace of cures were of old only ; let him be ana
thema. 3. If any one shall say, that the rite
and usage of extreme unction, which the holy
Roman Church observes, is repugnant to the
declaration of the blessed apostle James, and
that it is therefore to be changed, and that
it may, without sin, be contemned by Christians;

6-1-0

UNI
let him be anathema. 4. If any one shall say,
that the presbyters of the church, whom the
blessed James exhorts to be brought to anoint
the sick, are not the priests ordained by a
bishop, but the seniors in years in each com
munity, and that for this reason a priest alone is
not the proper minister of extreme unction ; let
him be anathema."
Uniats. — The Uniats are proselytes from
the Greek to the Romish Church, and are most
numerous in those provinces which formerly be
longed to Poland. In this work of proselyting
the Jesuits have been most successful; more espe
cially among the Sclavonic tribes originally
belonging to the Greek Church in the Austrian
empire. The prelates of Little Russia, in 1595,
seceded from the Eastern patriarchate, and
joined the Romish Church, on certain condi
tions, through resentment of an act of undue
severity on the part of the Patriarch of Constan
tinople; and these dioceses retain, to the present
day, their Uniat prelates. In many of the towns
are found both Grseco-Russian and Roman
Catholic churches and monasteries. Of two
millions of Servians, all originally Greek Chris
tians, one-half '^have, by various means, since
they fell under the dominion of Austria, been
brought over to the Church of Rome.
Uniformity. — The Acts of Uniformity, so
called, are those of Elizabeth, u. 2, and the
12 and 13 Charles IL, c. 4, by which "the
uniformity of public prayers and administra
tion of sacraments, and other rites and cere
monies " in the Church of England, is enjoined.
— See Act, Nonconformist.
Unigenitus. — See Bull.
Union. — See Evangelical Alliance.
Union. — See Evangelical Union.
Union, Congregational. — See Indepen
dency.— Conder says of such unions, — "The
recent formation of the Congregational and Bap
tist Unions has given rise to the notion, that
there exists among the nonconformists of the
present day a disposition to abandon the prin
ciples of strict Independency, and to adopt a new
species of machinery or organization more nearly
approaching to Presbyterianism. For this idea
there is no foundation. These Unions differ in
no other respect than in their more extended or
comprehensive character, from tbe county unions,
and associations of churches, which have always
existed in both denominations for similar objects.
They have no relation to a scheme of church
government; their object is not to set up a
church, or to create a jurisdiction, but simply to
facilitate a general co-operation for common and
public objects of a religious nature."
Union, Hypostatical.; — See Arianism,
Hypostatical Union, Person of Christ,
Sabellians. Union of Churches, in English law, is the
combining and consolidating of two churches into
one. It is also where one church, is made sub-

UNI
ject to another, and one man is rector of both ;
and where a conventual church is made a cathe
dral. In the first case, if two churches were so
mean that the tithes could not afford a competent
provision for each incumbent, the ordinary, patron,
and incumbents might unite them at common
law, before any statute was made for that pur
pose; and in such case it was agreed which
patron should present first ; for though, by the
union, the incumbency of one church was lost,
yet the patronage remained, and each patron
might have a quare impedit, upon a disturbance,
to present it iu his turn. The license of the king
is not necessary to an union, as it is to the
appropriation of advowsons ; because an appro
priation is a mortmain, and the patronage of the
advowson is lost, and by consequence all first-
fruits and tenths ; whereas in an union these con
sequences do not follow. The three statutes in
existence relating to union of churches are
the 37 Henry VIII., c. 21, the 17 Charles IL,
c. 3, and the 4 and 5 William and Mary, c. 12.
Unitarians. — See Socinians. — Of Unita
rians in America Dr. Baird says, — "The 'Ame
rican Unitarian Association,' formed in 1825, is
their principal organization fbr united action.
Its object is declared to be ' to diffuse the know
ledge and promote the interests of pure Chris
tianity throughout our country.' Its sixteenth
annual report gives the names of 117 clergymen
who have been made life members by the pay
ment of thirty dollars each, of whom 8 are dead.
The whole number of life members are stated at
374. It expended during the year ending in
May, 1841, the sum of 4,962 dollars, which
was 81 dollars 89 cents more than its receipts.
The expenses of administration were — the salary
of the general agent, 1,800 ; his travelling ex
penses, 100; office rent, 200; total, 2,100 dol
lars; being very nearly three-sevenths of the
whole. This association has published 179 dif
ferent tracts, the prices of which vary from one
cent to six cents. During the year ending in
May, 1841, it aided sixteen destitute congrega
tions, of which ten were in New England, three
in the State of New York, and three in the
Western States. The lowest appropriation for
this purpose was 30 dollars, and the highest
300. It also expended 570 dollars for mission
ary services, of which 530 were expended to the
west of New England. The smallness of the
amount expended by Unitarians in the way of
associated action is not to be ascribed to parsi
mony, but to religious indifference. A large
part of the wealth of Boston, and of the eastern
part of Massachusetts, is in their hands."
Unitas Fratrum. — See Moravians.
United Brethren. — See Moravians.
United Brethren in Christ, a sect which
arose in America about 1755, founded by
William Otterbein, a minister of the German
Reformed Church. It arose during a revival, in
which the principle of free communion was

647

UNI
vehemently insisted on, and also put into practice.
Their first conference was held at Baltimore in
1789. In 1815 a summary of doctrine and
rules of order were adopted. The creed is in
general orthodox, and they recognize one order
in the ministry — ordained elders — though persons
holding various offices, such as class-leaders and
stewards, are found among them. They have
quarterly, annual, and general conferences. The
service is no longer conducted exclusively in the
German language.
United Church of England and Ire
land.— See England, Church of; Irish,
Episcopal Church.
United Presbyterian Chnrch. — See Scot
land, Churches in.
United Secession Church. — See Scot
land, Churches in.
Universal Friends, an American sect, fol
lowers of Jemima Wilkinson, a Quakeress, who
professed to wprk miracles, and to be the universal
friend of mankind. It was in 1776 that Miss
Wilkinson gathered a few proselytes, and pro
mised to walk on Seneca Lake ; but she did not
fulfil her promise, on the ground that as her con
verts believed in her perfect ability to do it, the
doiug of it was superfluous. The lady laid claim
to all kind of spiritual gifts, lived luxuriously,
amassed money, and died in 1819.
Universalists, those who believe in the final
salvation of all men ; that while the good go to
glory, the wicked, who go to hell, shall, in the
goodness of God, and after a certain period of
discipline, be humbled, reformed, and released.
Such extra- scriptural speculations seem to have
been held by Origen in the second century ; and
they have existed in every age of the Church,
The Mennonites in Holland are said to have
held the doctrine; the people called Dunkers in
America, descended from the German Baptists,
hold it, and also the Shakers. Dr. Rust,
Bishop of Dromore, in Ireland, defended it in
his Lux Orientalis, about the end of the seven
teenth century ; and in England soon after, Mr.
Colliber aud Mr. Jeremiah White wrote in de
fence of it. Archbishop Tillotson seems to coun
tenance it ; as does Dr. T. Burnet, master of the
Charter House, more openly, in his work On the
Stale ofthe Dead. Mr. William Law seems to
have maintained it. The writers who have treated
the subject fully are— Bishop Newton ; Mr. Stone-
house, Rector of Islington; Dr. Chauncyof Bos
ton, in America; Dr. Hartley, in his Observations
on Man; Mr. Purves of Edinburgh; Mr. E.
Winchester, in his Dialogues; Mr. William
Vidler ; and Mr. N. Scarlett, in his new Trans
lation ofthe New Testament, in which the Greek
term aim is rendered age; and in his appendix
he has proposed that its derivative, lumvitv, should
be rendered agelasting, instead of everlasting or
eternal. James Reily, who at first laboured
with Whitfield, advocated this doctrine, and
gathered a Universalist Church in London. In

URS
1801 Niel Douglas propagated these Views in
Glasgow, praying to God on behalf of the devil,
as " his ancient servant." Dr. Thom of Liver
pool has also more recently advocated Uni-
versalism. The case between Mr. Maurice
and Dr. Jelf in London made a great noise a
few years ago; and there are hints in Foster's
Letters that he felt inclined to the same
hypothesis. Some Universalists have been
orthodox on other points, but many — perhaps
the majority — are Unitarian. John Murray,
a disciple of Reily, emigrated to America,
and in 1779 the first Universalist society was
organized by him at Gloucester, Massachu
setts. Winchester adopted the same views in
1781. An organization, called the Independent
Christian Universalists, was formed in 1785.
The cause received a powerful advocate in 1791
by the accession of Hosea Ballou, who had been
a Baptist. The arguments of Chauncy in favour
of Universalism were powerfully met by the
younger Edwards. Vidler found his match in
Fuller and Jerram ; and Huntingdon was answered
by Nathan Strong. In 1827 the Universalist
body in America was divided on the point of no
punishment, or only limited punishment, in a
future world. Another division took place into
Impartialists and Restorationists. One of them
selves, the Rev. Paul Dean of Boston, says,
— "The Universalists believe that a full and
perfect retribution takes place in this world,
that our conduct here cannot affect our future
condition, and that the moment man exists
after death, he will be as pure and as bappy
as the angels. From these views the Restor
ationists dissent. They maintain that a just
retribution does not take place in time ; that the
conscience of the sinner becomes callous, and
does not increase in the severity of its reprovhigs
with the increase of guilt ; that men are invited
to act with reference to a future life ; that if all
are made perfectly happy at the commencement
of the next state of existence, they are not re
warded according to their deeds ; that if death
introduces them into heaven, they are saved by
death and not by Christ ; and if they are made
happy by being raised from the dead, they are
saved by physical, and not by moral meaus, and
made happy without their agency or consent;
that such a sentiment weakens the motives to
virtue, and gives force to the temptations of
vice ; that it is unreasonable in itself, and
opposed to many passages of Scripture." The
Universalists of various grades are numerous
in America ; but few exist in this country.
Ursuliues, an order of nuns founded by St.
Angela of Brescia in 1537, and confirmed by
Paul III. in 1544, and by Gregory XIII. in
1571. The name was derived from a legendary
British saint of the fourth or fifth century, who,
with 11,000 virgins, was martyred on a pilgrim
age near Cologne. At first the Ursulines did not
live in communities, but abode in their fathers'

648

USA
houses, and gave themselves to the work of
visitation, instruction, and charity. Borromeo
brought some of them to Milan, where they
rapidly multiplied. Several popes granted them
new privileges; and in 1612 they were placed
under a monastic constitution. The first who were
so were the Ursulines of Paris ; their rule was
that of St. Augustine. The order is still found
in the United States and in Canada. Their
principal business is the instruction of young
ladies. Usagers, Usages. — About 1724 the Episco-
lian non-jurors in Scotland began to proclaim
dissatisfaction with the Anglican litany, and to
look to the First Book of Edward VI. They
therefore claimed the liberty of practising such
usages as the following: — " 1. Mixing the wine
with water in the Eucharist, in memory of blood
and water having issued from our Redeemer's
side. 2. Commemorating the faithful departed
at the altar. 3. Consecrating the elements by
an express invocation of the Holy Ghost 4.
Using a prayer of oblation, -in which the conse
crated elements are solemnly offered to God as
the body and blood of His Son." After Bishop
Gadderar came down from London to Aberdeen
the Episcopal party was at once divided into
Usagers and Non-usagers. The contest was vio
lent, and bishops of each party augmented their
number bj' (additional consecrations, to obtain an
equaUty of numbers and of votes.
Use. — Each bishop of old had liberty to alter or
improve the liturgy for his own diocese. Different
customs thus arose in different dioceses. Thus
we have the Uses of Sarum, of Hereford, of York.
The Use of Sarum was generally adopted. The
liturgical books of the Sarum church seem to
have been transcripts of the Sacramentary of
Gregory, Patriarch of Rome.
Uses, Superstitious. — A devise or grant of
lands, or bequest or gift of goods, to superstitious
uses, is where the devise, grant, bequest, or gift is
to find or maintain a chaplain or priest to pray for
the souls of the dead, or a lamp in a chapel, or a
stipendiary priest, or the like. By the statute
23 Henry VIII., c. 10, it is declared that all

VAL
future grants of land for obits, chaunteries, or
the like, for any torm longer than twenty years,
shall be void, and by the act 1 Edward" VI., c.
14, all such devises, &c, are declared to be super
stitious uses, and the lands and goods so devised,
&c, are forfeited to the king. Any such, or
similar gifts, however, would probably, indepen
dent of these statutes, fall within the Mortmain
Acts (see Mortmain); or, when not within
the reach of any of them, would be deemed
superstitious by tbe Courts of Equity, and set
aside ; or these courts would consider the devisee
as a trustee for such persons as would be entitled
if there would be no such devise.
Usnry. — Usury was of various kinds; some
times it was called cenlesimae, the hundredth
part of the principal being paid every month.
This was allowed by the civil law, but it was
generally condemned by the Church. Another
form of usury was called sescuplum, that is, the
whole and half as much more. This was con
demned by a law of Justinian and reprobated by
the Church. Other forms of lower interest were
allowed, such as half or third of the centesimal
interest. The Church condemned especially the
clergy who dealt in usury, for it was grinding
the face of the poor. One of the canons of Nice
says, — "Forasmuch as many clerks, following
covetousness and filthy lucre, and forgetting the
Holy Scriptures (which speak of the righteous
man as one tbat hath not given his money upon
usury), have let forth their money upon usury,
and taken the usual monthly increase, it seemed
good to this great and holy synod, that if any
one, after this decree, shall be found to take
usury, or demand the principal, with half the
increase of the whole, or shall invent any such
methods for filthy lucre's sake, he shall be
degraded from his order, and have his name
struck out of the roll of the church." The same
practice is censured by those called the Apostoli
cal Canons; the council of Eliberis; the first
and second of Aries; the first and third of
Carthage ; the council of Laodicea, and TruUo.
Utraqnists (communion in both kinds).—
See Calixtines.

Vacantivi (^axavi^ti, wandering clergy), idle
persons, with no fixed cure or residence. They
were severely condemned, as they had no dis-
missory or recommendatory letters, and were not
to be received into communion. Several councils
published edicts against them. — See Letters.
Vagnm Ministcrium, ministry at large, as
when one is ordained without a fixed congrega
tion of which to take the oversight.
Vail  See Veil.
Valentine, St., an ancient presbyter, put to
death, it is said, under Claudius at Rome, and
enrolled among the martyrs prior to the period

of Gregory the Great. The custom of choosing
valentines, and sending love letters and presents,
on the eve of his festival, had, so far as is known,
no basis in any special part of his history,
though he is said to have been a man of " great
love and charity." The custom, however, is a
very old one. Chaucer refers to it as the period,
too, when birds ehoose their mates.
"Valentinians, the followers of Valentinus, the
author of the most ingenious and most popular,
but at the same time most complicated, of all the
Gnostic systems. He came from Alexandria to
Rome about a.d. 140; but his novelties met

649

VAL
with little acceptance there; and, after being
three times excommunicated, he retired to Cyprus,
where he probably died about a.d. 160. Hav
ing been brought up as a Christian, he employed
scriptural language to a greater extent than the
earlier Gnostics. The Gospel of St. John was his
highest authority ; but he professed to receive all
the New Testament, and made constant allegori
cal use of it in his system. He was the first who
applied the term aeons to those emanations or
developments of the Divine Being which formed
so important a part of every Gnostic system. He
taught that from Bythus (fiulis, depth, the name
which he gave to the great original) emanated,
in succession, pairs of male and female seons to the
number of thirty. From the efforts of Wisdom,
the last of these, to unite with Bythos itself, arose
a being called Achamoth. This being, wandering
about outside the pleroma, communicated the
germ of life to matter, and produced, among other
things, the Demiurge, who immediately created
the world. Matter was supposed to be of three
kinds, — pneumatic, or spiritual; psychic, or ani
mal; and hylic, or material. The Demiurge
himself was formed of the second of these three,
and he created man of the same; but Achamoth,
without his knowledge, introduced a spiritual
particle, and so implanted in man the element of
something higher than his maker. The Demi
urge knew of nothing above himself, and he
taught the Jewish prophets to proclaim him as
the supreme God, and to promise to man a
psychic Messiah. But, meanwhile, two new
sons had arisen — Christ and the Holy Spirit;
and, moreover, there had emanated from all the
seons the Saviour, Jesus, who, as partner of the
Achamoth, was to lead back this and all the
spiritual natures into the pleroma. This Jesus
united himself with the psychic Messiah at his
baptism, but left him again before the crucifixion,
as did also bis own pneumatic soul, which had
been given him from the higher world without
his maker's knowledge. The sufferings of this
psychic Messiah wrought out a kind of redemp
tion for the psychic natures among men, that
they may be admitted to such happiness as they
are capable of; while the higher nature of the
pneumatic, not requiring redemption, being en
lightened hy the pure truth which the coming of
Christ was to reveal, shall be saved, not b}' faith,
but by knowledge. The disciples of Valentinus
departed, in many respects, from the teaching of
their master, and especially they are said to have
made the threefold division of man an excuse for
all manner of abominations, both among the
pneumatic, who were assured of salvation, and
the hylic, who were assured of perdition. Some
remains of the sect are found a3 late as the be
ginning of the fifth century. — See Gnostic,
MANICHJ5ISM. Vallischolarcs, an order of monks collected
by the Scholares — that is, the four professors
of theology at Paris. They retired to a valley

VAU
of Campania in 1234 ; this residence originating
the first part of their name. They were at first
under the rule of Augustine; but were after
wards united with the canons regular of St
Genevieve. Vallombrosa, The Order of, was of Bene
dictine monks, founded in a valley of the Appen-
nines about 1038 by John Gualbert of Florence.
Various Readings. — See Bible.
Vartabcd, the name of a minister in the
Armenian Church, holding a degree or honour
which almost corresponds to our doctor of divi
nity. The degree is given with the same solem
nity as holy orders.
Vatican Codex, a MS. of the Greek Scrip
tures, so caUed from its being kept in the
Vatican Library at Rome. It is defective from
Hebrews ix. 14 to the end of the Apocalypse.
It is elegantly written on fine parchment, and
has three columns on the page. The writing has
been retouched more than once, and the accents
and spirits have been added by a later hand. It
was written in Egypt probably about the first
half of the fourth century. It had been collated
several times, though imperfectly; but recently
it has been edited and printed under the care of
Cardinal Angelo Mai. The volumes were in
print as far back as 1843, but Pope Gregory
XVI. would not permit the sale of any copies.
Mai's edition of the New Testament was re
printed in one octavo volume in 1859.
Vaudois, The Church of. — This designa
tion is applied to two distinct religious com
munities. 1. The Vaudois or Waldenses, in
habiting certain valleys on the southern side of
the Alps. — See Waldenses. 2. The Vaudois
proper, or inhabitants of the Canton de Vaud.
The Pays de Vaud had originaUy as its sover
eign the Duke of Savoy. From him it was
wrested by the Bernese in 1536. It did not
become politically independent till the revolution
of 1798. Whilst ruled by the Bernese (though
nominally Protestant, and Farel probahly was
the instrument of its reformation), the Vaudois
enjoyed no real religious freedom. In 1536 the
councils of Berne repressed the design of the
pastors to proclaim "The Bible as the sole rule of
faith and discipline." The church was subject
to the state so completely that, seventeen years
later, Viret felt himself compelled to leave.
Soon vital religion began to die away. The
revolution of 1798 only transferred the thraldom
of the church from the council of Berne to the
council of the newly constituted Canton de
Vaud. A general revival of religion in 1820
gave new life to the church (see Momiers), but
the edict of 1824 was such that the most pious
clergy felt bound to dissent, and to endure the
persecution this step entailed. Ten years later,
this edict was recalled, and for four yeare the
churches enjoyed rest, and for four years pure
religion prospered in the land. Again the hos
tility of the government to it broke forth. Steps

650

VEI
were taken for a revision of the ecclesiastical
ordinances. In spite of a petition from 12,000
persons, and the opposition of the classes, in
1839 the council "suppressed the Helvetic
Confession, prohibited meetings of the classes or
presbyteries without an order from the civil
power, regulated the nomination of pastors solely
according to precedency of consecration, excluded
lay members of the church from ecclesiastical
affairs, and subjected even doctrines to the
judgment of bodies purely political." The
ministry being thus made powerless, it need not
surprise us to find them looked upon as un
necessary by earnest men, and hence from 1840
is dated the entrance and rapid spread of what,
in Switzerland, is known as Darbyism, in Eng
land as the doctrines of the Plymouth Brethren.
The revolution of 1845 placed political power in
the hands of the Radicals, who showed equal
hostility to the truth, seeking to degrade the
ministry to a political agency, and laying on
them restrictions as to the hours and places of
divine worship. This occasioned the formation of
a Vaudois Free Church, on the 12th November,
1845, 167 pastors and ministers voluntarily
seceding and being joined by the licentiates, and
aU but two of the theological students. Scenes
of lawless persecution occurred, and their religious
meetings were again and again dispersed by the
authorities and by the mob. Not till 1850 were
their liberties guaranteed to them. Prior to that
date they were subjected to much annoyance.
Veil. — The velamen nuptiale, or bridal veil,
was usuaUy worn by the bride as the token of
modesty and subjection. White veils also (vela-
mina dominicalia) were worn by women when
they received the Eucharist Veils or hang
ings were used to conceal the altar, and these
were often richly adorned with gold. They
are called in Greek by a name which means fold
ing doors. Veils were found in other parts of
the church, as before the door or gates, and be
tween the pillars of the women's galleries. The
phrase velare virginem, to take the veU, denoted
consecration to the church. Female penitents
also wore a veil and cut their hair, or allowed it
to hang loosely about their shoulders. The third
council of Toledo expressly required this vela-
men pamitentios. — See Amphithyra.
Venial Sin. — See Sin.
Veni Creator Spiritns. — This hymn is
found among the works of Ambrose as a hymn
for Pentecost It is popularly ascribed to Char
lemagne. It was early used on solemn occasions,
such as coronations and the creation of popes.
It is stUl used in tbe Anglican Church at the
consecration of priests and bishops. Various
versions of it have been made.
Venite (O come ye), a name given to the
ninety-fifth psalm.
Verger, one who bears the verge (rod or staff)
before a magistrate. " Vergers," says Minshew,
" go before their deanes with little staves tipped."

VES
Veronica, St. — See Handkerchief.
Verschoorists, a sect that arose in Holland
in the seventeenth century, and was named after
James Verschoor of Flushing, who had mingled
Spinozism with the system of Cocceius, — See
Hattemists. Verse a-day. — Some good people are in the
habit of committi'.g to memory a verse of Scrip
ture every day. The custom was very prevalent
in the early centuries ; a custom all the more
necessary from the scarcity of copies of the Scrip
tures. — See Scriptures.
Versicles, short verses said alternately by
ministers and people in the service of the EngUsh
Church. Version, Authorized. — In addition to what
is said on page 95, it may be added, that the
royal commission included fifty-four ; that only
forty-seven names of translators are given in
Fuller and Lewis ; so that probably some were
dead, or the larger list included overseers ap
pointed by the universities. The division was,
— Westminster, 10 : viz., Dr. Lancelot Andrews,
Dr. John Overall, Dr. Adrian a Saravia, Dr.
Richard Clarke, Dr. John Layfield, Dr. Tighe
(miscalled Leigh), Mr. Burleigh, Mr. King, Mr.
Thompson, Mr. Bedwell, — Pentateuch to the end
of 2 Kings. Cambridge, 8 : Mr. Edward Lively,
Dr. Richardson, Dr. Chadderton, Mr. Dilling
ham, Mr. Harrison, Mr. Andrews, Mr. Spald
ing, Mr. Bing, — the rest of the historical books,
and the Hagiographa, viz., Job, Psalms, Pro
verbs, Canticles, Ecclesiastes. Oxford, 7: Dr.
Harding, Dr. Reynolds, Dr. Holland, Dr. Kilby,
Dr. Miles Smith, Mr. Brett, Mr. Fareclowe, —
the four greater Prophets, with the Lamentations,
and twelve lesser Prophets. Cambridge, 7 : Dr.
Duport, Dr. Branthwaite, Dr. Radcliffe, Mr.
Ward, Eman.; Mr. Downes, Mr. Boyse, Mr.
Ward, Reg., — the Prayer of Manasses, and the
rest of the Apocrypha. Oxford, 8 : Dr. Thomas
Ravis, Dr. George Abbot, Dr. Eedes, Dr. Giles
Thompson, Mr. SavUe, Dr. Peryn, Dr. Ravens,
Mr. John Harmar, — the four Gospels, Acts of
the Apostles, and Apocalypse. Westminster, 7 :
Dr. William Barlow, Dr. Hutchinson, Dr.
Spencer, Mr. Fenton, Mr. Rabbett, Mr. Sander
son, Mr. Dakins, — the Epistles of St. Paul, and
the Catholic Epistles.
Vertabed or Verlabiet. — See Vartabed.
Vesica Piscis, a name applied by Albert
Durer to a pointed oval figure, formed by two
equal circles, cutting each other in their centres.
It is a very common form given to the aureole,
or glory, by which the representations of each
of the three persons of the Holy Trinity and
the Blessed Virgin are surrounded in the
paintings or sculptures of the Middle Ages. It
has been conjectured that it was adopted from
the idea that this figure is symbolical, and sig
nificant of the Greek word ""%fos" — a fish, which
contains the initial letters of the name and titles
ofthe Saviour. This form is sometimes found

651

VES
in panels, windows, and other architectural
features, and is extremely common in mediaeval
seals, especially those of bishops and monastic
establishments. — See Fish.
Vespers or Even-Song. — See Evening
Service. Vespers, Sicilian. — In Sicily great num
bers of the French, whose tyranny had been
intolerable, were murdered by the Sicilians, and
neither rank, age, nor sex, received any quarter,
on Easter Day, a.d. 1282. The bell which tolled
for evening vespers was the signal for commenc
ing the carnage. Pope Nicholas III. was ac
quainted with this plot, but he died before ite
execution. Very few of the French escaped the
avenging steel of the SiciUans. The tragedy is
called the Sicilian Vespers.
Vessels, Sacred. — See Eucharist.— The
vessels employed in the communion were some
times, in very early times, formed of horn, and
occasionally of glass. Vessels of silver and
gold came afterwards into extensive use, and
candlesticks, or lamps, and censers were made of
the precious metals. These vessels were under
charge of the deacons, were put into the hands
of a person ordained, and were never allowed
to be employed for any common or secular pur
pose  See Priest.
Vestibule, the outer porch of the early
churches.— See Church, Form and Archi
tecture of; Narthex.
Vestments— See Ale; Amice; Apparel
of Ministers; Chasible; Chimere; Col-
obium ; Cope ; Dalmatic ; Hood ; Mitre ;
Orarium; Pallium; Ring; Rochette; Sca
pulary;, Scarf ; Staff, Pastoral; Stole;
Surplice; Tiara; Tippet. See also Furitans.
Vestry, a place or room adjoining to a
church, where the vestments of the minister are
kept. The term vestry also, in England, means
a meeting held in such room, or in some other
place duly authorized by law, of persons having
authority to manage the affairs of a parish. In
former times the bishop and priests sat together
in vestries to consult of the affairs of the church;
and, in imitation of that practice, in modern days
the ministers, churchwardens, and chief men of
most parishes constitute a parish vestry. In
most parishes a person is chosen to act as vestry
clerk, whose duty it is to attend to all parish
meetings, to draw up and copy all orders and
other acts of vestry, and to give out copies
thereof, for which purpose he has the custod}' of
all books and papers relating thereto. The law
relating to vestries seems to be as follows, ex
cepting in those cases where the parishes are
governed by select vestries, or have adopted the
provisions of the acts 1 and 2 William IV., c.
60. On Sunday, before a vestry is to meet,
public notice ought to be given, either in the
church, after divine service is ended, or else at
the church door, as the parishioners come out —
practices which have since been properly forbid-

VES
den by statute 1 Vict., c. 45, hereafter adverted
to — both of the calling of the meeting, and also
of the time and place of assembling it ; and it
ought also to be declared for what business the
meeting is to be held, that none may be surprised,
but that all may have fuU time before to con
sider the subject matter of the meeting. It was
also usual to toll one of the church bells for half
an hour preceding the time when the vestry was to
assemble, in order to remind the parishioners of
the appointed time. But now, by statute 53
George IIL, c. 69, a regular stated notice is
required. Vestries for church matters are regu
larly to be called by the churchwardens, with the
consent of the minister. Every parishioner who
is assessed to and pays the church rates, or scot
and lot, is of common right entitled to be ad
mitted into a general vestry, and to give his vote.
So also all out-dwellers, occupying land in the
parish, have a right to vote in the vestry. The
rector, vicar, or curate also has a right to be
admitted into the vestry, and to vote upon the
question therein propounded, although not as
sessed to the church rates. The minister has by
law a right to preside over the meeting, whether
he be rector or vicar; and it is considered that
in sound legal principle he is the head, or praises,
of the meeting. In the year 1831 an act was
passed, which has been very generally adopted,
entitled, " An Act for the better Regulation of
Vestries, and for the Appointment of Auditors
of Accounts, in certain Parishes of England and
Wales." This act does not alter the law in any
parish by which it is not adopted by a majority
of the rate-payers, nor does it interfere with
parishes governed hy select vestries. The most
important provisions are, that in aU parishes
adopting the act, the vestry shall consist of
twelve vestrymen for every parish in which the
number of rated householders shall not exceed
one thousand, twenty-four where they exceed
one thousand, and thirty-six where they exceed
two thousand, and so on in the proportion
of twelve more vestrymen for every thousand
rated householders ; but in no case is the number
to exceed one hundred and twenty. The rector,
district rector, vicar, perpetual curate, and
churchwardens are to constitute part of the
vestry, and vote in addition to the vestrymen so
elected ; but no more than one such minister is
ex-officio to be a part of, or vote at, any vestry
meeting. One-third of the vestrymen to go out
of office annually, and others to be elected in
their place. The qualification is declared to be,
for parishes within the metropolitan police dis
trict, or the city of London, or parishes in which
the resident householders exceed three thousand,
resident householders rated to the poor upon a
rental of not less than £40 per annum, and for
other parishes, resident householders so rated on
a rental of not less than £10, and five rate-payers,
not vestrymen, are to be the auditors of the
accounts of the pai'ish. Select vestries have

052

VET
arisen from a practice which obtained in large
and populous parishes, especially in and about
the metropolis, of choosing a select number of
the chief and most respectable parishioners to
represent and manage the concerns of the parish
for a year — a practice which has been held by
the courts of law to be a good and reasonable
custom. Veto Act. — See Non-Intrusionists. — The
veto act was passed on the motion of Lord Mon
crieff in the general assembly of 1834. His
motion explains the nature of the act: — "That
the general assembly having maturely considered
the overtures, do declare that it is a fundamental
law of this church, that no pastor shall be in
truded on any congregation contrary to the will
of the people; and that in order to carry this
principle into full effect, the presbyteries of the
church shall be instructed that if, at the modera
ting of a call to a vacant pastoral charge, the
major part of the male heads of families, mem
bers of the vacant congregation, and in full
communion with the church, shall disapprove of
the person in whose favour the call is proposed
to be moderated in, such disapproval shall be
deemed sufficient ground for the presbytery re
jecting such person, and that he shall be rejected
accordingly, and due notice thereof forthwith
given to all concerned; but that if the major
part of the said heads of families shaU not dis
approve of such person to be their pastor, the
presbytery shall proceed with the_ settlement,
according to the rules of the church : and further
declare, that no person shall be held to be entitled
to disapprove, as aforesaid, who shall refuse, if
required, solemnly to declare in presence of the
presbytery, that he is actuated by no factious or
malicious motive, but solely by a conscientious
regard to the spiritual interests of himself or the
congregation : and resolve that a committee be
appointed to report to an interim diet of the
assembly, in what manner, and by what parti
cular measures, this declaration and instruction
may be best carried into full operation." — See
Patronage; Riding Committees; Settle
ments, Violent.
Via Media (middle path), a name which
Anglican high churchmen claim for themselves,
as between Popery and what they term Ultra-
protestantism. — See Tractarian.
Viaticum (provision for the way), both
baptism and the Eucharist received that name in
the early Church. Under a superstitious notion
of this nature, baptism was often delayed till
near death. The council of Nice ordains that
all penitents at point of death have the Eucharist,
and the council of Toledo makes provision for
such as could not through weakness swallow the
sacramental elements.
Vicar (vicarius, one in room of.) — The priest
of every parish is in England called rector, unless
the predial tithes are appropriated, and then he is
styled vicar, as acting vice, instead of, the rector ;

VIC
and when rectories are appropriated, vicars are to
supply the rectors' places. The grants formerly
made, whereby rectories and their profits were
annexed to the proper and perpetual use of some
religious or ecclesiastical corporations having the
patronage of the livings, were called appropria
tions. The effect of this was to make such
spiritual bodies perpetual incumbents, by allow
ing them to retain the tithes and glebe in their
own hands, without presenting any clerk, and to
appoint a deputy, called a vicar, to perform the
service. It is probable that vicars were not at
first endowed with any part of the tithes ; but by
statute 15 Richard II., c. 6, it was enacted, that
upon every appropriation the ordinary of the
place should provide that the vicar be well and
sufficiently endowed ; and by statute 4 Henry
IV., c. 13, that in every church appropriated
one should be ordained vicar perpetual, and be
canonically instituted and inducted, and con
veniently endowed by the discretion of the
ordinary. Hence arose the endowment of vicar
ages, which usually included the small tithes
belonging to the benefice which the appropriators
found it difficult to collect, and a portion of the
glebe. But where the small tithes did not
amount to a third share, then some part of the
great tithes, as of corn and grain, was allowed
to make up the deficiency, which was the cause
of many vicarages being now so endowed.
Where the vicar is endowed, and comes in by
institution and induction, he has curam animarum
actualiter, and is not to be removed at the plea
sure of the rector, who in this case has only
curam animarum habitualiter ; but where the
vicar is not endowed, nor comes in by institu
tion and induction, the rector has curam ani
marum actualiter, and may remove the vicar.
Upon endowment the vicar has an equal, though
not so great an interest in the church as a rector;
the freehold of the church, churchyard, and glebe
is in him; and as he has the freehold of the
glebe, he may prescribe to have all the tithes of
the parish, except those of corn and other great
tithes. Many vicars, however, have a part of
the great tithes, and some benefices that were
formerly severed by impropriation, have, by being
united, had aU the glebes and tithes given to the
vicars. But tithes can in no other way belong
to the vicar than by gift, composition, or pre-
scrip'tion, for all tithes de jure appertain to
the parson, and yet, generally, vicars are en
dowed with glebe and tithes, especially small
tithes. By act of parliament 1 and 2 William
IV., c. 45, the rector of common right is patron
of the vicarage ; but it may be settled otherwise ;
for if the rector makes a lease of his parsonage,
the patronage of the vicarage passes as incident
to it. And by statute 19 Edward II., c. 41, if a
vicarage become void during the vacancy of the
parsonage, the patron of the parsonage shall pre
sent to such vicarage. The parson, patron, and
ordinary may create a vicarage and endow it;

653

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and in time of vacancy of the church the patron
and ordinary may do it ; but (17 Edward IIL, c.
51) the ordinary alone cannot create a vicarage
without the patron's assent. A vicarage may be
re-united to the parsonage; as where both are
vacant, and in the gift of one person, if the
patron presents his clerk as parson, who is there
upon inducted, this (11 Henry VI., c 32) unites
the parsonage and vicarage. — See Rector.
Vicedominus (in room of the dominus). —
The vicedomini often assumed the character of
advocates. — See Advowee. For this reason
many lay persons and lords of Germany bear
the mitre as their crest — because they acted as
the advocates of- great churches. They were
the patrons and protectors, and even adminis
trators of the temporalities. All contracts made
by monasteries ran in their names: they pre
sented themselves in court in all law cases
concerning their monasteries, and saw justice
done to them in aU places where they possessed
jurisdiction ; they also headed the vassals of the
monasteries in war. In some monasteries they
were styled conservators. Thomassin states the
difference between the advocatus, vicedominus,
and propositus, to be as follows: — The first was
originally appointed for law matters ; the second
to superintend the vassals of the bishop or
monastery ; and the third to overlook the
clergy. Vigil (vigil, from vigere, to be alert, active),
watchful, wakeful, to look carefully. VigU, in
its ecclesiastical acceptation, denotes the eve
of a religious festival, or other day of public
devotion, or the services then performed. The
time when vigils were first instituted, as ordinary
religious observances, is not known with any
certainty ; but there is no doubt that the practice
is of high antiquity. Sometimes an extraor
dinary nocturnal service was appointed on occa
sions of danger or calamity, as a season of
special prayer and humiliation, in the exigencies
of the church in general, or some portion of it
It was also the practice to pass a considerable
part of the night in prayer and devotion prior to
the great annual festivals, more especially those
of Easter, Whitsuntide, and the Ascension of
Christ, as an introduction to the solemn duties
of the day following. Vigils were also observed
on the eve of the anniversaries in commemoration
of the holy martyrs, which were regarded as
festivals of peculiar solemnity, and were there
fore thought worthy of an especial degree of
preparation. And finally, a vigil was, in process of
time, regularly kept on the night before the Sab
bath in every week ; and in some churches, where
public service was celebrated on Saturday as well
as Sunday, there was also an evening assembly
on the Friday. A vigil was distinct from the
antelucan, or early morning service, as it com
menced some time before midnight. It was
attended by people of all ranks and conditions,
civU as well as ecclesiastical, who employed

VIS
themselves in prayer and psalmody till the time
of separation. The Trisagion and Gloria ia
Excelsis seem to be alluded to by Chrysostom as
regular portions of the service on those occasions;
and Basil relates that it was usual to conclude
with the 51st Psalm, " Have mercy upon me, 0
God," commonly called the psalm of confession.
Various other particulars respecting the noctur
nal services are mentioned by the ecclesiastical
writers ; but it is not always easy to distinguish
whether they refer to the vigils, properly so
called, or' to the early morning service. In the
Church of Rome the service for a festival with a
vigU regularly commences at the vespers of the
preceding day. In the Church of England, also,
the collects for Sundays, and for certain festivals
specified in the calendars, are introduced in the
evening service of the day before, as an intima
tion of the solemnities which are to follow. In
both churches the vigil of a festival is usually re
garded as a fast  See Antelucan Services,
Dedication, Watch-night.
Violent Settlements. — See Settlements,
Violent ; Non-intrusionists ; Patronage ;
Riding Committees.
Virginity. — See Cellbacy, Monachism.
Virgin Mary. — See Mary, Mother of
our Lord; Images. — The perpetual virginity
of Mary is held by the Greek and Romish
Church, she being named by the former,
asitrd^hvts, and by the latter, " semper virgo" —
always virgin. It would seem at least probable
that in the Gospels other children are ascribed to
Mary, or at least, are found in close connection
with her, and are called the brethren of our Lord.
The expression, "his brethren," occurs nine limes
in the Gospels and once in the Acts. In Mark
vi. 3, " sisters" are mentioned too. These names
were Jacob (James), Joses (Joseph), Simon, and
Judas. Why may not "his brethren and sisters,"
so spoken of in close connection with "his mother,"
be taken in the same natural and literal sense as
the words "his mother?" The miraculous con
ception has no necessary connection with the
dogma of the perpetual virginity; indeed, the
very phrase " first-born son," sounds against it
Virgins. — See Nun.
Visible Church. — The Church as it appears
in the world is a public organized institution.
But all ostensibly belonging to it are not of it :
only those who believe are its real members; and
as they cannot in all times and places be dis
tinctly known, they form what has been called
not very happily the invisible church. — See
Church, Membership of.
Visitation. — It was the duty of the metro
politan, enjoined by several canons, to visit his
dioceses, publish the enactments made from time
to time, and inquire into neglects and abuses
committed by any bishop ; but he could not ap
propriate the function belonging to a bishop, or
supersede him in ordinations of presbyters and
deacons. The bishop visited his diocese once a-

654

VIS
year. Bishops at visitation were allowed two
solidi, as a species of honorary acknowledgment,
and called in the council of Bracara (572) honor
cathedrae — See Synodals. For another kind of
visitors, see Bishop, Chorepiscopus, Suffra
gans. Visitation in the Church of England is per
formed by the bishop of every diocese once
every three years, or by the archdeacon once a-
year, by visiting the churches and tbeir rectors
throughout the whole diocese. These visitations
were instituted for the purpose of correcting any
abuses or irregularities that might arise. Chapels
and donatives, unless the latter have received the
augmentation of Queen Anne's Bounty, are ex
empt from the visitation of the ordinary, the
first being visitable only by commission from the
crown, and the second by commission from the
donors; and there are also churches and chapels
exempted which belonged to monasteries, and
which formerly obtained exemptions from ordinary
visitations, and were only visitable by the pope.
These, by statute 25 Henry VIII., c. 31, were
made visitable by the king, or by commission
under the great seal. — See Donative.
Visitation, Presbyterial. — By some of the
early acts of the general assembly in Scot
land, presbyteries were enjoined to visit parishes,
and put certain questions to all concerned.
First, the presbytery were to ask the session
about their minister. The following is a
sample of the interrogations : — " 1. Hath your
minister a gospel walk and conversation be
fore the people ? And doth be keep family wor
ship? And is he one who rules weU his own
house? Is he a haunter of ale-houses and
taverns? Is he a dancer, carder, or dicer? Is
he proud or vain-glorious? Is he greedy, or
worldly, or an usurer? Is he contentious, a
brawler, fighter, or striker ? Is he a swearer of
smaU or minced oaths ? Useth he to say, Be
fore God, it is so ; or, in his common conference,
I protest, or, I protest before God? Or, says
he, Lord, what is that? All which are more
than yea and nay ? Is he a filthy speaker or
jester? Bears he familiar company with disaf
fected, profane, or scandalous persons? Is he
dissolute, prodigal, light, or loose in his carriage,
apparel, or words? How spends he the Sab
bath after sermon? Saw ye him ever drink
healths ? Is he at variance with any ? Is there
any that reproaches him ? Or is he well-beloved
of all ? And upon what ground is it that the
variance or good liking of the people is ? 2.
Keeps he much at home at his ministerial work ?
Or doth he occasion to himself distractions and
unnecessary diversions therefrom? Is he con
stant at his caUing and studies, or takes he but
pains at fits and starts, such as at fasts, com
munions, visitations, &c. ? Is Saturday only his
book-day, or is he constantly at his calling?
3. Doth he discountenance or discourage any
that is seeking Christ? Doth he preach sound

VIS
doctrine, so far as ye can understand ? Doth he
preach plainly, or is he hard to be understood
for his scholastic terms, matter, or manner of
preaching ? Doth he faithfully reprove sin, espe
cially such as most prevail in the parish ? What
time of day doth he ordinarily begin sermon on
the Sabbath ? And when doth he dismiss the
people? Spends he too much time in his ser
mon, in repetition of what he said before ? Doth
he lecture and preach in the forenoon, and preach
again in the afternoon on the Lord's Day, and
that both summer and winter? Doth he read a
large portion of Scripture in public and expound
the same ? Doth he preach catechetic doctrine
ordinarily in the afternoon ? Hath he a week
day's sermon, and collections on these days?
When the Lord in his providence is speaking
extraordinary things, doth he tie himself to his
ordinary text, or makes he choice of one more
apposite and suitable to the dispensation ? . . .
How often have ye the communion every year ?
Doth he not begin to catechize young ones about
nine or ten years of age, and how censures he con
temners of catechizing? What course is taken
with contemners of the Lord's Supper upon frivo
lous pretences? At the Lord's Supper doth
he not cause cut the bread in large and fair
shaves fit for mutual fraction and distribution,
that as they give the cup to tbe nearest assi-
dent, so having broken off a part of the bread
with their hand for themselves, they give the
rest to the person sitting nearest them ? . . .
Doth he censure keepers of superstitious days ?
How doth he restrain abuses at pennj'-bridals ?
Doth your session meet weekly? Doth your
minister coolzie [favour or screen] any whom
another brother hath in process? Or doth he
carry any way partially, that so he may become
popular ? Doth he in session assume to him
self a negative voice?" Secondly, Then the
turn of the session came, and simttar ques
tions were put about them: — "1. Is your
session rightly constitute, and all the elders and
deacons duly admitted according to the aots of
the assembly? 2. Do they all attend gospel
ordinances and the diets of the session ? 3. Are
they grave, pious, and exemplary in their lives
and conversations? Do they worship God in
their families? Is any of your elders an
ignorant man, a drinker of healths, a tipler, a
drinker excessively to drunkenness, a swearer,
an observer of Yule-days, &c. ? Is be one that
observes not the Sabbath ? Is he careful to keep
his oath of admission taken before God in face
of the congregation, not to delate or censure but
as edification requires ? Do any of them work
on solemn fast or thanksgiving days? Is any
of them a mocker of piety ? 4. Are they diligent,
careful, and impartial in the exercise of their
offices ? " Thirdly, The other office-bearers were
not omitted. " The precentor, schoolmaster, and
clerk of the session, who in country congrega
tions are ordinarily one and the same, and after

655

VIS
them the beadles, bell-men, and church servants,
being removed, the presbytery is to inquire at
the minister, session, and heads of families, con
cerning their conversation, fidelity, and diligence
in their offices ; aud the presbytery is thereupon to
proceed as the matter requires." Finally, Minister
and session were examined about the state of
the congregation — first, as to its piety, and then as
to these other things, — " The state of the ehurch
as to its fabric, the seats therein, and division of
the same ; the churchyard dikes, the utensils of
the church, communion cups, clothes, the minis
ter's manse, if it be in repair, tbe glebe and
stipend, the salary of the schoolmaster, precentor,
session-clerk, and beadles, and how the commu
nion elements are provided." Presbyterial visi
tations now have none of this inquisitorial
formality, but are usually resorted to in case of
congregational dissension or misunderstanding.
Visitation ofthe Sick. — The form and the
various petitions in use in the Church of Eng
land are in the Book of Common Prayer.
Visitatorial Power.— Dr. Hooke says, —
" Every corporation, whether lay or ecclesiasti
cal, is visitable by some superior; and every
spiritual person, being a corporation sole, is visit
able by the ordinary. There is, however, in our
ecclesiastical polity, an exception to this rule;
for, by composition, the Archbishop of Canter
bury never visits the Bishop of London. During
a visitation all inferior jurisdictions are inhibited
from exercising jurisdiction ; but this right, from
the inconvenience attending the exercise of it, is
usually conceded ; so that the exercise of juris
diction in the inferior court is continued notwith
standing." Visitor or Commissioner. — See Superin
tendents. Vow. — See Biblical Cyclopaedia. — There is
some difference of opinion respecting the origin
and extent of monastic vows. Some authors

WAL
affirm that they were made legally binding and
indissoluble as early as the council of Chalcedon ;
but the more general opinion is, that though con
sidered obligatory in foro conscientias, according
to their nature, no civil disability or irreversible
obligation was incurred by them till the time of
Boniface VIII., late in the thirteenth century.
The three solemn vows, as they are termed, of the
monastic orders, are, poverty, chastity, and obe
dience, to which others are occasionally annexed
by certain religious orders. For example, the
fourth vow of the Jesuits places every member at
the absolute disposal ofthe Roman Pontiff, to be
employed by him in whatever service may be
thought most to the advantage of the holy see.
The earliest lawful age for embracing the monastic-
profession has varied at different periods and in
different countries : it was fixed by the council of
Trent at sixteen years, before which period no
religious vow is of any legal validity. Within
the first five years the vow may be protested
against on the ground of want of consent, in
sufficient age, or irregularity of noviciate; but
after the expiration of that period it is held to
be indissoluble. Certain extraordinary vows —
for instance, that of pilgrimage to Rome — can
only be dispensed with by the pope; others may
be relaxed by the intervention of the ordinary of
the diocese. — See Monachism.
Vulgar Tongue, that is, common tongue,
or plain English. — See Service, Scriptures.
Vulgate, the name commonly given to the
Latin version of the Scriptures. An old Latin
version, or rather a revision of it, which ap
parently circulated in North Italy, is called by
Augustine the Itala. The Vulgate consists of
Jerome's revision of the Latin version of the New
Testament, and of his new translation of the Old
from the Hebrew. His revision of the Latin
version of the Psalms is preserved in the Romish
missal. — See Bible, p. 93.

w

Wafer, the bread used in the Eucharist by
Lutherans and Romanists. In early times the
people made oblations of bread and wine, out of
which the sacramental elements were taken.
Wafers were not introduced till the eleventh or
twelfth century, and after the original custom
referred to had ceased. The wafer is in the
figure of a denarius, or penny, to represent,
according to some, the money for which Jesus
was betrayed. Disputes about the nature of the
sacramental bread ran high between the Eastern
and Western Churches  See Azymites, Bread,
Eucharist, Mass.
Wager. — See Ordeal.
Wake.— See Dedication, Vigil.
Waldenses, a religious hody whose origin
has been the subject of much controversy; some
writers endeavouring to refer it even to apostolic '

times, and connecting the name with the Walds,
or valleys, in which from the earliest ages the
primitive faith is supposed to have been preserved;
others deriving both the origin and the name from
Peter Waldo, or Waldensis, about the year 1170.
There is certainly no direct evidence of the ex
istence of such a sect earlier than the twelfth
century ; and all the writers who lived nearest to
that time agree in representing the name of
Waldenses as transferred from Peter to his dis
ciples. He was a layman of Lyons, who, about
the year above-mentioned, devoted himself to
the work of preaching the Gospel. He was
aided by several companions, who were called
Leonislas, from thename ofthe town, and Sdbotiers
from the sabot or wooden shoe which they wore,
and on which the cross is said to have been carved.
They seem to have had no intention of separating

656

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from the church ; for, when forbidden to preach
by the Archbishop of Lyons, they applied for per
mission to the pope; and the only question then at
issue between them and the authorities at Rome
was the exclusive right of the clergy to the
office of teachers. But of course they were soon
excommunicated; and as Peter had caused parts
of the Bible to be translated into the vulgar
tongue, and as one of his great objects was to
persuade people to study Holy Scripture for
themselves, we need not wonder to find that before
the end of the twelfth century they were accused
of denying purgatory, undervaluing masses and
prayers for the dead, and rejecting in other par
ticulars the corruptions of the Roman Church.
The sect spread rapidly in the south of France,
and also in the north of Italy, especially about
Milan. In the fifteenth. century we hear of them
in several parts of Germany. But they seem
afterwards to have been driven out of these
parts, and their chief place of refuge was in the
valleys of Piedmont, where again they suffered
most cruel persecution from the Dukes of Savoy,
especially in the years 1632, 1655, and 1685.
Their sufferings at those times were awful. Their
vUlages were burned, and the fugitive population
perished among the snows. They were subjected
to every possible indignity, and nearly exter
minated. Their numbers had amounted to
800,000 about the middle of the sixteenth cen
tury. Cromwell nobly interfered on their behalf,
and a remnant of 20,000 still survives in fifteen
different parishes. They had a college at La
Tour, with a staff of eight professors and one
hundred students. This institution has recently
been removed to Florence. They are stiU an
object of interest to Protestant Christians; and
they enjoy perfect toleration under the present
Sardinian government. They have a' church in
Turin capable of holding 1,500 persons, and they
have also a member in the Sardinian chamber of
deputies. Tbey stand out as a species of con
necting link between the churches of the apos
tles and the churches of the Reformation. Their
creed is Protestant and evangelical, and their
lives are pure and blameless. — See Albigenses.
Walkerites. — See Separatists.
Walloon Church, a section of the French
Reformed Church which exists in the Low Coun
tries, and differs from the Dutch Reformed
Church in retaining the French language in its
service, and in preferring the Genevan Catechism,
among its standards, to the Heidelberg Catechism.
Walls of Churches. — See Church, Form
And Architecture of; Scriptures.
Wandering Clergy.— See Vacantivi.
Wandering Jew. — As a counterpart to
the Christian legend, that the beloved disciple of
the Lord should never die (John xxi.-xxiii., &c),
the legend runs of an enemy of Christ, said to he
doomed to a ceaseless wandering around the
earth until the second advent. The fable has
assumed a variety of forms. The oldest Christian

WAR
writer who mentions it is Matthew of Paris
(1259). According to the account in his Historia
Major, which he says he had from the lips of an
Armenian bishop, who received the story directly
from the Jew, his name was Cartaphilus. Being
janitor at Pilate's palace when the Jews, after
the condemnation of Jesus, were dragging him
from the palace, he struck him on the neck, and
mockingly said to him, ' Go on, Jesus ! go
faster; why linger so?' Jesus, turning upon
him with a stern look, said, 'I go, but thou
shalt tarry till I come again.' The janitor was
then thirty years old, but every 100 years he
was seized with a syncope, from which, after
some time, he revived, and found himself in
the age and state in which he struck the
Lord. Subsequently, Cartaphilus was baptized
by Ananias, and called Joseph, which led to his
being confounded with Joseph of Arimathea.
In the West the story assumed another form,
and is first mentioned in the sixteenth century.
He is called Ahasuerus, and is said to have been
seen in Hamburgh (1547), and then in Danzig,
Magdeburg, Liibeck, Vienna, and Paris. His
peculiar dress and manners attracted attention.
Dr. Paulus, Bishop of Schleswig, heard him relate
that he was a sandal-maker in Jerusalem, and
was one of those who cried most loudly, ' crucify
him.' On the way to Calvary Jesus passed his
house, and leaned to rest against the door-post.
But Ahasuerus, who was standing in the door,
with a child in his arms, ordered him off (some
say struck him), when Jesus looked sternly at
him, and said, ' I will stand here and rest, but
thou shalt keep going till the last day.' About
the close of the seventeenth and beginning of
the eighteenth century, however, the legend, in
England, took ite original Eastern form. A
stranger showed himself, saying that he was an
officer of the chief council in Jerusalem, and told
a story of himself essentially agreeing with that
of Cartaphilus. Both Oxford and Cambridge
sent professors to question him, and found him
ready to answer them. He related many things
about the apostles, about Mohammed, Tamerlane,
Soliman, &c, all of whom he said he had known.
He knew the dates of all the crusades. Some
thought him a deceiver, others a monomaniac."
Wandsworth. — The first presbytery in Eng
land was organized at Wandsworth in Surrey,
in 1572. The members were, Mr. Field, lecturer
of Wandsworth ; Mr. Smith, of Mitcham ; Mr.
Crane, of Roehampton ; Messrs. Wilcox, Standen,
Jackson, Bonham, Saintloe, and Edmonds, to
whom afterwards were joined Messrs. Travers,
Clarke, Barber, Gardiner, Crook, Egerton, and a
number of very influential laymen. Eleven elders
were chosen, and their offices described in a
register, entitled, " The Orders of Wandsworth."
Wa-.-burioiiinii Lecture, a lecture founded
by Bishop Warburton, to prove the truth of
Christianity from the prophecies of Scripture —
especially the predictions relating to the Church

657

2 U

WAR
of Rome. Courses of lectures on this foundation
have been delivered by HaUfax, Hurd, Bagot,
Apthorp, and others.
Warden, a, name sometimes given to the
head of a college, and sometimes to the superior
of the chapters in conventual churches.
Wardship. — By virtue of wardship the
feudal lord was the guardian of his tenant
during his minority, appropriated the profits
of his estate, and received a, sum when the
minor came of age. In the same manner the
sovereign protected ecclesiastical revenues dur
ing a vacancy, and received a gift from the new
occupant Washing of Feet. — Feet were washed in
some places before baptism ; but the great period
for the custom was the Thursday before Easter. —
See Lent, p. 375. Seymour thus describes the
ceremony as recently seen by him at Rome, — " It
is called the ' Lavanda,' or washing, and takes
place in one of the transepts of St. Peter's, which
is well arranged for the spectacle. A platform
or stage is erected, of sufficient height to enable
everything to be seen by all who may desire to be
present. The tapestry woven from the celebrated
fresco of Leonardo da Vinci, representing the last
supper, is suspended above this stage, which is
admirably arranged. High above all, and
against the wall, is an elevated bench, on which
are seated thirteen men, to represent the apostles
of our Lord. They are clothed in dresses like
white flannel, and wear caps of a conical form,
like those worn among the Persians. As they
are seated thus, the pope enters, accompanied by
the officers of state; one carries a silver-gilt
basin of water, a second carries thirteen towels, a
third has thirteen bouquets of flowers, and a
fourth carries twenty-six medals. The pope
approaches the bench of the apostles, which is so
high and so well managed that tbeir knees are
on a level with the head of the pope and his
attendants, so that his holiness is spared the
necessity of stooping in order to the washing
their feet, which immediately commences. A
deacon of the church raises the foot of the first
apostle, an attendant hands a towel to the pope,
he dips it into the silver-gilt basin, he touches the
instep raised before him, he kisses the washed
foot, he receives a bouquet of flowers from another
attendant, presents it to the apostle, desires two
medals to be presented by his treasurer, and
moves to the next. A deacon of the church
raises the foot of the next apostle to be washed,
and the same ceremony continues till every right
foot is raised, every apostle washed and kissed,
every bouquet disposed of, and two medals pre
sented to each, on which the ceremony concludes,
and his holiness retires." The Moravians also
practice this rite, the sexes performing it in
separate apartments.
Washing of Hands. — It was customary in
the early ages to wash the hands before entering
the church, a cistern or large basin fuU of water

WAT
being set for the purpose. The men, too, washed
their hands before they partook of the Eucharist
Watch. — See Vigil.
Watchers. — See Acosmet.*.
Watching the Corpse. — See Burial, p.
111. Watch-night, The, is a Wesleyan custom.
Towards the beginning of Methodism, the Metho
dists in Bristol began to meet at night, tbat they
might worship without interruption. Wesley,
knowing that such nocturnal meetings would
soon be misinterpreted, did not condemn them;
but made them public, and held them for a time
every month. They are now held chiefly on tbe
eve of the new year.
Water. — Water was universally used at
baptism, and the rite is called by Justin, " the
water of life." — See Baptism. Anciently water
was mixed with the wine for the Eucharist 
See Eucharist. Some heretics, however, used
only water at this ordinance. — See Encratites.
Water, Holy, in the ceremonial of the
Roman Catholic Church, denotes water formally
consecrated with certain prayers, exorcisms, and
ceremonies, and employed as a means of religious
purification. Nothing certain is known as to the
time when holy water was first introduced into
the services of the church. It is commonly
attributed to Pope Alexander I. ; but the decretal
epistle quoted as the authority for this statement
is a forgery of the ninth or tenth century.
Some of the passages cited from the fathers as
relating to it, in reality speak of the benediction
of the water used in baptism ; while others only
show that water consecrated for the occasion was
employed by individuals in the performance of
miracles, but prove nothing respecting the general
practice of the church. Some writers trace the
origin of it to the Jewish water of purification
made with the ashes of a heifer (Numbers, ch.
xix.) ; while others suppose it originally to have
been an adaptation of the aqua lustralis of the
heathen religious rites, introduced for the politic
purpose of reconciling converts from paganism
to the practice of the Christian Church. Holy
water is directed to be made of pure spring water,
with the admixture of a Uttle consecrated salt.
The office of blessing it properly belongs to the
parish priest; but, with his permission, it may
he performed by any one in priests' orders, pro
vided it is done according to the form prescribed
in the diocesan ritual. The common method of
using it is to place it in a basin at the entrance of
the church, where each member of the congrega
tion makes the sign of the cross with it, or
sprinkles a few drops on his person at the time of
entering or leaving tbe church. It is also fre
quently employed in the exorcisms of the Romish
Church; and is sprinkled on sick persons, or dead
bodies, tombs, churchyards, and places supposed to
be haunted by evil spirits. The virtues attributed
to it are the cure or alleviation of bodily or
mental disorders; preservation from the attacks

658

WAT
of evil spirits ; relief under temptation or trouble
of mind ; preparation for the devotions and sacra
ments of the church ; rendering barren land fer
tile: repelling pestilences, tempests, and thunder
storms, and procuring the remission of venial
sins. In the Greek Church, holy water is usually
consecrated by the bishop or his vicar-general
on the eve of the Epiphany, in commemora
tion of the baptism of our Saviour. No salt
is employed, and they regard the use of it
by the Latins as a grievous and unauthorized
corruption. The uses to which it is applied are
much tbe same as in the Church of Rome, except
that on one or two stated occasions in the year
it is usual to drink a portion. In the Armenian
Church, holy water is consecrated by plunging
a cross into it on the day of the Epiphany, after
which it is distributed among the congregation,
who take it to their homes. The offerings made
on this occasion form a considerable portion of
the emoluments of the Armenian priesthood.
Walerlandiaus, a large sect of Anabaptists
or Mennonites in Holland, named after a district
in that country. As opposed to the Flandrians,
they are more moderate in opinion. In 1664
the Galenists seceded from them, headed by a
physician and pastor called Galen Haan, who
inclined to Arianism — he and his party being
strenuously opposed by another physician and
pastor, Samuel Apostool. — See Mennonites.
Wedding. — See Marriage. — Wedding is
from the old Saxon "wad" — a pledge, and is the
mutual pledge of man and woman for life. The
term is a far truer and happier name of the
nuptial covenant than marriage, or that in which
a woman gets a mari, or husband, or than matri
mony, or that through which a woman becomes
mater, or mother. — See Ring.
Wednesday is a day often marked by special
rehgious exercises, being numbered among the
Rogation and Ember days in the Church of Eng
land. It was observed as a fast, because it was
supposed that on that day of the week the Jews
took counsel to kill Jesus. Lent begins on that
day — Ash Wednesday — and it was often added
to Friday as a weekly fast. In the Western
Church Saturday at length took the place of
Wednesday as a fast. — See Fasts, Lent.
Week, Great, the name ofthe week foUowing
Palm Sunday. — See Lent, p. 375.
Wells. — Wells were, in various parts of the
country, places of superstitious resort up to the
period of the Reformation ; and even far bej-ond
it the custom lingered. These wells were dedi
cated usually to some saint, and often to the
Virgin. Wcslcyanism. — For its history and that
of its various parties or off-shoots, see under
Methodists. West. — See Bowing toward the East —
A person to be exorcised stood with his face
toward, or his hands stretched toward the west —

WHI
the region or symbol of darkness. In renouncing
the devil at baptism candidates turned also tbeir
faces to tho west; but in making the vow of
obedience and covenant with Christ they turned
toward the east.
Westminster Assembly. — See Assembly
of Divines — Two papal synods were held at
Westminster in 1102 and 1108, which, under the
influence of Anselm, decreed that married clergy
should put away their wives. Another synod
was held in 1126, at which a popish legate took
precedence of the metropolitan ; and another in
1138, in which canons were enacted by the sole
authority of the papal see.
Westmiustcr Confession. — See Creed.
Westminster Directory. — See Direc
tory. Whistonian Controversy. — Whiston was
Sir Isaac Newton's successor at Cambridge.
Having adopted Arian views, he was expelled
by the university in October, 1710. His Histo
rical Preface to Primitive Christianity Revived
was published the same year, and condemned
the next year by both houses of convocation.
Their sentence thus concludes, — " We do de
clare that the above-mentioned passages do con
tain assertions false and heretical, injurious to
our Saviour and the Holy Spirit, repugnant to
the Holy Scriptures, and contrariant to the de
crees of the first two general councils, and to the
liturgy and articles of our church." The judg
ment ofthe convocation was sent to Queen Anne ;
but no further steps were taken, the crown vir
tually refusing to interfere. In 1715 Whiston,
on being refused the sacrament in his parish
church, became a dissenter, and opened his own
house for public worship, having framed a liturgy
for himself. At a later period he became a Bap
tist (See Works of Waterland in reply to
Whiston.) While Brethren. — See Albati.
Whitefi'iars or Carmelites. — See Car
melites. White Penitents.— See Albati.
Whitfield Methodists. — See Methodists,
Welsh Calvinistic.
Whitsunday or White Sunday, or, ac
cording to some, Wbilsun-Sunday, Whilsun-
Monday, a festival of the Christian Church,
commemorative of the descent of the Holy
Ghost upon the apostles, as " they were all
assembled together with one accord in one
place," (Acts ii. 1-4.) This miraculous event
having occurred on the day of Pentecost — a
Jewish festival in honour of the delivery of
the law to Moses, fifty days after the feast of
Passover — the name Pentecost is sometimes
used for that of Whitsunday. Whitsuntide
was one of the stated times for the performance
of the rite of baptism in the ancient Church; and
those who came at this festival as candidates
for the ordinance 'were usually clothed in white
garments, as types of that spiritual purity im-

659

WHI
parted by " the washing of regeneration." Hence
the day was called Whit or White Sunday.
The white garments, which were commonly worn
eight days, were metaphorically caUed the gar
ments of Christ, or the mystical garments.
Jerome, writing to Fabiola, alludes to this cus
tom in these words, — "We are to be washed
with the precepts of God, and when we are pre
pared for the garment of Christ, putting off our
coats of skins, we shall put on the linen garment
that hath nothing of death in it, but is all white,
that rising out of the waters of baptism, we may
gird about our loins with truth, and cover the
former filthiness of our breasts." In Gregory's
Sacramentarium we find the following charge at
the delivery of the baptismal robes to the neo-
phites: — "Receive the white and immaculate
garment, which thou mayest bring forth without
spot before the tribunal of our Lord Jesus
Christ, that thou mayest have eternal life.
Amen." At the baptism of great men many of
the attendants clothed themselves also in white.
In an epistle of Mareus Gazensis it is recorded,
that, at the magnificent baptism of Theodosius
the Younger, a splendid procession accompanied
the newly-baptized prince from the church to the
palace. The leaders on the occasion were clothed
in white garments, which made the company
look as if it had been covered with snow ; and
all the senators, and men of quality, and soldiers
in their ranks, carried lamps in their hands, that
one would have thought the stars had ap
peared upon earth." Hamon L'Estrange gives
another reason for the term white, as applied to
this festival. He thinks it is derived from the
French word huict, or eight; referring to the
number of Sundays between Easter and Pente
cost. And Wheatly publishes a letter of the
famous Gerard Langbain, written on Whitsun-
eve, 1650, in reply to a friend who had asked
of him the origin of the name, in which it is
attempted to be shown that the festival was so
called from a custom among our ancestors upon
this day to give all the milk of their ewes and
kine to the poor for the love of God, in order
to qualify themselves to receive the gift of the
Holy Ghost; which milk being then (as it
is still in some countries) called white-meat,
therefore the day from that custom took its
name. Anciently the fifty days between Easter and
Whitsuntide were a sort of festival, being observed
with great solemnity as days of joy. Tertullian
informs us that the Christians had solemn wor
ship every day, and paid the same respect to
them as they did to the Lord's Day, in that they
neither fasted nor prayed kneeling on any day
during this whole interval, which was the com
memoration of our Saviour's resurrection and
ascension. At first all persons were baptized
as opportunity served ; but when the discipline
of the church began to be settled, baptism was
confined, except in cases of urgency, to Easter

WIN
and Whitsuntide, including the fifty days' in
terval, which, as we have already stated, were
regarded as festival days. Easter was celebrated
in memory of Christ's death and resurrection,
and Whitsuntide was chosen in memory .of
the apostles being baptized with the Holy
Ghost, and of their having at that time bap
tized three thousand souls. — See Baptism,
Easter. To these the feast of the Epiphany
was added, in memory of the baptism of Jesus
and his manifestation to the world. — See Epi
phany. In some parts of England there were customs
peculiar to Whitsuntide, such as feasting, or
Whitsun-ales. The word ale, as meaning feast
generally, is found in many semi-ecclesiastical
words, as Leet-ale, Lamb-ale, Whitsun-ale,
Clerk-ale, Bride-ale, Church-ale, Scot-ale, Mid
summer-ale, &c. At all these feasts ale appears
to have been tbe predominant liquor ; and it is
exceedingly probahle that from this circumstance
the metonymy arose. — See Alb, Ales.
Whitsnn-farlhings or Penlecostals are
offerings made at Pentecost to the bishop or arch
deacon, the dean or prebendaries.
Widows. — Deaconesses or female ministers
sometimes received this name, and many of them
might be widows. Widows were not to marry
till a year after their husbands' death. The first
council of Orange says, " That a widow, hav
ing made profession of continuing in her widow
hood before the bishop in the church, and having
her widow's garment put on by the presbyter,
ought never after to violate her promise." — See
Deaconess, Marriage, Women.
Wigs. — The clerical tonsure was early prac
tised. At a later period wigs were introduced;
and in the Protestant Church, during the six
teenth and seventeenth centuries, they were
adopted by the clergy, and continued up to a
recent period. They were in common use in
Scotland at the beginning of the century. — See
Tonsure. Wilhelminians, a sect of the thirteenth cen
tury, named after a Bohemian woman who dwelt
near Milan. She affirmed that in her the Holy
Ghost had become incarnate, and that Jews, Sar
acens, and unworthy Christians, might be saved
through her— true believers being saved by the
blood of Christ.
Wilkinsonians, followers of Jemima Wilk
inson of Cumberland, America, who affirmed that
she had died, her soul remaining in glory, and
her body being re-animated by the Spirit and
power of Christ. — See Universalists.
Winchester Universalists, named after
jElhanan Winchester, who came over from Ame
rica, where he adopted Universalist notions, and
was the successor of Mr. Reily in London. Two
congregations are reported as existing in Eng
land, and a very small one in Glasgow. — See
Universalists. Windows. — In Saxon buildings tbey are
660

WIN
generally small, and when in situations to
require glazing, have often a large splay both
externally and internally. In buildings of the
early Norman style the windows are generally
of rather small proportions ; but in those of later
date they are often of considerable size. The
most ancient examples are usually very little
ornamented. In the early English style the
proportions of windows vary very greatly ; but
the majority of them are long and narrow : they
are used singly, or combined in groups of two,
three, five, and seven. In the decorated style
the windows are enlarged and divided by mul-
lions into separate lights, and have the heads
filled with tracery. The heads of the windows
in this style are of various forms ; the most pre
valent are two-centred pointed arches of different
proportions, but besides these, segmental arches,
both plain and pointed. The use of glass is
referred to the third century ; and in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries the art of painting on
glass seems to have reached its perfection. — See
Early English, Gothic Architecture,
Lychnoscope, Mullion, Perpbndiculae
Style of Gothic, Rose Window, Transom,
(Glossary qf Architecture.)
Wine. — See Eucharist, Sumptuary Laws.
Witchcraft. — The early Church was severe
in its judgments against magic, astrology, augury,
charms, and all kinds of divination. The civil
law condemned the Mathematici, or men that
formed calculations for the prediction of fortunes.
Venefidum or Maleficium — poisoning and mis
chief-making, was the name given to sorcery.
The church would not, by a law of Constantine,
baptize astrologers, nor a special class of them
called GeneViliaci, or those who calculated what
stars had been in the ascendant at a man's
nativity. The twenty-fourth canon of Ancyra
says: — "Let those who use soothsaying, after
the manner of the heathen, or entertain men to
teach them pharmacy or lustration, fall under
the canon of five years' (penance), viz., three
years of prostration, two years of communion
in prayer without the oblation." Sorcery or
pharmacy, that is, using magical potions or
drugs, is condemned severely, and one of the
canons of St. Basil adjudges thirty years' pen
ance to it. Some peculiar forms of divination
(sortes sacrae) have been given under the term
bibliomancy. — See Bibliomancy ; see also Lot.
Some persons were supposed to be in compact
with Satan, and those who consulted or followed
such soothsayers were to be cast out of com
munion. Constantine, however, made such di
vination a capital crime, as well on the part of
those who practised it, as of those who sought
information from it — See Energumens, Exor
cist. Amulets or spells to cure disease were
reckoned a species of idolatry, and the makers of
such phylacteries shared in the same condemna
tion. The abraxis or abracadabra of the Basili-
dianscame under the same censure. — See Basili-

WIT
wans. This was a peculiar combination of the
letters of the alphabet — its numerals written in
Greek, amounting in value to 365 — a numerical
symbol of God. It was printed thus :—
abracadabra abracadabr abracadab abracada ABRACAD ABRACA ABRAO ABRA ABR AB A
The burning of witches forms a dark chapter in
the history of Scotland, and the penal laws
against witchcraft are said to have been first
inflicted in the reign of James III. In that
reign twelve women are said by Buchanan
to have suffered, but their witchcraft was asso
ciated with treason and murder. Belief in the
reaUty of witchcraft was then universal. James
VI. was a notorious witch-finder; and the belief
was prevalent in England before he ascended its
throne. The well-known statute of James was
only in accordance with the spirit of the times.
Nay, there had been two acts against witchcraft
in England, one under Henry VIII., and an
other under Elizabeth, before one was passed in
Scotland in 1 563. The greatest men believed in
witchcraft, Henry More, Cudworth, and John
son. The English laws against witchcraft were
repealed only in 1736. The General Assembly of
the Church of Scotland, and its presbyteries, had
often, from strong convictions of duty, taken the
matter up, for the Old Testament had expressly
said, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live."
The Mosaic law against witchcraft was virtually
a law against idolatry, or a law against treason,
for the witch was professing a compact with
some other power than the one sovereign power
— God himself being first magistrate under the
theocracy. — See Magistrates, Toleration.
When the penal laws were at length repealed,
the early seceders mourned over the repeal as a
sad dereliction of national duty to God. It may
be added that the principal scenes of witchcraft
were in the Lowlands — not in the Highlands —
the fairies of the latter being harmless and ingeni
ous sprites, rather than dark, ugly, and impious
fiends. Many of the Scottish witches, as appears
from their trial, were the victims of miserable
hallucination ; others seem to have gloried in a
fancied power to torment others, and to have
profited by it ; others, when some sudden cala
mity happened, or some individual was afflicted
with any mysterious malady, malignantly took
credit as having had a hand in producing it; and
others made the implied compact with Satan a
knavish cover for crimes of various kinds both
against families and against the State,

661

WIV
Wives.— See Divorce, Marriage, Purity
of Morals, Widows, Women.
Women. — The influence of Christianity did
much in early times for the female sex. They
were freely admitted to the fellowship of the
church ; but they sat in upper rooms or galleries
set apart for them. In many churches they
seem to have had a gate of their own by which
to enter, and of which the deaconesses had charge.
— See Deaconess. But women were never
allowed to preach, though they mightholdtherank
of deaconess, and as such might instruct privately
catechumens and their own sex generally. The
Montanists were an exception to this general
rule. — See Montanists. As they were not to
preach, so they could not baptize. — See Lay-
Baptism, Midwives. Nor were they allowed
to keep private vigUs. Tertullian thus describes
the happiness of domestic life, — " How can we
find words to express the happiness of that mar
riage which the church effects, and the oblation
confirms, and the blessing seals, and angels
report, and the Father ratifies. What a union
of two believers, with one hope, one discipline, one
service, one spirit, and one flesh ! Together they
pray, together they prostrate themselves, and
together keep their fasts, teaching and exhorting
one another. They are together at the church
and at the Lord's Supper ; they are together in
straits and refreshments. Neither conceals any
thing from the other ; neither avoids the other ;
neither is a burden to the other ; freely the sick
are visited, and the needy relieved ; alms without
torture; sacrifices without scruple; daily dili
gence without hinderance ; no using tbe sign by
stealth ; no hurried salutation ; no silent benedic
tion; psalms and hymns resound between the
two, and they vie with each other which shall
say best to their God. Christ rejoices on hearing
and beholding such things ; to such persons he
sends his peace. Where the two are, he is him
self; and where he is, there the evil one is not."
See Church, p. 147; Divorce, Marriage,
Purity of Morals, Veil.
Word or liOgos, the name of the Saviour
peculiar to the fourth gospel. — See " Word,"
Biblical Cyclopasdia. In addition to what is
said there as to ihe phraseology of the Chaldee
Targums, it may be remarked that the distinction
of a God concealed and a God revealed is found
in many Eastern religions, and is based upon
fact, supported by many proofs and passages out
of the Old Testament. Jehovah has his messen
ger and representative — the angel of Jehovah —
who calls himself also Jehovah. This angel of
the covenant is identical with the Word of
Jehovah, by whom Jehovah is represented as
speaking and acting in the Chaldee Targums.
The phrase, the Logos or Word, occurs often in
the writings of Philo, and with him the term is
sometimes the personification of an attribute, as
when the Word is called the reflection of God,
the ideal world, or the summation of those ideas

WOR
which are the archetypes of all being ; and some
times the Word appears to be a person — as when
he is called Interpreter, Archangel, High Priest,
and First-born Son of God. Gfrorer and others
have maintained that the term in John's Gospel
was borrowed from this Alexandrian gnosis or
philosophy. The accuracy of this view cannot
be historically maintained ; and the Alexandrian
Logos is distinctly not that Logos who, as a
divine person, was with God, while also he was
God. God does all things through Christ, sees
himself in him, redeems by him, speaks by him,
governs by him, and wUl judge the world by
him. The eternal Father became objective in
tbe Word, so that, to use old language, in the
Word exists the " xiep.cs vnris" — the intelligible
world; and that becomes " xitrpt; alefaris"- — the
sensible world. The pre-incarnate Christ was as
" xiyts \vXmims" — conception or thought in the
mind — as incarnate he became " xiyts vr^o^ixis"
— Word, expressed. The Evangelist thus em
ployed a term consecrated by usage both in the
Targums and in the theological speculation and
diction of his nation. The incarnation of the Word
— no matter what view is taken of the distinctions
and relations in the Trinity — is a profound mys
tery, and so are its results. In one aspect of it it
was the theme of keen discussion in Germany in
the beginning of the seventeenth century, between
the divines of Giessenand Tubingen. The former
party, such as Menzer, in his Defensio (1621),
and Feuerborn in his Sdagraphia (1621), and
his Kivao-iy^a-pla (1627), held that Jesus, dur
ing his abode on earth, renounced the possession
of the divine attributes ; while the latter party,
such as Nicolai, and Thummius in his lWs;»&><ri-
ygapia (1627), maintained, more in accordance
with sound exegesis, that Jesus kept the posses
sion of the divine attributes, but without their
use — a xrnt-is without a xfio-is — and that there
was only a x^i-^i;, or concealment of them. The
contest involved not a few dialectical subtleties
(on the unio hypostatica and the communicatio
idiomatum, &c), as, for example, with regard to
Christ's omnipresence — his immensitas in seipso,
and his adessentia, or omnipraesentia operatives.
It needs no great dexterity on this mysterious
subject to suggest and press difficulties which seem
to imply contradiction, to raise arguments on
detached phraseology, and to put questions, the
attempt to answer which proves our ignorance of
such first principles as are necessary to a full
solution. Divinity, in all we are told of it, is so
unlike humanity in all we feel of it, that we
cannot wonder that the union of these two na
tures in Christ should present apparent contra
dictions in development and result. Mystery
envelops us as soon as we think of a human
consciousness in personal oneness with a divine
essence, for we know not how they coalesce,
what reciprocal connection they sustain, or what
is the boundary between them. It is easy, and
also correct, to employ the ordinary common-

662

WOR
places, that there is a personal union without
mixture or confusion, that the divine is not
transmuted into the human, nor the human
lifted or expanded into the divine. But the New
Testament does not indulge in those distinctions ;
and he who had these natures premises no such
distinction himself, when in one place he dis
claims omniscience, and confesses that he does
not know the period of the judgment, and in
another gives a promise which implies the pos
session of omnipresence — "Lo, I am with you
alway." So that, on the points involved in this
discussion, such acute men as Chemnitz, Hollaz,
Gerhard, and Quenstedt, could with no great
trouble invest an inimical theory with difficul
ties beyond solution, thrust an opponent into a
dilemma, or put the case against him so as to
fasten the charge of inconsistency upon his argu
ment, and heresy upon his conclusions. Recent
reviews of this controversy will be found in
Thomasius, Christi Person und Werk, vol. ii.,
Erlangen, 1857 ; in the second volume of the
Entwickelung-geschichte of Dorner, who does not
agree on many points with Thomasius ; in Hoff
mann's Schrifibeweis, &c. ; in the Christologie of
Gess and Liebner ; in Lechler's das Apostol. und
nachapostol. Zeitalter, 1857; in Schmid's Dog-
matik der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche, 3d
edit., 1853; in Sartorius; and in Baur's Die
Christliche Lehre von der Drddnigkdt und
Menschwerdung Gottes, vol. iii., p. 415, &c.
Eadie On Philippians. — See Arianism; Creed,
Athanasian ; Eutychians ; Monarchians ;
Monophysites; Monothelites; Nestorians;
Patrlpassians ; Person of Christ ; Sab el-
lians. Works, Good. — See Good Works.
Worms, Concordat of. — At this concordat,
held in 1122, it was settled that all elections of
bishops were to be freely conducted according to
the laws of the church, but under the supervi
sion of the emperor ; and that the right of spirit
ual investiture by ring and staff belonged to the
pope, while that of secular infiefment with the
sceptre was conceded to the emperor. This
agreement was confirmed by the first general
council of Lateran in 1123 (called in the West
the Ninth Oecumenical Council). — See Inves
titure. Worms, Edict of, the edict passed at the
diet which assembled at Worms in 1521, wbich
declared Luther a heretic and schismatic. It
was, however, never acted on.
Worship. — See Public Worship, Ser
vice of the Church, &c. — The following is a
sketch of the form and order of public worship
in Scotland two hundred years ago: — "Imme
diately on entering the pulpit the minister kneeled
down and began with prayer, the people gene
rally kneeling also. It was customary at some
part of the service to repeat the Lord's Prayer
and the doxology; but in other respects the
worship was unfettered hy forms, the officiating

6G3

WOR
minister guiding the devotions of his flock, as
Justin Martyr describes those of the primitive
Christians, ' according to his ability, without a
prompter.' Prayer being ended, the congrega
tion joined in singing a portion of the psalms ;
a part of the service in which they took great
delight, and in which they were so well instructed
that many of them could sing without the aid
of a psalm book. The psalm being sung, the
minister offered up another short prayer, beseech
ing the influences of the Spirit to accompany the
word preached. And then followed the sermon ;
which having been succeeded by prayer and
praise, the congregation was dismissed with the
apostolic blessing. ' As to the people generally,
thej' seem to have conducted themselves during
divine service with suitable decorum; though
the following extract from the minutes of the
kirk-session of Perth would indicate that clergy
men were occasionally exposed to annoyances
similar to those of which they have had to com
plain in more modern times : — ' John Tenender,
session- officer, is ordained to have his red staff
in the kirk on the Sabbath days, therewith to
wauken sleepers, and to remove greeting bairns
furth of the kirk.'" (M'Crie's Sketches?)
The word " worship " in the phrase, " with my
body I thee worship," in the marriage service
of the Church of England, has its old English
meaning, denoting worth-ship or honour. So a
magistrate on the bench is called " your wor
ship." Wycliffe renders the clause in the New
Testament — " him will my Father honour" — by
" my Father shall worship him." The Quakers
hold that uncovering of the head is an act of
worship due to God only; " an honour," as Fox
says, " which proud flesh looked to."
Worship, Family. — The Westminster Direc
tory lays special stress upon it, and gives minute
directions about it Steuartof Pardovan thus gives
the substance of various acts of assembly,^" The
ordinary duties of families convened for the exer
cise of piety are these, — first, prayer and praises ;
next, reading of the Scriptures, with catechizing
in a plain way, together with godly conferences ;
as also admonitions and rebukes upon just reasons.
The master of a family, though of the best
qualifications, is not to take on bim to interpret
the Scriptures ; yet it is commendable that,
by waj' of conference, they make some good
use of what hath been read and heard. Per
sons of quality are allowed to entertain one ap
proved by the presbytery, for performing the
worship of God in their families. And in other
families where the head is unfit, one constantly
residing in the family, and approved by the
minister and session, may be employed in that
service ; yet it was never the mind of the church
that persons of quality should lay their family
worship entirely upon their chaplains, and never
perform it in their own persons. Considering
that persons aiming at division may be ready to
creep into houses, and lead captive silly "and

WOR
unstable souls : for preventing whereof, no idler,
who hath no particular calling, or vagrant per
son under pretence of a calling, is to be suffered
to perform worship in families. So many as
can conceive prayer ought to make use of that
gift of God, albeit those who are rude and weaker
may begin with a set form of prayer, but so as
they be not sluggish in stirring up in themselves
the spirit of prayer, which is given to all the
children of God in some measure. By an act of
assembly, 1697, session 5, such elders and dea
cons as obstinately refuse or neglect family wor
ship by themselves, or others appointed for that
end, are to be removed from their office."
Worship of Saints. — See Invocation of
Saints, Relics, Saint.
Wyclitntes. — See Lollards ; England,
Church of. — Wycliffe was born at Wycliffe,
near Richmond, in Yorkshire, about a.d. 1324.
In early youth he was a commoner of Queen's
College, Oxford. His favourite studies were
metaphysics and theology. One of his earliest
public appearances was in 1360 against the men
dicant monks, with whom the university had a
resolute quarrel. In 1376 the monks drew up
nineteen articles against Wycliffe, taken from
his prelections and sermons. These charges
show that Wycliffe preached a species of Pro
testantism — denying transubstantiation and the
supremacy of the pope, and severely condemning
the abuse of her temporalities on the part of the
church. During the next year the pope sent to
England five bulls against the reformer; but
the king died before they arrived, and the uni
versities would not act. The prelates, however,
cited Wycliffe to appear before them in London.
In the meantime parliament was in a dilemma
on a question of casuistry, whether it were law
ful to refuse the pope's demand that treasure
should be sent out of the kingdom. The matter
was referred to Wycliffe, and he at once decided
tbat parliament might resist. He then, attended
by the Duke of Lancaster and the lord marshal,
Earl Percy, appeared before the episcopal tri
bunal, and after some altercation, left the court
in safety. He was summoned to appear again
at Lambeth in 1378, but the process was sud
denly stopped by the queen-mother. In 1381
he published twelve theses against transubstan
tiation, and the Archbishop of Canterbury for
mally pronounced the majority of them danger
ous and heretical. Wycliffe left Oxford in 1382
and retired to Lutterworth. There belaboured
without intermission, and neither tongue nor
pen was idle in the cause of evangeUcal truth and

XER
freedom. He had been threatened with paraly
sis a year or two previous, but in 1384 he was
seized in the pulpit with a sudden stroke, and
soon after expired. Wycliffe's works are very
numerous, and are chiefly of a polemical and
practical nature, induced by the spirit of the age
in which he lived. His English translation of
the Latin Bible, or Vulgate, was a work of
great merit and necessity, for it unlocked the
Scriptures to the multitude, or as his antagonist,
bewailing such an enterprise, worded it, " the
Gospel pearl was cast abroad and trodden under
foot." The papal schism that happened on the
death of Gregory XL, stirred him up to compose
a famous tract, The Schism ofthe Popes. His
essay on The Truth and Meaning of Scripture
contains striking statements on the perfection
and clearness of the Bible alone as the rule of
faith. The English style of the reformer is
wonderful for his age, and is clear and homely
in ite structure. Our present tongue was then
beginning to raise itself into eminence and popu
larity. Chaucer's poetry and Mandeville's prose
were evidence of its flexibility and power. Wyc
liffe's style is more common than theirs, for it
speaks to the people in their own vernacular.
Wycliffe will ever he remembered as a good and
a great man, an advocate of ecclesiastical inde
pendence, an unquailing foe to popish tyranny,
a translator of Scripture into our mother tongue,
and an industrious instructor of the people in
their own rude but ripening dialect. May he
not be justly styled the " morning star of the
Reformation?" So much impression was made by
his works that one of his enemies complains,
" that a man could not meet two persons on the
road but one was a Wycliffite." A convocation
held at Oxford in 1408 prohibited the reading
and diffusion of the reformer's version. At tbe
council of Constance in 1415, the dead Wycliffe
was denounced as a heretic, and his bones were
ordered to be exhumed from consecrated ground.
Thirteen years afterward the decree was enforced
by Pope Martin V., and Fleming, Bishop of
London, was ordered to see it done. His grave
was opened, the bones taken out and burned, and
the ashes cast into the stream that passes near
the church of Lutterworth. As Thomas Fuller
adds, in his own style, " This river took them 'into
the Avon, Avon into the Severn, Severn into the
narrow seas — they into the main ocean, and thus
the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblems of his
doctrine, which is now dispersed all the world
over.' " (Griffin's Cyclopaedia qf Universal Bio
graphy.)

X

Xenodochia, as the name implies, were
houses attached to ancient churches, in which
strangers might be accommodated, as well as
the sick and the poor. The Christianity of

recent times has also established similar Institu
tions. Xerophagia (Jxjo,-, QayiTv), eating of dry
food. — See Fasting.

664

YEA
Year, Ecclesiastical. — See Calendar,
Feasts, &c— Kurtz says,—" In the East, the
symbolical relation between the natural and the
ecclesiastical year was ignored, except so far as
impUed in the attempt to give to the Jewish
feasts a Christian adaptation. To some extent,
indeed, Western ideas had been imported in
reference to the great festivals, such as Christmas,
Easter, and Pentecost, but not in connection with
the ordinary sun and feast-days. At first the
ecclesiastical year in the East commenced with
Easter, afterwards with Quadragesima or with
Epiphany, and ultimately in September, as under
the old dispensation. The year was divided
into four parts, according to the ' lectio con-
tinua ' of the Gospels, and the Sundays obtained
corresponding names. The xti(iaxn vrgum rti
MarS-aiov took place immediately after Pentecost.
The Latin ecclesiastical year commenced in
advent, and was divided into a 'Semestre
Domini' and a 'Semestre ecclesia?.' But the
idea underlying this arrangement was only
carried out in reference to the 'Semestre
Domini ' — Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost,
with the Sundays which they included, indicat
ing the commencement, the development, and
the completion of the history of redemption. In
reference to the ' Semestre ecclesise,' only the
commencement of a symbolical arrangement was
made. Thus the ' Feast of Peter and Paul,' on
the 29th June, represented the foundation of the
Chnrch by the apostles ; the ' Feast of Laurentius,'
the martyr, on the 10th August, the contest
awaiting the ' Church militant ; ' and the ' Feast
of Michael,' the archangel, on the 2 9 th September,
the complete success of the 'Church triumph
ant' That these feasts were intended to form
the basis of three cycles of festivals, we gather
from the circumstance that the Sundays after
Pentecost had been arranged as Dominican post
Apostolos, post Laurentii, post Angelos. But
the idea was not developed; the frequency of
saints' days not only made this arrangement
impossible, but rendered it even necessary to en
croach on the ' Semestre Domini.' The princi
ple of attempting to Christianize the worship of
the heathen was authoritatively sanctioned by
Gregory the Great, who in 601 instructed the
Anglo-Saxon missionaries to transform the hea
then temples into churches, and the pagan into
saints' festivals or martyr days, ' ut dime mentes
gradibus vel passibus non autem saltibus eleven-
tur.' Saints now took the places of the old gods,
and the ecclesiastical was made in every respect
to correspond with the natural year, only in a
Christianized form."
Yearly Meeting. — See Meeting.
Yezidis. — An interesting account of this
strange sect, who Uve in Kurdistan, is given

YEZ
by Mr. Layard in the first volume of his Nine
veh. He says, — "It is difficult to trace their
ceremonies to any particular source. They bap
tize in water, like the Christians; if possible,
within seven days after birth. They circumcise
at the same age, and in tbe same manner as the
Mohammedans ; and reverence the sun, and have
many customs in common with the Sabseans. —
See Sab2eans. All these ceremonies may indeed
have had a common origin, or may have been
grafted at different times on their original creed.
They may have adopted circumcision to avoid
detection by their Mussulman oppressors; and
may have selected passages from the Koran, to
carve upon their tombs and sacred places, be
cause, as suggested to me by Sheikh Nasr, they
corresponded with their opinions, and were best
suited to a country in which Arabic was the
spoken language. They have more in common
with the Sabseans than with any other sect. I
have already alluded to tbeir reverence for the
sun, and have described the temple and the oxen
dedicated to that luminary. They are accus
tomed to kiss the object on which its first beams
fall ; and I have frequently, when travelling in
their company at sunrise, observed them perform
this ceremony. For fire, as symbolical, they
have nearly the same reverence ; they never spit
into it, but frequently pass their hands through
the flame, kiss them, and rub them over their
right eyebrow, or sometimes over the whole face.
Their year begins with that of the Eastern Chris
tians, whom they follow also in the order and
names of their months. Some fast three days at
the commencement of the year ; but this is not
considered necessary. They do not observe the
Mohammedan Ramazan. Wednesday is their
holiday, and although some always fast on that
day, yet they do not abstain from work on it, as
the Christians do on the Sabbath. The Yezidis
recognize one Supreme Being ; but, as far as I
could learn, they do not offer up any direct
prayer or sacrifice to him. The name of the
Evil Spirit is, however, never mentioned; and
any aUusion to it by others so vexes and irri
tates them, that it is said they have put to death
persons who have wantonly outraged their feel
ings by its use. So far is their dread of offending
the evil principle carried, that they carefully
avoid every expression which may resemble in
sound the name of Satan, or the Arabic word for
' accursed.' When they speak of the devil, they
do so with reverence, as Melek Taous, king pea
cock, or Melek el Kout, the mighty angel. They
believe Satan to be the chief of the angelic host,
now suffering punishment for his rebellion against
the divine will ; but still all-powerful, and to be
restored hereafter to his high estate in the celes
tial hierarchy. He must be concUiated and

665

YEZ
reverenced, they say; for as he now has the
means of doing evil to mankind, so will he here
after have the power of rewarding them. Next
to Satan, but inferior to him in might and wis
dom, are seven archangels, who exercise a great
influence over the world; they are Gabrail,
Michail, Raphail, Azrail, Dedrail, Azrapheel,
and Sbemkeel. Christ, according to them, was
also a great angel, who had taken the form of
man. He did not die on the cross, but ascended
to heaven. They hold the Old Testament in
great reverence, and believe in the cosmogony of
Genesis, the deluge, and other events recorded in
the Bible. They do not reject the New Testa
ment, nor the Koran; but consider them less
entitled to their veneration. Still they always
select passages from the latter for their tombs
and holy places. Mohammed they look upon as
» prophet ; as they do Abraham, and the patri
archs. They expect the second coming of Christ,
as well as the re-appearance of Imaum Mehdi,
giving credence to the Mussulman fables relating
to him." They have four orders of priesthood,
Pirs, or saints ; Sheikhs, some of whom always

ZOH
dwell in the tomb of tbe great Sheikh Adi ; the
Cawals, or preachers; and the Fakirs, who do
the menial offices connected with their religion.
These offices are hereditary, and descend to
women as well as to men.
Yule, the old name signifying Christmas. —
See Christmas. Yule was apparently an old
Gothic pagan feast. Various origins have been
assigned to the term (See Jamieson's Scottish
Dictionary). Many ancient or pagan supersti
tions, not unlike the saturnalia of the Romans,
were connected with its observance, and from the
feasting on such occasions, the term "joli" — jolly,
from "joi" — yule, is said to be derived. — See
Pasch.' The religious keeping of Yule and
Easter was one of the articles of Perth, which
had been so strongly objected to. — See Articles,
Five. On the accession of William and Mary,
the Scottish parliament discharged what was
called the "Yule vacancy" of the Court of
Session, and compelled the judges to attend court
at that period. But in 1712 an act was passed
re-enacting the Christmas recess. The act gave
great offence to many Presbyterians in Scotland.

z

Sabians. — See Sab.eans.
Zealots, a fanatical Jewish sect, very zeal
ous for the divine honour. They regarded them
selves as the successors of Phinehas, took the law
into their hands, and often committed nefarious
acts of injustice and assassination toward the
last days of the kingdom, and not long before
the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. They were
very busy and destructive in raising factions and
tumults. In fact, their excesses hastened on the
ruin of their country. In religion they differed
not from the Pharisees.
Zoharites, a Jewish sect, so called from its
attachment to the book Zohar.— See Cabala.
According to Tholuck this book is an interpolated
writing of the Rabbi Moses Leon of the thirteenth
century, though it follows more ancient tradi
tions. The theology of the book is peculiar. Ac
cording to it the first-born of the Infinite has,
in his emanations, manifested his divinity in
peculiar ways, and has sent forth from himself
ten luminous streams, which are called sephi-
roth — a word translated by some authors,
numerations, and by others, splendours. The
ten numerations or splendours are denominated
Supreme Crown, Wisdom, Understanding, Mercy,
Severity, Beauty, Victory, Glory, Stability,
and Sovereignty. These are not like instru
ments used by an agent, distinct and separate
from the hand which employs them, but essen
tial instruments of divine communication, sub
stantially existing in the divine nature, and
proceeding from it through the medium of
the first offspring of deity, as rays issuing from
the sun are instruments of heat, of the same

nature as their source. Menasseh Ben Israel
states it as the universal opinion of the Caba-
lists, that the word Jehovah not only is the
peculiar name of the divine essence, but also
designates the Aziluthic world, or world of
emanation, which contains the ten sephiroth.
The point of the letter jod, according to what he
deems the proper mode of writing the word
Jehovah, denotes the supreme crown, which
some Cabalists also call the central point; the
jod itself denotes wisdom ; the first he, under
standing ; the van, which is equivalent to six,
denotes the next six numerations ; and the final
he, the tenth and last." Or to take another
specimen, "'Jehovah, our God, Jehovah: these
are three degrees with respect to this sublime mys
tery, in the beginning God, or Elohim, created.'
— 'There is an unity which is called Jehovah
the first, our God, Jehovah: behold! they are
all one, and therefore called one : lo ! these three
names are as one ; and although we call them one,
and they are one, but by the revelation of the
Holy Spirit it is made known, and they are by tbe
light of the eye to be known, that these three are
one; and this is the mystery of the voice that is
heard; the voice is one; and there are three
things, fire and wind and water, and they are all
one in the mystery of the voice, and they are
but one: so here Jehovah, our God, Jehovah,
these three modes, forms, or things, are one.' "
This sect was revived about 1750, by a man
called Jacob Frank, a Polish Jew. Not long
before Jacob Frank's time a Cabalistic sect had
appeared in Podolia, assuming the somewhat
arrogant designation of New Hassidim, or New

666

ZUR
Saints. The ground was thus prepared for
Frank's work as a reformer, if such be may be
regarded. The leaders, however, of the num
erous Israelitish communities were in the main
hostile, and violently persecuted Frank and his
partizans. Denounced to the government, Frank
and bis disciples were for a season imprisoned ;
but were released, however, at the intercession
of the Bishop of Podolia, and of the Catholic
clergy, who saw in the principles announced by
Frank a striking resemblance to the Catholic
faith. Persecution having burst forth afresh,
Frank counselled the Zoharites to give external
adhesion to Christianity, and he was himself
baptized. He continued, nevertheless, to pro
claim essentially the same ideas which had
gained bim such hosts of proselytes. From a
second captivity, to which the implacable animo
sity of his foes had condemned him, he was
delivered through the invasion of Poland by
the Russians. He now entered on missionary
labours in Germany, where some of his apostles
had already appeared. At Vienna he assumed
almost a regal pomp, and this led to his expul
sion. From the Landgrave of Hesse he obtained
permission to fix his residence at Offenbach,
where he took the title of Baron, and set up a
kind of court, the Zoharites from every quarter
sending him immense sums. The Zoharites still
exist. (Allen's Modern Judaism; Tholuck's
Commentatio de ortu Cabbalas, 1837.)
Zurich Letters.— On the accession of Mary,
more than a thousand of the Reformers sought
refuge on the Continent, and many of them settled
in Zurich. On the return of the Zurich exiles to
England, at Elizabeth's accession in 1558, they
naturally maintained a correspondence with the
minister and magistrates of Zurich, who had so
kindly welcomed them and given them shelter.
A portion of these letters have been published by
the Parker Society. They show the opinion of
the day on those subjects which afterwards pro
duced such agitation  See Puritans.
Zvt 'Inglians, followers of Zwingli, the famous
Swiss reformer. Zwingli "preached his first ser
mon in 1506, and was chosen pastor of Glaris.
Here he remained ten years, and during tbat
period he mingled in the strife of arms against
the French. The young pastor, at the same
time, devoted himself to the study of Greek and
Hebrew, gradually made the Scriptures his sole
and supreme rule of authority, and publicly ex
pounded the gospels and the epistles. In 1516
he had been chosen preacher to the Abbey of
Einsidlen, a famed spot of popish pilgrimage and
superstition, and the year following he removed
to a similar position in the cathedral of Zurich.
The effect of his honest preaching of the Gospel
soon became apparent in the city and country,
and his general character and opinions produced
a deep and universal sensation. While this state
of transition was so marked, the crisis was has
tened in 1518 by the arrival of Samson, the

ZWI
seller of indulgences. The traffic in these ' Ro
man wares ' roused the indignation of Zwingli,
and led to a keen exposure and a successful re
sistance. Luther's writings were, at the same
time, largely circulated at the recommendation
of the reformer. The plague broke out, and,
during its continuance, though weak himself
from exhaustion, he assiduously tended the sick
and dying. His zealous labours grew in num
ber and results, the simplicity of the Gospel was
more distinctly apprehended by him; but the
friends of the popedom were enraged, and
Zwingli was tried in January, 1523, on a charge
of heresy. Rome gained nothing hy the trial.
Zwingli presented sixty-seven propositions, and
defended them from Scripture. The reformer
gathered courage with growing difficulties, and,
in 1524, the council of Zurich remodelled the
public worship according to the views and wishes
of Zwingli. Pictures, statues, and relics were
removed from the churches, and mass was abo
lished. Opposition to the reformed doctrines was
meanwhile gathering in the other cantons. The
question arose, whether each canton was free to
choose its own form of religion, or whether the
confederation should interfere ; Zurich contended
for its individual liberty and independence, but
was opposed by the Waldstettes, or the primitive
democratic cantons of Schwytz, Unterwald,
Urzug, and Lucerne. The triumph of the re
formation at Berne and other places, threw those
forest cantons into wilder commotion, and, in
consonance with their views of their federal
polity, they took up arms for Rome. Zurich,
encouraged by Zwingli, called out its troops, and
put itself into a posture of defence. Efforts were
made to maintain peace, but it was of no long
duration, and after various diplomatic negotia
tions, hostiUties finally commenced. Zurich had
also lost somewhat of its earlier evangelical
purity, while the neighbouring states were con
spiring for its ruin. In the awful emergency,
when the public mind was alarmed by a series
of omens and prodigies, the reformer maintained
tranquillity. The war began. Zurich was
cowardly, dilatory, and far from being prepared,
but the hom of the enemy echoed among their
hills, and the devoted Zwingli mounted bis cap
arisoned horse, took farewell of his wife and
children, and went forth as a patriot and warrior
to share in the common danger. The Zurichers
marched to meet the Waldstettes, but were de
feated at Cappel with great slaughter, 11th
October, 1531. ZwingU was found, after the
battle, lying on his back, and his eyes upturned
to heaven, with his helmet on his head, and his
battle-axe in his hand. He had been struck
near tbe commencement of the engagement, and
then as he fell and reeled, he was several times
pierced with a lance. He was Uving when dis
covered in the evening; but the infuriated fana
tics soon despatched him. Next day his dead
body was barbarously quartered and burnt.

667

ZWI
Thus perished this hero-martyr." — Griffin's
Cyclopaedia of Universal Biography. Zwingli
held that the bread and wine ofthe Eucharist were
only symbols of the Lord's body and blood, and
that the ordination was only commemorative in
its nature — that nature being described in these
six words, "This do in remembrance of me."
Calvin, on the otber hand, maintained a real
spiritual presence. The following anecdote is
told of Luther, that, on his return on a Mon
day in 1545 from a lecture which he bad just
given on the first chapter of ' Genesis, he
passed before the shop of the bookseller, Maurice,
recently returned from the celebrated fair of
books which was held at Frankfort. " Well,
Maurice," asked he of the bookseller, "what are
people saying down at Frankfort? Are they
still speaking always of the monk of Wittem-
berg?" "Not much," answered the bookseller,

ZWI
"but they speak of Calvin. I have brought from
the fair his hook on the Lord's Supper." Luther
went in at once with the bookseller, took the
book, sat down, and never quitted it till he had
read it through. After he had finished it,
" Maurice," said he, " this man is pious and wise,
and I would have entrusted all the matter to
him. -If Zwingli and CEcolampadius had spoken
thus there could never have been any dispute. "
Melanchthon made in the articles of the Augs
burg Confession a change in the direction of
Calvin.' This modification was admitted by
many; and at this day the most illustrious divines
of Germany profess, upon the Lord's Supper,
a doctrine similar to that of Calvin. — See
Consubstantiation ; Eucharist ; Mass ;
Real Presence; Sacrament; Switzerland,
Churches in ; Transubstantiation.

668

GLASGOW:
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