'-' i l I ¦¦ ; ¦I I&7? The Permanence of C ERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY His ego nec metas rerum, nec tempora pono. RIVINGTONS JLtmBon Waterloo Place SDr-foro High Street Csmfcriuge . . Trinity Street The Permanence of Christianity CONSIDERED IN EIGHT LECTURES PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN THE YEAR MDCCCLXXII £Dn tlie jFouti&attott of tlje late IBUti* loljn Bampton, 9£.SL BY JOHN RICHARD TURNER EATON, M.A. LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF MERTON COLLEGE ; RECTOR OF LAPWORTH, WARWICKSHIRE ; HONORARY CANON OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. RIVINGTONS LonHan : ©rforU : Cambridge MDCCCLXXIII ' ' Etiam quae pro Religione dicimus, cum grandi metu et disciplina dicere debemus." — Hil. de Trin. ccvii. IS', 1. TO THE RIGHT REVEREND HENRY LORD BISHOP OF WORCESTER THESE LECTURES ARE JDeBtcateD WITH SINCERE RESPECT. EXTRACT FROM THE LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT OP THE LATE REV. JOHN BAMPTON, CANON OF SALISBUEY. " I give and bequeath my Lands and Estates to the " Chancellor, Masters, and Scholars of the University of " Oxford for ever, to have and to hold all and singular the " said Lands or Estates upon trust, and to the intents and " purposes hereinafter mentioned ; that is to say, I will and " appoint that the Vice-Chancellor of the University of " Oxford for the time being shall take and receive all the " rents, issues, and profits thereof, and (after all taxes, repa- " rations, and necessary deductions made) that he pay all the " remainder to the endowment of eight Divinity Lecture " Sermons, to be established for ever in the said University, " and to be performed in the manner following : " I direct and appoint, that, upon the First Tuesday in " Easter Term, a Lecturer may be yearly chosen by the " Heads of Colleges only, and by no others, in the room "adjoining to the Printing-House, between the hours of " ten in the morning and two in the afternoon, to preach " eight Divinity Lecture Sermons, the year following, at " St. Mary's in Oxford, between the commencement of the " last month in Lent Term, and the end of the third week " in Act Term. EXTRACT FROM CANON BAMPTON'S WILL. " Also I direct and appoint, that the eight Divinity Lecture " Sermons shall be preached upon either of the following sub jects — to confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to " confute all heretics and schismatics — upon the divine " authority of the holy Scriptures — upon the authority of " the writings of the primitive Fathers, as to the faith and " practice of the primitive Church — upon the Divinity of our " Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ — upon the Divinity of the " Holy Ghost — upon the Articles of the Christian Faith, as " comprehended in the Apostles' and Nicene Creed. "Also I direct, that thirty copies of the eight Divinity " Lecture Sermons shall be always printed, within two months " after they are preached ; and one copy shall be given to the " Chancellor of the University, and one copy to the Head of " every College, and one copy to the Mayor of the city of " Oxford, and one copy to be put into the Bodleian Library ; " and the expense of printing them shall be paid out of the " revenue of the Land or Estates given for establishing the " Divinity Lecture Sermons ; and the Preacher shall not be " paid, nor be entitled to the revenue, before they are printed. " Also I direct and appoint, that no person shall be quali- " fied to preach the Divinity Lecture Sermons, unless he hath " taken the degree of Master of Arts at least, in one of the two " Universities of Oxford or Cambridge ; and that the same " person shall never preach the Divinity Lecture Sermons " twice." PREFACE jf AM aware that all advocacy of Eevealed Truth, which does not proceed from the pen of a lay man, will in some quarters, at least, be held to be but prejudiced and valueless. I have accordingly made greater use throughout this work of the state ments and testimony of adversaries than of friends to the cause of Christianity. To these I have en deavoured to do justice, " setting down nought in malice ; " but rather striving to make my own the honest professions of an honoured name in our Church ; whose words, and not my own, I desire may linger in the mind of the reader of these pages. " No man may justly blame me for honour- " ing my spiritual mother, the Church of Bng- " land, in whose womb I was conceived, at whose " breasts I was nourished, and in whose bosom. I " hope to die. Bees, by the instinct of nature, do " love their hives, and birds their nests. But, " Grod is my witness, that according to my utter- vm PREFACE. " most talent and poor understanding, I have en- " deavoured to set down the naked Truth impar- " tially, without either favour or prejudice, the " two capital enemies of right judgment. The one " of which, like a false mirrour, doth represent " things fairer and straighter than they are ; the " other, like the tongue infected with choler, makes " the sweetest meats to taste bitter. My desire " hath been to have Truth for my chiefest friend, " and no enemy but error." — Bramhall {Works, II. 21). I should be ungrateful, were I not here to ac knowledge my obligations to the assistance and sympathy of many old and valued friends, more especially to the Rev. William Ince, Sub-Rector and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford ; and to Dr. Greorge Rolleston, Fellow of Merton College, and Linacre Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION xi LECTURE I. PERMANENCE A TEST OF RELIGIOUS SYS7EMS LECTURE II. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CON. SIDERED S3 LECTURE III. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CON SIDERED in LECTURE IV. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CON SIDERED isg LECTURE V. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CON SIDERED 205 LECTURE VI. THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY INFERRED FROM THE CHARACTER OF ITS INFLUENCE z5i CONTENTS. LECTURE VII. TAGE THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY INFERRED FROM THE CHARACTER OF ITS INFLUENCE 295 LECTURE VIII. THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY INFERRED FROM ITS MISSIONARY CHARACTER AND PRESENT STANDING. . . INTRODUCTION T N the interval between the delivery of these -*- Lectures and their publication a volume has ap peared from the pen of the veteran, D. F. Strauss, which has already run through four editions.1 No work could better illustrate the double line of attack to which Christian belief is at this time exposed. Commencing with the inquiry, — " Are we still Christians ? " and taking the Apostles' Creed as his standard of orthodoxy,2 the writer seeks to show in detail not only the unreality of a belief in the Holy Spirit ; not only the unhis- torical character of all that is Divine in the Person and Life of Jesus Christ ; but further, the need- lessness and logical imperfection of the very idea of a Creator of the Universe.3 That Universe, he holds, is itself both the term of human inquiry and the basis of all reality. In it and in its manifold developments must be sought the ground of all 1 Der alte. und der neue Glaube. Vierte Aiiflage. Bonn, 1873. 2 See §§ 5-13. 3 See more particularly §§ 5, 36, 38. It was a saying of Kant, " Give me Matter ; and I will show you how a world might from it arise." INTR 0£> UCTION. existence,1 the secret of life, the measure of eter nity and of infinity, the limitations of immortality. Duty is resolved into resignation to the invariable Laws of Nature, and into the submission of indi vidual desires to the general good of the race or species.2 Religion, if indeed it can be said to exist, is explained to be a sentiment of awe and admiration at the grandeur of that Universe,3 of which the par ticular soul, if that can be called soul, which is so entirely one with the body, forms a minute fraction. Such are the results of a criticism of forty years, hitherto supposed to be directed to the examina tion of the historical documents relating to the Life of Christ. It has closed in landing the critic not in the position of the Unitarian ; who denies, indeed, the cardinal doctrine of our Lord's Divinity, 1 " Im Laufe unsrer weiteren Betrachtung bestimmte sich uns das- selbe niiher dahin, dass es in's Unendliche bewegter Stoff sei, der durch Scheidung und Mischung sich zu immer hohern Formen nnd Functionen steigert, wahrend er durch Ausbildung, Ruckbildung, und Neubildung einen ewigen Kreis beschreibt."— Strauss, p. 226. See also 228. 2 " Alles sittliche Handeln des Menschen, mo'chte ich sagen, ist ein Sichbestimmen des Einzelnen nach der Idee der Gattung." — i£.,'pp. 241 and 243. Strauss of course denies free-will, p. 252. 3 See p. 244. " Das religiose Gebiet in der menschlichen Seele gleicht dem Gebiete der Rothhaute in Amerika, das, man mag es beklagen oder misbilligen so viel man will, von deren weisshautigen Nachbarn von Jahr zu Jahr, niehr eingeengt wird ; " p. 141. See also 145, 147. Similarly M. Littre" on the side of Positivism defines Eeli gion, " La definition de la religion c'est l'ensemble des dogmes et de stitutions qui conferment a la conception du Monde i'eMncation et la morale." — Paroles de la PMlosophie Positive, p. 62. As regards the old theological dogmas he declares himself superior to conviction lb., pp. 50, 51. INTR OD UCTION. xiii yet acknowledges " the form," and even, it may be said, "the power of godliness:" but in that of a Pantheistic Materialist,1 indifferent alike to the existence of Grod, or of the soul.2 Professing to write in the interests of a powerful and intellectual minority, Herr Strauss declares his readiness to await the extinction of the popular religion, the doctrines of which, meanwhile, he hardly thinks it necessary to assail.3 Now, if such be, indeed, a fair representation of the issues of an union of Biblical Criticism with Natural Philosophy ; it will appear that hencefor ward there may be expected a new line of attack upon Revealed Truth, the result of a junction of the forces which have hitherto been ranged on 1 " Wenn man hierin den klaren cvassen Materialismus ausgesprochen findet, so will ich zunachst gar nichts dagegen sagen," p. 212. Strauss, however, thinks the differences between the Materialist and Idealist of little account. He prefers a system of Monism. This again is the view of the Positivist School. See Littre, Principes, pp. 38, 39. Strictly speaking, however, Pantheism supposes a God immanent in things ; while Positivism sees only Laws. 2 " Karl Vogt (er ist sonst nicht mein Mann, aber in diesem Felde stimme ich ihm durchaus bei) hat den Schluss gezogen, dass die Annahme einer besoDdern Seelensubstanz eine reine Hypothese ist : dass keine einzige Thatsache fiir die Existenz einer solcher Substanz spricht." — lb., p. 210. Vogt, it is well known, after Cabanis, makes Thought a secretion of the brain. See his Bilder aus dem Thierleben. 3 " Fiir uns selbst indessen begehren wir von diesen Bewegungen vorerst mehr nicht als Diogenes von dem grossen Alexander. Namlich nur so viel dass uns der Kirchenschatten fortan nicht mehr im Wege sei." — lb., p. 296. See also pp. 7, 8, 15, 75. In his Nachwort als Vorwwt, Strauss quotes a very true observation of Dahlmann : " Wie man eine Kirche auf bios Christlicher Moral bauen kb'nne, das sehe ich vor der Hand nicht ein : " p. 41. xiv INTRODUCTION. different sides against the cause of Christianity. While, on the one hand, criticism is being directed, legitimately and not unfairly, upon the original documents of our Faith, the trust-deeds of the Grospel ; on the other, arguments are advanced, presumably the products of scientific research ; which are fatal to the Christian scheme, it is true, but also to the very existence of Religion gene rally. -Hence the twofold character of the line of proof pursued in these Lectures, involving con siderations which may be said to lie at the roots of all faith in God and Eternal Life, as well as an examination of facts which concern the history and prospects of Christianity. Both, indeed, are connected by the reflection that the Religion of Christ, if it is to be a permanent gift to mankind, must first be found superior to all objections raised by the free-thinking efforts of the age. It must show itself as ready to assimilate with scientific culture as with the barbarism of ruder times. ¦The position of the foregoing school of thought, as regards the main tenets of Positivism, is not far to seek. Both equally exclude the Supernatural from History and from the Universe.1 Both alike 1 " Du moment qu'on ne laisse aucune place aux volontes surnatu- relles, ni dans le monde inorganique ni dans le monde organique, ni parmi les phenome'nes cosmiques ni parmi ceux de i'histoire, on est necessairement des nStres." — Littrf, Paroles de la Phil. Positive, p. 58. Comp. Strauss, p. 181. INTRODUCTION. find in the Universe only Matter and Force,1 neg lecting the idea of Form.2 Both hold that to seek the reason of things in the thought of God is to seek it in a region which is both practically and mentally inaccessible. Thus it is this attempt which has constituted the whole history of Meta- physic and Religion ; a history of failure. Both agree in banishing free agency from human life and conduct.3 Both in the study of things omit the study of man; forgetting the difficulty, if not impossibility, of establishing on material grounds alone the ideas of God, of immortality, of our own individual personality.* Both alike confound the 1 " Au dela de ces deux termes, Matidre et Force, la science positive ne connait rien." — Li toe", Principes, p. xi. "La force," says M. Janet (Le Materialisme Contemporain, p. 20), " selon Moleschott n'est pas un Dieu donnant l'impulsion a la matiere ; une force qui plane au dessus de la matiere est une idee absurde." Moleschott's ground-principle is, " No force without matter; no matter without force; " = Allgewalt des Stoffenwechsels. 2 " Cette idee de l'espece qui serait inhe'rente au germe c'est un principe qui depasse toutes les donnees du Materialisme." — Janet, p. 115. 3 Thus tbe old antithesis between Predestination and Free-will is now represented by Naturalism and Eeligion, Laws of Nature and Human Liberty. We may be content to rest in Dr. Mozley's con clusion (Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination, I. 29), " While suffi ciently clear for all purposes of practical religion (for we cannot doubt that they are truths so far as and in that mode in which we apprehend them), these are truths upon which we cannot raise definite and abso lute systems. All we build upon either must partake of the imperfect nature of the premiss which supports it, and be held under a reserve of consistency with a counter conclusion from the opposite truth." — See also IV., 326. 4 M. Janet well observes : " Le Positivisme c'est le revanche de l'em- pirisme contre la phrenesie de la speculation rationnelle a priori." xvi INTRODUCTION. indestructibility of Matter and the Conservation of Force with its eternity.1 Both equally ignore the real difficulty of Naturalism ; which is to recon cile the consciousness of personal identity with the ceaseless permutations of a material world. How can we prove, or even conceive, a community of consciousness between two particles of matter ?2 ' In our own country a school of thought is arising, perhaps more logical and certainly more reverent than that of pure Materialism, which re cognizes in the Unknowable the ultimate limit of Science, but also the proper object of Religion. Such a view, amid the turmoil of discussion, is the rather welcome to the Christian believer ; as he is himself ready to see and admit Religion to be the Revelation of the Unknowable or Unknown. It has, however, its dangers and its doubts ; as to which it is well for the younger student of our time to be on his guard. A system, in which the 1 " Jadis la raison humaine le voyant sujet au changement, alia chercher l'6ternel, l'immuable par dela l'horizon et daus les archetypes. Maintenant l'eiernel, l'immuable, devenant notion positive, nous apparait sons la forme des lois immanentes qui gouvernent tout." — Littr£, Prin- cipes, p. 57. 2 " He, this person, or self, must either be a substance, or the pro perty of some substance. If he, if person, be a substance, then con sciousness that he is the same person is consciousness that he is the same substance. If the person, or he, be the property of a substance, still consciousness that he is the same property is as certain a proof that his substance remains the same, as consciousness that he remains the same substance would be : since the same property cannot be trans ferred from one substance to another." — Bp. Butler, Dissert. I. on Per sonal Identity. INTR OD UCTION. xvii Unknowable, as such, is made the essential object- matter of Faith, excludes the possibility of the Unknowable becoming known and determined, whether mediately through Revelation, or ulti mately in the history of things. In such a view a confusion seems for ever imminent between the physical Unknown in the realm of Nature, and the mentally Unknowable which constitutes the prac tical principle of Religion. Still more difficult is it to reconcile this doctrine of a Naturalistic Ne science with the aspect under which it is very frequently presented, as " the Power manifested in the Universe." The argument pursued in Lecture II. (as bind ing in the sphere of physical philosophy 1), so far forth as it presumes Motion, as well as Form, to necessitate a First Cause, will be found in Aris totle's Physics, Lib. VIII. It must, as it seems to me, hold good till it can be shown that Motion is an original, primary quality of Matter, and so immanent in it. But, as far as appears, Inertia is as much a quality of Matter as Motion, and a body at rest must be acted on exter nally to be set in movement. The Wolfian sup position of a tendency to motion (in nisu) was demonstrated by Euler to be both unphilosophical 1 On the necessity or at least desirability of admitting a physical element into Philosophy, comp. Janet, La C-rise Philosophique, p. 106, of whose able train of reasoning I have gladly availed myself in the following remarks.— See Le Materialisme Contemporain, c. iv. b xviii INTRODUCTION. and contrary to experience. In point of fact, all movement is now regarded and computed as a re sultant ; and whereas the rate of velocity might at first sight appear to be in the body, it is found in effect to be otherwise. Attraction and Inertia are equally facts ; but if the former be considered to be a relative property of two atoms of matter, which singly are indifferent to rest or motion, this is a property which has still to be accounted for. Nor can a universe, however immense,1 have pro perties other than those of its integrant parts. v Kal (yyvrepa 6eS>v oiKOvvres. Phileb., 16 c. ; cf. Cic, Legg., II. xi. : " Antiquitas proximo accedit ad Deos." 3 See Draper, History of Intellectual Development in Europe, i. 63. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 5 easily have been alleged. But eighteen hundred ' years have passed and the faith of Christ is still a power in the world. "After a revolution," says Gibbon,1 " of thirteen or fourteen centuries, that religion is still professed by the nations of Europe, the most distinguished portion of human kind in arts and learning as well as in arms." " Its chief home is still in the bosom of enterprise, wealth, science, and civilization, and it is at this moment most powerful amongst the nations that have most of these." 2 If on the wane it is still vigorous.3 But is it on the wane ? And in its collision with the " elements of the world," with political power, national temperament, antecedent tradition, philo sophical antagonism, with moral and physical limitations of whatever kind, has it suffered on the way ? " The fishermen of Gennesaret," it has 1 Vol. IL, p. 151, ed. Milman. 2 Rogers, Essays, ii. 343. In this view Christendom represents what Comte (Phil. Pos., v. 7) calls " V elite de I'humanite." This fact must be admitted to carry weight in the argument from development. Ei pep yap ra avo-qra aiptyero avrcov, ijv civ ri rb Xeyopevov, el Se Ka\ ra (ppovipa, wois \iyoiev av n ; Arist., iV. Nth., X. ii. 4. " Christianity," says Dr. Mozley (Bampton Lectures, p. 27), " is the religion of the civilized world. . . . This is a great result' — the establishment and the con tinuance of a religion in the world— as the religion too of the intelligent as well as of the simpler portion of society." " Christendom includes the entire civilized world, that is to say, all nations whose agreement on a matter of opinion has any real weight or authority."— Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Influence of Authority, p. 69. 3 " What the Church has lost in her appeal to the imagination she has gained in philosophical cogency by the evidence of her persistent vitality. She is as vigorous in her age as in her youth, and has upon her prima facie signs of divinity."— Dr. Newman, Grammar of Assent, 425, 6. 6 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. been picturesquely said, " planted Christianity, and many a winter and many a summer have since rolled over it. More than once it has shed its leaves and seemed to be dying ; and when the buds burst again, the colour of the foliage was changed." ' Something it may, perhaps must, have parted with ; something gained : to what extent, and in what directions ? Such are some of the thoughts or, it may be said, admissions which crowd upon .the mind in approaching the subject of the present Lectures — the steadfastness of Christianity an argument for the truth and ultimate permanence of its doctrines.2 Tins line ^ 2. Such an argument, it may be permitted to inductive point out, is drawn from experience and is an peais to appeal to the logic of facts. In this respect it is perhaps suited to the bias of the English mind, and certainly falls in with the intellectual temper of the time. For what is called the spirit of the 1 Froude, Short Studies, Series IL, p. 32. Thus Pascal, Pensees, II. 200 (ed. Fauge're) : " 11 est venu enfin en la consommation des temps, et depuis on a vu naitre tant de schismes et d'hertisies, tant renverser d'etats, tant de changements en toutes choses ; et cette Eglise qui adore Celui qui a toujours et6 adore, a subsiste sans interruption. Et ce qui est admirable, incomparable, et tout a fait divin, est que cette religion qui a toujours dure, a toujours 6t6 combattue. Mille fois elle a dtd a la veille d'une destruction universelle, et toutes les fois qu'elle a 6t6 en cet dtat, Dieu l'a relevee par des coups extraordinaires de sa puissance." Mr. Buckle (Hist. Civ., II. 285) assumes, for he does not go into proofs, that Christianity has been affected by foreign events contrary to the original scheme. 2 " Nulle autre religion n'a la perpetuite ; qui est la principale marque de la veritable." — Pascal, Pensees, II. 368. " Les trois marques de la religion sont la perpetuite, la bonne vie, les miracles." — lb. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 7 age is unmistakably inductive : and by the in ductive spirit is really intended a mental disposi tion to rest upon observed facts or repetitions of fact, not upon any inherent necessity of sequence or prior proof. There would seem to be three main roads open to mankind for reaching a know ledge of God, of our duties towards Him, and of His will respecting us. These are our own nature and constitution, the testimony of mankind, and the course of the world's history.1 Of these, the last, as being the most matter of fact, would probably in the present day be held to be the least disputable. The results of a religious system furnish at least an indirect proof of its truth. Taken in connection with prophecy, this proof becomes unanswerable ; but it has also a value and importance of its own. Such accordingly, as regards the fortunes of the Roman Empire, an epitome of the history of the world, was the motive of Augustine's masterpiece of Christian Apology, the Civitas Dei.2 There is equal reason 1 See Dr. Newman, Grammar of Assent, p. 384. 2 Dr. Mozley, Bampton Lectures, p. 263, points out that Augustine pushes this argument almost to the exclusion of miracles, e.g. Civ. Dei, xxii. 5 : " hoc nobis unum grande miraculum sufficit, quod earn ter- raruni orbis sine ullis miraculis credidit." This is no doubt rhetorically expressed. Elsewhere he states the proper relation of miracles to the spread of Christianity. " Ergo Ille afferens medicinam qua; corruptis- simos mores sanatura esset, miraculis conciliavit auctoritatem, aucto- ritate meruit fidem, fide contraxit multitudinem, multitudine obtinuit vetustatem, vetustate roboravit religionem."— De Util. Cred., c. xiv., and cf. De Ver. Rel., c. iii., xxv. Thus he rests his faith on the traditional centuries. 8 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. for its being the ground of Christian defence now. No analysis of modern civilization can omit to consider the influences of Christianity. A test is thus supplied of its tendencies, its character, and its efficacy.1 Possible § 3. It is with the field of time as with areas of only after . a lapse of mensurable space. A certain remoteness from the object viewed is necessary to clear and distinct vision. Still more necessary is it for any purpose of determining the relative magnitude and actual proportions of the thing perceived. These can be understood only by the medium of intervening objects. The same holds good in any mental reception of Christianity. " Nullis me video credidisse nisi populorum atque gentium confirmataj opinioni ac famse admodum celeberrima? : hos autem populos Ecclesia? Catholicse mysteria usquequaque occupasse. . . Credidi, ut dixi, fam* celebritate, consensione, vetustate roborataj."— Ib. Thus antiquity and universality of reception gradually take the place of miracles. Cf. also De Ver. Rel., vii. 13 : " Hujus religionis sectanda? caput est historia et prophetia dispensationis temporalis divine provi dential pro salute generis humani in seternam vitam reformandi atque reparandi." The germs of Augustine's argument in the Civitas Dei will be found in Tertullian, Apol., cap. xl. At that time the power of the Gods was estimated by the condition of the nations who worshipped them. Cf. Gieseler, Ch. Hist., I. § 16. 1 "All that we call modern civilization in a sense which deserves the name, is the visible expression of the transforming power of the Gospel."— Froude, Short Studies, II. p. 39. "Christianity," writes Mr. Lecky, " the life of morality, the basis of civilization, has regene rated the world." Montesquieu (Esprit des Lois, XXIV.) recognizes this argument. " Comme on peut juger parmi les tendbres celles qui sont les moins epaisses, et parmi les abymes ceux qui sont les moins profonds, ainsi Ton peut chercher entre les religions fausses celles qui sont les plus conformes au bien de la socie'te' ; celles qui, quoiqu'elles n'aient pas l'effet de mener les hommes aux felicites de l'autre vie peuvent le plus contribuer a leur bonheur dans celle-ci." Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 9 survey of the past, when we take stock, as it were, of the phenomena of history. Only after the lapse of centuries does it become possible to estimate the association and import of facts, the tendency of principles, their falseness or their truth. The thoughts of men are widened by the process of the suns. Christianity is at this time a fact of long stand ing. Its relative importance among other ele ments of civilization may now be measured : its effects eliminated from those of other agencies : the laws of its progress determined : its retardations adjusted : its ultimate movements conjectured. But there was a time when these processes could not have been carried on, when any argument grounded on them would have been preposterous : and the more nearly we return in thought to the beginnings of the Faith of Christ, the less room is found for their admission. The religion of Jesus Christ, we may maintain, The pro- STCSS of has now achieved for itself an actual positive stand- Truth slow point against the assaults of detractors. Those able. who impugn its claims have at least to account in some other way for the successes it has gained and the influence which it wields. Men, it may be allowed, may blunder into truth : perhaps even, they must go wrong before they come out right. It is probable that this is the key to much of the io PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. history of thought, resembling those arithmetical calculations in which error is checked by error to obtain an approximation to the truth.1 But the mind on looking back can well enough discern its wanderings on the road. It is true that there is much in the career of Christianity to obscure the light of its own progress. The tardiness and partial character of its advance have been often remarked.2 It has not flashed with meteor bril liancy across the world's story, neither has it shone with steady undimmed effulgence along the track of time ; rather, like the sun in heaven, it has struggled through cloud and mist. At the first it wrought irregularly on individual minds, not by an organized system. The Reformation and all returns to its primitive character have 1 Thus "error," as Voltaire remarked, "has its merits." "The history of philosophy," says Sir William Hamilton, " is the history of error." We may say with Virgil, Pater Ipse colendi Haud facilem esse viam voluit. " Encore que les philosophes," says Bossuet, " soient les protecteurs de I'erreur, toutefois ils ont frappe" a, la porte de la Verite." 2 See some good remarks on this subject by the Bishop of Ely in his lecture on Christ's Influence on History, p. 28. Thus Neander com pares the development of Christianity to a process moving steadily onward, though not in a direct line, but through various windings, yet in the end furthered by whatever has attempted to arrest its course. "Eeligion," says Mr. Morley, Crit. Misc., p. 95, "must be accepted as a fact in the history of the human mind, . . . and Christianity is unde niably entitled to one of the most important places in it, however we may be disposed to strike the balance between the undoubted injuries and the undoubted advantages which it has been the means of dealing to the civilization of the West." Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. n tended to restore this mode of its operation,1 and so have ever exhibited degrees of non-conformity. The irony of the lofty author of the ' Variations of Ground- . . less objec- Protestantism ' may be and has been turned with tion drawn from vari- equal force from the disagreements of opposed ations of sects and rival Churches upon the claims of Chris tianity at large.2 The conclusion drawn, it is true, is no more valid in the one case than in the other, and for the same reasons. Indeed, to a fair mind it would rather furnish a presumption against the truth of Christianity, if it did not or had not in its progress exhibited that amount of variation which is alone compatible with the course of human reason on all subjects of thought. The pathology of a religious system assumes the reality of a true core of belief. The existence of controversy is to a certain extent a test of the power and vitality of Christianity. " If any country," says Bacon,3 " decline into Atheism, then controversies wax dainty ; because men do think religion scarce worth the falling out." The co-existence and com petition of sects has therefore not unreasonably 1 Dean Hook, Lives of Archbishops, in his Introduction to the New Series, remarks on " the tendency of the Eeformation to individualize Christianity." 2 " Si l'argument de M. de Meaux vaut quelque chose contre la Ee formation, il a la mgme force contre le Christianisme."— Beausobre, Hist, de Manichee, 1. 526, and see Mr. Buckle's remarks, H. C. E., II. 283. The objection raised disappears when- .the nature of the subject-matter of Eevelation, with its difficulties of application and interpretation, is considered. Compare Hallam, Literature of Europe, III. 268. s Bacon's Works (ed. Spedding), VIII. 165. 12 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. been held to be the system most in conformity with the nature of society, and most favourable to the solidity and general efficiency of religion.1 Some, however, may be inclined to attribute to the objection, suggested by the argument of Bossuet, an importance disproportioned to its worth. It certainly entails on the Christian advocate the task of showing that the disagreement among Christians has not been vital, nor its degree such as to neutralize the common effect due to the religion of Christ as a whole. In accom plishing the work whereunto it is sent, the robe of Christ is still " without seam, woven from the top throughout." Moreover, whatever have been its fortunes, its proper tendencies remain ; and these undoubtedly act to " draw men together in spite of their worst differences, proving it to be quite as abhorrent of divisions in itself as Nature ever a warn- was of a vacuum." 2 Still, if union is strength, ing, how- . , . ever, to persistent differences mean permanent weakness. study the . . - . „ increase of It is then surely time lor the great sections ot the Christian world 3 to study unity and not division ; 1 See Guizot's Meditations, Pt. IL, pp. 5, 165 (E. T.) ; Paley, Evid., II. c. vii. ; and compare Ffoulkes' Divisions of Christendom, p. 246. " There is even consolation," &c. It is true, however, as Dr. Westcott has re marked, after Comte, that the tendencies of Protestantism go to obscure the conception of continuity in human progress, reposing too much on logical deduction. " To erect any one age (whether primitive or me diaeval) into an idol is to deny implicitly that the Gospel is life." — Con- temp. Review, VI. 420. See also Dorner, Hist. Protestant Tlieology, Vol. I., p. xviii., E. T. 2 Ffoulkes, u. s., p. vi. and p. 252. 5 Compare Guizot, Meditations, Pt. I., Pref., pp. ix.-xvii, " Je dis Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 13 alliance and not mutual elimination ; to give up claims to a several infallibility ; to join at least for the defence of the faith " once delivered to the saints " ; to exhibit the bases of a common belief ; to cherish more strongly than hitherto their under lying points of agreement ; to drop dissensions, and go forth to conquer. § 4. But it may be asked at the outset — is Per- Perma- • > 1 • nence an manence of itself a test of truth ? Y Is that which actual test . of truth. is true always enduring and error never so ? Have not unreal systems held sway and made progress in the history of mankind ? Is there no such thing as a prescription of ignorance ? 2 Is retrogression a thing impossible, and is there no historical proof of it ? Are periods of " denuda- PEglise Chretienne : c'est toute l'Eglise Chre'tienne en effet, et non pas telle ou telle des eglises chre'tiennes qui est maintenant et radicalement attaquee." 1 It will perhaps be said that truth is strictly an attribute of proposi tions only ; and in this sense no one will deny that what is true is true for always, though it may not at all times be recognized. But the term seems not improperly used of whatever answers to the definition of a thing. In the case of institutions, some come up to the idea or notion commonly held of their nature and function ; some fall short of it. Christianity is sometimes regarded as a set of dogmas or propositions (such as have been termed fundamentals), of which truth is imme diately predicable. Sometimes it is identified with the Church, which is the witness and keeper of these truths. In this capacity, as liable to the admixture of error, it may be compared with rival religious systems, and may vary at different periods relatively to itself. Perma nence in the form of persistence in consciousness seems to lie at the basis of all reality. See Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Principles, p. 226. 2 " Consuetudo sine veritate vetustas erroris est."— Cyprian, Ep. 74. Opp., p. 282. 14 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. tion " unknown in the intellectual eras of our race ? Does truth always emerge from behind the mists of falsehood and make daylight in the world ? Perhaps not ; and yet the answer to such doubts maybe in no wise doubtful. The day is really past, notwithstanding some pretentious objections, for questioning the tendencies of God's moral Liable to government. Exceptions, which constitute only apparent . exceptions, the disorder of Nature, yield no argument against its general laws. " God," says Bishop Butler, " makes use of a variety of means, what we often think tedious ones, in the natural course of Providence for the accomplishment of all His ends."1 The analogy of reason as against force, which has been employed by the same author to illustrate the tendency of right to prevail in the economy of the world, affords a similar explanation of the victories of error over truth in the working of religious systems. Virtute semper prasvalet sapientia. ' The lesson gained from a criticism of the past is this ; that while it is consistent with an overruling Providence to allow the existence of falsehood, ex travagance, self-delusion in almost every form, yet there is, on the whole, a constant steady advance towards convictions which are finally recognized 1 Analogy, Pt. II. c. iv. Comp. Eurip. Orestes, 420 : MeWei rb Ofiov iarl roiovrov cpvaei. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 15 as immutably true. And this progress of truth is not dependent on blind tendencies, but on an intellectual activity which, gradually disposing of error, transforms opinion into knowledge. This which is evident in the experience of the physical sciences holds good equally for the more complex subjects of theology and morals. But the results must naturally be sought not among the least but among the most civilized portions of mankind. Length of time together with reasonable oppor tunity may be requisite for the extinction of error. Duration and stress of persecution, stamping out conscientious belief, may, in some instances, ac count for the depression of truth. To some extent they explain and help on its progress.1 Degrada tion, partial or temporary, seems to be an historical condition of the general advance of civilization.2 1 "Le besoin perfectionne l'instrument," was a maxim of Turgot. " In times of peace," says Archbishop Leighton, " the Church may dilate more and build as it were into breadth, but in times of trouble it arises more in height. It is then built upwards, as in cities where men are straitened, they build usually higher than in the country." — Op. Coleridge, Aids to R., p. 73. 2 " Ages of laborious ascent have been followed by a moment of rapid downfall, and the several climates of the globe have felt the vicissitudes of light and darkness. Yet the experience of / ~~"^usand years should enlarge our hopes and diminish our apprehensions."— Gibbon, Vol. IV. 409 (ed. Milman). " Humanity accomplishes its necessary destiny but (being composed of free persons) with an element of liberty ; so that error and crime find their place in its course, and we behold centuries which do not advance, but even recede, days of illness, and years of wandering. . . . But mankind never entirely or irremediably errs. The light burns somewhere which is to go to the front of the straying gene ration and bring it along in its wake. When the Gospel failed in the 1 6 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. But an inversion of the order of the universe, as well as of our inbred convictions, of our experi ence of things as well as of our inner consciousness, must take place before we can admit indifference or malice, a willingness to deceive or a capacity of deception in the Author and Administrator of the , , world. And yet this is implied in the assumption grounded j i. j. on area- that the human race in its most distinguished sonable . # conviction, representatives and on the subjects of the highest moment lies still in darkness.1 " God owes it to mankind not to lead them into error," is the bold language of Pascal.2 " Truth," says Milton, " is strong next to the Almighty." -As it is ludicrous East it dawned on the races of the North." — Ozanam, Civilis. Chret., I. pp. 18-20, E. T. Mr. Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., I. 421, speaking of natural religion, remarks that " the history of religion displays but too plainly the proneness of mankind to relapse, in spite of reformation, into the lower and darker condition of the past." 1 There is a tendency in the Positivist system to assume not only that in the constitution of things error is employed as a means to truth, but that this theorem covers the whole of religious belief. Thus theology, which in this system of thought is imaginary, is allowed to have been an important stage in the advance of the human race, yet only as a sort of "pis-aller." SeeComte, Phil. Pos., IV. 693. The language of the Apostle in Acts xvii. 30 (rovs pev ovv ^povovs rr\s dyvolas xmepibiav 6 Bebs) may in the English version be liable to be mistaken. But his argument on this deeply momentous subject, " the fulness of times," as expanded in Eom. c. i., ii., and Gal. iii., iv., can hardly be misappre hended. See Bunsen, God in History, Vol. I. 215, E. T. 2 " Dieu doit aux hommes de ne pas les induire en erreur." — Pensees. " The established order of things in which we find ourselves, if it has a Creator, must surely speak of His will in its broad outlines and main issues." — Newman, Grammar of Assent, p. 391. Comp. Farrar's Wit ness of History to Christ, p. 92. See Sir W. Hamilton (Reid, 743, 745). Mr. Mill's criticism (Exam., p. 136) is invalid so long as there are truths of consciousness leading up to the recognition of God. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 17 to go about to prove the reality of those percep tions which alone exist to us as the means of discovering facts ; so were it futile to suspect the ultimate triumph of truth over falsehood, or to question the tendency of things in the long run to exhibit its progress. The improvement of mankind in successive ages is indisputable, and improvement involves at least approximation to truth. Whatever be the obstacles to their power of self-assertion, the Grand Justiciary of reason and of fact is Time.1 8 5. What, however, is meant by Time in these Tjme in •> -' ' ' ^ what sense considerations, and how much may justly be attri- an agency. buted to it ? In what respects is it an element of progress in the history of knowledge ? It is no mere abstraction or Idol of the Tribe. It is a real condition of all human operation, speculative or practical. Its function may be compared to an analytic yet constructive process ; which dividing and disengaging elements before believed to be inseparable, renders re-arrangement and recon struction possible and simple.2 Such is the work 1 "Le temps, le grand Jnsticier du passe." — Montaigne. Cicero (Nat. D., II. ii. 5), speaking of the existence of God, says : " Quod nisi cognitum comprehensumqne animis haberemus, non tarn stabilis opinio permaneret, nec confirmaretur diuturnitate temporis nec una cum saj- culis ajtatibusque hominum inveterari potuisset. Et enim videmus caiteras opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate extabuisse. . . . Opi- nionum enim commenta delet dies, nature judicia confirmat." 2 M. Littre (A. Comte et la Phil. Pos., p. 45) well observes : " Le temps, faisant l'office des forts grossissements, montre disjoint ce qui apparait etroitement conjoint dans l'esprit d'un meme pensenr." C 1 8 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. of continuous generations toiling unconsciously as one man in the quest of Truth, but with this advantage, that they are uninterrupted by indi vidual mortality.1 Some thinkers use Time too readily and profusely2 as an agent, whether in physical changes, or in the advance of opinion and the overthrow of superstitions by a sort of natural and spontaneous growth of the human mind — a gradual evolution of conviction, the spirit and tendency of the age, the fruit of time and succes sion. It should be clearly understood that all such results are, in fact, the work of individual effort, admitting of distinct explanation. The tendencies of an age are the unperceived con sequences of foregone argument. They are " changes wrought not by Time, but in Time." In the work of religious " truth," it has been finely said,3 "Time means the blood of many martyrs, the toil of many brains, slow steps made good through infinite research." In this manner 1 " De sorte que toute la suite des hommes, pendant le cours de tant de siecles, doit etre considered comme un m@me homme qui subsiste toujours et qui apprend continuellement." — Pascal (Pensees, I. p. 98). 2 Thus " the prehistoric archasologist," says Mr. Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., I. p. 50, " shows even too much disposition to revel in calculations of thousands of years, as a financier does in reckonings of thousands of pounds in a liberal and maybe somewhat reckless way." See, however, Lange, Oesch. d. Materialismus, p. 342. In the School of Positive Science, " c'est le temps qui est ici le grand createur," says M. Janet. — Le Materialisme Contemporain, p. 24. 3 Greg's Literary and Social Judgments, p. 478. Compare Professor Goldwin Smith, Study of History, p. 34. Human progress " is a pro gress of effort, not a necessary development," &c. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 19 it comes about that no great verity once dis covered is ever afterwards lost to mankind,1 but is taken up and carried along by the stream of human effort. In the words of the poet they are Truths that wake To perish never. 8 6. The objections which lie against all posi-Thepre- 3 ° . sent argu- tive2 attempts to criticise the plan of a Divine ment, a ...... posteriori. Revelation, do not apply to an inquiry which is relative to a matter of fact. The present argu ment does not run up into questionable final causes, or depend for its acceptance on dubious interpretations of remote prophecies. It forms no Not de- anticipations of the thoughts of Heaven. But final rather it humbly seeks to track upwards through causes 1 " No great truth which has once been found has ever afterwards been lost." — Buckle, Hist. Civ., 1. 215. " What has once become the common property of humanity, i. e. any visible presentation of a principle that has come to be universally recognized and universally operative, cannot perish, but has life in itself. . . . Such ideas form the pathway of God in history — the light of Heaven amid the darkness of the earth." — Bunsen, Ood in Hist, I. p. 36, 53. Compare Aristotle, Mctaph., xi. 7 : Tavras ras 8d£as eneivtov, olov ~Seityava Trepio-eoSio-dai p-exP1 T<™ v^v' Bacon's self-contradiction that " Time seemeth to be of the nature of a river or stream which carrieth down to us that which is light and blown up, and sinketh and drowneth that which is weighty and solid," has been very properly exposed by Mr. Mill, Logic, II. 428. 2 Positive, because, though we may see that many parts of Chris tianity are worthy of God, we are not hastily to conclude that where we do not see this such parts do not come from Him. See Sogers, Essays, II. 379. " It is no just consequence that reason is no judge of what is offered to us as being of divine revelation. For this would be to infer that we are unable to judge of anything because we are unable to judge of all things."— Butler, Analogy, Pt. II. c. iii. ' C 2 20 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. the past the course of "natural revelation," apply ing to ascertained matters of fact the lamp of inherited experience. So By the light His words disclose, Watch Time's full river as it flows : Scanning His gracious Providence, Where not too deep for mortal sense. All the irregularity of human affairs arises from our not being able to see the whole at once. But the further we advance along the world's history and in general knowledge, the more we approach an estimate of the reasons of things and of the current of affairs.1 It is not then the existence of final causes in the formation and working of the world which needs be held unsatisfactory by the 1 " The moral system of the universe," says a powerful but uncertain writer, " is like a document written in alternate ciphers, which change from line to line. We read a sentence, but at the next the key fails us. We see that there is something written there, but if we guess at it we are guessing in the dark." Yet the same author is not long in supply ing an antidote to any scepticism which may lurk in such reflections. " If we believe," he adds, " at all that the world is governed by a con scious and intelligent Being, we must believe also, however we can reconcile it with our own ideas, that these anomalies have not arisen by accident, but have been ordered of purpose and design." — Froude on Calvinism, p. 5. This, Butler points out, is the necessary result of the government of God considered as a scheme in progress, and therefore imperfectly comprehended. See also Shaftesbury, Characteristics, II. 363, and the fine passage in Plato, Legg., X. 903. Augustine compares the order of the universe to a tessellated floor, of which we hold the part. "At enim," he adds, " hoc ipsum est plenius quasstionum, quod membra pulicis disposita mire atque distincta sunt, cum interea hu- mana vita innumerabilium perturbationum inconstantiS, versetur et fhictuet." — De Ordine, c. i. " La seule question," says M. Eenan, Etudes, p. 404, " interessante pour le philosophe est de savoir de quel cote va le monde.'' Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 21 physical or positive philosophy of our time. Teleology, as such, is not destroyed but rather confirmed by any theory of evolution. For such evolution must either be accidental, a purely fortuitous result, which is hardly credible, and certainly will not satisfy science ; or it bears testimony to design; the process, which appa rently involves waste, proving ultimately economi cal,1 The procedure indicated may be gradual and to appearance precarious, but the result shows an adaptation of means to ends which is all that Paley and other adherents of Natural Theology have maintained. It is the previous assumption of a given design as the basis of argument, to which exception may fairly be taken. The co incidence of facts with the theory of a Divine Though " coincident purpose rests, in the main, on a matter of observa- with them. tion, analogous to the homologies of Natural Science, and open to common apprehension.2 We 1 The argument of La Place from chances is well known. Thus, e. g. " two properties necessary to the stability of the planetary system are — (1), that the orbital motions must be all in the same direction ; (2), that the inclinations of the planes of these orbits must not be considerable. Taking the theory of mere chance, it is 2047 to 1 against the first; 10,000,000 to 1 against the second ; more than 20,000,000,000 against the two together," &c. This argument has been much strengthened by more newly discovered planets. The objection sometimes raised to the teleological argument that the Author of Nature, being above Nature, is incapable of analogies drawn from the finite creature, becomes absorbed in a much larger question — the possibility and conditions of a philo sophy of the Absolute. 2 " It has been objected that the doctrine of Final Causes supposes us to be acquainted with the intentions of the Creator, which, it is in- 22 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. cannot but see, if we take room enough for observation, which way things have tended in the world. And certainly such a result, gathered from the point of view of comparative history, extending over large areas of countries and times, is of the highest moment to a philosophic survey of affairs. " For what," it has been justly asked, "does it avail to praise and draw forth to view the magnificence and wisdom of creation in the irra tional kingdom of nature, if that part in the great stage of the Supreme Wisdom which contains the object of all this mighty display (I mean the history of the human species), is to remain an eternal objection to it, the bare sight of which obliges us to turn away our eyes in displeasure, and, from the despair which it raises of ever dis covering in it a perfect and rational purpose, leads sinuated, is a most presumptuous and irrational basis for our reasonings. But there can be nothing presumptuous or irrational in reasoning on that basis, which, if we reject, we cannot reason at all." — Whewell, In dications, p. 93. The sense of order perceptible in the inorganic world of matter is not identical with design, though it may lead up to it. The present relation of physical science to the question of design seems to stand thus : its results point undoubtedly to design, but to design im perfectly comprehended by our natural faculties. The resource lies in Eevelation ; but it does not follow that Eevelation must speak on these points to man. Comp. Lange, Geschichte v. Materialismus, pp. 402-404. M. Flourens has well observed : " II faut aller non pas des causes finales aux faits, mais des faits aux causes finales." It may be doubted whether the human reason can ever truly separate the notions of cause and effect antecedent and consequent, end and means : all these suggest, and indeed necessitate, a presiding original thought. Whether such thought be regarded as immanent in the universe, or as external to it, must be determined by other considerations. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 23 us finally to look for such only in another world." 1 Hence the perennial faith through successive generations in a God revealed in history, in a Divine government of the world, in human pro gress based on a moral order accomplishing an Eternal Idea, in a nature not composed of isolated episodes,2 in an " increasing purpose " running through the ages of the past. Its evidence lies written in the annals of our race, even through periods of stagnancy and devastation, and in no part of it more markedly than in the religious crises of nations. § 7. A question may be raised as to the relative objection - from the character of our ideas of duration and permanence, relative Christianity is an institution which we believe to 0f the be, as to its future, coeval with the world itself, duration. In this way our conception of its continuance is indefinitely extended, and this extension reacts upon its past history. Though its first ages may be bounded by the fact of its historical origin, its " last times " are beyond our grasp, and so, too, all 1 Kant, Idea of a Universal History on a Cosmopolitical Plan, trans lated by De Quincey. Works, Vol. XIV. 151. 2 Ovk eoiKe 8' 17 (picns eweco-o8ioidr]s ovo~a en. to>v (paivopevcov, ao-rvep poxfypa rpayahia.— Aristotle, Metaph., XIII. c. iii., ix., x. Compare Bunsen, God in History, Vol. I. pp. 6, 13, 20, E. T. : " No one looking back over the past can fail to detect «, general advance of humanity, as a whole, in certain definite directions corresponding to what we observe in the fuller development of the man. The progress on a large scale exhibits the harmonious elevation of our whole complex being, even though periods of devastation and fiery trial are needed for the prepara tion of the fuller growth."— Dr. Westcott, Contemp. Rev., Vol. VIII. 380. 24 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. conception of its relative duration. Though already long-lived to all appearance, it may yet not have passed its youth ; and the span of its coming years may still far exceed those that are joast.1 " Cen turies on centuries," it has been well said, " may be required to discipline fully the human faculties that are to grow into the faith which has been prepared for them."2 But the standard of dura- its answer. Ljbjty which we are now applying is external to Christianity itself. We compare it as a mundane institution with all things else that are mundane. In these we find but one and the same law. They tend to decay and subversion. Sic omnia fatis In pejus ruere ac retro sublapsa referri. 1 Comp. De Maistre, CEuvres, p. 262, ed. Migne : " On parle beaucoup des premiers si^cles du Christianisme ; en verite, je ne voudrais pas assurer qu'ils sont passes. Dans un sens l'Eglise n'a point d'agc. . . Elle se releve avec l'homme, l'accompagne, et le perfectionne dans toutes les situations ; diffe'rente en cela et d'une nianie're frappante de toutes les institutions et de tous les empires humains qui ont une enfance, une virility, une vieillesse et une fin." 2 Hutton's Essays, Vol. I. 122 : "It is clear that the Divine govern ment of the Jewish race was meant to bring out and did bring out more distinctly the personality of God, while the history of other races brings out more clearly the Divine capacities of man. Hence the co-operation of different nations was requisite for the efficiency of the revelation. Centuries were required for the complete evolution even of that special Jewish history that was selected to testify to the righteous will and defined spiritual character of the Creator. Centuries on centuries will be required to discipline fully the human faculties that are to grow into the faith thus prepared for them." So also M. Guizot : " Civilization is as yet very young : the world has as yet by no means measured the whole of its career; Human thought is at this time very far from beinc all that it is capable of becoming: we are very far from comprehending the whole future of humanity."— Civil, in Europe, p. 18, Ed. Bohn. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 25 It has not been so, however, with the religion of Christ. Its strength is not as its day. Its days are old, if we judge them by man's standard of duration ; yet its powers are unenfeebled. Its youth is renewed as the eagle's, and its years do not fail. The revolutions of the heavenly bodies point to an almost infinite succession of ages, through which they have held on their way. Yet science sketches out the trajectory which is followed by our planetary system.1 So the world may have a long future still before it ; and yet it is permitted us to determine the path of Chris tianity. The progress indicated, whether in nature or in revelation, is not indefinite, but tends to a limit. But if this observation be deemed pre sumptuous with the long track behind us of geologic time and prehistoric evolution, it is at least not more so than to proclaim the finality of a positive stage of thought, as the " be all and end all " of man's estate. Christianity, while pro claiming the ultimate dissolution of things at the last day, leaves its approach indefinite, though its 1 " Le cycle du dessin de la Nature semble exiger pour se clore un si long temps que la petite portion que I'humanite en a deja parcourue ne permet pas d'en determiner la forme et de conclure la relation des parties au tout, avec plus de surete que toutes les observations celestes faites jusqu'a present ne permettent d'assigner la trajectoire que suit dans le ciel etoile notre soleil avec toute i'armee de ses satellites. Et cependant remarquons qu'avec le principe general de la constitution systematique de l'univers et avec le pen qu'on a observe, on est autorise a conclure qu'il existe en effet une telle trajectoire." — Kaut, a. s. ap. Littre, A. Comte et la Phil. Pos., p. 63. 26 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. arrival be certain.1 Already it is possible to apply Tests of some tests of its persistent vitality. For in what durability . applicable do the organic forces of any religion consist, or at gions. the least exhibit themselves ? Surely in their hold upon the consciences, lives, and actions of men ; in their tendency to extend themselves by conversion of unbelief; and in their power of assimilating healthfully the altered conditions of advancing civilization. This power, if shown to arise from principles contained in the doctrines of the Gospel, furnishes an argument in favour of the truth of Christianity which has the force of prophecy, for they are long prior to the discovery of the general laws of human progress. But the most ancient as well as the most widely-spread religions of the earth, Brahmanism, Buddhism, the faiths of Con fucius, Zoroaster, if not also of Mahomet,2 show no tendency to propagate themselves. The duty of conversion is no longer felt ; its possibility no longer dreamed. Not so with the Churches of the Christian faith, which acknowledge to the full the obligation of missionary labour, whatever be the measure of success attending their fulfilment of it. objection §8. It is not, of course, denied that ancient from the 1 See the Bishop of Carlisle's lecture on the Gradual Development of Revelation, p. 30. 2 M. Littrd has justly remarked that the immobility of a religious belief is a proof of a want of genuine belief in its doctrines ; citing India and China as proofs to this fact. — Paroles de la Phil. Pos., p. 35. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 27 religions, false and pernicious, have flourished enormous <-> ' L ' antiquity through immense periods. This has been due to of Eastern 0 x religions. the elements of truth x which they contained, "a soul of goodness in things evil ;" and still more to its adaptation to the order of the development of belief in the history of primitive culture. Quantum sumus, scimus. " Men must think," it has been tersely said, ' ' in such terms of thought as they possess." 2 It is a fact admitting of proof whether Not valid x . against Christianity includes elements answering to truths Christian- ity, which but dimly shadowed forth in heathen systems ; is compre- in the Triads or Trinities, for example, roughly touched by Brahmanism or Buddhism ; or in the Monotheism of the creed of Mahomet. It has been fairly said, " Whatever has been found necessary in the course of 6000 years' experience, we have a right to ask of that which offers itself as the one faith for mankind." 3 The question, then, is not one of simple length of date, any more than of the numbers who accept or profess a religion, as if truth were settled by majorities.4 The test of any 1 " The spiritual self-respect of individuals, the reconcilement of the conscience by means of atonement, the hopes connected with the unseen world, had all once been provided by Paganism : as they must be by every religion which has had a real historical existence." — Mackay, Rise and Progress of Christianity. A remark true, but only partially so : for had Paganism actually fulfilled this work, it had never passed away. 2 Herbert Spencer, First Principles, p. 116. 3 Maurice's Kingdoms of the World, p. 162. A profound view of the religious history of mankind will regard these religions rather as testi monies than as rivals to the truth of Christianity. "Sla-wep ev rais x(lPorov'-aLS- — Lucian, Hermotimus, c. xvi. Compare 4 'I r sive 28 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. progres- system will lie in the character of its doctrines, combined with its permanence as exhibited in their progressive capacity. 'If Christianity be an imperfect theory of our relations to God and the universe, it must needs prove transitory. Mere antiquity in a fixed locality decides little ; though even in this aspect it must be remembered that the faith of Christ must be measured by the age of Judaism.1 But where still extant, these world-old theologies lack the criteria of permanence. The wild erratic doctrines of Oriental religions have Max Miiller, Chips, I. p. 215. On this point the Reformers protested at Spires in 1529. " The number of persons holding an idea is no warrant for its objective character, else the many never could be wrong ; for uni formity of education, or the sympathy kindled by enthusiasm, may carry many minds into one state in which belief in certain ideas and the mis take of formula? or usages for external truths will be natural or neces sary." — Newman, Essay on Development, p. 31. 1 " Que Ton couside"re la perp^tuit^ de la religion Chre'tienne, qui a toujours subsiste depuis le commencement du monde, soit dans les saints de l'ancien Testament," &c. — Pascal, Pensees, II. p. 367. This is flip pantly stated by Salvador (Paris, Rome et Jerusalem, 1. 243) : "Avance dit-on au Juif, et declarc-nous quel est ton nom .... ton ftge. Mon age ? Deux mille ans de plus que Jesus-Christ." " If it be said " (writes Dr. Newman, Gramm. of Assent) " the Oriental religions are older than Christianity by some centuries, it must be recollected that Christianity is only the continuation and conclusion of what professes to be an earlier revelation, which may be traced back into prehistoric times." " Die Geschichte dieses alten Volkes (Israel) ist im Grunde die Geschichte der durch alle Stufenbis zur Vollendung sich ausbildenden wahren Belioion welche auf diesem engen Volksgebiete durch alle Kampfe -hindurch sich bis zum hbchsten Siege erhebt und endlich in aller Herrlichkeit und Macht sich offenbart ; um dann von da aus durch lure eigene Kraft sich unwiderstehlich verbreitend nie wieder verloren . zu ^ehen sondern ewiger Besitz und Segen aller Volker zu werden." — Ewald, Gesch. d. V. Israel, I. 9, whose testimony to the eternity of Christianity I could not willingly omit. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 29 produced neither in respect of moral or spiritual truth results suitable to the facts of human nature, its dignity and its capacities. They have wandered into Polytheism. " Insufficient for time, and re jecting eternity, their utmost triumph is to live with- . out fear and to die without hope." l Their power has steadily declined ; and, however Buddhism may with truth boast of its ancient missionary zeal,2 they have long* since ceased to extend the area of their and ha-s 0 survived beliefs. Thev have never yet borne the brunt of *e ad- J J vance of advancing* civilization. These are the questions know- . . 7. ledge. of fact with Christianity. The rehgion of Europe has passed through storms of barbarism, persecu tion, and doubt ; while over Asia has brooded an immemorial calm, broken only by tides of military conquest.3 Nor is it any way surprising that the 1 Sir J. E. Tennant, Christianity in Ceylon, p. 227. On this subject see Hardwick, Christ and other Masters, II. 69; Tylor On Primi tive Culture, IL' 89, 96 ; B. St. Hilaire, Le Bouddha. " Unques tionably," writes Mr. Farrar, Witness of History to Christ, p. 145, "Confucianism and Buddhism are in their social influence gigantic failures ; and in these cases M. Eenan says, ' Success is a decisive crite rion.' " Mr. Picton, New Theories and Old Faith, answering a remark of Mr. Armstrong that "the cohesion and endurance of Buddhism mocks and shames Christianity with her many convulsions and her reiterated revolutions," ably replies, " that one might as well say that the cohesion and endurance of China mocks and shames Europe with its convulsions and its reiterated revolutions. The higher the life the mqre violent often are the crises of growth, and certainly the more extreme is the differentiation of parts." 2 Max Muller, Chips, I. 269. 3 "The popular religions of antiquity answered only for a certain stage of culture. When the nations in the course of their progress had passed beyond this, the necessary consequence was a dissevering of the East. 30 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. faiths of Brahma or of Buddha should linger in the world. " The extinction of a religion," it has been said with truth, " is not the abrupt move ment of a day ; it is a secular progress of many well-marked stages." x The success of Buddhism rested on the assertion of the dogma of the absolute equality of all men ; and this in a country which Symptoms for ages had been oppressed with caste.2 But its in the continuance, as well as that of Brahmanism, philo - religions , .. -. . . , -,.. oi the sophically considered, is involved in its representa tion of an inherent polar opposition to the theology of Christian belief. The doctrine of a transmigra tion of souls, of a simple " continuance-theory " as to a future state, confronts the teaching of the independent existence of a personal spirit, of a permanent " retribution-theory " of after-being. Materialism, as opposed to Theism, must ever pre sent two alternatives; a doctrine of absorption, ultimately equivalent to Pantheism ; or of extinc- spirit from the religious traditions. In the case of the more quiet and equable development of the Oriental mind — so tenacious of the old — the opposition between the mythic religion of the people and the secret theosophic doctrines of a priestly caste, who gave direction to the popular conscience, might exist for centuries without change. But among the more excitable nations of the West, intellectual culture, as soon as it attained to a certain degree of independence, must necessarily fall into collision with the mythic religion handed down from the infancy of the people."— Neander, Church Hist., I. 6, E. T. " Le repos est le supplice de l'Europ&n, et ce caracteH'e contraste merveilleusement avec l'immo- bilit<§ Orientale." — De Maistre, OSuvres, p. 494. " Better," says Tenny son, " fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay." 1 Draper, Hist, of Intellectual Development in Europe, I. 37. 2 lb., I. 62. Max Muller, Chips, I. 220, 246. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 31 tion, practically undistinguishable from a declared Atheism.1 8 q. In commencing: the are*ument of these Lee- a practi- ... . r „calstand- tures (which, it will be remembered, is the proof of ard of belief the truth of Christianity arising from its past con- assumed tinuity and tenacity, and from its indications of argument. ultimate permanence), I assume the existence, from the earliest days of the Church, of a nucleus of belief sufficient to produce practical effects. On the other hand, no consensus or standing uniformity of doc trinal opinion is demanded, such as would be in small accordance with the laws of mental progress in other subjects under the varying stages of early and advanced civilization, and national differences of climate and race. While the original of Christianity can only be accepted as divine, it is no part of Christian philosophy to except the historical development of the faith from such move ments of the human mind as are natural to its exercise on any subject-matter whatsoever. '"Be-Howfar , . guaranteed lievers in the truths of the Christian religion have in the ex- • n ¦ istence of sometimes been described in terms of disparage- the Holy Scriptures, 1 See Tylor, Prim. Culture, II. 69, and compare Dr. Mozley, Bampton Lect., pp. 187, 368 : " The Brahman doctrine of the final state professes some difference from the Buddhist ; but both schools maintain in common the characteristic of impersonality as attaching to the final state." See also Fairbairn on Belief in Immortality, pp. 50, 51, 53. Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law, p. 17, observes that " the physical confor mation of Asiatic countries had the effect of making individual commu nities larger and more numerous than in the West ; and it is a known social law that the larger the space over which a particular set of institu tions is diffused, the greater is its tenacity and vitality." 32 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. ment as Bibliolaters,1 the worshippers of a book and of a stereotyped revelation. It is not necessary to consider to what portions of the Church, or to what theory of Christian belief this criticism is most applicable. But it is by no means true that the religion of Christ is contained in the New Testament, only in the same manner as the Mosaic system depended on the Pentateuch, or as Mahom- medanism is found in the Koran, or the faith of Vishnu or Buddha in the Vedas or the Sutras. •The very power of Christianity lies in this : that preaching the purest morality under the highest sanctions, with the force of a Divine Exemplar, and on the foundation of historic facts, it never sacrifices it to ceremonialism, and is thus superior to the decline of positive forms.2 In written codes 1 " Bibliolatry has been, and is long likely to be, the bane of Pro testant Christianity." — Hutton, Essays, I. 142. As with all exaggera tions, this contains an element of truth. That " the Bible only is the religion of Protestants," was the dictum of Chillingworth. — (C. iv.) " Protestantism," writes Dr. Dorner (Hist. Prot. Theol., I. 2), " seeks, indeed, its ultimate foundation in the nature of Christianity, as it is handed down to us in a documentary form in the Holy Scriptures." See some good remaiks on this subject in Eogers' Essays, II. 334, and Dean Merivale's Lectures on Conversion ofthe Empire, -pp. 140, 141. Chris tians are known to Mahometans as " the people of the Book." But the vivid language of Napoleon at St. Helena (Bertrand's Memoirs ap. Luthardt Apol., p. 355, E. T.) is here applicable, " The Gospel is no mere book, but a living creature with an agency; a power that conquers all that opposes it." 2 This is the real answer to objections such as those of Mr. Buckle Hist. Civil., II. 51 : " The actions of men are governed not by dogmas, and text-books, and rubrics, but by the opinions and habits of their contemporaries, by the general spirit of their age, and by the character of those classes who are in the ascendant. This seems to be the origin Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 33 of ceremonial worship and practice, it is difficult to distinguish between principles and details, so overlaid is the spirit by the letter of the particular ordinance. There is a constant tendency to crystallize into formalism. In these it is almost impossible to see how tradition could long supply the place of an authorized formula. But the faith of Jesus Christ makes, as it requires, no such claim. "The Gospel," it has been truly said,1 "is not a system of theology, nor a syntagma of theoretical propositions and conclusions for the enlargement of speculative knowledge, ethical or metaphysical, but it is a history, a series of facts or events related or announced. These do indeed involve, or rather they at the same time are, most important doctrinal truths, but still facts and declarations of facts." of that difference between religious theory and religious practice of which theologians greatly complain as a stumbling-block and an evil." — See Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., II. 337. Mr. Mackay, Progress of Intellect, I. 17, remarks ; " Forms (i. e. creeds and ceremonies) are in their nature transitory ; for, being destitute of flexibility and power of self- accommodation to altered circumstances, they become in time uncon formable to realities, and stand only as idle landmarks of the past, or like deserted channels requiring to be filled up." Ou the growth of sacerdotalism in the Vedic religion and in Buddhism, see Mr. Fairbairn's able and learned essay, Cont. Rev., XX. pp. 36-55. 1 S. T. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, p. 153. " Religions," says Prof. Max Muller, " have sometimes been divided into national or traditional, as distinguished from individual or statutable religions. The former are like languages, home-grown, autochthonic, without an historical begin ning, generally without any recognized founder, or even an authorized code : the latter have been founded by historical persons, generally in antagonism to traditional systems, and tbey always rest on the authority of a written code." This division Professor Miiller with justice thinks too sharply drawn. — C. R., XIX. 102. 34 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. and in The New Testament (if with one exception) may special be regarded as a compilation of strictly historical istics. documents, connected together by what might, at first sight, seem a wholly fortuitous conjunction. Not so, however. The narrative and historical mould in which the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles are cast, can only be regarded as a providential feature,1 differencing at once the authoritative instruments of the religion of Christ from those of all other systems. Whatever theory of biblical inspiration be adopted, mechanical or dynamical, it will hardly be maintained that the writings of the New Testament proceeded like the syllables of Mahomet from the pen of an archangel.2 It may be held, for example, without irreverence, that the letters of St. Paul would have been worth much less to us if they had not been called forth by the particular occasions which are evident in each. In them we 1 " Let us look to the great characteristic of our holy faith ; that unlike all other assumed religions it is not a collection of mystic writings presenting to the view of man the scenes and the events of the invisible world in minute description, such as admits no test from experience and the course of the world ; but consists in those very events which it narrates, and out of which it is evolved, and may be tracked continuously through more than three thousand years in the successive periods of its delivery to mankind ; thus occupying a large field in the history of God's providence ; and that we have just the same ground for believing its truth as we have for believing any other matter of history equally authenticated by events."— Bp. Hampden, Memorials, p. 221 . 2 Mi) olv says Africanus finely (ap. Kouth, Rell. Sacr., II. 229) Karlcopev els roiravrrpi Qeoo-efieias vpiKpoXoyiav, iva ttj ivaXXayrj rav ovoparav ttjv XpiWou Bao-iKeiav Ka\ lepuiirivrjv a-vviarraspev. Lect. I/| OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 35 see the man himself dealing with men whom we can see likewise. It is the difference between a portrait that we recognize and a face which we have never seen, or, as a map of places familiar to us by the side of a chart of countries yet unknown. Such is our gain in holding in our hands the letters of the living: man, and not cold abstract articles of reli- gious profession. And if this be so with the ^^f Epistles, how much more with the life of Him, °^th^^- " Who spake as never man spake ;" in whose acts Chi'i?j. and words is centred still the faith of Christendom.1 Apostles. Those words, "the primal, indefeasible truths of Christianity," we have the promise, " shall never pass away." In the imitation of His life2 and spirit lie perennial springs of endless improvement and advance. "All true moral progress," it has been well said,3 " is made through admiration, and ' it is characteristic of our religion that it makes a greater use of example than any other system." " It cannot be too steadily borne in memory," says 1 It is strange that M. Comte, constantly ignoring Jesus Christ, recognizes Paul as the meeting-point of Jew, Greek, and Roman. Pee Pol. Pos., III. 409. For some good remarks on the office of the Bible in prolonging the solidarity of the life of Christ, see Mr. Picton, New Theories, &c, pp. 161-5. 2 See Milman, Latin Christianity, VI. 447. Hence perhaps (with all its shortcomings) the boundless popularity and influence of the 'Imitatio Christi.' No book has been so often reprinted, so often translated, or into so many languages. — 26., VI. 303. It is a remarkable fact that this volume was a favourite one with A. Comte towards the close of his life. — Littre, p. 586. 3 By Professor Seeley, Lectures and Essays, p. 262. See also Button's Essays, I. 140. D 2 36 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. another living writer,1 "that Christianity is Christ. So He taught ; so His disciples after Him ; not a law, not a theory, not a code of morals, not a system of casuistry, not even an elaborate theology. But they ceased not to teach and to preach Jesus Christ." " Jesus," writes Dr. Newman,2 " through His preachers imprinted the image or idea of Himself in the minds of His subjects ; it became a principle of association and their moral life. It was the instrument of their conversion." Thus (to quote yet one other author) " the Platonist exhorted men to imitate God ; the Stoic to follow reason. It was reserved for Christianity to present to the world an ideal character which, through all the changes of eighteen centuries, has inspired the hearts of men with an impassioned love, has shown itself capable of acting on all ages, nations, tempera ments and conditions, which has been not only the highest pattern of virtue, but the strongest in centive to its practice, and has exercised so deep an 1 The Bishop of Ely, Lect. on Christ's Influence on History, p. 17. So also Canon Liddon (Bampton Lect., p. 308). " Christianity, as a creed and as a life, depends absolutely upon the personal character of its founder." Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, p. 288, writes: "In the strictest sense of essential, this alone is the essential in Christianity, that the same spirit should be growing in us, which was in the fulness' of all perfection in Christ Jesus." See also an eloquent passage in Farrar's Witness of History to Christ, p. 79. 2 Grammar of Assent, p. 460. An illustration of this sentiment may be found in the early use of the word KVpia<6S; e.g. KvpiaFov Se'mvov, KopiaKh iyia faepa, Kvpiaml ypatjtai, Fo KvpiaFov, dominica solennia. Wicm o-aPParlCovres, d\U Kara Kvpiarfv (a^v £S>VTeS, says Ignatius, ad Magnes., c. ix. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 37 influence, that it may be truly said that the simple record of three short years of active life has done more to regenerate and soften mankind than all the disquisitions of philosophers and all the exhortations of moralists. This has, indeed, been the well- spring of whatever is best and purest in the Chris tian life. In the character and example of its Founder, Christianity has an enduring principle of regeneration."1 8 10. The form and character of the New Tes- Relation of J Scripture tament records involve, indeed, the consideration of to the Creeds. their relation to the earliest standards of doctrine.2 1 Lecky, Hist. Eur. Mor., II. 9, and see Hist. Rat., I. 337. Thus also Mr. Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, p. 155. " If thou ask to what height man has carried it in this manner, look on our Divinest Symbol — on Jesus of Nazareth and his life and his biography, and what followed therefrom. Higher has the human thought not yet reached : this is Christianity and Christendom : a symbol of quite perennial, infinite character ; whose significance will ever demand to be anew inquired into and anew made manifest." We need hardly point out the fallacy and evasion which is met with in some quarters, of admitting to the full the perfectness of Christ's moral character while suppressing its supernatural element. 2 On Creeds as a peculiarity of Christianity, see Leibnitz, The'odicee, Pref. sub init. : on their employment in practice, Neander, C. H., I. 420, who connects them with oral traditions. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., 1. 12, remarks on the tacit growth of dogma. " In order to a development of the system of doctrine, there is no necessity for Councils nor for the formal fixing of the dogma by a, positive Canon. The opposite is proved by the three first centuries of the Christian Church, in which, without oecumenical synods, the progress of dogma was as rapid as it •was sure and constant. Never, however, was dogma created or con stituted truth by the sanction of the Church in a juridical, canonical form : but on the contrary, because it had in its substance established itself in the common faith, there followed the declarative sanction." See also Dr. Newman's profound and just observations, Arians, c. I. § ii., and c. II. § i. ; Waterland, Works, III. 254 ; and Dr. Pusey's note in Library of Fathers, Tertullian, p. 490. 38 PERMANENCE A TEST {Lect. I. They nowhere claim for themselves to be regarded as precise authoritative statements of articles of belief. That such existed in very early times, probably in the sub-apostolic age, seems now suffi ciently established. - The want of creeds must have been hardly felt in the lifetime of the Apostles, whether they be viewed as a sacred deposit, or tra dition of Apostolic teaching, or as agglomerations of doctrinal expressions, the products of the earliest controversies. But the ultimate and co ordinate authority of the written word remains beyond question ; being proved by the custom of Scriptural citation found even in the Apostolical Fathers, though at first, as was natural, employed much more largely on the Old than upon the New Testament.1 From the first there would seem to have existed a body of traditional Apostolic doc trine, according with the tenor of Holy Scripture and forming the nucleus of later and more ela borate Creeds. We are concerned, however, only with the recognition by believers from Apostolic times of certain revealed truths, and of historical 1 Thus Clemens Romanus quotes profusely from the Old Testament, but rarely from the New (%. e. from the words of Christ). See c. xiii! In the Second Epistle, however, the New Testament quotations are frequent, and apparently from Apocryphal Gospels. One reason for this practice may be found in the fact that the Gentile converts would commonly be ignorant of the Sacred writings, while, at the same time, their antiquity, authority, and testifying power would be strongly felt. Thus the Apostles proved both for Gentile and Jew out of the Old Testament, applying the evidence of prophecy by the side of direct testimony. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 39 events embodying these truths which contained implicit obligations of a practical kind. In this way a fixed character was impressed on the re- B£hef *' 1 effective on ligion itself, and on its followers, sufficient in the Practice' aggregate to produce distinct effects. " The growth of Christian faith became a permanent and here ditary belief by a natural law of transmission." x Thus we might argue either from the contents of the New Testament, together with the Creeds, to the lives of believers, as exemplifying and verify ing the nature of the doctrines believed ; or in versely from the life and character of believers, we may argue up to the character of the truths be lieved. In either case it must be admitted that the first ages of a faith are those in which its tenets are most enthusiastically received and vigorously acted on, and which therefore exhibit most plainly the tendencies and characteristics ofthe system.2 The emotions are stirred rather than the intellect ; and it is with these that religion, as a motive power among men, is principally concerned. But further, by the aid of the Canon of Holy Scripture, cau tiously framed, gradually accepted and transmitted to after-times,3 the personal influence, which marked 1 Dr. Mozley, Bampton Lect., p. 140. 2 " The life of intense hope," says Mr. Goldwin Smith, with his accus tomed beauty and strength of expression, " that is lived in the morning of all great revolutions, may partly make up for the danger, the distress, the disappointment of their later hour." — Led., p. 59. 3 Pascal, speaking of the Old Testament, says : " C'est le plus ancien 40 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. the primary records of Christian truth, was in definitely extended and conveyed with individual force to succeeding generations. Arid here the Permanent importance of the form in which the New Testa- cons™ce ment was composed, becomes still more apparent. theform'of For it is such as to guarantee permanence. The TeltamTnt. influences of the Gospel in the example and oral teachings of Christ and His Apostles are brought to bear continuously on successive ages in a degree much greater than could have been achieved by the bare institutions of ceremonies, however significant, or the enunciation of abstract doctrines, however pregnant with principles of action. The flexibility and power of self-accommodation essential to a religion destined for perpetuity are thus secured. In this manner, also, fundamental departures from the pure spirit of pristine Christianity have ever retained their antidote with them. For they have all along held firm to the Canon of Scripture, by which accordingly they may be tested and purged. In this fact, and not in any single doctrine of " jus tification by faith only" lay the true value of the Eeformation as an ecclesiastical movement.1 Print- livre du monde, et le plus autbentique ; et au lieu que Mahomet, pour faire subsister le sien, a deTendu de le lire ; Moise, pour faire subsister le sien, a ordonne" a tout le monde de le lire." — Pensees, II. 186. 1 It has hence been called " the resurrection of the Bible." — Compare Hallam, Literature of E., I. iv. § 58 ; Lecky, H. Rat., II. 227 ; Milman, Hist. Latin Chr., VI. 438. Mr. Hutton, Essays, I. 400, takes a different view ; but see also p. 415. Erasmus, De Ratione Verce Theologiw, p. 87, says : " Non paucos vidimus olim Lutefe, quibus si quid depro- Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 41 ing restored the authority and efficacy of the Bible, which in dark ages inevitably succumbed to tradition. Is there any other example, we may ask, of a religion surviving and drawing fresh strength from the resurrection of its original re cords? I do not desire to deny that some periods or conditions of society may be more receptive of one sort of teaching than another. And the same law may hold good in respect of individual tem perament. Thus the medieval ages of Christianity were bound together by ceremonial uniformity and a ceremonial faith, perhaps essential to a system of centralization such as alone could evict and control the evils of surrounding barbarism. But with the Eeformation the Church returned at least in part to its early appreciation of moral and spiritual truths, and to a Scriptural Chris tianity as their best and most permanent expression. 811. It should perhaps be considered how far a Objection 3 i. i- to the per- theorv of development tends to undermine an manent in- ¦' -1 fluence of arg-ument resting on the persistence of Christian christian- ii -iii • ity diaw" doctrine. It could not, indeed, be viewed as fatal from the pit- • -ip theory of to it, except the identity of the religion itself were doctrinal develop - rnendum fuisset ex Paulo, videbantur sibi prorsus in alium mundum translati ;'' and Robert Stephens (ap. Gieseler, V. 57, E. T.) wrote in his own defence, "Ante paucos annos quidam ex Sorbona, sic loquebatur : miror quid isti juvenes nobis semper allegent novum testamentum. Per Deum ego plus habebam quam quinquaginta annos quod nesciebam, quod esset novum testamentum." The doctrine of a " depositum fidei " is not necessarily opposed to all attempts to seek out the truth. This, no doubt, may become incrusted, and need to be reburnished. 42 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. compromised ; and this would be contended for but by few. In the case supposed it would not be one Gospel, but many, which has been preached throughout the world. The introduction of par ticular doctrines unknown to the first ages of the Church has certainly exercised an important practical influence on the history of Christianity. But if it should appear that the simplicity of the faith has outlived these and similar importations, and through its native purity still works its own work upon mankind, then the line of proof survives, and an additional evidence is secured for its inherent sanctity, its Divine origin, and its insuffi- imperishable permanence. It would, no doubt, be ciency of . this theory, possible to maintain upon a theory of doctrinal evolution the progressive unity of Christian truth, together with the continuity of its ideas, and so to lay claim to the effects of the system as flowing from a single source. The difficulty lies in re conciling the theory with the facts. The coldness with which it has been received in the house of its friends throws a just suspicion upon its demands.1 A system of development, however, necessarily 1 " Rome founds herself upon the idea that to her by tradition and exclusive privilege was communicated once for all the whole truth from the beginning. Mr. Newman lays his comer-stone in the very opposite idea of a gradual development given to Christianity by the motion of time, by experience, by expanding occasions, and by the progress of civilization." — De Quincey, Essay on Protestantism. On this subject see Dr. Mill's Five Sermons, Serm. I., and for the view of the Eastern Church, compare Dean Stanley, pp. 42, 173. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 43 # renounces the appeal to antiquity or uniform tradition. This is replaced by a different principle, viz. of authority. It assumes the variation of doctrine for which it would account. It renounces, therefore (a fact of especial importance in the present argument) that element of permanence which, we contend, is a marked characteristic of Christianity. It cannot then lay any claim on behalf of the religion of Christ to effects as the results of its character and doctrines. In other words, the sort of permanence which it affects is fictitious and of an arbitrary kind. But there is £last£=°»- further as little limit in this view of the subject with fi*ed- u ness 01 as respects steadfastness of doctrine on the side of doctrine. the future as in the past. The Christianity of the future might require another name. Nor can the ultimate aspect or effects of our religion be pre dicted with any attempt at precision under such a system. § 12. But it may be said, while rejecting the theory of development as an adequate explanation of facts, it must still be admitted that the facts re main ; and it is these which may be held to break off the continuity, as they undoubtedly do, the " sim plicity ofthe faith which is in Christ Jesus." In this £ucn0dn;his. matter a distinction has been introduced between ™ncgor- identity of principle and identity of doctrine} Jjj*^ beliefs. 1 Newman, Essay on Development, I. iii. § 4, p. 70 : " Principles are abstract and general, doctrines relate to facts ; doctrines develope, and 44 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. L With this, indeed, we are not now concerned, the former being sufficient for our purpose. But the historical development of Christianity is one thing, its doctrinal unity another. This develop- ment may be presumed to be subordinate to a system of law and general evolution, similar to the progress of all philosophical thought. It is the idea of such a development as this, subject, indeed, to a secondary process of degradation, due to the mingled presence of lower and higher ele ments in man's nature, of corruption and perfecti bility, which, as has been truly said,1 " gives a continuity to any distinct account of the progress of Christendom, a life to any intelligent analysis principles do not ; doctrines grow, and are enlarged, principles are illus trated ; doctrines are intellectual, and principles are more immediately ethical and practical. Systems live in principles and represent doctrines." See some excellent remarks on this subject in Canon Robertson's Hist, of Chr. Ch., I. pp. 82, 91. Dollinger, First Age ofthe Church, I. 228-233, leans too far to the side of development, confounding an original tradition of doctrine (which seems necessary and reasonable) with a continuous one, which it was the object of Creeds and of the Canon of Scripture to obviate. Thus Augustine's rule is a positive one : " Nec ego Nicamum nec tu debes Ariminense tanquam prajjudicaturus proferre concilium : nec ego hujus auctoritate, nec tu illius detineris : Scripturarum auctorita- tibus, non quorumque propriis, sed utriusque communibus testibus, res cum re, causa cum causcl, ratio cum ratione concertet." — c. Maximin. Ar., II. xiv. 3. 1 Dean Stanley, Essays, pp. 465, 470. So Ozanam, Civilis. Chret., I. 22, E. T. : " Every great era of history takes its departure from ruin and ends in a conquest." On the fact that alpecrts alpeaiv cpvrevei, " post- humi hseresium filii," see Bacon, Works, ed. Spedding, VIII. 83. De Quincey, Ess. on Protest., admits three kinds of development in doc trine— (1), philological ; (2), philosophical, from advance in knowledge ; (3), moral and historical ; Christianity awaking new powers in man, and being itself modified by times and climes. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 45 of Creeds and articles. In this manner the theo logy, like the architecture of each age, has always built itself upon the ruins of its predecessors." It is like a tree drawing its growth from its own dead leaves. It is this, in fact, which constitutes the solidarity of human history, and of the laws which compose it, which enables it to be treated philosophically, if not scientifically. Tt has plainly been the will of God that in the examination and handling of Divine truth the human element should not remain free from controversial doubt and absolute error. The hand of God is manifest here, as in other examples of His superintending providence. It has been finely said, " He never yet sent a gift into the world, which man did not deteriorate in the using."1 Whatever be thejmmunity ° . from error extent of His promise to His Church at large, as nowhere . promised regards indemnity from error ; whether this apply to the ¦ i 1 • • i i j.- Church. to all degrees of it, both in principle and practice ; yet for each individual Church no such immunity can be pleaded, any more than from corruptions in manner of living.2 But unless it can be shown that, of the larger and dominant divisions of the Christian Church any have cut themselves off from the essentials of primitive teaching, from all that is vital to the unity of the faith ; the 1 Archer Butler, Lectures on Romanism, p. 61. See also pp. 288-9, 316-18. a See Field, Of the Church, Book IV. c. v. 46 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. active power of Christ's religion may, though various, be still regarded as uniform in its opera tion, and definite in its effects. a ration- S n. But there is another side to a theory of alistic de- •> ° _ ... veiopment development which demands consideration. It is likewise , ... fatal to the that which, looking at Christianity on the whole nence of as merely a stage of progress in the human mind, Christian .. . . - ., belief. and regarding all religious truth as necessarily progressive,1 because man's powers are so, while accounting for its rise, prognosticates its fall. This system of thought strikes, indeed, at the very root of any defence of our holy religion which rests upon the permanent character of its teaching. An eclectic Christianity, making up a cento of doctrines and precepts, would undertake to dis tinguish between the permanent and the tempo rary, the universal and the partial elements of the teaching of Christ. Thus particular doctrines are rejected as forming no part of the Christian con sciousness, and are yielded, as a sacrifice, to the speculative difficulties of the time.2 We cannot, however, accept, we can only repudiate and challenge all asserted improvements whether by substitution or omission, in ihe subject-matter of 1 Mr. Buckle, H. Civ., II. 21, fathers this view on Charron. It was carried on by Hume in his Natural History of Religion, but has reached its climax in the system of M. Comte. 2 See Dean Mansel's Bampton Led., pp. 250, 258 ; Palmer On the Doctrine of Development, pp. 91-100; Dewaron German Protest, p. 196 ; Blanco White, Life, HI. 77. Lect. L] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 47 Christianity itself , effected by alleged advances in knowledge and civilization. The progress of science, so far as it extends to religion, touches it on its natural or moral side : not as it is a revelation of spiritual truths. These, simple in their character, are also final, and admit of no rationalizing process of accommodation to a fancied advance in knowledge. Obviously, there can be no progress of this character in. regard of truths which human reason is incapable of discovering for itself. In this respect the religion of Christ is really stationary. Civilization and knowledge may be regarded as witnesses to the permanent character of Christian truth, which absorbs, appro priates, and assimilates them without detriment to its own announcements. In a certain sense they form part of that natural revelation of Himself and His dealings with mankind which is a necessary consequence of a Divine government of the world, and which supplements His more special manifes- T1"s win . , be further tations. Those improvements, however, in the treated. condition and destinies of man which are due to the particular operation of Christianity, form part of the proper subject-matter of these Lectures, and will be adverted to in the course of them. § 14. It may perhaps be thought that as he who Reasons excuses himself and his own cause, in effect ins °n the present becomes the accuser ; so there is a certain want argument. of confidence in the credentials of Christianity, 48 PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. when it is consented to weigh the probabilities of its duration. It is enough to reply that the form assumed, and 'the direction taken by the contro versies of an age depend, doubtless, upon laws of thought beyond our volition or control. ' The course of Christian defence must ever follow that of attack ; and arguments which in one age are satisfactory enough, in another fall pointless and beside the mark. There is, then, a duty which belongs to the Church of God in every age and to teachers ^s " watehmen " in every generation, which may lianit1"3 ^e described as the discerning of the signs of the times. Much of the influence, much of the use fulness of individual ministers of religion, will always depend on their appreciation of the needs and tendencies of the day.1 Much of the narrow ness of thought and want of practical knowledge which has been falsely, because extravagantly, attributed to the clerical mind, has been due to this; — an absence of clear-sightedness in appre hending the intellectual posture of the age, its information and particular bent of thought. " Watchman, what of the night ? Watchman, what of the night?" must still be our question, when the clouds of doubt are hanging low, and the darkness of unbelief seems settling on the horizon of faith. It is not always sunshine in the courts of the Lord's house at Jerusalem. Eather 1 See some interesting remarks of Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 123. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 49 the answer is re-echoed from the towers of observa tion and the ramparts of defence. " The morning cometh, but also the night. If ye will inquire, inquire ye ; return, come." x Tt cannot be the part of Christian wisdom to refuse the labour of accommodating its teaching to the requirements of existing knowledge, and of anticipating, so far as it may, the difficulties of present thinkers. It ^'oTthe needs but little insight into the course of specula- j?^"' tion at this time to estimate the direction of the conflict which must henceforward be considered inevitable, between Science and Faith. The op position and repugnancy which in former days were more speculative than practical, now show themselves immediate and direct, and are pushed into minute details. The question is fast becom ing one of mutual compatibility. But there is comfort in the manliness with which the chal lenge has been accepted on the side of Christian Grounds of . . « hopeful- belief. Unworthy suspicions of the candour ofness. opponents, unwarrantable confusion of intellectual with moral error ; illogical estimates of the con sequences of unsound opinions,2 are fast being laid aside. The supreme obligation due to truth is everywhere acknowledged. It is seen that the 1 Isaiah xxi. 11, 12. 2 In the treatment of Holy Scripture (it has been well observed), " there is an abatement of that most wild and pernicious line of defence which maybe called the 'all-or-nothing principle': because it poises the vast and glorious edifice of Revealed truth upon the point of a single SO PERMANENCE A TEST [Lect. I. cause at stake is the cause of all, and not of a class ; and those who make or rather find the difficulties which threaten to divorce Faith from Science, are now credited with a willingness to join in the work of subduing them. On the other hand, there is in many respects a kindlier feeling stirring in the antagonists of dogmatic belief towards their opponents. The services and bene fits of Christian teaching in the history of mankind are more largely understood. It is acknowledged that there is something, at least, to be said for the claims of Christianity ; nor are its professors merely the ready instruments of credulity and imposture. There is comfort, too, when con fronted by an intellectual revolution in the scien tific temper of the age, in the retrospect of past dangers and past escapes. " The centre of gravity of religious questions," it has been eloquently said from this place, " may have become altogether shifted and displaced. Anchors are lifting every where, and men committing themselves to what they may meet with on the sea. But Christians have had bad days before." 1 " Passi graviora " may then well be for the time to come the watch word of the Church of Christ. We are not enter- incidental statement of some fact cither of history or science, and then declares, with an audacity which makes one shudder, that if that single statement can be disproved, the whole structure must fall to the ground." — Christian Remembrancer, Vol. L1V. p. 132. 1 Dean Church, Univ. Sermons, Serni. IV. Lect. I.] OF RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS. 51 ing for the first time on the encounter with Materialism or with secular modes of thought. 'At present, certainly, the tone and feeling of society is not a,nti-Christian : it only needs to be reassured. We are not entering on a conflict unexpected, unforeseen. He who came " not to send peace upon the earth but a sword," has with that sword, " even the Word of God," armed His warriors for the fight of Christian truth with human imperfection.1 We are contending for a Elements faith which from the first has been the religion nence in- of progress:2 whose cardinal doctrine is the love there of our kind, the source of all just and enduring Christ.0 liberty :3 which has been ever the enemy of social injustice : which in nowise denies the unity of the human race and is confined to no one clime, to no one tribal division of mankind, Aryan or Semitic, to no one form of political constitu tion :4 and which in its deep sense of human 1 See M. Guizot, Meditations, Vol. I. p. xx. 2 This is admitted by M. Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 231, and comp. Dean Merivale, Lect. on Conversion of the Empire, p. 210; also Guizot, Civ. in Europe, I. 94, ed. Bohn ; Ozanam, Civil, in Fifth Cent., I. 4, E. T. ; Lecky, Hist. Rat., II. 234-5. 3 Professor Goldwin Smith, Study of History, Pref. 4 Thus Cardinal Wiseman, Lect. on Science and Religion ; Ffoulkes, Div. Christendom, p. 247. " Christianity alone has a definite message addressed to all mankind. The character of the teaching of Mahomet is too exact a reflection of the race, time, place, and climate in which it arose to admit of its being universal. The same objection applies to the religions of the far East," &c. — Dr. Newman, Oram, of Assent, p. 425. " Christianity is a living truth which never can grow old," &c. —lb., p. 480. E 2 52 PERMANENCE A TEST. [Lect. I. responsibility has been the handmaid of man's perfectibility, leading him up to " the fulness of the stature of Christ." We are contending for a faith which claims to be coeval with the powers, the wants, the destinies of human nature : which alone is potent in virtue of Christ's Mediation to heal the wounds of conscience and dry the tears of sin : which has extended our very conceptions of purity and holiness, as possible to man : and which alone satisfies the boundless yearnings of his spirit by filling it with the promise of the likeness of its God. Why should we not assert for such a religion as this, the living germs of permanence and truth, a vitality surviving modifi cation, a vigour which can never decay, a life immortal as the soul for which it lives and works ? l Mtyag iv ravrn ©eo's, ov&l yrjpdcrKei. 1 " Nemo dubitat eum qui veram religionem requirit, aut jam credere immortalem esse animam, cui prosit ilia religio, aut etiam id ipsum in eadem religione velle invenire. Animas igitur causa omnis religio. . . . Animas causa vel solius vel maxime" vera, si qua est religio, con- stituta est."— Augustin. de Ut-ilit. Cred., c. vii. LECTURE II. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CONSIDERED. C'est un vieux batiment : si on y touche, il croulera. " Je suis done tres-dispos^ a croire que chez des hommes que ceux qui m'entendent l'instinct secret devinera juste assez souvent meme dans les sciences nature-lies. Mais je suis porte' a le croire a peu pr£s infaillible lorsqu'il s'agit de philosophie rationnelle, de morale, de mdtaphysique et de theologie naturelle." Db Maistee, Soirees, ler Entret. LECTURE II. " If thou sayest, Behold we knew it not : doth not He that pon der eth the heart, consider it ? and He that keepeth thy soul, doth not He know it ? and shall not He render to every man according to his works" — pros . r.r.tij. 12. § 1. A ATF have been hitherto occupied with the The past V V • i , • p ' • history of * * consideration ot permanence as a cnte- christi- rion of truth, and the conditions of its applicability ground for to the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Christianity, we con- in itTpef- tend, is the only religion which has stood its ground, manence- which has taken part in the general advance of modern civilization as represented by the nations of Europe, the foremost portion of mankind. There is, then, good reason to believe that it must be true, and will prove to be an accompaniment of human progress to the end. The argument thus afforded to its claims to reception is laid on grounds which are common to any religious system. It does not, then, rest principally, or in the first instance, on the contents- of the religion as revealed. These, however cogent to the mind of the believer, can have no binding force in relation to an ob jector. To all who accept the faith of Christ it This argu- must be plain enough, that our holy religion can dependent be no passing phase of thought or sentiment in the °icuiarPai" 56 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. contents of history of the human race, to be succeeded by the reli gion, others equally ephemeral. If true, it is true for eternity. It has closed the roll and completed the career of the religions of mankind.1 Christ, if He be Christ, is "with His Church always, even unto " the end of the world."2 Incarnation, Redemption, Eegeneration, Sanctification, are no catchwords of sect or school. They connote facts touching the destinies of the whole race of man. Nor can Christianity be regarded only as a revela tion of doctrine.3 It is far more a Divine work of restoration : in this lies its proper characteristic. " There is one Mediator " (and but one) " between God and man, the Man Christ Jesus."4 " This faith was once " (and once for all) " delivered to the Saints."5 "No man may deliver his brother, nor make agreement unto God for him. For it 1 " Le Christianisme a ferme' la carrie"re des religions .... parcequ'elle est la seule parfaitement digne de l'homme, d'ou il suit par une conse quence necessaire qu'elle est la plus parfaite et la dernieH'e des religions." — Saisset, Essais, p. 300. 2 Matt, xxviii. 20. 3 See some excellent remarks in Dorner, Hist. Prot. Theol., 1. 19, E. T. : " To this intellectual tendency towards objective truth, and the delusion it nourished concerning the magical power of pure doctrine as a means for the protection and blessing of the whole man, there was united a moral security and religious torpidity which were maintained by the kindred delusion that the knowledge of the truth — even its mere recep tion as a matter of memory — brings with it the Christian salvation — that sin is essentially only a want of knowledge, or error. Christ is thus reduced to a mere revealer of the true doctrine concerning God and con cerning the past and future." i 1 Tim. ii. 5. 6 Jude 3 : Trj aira£ irapadodeiar; rois ayiois -niarei. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. S7 cost more to redeem their souls : so that he must let that alone for ever." 1 As we have seen, there can be no improvements upon the subject-matter of Christianity, no additions to it, no derogations from it. Christianity, whether true or false, speaks for itself: it lays its own claim to be received as the final announcement on the part of God to His calculated 1 .to satisfy creatures. But in regard to those " who are with- objectors. out," we may still seek to prove that the elements in which the vital forces of all religions consist, are to be found unimpaired and vigorous in the constitution of the faith of Christ. - § 2. For in some quarters undoubtedly an im-APreva- pression prevails, or at the least is very indus- sumption triously circulated, that Christianity has been tried failure . . °f Chr and has failed. We live in times when all insti- tianity tutions, political, social, religious, the cherished heritage of many generations, are seen to be on their trial. Nor is the religion of Christ, the sacred deposit of the whole history of the Church, in its turn exempt. Sometimes its failure is spoken of as evident in practice, sometimes on speculative grounds. The world, it is hinted, sits loose to faith in Christianity, and is beginning to disregard 1 Ps. xlix. 7, 8, with the comment of Delitzsch. On the perpetuity of the Church, as a doctrinal tenet, see Field, Of the Church, 1. c. x., Palmer, Treatise on the Church of Christ, I. i. § 2. It was received alike by the Romish and Protestant divines, and is maintained equally by the Confession of Augsburg, the Helvetic Confession, and the Insti tutes of Calvin. is- 58 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. it. " Only a fourth part of mankind," it is said, with whatever truth, " are born Christians. The remainder never hear the name of Christ except as a reproach . . . These are facts which no casuistry can explain away."1 Again, " Christianity, accord ing to a well-known saying, has been tried and failed. The religion of Christ remains to be tried . . . To day that failure is too patent."2 Proudhon hardily proclaimed that Christianity will certainly die out in about three hundred years.3 M. Comte, it is well known, argues speculatively that all Theology, as well as Metaphysic, is unreal; for they deal with the origin and the end of things ; and of Of its tem- these, he thinks, we can know nothing:. Thev porary . ° J character, serve, indeed, a preparatory function in affording a temporary stimulus, an artificial basis to in tellectual effort. But it is only by laying them aside, and ignoring them, that knowledge has made real progress. Thus Catholicism, i. e. Chris tianity, the highest, yet the last type of Mono- 1 Froude on Calvinism, p. 4. He adds, " The Chinese and Japanese, we may almost say every weaker race with whom we have come in contact, connect it only with the forced intrusion of strangers whose behaviour among them has served ill to recommend their creed." Again, Short Studies, Ser. IT. p. 98, "We wonder at the failure of Christianity ; at the small progress which it has made in comparison with the brilliancy of its rise," &c. This part of the subject will be considered in Lecture VIII. On the numerical division of the human race according to religions, see Prof. Max Muller, Chips, I. 216. Chris tianity should probably rank highest in the scale. 2 Morley's Critical Miscellanies, pp. 190, 191. ' See Rogers' Essays, II. 342. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 59 theism, has now done its work. It has prepared the way for Positivism, that is, for the belief in Laws ; and soon the present stage of mental and moral anarchy must draw to a close.1 It cannot, This view I fear, be denied that there are many solvents cu-cum- of customary belief at work among us. The ad- the age, vance through improved means of locomotion and mechanical appliances of our knowledge of man kind, of nature, and the earth which we inhabit ; the tendencies of physical inventions, of political and social concentration, of scientific discovery, and of philosophical criticism, are all acting in one direction. They will strip off, no doubt, the un essential garb of Christianity. It remains to be seen whether its inward frame can be shaken. I make no excuse for putting the matter thus bluntly before you. It is well even for the youngest of my hearers, who are, thank God, least, if at all, familiar with the philosophy of unbelief, to know something of its language and mode of assault. Let them not be startled. When has the religion 1 See Phil. Pos., III. 418, V. 299. He holds l'dtat theblogique to be l'e'tat fictif. The Church is with Comte a speculative corporate body, destined to give way when the interests of speculation and practice are combined in the advance of knowledge. " La theologie et la physique sont profondement incompatibles." — Lee. I. No doubt, it is the function of Religion and of Philosophy to offer a general theory of the universe. This theory is slowly verified or improved on by the progress of knowledge contained in particular sciences. In this manner religion is always on its trial ; but it lias not failed yet, nor is there any roason to believe it will. For an eloquent description of the joint aims of Philosophy and Religion, see Saisset, Essais, pp. xxxiv.-vii. 60 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. but must of Jesus Christ not been upon its trial ; or when be without x delay en- has it shrunk back from the test ? But the charge countered. . . of failure whether meant as a gibe,1 or as a serious objection, as a ready weapon of attack, or as an honest stumbling-block, cannot be overlooked ; it must not be postponed. To ignore a doubt, is not only open to the imputation of cowardice : it is unwise. For it cannot but operate to the prejudice of the truth : and when at last it comes up, as come it will, for answer, the fault bears its own punishment. Sf current § 3" ** cannot indeed be denied that the im- attackson putations to which I have alluded, are current the success *• of Chris- in the literature of the day. " The popular re ligion," it is said, " has entered on its last phase ; "2 " Christianity has dwindled down to a drivelling, feeble, desultory thing." " It is now obvious that the theology of former ages cannot be maintained. ... A change in religious thought has gradually forced its way through the cultivated classes of the community. The educated man no longer believes what the Evangelist believed and affirmed." 3 " The 1 Bishop Fraser is reported to have said : " It is a common gibe that Christianity is losing power ; and to a certain extent, I think, we cannot deny that the gibe is true and deserved."— Guardian, August 16 1871. 2 No new view. See ap. H. J. Rose, Protestantism in Germany, p. 163, 2nd ed. Schmidt and other Rationalists held that Christianity is a mere temporary dispensation, and that tho world should return to Natural Religion. 3 Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism, by the Duke of Somerset, passim. Fabri (Briefe gegen Malerialismus) complains that Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 61 theological spirit is too much decayed and too far neutralized to be any longer really formidable in any part of Western Europe." x Such are some of the statements not unfrequently made. It is of moment, therefore, to estimate the grounds on which they rest, and the amount of truth they may contain. Nothing is easier than to repeat a charge when once it is made. Repeated, it soon begins to be Reasons of believed, and held more largely on a tacit principle portance, of authority ; and then a fresh start is made from the assertion as if it were a fact both proved and acknowledged.2 On what grounds, then, we ask, is the career of Christianity believed to have closed ? Is there any present pressing proof of it ? Is it truer now than at any former time ? Is it plainer now the majority of Christians now-a-days are pagans as to head ; though accepting the faith with their hearts. 1 " L'esprit theologique est trop dechu ou trop neutralise pour etre encore vraiment dangereux dans aucune partie de notre Occident Euro pean. C'est partout l'esprit metaphysique qui constitue desormais le seul antagoniste que le Positivisme doive avoir serieusement en vue : lui seul prolonge desormais l'influence ; impuissante pour rien fonder, mais trop efficace pour entraver du genie religieux qui s'eteindrait spontanement sans un tel remaniement." Comte to J. S. Mill, ap. Littr6, A. Comte et le Posit., p. 448, written 1843. See also Paroles de Phil. Pos., p. 24. 2 " Ideas obtain authority and dominion, not altogether from their intrinsic truth, but rather from their constant asseveration, especially when they fall in with the common hopes and fears, the wants and necessities, of human nature. The mass of mankind have neither leisure nor ability to examine them : they fatigue, and so compel the world into acceptance." — Milman, Latin Christianity, III. 437. " Les fausses opinions ressemblent a. la fausse monnaie, qui est frappee d'abord par de grands coupables et de'pensee ensuite par d'honnetes gens qui per- petuent le crime sans savoir ce qu'ils font." — De Maistre, Soirees, p. 26. 62 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. than it has ever been before ? Are there no special reasons to indicate that the wish may be father to the thought ? Is Christianity less an object of dislike and suspicion than it has ever been with some prevalent systems of philosophy ? Is it less and of 0f an obstacle to their reception ? Is there any their being x at present less impatience in the heart and mind of man than broughtforward, of old to anticipate the designs of Providence or , to foredate the beginning of the end ? Something may not unreasonably be attributed to the expecta tion on the part of its detractors that Christianity may be killed or scotched by a policy of indiffer ence. To pass it by as already foredoomed, to deal with it as a thing of the past, much may perhaps be looked for from this course of treatment. Dogmas ere now have perished of pretermission, if not of controversy, have given way to a modi fication of opinion, if not to argument, have yielded to insensible decay. Such has been the fate of many an extinct superstition. This in the eyes of some critics is " the great turning-point in the history of civilized nations."1 Why, then, should it be otherwise with the time-worn, cum- 1 " When in the progress of society its theological element begins to decay, the ardour with which religious disputes were once conducted becomes sensibly weakened. The most advanced intellects are the first to feel the growing indifference, and therefore they are also the first to scrutinize real events with that inquisitive eye which their prede cessors had reserved for religious speculations. This is a great turning- point in the history of every civilized nation."— Buckle, Hist. Civil., II. 2G3. Compare Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 104. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 63 brous fabric of Christian tradition ? The increas ing secularization of politics, the loss of temporal influence by the Church,1 mark, it is urged, the decline of dogmatic theology as a practical power. Moreover, something of a just retribution clings Grounds about such a change of fortune, which must render sessions on the part of lt not wholly displeasing to the taste of the physical Natural philosopher. In past days Theology began by phei-s. monopolizing science, metaphysic, even history itself. In the hands of the Fathers of the Church she early invaded the realm of Natural know ledge,2 quickly subordinating it to Revelation, and thereby rendering its progress impossible. In this manner Lactantius denied the sphericity of the earth, and Augustine antipodes. " From the fifth to the twelfth centuries," writes Guizot, " it is Theology that possessed and directed the human spirit. All opinions are impressed by Theology : philosophical, political, and historical questions are all considered under a theological point of view. So all-powerful is the Church in the intellectual former re- 1 lations of order that even the mathematical and physical Theology 1 -, . , . . . , . to physical sciences are held m submission to its doctrines, science. The theological spirit is in a manner the blood which ran in the veins of the European world 1 This view, of course, loses sight of the possibility that such a sever ance may even advance the ultimate influence of religion. Otherwise Dissent must equally decline with Established religions. 2 Compare Bacon, Nov. Org., Aph. Ixxxix. 64 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. Haureau. down to Bacon and Descartes." 1 Everywhere and on all subjects the maxim was in force, ' Philosophia ancillans theologies.' Few cared to perceive that the true sphere of science lies altogether outside of theological study. The Christian is but implicitly and in a secondary degree called on to inquire into the nature and constitution of things and of God. On this side the true defence of his system of belief is to isolate its claims, repelling attack and implied or asserted contradictions.2 History is the proper mode of exhibiting the general character of the faith of Christ, as it is of orthodoxy in detail ; showing the particular dogma to be either a just or false outcome of Scriptural Revelation. Now, however, the tables are turned : and the human intellect, " waxing," it is said, " in strength, learns to rely upon its own resources, and to throw off incumbrances by which the freedom of its move ments has been long impaired."3 So also the 1 Civilization in Europe, E. Tr., I. 114, ed. Bohn. See also Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 478. Kepler's bold and plain words (Introd. ad Stell. Martis) are well known. " In Theology we balance authorities, in Philosophy we weigh reasons. A ' holy man was Lactantius, who denied that the earth was round: a holy man was Augustine who granting the rotundity, denied the antipodes: a holy thing to me is the Inquisition, which allows the smallness of the earth, but denies its motion. But more holy to me is Truth," &c. See ap. Whewell, Indi cations of the Creator, p. 143, and at length, Hist. Induct. Sc, IV. i. 6, 7. 2 " Tout ce qui nous reste done apres avoir ajoute' foi aux myste"res sur les preuves de la verity de la religion (qu'on appelle motifs de credi bility) c'est de les pouvoir soulenir contre les objections," &c. — Leibnitz, The'odicee, § 5. 3 Buckle, Hist. Civ., II. 263. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. . 65 founder of Positivism looks forward to a Church, Catholic, but not Christian, which shall preside over the regeneration of society, and " the irresis tible emancipation of human reason."1 § 4. Certainly, we have no right to complain inversion that false assumptions should have borne their lation. natural fruit and have yielded to fair attack. " Men," wrote Jeremy Taylor,2 " will call all opinions by the name of religion, and superstruc tures by the name of fundamental articles, and fancies by the glorious appellative of faith." Those, then, who made Theology the essence of the faith, and next installed her in the throne of all knowledge, divine and human, natural and super natural, poising on some solitary statement as to a fact of history or science the whole truth of Holy Scripture itself: such men were perforce sowing to the wind, and were the unwitting pioneers of a whole revolution of belief. " Science," wrote De Maistre 3 (and his sentiment is far from exploded), 1 Phil. Pos., V. 490. It is a melancholy satire on the tendencies of Comtism that, forsaking the Materialism which is its proper base, its author should have returned, as M. Littre' reluctantly admits.^to a Theology, a Fetichism (sic), a worship of Humanity, " le Grand Etre." Prof. Huxley's strictures on this subject are as just as they are able. » Works, V. 348, ed. Eden. 3 See Examen de Bacon, vol. ii. 46 ; Soirees de Saint-Petersbourg, V. Entret. Works, I. 198. See, however, also, p. 172, where the me taphor is borrowed. Leibnitz, Theodicee, § 17, speaks of those who held as to philosophy, " qu'elle devoit etre traitee en servante et non pas en maitresse par rapport a la Theologie. Enfin que c'etoit une Hagar auprSs de Sara, qu'il falloit chasser de la maison avecrson Ismael, quand elle faisoit la murine." It must not be forgotten that Metaphysic, under F 66 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. "must be kept in its place; for it resembles fire which, when confined in the grates prepared for it, is the most useful and powerful of men's servants ; scattered about anyhow, it is the most terrible ol scourges." For this reason he argues that physi cal science was not given to men until Christianity was dominant in the earth. What wonder if we now hear the opinion loudly proclaimed that physical knowledge is the proper supplement to theological conceptions ; that " the gradual destruc tion of the old theology is everywhere preceded by the growth and diffusion of physical truths." 1 --§ 5. The reverse excess is now more to be adoption feared. The spirit of the age proves, indeed, that of a sen- mankind is still governed by its prejudices rather suous phi- ° •> l J losophy. than by reason. As the medieval temper was theologically led to an excessive credulity, so the sceptical tendency of the present day leads men to limit their vision to objects of sense. Now it is asserted that there is no knowledge but of things visible : no truth which is not real : no philosophy which is not " positive." 2 We have but faith : we cannot know ; For knowledge is of things we see ; sings the greatest of our metaphysical poets, con- the name of 6eo\oyiKr), had of old assumed the highest rank in the scale of sciences. See Arist., Metaph., Bk. V. 1 Buckle, Hist. Civ., III. 478. 2 Positivism, by Comte identified with Natural Philosophy in its largest sense including Social Physics, through a huge fundamental assumption, has eome to be purely negative. The term " positive " was by the grammarians opposed to " natural," and hence transferred to the Science now tends Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 67 descending to the language of his time.1 Thus the most popular Professor of the day asserts, " there is but one kind of knowledge and but one method of acquiring it. . . . What is the history of every Excluding science but the history of the elimination of the in the Unseen. notion of creative or other interferences ? . . . Harmonious order governing eternally continuous progress, the web and woof of Matter and Force interweaving by slow degrees, without a broken thread, that veil which lies between us and the Infinite, that universe which alone we know or can know." 2 Here is something very different from distinction between legal and moral obligations. " In laws," says. Hooker, " that which is natural bindeth universally ; that which is positive not so." — E. P., 1. x. 7. Thus also Bishop Butler contrasts moral and positive duties. Analogy, Pt. II. c. i. Its present use seems derived from its logical sense, denoting " rem quasi prasentem." The intermediate notion, however, by which laws of nature are regarded as positive, is thus stated by Leibnitz : — " II y en a d'autres verites qu'on peut appeler positives, parce qu'elles sont les lois qu'il a plu a Dieu de donner a la Nature, ou parce qu'elles en dependent." 1 And truly enough : only it must not be forgotten that faith is to man the very " evidence of things not seen," the fundamental condition of all true human knowledge, intellectual or moral. We may justly ask whether the materialism of the day, resting on physical philosophy, has any new proof or necessity to offer, not open to earlier speculation. 2 Huxley, Lay Sermons, p. 310. " Notre ame," says Pascal, " est jetee dans le corps oil elle trouve nombre, temps, dimension. Elle raisonne la-dessus et appelle cela Nature, necessite, et ne peut croire autre chose." Yet he acknowledges fully the modest limits of human apprehension. " Les sciences ont deux extremites qui se touchent: la premiere est la pure ignorance naturelle ou se trouvent tous les hommes en naissant : l'autre extremite est celle ou arrivent les grandes ames, qui ayant parcouru tout ce que les hommes peuvent savoir, trouvent qu'ils ne savent rien, et se rencontrent en cette meme ignorance d'ou ils elaient partis. Mais c'est une ignorance savante qui se connait." (Pensees, II. 163 ; I. 180.) F 2 68 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IL the doctrine of the relativity of human know ledge. No alternative is presented between mate rialism1 and sheer ignorance; either alike incom petent to satisfy the demand of man's intelligence or spirit. So extremes meet. The ultimate analysis of science, the rudimentary ignorance of barbarism, have kissed each other. Both refuse to travel beyond the avouchments of the senses. Mr. Bailey, long a resident among the Veddahs of Ceylon, says : — " They have no knowledge of a Supreme Being. 'Is He on a rock — on a white ant-hill — on a tree ? I never saw a God,' was the only reply I received to repeated questions."2 ' : How dangerously near such teaching approaches to materialism may be seen from the language of Feuerbach. " Personality, individuality, consciousness, without Nature is nothing ; or, which is the same thing, an empty, unsubstantial abstraction. But Nature is nothing without corporeality. . . . Real sensational existence is that which is not dependent on my own mental spontaneity or activity, but by which I am involun tarily affected : which is when I cannot, do not think of it or feel it. The existence of God must therefore be in space : in general a quali tative, sensational existence. But God is not seen, not heard, not per ceived by the senses. He does not exist for me, if I do not exist for Him."— Essence of Christianity, E. T., pp. 90, 199. Augustine thus characterizes the Positivism of his day : — " Sed res est longd remota a vanorum hominum mentibus qui nimis in hase corporalia progressi atque lapsi nihil aliud putant esse quam quod istis quinque notissimis nuntiis corporis sentiunt : et quas ab his plagas atque imagines acceperunt eas secum volvunt etiam cum conantur recedere a sensibus et ex earum mortifera et fallacissima regula ineffabilia penetralia veritatis rectissime1 se metiri putant." — Dtil. Cred., c. i. 3 Quoted by Mr. Farrar on the Universality of a Belief in God. (Anthropological Review, August, 1864.) As to the Veddahs, however, see Tylor, Prim. Cult., I. 45 ; and on the whole question of savage races being destitute of the elements of religion, id. I. c. xi., pp. 377-83. Also Luthardt, Apolog., E. T., p. 42. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 69 Thus religion, the science of spiritual things, whose subject-matter, passing the sphere of experi ence, is the soul and spirit of man, and his relations to the Maker of the universe, " dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto ; Whom no man hath seen, nor can see,"1 is in this school of thought dethroned, discrowned, nay, thrust out for final extinction : her occupation gone, the reason of her being disallowed.2 - § 6. The inquiry remains, Why must we believe Assump- that Christianity has failed ? If the charge be necessary true, it must be capable of proof, either from the in the exhibition of a fixed tendency to decline — the re- cims- ligion of Christ must be shown to have already tiam y' passed its meridian, and to have yielded only dis appointing results — or from a present feebleness and prostration, so utter and unquestionable, so chronic and inherent, as to defy dispute ; or, lastly, from the discovery that the tenets of Christianity 1 1 Tim. vi. 16. Comp. Tertullian, Apol., c. xviii. Invisibilis est etsi videatur : incomprehensibilis, etsi per gratiam reprassentetur ; inassti- mabilis, etsi humanis sensibus ajstimetur. It is in this sense that Augustine writes : " Summus ille Deus qui scitur melius nesciendo." De Ord., II. xvi. 2 Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, p. 60, has some good re marks on the insensible stages by whioh the physical philosophy of the day passes into dogmatism. " Unsere Materialisten vergessen nur zu . hiiufig, dass sie ganz einerlei, ob sie von Beruf etwa Professoren der Physiologie sind oder nicht, — sich alsbald auf dem Boden der Philo sophic und nicht der Natur Wissenschaft befinden, wenn sie sich zu einer Gesammtanschauung des Weltganzen zu erheben versuchen, und dass sie dogmatische Philosophen sind, wenn sie die Resultate ihrer Anschauungen kategorisch als Thatsachen vortragen." 70 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. are incompatible with truths now very generally acknowledged, and with that marked progress in intellectual effort which is a main ingredient in the present condition of affairs. It is with the last of these alternatives that we shall first, and consti- for some time, be occupied ; for the particular ob- tuting a . ' . r ' I- deniai of jections which it covers are fatal not only to the its power . toco-exist continuance of Christianity, but to all systems with ad- . ,it vancing of religion acknowledging or implying Theism.1 civiliza- ml , . n , tion. Ihese, then, require to be met before entering on the direct historical proofs which guarantee the prospects of our common faith. With one of these, indeed, the refutation of such objections is imme diately connected, and practically identical. For the power, which they impugn, of assimilating healthfully the varying conditions, the attendant conceptions of progressive civilization, must ever be a most important ingredient in a religion des tined for permanence. It is this element which is mainly neutralized or denied in the observations which will now be considered. Particular § 7. The difficulties still urged against the re- 1 It is evident that, though a man may be a Theist and not a Christian, a fact which has recently been somewhat ostentatiously pro claimed (Christianity and Modern Scepticism, sub fin.), it is impossible for him to be a Christian and not a Theist. Thus, Shaftesbury, Works, IL' 209, writes : " Averse as I am to the cause of Theism, or name of Deist, when taken in a sense exclusive of Revelation, I consider still that in strictness the root of all is Theism ; and that to be a settled Christian, it is necessary to be first of all a good Theist." Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 71 ception of Christianity are partly very ancient, °" which though now advanced upon new grounds : some sumption 0 x is founded, are essentially modern in their character and bear ings, and, as such, are at present most frequently encountered. Though general in their scope, they are brought to bear particularly on the dominant, that is, upon the Christian faith. All progress, it is asserted, in human affairs, of whatever kind, is intellectual. Moral subjects form no exception.1 The progress of Nature is towards intellectual, not moral development. Moral dogmas, if they advance at all, which is very questionable, advance only through intellectual processes. The same is true no less of theological and religious beliefs, which owe their virtue to their moral element. Religion has never been a true source of culture, which is really derived from knowledge and not from belief.2 1 Pascal long ago noted the source of this confusion. " Les inventions des hommes vont en avanyant de siecle en siecle. La bonte et la malice du monde en general en est de meme." — Pensies, I. 205. The notions of Mr. Buckle and kindred thinkers on these subjects are trace able to Condorcet and Turgot. " Progress," says Mr. Morley, Crit. Misc., p. 91, " in Condorcet's mind is exclusively produced by improve ment in intelligence. It is the necessary result of man's activity in the face of that disproportion ever existing between what he knows and what he desires and feels the necessity to know. Hence the most fatal errors of his sketch. He measures only the contributions made by nations and eras to what we know; leaving out of sight their failures and suc cesses in the elevation of moral standards and ideals, and in the purifi cation of the passions." 2 See Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 254. " When religious opinions are deeply rooted, they do, no doubt, influence the conduct of men ; but before they can be deeply rooted, somo intellectual change must first have taken place," &c. 72 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. Civilization explains religion, and not religion civi lization. " The history of the civilization of the earth," it has been quaintly said, " is the history of the civilization of Olympus also."1 Thus Chris tianity has been no cause of civilization, but its effect. The consequences very commonly attri buted to Christianity in the history of mankind are really due to an advance in civilization. The Church of Christ may seem to have done some good in things where her interest did not happen to clash with the interests of Europe, as in helping to abolish slavery ; but, after all, circumstances and manners would have produced the result ne- current cessarily and of themselves.2 The essence of all literature religions is in a moral code, and this is found to ' be nearly everywhere identical. So in the moral part of Christianity there is nothing new. All providential interposition, speculatively or histori cally considered, is inadmissible, and therefore, also, every religion resting upon such interpo sition. Such notions belong altogether to the 1 Morley, Grit. Misc., p. 153. 2 See Condorcet ap. Morley, Crit. Misc., p. 94, and M. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 397. The case is temperately and honestly stated by Guizot, Civ. in E., I. 110, ed. Bohn. " It has often been repeated that the abolition of slavery among modem people is due entirely to Christians. That, I think, is saying too much : slavery existed for a long period in the heart of Christian society, without its being particularly astonished or irritated. A multitude of causes and a great development in other ideas and principles of civilization were necessary for the abolition of this iniquity of all iniquities. It cannot be doubted, however, that the Church exerted its influence to restrain it." Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 73 infancy of knowledge ; its progress is marked by their decay and extinction. Since the discovery of the great laws and agencies of Nature all miraculous tales have been given up. Every advance of science is an extension of the idea of Law, and that into regions of thought and phenomena hitherto held exempt.1 But the theory of universal invariable law is abhorrent from Christian doctrine, and, indeed, from all systems which are not of a pantheistic character, or, at least, go beyond pure theism. Religion itself, and so-called revelation, are parts of the order of Nature, and may be explained out of phenomena which leave no room for supernatural considera tions. Religion is a natural infirmity of the fatal to .... . the perma- human mind m its immature stages, just as there nence and are specific disorders in childhood incident to the phristian- human body. Thus Christianity is a partial and of ail evanescent form of anthropomorphism, necessary feHgion. perhaps to a transitional mode of thought. It is the tendency of knowledge, and so of civilization, to extinguish religion. Advancing culture removes the feelings, or more strictly the occasions ofthe feel ings, which are the elements of religious sentiment. By eliminating fear and wonder from the mind, in its gradually increased acquaintance with the 1 Such as the special Providence of God, the foundation of all reli gion : the freedom and personality of man : with its consequences on social law and morality. See some good remarks in Christian Remem brancer, No. CXXXL, p. 240. 74 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. facts of the external world, the ingredients of veneration are dissolved, and religion itself dis appears in the analysis. And, lastly, the sense of free agency is more than suspected to be only a trick of consciousness, a product of organic evo lution, and to be incompatible alike with just theories of a natural causation, and with statistical results. But if moral responsibility be removed, most, it must be admitted, of the groundwork of religious truth, under whatever system, will fall away with it. Prayer, for example, can no longer be regarded as " man's rational prerogative," but rather as " a transient bewilderment of the social instinct," the " misapplication of a social habit," or "the delusive self-confidence of human feeling."1 ^rrtuT6 """ Proceed fo enter more or less fully on the reason topics indicated. All are more or less directlv answered ^ J in detail, connected with the permanence of the faith of Christ. The world at large is always ready to mistake difficulties which really underlie all human thought for difficulties in the way of Christian 1 See Coleridge's remarks on this subject in Aids to Reflection, p. 55, and on the other side Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. pp. 671-3. I cannot refrain from quoting a noble passage from Mr. Hutton, Essays, I. 368 : " Prayer is and can only be possible on the assumption that it is a real influence with God : that, whether granted or denied, it is efficient as an expression of our spiritual want and resolution : that the breath of power which answers it is a living response, and like all living responses the free utterance of the moment, not the pre-ordained consequent waiting for a pre-ordained antecedent : that there is a sphere beyond all necessary law, in which both the Divine and human life are not con strained by immutable arrangements, but free." Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 75 belief. So far forth, however, as they affect the permanence of Christianity, being themselves in volved in the current philosophy of the age, and representing the spirit of its thought, they will be properly considered here. For certainly of most of them it may be said that, if these views must be accepted, the days of the reception of the faith of Christ by mankind, or at least by its most civilized portion, are undoubtedly num bered, and perhaps quickly told. Whatever may have been the benefits it has conferred upon past generations, whatever its connections with fore gone civilization, its part, if these things be so, has been indeed played out, its work is done, its glory departed, and " the ark of our God is taken." S 8. The limits assigned me in these Lectures ciassifica- 3 ° tion of will be best observed by grouping the objections ?uch ob- specified under three general heads. They will be found to involve the relations either (I.), of causa tion to free agency; or (II.) , of universal law to providential agency ; or (HI.), of intellectual to moral and religious action. " Every religion," says a distinguished living philosopher,1 " may be de fined as an a priori theory of the universe." " Every perfect religion," writes another careful and precise thinker,2 " must give account of three 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Principles, p. 43. 1 Dr. Westcott, Comte on Christianity, Cont. Rev. VIII. 373. 76 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. elements — the individual, the world, and God." Those Our immediate task is to examine whether the relatingto the principles on these subjects, necessary to the exist- existence . • i i of free ence of Christianity, are irreconcilable with the in man conclusions of existing science.1 ' No fact is more first con- -. . „ sidered. suggestive of the intellectual temper ot our time than the manner in which the question of man's liberty of action is now discussed, and the grounds on which it is not uncommonly set aside. Rele gated on its metaphysical side2 to the limbo of un fruitful disputations, it is approached and decided by physical considerations, as a material rather than a mental fact, or as a mental fact capable The pre- 0f material explanation. Minds occupied onlv or sent aspect x x ./ of science mainly with physical inquiries readily apply the istic, notion of material causation, the nexus between antecedent and consequent, with which they are familiar, to the phenomena of thought and action.3 Uniformity of result, statistically obtained, is taken to prove identity of origin ; and moral operations 1 " The questions which belong to natural theology are in substance the same from age to age ; but they change their aspect with every advance or supposed advance in the inductive sciences." — Whewell, Indie, of the Creator, p. ix. 2 Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law, p. 354, has pointed out that the problem of free-will arises when we contemplate a metaphysical con ception under a legal aspect. Dean Merivale has traced the theological history of the controversy to the expressions of Roman law. 3 Compare Augustine, Ver. Relig., c. xxxvi. " Quoniam opera magis Artificem atque ipsam artem dilexerunt hoc errore puniuntur ut in operibus artificem artemque conquirant : et cum invenire nequiverint (Deus enim non corporalibus sensibus subjacet sed ipsi menti super- eminet) ipsa opera existiment esse et artem et artificem." Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 77 are confounded with material processes.1 Thus it is asked, as an inquiry decisive of the matter in hand, whether the actions of men, and therefore of societies, are not governed by fixed laws ; or whether they are to be regarded as the result of chance or of supernatural interference.2 For on this issue depends the desideratum of the Positive School, the possibility of an exact science of man and history. Now chance, it may at once be ad mitted, is but another name for ignorance of causa tion.3 We know nothing in Nature, or, if it may be so said, out of Nature, which is not under the 1 This is, no doubt, the first effect of the enthusiasm and instinct of symmetry which are the just results of the surprising triumphs of phy sical discovery. Mr. Lecky well remarks, Hist. Rat., I. 322, " In the present day, when the study of the laws of matter has assumed au extraordinary development, and when the relations between mind and body are chiefly investigated with a primary view to the functions of the latter, it is neither surprising nor alarming that a strong movement towards materialism should be the consequence." Leibnitz finely ob serves : j J here to be noticed. While science nowhere con tradicts the fact of a beginning, its absence is inconsistent and in the judgment of the highest authorities in physical philosophy incompatible with the state of our knowledge of Nature rejected ( Werden) as a continuous effect, and of natural by natural ' phiio- agents and their mode of operation as causes. sophers. . *• Thus astronomy, in the opinion of Professor Huxley 2 " leads us to contemplate phenomena, the very nature of which demonstrates that they must have had a beginning, and that they must have an end." "The principle of the dissipation of energy," according to another distinguished pro fessor,3 " as it alone is able to lead us by sure steps 1 As, for example, that it really explains nothing : asternitas quippe nullius rei causa intelligi potest. 2 Lay Sermons, p. 17, probably referring to the fact of the earth's retardation in a resisting medium. Comp. Whewell, Bridg. Tr., Bk. II. c. viii. Sir John Herschel, Disc. Nat. Phil., § 28, says : " If we mis take not, then, the discoveries alluded to effectually destroy the idea of an eternal, self-existent matter, by giving to each of its atoms the essen tial characters at once of a manufactured article and a subordinate a<*ent." 3 Professor Tait, Report of British Assoc, 1871. He adds, " Sir William Thomson's splendid suggestion of Vortex Atoms implies the absolute necessity of an intervention of creative power to form or to destroy one atom even of dead matter." Dr. Whewell, Indications, pp. 14, 17, 115 remarks, "A perpetual motion is impossible in chemistry as it is in mechanics; and a theory of constant change continued throughout infinite time is untenable when asserted upon chemical no less than upon mechanical principles." Liebig, 23 Brief ap. Lange, Gesch. des Mat., p. 342, considers the same to be proved by physiology. Die exakte Naturforschung hat bewiesen, dass das organische Leben auf Erden einen Anfang hatte. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 91 of deductive reasoning to the necessary future ot the universe (necessary, that is, if physical laws for ever remain unchanged) ; so it enables us to say that the present order of things has not been evolved through infinite past time by the agency of laws now at work ; but must have had a dis tinctive beginning, a state beyond which we are totally unable to penetrate ; a state, in fact, which must have been produced by other than the now acting causes." We may dismiss, then, the theory of the eternity of matter, and with it some ancient fancies which, while admitting a creation, supposed it to be coeval with the Creator as being of His essence.1 But if self-caused or altogether motive The First and yet material, the ultimate force in natural creative phenomena turns out to be wholly and inherently different from the effects for which it is required to account. It is contrary to all experience, and all our knowledge of matter, such as it is, is gained from experience.2 Its raison d'etre, therefore, dis- 1 See Milman, Lat. Christ., VI. 279. "Nature and Time were created together," is the truer thought of Scotus Erigena (ap. Guizot, Civil, en France, Lee. 28). See, however, Milman (lb., III. 244), after Haureau. Saisset indeed (Essais), while quoting Augustine and Leib nitz as inclining to the opinion of the eternity and infinity of the universe, remarks, " Dieu a toujours ete avant les creatures sans jamais exister sans elles ; parce qu'il ne les precede point par un intervalle de temps, mais par une eternite fixe." 2 " Laws of Matter " imply a distinction between matter and form and by consequence an original conception of matter which is meta physical rather than physical, and involves a whole theory. With the admission that we know nothing of physical causes materialism pro perly disappears. 92 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. appears. It is opposed to that great generaliza tion of modern scienqe, known as the conservation of energy or persistence of force. " A creation of power," says Faraday,1 "is like no other force in nature. . . . In no case, not even in those of the gymnotus or torpedo, is there a pure creation or a production of power without a corresponding andim- exhaustion of something to supply it." It must material, to L r J then, this ultimate force or centre, or more strictly this origin of force, be other than material in character and essence. No theory of tension or pressure, or of their co-existence, is adequate to the case supposed. All motion with which we are acquainted has its commencement in some pre existing source of power. If physical, it is itself an effect. For all experience and observation, not to rest upon principles of reason, lead us to con clude that there is no phenomenon in nature which is uncaused. But if itself a cause and immaterial, a new mode of agency is introduced into the universe. True ; and it is this consideration which answers the objection that if there can be some thing uncaused, there is no reason to assume a cause for anything. It. is one, moreover, the mode of whose operation must always remain inacces- 1 Life, II. p. 103. " Perpetual motion is deemed impossible, because it demands the creation of force, whereas the principle of conservation is no creation but infinite conversion.'' — Prof. Tyndall, Fragments p. 35. Sir Isaac Newton in his Letters to Bentley leaves it to his readers to determine whether the agent which produces gravitation is material or immaterial. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 93 sible to our present living powers, one which may be fitly termed super-essential. It answers, there- answering fore, the criterion laid down by modern thinkers, notions of * . . spiritual of "an omnipresence of something which passes action, comprehension." 1 The action of mind or spirit upon matter (whether properly to be considered supernatural or not) seems incapable of determina tion, if for no other reason, that it cannot even by reflection see itself.2 This cannot therefore Come Into the eye and prospect of the soul. One thing only can we infer respecting it in the case of the Primal Mind or Eternal Spirit. This Prior l° x law and cannot be subject to laws in the same sense as the free in operation. phenomena of Nature. It must be, as the type of pure action, free in operation; and, if not in different but capable of motive (for motives are not necessarily " symptoms of weakness "), it must be self-determined, " a law unto itself." It seems, then, impossible to assert that there can be 1 Herbert Spencer, First Princ, p. 45. 2 "Modus quo corporibus adhajret spiritus comprehendi ab homi- nibus non potest : et hoc tamen homo est." — Augustin. de Spir. et Anim. " Ubi igitur aut qualis est ista mens ? Ubi tua aut quabs ? Potesne dicere? . . . Non valet tantum animus ut sese ipse videat. At, ut oculus, sic animus, se non videns, alia cernit." — Cic, Tusc Disp., I. xxvii. " En un mot," says Leibnitz, " que l'ame change la quantity de la force, et qu'elle change la ligne de la direction, ce sont deux choses egalenient inexplicables." Hence his supposition of a paral lelismus inter corpus et animam, and the several theories of a physical influx, of a Divine assistance, of occasional causes, due respectively to Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, and Malebranche. 94 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IL Analogyofthe human will. This line of proof, being from pheno mena, suitableto the demands of Posi tivism. nothing homologous or at the least analogous to such a mode of agency1 in the case of human voli tion and moral causation. Why should it be thought a thing incredible that man should exist in the image and likeness of God, who made him?2 § 13. In this argument it has been sufficient to view the Divine Being as only a logical postulate in the scale of causation. I have done so, not, of course willingly, (for who, after all, can love or reverence a probable or even a demonstrated God ?) 1 " Sicut ab exemplari, non secundum a?qualitatem." — Thorn. Aq., Sum., I. i., p. 93, Art. I., and see Origen, c. Gels., VI. lxiii. " II est vrai que Dieu est le seul dont l'action est pure et sans melange de ce qu'on appelle patir: mais cela n'emp§che pas que la creature n'ait part aux actions aussi, puisque Taction de la creature est une modifi cation de la substance qui en coule naturellement, et qui renferme une variation non-seulement dans les perfections que Dieu a com- muniquees a la creature, mais encore dans les limitations qu'elle y apporte d'elle-meme pour etre ce qu'elle est." — Leibnitz, Tlieod., Pt. I., § 32. " Causa itaque rerum qua? facit nec fit, Deus est. Alias vero causa? et faciunt et fiunt ; sicut sunt omnes creati spiritus et maxime rationales. Corporales autem causa?, qua? magis fiunt quam faciunt, non sunt inter causas efficientes annumeranda? : quoniam hoc possunt quad ex ipsis faciunt spirituum voluntates." — August., Civ. D., V. ix. 2 Thus is it literally true, ubi spiritus Domini, ibi libertas (to voepbv Kal avret-oio-iov). Cf. Delitzsch, Biblical Psych., p. 84, E. T. " Man in perfection of nature being made according to the likeness of his Maker, resembleth Him also in the manner of His working : so that whatsoever we work as men, the same we do wittingly work and freely : neither are we according to the manner of natural agents so tied, but that it is in our power to leave the things we do undone." Hooker, Eccl. Pol, I. vii. 2. " God created man in His own image: to be the image of His own eternity created He man ! Of eternity and self-existence what other likeness is possible, but immortality and moral self-determination?" — Coleridge, Friend, I. 146. See the whole passage. Comp. Hazard on The Will, Pt. I. " Well said Saint Chrys- ostom with his lips of gold, ' The true Shekinah is man.' " — Carlyle s rov pev (rvprravros Kal avrwv ra>v yevS>v Kal eldwv eTvipFhelrai Qeos, ipov Be Kal o~ov ovk en Kal rov Ka8' eKaa-ra. So careful of the type she seems, So careless of the single life. Feuerbach, Essence of Christianity, p. 150, E. T., catches this vital difference in Christian teaching. " Christianity cared nothing for the species, and had only the individual in its eye and mind." Compare Prof. Huxley, Lay Sermons, p. 158. Epicurus himself struggled hard against the doctrine of a physical necessity. Cf. ap. Diog. Laert. x. 133, 134, eirel Kpeirrov r\v ra rrepl QeS>v pvda KaraKo\ov6eiv ij rfj rwv (pva-iKav elpappevrj SovXeieiv 6 pev yap i\iri8a ¦n-apairrjo-eos viroypd(pei Qea>v Sia ripr\s, r) he a.irapaiTT\rov ej^et rrjv avdyKrjv. 2 " In a given state of society, a certain number of persons must put an end to their own life. This is the general law; and the special question as to who shall commit the crime depends of course upon special law? : which, however, in their total action, must obey the large social law to which they are all subordinate." — Buckle, H. C, I. 28. Mansel well points out that the uniformity represented by statistical averages is one which is observed in masses only, and not in individuals • and hence the law, if law it be, indicated is one which offers no bar to the existence of individual freedom exercised, like all human power, within limits. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 105 (and a latent necessity is certainly assumed) be any more admissible in respect of special than of general laws ? -No man when he has apprehended the conditions of his being thinks of contravening them. He feels that laws, as Butler long ago pointed out, imply penalties appointed by the Author of Nature for the well-being of mankind. Apparentdesign of He turns them, then, to His own purposes through natural rT . , uniformity. the very circumstance of their fixedness without, however, losing the conviction that he is himself responsible for what he does. But responsibility is incompatible with constraint. The facts, then, seem to be these. A large proportion of mankind, submitted to certain tests, will act in a given way and in the same way. But all do not.1 And, what is more, in acting they are conscious that they might, and in particular cases ought, to act differently. This consciousness is itself a fact as patent as the uniformities of statistical averages, and points to something further, i. e. to freedom in acting. These, as facts, must first be admitted on positive grounds and then be scientifically ex- 1 'Tis one thing to be tempted, Escalus ; Another thing to fall. — Measure for Measure, act ii. sc. 1. Inclination, that is, is not constraint : it rather implies freedom. See Harless, System of Christian Ethics, pp. 20, 85, E. T. ; Delitzsch, Bib. Psych., p. 194. "Man," said Luther (Comm. on Gal.), "is not two beings opposed to each other, but is like the dawn of the morning, which is neither night nor day." This is the answer to the dilemma, that motives must either determine a man to act, or influence him to determine himself to act. See Hamilton's Reid, p. 608. 106 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. plained.1 If subordinated to physical laws and method, they are not thereby rendered inconsistent objection with every form of Christian theology.2 But it is the nature no such explanation to reply that consciousness is no faculty, only a state or condition of mind, liable sciousness. to occasional error ;3 occasional, indeed, for if it be held a permanent delusion, the whole human race must needs have lain in darkness until now. Yet why, it has been justly asked,4 are we now to un clothe our minds of that large outfit of existing thoughts, desires, hopes, and fears, which make us (and have made us) what we are ? Neither, again, can we admit the fact of this inward testi mony of a soul, naturally Christian, without ac knowledging further its cogency and truth. It ne°ssSan°a"S" wou^ De as easv else to disprove on the same logons to grounds the existence of an external world, of the tion. whole fabric of Nature, and of those very laws the extent of which is the real and sole object of con tention. Even if an act of consciousness involve an operation of inference, it is one of the same 1 There are some good remarks on Buckle's interpretation (I. 38) of the views of Kant upon Free Will, in Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, pp. 478-81. 2 Compare Huxley in his essay on Descartes, Lay S., pp. 374, 375. 3 Buckle (u. s., I. 15), who is really following the guidance of Bayle in his strictures on the Cartesian doctrine. Leibnitz, though unwillinc to rest man's independence on a sentiment, justly claims it as the result of a minute investigation of the elements of consciousness. Non enim et sentire intelligere est, et intelligere sentire est ? asks Tertullian (Anim., c. xviii.). 4 J. H. Newman, Grammar of Assent, p. 419. Lect. IL] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 107 kind with perception, and 110 further liable than it to disproof or mistrust. § 17. Nor, lastly, is this view of free agency, A condi". that in the practical exercise of it we are always no barren . proposi- guided by motives, consciously or unconsciously, tion. which yet do not necessitate conduct, "a barren proposition," incapable of translation into action.1 To regulate the conditions of society in the most favourable manner ; to teach that the individual is no mere slave of circumstances ; that the knowledge of the risks of temptation entails the duty of keep ing clear of unwholesome tendencies to action and of bearina: ourselves firmly and manfully when }ts result- 0 . mgrespon- submitted to them, thus " redeeming the time be- sibmties. cause the days are evil," this is a task worthy alike of the statesman and the philanthropist, and is the proper duty of the clergyman, the tutor, and the schoolmaster. A barren proposition ! Then let M°rai re- -T . suits of the Religion indeed cease her office and the faith of Material- istic or Christ its professions. What need of exhortation Positivist where there is no choice ? 2 Or of atonement where there can be no sin ? Or of promises which have 1 " If any one says that we have this power of acting wi thout motives, but that in the practical exercise of the power we are always guided by motives, either conscious or unconscious — if any one says this, he asserts a barren proposition."— Buckle, I. 18, n. Holy Scripture, while it nowhere speaks of man as free, says everywhere that he can choose (Cf. Is. vii. 15) ; thus making self-determination the property of human nature. See Delitzsch, Bibl. Psych., p. 192. 2 It may, perhaps, be contended that in practice the morality of necessity does not enfeeble the claims of duty, because the Predestinarian schools have always been rigorists. This may be explained to some 108 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. II. no real hold in the heart or soul of man ? What need to discuss the permanence of a belief which can be the fruit but of hypocrisy or ignorance? But what, on the other hand, is to be thought of a philosophy, the boasted result of science, which, extinguishing motive,1 abolishes the reasons of action, and filches together with these the very savour of human existence ; which annihilates duty, makes benevolence impossible, the enthusiasm of humanity absurd; which degrades the immortal spirit, the " blessed part " of man, to the level of Protean matter and the dominion of brute forces ;2 extent by prudential considerations ; but hardly by any logical con nection. This is discussed in Meri vale's Conv. of N. Nations, pp. 167- 171. 1 The philosophical error of Positivism is to ignore the free play of individual action as beneficial to human progress. Hence, perhaps, Comte's well-known aversion to Protestantism. This is, indeed, but one form of his disinclination to recognize Causation as open to the reach of man's faculties. The result is undoubtedly to measure all knowledge by the Laws of Phenomena. On this subject the reader is referred to Mill's Logic, Book III., v. § 9, and on the materialistic ten dencies of Positivism to Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rationalism, II. p. 408, together with Mill, A. Comte and Positiv., p. 15, &c. It is, indeed, denied by M. Littre, Principes, pp. 38, 39. 2 " Positivism, allowing spirit no place in its system, denies im mortality to man, but confers it on humanity." — Mr. A. Pairbairn on Belief in Immortality (Cont. Rev., XX. 28). Compare Mill, Comte and Pos., pp. 135, 152. Prof. Huxley, Lay S., p. 191, quotes a beautiful but melancholy passage from M. Comte, attesting the unsatisfactory results of so baseless a fabric of belief as that of Positivism. " La philosophie est une tentative incessante de l'esprit humain pour arriver au repos. Mais elle se trouve incessamment aussi derangee par les progress continus de la science. De la vient pour le philosophe I'obligation de refaire chaque soir la synthese de ses conceptions; et un jour viendra oii l'homme raisonnable ne fera plus d' autre priere du soir." Lect. II.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 109 which consecrates selfishness by enthroning it in the struggle for existence above wisdom and virtue ; and which views, alike unmoved and powerless of consolation, the agonies of remorse, the isolation of bereavement, and the yearnings of the saint after communion with Divine holiness ? Only if free to F^dom J of choice choose, is man capable of duty in any sense of the necessary word which is not simply nominal but worth practical retaining. But, if capable of duty, he is capable of religion. He is still, though conscious of sin, nobler than the tame creatures of a dull uniformity, the ready vassals of a law they can never break. In those unreasoning creatures, devoid of abstrac tion, idealization, reflection, yet from which it is now the fashion to derive all the properties of man, the will is absorbed in the law.1 " The law is their nature." In the original purity of a rational being, the uncorrupted will is one with the law of his nature. And so it will be hereafter. Mind and soul according well, Shall make one music as before, But vaster. If man, it has been finely said, " be no higher in ¥an su?e- J ' ° nor to the his destinies than the beast or the blade of grass, it animals in 0 his capa- TTiiVht, be better to be a beast or a blade of grass bility anpaai Kai -rrdBea-i aaparav, irXryyais re Kal perafioXais Kal KpdaeiTi TiBevrai to o-vpnav. — PLUTARCH, Defect. Orac, c. xlviii. LECTURE III. '¦'Wherefore should they say among the people, — Where is their God?" — 3|orf it. 17. § 1. T T would be but futile to build any argu- The truth 3 I J & of a Divine x ment upon the past or the future of the Provi- . . dence es- Faith of Christ, were the fundamental truth denied sentiai to of the controlling Providence of Grod. As religion and per- tp . n . , t p t manenceof itself is a thing not worth contending tor, when religion. free-will in man is given up, so Christianity, devoid of a special and personal relation to the Almighty in His work of grace (which may be said to be in respect of all Pagan religions its cardinal and characteristic doctrine), is a shadow without sub stance.1 It becomes, then, of the first importance to inquire on what grounds the belief in a special Providence is held to be in course of being sur- 1 " Si Dei Providentia non praesidet rebus hnmanis, nihil est de reli gione satagendum." — August., Util. Cred., cxvi. " Deum nisi et esse et humanis mentibus opitulari credimus, nec quEerere quidem ipsam veram roligionem debemus." — lb., <_. xiii. Comp. Lactant., Instit. Div., VII. c. vi. See Waterland, Discourse of Fundamentals (Works, V. 80). " The theory of Providence," writes Mr. Hutton, Essays, I. 88, " is one which, unless harmonized with general moral and physical laws, can assuredly stand no longer ; and yet it is one which has exerted so pro found an influence over every Christian mind from the earliest Christian ages to our own, that to part with it would be to give up the very life of religion." " ' Point de religion sans prie*re ' a dit ce meme Voltaire. Eien de plus evident ; et par une consequence necessaire, point de priero, point de religion." — De Maistre, Soirees, p. 158. 1 114 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. rendered ; how this incredulity has arisen, whether it is a necessary consequence of the existing state of knowledge, a permanent menace to the progress Present 0f Christ's religion. That rude assaults are being assaults on ° . this belief, made on this cardinal tenet of the faith can no longer be doubted. M. Comte 1 treats the doctrine of even a general Providence as an antique destiny under a new dress, as a metaphysical artifice, a provisional conception, a concession or compromise made to the theological spirit. " The future of the world," writes a living Positivist,2 " will justify the faith that man can be a providence to himself in a more practical and beneficial sense than any of the various providences he created in his earlier existence." " Science," says another, " is the true providence of man. We lay no faith on a personal Grod, we use our own faculties." Such dicta, at least, suffice to mark the present stand-point of opinion and feeling in certain quarters in regard to this fundamental postulate of all practical religion. 1 " La Providence des Monothelstes n'est reellement autre chose que le destin des Polythelstes." — Phil. Pos., V. 280. Elsewhere he argues that were the conceptions of theology true, prayer would be the proper means of human progress. Ib., IV. 695, 700. On the views of the so-called " Secularists," cf. Dr. Farrar, Bamp. Led., p. 441. 2 Dr. Congreve, Prop, of New Religion, ad fin. "Quisquis sibi Deus " is a maxim in the philosophy of Stirner. " Du moment qu'on ne laisse aucune place aux volontes surnaturelles, ni dans le monde inorganique, ni dans le monde organique, ni parmi les phe'nomSnes cosmiques, ni parmi ceux de I'histoire, on est necessairement des notres." — Littre1, Paroles de Philosophic Positive, p. 58. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 115 ' § 2 . The Epicureanism of the age, not specula- Rise of tive, not anticipatory, but positive and evidential, opinionsm t'ie con" is the product, doubtless, of a vast and rapid viction of advance in physical knowledge, which, commenc- ability and ing with the sixteenth century, has culminated in saiity of our own.1 It has, in a manner, carried all before nature. it. It has reacted on the older metaphysical modes of thought. It has produced a twofold effect. First, the conviction of the invariability of laws of nature has been indefinitely strengthened by each freshly-observed uniformity, and explana tion of related phenomena. Next, the suspicion of the universality of the reign of law is heightened by each new discovery in distinct departments of science, and a method of Comparative Physics, now first rendered possible, is continually furthering this impression. It is thus deemed the central element of intellectual progress. The relation of laws of nature to general laws soon comes into question.2 Now, though law can never be justly held, in any true sense, a medium between God and His works, yet it may, and constantly does, arrest the attention of the creature. This stopping J°ined L X O W1^ an 1 " Jadis la raison humaine le voyant sujet au changement alia cher- imperfect cher l'eternel, l'immuable par dela l'horizon et dans les archetypes, explana- Maintenant l'eternel, l'immuable devenant notion positive, nous ap- them_ parait sous la forme des lois immanentes qui gouvernent tout." — Littre, Principes de Phil. Pos., p. 57. 2 See Mozley, Bamp. Lect, p. 156 : " The only intelligible meaning which we can assign to general laws is, that they are the laws of nature, with the addition of a particular theory of the Divine mode of conduct ing them ; the theory, viz. of secondary causes." 1 2 n6 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. short in the process of analyzing nature may eventuate in different directions, in Naturalism, in Materialism, in Pantheism, in virtual Atheism.1 For, if the present control of Divine agency be disallowed, what remains but a practical negation of belief, or total incredulity ? Physical -So. It is not, of course, intended to imply that studies not •> ° ' x J irreligious, physical studies are in themselves atheistic or irreligious. The reverse would be nearer the truth. Religio ascensio mentis in Deum per scalas creatarum rerum should still be the proud motto of Natural Science.2 There is no proper reason why supernaturalism should not do full justice to nature ; none why nature should not do justice to supernaturalism.3 Too much, indeed, of what has 1 On the history of the term Naturalism, and its relation to a system of Rationalism, see H. J. Rose, on State of Protestantism in Germany, pp. 19-23. Wegscheider (Inst. Theol., p. 32) holds it to consist in de riving all effects in nature from a necessity, as it were, of nature alone without regard to Divine Providence, rejecting, therefore, all efficacy of God in imparting religious knowledge to men, together with Revelation of all kinds. Dr. Farrar, in his truly learned lectures on the Critical Hist, of Free Thought, pp. 478, 587, notices the twofold employment of the term, and remarks that Positivism only differs from Naturalism in expressing a particular theory concerning the limits and method of science, as well as a disbelief in the supernatural. 2 Compare Bacon, Works, III. 357, ed. Spedding. The dangers of exclusive physical study are pointed out by Sir W. Hamilton in his Lectures, I. p. 35 ff. . 3 Nature, the world of phenomena, being itself a totality of effects, can determine nothing as to ulterior causes. Yet, as Mr. Hutton has finely observed, " Men are haunted with the phantom of a power they dare not challenge, which is rumoured to have superseded and exposed natural theology, and to be gradually withdrawing every fold of mystery from the universe without disclosing any trace of God."— Essays, I. 45. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 117 been termed Agnosticism or Nescience, and by its detractors Antitheism, has been developed among leading physicists of the day.1 A know-nothing system of philosophy is cheap ware, and easily offered for acceptance. It can hardly, however, ^J1/^ be held to amount to a denial of preternatural systera of facts, and by inference of truths of Eevelation. The sphere of our belief may well be more ex tensive than the sphere of our knowledge. An honest effort is, doubtless, being made by many minds to couple with the operation of general laws a religious sense of the Divine agency. Passages in older and unsuspected writers are eagerly seized which seem to reconcile remote causation with the Being and Providence of Grod.2 This is not, of course, the whole, or strictly the real question. Doubtless there is nothing essentially contradictory or mutually exclusive in the notions of Natural law and Divine superintendence. So Spinoza p^' t argued that Providence is best elicited, from the inc°™ - with. 1 Compare Mr. Hutton, u. s., p. 27 ; and Prof. Tyndall, Fragments fatalism. of Thought, pp. 93, 105, 442 ; Huxley, L. S., p. 20 : " If the religion of the present differs from that of the past, it is because the theology of the present has become more scientific than that of the past, because it has renounced idols of wood and idols ef stone ; but begins to see the neces sity of breaking in pieces the idols built up of books and traditions and fine-spun ecclesiastical cobwebs, and of cherishing the noblest and most human of man's emotions by worship, ' for the most part of the silent sort,' at the altar of the Unknown and Unknowable." 2 See Mr. Lecky's remarks, H. Rat., I. 195, on the advancing rap prochement between writers of the evidential school and the supporters of the inviolability of natural laws. Compare Whewell, B. Tr., p. 312, &c. 118 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. fact of an eternal and changeless order of Nature.1 So, if the ideas of individual freedom of action in man, or of casual irregularity in physical events, be gradually thrust out from the cycle of tenable theorems and accepted beliefs, the result, however much to be regretted, might not be inconsistent with the truth of a Divine Creator, and, in a modi fied sense, of a Divine Providence.2 It might, indeed, seem strange that the world should turn out to be a puppet-show, devoid of real life or originality. But it will be answered that we are concerned only to ascertain the truth of things, and not with the issues involved in them. We are recalled, then, to the prior question, whether it be a fact that the realm of Law is co-extensive, as far as appears, with the universe of matter and of mind. queTon Is Law a necessity, or, at least, an invariable accom- mereaTt0Panimeilt of the Divilie agency, so far as it is Xsicaf kn°Wn t0 US ? Is i4' indeed' a constant course of whether Procedure, a necessary stage in an unknown order objective 1 t> ,¦ . or subjec- .Frasterea cceli rationes ordine certo tive only. Et varia annorum cernebant tempora verti : Nec poterant quibus id fieret cognoscere causis. Ergo perfugium sibi habebant, omnia Divis Tradere et illorum nutu facere omnia flecti. Lucret., V. 1182. " The natural generation and process of all things receiveth order of proceeding from the settled stability of Divine understanding. This appointeth unto them their kinds of working; the disposition^whereof in the purity of God's own knowledge and will, is rightly termed by the name of Providence. The same being referred unto the things them selves here disposed by it, was wont by the ancient to be called natural destiny."— Hooker, E. P., I. iii. 4. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 119 of the universe ? Or is it, on the other hand, anything more than a mode of human thought,1 (for this also has been held respecting it), analo gous to Time and Space, conditions regulative of all perception of phenomena, yet in a manner un essential, relative, not absolute, the elimination of which is not beyond conception ? Is law more than an act of the mind,2 a description of its state of expectation in respect of any event? Is it capable of manifestation to aught but the spirit and intelligence of man ? Can the order of the material universe be shown to be other than the comple ment of the human understanding ? Does not the 1 " Long, indeed, will man strive to satisfy the inward querist with the phrase, Laws of Nature. But though the individual may rest con tent with the seemly metaphor, the race cannot." — Coleridge, Friend, III. 199. " Thought, involving simply the establishment of relations, may be readily conceived to go on, while yet these relations have not been organized into the abstracts we call Space and Time ; and so there is a conceivable kind of consciousness which does not contain the truths commonly called a priori, involved in the organization of these forms of relations." — H. Spencer, First Pr., p. 258. 2 The forms in nature which we denominate laws, how do they become ideas in the mind ? Only it would seem by a faculty of generali zation due to the higher Reason. See Arist., Anal. Post., II. xiv. The facts are objective : " Toute realitd," says Leibnitz, " doit etre fondee dans quelque chose d'existant ; " but it is the mind which invests them with generality. " What we call a general law is, in truth, a form of expression including a number of facts of like kind. The facts are separate ; the unity of view by which we associate them, the character of generality and of law, resides in those relations which are the object of the intellect."— Whewell, B. T., p. 259. See Sir W.Hamilton, Led., III. 78, and Ueberweg's Logic, §§ 38-44, who, however, does not escape from the circle of employing mathematical, i.e. objective, con ceptions, which are themselves only guaranteed by our inner expe- In what sense is 1 20 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. course of the revelation of law to the mind of man follow the very law or constitution of his mind ? Again, the impossibility of all creation might be oHDivine16 argue KaL T° T rjv t6 t earat, XP°V0V yeyovora e'tSrj, a 817 (pepovres XavBdvopev i-irl rrjv dtSiov ova-lav ovk opBas. — Plato, Timxus, 37, E. Cf. August., Serm. ad Catech., c. viii. : " Natus est ante omnia tempora ; natus ante omnia saxula. Natus ante ; ante quid, ubi non est ante ?" &c. There was an old view (Id., Civ. D., XI. iv.) that the world was eternal not in time, but in respect of its creation. This savoured too much of a saving clause. 2 " Nothing is that errs from law." — Tennyson. See on this subject the Duke of Argyll, Reign of Law, p. 53, and Mozley, B. L., p. 325, and some fine remarks of Dr. Chalmers, Works, VII. 204. 3 Sec also Littre, Paroles de la Phil. Pos., p. 17. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 121 nature far surpasses the subtilty of the mind of man." Let it, however, be conceded that there is good prospect of their yielding sooner or later to the advance of scientific uniformity. Certainly many effects in nature which have seemed irregu lar, precarious, lawless, have bowed to the force of inductive analysis and suggestive analogies, until generalization has prevailed in these also, and they have taken their place beside the earlier triumphs of scientific inference. Thus has arisen yet is very . generally that habitual recognition of the notion of Law assumed, which, as has been truly said, is a distinguishing characteristic of modern from ancient thought.1 It may also be conceded that the Divine Mind, if conceived as projecting its fiat upon natural agents in the form of universal laws, must likewise be apprehended as adequate to sustain them through any limits of time and space. The hand which has so moulded can, and, indeed, must equally uphold them, and enforce their operation.2 Let us, then, strive to estimate the result of the 1 Herbert Spencer, First Principles, p. 142. Yet an apprehension of laws of nature is undoubtedly very ancient— lying at the founda tions of Greek • philosophy and poetry. Comp. Soph., (Ed. T., 865. Antig., 455. It had also sunk deep into the Hebrew mind and heart. Cf. Ps. 148, 6. Jer. v. 22 ; xiii. 23. Eccles. i. 4-7. 2 " La conservation de Dieu consiste dans cette influence immediate, perpetuelle, que la dependance des creatures demande. Cette depen dance a lieu a 1'egard non-seulement de la substance, mais encore de l'aotion ; et on ne sauroit peut-etre l'expliquer mieux qu'en disant avec le commun des theologiens et des philosophies, que c'est une creation continuee." — Leibnitz, Works, p. 512. 122 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. state of things supposed. When the physical antecedents of all events shall have been assigned, the tendencies of human nature mapped out and ascertained, will the sum of man's knowledge have been reached, and with it the limits of his belief? Shall we then " know even as we are known " ? and ' § 5> The attainment of a clear conception of law viewed as ... the term is by some x regarded as the highest point attam- of know- " . ledge. able by the human understanding. " The sum ol all education," says Professor Huxley,2 " is the instruction of the intellect in the laws of nature." I do not stay to remark upon the narrowness of such a view of human nature, when we take into account its moral and spiritual capacities ; nor again, on its logical insufficiency without some postulate as to the origin and nature of things. But does it correspond, so far as it reaches, with the teaching conveyed by the facts of the external world ? Is there no region suggested to us in experience above the. level of material causes ? Facts, — no ]aw higher than the subsidiary laws which however, . . suggest a bind particular forces? Is there no element, no further x ' analysis. 1 Buckle, Hist. Civ., II. 343. " La mdthode objective ou experience ne parvient qu'a des lois, c'est son supreme effet, rendant de plus en plus impersonnelle l'idee de Providence il va se perdre d'une facon plus ou moins confuse dans rimmanence des lois qui regissent les choses." — Littre, Paroles, p. 18. 2 Lay Sermons, p. 36. See also the magnificent passage commencing, " That man, I think, has had a liberal education," &c. It altogether omits any spiritual element in man. Compare Dr. Westcott's remarks in Cont. Review, VIII. 378. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 123 " law within the law," required to account for the co-adjustment of phenomena ? It is such an ele ment, if any, which, satisfying this unknown yet necessary coefficient, answers to the notion of Providence, to the movement of a Supreme Free Agent,1 of One who is not content to reign and not to govern, The distinction very commonly A distinc- 0 . . tion made made between a general and a special Providence between . general may prove in some respects misleading. If general and special without being special, it is to the individual soul dence. no Providence at all. While from a scientific point of view,2 the intercalation of an adjustment of relations between agent and effect, is as neces sary for each single event as for any general law of uniform results arising out of the repetition of 1 " Is there above the level of material causes a region of Providence ? If there, is, Nature there is moved by the Supreme Pree Agent, and of such a realm a miracle is the natural production." — Mozley, Bamp. Led., p. 164. Compare also Prof. Goldwin Smith (Led., II. 47) : " This God, Who is to reign over His own world on condition that He does not govern it, what is He — the Supreme Law of Nature ? " &c. In his Address at Liverpool, p. 22, Mr. Gladstone writes : " On the ground of what is termed evolution, God is relieved of the labour of creation ; in the name of unchangeable laws, He is discharged from governing the world." 2 Leibnitz very justly warns that " il faut considerer aussi que Faction de Dieu conservant doit avoir du rapport a ce qui est conserve, tel qu'il est, et selon l'etat ou il est : ainsi elle ne sauroit etre generale ou ind6- terminee. Ces generalites sont des abstractions qui ne se trouvent point dans la verite des choses singulieres." — Works, p. 511. "The Laws of Nature are the laws which the Divine Being in His wisdom prescribes to His own acts. His universal presence is the necessary condition of any course of events ; His universal agency the only origin of any efficient force." — Whewell, 3. T., p. 311. " Je ne demande ni les a'ieules, ni les trisa'ieules du phenomene ; je me contente de sa mere."— De Maistre, Soirees, p. 190. 124 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. insuf- individual instances. That is to say, the notion of ficient. . . general laws does not supersede a particular Pro vidence. Eidicule has, indeed, been sometimes cast upon what has been contemptuously called " a carpenter theory " of creation, upon the notion of " a clock-making divinity," who is always inter fering to carry out the plans of his own adminis tration. Why, it is said, should not all this have been provided for by a single original act through the medium of general laws ? Perhaps this may, Mislead- after all, have been so. But who shall apply absolutely to the Infinite Mind 1 (when we know so little of our own), notions drawn solely from human experience, and limited by human imper- inappii- fection ; or distinguish in such a case to little our notions purpose between an eternal ordinance and the Divine individual application of it? To Him there can be no measure of time,2 but as an eternal present ; (which, to speak exactly, forms no part of time) ; incompatible alike with human modes of thought or with secular succession.3 1 See Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 664, with the quotation from Pere Male- branche. 2 " M. Bayle sait fort bien que l'entendement Divin n'a point besoin do temps, pour voir la liaison des choses. Tous les raisonnements sont eminemment en Dieu, et ils gardent un ordre entre eux dans son entendement aussi bien que dans le notre; mais chez Lui ce n'est qu'un ordre et une priori te de nature, au lieu que chez nous il y a une priority de temps." — Leibnitz, Theod., p. 563. 3 " Mentis quippe aspectu omnem mutabilitatem ab asternitate sejungo et in ips& aeternitate nulla spatia temporis cerno. Quia spatia temporis prateritis et futuris rerum motibus constant. Nihil autem praterit in aaterno et nihil futurum est, quia et quod prseterit esse desinit, et quod Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 125 § 6. The presence in time and place of surround- The area ing phenomena, their relations accordingly to dentiai man's action as objects of desire, or as conditions in whatever manner of his conduct, and of the consequences of his conduct ; these constitute the field of Providential operation,1 and lie beyond the compass of any known Law. This is the work in time of the Eternal Spirit. " I have seen," writes the Preacher, " the travail which Grod hath given to the sons of men to be exercised in it. He hath made everything beautiful in his time : also He hath set the world in their heart, so that no man can find out the work that Grod maketh from the beginning to the end." 2 What is temptation but the presence or possibility under given circum stances of a presumed object of desire ? The desire is uniform, the opportunity of its operation contin gent and variable. What, again, is the lesson of futurum est nondum esse ccapit ; asternitas autem tantummodo est, nec fuit quasi jam non sit, nec erit quasi adhuc non sit. Quare sola ipsa verissime dicere potuit humana? menti — Ego sum qui sum — et de ilia verissime dici potuit — Misit me, qui est." — Augustin. de Ver. Rel, c. xlix. 6 xp°vos ov 8oKei o-vyKeio-dai ck twv vvv. — Arist., Phys., IV. x. to 8e vvv eo-ri nvvexeia xp°"ov- — c- xiv. See Leibnitz, Works, p. 615. Compare Dr. Mozley, B. L., p. 157. 1 " Conditrix ac moderatrix temporum Divina Providentia." — Au gustin. " Ainsi le tout revient souvent aux circonstances, qui font une partie de l'enchalnement des choses." — Leibnitz, Theod., p. 530. Katpbs -iravrav yvapas tcr^ei. — Soph., Philoct., 837. There is a singular pas sage in Legge's Confucius (§ 100) to the same effect : " How does Heaven speak ? The four seasons have their course. The hundred things, what speaks He ? No ; Heaven speaks not : by the course of events He makes Himself understood ; no more." 2 Eccles. iii. 10, 11. 126 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. human affairs if not the need of energy, genius, observ- originality, of thought, of moral force ; in one word, able in the course of of individual character ; in necessary correspon dence, however, with the surrounding circumstances, in order to secure large and lasting consequences?1 Such souls, 'tis true, but peep out once an age, Dull sullen prisoners in the body's cage. For, however superior their powers, they must confessedly be in harmony and relation with their times.2 Their very greatness, some would hold, comes of their temperament, and that temperament is the result of many antecedents. Mental as well as physical attributes may be transmissible by inheritance ; 3 and a " creational law " may be imagined to explain their commencement.4 Some 1 " The laws," says Bp. Butler, " by which persons born into the world at such a time and place are of such capacities, geniuses, tempers .... are so wholly unknown to us, that we call the events wliich come to pass by- them accidental; though all reasonable men know certainly that there cannot in reality be any such thing as chance." — Anal., II. c. iv. Comp. Augustin., Civ. D., IV. xxxiii. : " Neque hoc temere ; . . sed pro rerum ordine ac temporum occulto nobis, notissimo sibi ; cui tamen ordini temporum non subditus servit, sed eum Ipse tanquam dominus regit moderatorque disponit." cpopa yap rls iariv iv rois yeveaiv avBpav, &o-rvep ev Tois koto, ras x&pas ytyvopevois. — Arist., Rhet., II. xv. ; and Pol.,Y. xii. 8. 2 Guizot has some just remarks on this subject, Civ. en France, Lee. xx. : " The activity of a great man is of two kinds. First, he under stands better than others the wants of his time; its real, present exigencies," &c. 3 See Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 373, 397. 4 Comp. Dr. Mozley, B. L., p. 319. Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Pr., p. 123. " These superior powers of reason or fancy," says Gibbon, c. xxxviii., " are rare and spontaneous productions." " Est casus aliquis,'' says Bacon, " non minus in cogitationibus humanis quam in operibus et factis." — N. 0., Aph. exxii. Lect. Ill] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 127 would persuade us to believe that with all their capacities, and aspirations, and beliefs, they are still no accident indeed, yet a product of , their time. But what shall account for the harmony of in the i • t • i corresP°n- the given antecedents ; for their coincidence and dence of correspondence; for the melody1 which pervades and ante- their combination; for the co-proportions and correlations, for the co-existence and co-ordination of these births of Time ? Non haic sine numine Divum Eveniunt. Do they not of themselves call for the notion of Divine superintendence and of absolute appoint ment, even if the expression of interposition be objected to ? The method of Nature, even in Nation of physical matters, is nowhere the predominance of asencies- any single principle, but the joint-presence and self-correcting union of several.2 We ask not for a world governed by isolated acts of special inter vention, of perpetual and arbitrary interference, 1 " Dieu est tout ordre : il garde toujours la justice des proportions : il fait l'harmonie universelle." — Leibnitz, Theod. In Ver. Rel, c. xxii., Augustine works out at length the metaphor of a harmony or strain pervading the administration of the world. Cf. Prom. V., 556, ov-nore tov Aios dppoviav dvarmv irape^'iao-i fiovXat. When these prodigies Do so conjointly meet, let not men say ' These are their reasons, they are natural.' Julius Ccesar. This argument is carried out by means of an example very ably in Dialogues on Divine Providence, p. 111. 2 " Is not the universe pervaded by an omnipresent antagonism, a fundamental conjunction of contraries, everywhere opposite, nowhere independent?" — Whewell, Nov. Org. Renov., p. 270. 128 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. irreconcilable with general laws, and turning his tory, as has been aptly said, into an almanac. We acknowledge the results of that power of abstrac tion in the mind of man, which, growing with education, terminates in annihilating all personifi cation of phenomena, and closes what has been called " the mythical period of history." 1 But, on the other side, this view of life and being, which sees in all things the present controlling hand of God, cannot be charged with being incapable of An eie- proof. It rests upon and is an illustration of the ment scien tifically Method of Residues, so well known in the Logic of ' Induction.2 For it represents an element of causa tion, a surplus of unassigned effect, which survives all analysis or explanation of natural events. But if the element thus indicated enters as a necessary antecedent into a scientific account of things, being one which, though not itself otherwise determin able, is an uniform condition of phenomena ; who shall set limits to its operation, or regard any the smallest event as beyond the providential arrange- JeThne "of ment °^ t^ie ^^ighty ? True, the natural here the natu- merges in the supernatural ; a special providence, super- it has been rightly said, is an invisible miracle ; it natural. . is of the same order as the miracle of creation.3 1 See Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 375. 2 See Mill's Logic, III. viii. 5 ; Herschel's Discourse, § 158 ; and Mr. Fowler's singularly clear treatise on Inductive Logic, p. 163. 3 The very preservation of the universe being a continued creation. See Leibnitz, Works, pp. 152, 615. "Dieu n'agit que par des lois generales. Je l'accorde ; mais a mon avis cola ne suffit pas pour lever les miracles : Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 129 But it is not the less real for being miraculous ; nor the less miraculous because through simple repetition we cease to see it to be so. " Circum stances," it has been profoundly said,1 "traced back to their first origins, may be the outcome of strictly miraculous intervention. But the miracu lous intervention addresses us at this day in the guise of those circumstances. There is no law of their coincidence, though coincidences rise out of a combination of general laws. They have a cha racter of their own, and seem left by Providence in His own hands, as the channel by which, inscrutable to us, He may make known to us His will." Nor Appiica- must it be forgotten that we are dealing not only general with general laws which may be considered as un- dividuais. varying in their operation, but with their appli cation to particular circumstances. These may be so arranged as to effect of themselves the greatest amount of good in each individual case. But among these we are entitled to include the de cisions of the human will which may or may not co-operate with the arrangements of Eternal Wisdom. In this manner it is true that " all si Dieu en faisoit continuellement, ils ne laisseroient pas d'etre des miracles, en prenant ce mot non pas populairement pour une chose rare et merveilleuse, mais philosophiquement pour ce qui passe les forces des creatures." 1 J. H. Newman, Gramm. of Assent, pp. 422, 424. Comp. Eurip. Hec, 1. 958 : epvpovai 8' airra Beol rraXtv re Kai 7Tp6o- x ance ot the sarcasm of Pascal,2 that had the nose of Cleo- personal character. patra been shorter, the whole face likewise of the world's history might have been changed. Or, again, that a grain of gravel in the person of a Cromwell, sufficed to give peace to a Continent, restoration to a dynasty, and tranquillity to the alarms of Rome. " Accidents of personal character," writes Hallam,3 " have more to do with the revo lutions of nations than either philosophical histo rians or democratic politicians like to admit." No cycle, indeed, in human affairs,4 no theory of " social 1 Mr. Buckle, Hist. Civ., III. 479, observes with some asperity, '' Science has not yet explained the phenomena of history. Conse quently the theological spirit lays hold of them, and presses them into her own service." 2 Pensees, xix. 7 : " Le nez de Cle'opa.tre, s'il eut 6te plus court, toute la face de la terre aurait change?' xx. 8 : " Cromwell allait ravager toute la ChretienteV' &c. 3 Middle Ages, I. 132 : " It is almost appalling," remarks Dean Church (Univ. Serm.)," to watch how some vast change in human affairs has hung upon the apparent accident of a stronger or weaker character." 4 Magnus ab integro sseclomm nascitur ordo. s. Hence Aristotle's distinction of Poetry from History : tovtio ftiarpepei, ra tov pev ra yevopeva Xeyetv, rbv Se' o'ta av yevotro. Ato xal (piXoo-o(pa>Tepov Kal o-ffovdaiorepov jrointris io-rop'tas io-Ttv. — Poet., c. ix. ; a thought expanded by Bacon in Augm. Sc, II. xiii. Hence i<34 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. The former, rightly deemed the " eternal lessons of History," are occupied with the tendencies, rather than the occurrences of the time : while occasions, exhibiting principles in the garb of events, con stitute the web, and not the \yarp, of human affairs. The laws But though the effect be proportioned to the cause, distinct = L x from the and the motor ideas of an age are relative to its occasions . . of events, position m the course of human progress, (thus, it may be admitted, Bacon and Descartes would have been powerless in the seventh or the tenth century) ; yet the circumstances which attend their announcement may be favourable or unfavourable, and admit of no uniform analysis. But they are not therefore to be left out of account. Hence, Mr. Mill,1 (no mean authority), holds the author of the ' History of Civilization in England' to be in error, when " he attributes all to general causes without imagining that casual circumstances, the acts of governments, the thoughts of men of also his conception (lb., II. viii.) of an Universal History. So Johnson remarked that Shakspeare's characters "are mostly species, not indi viduals." See Hallam, M. A., I. 66, and Mr. Buckle, Hist. Civ., II. 317, 324, who cites Montesquieu and adds, " the real history of the human race is the history of tendencies, which are perceived by the mind, and not of events which are discerned by the senses." Mr. Pattison remarks, with his usual discrimination, that Mr. Buckle, having begun with defining history as an inquiry into the laws of events, proceeds to a mere narration. Comte, if I remember rightly, somewhere proposes to write a history, without names of individuals, or even of nations. See Phil. Pos., V. 22, 268. He thus delineates the respective destinies of Athens, Eome, Carthage, and even of Christianity itself. 1 A. Comte and Positivism, p, 114. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 135 genius, materially accelerate or retard human pro gress." Such incredulity gives rise to an oppo site exaggeration, when it is maintained that " the history of the world is but the biography of great men."1 This is, indeed, not to be able to " see the forest for the trees." "Doubtless, there Appeal to have been turning-points in the world's story. 1 °'Y' At Marathon, at Metaurus, at Tours, the worship of Ormuzd, of Bel, of Mahomet trembled in the scale. Yictory hung upon the standards of the strongest, if not the biggest battalions, or on those which were most ably led, or on both combined. Yet, how is it that it has passed into a proverb that "the race is not always to the swift, the battle to the strong : but time and chance happeneth unto all " ?2 It is not then " gratuitous " to assert a Providential element in history ; for it has a real ground in experience. Facts suggest it to a serious mind ; and though in ruder times this element has had too large scope assigned it, this only warns us to confine it within due limits. There is at present 1 Carlyle, Hero Worship ; though Guizot rightly reckons them as a separate element in the history of civilization. Civ. en E., I. 56 : " No one can say why a great man appears at a certain epoch, and what he adds to the development of the world. That is a secret of Providence : but the fact is not therefore less certain." " The riddle of fortune or cir cumstance," says Coleridge, " is but a form or effluence of the riddle of man." 3 Eccles. ix. 11. It was no immature thinker who observed upon such facts as these, that This should teach us There's a Divinity that shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will. That is most certain. 136 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. Peisonifi- an aspect of history much in vogue, in which Ge- cation of r J . . . general neral Laws are as much personified as in mythical laws by recmt periods of thought. " The Tower of Siloam, says writers, a brilliant writer,1 " fell not for any sins of the eighteen who were crushed by it : but through bad mortar probably, the rotting of a beam, or the uneven settling of the foundations. The persons who should have suffered according to our notion of distributive justice, were the ignorant architects or masons who had done their work amiss. But the guilty, perhaps, had long been turned to dust. And the law of gravitation brought the tower down at its own time, indifferent to the persons who might be under it." Does not such language show that there may be a Fetishism latent in the highest abstractions ? 2 For myself, I do not see that the unphiio- planetary spirits of Origen or Kepler are more 1 Mr. Froude on Calvinism, Short Studies, II. Ser. p. 11. Another instance may be cited from a more exact thinker. " The Law of Gravi tation," writes Professor Tyndall, Fragm. T., p. 45, " crushes the simple worshippers of Ottery St. Mary, while singing their hymns, just as surely as if they were engaged in a midnight brawl." " J'ai lu," says De Maistre, " des millions de plaisanteries sur l'ignorance des anciens qui voyaient des esprit s partout. II me semble que nous sommes beaucoup plus sots, nous qui n'en voyons nulle part." — Soirees, Vme Entret., p. 188. 2 On this subject there is something noble in the indignation of M. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 42. " De nos jours meme qu'est-ce reellement, pour un esprit positif, que ce tenebreux Panthelsme dont se glorifient si e'trangement, surtout en Allemagne, tant de profonds nmtaphysiciens, si non le Fdtichisme generalise' et systematise', enveloppe' d'un appareil doctoral propre a donner le change au vulgaire ? " In V. 49 ho remarks that an age of metaphor has now succeeded to the Fetishism of an earlier time. Compare Mr. Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., I. 264. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 137 unreasonable than Gravitation made into an agent. It may be through geueral and permanent Laws (to call them immutable, involves an assumption incapable of proof) that the Providence of God presides over the order, better perhaps to say, the endless play, of the universe.1 But it would be more exact to give them another name. They are the continuously active will of an ever-present God in its exercise upon the world of its creation ; for where the laws are, there is the Lawgiver also.2 -§9. We conclude, then, that 'in the hypothesis Natural of universal Law, and in the fact, if it be a fact, compatible that the history of physical science is one continued pr0viden- revelation of the reign of Law, there is nothing ofchris-'3 antecedently fatal to Christianity as a religion for tiamty' mankind. For if otherwise, it must be so in respect either of its special contents, or of the fundamen tal evidences adduced in its support ; I mean of 1 It is a truer instinct which, with Malebranche, sees all things in God. " Whether a dagger," says De Maistre, " pierces a man's heart or a little blood collects in his brain, he falls dead alike. But in the first case we say he has ended his days by a violent death. For God, however, there is no such thing as violent death. A steel blade fixed in the heart is a malady just like a simple callosity, which we should call a polypus." — Soirees, IVme Entret. 2 Guizot, Meditat., Vol. I. p. 33. Newton's Scholium on the nature of God is thus worded : " Entis sumine" perfecti idea ut sit substantia una ; omnia in se continens tanquam eorum principium et locus ; omnia per prassentiam substantialem cernens et regens et cum rebus omnibus secundum leges accuratas ut natura? totius fundamentum et causa, constanter co-operans, nisi ubi aliter agere bonum est." See in Brewster's Memoirs, II. 154. Compare the description of the Koran (Sale, I. c. vi., p. 166). 138 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. its'eviith Miracles and Prophecy, " that splendid apparatus dences, ^vitli which its mission was introduced and at tested."1 Into the nature of these evidences I am not now called to enter. For the subject of Miracles, the magnificent dialectical effort made not very long since from this place, must deter, while rendering unnecessary, all inferior handling viz. of the same topic. I would remark only in answer miracles. . ?.,,.. to a more recent objection, that if it be true that as men advance from an imperfect to a higher civili zation, they gradually sublimate and refine their creed, exhibiting an indisposition, in place of an earlier proneness, towards the reception of the miraculous : it may still be replied, that Christianity, as it has become better understood, has borne this These ad- test. Already in the long history of the Church, crfmina- we have learned to distinguish between true and false miracles, evangelical and ecclesiastical, evi dential and doctrinal, intrinsic and spurious imita tions. The tendency of superstition to multiply miracles does not disprove their probability, much less their possibility : it rather goes to establish the instinctive nature of their recognition. A truer estimate of the position of Miracles in relation 1 Paley, Moral Phil, Bk. IV. sub fin. 2 See Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 160-195. Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 370, 385, &c. Jean Paul Eichter acutely remarks, Vorschule der Aesthetik, Works, xix. 163, that the greatest miracle is our tendency to believe in miracles, surrounded as we are by the mechanical kingdom of our senses : that iu spite of continual contact with the world of matter we still believe in an invisible world. tion. Lect. Ill] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 139 to faith has taken possession of the Christian mind. " The ideal1 of the Church's life," it has been well said, " is not the predominance of the supernatural : but the intimate and complete union of the human and the Divine." The proof from Miracles2 Au- Thevary- x ing co- gustine thought was not suited to every age, or to gency of all minds. On the large and important evidence evidences of Prophecy, which to the mind of Pascal,3 (as phecy. previously to that of Augustine and, as it would seem, of the earlier Fathers), superseded Miracles ; it may perhaps be said that it still awaits a treat ment in unison with the spirit of the time. At present I would only observe that there is nothing in its nature essentially contradictory to experience. On the contrary, it is consistent and according with expectation, so long as there is admitted a Divine superintendence of events passing insen sibly into a continuous interposition, and acting in conjunction with fixed and general laws. It is a Their ful filment a 1 Pressense1, Apostles and Martyrs, p. 16. fac^ 2 Util. Cred., c. xiv. ; Ver. Rel, c. xxv. " Cur, inquis, ista (sc. mira- cula) modo nou fiunt? Quia non moverent nisi mira essent : at si solita essent, mira non essent." — Ut. Cred., c. xvi. He also argues that miraclesiare rather a proof to the ignorant than to the wise. 3 "La plus grande des preuves de Jesus-Christ, ce sont les pro- phe'ties." — Pensees, Art. X. " Hujus religionis sectanda? caput est historia et prophetia dispensationis temporalis Divinas Providential pro salute generis humani in seternamvitamreformandiatquereparandi."' — August., Ver. Rel, c. vii. 13, xxv. See Pressense, u. s., torn. ii. Lecky, H. E. M., I. 399. The teleological character of Christianity in relation to the history and prophecies of the Old Testament, as itself a fruit of " the fullness of tho time," is a subject wholly in accord with recent phi losophy. 14-0 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. different question which has been sometimes asked, whether Christianity has in its career answered the expectations of the old prophecies respecting it. Thus, the kingdom of Christ is by no means as yet universal : " we see not yet all things put under Him : " nor in the history of the Church has Christianity shown itself a religion of peace. But it has been well replied,1 that it has fulfilled Pro phecy far enough to make the portrait like : and by predicting its own future, answers any such difficulties by anticipation. If destined to be uni versal, Christ's kingdom is still in a manner " not of this world." It is created and established, not by force, but by persuasion ; and persuasion must be always gradual and often precarious. It did not engage to abolish sin and irreligion, even within its pale : the tares should still spring among the wheat. Its very progress was to be made through defeat : it was to conquer by sanctity and suffering. Themys- ' § IO- Some elements, it must be admitted, when christian we are considering the progress and permanence nothaMe of Christianity, within the circle of Christian doc- exp^ana'-^1 trine must ever De expected to remain stumbling- tmn. blocks to the naked intellect ; more especially when it surrenders itself to the narrow dogmas of a purely physical philosophy. There are beings, as Bishop Butler has suggested,2 to whom the 1 J. H. Newman, Gramm. of Assent, p. 441. 2 Analogy, Pt. I. c. i. : " Nor is there any absurdity in supposing," &c. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 141 scheme of Christianity in all its details may appear strictly natural. But to us it is not so. The coming of the Son of God in the flesh, the Absolute thus becoming relative, the Infinite finite, the Creator a creature ; the spiritual import of death a natural phenomenon (lex non poena mors) ; the relation of sin to its effects ; the fall and corruption of man ; the necessity of Redemp tion ; the fact of its taking place in a single tiny world, lost as it were in the infinity of surrounding space crowded with kindred orbs -,1 these are and must be accepted as mysteries, " clouds on the mercy-seat," capable perhaps of explanation, yet only of an imperfect one, unpalatable accordingly to a positive school of inquiry. Yet Mysteries are Mysteries the properties of all genuine religions, in regard to pertyof ail which the believer " walks by faith and not by sight." rehgions. Thus " the consciousness of a mystery," it has been rightly said,2 " is1 traceable in the rudest Fetishism." The economy of Revelation in respect of them, it may be, differences Christianity favourably from other religions.3 But whatever may be thought as 1 Chalmers's discourses on this topic are well known. Comp. pp. 54, 98 : " Impossible that the concerns of this puny ball, which floats its little round among an infinity of larger worlds, should be of such mighty account in the plans of the Eternal," &c. 2 See Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Pr., p. 99 : " En articles de foi," it has been beautifully said, " il faut se crever les yeux pour voir clair." " La raison," writes Vinet, " a sa foi ; la foi a sa raison." * Viz. by confining them to truths answering to the deepest wants of our spiritual frame. " Ce qui en nous est contraire aux mysteres, n'est pas la raison, ni la lumiere naturelle Penchainement des ve"rites ; c'est 142 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. to this, they are at least no new difficulties, no new grounds of objection. Nothing about them requires to be given up in the present stage of our know ledge as the creed of an ignorant and bygone Under- age. 'We are still far from the axiom that nothing not the can be true but what we can fully understand.1 belief. Rationalism and Mysticism are, indeed, opposite extremes, between which it may well be the human mind will always continue to oscillate, meeting, however, in one common point. Mysteries are not contradictions to reason or to fact. We should else be holding our religious faith on sufferance of ignorance or error. In effect, the old adage, " omnia exeunt in mysterium" is even now the out come of a philosophy of experience, the justification of a system of nescience. " The world," said Hume, " is a mystery :" and beyond all that science makes Rational- known to us lies the mysterious unknown.2 But mysticism so again the latent error of Mysticism in religion tfvetyerro- is "the aiming at a comprehension of transcen dental truth, at the fruition of a mental certainty which it is not given us to acquire or possess ; corruption, c'est erreur ou prejugd, c'est teneibres." — Leibnitz, TJie'od., p. 496. Paley has some good remarks on this point, Evid. II. ii., con trasting the reserve of the Bible with the redundance of the Koran. 1 Comp. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 66. It is true that there is an exactly opposite error in which Revelation itself is confounded with Mystery. " Times," says Dr. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., II. 255, " unfruitful in theolo gical knowledge, are ever wont to fall back on mystery, and upon the much abused demand of taking the reason prisoner to the obedience of faith." 2 See Herbert Spencer, First Princ, p. 223. respec tively i neous. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 143 just as in practice it is realized in the abandon ment of free-will in its devotion to a pre-assumed will of God. It thus really involves the assump tion of mental independence, and runs up into the Schoolmen's postulate that reason ultimately obliges to believe all that faith receives.1 The difficulties occurring in the system of Christianity form part of the Divine administration, the proper subject- matter of Revelation, being confessedly beyond the reach of human investigation. Of these, therefore, we are no judges ; yet the existence of them is recognized in itself to be necessary by the limits of our natural knowledge. - § 11. Nor is tbe growing; conviction that Reli- ,Natural . 0 00 laws not 111- ffion itself falls within a natural order, and may to compatible 0 J with the a certain extent be treated as a positive phenome- historical sequence non, determined by the mental faculties and the ofreii- ffions. history of their development, any real stumbling- block to the acceptance of the Christian faith. The criticism of some modern schools of thought,2 1 " It is an error to suppose Mysticism as the perpetual antagonist of Scholasticism ; the Mystics were often severe logicians : the Scholastics had all the passions of Mystics." — Milman, Lot. Christ., VI. 263. See Gieseler, III. 292, and IV. 188, E. T., ed. Clark. Lacordaire speaks of " la certitude mystique et translumineuse." In all Mysticism we must distinguish between an intellectual and an ethical tendency. Comp. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., I. 52. There is a tendency in Mysticism towards what has been termed Monopsychism, the belief in the mere existence of a single soul. Such a view is the correlative of pure "Materialism. 2 See Mr. Farrar, Witness of History to Christ, p. 61, and Dr. Farrar, Critical Hist, of Free Thought, pp. 122, 392. Comp. Hegel, Phil, d. 144 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. commencing with Lessing and culminating in Baur, grows out of this truth pursued into excess. On the Positivist theory Christianity is the necessary result of previous antecedents. It could not but have arisen out of the contact of Jewish Monotheism and Greek speculation and Roman Empire.1 This when the explanation (even if true of a system of dogmas) allowed does not, as we have already seen, account for an historic Gospel, that is, for the series of facts on which Christian dogmas depend. But the still larger fact that the announcement of the religion of Christ was in accordance with the spirit and impor- antecedents of its time, the culmination of an the°doc- Evangelical Preparation ; 2 and further, that in its evangd£n history it has followed the course of laws unre- paration servedly accepted in other departments of know ledge and action, this result should be a confirma tion, not an arraignment, of its truth. It is no tenet of the Christian faith to deny that we are the " heirs of all the ages," or, in the expressive words of Comte, that " we who live are ruled by the dead." The continuity and solidarity of human Gesch. 3. Theil, III. ii. Mr. Buckle, Hist. Civ., II. 21, attributes the first notion of a theory of religious development to the French writer, Charron. 1 See Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 349, and Prof. Westcott's just remarks (Comte on Christianity), Cont. Rev., VI. 404. Dr. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., II. 291, traces this view to Eberhard in his Geist des Ur-Chris- tenthums, published in 1807. 2 On this grand theory of Christian development, the contribution of the School of Alexandria to a history of doctrine, see Neandcr, Oh. Hist., II. 275, B. T., ed. Clark. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 145 history are ideas which lie at the root of the doctrines of Christ. Time has been when, through an unconscious lack of faith in the ordinary pro vidence of God, the progress of Christianity has been too largely assigned to miraculous and super natural causes.1 It was narrowed accordingly to false or unimportant issues. The humbler, if safer, This some times lost road of regular and ordinary causation was deemed sight of. unmeet for it. The presence of the Divine message and its efficacy were hailed more readily in the rending earthquake and the great strong wind, and in the devouring fire, than in the still small voice of moral conviction and spiritual transformation, borne slowly down the stream of time.2 But now Present ^ tendency men think and -see differently, and looking back of the age. we seem to catch the breath of a Divine mystery, mingling ever silently with the voices and tones of men, and tempering with a heavenly calm the fevered spirit of the age.3 It is not now argued that the rise and progress of Christianity are inexplicable : but rather that its results prove 1 See some good remarks of Dean Merivale, Conversion of Empire, p. 20. " The human mind continued to work by its old accustomed methods; but those methods of thought were themselves of God's original appointment. The Holy Spirit had brooded over their creation, and guided them gently to the end which to Him was present from the beginning." Also Northern Nations, pp. x. 103 ; and Dorner's remarks on Lessing, Hist. Prot. Th., II. 303. 2 See Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. M., I. 412. 3 " Perhaps," says Laud, Conf. p. xxiii., " there may be in voce hominum tuba Dei— in the still voice of men the loud trumpet of God which sounds many ways, sometimes to the ears and sometimes to the hearts of men, and by means which they think not of." I, 146 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. its permanent and catholic character ; that it is a religion to take part and co-exist with advancing civilization. Relation §12. Thus, in an estimate of the value of Chris- of mtel- 3 ' lectuai tianity as a permanent element in human progress, progress to . . . . civiliza- some preliminary inquiry into the relation of in tellectual conditions towards advance in morals and religion must come in. So long as it is maintained that all advance is really intellectual,1 and that knowledge and civilization tend rather to the extinction than to the promotion of religious senti ment, the situation of Christianity, equally indeed with all creeds, becomes precarious and doubtful. SncTto01'" What, then, is meant in such discussions by civiliza- ^^'^ tion ? Not, surely, one thing, but many ; not a oTchris6 smlple> but a highly complex fact. It is, I appre- tianity. hend, the position or degree of education of the human race at any given period, in respect not of Definition knowledge only, but of social and political condi- of civiliza- . tion, tion, dependent on circumstances of race, climate, and other special antecedents ; further, also, in respect of moral and religious beliefs, acting con jointly with art and sesthetical development.2 AU 1 See Mr. Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. c. iv. (more especially p. 182). His argu ment is that civilization is indeed the product of moral and intellectual agencies ; but that as morality is really stationary and without advance, the intellect is the prime mover and is permanent in its results. In II. 89, he seems after Descartes to ground religion itself on an idea of the intellect. See, on the other hand, Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. M., I. 105, 156, &c. 2 See Mill's Logic, Bk. VI.,'x. 2. " What is called a state of society is Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 147 these elements may be present in a varying relation and in different proportions of force. All may together be acting feebly ; some vigorously, some a complex scarcely. Industrial and intellectual culture by no many fac- means advances uniformly in all its branches. It may, as in Ancient Greece, be far ahead of other elements of true culture, and be before its time.1 Knowledge may be at a low ebb in a community where religious convictions have a strong hold upon the hearts and affections of a people. Morality including 1 n ^ religion. may be weakest in respect of the conduct of the masses, while knowledge flourishes, and a spirit of inquiry is widely diffused. Such a result tends directly against true culture. The conditions of intellectual are not generally favourable to moral growth.2 Meanwhile, the political circumstances may be auspicious or unfavourable, while the social condition of a nation will exhibit the complex result the simultaneous state of all the greater social facts or phenomena . . . the common beliefs entertained on all the subjects most important to mankind, and the degree of assurance with which those beliefs are held," &c. So also Guizot (Civil, en France, Lee. i., p. 273), "It is not these two principles of themselves, which constitute civilization : to bring it to perfection, their intimate and rapid union, simultaneousness, and reciprocal action are absolutely necessary." See the whole of the passage. Comp. also Grant's Bamp. Led., p. 308. Mr. Tylor (Hist. Prim. Cult., I. p. 1) thus defines: "Culture or civilization taken in its wide ethnographic sense is that complex whole which includes know ledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." 1 See Mr. Tylor, u. s., I. 24. Comp. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 252, 257. '* See Guizot, Civ. en France, I. 348 : " When the social relations have been described, are the facts whose aggregate constitutes the life of an epoch exhausted ? Certainly not ; there remains to be studied the L 2 148 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. of the other elements of its civilization. Hence the differences of ancient and modern culture. They are not only distinct stages of a common progress or development, to which man's nature Ancient points and tends.1 They have proceeded from guished different principles. Ancient civilization started from modern from one alone, as in Athens from intellectual cul- tion. ture, in Rome from the principle of public utility, the submission of individual development to com mon good, the recognition and creation of law. Then, rapidly advancing, it became soon exhausted and monotonous. In modern times, civilization is with more reason held dependent on the due dis position of all the various powers of human nature under social forms. The soul of man has ac cordingly been stirred upon a larger number of points and to a greater depth. It has become more Expansion accessible to the power of new ideas. In this result ofthereligious the amelioration of social conditions has, no doubt, sentiment. . reacted on humanity. And it may well be that, as man's nature and knowledge rise with culture, his religious sentiment also alters and expands. But, inversely, Christianity by first changing and regenerating human nature, has developed morally, internal, the personal state of men, the state of souls ; that is, on one side the ideas, doctrines, the whole intellectual life of man : on the other, the relations which connect ideas with actions, creeds with the determina tions of the will, thought with human liberty." In II. 395 he blames Bossuet for having confined his view of civilization to religious creeds, and Montesquieu to political institutions. 1 See Tylor, n. s., I. 25. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 149 and even intellectually, the individual man without necessarily varying his external condition. But this change did not come at once ; and under the later Empire the world retrograded in its intellectual stage while in possession of Christian ideas. For " advanced ideas," it has been truly said,1 " when once established, act upon society and aid its further advance. Yet the establishment of such ideas depends on the previous fitness of society for re ceiving them." There must be a thorough corre spondence of external and internal relations. The Civilization must religion of our present so-called civilization, if it be be as wide • i • , , . . 3.s the only or mainly an evolution of intellect, ignoring whole il* r • i -l • • i i nature °f the claims of conscience, can but exhibit a one-sided, man. imperfect progress ;2 it does not fulfil the idea, and must fail, as it has failed of old. Such, however, is not the character of the religion of Christ, which is, therefore, " established on better promises " of permanence and progress. But on what grounds Religion a is it asserted that all human advance is intellectual, ofpro- thus necessitating the conclusion that Christianity gl is itself an effect and not a cause of progress ? Because,3 it is answered, without external inter ference people will never discover their existing 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer, Classification of Sciences, p. 37. 2 See Dr. J. H. Newman, Gramm. of Assent, p. 391; also Essay on Deuel, I. § 3 ; and particularly Dean Church, Univ. Sermons on the relation of Christianity to civilization. "It corrects the narrowing of man's horizon ; which civilization cannot do, perhaps fosters." " Chris tianity affords the only means of cherishing purity," &c. 3 Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 254. ISO OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. religion to be a bad one ; and this implies some previous improvement in reason and knowledge. But has religion, it may fairly be replied, only an Reason of intellectual side ? Is it not so, as Pascal has said,1 that "the heart also has its reasons, which reason cannot apprehend " ? " It is necessary to imbue our faith with feeling, otherwise it will be for ever vacillating." Has the work of conversion been always among races so far advanced in knowledge and mental resources as to be adequate critics, from the intellectual stand-point, of the merits of a new faith ? It is conceivable that the belief of bar barous times or tribes may be in some respects simpler and truer2 than that of periods of culture, just as the moral qualities of savage races some times suffer at the first impact of civilization. change of Ae;ain, is it, as a matter of fact,3 by intellectual religion . . . . . not due to convictions chiefly or solely that religions have an intel- . . " , . ™ lectuai made their way m different regions of the world ? conviction _, , solely or Perhaps the simplest mode has been the acceptance of the faith of the conquering race by the subject peoples. Between different forms of polytheism such an interchange could not have been difficult.4 " Civilization," it has been aptly said, " is a plant much oftener propagated than developed."5 This 1 Pensees, II. 176, I. 155, ed. Faugere. 2 See Newman, Gramm. of Assent, p. 391. 3 See an example in Mr. Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., I. 27. 4 See Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 180. Hume, Nat. 11. of Religion, § 9. 6 Tylor, Hist. Pr. <".,!. 48. chiefly. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 151 has resulted either from direct compulsion, as by the scimitar of Islamism, or from an instinct of inferiority naturally, and not without reason,1 accompanying defeat. Where a new language can be imposed, no doubt through " the spiritual rela tionship " of races, religion may pass also. Yet this is not always so ; as, for instance, in the Mahometan and British subjugations of Hindostan. Nor is it so generally, where a strong sacerdotal caste exists among the conquered race.2 But neither, if it were, could it be traced to any law of rational superiority alone in the religion of the conqueror. For then the progress of religious truth, it is to be supposed, would have been simple and continuous ; a result which is not borne out by the history of mankind. Other circumstances, Historical therefore, must be taken into account. The this fact. guidance, or at any rate the sequence, of events introduces particular religions into the world and into distinct localities. Once received, from what ever causes, they flourish and endure according to the amount of truth which they contain, combined with the fitness of their doctrines for the special circumstances of region and race, including, it is true, as one condition, a certain stage of intellectual 1 Comp. Al'ist., Pol, I. vi. : rpoTrov rtva dperr) rvyxdvovo-a xoprjytas fitd^eaBai dvvarat paXiara, Kal eo-rtv del to Kparovv iv virepoxfl dyaBov rtvos ware SoKeiv prj avev dperrjs elvai rfjv /3iav. 2 Compare the remarks of Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 241, and Sir John Lubbock, Orig. of Civilization. 152 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. Generalization of the se quence of religious concep tions. Thus, Christianity an agent in civiliza tion, whence an argumentarises for its per manence. To be shown in detail. advance. Thus fetishism may be found to precede polytheism, polytheism the belief in one God.1 And thus even a large admixture of error is long able to maintain its ground by appealing to some of all the religious instincts of mankind, until, by the will of God, the hour arrives for its supersession by a higher and purer faith. § 13. Were it unquestionable that the benefits attributed to the Religion of Christ are the results of social laws alone, or of some foregoing intel lectual stage of civilization, or again, that Religion, apart from moral teaching, has no proper and special field of action, it would be plainly futile to argue from the effects of Christianity to its perma nence and truth as a religious system. It is thus made answerable for all its defects in operation, for those evils, mischiefs, and shortcomings which a narrow philosophy has always too readily set down to its account, while it is allowed no share in the amelioration of man's estate, no force in fhe influences which have determined the advancement of the race. I shall therefore attempt to show that the progress of civilization has been in successive ages largely promoted by the character and distinc- 1 As held by Hume, Essays, Nat. Hist of Rel. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 40, 46; Grote, Hist, of Greece, I. 462, V. 22 ; Buckle, I. 251; and, Mr. Tylor, with some modifications. Mr. Mill, Examination, p. 307, remarks profoundly that the psychological rationale of this vast gene ralization is the historical development of the subjective notion of power. Augustine, Civ. D., IV. xi., strives to represent polytheism as a thinly disguised monotheism. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 153 tive tenets of the Gospel, and these not of an intel- Preiimi- x . nary consi- lectual cast. The philosophy of history points de- derations. finitely to an improvement in human affairs, an improvement with which Christianity is in accord, and of which it has formed a part. In the next 1. The x . relation of Lecture, however, in order to answer certain objec- religion to ..,.-, merely tions still met with against the originality and moral sys- r\i • mi 1 terns. (See importance of the Faith of Christ, it will be neces- Lecture sary to determine within fixed limits the connec tion and interdependence of Religion with merely moral systems, and to deduce the fair scope of the former as a distinct agent in the formation of human conduct. One further preliminary consi deration affecting the conditions of progressive civilization will then remain. Is there any such 2- The. ¦> compati- inherent internecine antagonism between Science \iVAl of , 0 intellectual and Revelation, the advance of knowledge and the progress / . ° with the spread of Christianity, as on this ground alone to perma- . . nence and necessitate or foreshadow the collapse of religious advance ' P °f Chris- belief ? Are we indeed entered upon an era of tianity. scientific attainments in which theological faith, ture v.) already in some quarters subordinated to meta physical abstractions, is to be trodden under foot by a positive philosophy, that is, by a belief in concrete laws ? Is there to be an endless war between our intellectual faculties and our religious obligations ? Are we entitled to predict the de cline and extinction of all theologies, as a gradual but inevitable consequence of the course of human 1 54 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. Religion affairs ? Must we look forward to a time when the attacked as . unservke- inutility and helplessness of all religious sentiment able and inefficient, to advance the well-being of mankind will be uni versally admitted ? And here it may be at once allowed that the sjDhere of Religion, whatever be its true work and office in respect of the positive benefits which it confers upon mankind, lies wholly outside Science. It was not sent to redress evils which it is the province of knowledge to remove. But is it always kept in mind, when Christianity is thus assailed on the score of inefficiency, how small a part of those ills which " flesh is heir to," Science criticism itself has hitherto availed to abolish ? While con- of the ser- jkes dr,en" ferring on mankind large benefits and grand op- positive portunities, can it be said of this new divinity that knowledge ... to man- it alone brings no evils in its train P1 The mecha- kind. . meal skill which stimulates as it facilitates produc tion, the mighty powers of locomotion by which the fabrics of commerce are made to traverse the furthest regions ofthe earth, the progress which is making in the labours of the factory and of the mill — have they hitherto increased the sum of happiness and individual comfort for those vast human masses, the slaves of the mine and of the loom, which have, as it were, leaped into being at the call of science ? When I walk through our vast 1 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 132, has some just and profound reflections on the tendency of industrial progress to sacrifice moral dignity and elevation of character, and on its relation to a utilitarian standard in morals. Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 155 manufacturing capitals, and gaze on the squalid tenements, the swarming alleys, the sordid, care worn faces which meet the view, I cannot but ask myself if this is indeed the end of all their being — whether the increase of wealth, of population and production, if these be its conditions, can be worth its own accomplishment ; whether the struggle for existence does not outweigh the blessing, or rather the very reasons, of life.1 Is the elevation of the many a true consequence of the increase of wealth ? Is it not as in the days of old? "When goods l% increase J ° of produc- increase they are increased that eat them." 2 " It tion or , J material is a sore travail which God has given to the sons progress . tanta- of men to exercise them." "All things are full of mount to social ele- labour; that which is crooked cannot be made vation? straight, and that which is wanting cannot be numbered." Surely these words of the Preacher express a profound disappointment at the little effect of wisdom and skilled knowledge on man's physical and moral condition ? Are they inappli- ?ea?on?t cable now ? Much, at any rate, remains to be done for these toiling millions which as yet has not been done. Brought into the world to eke out, it would seem, the purposes of labour, they live, they work, they die, uncheered by the lamp of knowledge, which assigns their daily task. What has Political Economy, Ethology, or Social Science3 1 " Et propter vitam vivendi pcrdere causas." — Juv. 2 Eccles. v. 11 ; i. 13, 15. 3 Compare Dr. Mozley's just remarks, Bamp. Led., p. 192. 156 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. III. as yet done to mend their lot or gild their prospect, amid the gigantic risks and ever-enlarging perils among which they earn their bread ? Then in the moment of writhing pain and impending dissolu tion, the result of unprevented accident, or in the long hours of wasting, incurable sickness, the effect of some noxious employment, to what shall they turn their dying eyes for consolation, for support ? The need Will the long vista of coming generations born tives and like them to suffer, to struggle, and to die, yet tions of making up the sum of that Humanity,1 that " unity religion evident, of our race," that " course of evolution, ' that " sub jective immortality" which to some among us seems the very God of all their worship — will the con sciousness of an unknown, unknowable reality underlying the world of matter or of mind — will the " infinite nature of duty " — will these close their eyes in peace ? or will they not rather, feeling themselves but denizens of a world that passes, yet heirs of an immortal, immaterial spirit, turn with all their hearts towards a Faith which alone ex plains the present and guarantees the future ; which alone lends strength now and gives assur ance and peace for ever ; which teaches, that 1 See Strauss, Der Alte und der Neue Glaube, p. 372 ff. ; and Mr. Winwood Reade, Martyrdom of Man, pp. 535-7. I quote but one passage : " We teach that the soul is immortal ; we teach that there is a future life ; we teach that there is a heaven in the ages far away ; but not for us single corpuscles, and for us dots of animated jelly ; but for the One of whom wo are the elements, and who, though we perish, never dies." Lect. III.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 157 though the dust returns to the earth as it was, yet there is hope in man's latter end ? For the spirit shall return unto God Who gave it, yea, and Who hath redeemed it from sin unto Himself. For " if in this life only we have hope, what advantageth it ?" Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die. " But now is Christ risen from the dead, and He is become the first-fruits of them that sleep." LECTURE IV. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CONSIDERED. " C'est mal raisonner contre la religion de rassembler dans un grand ouvrage une longue enumeration des maux qu'elle a produits, si Ton ne fait de meme celle des biens qu'elle a faits." — Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, xxiv., ii. LECTURE IV. " Not after the law of a carnal commandment, but after the power of an endless life." — ll)eh, titi. 16. § i . ' j.H'HE many forms of Religion which have Religion -*¦ played their part on the stage of the a mode of world's history, have sometimes been held to be ?ngCmora- but different modes of proclaiming the same moral lty- truths.1 It is these which are regarded as the true salt of society, the ever-resumed heritage of the whole human race. " All religions," said Diderot, " are but the sects of the one Religion of Nature." I do not now stay to inquire what such a religion is ; whether altogether reasoned out, or itself the gift of a primary revelation : whether it exists; whether it corresponds to the actual beliefs of the lower races ; whether it could Relation in t i r- pfChris- ever become adequate to the moral wants of man- tianity to a kind ; whether it be not Christian morality with of Nature, the omission of all that is Christian, with its proofs 1 See Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 77. The teaching of the School of Kant regards ecclesiastical beliefs as the vehicle for conveying truths of pure, i. e. natural, religion. See Mr. Lecky's remarks, Hist. Rat., I. 329. Compare H. J. Bose, Hist. Prot. in Germany, p. 143. Its effect, as Dr. Farrar, B. L., p. 323, has tersely remarked, is " to destroy Eevelation by leaving nothing to be revealed." The Gospel thus only makes legible the eternal Law of Nature written in the heart. M 1 62 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. drawn from reason, and not from Revelation. What hinders, however, that such a religion, acknowledging, as it needs must, from the side of experience a sense of sin, even points to a remedy which is found only in the revelation of a Mediator ? x Such a fact, then, and the system of which it is a part, does not supersede or contra- supple- diet the instincts of Natural .Religion. It rather contra-' completes and supplements them, and shows the Christian faith to be itself in a manner natural. The objection, however, implied is really this : that Christianity, while no doubt " as old as the implied creation," is unfortunately also no newer. It is objectionagainst the no more than a re-publication of the Religion of originality . . and useful- Nature. For the principles of morality, it is religion, implied, are in effect few and simple, incapable of enlargement or multiplication. Obscured they may have been from time to time in the progress of ages and by the circumstances of mankind. But positive religions, while they have done much to impede the recognition of these principles, have 1 " The matter of Revelation is not a mere collection of truths, not a philosophical view, not a religious sentiment or spirit, not a special morality poured out upon mankind as a stream might pour itself into the sea, mixing with the world's thought, modifying, purifying, invi gorating it ; but an authoritative teaching, . . a religion in addition to the religion of nature, not superseding or contradicting it." — I. H. New man, Gramm. of Assent, pp. 382, 479. See Dr. Mozley in Cont. Rev., VII. On the relation of Christianity to natural religion, see Chal mers, Bridg. Tr., sub finem. He concludes : " Natural theology has been called the basis of Christianity : it were better called the basis of Christianization." Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 163 succeeded but poorly in exhibiting their truth, or in facilitating their reception. § a. The error in these assumptions seems to Error in lie in the supposition that all the particulars ofassump- moral truth have been from the first well known and understood : or that they are in their own nature incapable of further development. Some who have justly seen that morality has really been progressive, have preferred to attribute the result to improved knowledge rather than to the influence of religious ideas. Can it, however, be Morality ... really pro- seriously maintained, with any show of reason, gressive. that the whole aspect of moral truths in the history of our race has been stationary ? that there is really nothing to be found in the world which has undergone so little change as those great dogmas of which moral systems are com posed ; 1 or again, to use the words of a powerful though hasty objector, that " to assert that Chris tianity communicated to man moral truths pre viously unknown, argues, on the part of the as sertor, either gross ignorance or else wilful fraud." " All the great moral systems," he adds,2 " which have exercised much influence have been fundamen tally the same : all the great intellectual systems have been fundamentally different." So, then, all 1 Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 180, who adduces Kant's authority to the same effect. See, however, Lange's counter-criticism, Gesch. des Mate- rialismus, pp. 511, 512. 2 Buckle, u. s., p. 181. M 2 1 64 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. moral systems are substantially the same : l and thus far all religions embodying and enshrining a system of morals. Such would, no doubt, be the case, if Religion contained nothing beyond morality; or if the number of primary moral truths can be shown to be extremely small, and their applica tion in the form of duties simple and obvious. Andsys- But, as a matter of fact, is no difference dis- tems of re- . ligion vary cermble m the moral value of separate religions, as to their .... . . moral of Christianity as compared with Paganism, or ot Oriental systems as compared with one another ? Are we, then, still to be told that the morals of all nations have been the same, if not as a matter of practice, and in the diffusion of effects, yet in principle and substance; that no improvements have been made in morality for at least three thousand years ; and that it admits of no dis coveries?2 Twofold § 3. Such objections, containing an implicit the part of criticism of Revelation, allow, so far as we are reveiatTon. concerned with them, of a double answer. One, that Religion, recognizing and addressing the spiritual part of man, influences and enlarges thereby his stock of moral truth, supplying new motives of action on the utilitarian side, new 1 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 103-114, has ably shown that the unity of morals in different ages is a unity not of standard, but of tendency. In the same work (I. 156, 165) he argues directly against Mr. Buckle's theory on this subject. 2 See Sir James Mackintosh ap. Buckle, I. 181. The title of his work is, ' A Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.' Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 165 sanctions and grounds of duty in each fresh revela- From its 0 -1 contents as tion of our relations with God and man.1 A test infiuenc- ing and is thus supplied which distinguishes the higher advancing from the lower religions of the earth, and still leaves the Faith of Christ the foremost in the history of civilization. Religion further sys tematizes moral truths already recognized by concentrating them into one focus of new unsus pected light. Can the doctrine of the brotherhood of mankind, for example, be considered to stand on the same footing now as before the revelation of Jesus Christ ? Does the duty of love to God remain the same ? True religion, says Pascal, must have for a credential the obligation of loving God. Yet what religion except our own has included this among its ordinances?2 Another answer (on which I shall not dwell at length) is that in the application of the rules of known ethical systems there is an indefinite field of extension, one strictly analogous to the growth of knowledge in other subjects. In this direction the history and character of Christian teaching, and from not to speak of its positive institutions, has had toxical pro- a marked and lasting influence. It is unnecessary during the Christian 1 Compare Butler's Analogy, Pt. II. c. i., where he argues for the era. importance of Christianity as a distinct publication of natural morality, containing relations which produce new obligations not dependent on the method of revelation. 2 " La vraie religion doit avoir pour marque d'obliger a aimer son Dieu. Cela est bien juste : et cependant aucune autre que la notre ne l'a ordonne. La notre l'a fait." — Pensees, Art. III. 1 66 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. to insist on the importance of casuistry as a department of moral science, or on the contribu tions which have been furnished to it by Christian theologians.1 Still wider is the field thus opened when it is considered that the analysis of the circumstances of acts leads up to a revision and re-arrangement of already-known principles of duty. Man's moral and spiritual experience en larges with his history. New grounds of practice are brought to light, as the action is referred to different reasons of rightness or wrongness. In Mode of this manner new moral conceptions, new theories of conduct, fresh central principles of action, new standards of merit, and of the relative value of particular virtues, even new faculties,2 are so far from being impossible of discovery, that they both in fact exist, and are continually recognized in the growth of culture, illustrating the whole 1 On this subject see De Quincey, Works, Vol. XIV. pp. 22, 24, 69 ; also some careful and just remarks by Mr. Morley, Crit. Misc., pp. 351, 364. Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law, c. ix., too readily condemns casuistry as a species of moral theology, having its origin in the distinction of mortal and venial sins. If, indeed, we adopt his view, that moral philosophy is but a compound of law and metaphysic, we might fairly doubt of the progressive capacities of ethical science. 2 Thus Mr. Herbert Spencer holds that moral intuitions are the results of accumulated experiences of utility. See Bain, Mental and Mor. Sc, p. 722. " Character," says Prof. Goldwin Smith, " does not remain the same : the character of the man is continually advancing through life; and in hke manner the character of the race advances through history." — Study of Hist., p. 37. Mr. Mill, Comte and Pos., p. 112, looks on Protestantism as specially inculcating a distinct moral principle, involving the duty of culture ; viz. direct individual responsi bility to God. Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 167 region of duty. The subject of morals as a practical system reacts upon its own scientific base; and the analysis of complex effects and of compound agents observable in other branches of knowledge, advances here also, and with the same results. § 4. But, it may be said, the very progress in- objection, dicated is an intellectual one, and owes nothing to progress is the influences of Religion. It may be explained tuai, and by an invariable law of progress observable in religion, human affairs. Science depends on improved methods of research, on their application to in stances, on the development of the principles thus suggested. So also with moral truth. Ripened by the circumstances of the time, including new modes and lines of thinking due to physical and intellectual causes, it bears unaccustomed fruits. Miraturque novas frondes et non sua poma. The general sentiment of an age, it is said,1 is really determined by the intellectual activity, and indirectly by the positive institutions which be long to it; and moral dogmas,2 as well as the 1 See Mr. Morley's observations on the development of morals, u. a. 2 Mr. Wallace (Malay. Archip., sub fin.) holds that " while civilized communities have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in intel lectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals ... It is not too much to say that the mass of our populations have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, and have in many cases sunk below it." Sir John Lubbock's researches lead him to the exact reverse of this opinion. . The savage, he holds, is destitute of moral feeling, e.g. of remorse. — Orig. Civ., p. 265. 1 68 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. immediate sense of obligation, advance along with it. Where intellect stagnates, morality is low. In the unreasoning savage it may be altogether lacking. To reinstate or create the reign of duty, there must take place a revival or awakening of but to a knowledge. The result is seen in new applica- revival of ° J- 1 know- tions, and a simpler interpretation of moral prin ciples hitherto acknowledged. Thus, the sense of duty, generically the same in different ages, varies in amount, and modifies almost in quantity, the shades of conduct over which it is diffused. Reply. The answer to this view lies in a matter of fact. The intel- Among the circumstances of an age, determining condition the general sentiment of the time, can the power of the ° . ' * period af- and authority of the prevailing: Faith count for fectedby- ~, . . ° the pre- nothing? If the opinions of a given period are faith. dependent on its intellectual condition, has this also been altogether unaffected by Religion ? Though intellect and knowledge have their share The sa- in determining the applications of a sense of dutv credness of pi duty due to the sacredness of that sense and the sanctions it rel gion. imposes are due altogether to Religion, and will vary with its purity and power. It has become fashionable to regard great eras in the history of our belief, the Reformation or the commencement of Christianity itself, as simple moral protests TheRefor- against the corruption of the times. Such a view mation not . a moral misunderstands the character of the phenomena it seeks to explain. The Reformation began, indeed, Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 169 with a moral movement,1 exhibited in a mystic pietism opposed in its own nature to doctrinal limitations. Its subsequent phases are well known ; and the difference in the prevailing moral sentiment, before and after this vast doctrinal revolution, is too marked to be ignored or attributed to any but its true causes. How completely varied were the Nor can moral forces introduced by the doctrines of Chris- of Chris tianity is evident from the difficulty and slowness thus Ix- e with which its standard of duty asserted itself, pai '" failing in many parts of the world to become fairly established, even when the recognition of some of its abstract dogmas gave a show of power and pre dominance to its position.2 It is thus no valid though *- dependent objection to urge against the truth or importance in its Pr°- ...... gress on of Christianity that in its operation it has been ethical constantly limited by ethical conditions. So was it in the East with the false, subtle, contentious natures of the Greek and Asiatic.3 Religion in 1 For the moral effects of the doctrinal principles of the Eeformation, see Ullmann (Vol. I. p. 10, E. T.), Martensen, Christian Dogmatics, p. 26, E. T., and on the transition from the moral to the doctrinal movement, Gieseler, V. 216, E. T. On the relation of the Mystics to the Eeformation compare Milman, Latin Christianity, VI. 379, and particularly Dorner, Person of Christ, Div. IL, Vol. I. p. 377, and Vol. II. sub init, and Hist. Prot. Th., Vol. I. p. 51, E. T. 2 So M. Comte views the Byzantine Church as an example of the impotence of dogma, as such, to rule mankind. It lent itself, he thinks, too much to the side of reason. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., 1. 18, has some excellent remarks on the purely intellectual character of the Christianity of the Oriental Church. 3 Cicero's verdict is well known (De Orat., I. xi.), " verbi enim contro- versia jam diu torquet Grasculos homines contentionis cupidiores quam 170 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. Oriental Christianity was represented mainly by theology and the theological spirit ; it formed no alliance with true morality, and the morals of the tionSfra" time were utterly debased. It was then shown Eastern that a compound made up of asceticism and mys- tianity, ticism may produce a faith unaccompanied and untempered by any infusion of really Christian morality. Insufficient, singly, to counterbalance the want of civilization, or to transmute all con temporary error, had Christianity succeeded in taking full possession of the world with the ele ments which then constituted it, it would but, to veritatis." Hooker, E. P., V. iii. 3, holds the chiefest cause of the chronic state of schism in the Eastern Church " to have lien in the rest less wits of the Grecians, evermore proud of their own curious and subtile inventions : which, when at any time they had contrived, the great facility of their language served them readily to make all things fair and plausible to men's understanding." Hence, Boileau's caustic comment on the "Martyres d'une diphthongue." " Greek Christianity was insatiably inquisitive, speculative ; confident in the inexhaustible copiousness and fine precision of its language, it endured no limitation to its curious investigations." — Milman, Lat. Christ., I. 2. Bacon (on the controversies of the Church) remarks on the heretics who moved curious questions and made strange anatomies of the natures and person of Christ. " Illis temporibus ingeniosa res fuit esse Christianum." Mr. Finlay (Byz. E., p. 262) attributes these controversies to the Greek language rather than to the Hellenic temper. " They had their origin in the more profound religious ideas of the Oriental nations, Syrians, Armenians, Egyptians, Persians." Mr. Proude (Short Stud., p. 98) remarks, " We wonder at the failure of Christianity, at the small pro gress which it has made in comparison with the brilliancy of its rise. But if men had shown as much fanaticism in carrying into practice the Sermon on the Mount as in disputing the least of the thousand dogmatic definitions which have superseded the Gospel, we should not now be lamenting with Father Newman that ' God's control over the world is so indirect and His action so obscure.' " See Mr. Buckle, Hist Civ II. 303. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 171 use the words of Montalembert, have reproduced a kind of Christian China.1 So was it in the West from the when, after centuries of power, Paganism was tions of the found to have corrupted its teacher with the church. taint of an inbred superstition. The fact was no new one ; it had been already observed and com mented on in the days of Augustine.2 " It was in vain that Christianity had taught a simple doctrine and enjoined a simple worship. The minds of men were too backward for so great a step, and required more complicated forms and a more com plicated belief." 3 This has been remarked, I am aware, to the disparagement of the efficacy of the faith of Christ. It proves, at least, that Chris- The pro- i i i • • it gress of tianity was not dependent on the existing standard chris- of morals for its advance. How, in such case, to "he were the changes, effected plainly through its nature^ means in the absence of knowledge and culture, to lionsj6 *~ be accounted for ? Further, its morality however estimated, was its own, and its type of character 1 Monks of the West, I. 275, Eng. Tr. 2 August, c. Faustum, XX. c. iv. " Sacrificia eorum vertistis in agapes : idola in Martyres, quos votis similibus colitis : defunctorum umbras vino placatis et dapibus: solemnes Gentium dies cum ipsi celebratis, ut Kalendas et solstitia, de vita certe mutastis nihil." On the reaction of Paganism on Christianity in the fourth and fifth centuries, see Beugnot, Histoire de la destruction du Paganisme, II. 92, and Merivale, N. Nations, pp. 57-74. 3 Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 259. Prof. Tyndall writes (Cont. Rev., XX. 766), " Christianity varies with the nature upon which it falls. The faith that simply adds to the folly and ferocity of one, is turned to enduring sweetness, holiness, abounding charity, and self-sacrifice by another." 172 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. tion, was an advance upon the highest level of heathenism. It presents a difference not of de- whichwere gree merely, but of kind.1 But Religion, if as- in advance ° n-i-.ii- of the ex- sumed to be the product of Revelation, may very dviifza- well be, and, in fact, must be, in advance of existing civilization. It was so when the Hebrews accepted monotheism, whether this be or be not a Semitic tenet. It was so when the Jews rejected the teaching of the Gospel. It has been so in the and of development of Gentile Christianity. But the actual r _ J practice. fact 0f the distance between its ideal and the actual, between its code of action and existing practice, between Christianity in the abstract and as displayed in history, " that rich treasury of man's dishonour ; " between the lives of men and the spirit of the Gospel;2 this difference must surely be allowed for under any system. It is the consciousness of this anomaly in the in- 1 " Nothing," says Mr. Lecky, " can, as I conceive, be more erroneous or superficial than the reasonings of those who maintain that the moral element of Christianity has in it nothing distinctive or peculiar." — Hist. Rat., I. 338. See this subject continued in II. 110. 2 " Quid si tale quiddam est vera religio ? Quid si multitudo imperi- torum frequentat ecclesias, sed nullum argumentum est ideo neminem illis mysteriis factum esse perfectum ?" — August, de Util. Cred., c. vii. M. Guizot, while depicting the moral aspect of the Middle Ages, remarks finally : " A certain moral idea hovers over this rude, tem pestuous society, and attracts the regard, obtains the respect of men whose life scarcely ever reflects its image. Christianity must doubtless be ranked among the number of the principal causes of this fact. Its precise characteristic is to inspire men with a great moral ambition, to hold constantly before their eyes a type infinitely superior to human reality and to excite them to reproduce it." — Civ. en France, III. 115, ed. Bohn. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 173 dividual which forms the stimulus of all earnest souls. "As a matter of fact, Christianity has probably done more to quicken the affections of mankind, to promote pity, to create a pure and merciful ideal than any other influence that has ever acted on the world." 1 And yet the Inquisi- Hence 0 i . apparent tion named itself with the name of Christ. Prin- historical contradic- ciples must ever be of more general account than tions actions. The first value of the Christian, as of any, religion is in the loftiness and purity of its standard ; its secondary worth is in the degree in which this operates.2 Hence, the fallacy of an appeal to periods when the apparent zeal in the diffusion of religion is greater and the moral re- and dis- sults less,3 as proof of its general inadequacy to reactions. impart moral truth in any effective degree. If the religion itself be corrupted, its results, in point of moral effect, must needs suffer in proportion, and this in amount corresponding to the power which it wields. Thus, if the Middle Ages be state of cited as an instance of the smallness of moral vTderS results obtained with a large and prevailing pro- catholf- fession of religion,4 it may be replied, without clsm' 1 Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 358. . 2 Condorcet, QSuvres, VI. 234, quoted by Mr. Morley, remarks that the religion of books and that of the people may so differ that the effects absolutely cease to answer to the public and recognized causes. This is not allowing enough for an average practical influence, which may be compared to the tenor of administration in politics. 3 Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 191. * See Dr. Mozley's remarks, Bamp. Led., p. 115. Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., II. 32, does justice to the services of Medieval Catholicism. In 174 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. admitting the fact supposed, that it is, on the other hand, the glory of Protestantism to have effected so large an improvement and so marked an impulse with straitened means and slender resources. For it has certainly reacted on the moral code and average practice of the rival creed. Thus, the tacit moral force of Religion, even in sceptical periods, may be unexpectedly corrup- large.1 Religion, and this is specially true of the ligion cor- Christian religion, ever answers to a personal want respondent . . . .' to moral in the individual man. Its needect and deerrada- declen- . f & sions. tion have accordingly constantly accompanied the want of culture in the general development of the age. Positivist § 5. It has, indeed, been argued2 that History does objection J that mo- not prove that society owes its moral condition to rality has . x . ^ improved, its religion. If, indeed, but only if, religion were while i.i • christia- the single moral restraint on a community, would nity has , in • ¦ declined, the morals of an age, it is insisted, be according to its prevalence higher or lower. But the theological principle, urges the Positivist, has since the Middle Ages been on the decline. It has succumbed to the this view he follows Comte (Phil. Pos., V. 233), Mill, Littrd, and other leading thinkers. Gibbon (VII. 60, ed. Milman) enlarges on the moral progress effected by Protestantism. 1 Thus Dean Stanley, Essays, p. 465, remarks that " the religious spirit of the time has deeply penetrated those who doubt, misbelieve, and disbelieve. The change is so great that looking at realities, and not at names, we might call the present posture of philosophers, of Jews, of sceptics towards Christianity almost a conversion." 2 See M. Littrf (Aug. Comte, p. 217). Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 175 opposition of science, to the strength of industrial development, and to the secularization of govern ments, substituting a different principle to the ex clusion of religious interests. Yet morality has improved. There is more humanity in war, more religious toleration ; torture has been abolished, social burdens equalized, poverty relieved and ameliorated. But the facts may be admitted Proceeds * on a false without the inference. Religion now is better inference. understood as to its true work and office. Sur rendering ill-advised claims, its real influence is strengthened and deepened. And can it be said The power 11-1 of Chris- that any point of morality now reached m theory tianity has or practice is counter to the teachings of the come Gospel? That our own is an age of faith or of te effects" scepticism, of operative or inoperative belief, may opinion.10 be matter of opinion ; 1 that its moral qualities are independent of its faith, and public opinion of reli gious belief, would be certainly difficult of proof. -< § 6. The attempt often made from the days of objection Origen2 to Tindal and Bolingbroke to prove that tianity "s' Christianity, containing no new moral truth, can new' 'moral truth. 1 It has been said to be "destitute of faith, but terrified at scepticism." See Mr. Mill, Liberty, c. ii. 2 c. Celsum, I. iv., VII. xxviii., Iviii., Ixi. Compare Mackay, Rise and Progress of Christianity, pp. 21, 22, and Rel Devel, II. 376-7. M. Eenan, Etudes, p. 188. Mr. Farrar, Witness of History to Christ pp. 135, 137, has touched this subject with his usual spirit and ability. Saisset, Essais, details as strictly Christian conceptions the universality of the love of God and universal fraternity. These ideas, though latent in human nature, are evoked by Christian civilization. 176 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. Untrue. Instances of the fact. exercise no distinct moral effect, is now again re vived. And doubtless if the whole moral furniture of our being is contained in a few short precepts, "to do good to others, to sacrifice for their benefit your own wishes, to love your neighbour as your self, to forgive your enemies, to restrain your pas sions, to honour your parents, to respect those who are set over you ; " if this be all (as Mr. Buckle alleges),1 there might not remain much to be said as to the originality of Christian morals. Though some even of these duties, it must be allowed, were but imperfectly known and badly understood before the preaching of the Gospel. Christianity, it might be shown, has added largely to the very vocabulary of morals. Its notion of holiness, not to speak of repentance, is a new and previously unrealized con ception, the illimitable character of which gua rantees its permanence. It may not be difficult2 to cull from individual moralists of Greece and Rome, or of East and West, fragments of Christian 1 Hist. Civ., I. 180. Paley, on the other hand, after asserting that " morality, neither in the Gospel nor any other book, can be a subject of discovery, properly so called," proceeds to show how far the morality of the Gospel is above that of its age and antecedents, and not to be accounted for apart from the pretensions of the religion. — Evid., II. ii. 2 See M. Denis, Histoire des Theories et Idies morales dans I'anti- quite, I. 104 ; Wollaston's laborious Religion of Nature, &c. Mr. Lecky, H. E. M., I. 161, complains of the appropriation of heathen ideas by Christian moralists. Augustine, Doct. Christ., II. xl.-xlii., gracefully acknowledges the debt, and fancifully compares it to spoiling the Egyptians. " Nonne adspicimus, quanto auro et argento et veste suffarcinatus exierit de iEgypto Cyprianus doctor suavissimus, quanto Lactantius," &c. Comp. Lactant., Div. Inst., VII. vii. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 177 duties — to find in Plato the recognition of repent- Eclectic 0 . L attempt to ance and devotion towards God, forgiveness of in- compose x-ix .the mo- JUneS, or the portraiture ot a celestial love ; in raiity of Cicero the teaching of universal charity, benevo lence, and brotherhood. It may even be easy to exhibit under the garb of moral realizations the saving truths of faith ; to see in the salvation offered by Jesus the a-rro^vyr) Ka/cwv,' the effort to be as wise and good as is possible to man, contem plated by the heathen Socrates ; to find in his utter ance that the gods will give such things as are good, for they know what is best for man, the key note of Christian prayer ; to recognize in the en durance of the martyr the independence of the Stoic mind, with its larger virtue of patriotism ; in Christian meekness and resignation towards God a true philosophic constancy and courage ; to explain the success of Christ's Religion as " a reaction from effete forms of thought to fresh convictions of con science," grappling with external calamity by in dependent resources of soul. This is easy, because, after all, Christianity must have a moral side, and ground itself in human sentiment, and here, accord ingly, comes into competition with purely moral systems. Such a view, however, omits to re- Christian ... . morality member that Christianity founds moral practice based on its doc trines. 1 See Plato, Phosd. 107, c, Xen. Mem. I. iii. 2, &c. On the relation of Platonism to Christianity, comp. Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, I. 328, who justly thinks it to be negative rather than positive. N 178 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. upon doctrinal beliefs,1 thus procuring new sanc tions and originating fresh ideas within the scope of morals. It thus supplied a pure morality by means of dogma before such was recognized through the medium of ethical science. Nor have its dogmas receded before the advance of scientific morality. The moral progress of modern Europe, while it has found nothing discordant in the type of Evangelical character, has tended to confirm the distinctive tenets of the Gospel.2 Chris- § 7. A more thorough and searching examina- tianity in- . . troduced tion has sufficiently demonstrated the advance moral towards a purer and higher type of character made under the auspices of Christian doctrine, and as a consequence of it, in the absolute em bodiment of Divine love which it proposes to all ages for imitation in endless variety. While 1 Mr. Lecky, H. Rat., I. 335-6, considers that dogmatic systems serve only to supply suitable motives of action in the absence of a moral philosophy. Its formation, he thinks, is the first step in the decadence of religions. This is true to this extent, that the most elementary forms of religion seem to afford little trace of ethics (compare Tylor, Hist. Prim. Cult., I. 386). On the other hand, ethics may, as in Confucian ism, overpower and extinguish the religious element. " To give oneself earnestly to the duties due to men, and while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom," this was the maxim and practice of its founder. — See Legge, II. 130, 319. But it has been truly said that so-called natural religion, the apotheosis of moral abstractions, exists only in books. Eeligions which have vital force and influence, are positive religions, i. e. they make for themselves a Church and rites and dogmas. 2 The course of attacks on Christianity from this side has been, first, to separate theology from morals, which, as having a scientific basis, has had some share of success ; next, to supersede religion by morality, a much less hopeful undertaking. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 179 doing justice to pre-Christian ideas,1 to the aims of Stoical and Platonic ethics, and to the practice of an Aurehus and a Julian " lending a passing dignity to the dishonoured purple," it has yet shown how poor was the substitute they contem plated for a faith which appealed courageously, but also triumphantly, to the masses, and was the creed alike of the slave and of the sage. It is often thought enough to remark that Paganism was doomed before Christianity appeared. But II s"c: *' -1 x ceeded why, if this be so, did Christianity alone succeed, from its alone survive of all the sects and schools which perfority. competed for the mastery of mankind ? Why not simple monotheism, or some abstract form of thought ? " Christianity grew," it has been said,2 " because it could best make good the blank left by the discredit of the old religions, by the despondency, incredulity, and disgust which made room for it." True ; and these were the first results which convinced the world and converted it. It was found to contain all essential verities.3 The fundamental ideas of Natural Religion con- Causes of this supe- 1 See at length Mr. Lecky, H. E. M., 1. 180, 190, 363. " Of the sects nonty" of ancient philosophy the Stoic is perhaps the nearest to Christianity. Yet even to this sect Christianity is fundamentally opposite." 2 Mackay, Rise and Progress of Christianity, p. 163. See Neander's reflections at the opening of his history, I. p. 3, and Dean Merivale's Lectures, p. xi. " Christianity, in fact, was not simply the resource of a dissatisfied philosophy : it was not accepted as the only refuge from the blank negation of a creed. It was the tried and approved of several claimants to the sovereignty of the religious instincts among men." 3 Compare Saisset, Essais, p. 299. N 2 i8o OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. In what manner a result of the age in which it appeared. to Chris tian mo rality as defective. fessedly belong to it. It inherited all that is true in earlier theologies and systems of philosophy;1 the unity, the personality, the independence, the energy, the love of the Divine Nature; the grandeur, the littleness, the strength, the weak ness, the dignity, the responsibility of man. No philosophical mind would desire to deny the obli gations of Christianity to foregoing systems among which it assumes its due and ordered rank;2 or that its teaching is in a sense progressive, the outcome and result of time. Jewish prophecy and heathen philosophy had in different ways prepared for its reception. Christ came to fulfil the Law and the Prophets ; the Law of Moses, it is true ; but no less the Law of Nature, and of Gentile morality in its highest and purest conceptions. For these, Jewish Prophecy no less prepared a way, and often antedated their spirit.3 "§ 8. A bold attempt has been sometimes made 1 Compare Prof. Jowett (S. Paul's Epistles, II, 204). " The pecu liarity of the Gospel is not that it teaches what is wholly new, but that it draws out of the treasure house of the human heart things new and old, gathering together into one the dispersed fragments of the truth." Of course it is not intended to represent Christianity as a mere system of eclecticism. 2 Compare Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 349. 3 " Christianity," remarks Neander profoundly, " is the end to which all development of the religious consciousness must tend, and of whioh, therefore, it cannot do otherwise than offer a prophetic testimony. Thus there dwells an element of prophecy, not merely in revealed religion, unfolding itself beneath the fostering care of the Divine Vin tager (John xv.) as it struggles onwards from Judaism to its com plete disclosure in Christianity, but also in religion, as it grows wild on the soil of Paganism, which by nature must strive unconsciously to Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 181 to disparage the truth of Christianity, by charging upon it the inculcation of defective morality, even in the person of its Founder;1 sometimes of im moral developments, sometimes of ethical rules untrue without requisite limitations, and impos sible in practice.2 Such accusations may on the whole be left to balance one another, as when it fr^°0n" is said by one school that the religion of Christ has never sufficiently encouraged the culture of the intellect, and by another that it gives a factitious and disproportionate influence to what are called " the higher parts " of human nature. If the Altruism of the Positivist be deemed an the same end." — Ch. Hist., I. 240, ed. Clark. Comp. Merivale, Lect., p. 70. " The law is the teaching of the human conscience generally, whether enlightened by a revelation, or any other less special illumina tion from above ; by the habits and ideas of human society," &c. 1 See Strauss, New Life of Jesus Christ, I. 438 ; and Mr. F. Newman on the Defective Morality of the New Test. " The character of Christ," said Paley, finely and truly, " is a part of the morality of the Gospel." 2 Thus M. Comte regards the Lutheran preference of Faith to Works, and the Calvinistic doctrine of Predestination, as strictly immoral in their tendency. Phil. Pos.,Y. 685. Shaftesbury (Works, I. 98) charges on Christianity the omission of the heroic virtues : of patriotism and public spirit, and of private friendship. Yet Christ Himself wept over His country. Cf. also Kom. ix. 3, 4. Mr. Lecky, H. Rat., II. 113 (see also H. E. M., II. 149), observes, " that Christianity triumphed only hy transforming itself under the influence of the spirit of sect." This means that it transferred men's allegiance from their country to the Church. I do not think this is properly chargeable on the principles of the religion. Yet, if true, it would only be substituting a much larger area of patriotism, and one which coincides with a large advance in civilization. The practice of the early Church (" Nec ulla res aliena magis quam publica," Tert. Apol. c. xxxviii., and see Origen, c. Cels., VIII. ii.), in this matter furnishes no proper estimate of the intentions of the religion. 1 82 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV Unpracti- improvement on the morality of the Gospel in living for others without the limitation of loving our neighbour only as ourselves, it seems not unreasonable to require that this level should first be reached.1 Total annihilation of self, at best an impracticable dream, was far from the thought of Him who " knew what is in man." But Chris tianity has been charged with other more practical Further failures. Indifferent and injurious to secular pro- objections i-i -ii n from the gress, to material welfare and industrial develop- cinis- ment (" infructuosi in negotiis dicimur"), it has been taxed with the custom of religious wars, of persecution for opinion, with the institution of torture, with doctrines pernicious to sound morals, such as absolution, indulgences, the placing cere monial observance before natural duty, the repro bation of good actions wrought without the pale of the Church, and a benevolence, however well- meaning, yet economically mistaken. It has been blamed for errors in practice fraught with social misery and mischief, yet consequent on Scriptural, or at the least ecclesiastical, doctrine.2 So . also for shortcomings in the enforcement of moral 1 There are, indeed, some good remarks on this point in Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 553, V. 434. Compare Prof. Goldwin Smith, Study of Hist., p. 3, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, Study of Sociology, Cont. Rev., XXI. 318-321. 2 Compare Condorcet, as quoted by Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 423. Such are the medieval view of the sinfulness of usury, the treatment of witchcraft, the wager of battle, the institution of Monasticism, &c. See Mr. Farrar's remarks (Witness of Hist, to Christ), Lecture V. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 183 laws, with an inability, for example, to suppress warfare, to prevent or redress social injustice and economic errors. The importance of such charges Their im- ,. i . -. . . . -, -1 portance. lies not only m their imputation on the moral esti mate of Christianity, but still more on its value as an instrument in civilization, and as consequently a permanent agent in human progress. Nor can it be denied that the evils in question are in some Such re sort the results of the teaching of Christian ideas, notcharge- Unless, however, it can be shown that they are principles the logical consequents of such ideas, their natural religion. fruit and reasonable issue, so that each can be referred to the doctrine on which it rests, forming part of the actual message of Christianity, no vital blow has so far been struck on the armour of Case of religious Christian defence. Religious wars were certainly wars. not unknown to other times and other systems. All may, perhaps, be more correctly attributed to a political or defensive origin,1 or to a survival of Paganism, wherein " the kingdom of Heaven suffered violence," and " the violent took it by force." The political effect of a common faith is to react hostilely upon foreign creeds. Persecu- Persecu- 1 T 1 • T ''0n f°r tion for belief, whatever immediate motive is belief. assigned to it, was practised by Pagan rulers in 1 The wars of Charlemagne may be cited in this respect : the Crusades were actually defensive. See Comte, Phil Pos., V. 404. Compare Paley's remarks on some supposed effects of Christianity (Evid., II. vii.). The religions of Greece and of Borne, so far forth as State institutions, involved penal consequences and even death. See Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, I. 243-5. 1 84 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV pre-Christian times. Yet it may be admitted that both the evils complained of, the custom of war fare on the score of religion, and of persecution for erroneous belief, flow to some extent from the nature of the case, and are due to the action of historical Christianity.1 Partly, indeed, they were based on a false analogy of Christian duty with the Levitical code. But there is probably a necessary tendency in all dogmatic teaching to condemn error in opinion as a duty, and that too more strongly than immorality itself. Toleration even now is not uncommonly held to involve or imply scepticism. Prior to experience, it is expected that compulsion can procure uniformity ,• 2 and the golden rule is forgotten, "Religionis non est religionem cogere." The outward confession of faith is not readily distinguished from a saving implicit belief; and in the confusion compulsion is enlisted on the side of a mistaken humanity, Avhether for the victim or the survivor;3 but, 1 The judicial murder of Priscillian dates a.d. 3t'6. It was con demned by Ambrose and Martin of Tours, though not by Leo. The early Christian apologists naturally express themselves on the side of toleration. Lactantius, but fifty years before the death of Priscillian, and himself a resident at Treves, thus writes : " Beligio cogi non potest ; verbis potius quam verberibus res agenda est ut sit voluntas. Nihil est tarn volun tarium quam religio." — Div. Inst., V. xx. 2 And so indeed, in fact, it has succeeded in doing : but only after the manner of those who, in the words of Tacitus, " solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant." 3 See Mr. Lecky's remarks, Hist. Rat., II. 11, Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 420, on the inevitable tendency, if not the moral compulsion, to proselytism which underlies an assumed possession of truth. See Dean Hook, Lives of Archb.,'8. S., I. 7-9. Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 185 however present to the eye of the Founder of^6^1^ our religion as a result of the leaven wherewith He leavened the Church and the world, can this fact be properly urged against His teaching as a fault or a crime ? Rather it is the consequence of its historical development, of the tardy course of human affairs,1 and, philosophically considered, of the imperfection and limitation of the creature. By the union and identification of the Church and Course of • events. Empire, orthodoxy became an Imperial interest, and persecution for opinion was rendered not only possible, but politically incumbent. It is not, then, the words of Christ,2 which are answerable for the teaching of a duty of persecution. God forbid. But rather the supremacy, in the State, of the Church. Heresy and schism, as ecclesiastical offences, were put on the same footing with rebellion as a civil crime.3 < § 9. But, it may still be said, these evils are The his- chargeable on Christianity as a system, as an his- suits of torical fact ; they have followed in its train. And, tianity, no no doubt, it is not intended to clear the Religion of m°xed character/ 1 " For fifteen hundred years after the establishment of the Christian religion it was intellectually and morally impossible that any religion that was not material and superstitious could have reigned over Europe." —Lecky, H. R., II. 227. 2 "Compel them to come in." See Bayle's famous treatise (Contrains- les d'entrer), and Ffoulkes' Div. Christ., pp. 91-2. 3 There is a remarkable defence in Dr. Draper's Hist, of the Intellec tual Devel. in Europe (I. 134) of the medieval policy of repression, grounded on a supposed foresight of the fearful consequences of the intellect of a people outgrowing their religious formula;. 1 86 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. Christ of all its attendant effects, as though the brightest light never cast a shadow. The innocent blood shed by the Churches of East and West is the price paid for the enforcement of dogmas otherwise fraught with good. It is enough to weigh in the balance the acknowledged services of Christianity The evils against its confessed ills ; and more especially to herent in examine whether such evils are properly inherent tlie system • ' m its frame.1 If not, they need not, it is clear, over cloud its future. As a matter of fact we have already outlived them. The opinions to which they are due, are now admitted to be elements and foreign to the nature of our Religion, antagonistic transient. . . . . .... ° to its inner lite and spirit, and inconsistent with its central ideas.2 Thus a real distinction has always Due to to be drawn between faulty inferences or erroneous Scriptural .. . n n • misinter- applications of Scriptural language to the subjects of morals, policy, and science, and the actual and eternal teaching of the Bible. The very tendency manifest in the general history of nations to em ploy religion, outside of its central scheme, as a political engine in matters of social law and civil government, has led to this result. Of this cha- instances. racter3 are the notions of usury being immoral, of 1 " Le Christianisme a e"te intolerant : mais l'intolerance n'est pas un fait essentiellement chretien." — Benan, Vie de Jesus- Christ, p. 412. 2 See some good remarks on this subject in the Christian Remem brancer, No. CXXXI., p. 232. 3 For the political economy of Christianity, as not being incompatible with historical progress, see Goldwin Smith (Led., p. 39). Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 187 the production of wealth being condemned, of a community of goods, of one absolute, universal form of political government, of the unlawfulness of military defence. Political and economic errors have on these subjects shielded themselves with the authority of Inspiration, and, by rendering scien tific progress impossible, have risked the perma nence of Christianity itself. But with the advance of knowledge and free inquiry this confusion has been long on the wane. Salmasius,1 for example, wrote successfully to correct the medieval idea that the Bible condemns usury, and Protestantism found no difficulty in receiving the correction. The true embarrassment lay in the claims of Roman Catholic tradition. Some errors might more properly be And to ... premature regarded as anticipations of truth. Thus primitive m™- /-ii • • • P i . . . ments. Christianity found m a transient communism a natural expression of new-born love and zeal. It never sought to erect a doctrine, inimical to all eco- 1 See Mr. Lecky, //. Rat., II. 290, who has pursued the whole inquiry with his usual vigour and in a fair spirit. Mr. Buckle (I. 283) on the contrary declaims, with heat, against " the ignorant interference of Christian rulers," forgetting that other religions have at least made the same mistakes. Thus the Mahometan law prohibits interest alto gether, with the natural result. See Wealth of Nations, Bk. I. c. ix. 2 Besting mainly on Luke xii. 33. The rhetorical statement of Tertullian is well known (Apol, xxxix.) : " Omnia indiscreta sunt apud nos praater uxores." Clement of Alexandria, in his treatise Quis dives salvetur, rejects the notion of communism. See also Strom., III. 449, and Augustine, Hoer., c. xl. In Enarr. in Ps. 124, § 2, he rebukes the opinion that " non debuit Deus facere pauperes : sed soli divites esse debuerunt." On the view of Ambrose as to the right of property in land (de Off. Minist., I. xxviii., and Serm. 8 in Ps. 118, § 22), see Schmidt, Essai, p. 259 ; also Champagny, Charite Chretienne. 1 88 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. nomical progress into a normal condition of society. " Whenever a great religious movement," it has been truly said, " has taken place in history, the spirit of humanity has beaten in this way against its earthly bars, and struggled to realize at once that which cannot be realized within any calculable time, if it is destined ever to be realized here." 1 charges of Rio. The charge of feebleness and inutility is. feebleness o o ^ and inu- indeed, of a wholly different kind ; and will be variously estimated by different persons according to the measure of their previous expectation of the working of Christianity. But it must be borne Too in mind that we are no judges of its possible or of its proper operation ; 2 of the relations or course of affairs which make up the government of the world. Nor can Christianity be fairly accused of failure in these respects, unless indeed Should be the result has not answered to its own predictions. tested by . . . its own But this lt is not attempted to show. Thus the predictions of itself, continuance ot wars among mankind has been deemed in some quarters a strong objection to 1 Prof. Goldwin Smith, «. s., p. 41. 2 For Bishop Butler's canon is no less true than stern : " Objections against Christianity, as distinguished from objections against its evidence, are frivolous." — Anal, II. iii. For if the natural and moral government of God be a scheme but imperfectly comprehensible, how much more so is the course of revealed religion. " When wo argue," says Paley, " concerning Christianity, that it must necessarily be true because it is beneficial, we go, perhaps, too far on one side ; and we certainly go too far on the other when we conclude that it must be false because it is not so efficacious as we could have supposed." — Evid., II. vi. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 189 the usefulness and credit of Christianity.1 But such objectors fail to perceive that the continued existence of warfare is a result of man's moral nature remaining unchanged, and this perhaps by an express provision of nature, wars being a main element in the course of rudimentary civilization at the least. No doubt, it is the work of the Religion These are r m • i • i 1 • i t i 'n course of Christ to bring about this change. It does sooffuini- by substituting larger and unselfish sympathies ; by reducing the theory of war to a defensive in stead of an offensive basis.2 But His kingdom upon the earth in the hearts and spirits of men, though universal, was to be created slowly by suasion, not by miracle.3 There is no engagement on its part to abolish selfishness, passion, sin, speedily or throughout. By slow advances in individual sancti fication a higher level was to be reached of moral type, of peacefulness and love. The present com- increased parative rarity of war in respect of former ages is wars. admitted. Little by little, it may be hoped, this scourge is retreating before the march of civili zation. Trade, law, diplomacy, literature, political 1 See Mr. Buckle, Hist. Civ., 1. 191. Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., II. 384, arguing from a general immemorial union between the sacerdotal and the military spirit, infers that no theological agencies are pacific. This is hardly convincing. See also II. E. M., II. 269. 2 See Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 82. Mr. Freeman (Norman Cong., I. 33) observes, " the evangelical precepts of peace and love did not put an end to war ; they did not put an end to aggressive conquests, but they distinctly humanized the way in which war was carried on." 3 Compare Dr. Mozley, Bamp. Led., p. 17 : " We can, indeed, in imagination conceive," &c. 190 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. science, even the invention of fire-arms and im proved means of locomotion, have been assigned a duTj" sllare in tnis momentous change.1 But has the influence re%i°us sentiment been altogether without part in it ; and among other elements is no effect to be attributed to the spread of a purer Christianity ? An under-current of humiliation mixes now with the Te Deums of victory ; and ministers of mercy claim their place in the ranks of contending armies. A growing sense of the folly of war may be due to advancing culture ; a conviction of its wickedness can only spring from a Religion whose mission upon earth is " peace, good will toward men." Relations '§11. We have been led more than once in our between science preceding remarks to the confines of a subject and Chris- , . , . . . tianity. which, in our review of objections to the progress and permanence of Christianity, is the last await ing examination; I mean, the relations between Science and Religion ; their distinctive position and whether respective consummation. Is this peace or war ? formidable L to the per- Is a modus vivendi practicable between them ? manence of our Or do they necessarily and eternally conflict ? As religion. J darkness flees at the approach of dawn, must one pale before the other's rising beams; and is this the fate reserved for the time-honoured claims 1 See Buckle, u. s., I. 203, 224. Christian efforts in this direction, put forth in the darkest and most violent ages, even where unsuc cessful, should not be disparaged. Such were the " Peace of God," the " Truce of God " (the former having the wider scope), and the like. See Gieseler, II. 447. Robertson, Church Hist, II. 504-5 ; also Lecky, Hist. Rat., II. 115. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 191 of Religion, as hitherto understood ; and in espe cial for the faith of Jesus Christ, under the full light and fierce heat of a noontide civilization ? Some, it is true, still hold that a real conflict in the view n ¦ i t» 1 ¦ • • c0^ somei between Science and Religion is m the nature of no real • -ii n-r i conflict things unlikely or impossible. " Not only are the between two heterogeneous ; l but the results of Science, whether physical or human, are part of the data which it is the function of Religion to co-ordinate." " The time is approaching," says a careful and impartial writer,2 "when it will be generally perceived that, so far from Science being opposed to Religion, true Religion without Science is im possible. And if we consider the various aspects of Christianity as understood by different nations, we can hardly fail to perceive that the dignity, and therefore the truth, of their religious beliefs is in direct relation to the knowledge of Science and of the great physical laws by which our universe is governed." "The natural works of God," wrote Faraday,3 "can never by any possi bility come in contradiction with the higher things which belong to our future existence ... I do not think it at all necessary to tie the study of the Natural Sciences and Religion together." On the other hand, a multitude of reasons have Opposite been adduced to weaken this position. "Ofallanta- 1 Prof. Westcott, Cont. Rev., VIII. 377. ' Sir J. Lubbock, Orig. Civ., p. 256. ' Life, II. 196. 192 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. gonisms of belief," says Mr. Herbert Spencer,1 "the oldest, the widest, the most profound, and the most important, is that between Religion and Science. It commenced when the recognition of the simplest uniformities in surrounding things set a limit to the previously universal fetishism. It shows itself everywhere throughout the domain of human know ledge, affecting man's interpretations alike of the simplest mechanical accidents and of the most com plicated events in the histories of nations. It has its roots deep down in the diverse habits of thought Appeals to 0f different orders of minds."2 Then the tests of experi ence, history and experience, it is said, prove the uniform undeviating growth of knowledge, and a corre sponding decline in the power and spread of Re ligion. This, indeed, is a matter of fact, and, as such, admits a direct reply. But next, it is added, there are circumstances to explain this alleged re- Grounds suit. All advance is intellectual ; Religion is of its opinion, own nature stationary, conservative, reactionary. This is the very moral of the history of Persecution 1 First Principles, p. 12. 2 Prof. Huxley takes up different ground: " The present antagonism between theology and science does not arise from any assumption by the men of science that all theology must necessarily be excluded from science ; but simply because they are unable to allow that reason and morality have two weights and two measures ; and that the belief in a proposition because authority tells you it is true, or because you wish to believe it, which is a high crime and misdemeanor when the subject-matter of reason is of one kind, becomes, under the alias of ' faith,' the greatest of all virtues when the subject-matter of reason is. of another kind."— Cont. Rev., XVIII. 457. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 193 for belief. Again, Revelation is incompatible not only with the claims of Reason, but with the results of Science. The advance of knowledge undermines the bases of religious beliefs by impairing the states of mind on which they repose, and the needs for which they exist. By explaining phenomena, by reducing them to universal invariable expressions, by substituting continued for free agency, most existing religions, all in fact but a religion of Nature, if such really exists, are merged in the scale of superstitions unworthy of scientific accept ance. For the sphere of Knowledge is held to be positive ; the real is bounded by the realm of sen sation ; all beyond is chimerical, is vain. Wonder recedes as the antecedents of all phenomena become known ; and with wonder fear, and with fear rever ence, and with reverence adoration, and with ado ration the caput mortuum of religious belief. § 1 2. Not to admit a fact is, of course, to disallow The truth the reasons by which it is sought to be explained, view If Religion (I speak more particularly of the Faith of Jesus Christ) exhibits no decline, it may be held unnecessary to dispute the alleged conditions of such a catastrophe. It may be well, notwithstand ing, to encounter the particular objections against ; the prospects of Christianity which have been here Reasons brought within view. They affect its past as well ing it m as its future, explaining its successes by other than spiritual antecedents, and denying it a career in the 0 194 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. ultimate advance of mankind. Let us inquire, then, in the first place, whether it be true that in Religion we find the sole branch of human activity which is of a stationary character, ever looking backward, never forward ; bound by the laws of its being to a rigid immobility. What is the conception of its nature which necessitates such inferences respect ing it ? Concep- All Religion, I apprehend, in this view of it, being nature of based on a fundamental Revelation, is assumed to principles announce truths of a final and unique character, this view capable of extension by nothing unless a further revealment, conveyed through a special illumina tion. But such a mode of information is not only beyond and beside, it is in opposition to, the ordi nary means and ways of knowledge. For these are tentative and curious of inquiry ; so that the position of knowledge in respect of an existing standard of belief or duty can never be guaranteed, neither can it even temporarily acquiesce in any foregone con clusion. It is in this way, then, that while Religion is stationary, Science and Thought inherently pro- How far gress. -In reply it may be admitted that a truth of admissible. _ - . . Revelation is not homogeneous with the conclusions of research, experiment, or reason.1 It is accepted Distinct on other and particular grounds ; accordingly its religious sphere of relation is special also. Its kingdom is not of this world. It deals not with that which Compare Dr. J. H. Newman, Essay on Devel., c. iii. § 5. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 195 constitutes the real limit of positive knowledge, the present physical condition of the universe ; it carries us on to that region of the unseen or super natural1 upon which Nature everywhere borders and rests. The phenomena which it explains point to a future stage of being, with which alone it is properly occupied. Its home is in the spirit of man, his conscience, the higher reason and will. " The natural man receiveth not the things of the spirit of God, for they are foolishness unto him ; neither can he know them, because they are spiritually dis cerned."2 The beliefs which these inspire are no affirmations of the intellect only — no products of the logical faculty. Its dry light has here no place or room. They address themselves to the spirit in why C3.11CC1 man, and by a living act of that spirit they are spiritual. apprehended and appropriated. Psychologically they are instances of that indefinite consciousness which, as has been well said, " cannot be formu lated." They are thoughts which, " though im- Their psy- J ° . chological possible to complete, are real, being normal affec- character tions of the mind."3 Nor is there anything on this side of man's nature which is truly reactionary in its relation to mundane knowledge. Industrial development, for example, has been held to be 1 " In our definitions," says Emerson, " we grope after the spiritual by describing it as invisible. The true meaning of spiritual is real : that law which executes itself, which works without means, and which cannot be conceived as not existing." 2 1 Cor. ii. 14. 3 Herbert Spencer, First Princ, p. 88. 0 2 sive, 196 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. inconsistent with theological beliefs from being in its nature secular, and depending on the fixity of not truly natural laws. But is the earth, we may ask, to be ary less well tilled, its riches straitened, its secrets less amply communicated, because Revelation unfolds the home beyond, where the " wicked cease from troubling and the weary are at rest " ? Surely, as a matter of experience, it is true that " man doth not live by bread alone." The true strength of Religion, then, lies in its allowing all other in tellectual activity to be progressive and indefinite ; aggres- a very "infinite of thought." For itself it claims only a just acquiescence in human testimony for its evidence, and the confluence of the higher instincts with its revelations. It " speaks not in words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth, comparing spiritual things with spiritual." " Thus may we know the things which At what are freely given to us of God." No antagonism, point an- . . . tagonistic then, with the tendencies or results of Science is to to science or natural be feared, but such as renders the existence of a ledge. spiritual element in man unlikely or impossible.1 Around this central fact the battle must be waged of atheism with faith in God, of secularism with theology, of materialism with Christianity. For the rest the discoveries of Science constitute no standing menace to the teachings of Revelation : 1 Compare Prof. Goldwin Smith's noble reflections, Lect. on Study of Hist., p. 46. "Let true science make what discoveries it will, for ex ample, as to the origin of life," &c. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 197 nor needs Religion perish because Knowledge strides onward. They occupy, in fact, distinct spheres, moving in different planes ; nor do they touch each other vitally in one point of their cir cumference. , No doubt, this has not been always, if it be now, understood. There have been eras in Foregone • c rm i conflicts. human progress when the claims of Theology nave been alike extravagant and fatal. There have been martyrs consequently in science no less than for religious belief.1 Rested upon false and foreign pretentions the very truth of Christianity as a whole has been put on its trial, and has been staked upon impossible or insignificant issues. Eppur si muove is the answer to all such disputations. But The,se al- ¦L ready on have not these already, at least in large measure, the de- passed away ? The strange passion for balancing the whole structure of Christian truth on isolated and subsidiary questions has well-nigh burnt itself out ; while those which still remain are yielding to the gentler touch of reason and of time.2 In thus Past n ... 1-1 lessons. speaking, I do not say that it is not good m these latter days to re-read, in some of its portions, the 1 Though, according to Cyprian, " esse martyr non potest qui in Ecclesia, non est." — De Unit. Eccl. Augustine remarked more justly, " Martyrem non facit poena sed causa." 2 Xpovos eipaprjs Beos. — Soph. It is the more to be regretted that here and there some ill-timed pasan of victory on the side of science seeks to fan the decaying embers of theological jealousies. Thus it is proclaimed that " the gradual destruction of the old theology is every where preceded by the growth and diffusion of physical truths." — Buckle, III. 478. "Extinguished theologians," cries another, "lie about the cradle of every science as the strangled snake beside that of 198 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV history of the Church : and by its tempered light, chequered with the fortunes of the past, re-adjust the relations of doctrine to the demands of Science and the warnings of experience. Much in days gone by has been assailed, which now we should be careful to accept. Much has been maintained which now we do not care to defend. Non tali auxilio, non defensoribus istis Tempus eget. The letter of inspiration, the questionable text, the unwarranted reading or rendering, the long-drawn dubious inference, the uncertain voice of tradition, the arrogant ill-founded assumption of the supre macy of authority over reason, of dogma over con science, the little-heeded intruded fallacy, at best the poor fabric of human ingenuity imported into a heaven-sent mystery (for Scriptura non fallit, si se homo non f allat) j1 all these must pass away, and with them the heats and bickerings, the jealousies Spirit of and variance of bygone controversies. For never message, will the work of Christ take root, or the message of His salvation go forward among men, till it is known and felt that "that message is peace, and its effect quietness and assurance for ever." Yet it must be admitted that throughout the past history Hercules." — Huxley, Lay S., p. 305. As a matter of fact what essential portions can be named of Christian orthodoxy which have been surrendered or destroyed ? Some fancied outwork perchance, some moss- grown battlement: but what vital doctrine of the faith or saving truth ? 1 Augustin. de Urbis Excidio, c. ii. Lect. IV] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 199 of the Christian Church, in proportion to the intri cacy, doubtfulness, and transcendental character of the dogma involved, the passions of men have risen highest, their feelings have been the most deeply stirred,1 till error has been magnified into guilt, and difficulty of conviction into reprobation. In The per- ... manence view of the permanence of the Faith which we m- of chris- 1 . . ., tianity as herlt, it is important to remember that, while m no a religion wise committed to the errors of the past, Chris- its past ex- tianity has before it all the promise ofthe future. pei "' A sense of the reality of Christian truth as a spiritual religion, based not so much on logical convictions as on a personal relation of the believer to the " God of the spirits of all flesh," " Who hath spoken unto us by his Son," this it is which is essential to the progress of Christianity among mankind. Hence our safeguard against surrender- vital doc- ...(.... . trines have ing the vital elements of an objective faith in mis- been as- taken consideration for the doubts and difficulties and tested. of a half belief. " He that is not with us, is against us ; and he that gathereth not with Me, scattereth 1 " Divisions in matter of religion," says Hooker, " are hotlier prose cuted and pursued than other strifes, forasmuch as coldness, which in other contentions may be thought to proceed from moderation, is not in these so favourably construed." — Vol. IL, p. 4, ed. Keble. Johnson attributed it to personal uneasiness when our confidence in an opinion which we value is diminished. But Coleridge, with more penetration, has observed that deep feeling has a tendency to combine with obscure ideas; a fact not confined to professed theologians, but exhibited by whole nations.— Friend, 1. 138. Merivale, Conversion of North. Nations, pp. 42, 43, has well shown that " Arianism was but a slightly disguised Paganism : and so no question of a letter," &e. 200 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. abroad," speaks surely an eternal warning. The victories of Christianity have everywhere been the triumphs of a definite faith. It has ever given forth to the world no uncertain sound in its con flicts with Rationalism or with the passions and licence of mankind. The residuum of a religion from which there has been carefully filtered off all special truths and objects of belief, retaining only some few moral generalities, can but issue in some thing very dissimilar to a living historic Chris tianity. To the last, it is true, some differences as to the larger and more intractable problems of man's nature in relation to God and the external world may be expected to remain among Christians Prospects themselves. There can, however, be no question of Chris- _ *¦ tianity in as to the disintegrating effects of time and advanc- favour of . ultimate ing knowledge on the peculiar prepossessions of in dividual schools of thought and belief. There is a tendency arising from the historical antecedents of Protestantism to undervalue that catholicity of belief which must undoubtedly be held to be the normal and ultimate condition of Christianity, answering to those larger speculations on the con tinuity and totality of human history which Science now opens out to view. The corrective to this tendency lies in a truer appreciation ofthe essential Value of spirit of Protestantism.1 Appealing to reason, cipie of without renouncing an authoritative standard, and Protestan- tism. 1 Sec Mr. Ffoulkes' remarks, Divisions of Christendom, p. 195. Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 201 to private judgment fortified by the verdict of historical inquiry, its standing-point fits it expressly for the work of reconcilement between a tradi tional faith and the rationalizing forces of progress. The anarchy of criticism which marks the process its adapta- J . • i i ti lies deeper, and must be traced in a re-animation of the spiritual vigour of Christianity, in a general rehabilitation of its beliefs, and in re-arming it to meet the developments of increased knowledge and 1 See Phil. Pos., V. 354. " L'esprit d'inconsequence," &c. V. 299, 327. He is so prejudiced as to see no difference between Primitive Lutheranism and pure Deism. 2 Macaulay's remarks are well known, Essays, pp. 352, 536 : " During these two hundred and fifty years Protestantism has made no conquests worth speaking of. Nay, we believe that, as far as there has been a change, that change has, on the whole, been in favour of the Church of Borne." So also Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 187, who adds, " Whatever is lost by Catholicism is gained by Bationalism." The same writer, how ever, in another passage makes this important admission, " Protestantism as a dogmatic system makes no converts, but it has shown itself capable of blending with and consecrating the prevailing Bationalism." — lb.,11. 93. Prof. Westcott very justly observes, " However imposing the apparent unity of the religious Ufe of the middle ages may be, it cannot be ques tioned that socially and individually the principles of Christianity are more powerful now than then. We lose the sense of their general action in the variety of forms through which they work."— Cont. Rev., VI. 416. 202 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. IV. advancing civilization. It, at least, has no Syllabus to retract, no Decrees to disannul. Liable, indeed, to an excess of critical bias, its true mean lies in a spirit which, ever ready to give an answer of its faith, still tempers faith with charity, and enlarges to the utmost the bounds of agreement in belief; " made all things to all men," if by any means some may be saved ; seeing it is " the same Spirit of God which worketh all in all." Doubtless there must arise out of the limitation of human nature itself an ultimate boundary even to Christian charity. It seems a duty to " mete the bounds of hate 1 and love ;" and yet As far as may be to carve out Free space for every human doubt That the whole mind may orb about. Practical It seems practically impossible to grasp truth, toleration the truth of sacred things, firmly and yet not >n' jealously ; to be as earnest in the propagation of right belief without asserting its confession to be individually necessary to salvation as with such a creed; to hold fast the convictions of personal assurance, and yet to recognize that to all it is not given " to arrive at the knowledge of the truth." 1 Ps. cxxxix. 21, 22 : " Do not I (should I not) hate them, 0 Lord, that hate Thee ? . . . I hate them with perfect hatred." Dr. Kay in his note on this passage cites Archbishop Trench, " Hatred of evil, purely as evil, is eminently a Christian grace," and Dean Stanley (Lect. on J. Ch., p. 253), " The duty of keeping alive in the human heart the sense of burning indignation against moral evil, against selfishness, against injustice, against untruth, in ourselves as well as in others, — that is as much a part ofthe Christian as of the Jewish dispensation." Lect. IV.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 203 Yet this weakness springs really from a want of faith. ^frin^ Toleration, if it is not to be indifference, must be toleration. grounded on the perception of counter-views as necessarily complementary and tending to establish the ultimate mean of truth. Thus, He who came among men to found "the everlasting Gospel," may be trusted to work with it to its more perfect reception, according to the light and knowledge of the time. Only, let not " the wrath of man " think "to work out the righteousness of God." ^^f of Christianity has survived revolutions of opinion, ness- which, beforehand, might not unjustly have been deemed fatal to it. " It is I : be not afraid," is the lesson eternally stamped on the changes through which it has passed, and which now, if ever, is applicable in an age saturated with the idea of continuous and universal development, " stirring all science to its very depth, and revolu tionizing all historical literature."1 Such a pro spect, in earlier times, may be thought to have offered the only plausible defence of persecution of unbelief. But if so, it is valid no longer. It has Chris tianity a pleased God, by the teachings of experience, to power. " increase our faith." We have learned to believe in the Religion of Jesus Christ, not as an abstract creed, vulnerable in every article ; not as " the law of a carnal commandment," which " decayeth and 1 Lecky, Hist. Rat., I. 283. "Filiation and development," says M. Littre, Les Barbarcs, p. 139, " constitute the essence of history." 204 OBJECTIONS, &c. [Lect. IV. waxeth old;" but as a power,1 regenerative of our race, subtle and continuous as the agencies of nature, "the power of an endless life." Faith is reassured ; we are no longer " ashamed of the Gospel of Christ ; " for it is " the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth." 1 Compare the opening reflections of Neander, Ch. Hist., I. p. 2. C. Schwarz, Gesch. der neuesten Theologie, p. 43, criticises unduly this view of Neander, who, he says, has given accordingly a history of piety, not of the Church. LECTURE V. OBJECTIONS TO THE PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY CONSIDERED. " Naturam hominis hanc Deus esse voluit, ut duarum rerum cupidus et appetens esset, religionis ct sapientia?. Sed homines ideo falluntur, quod aut religionem suseipiunt, omissa sapientia ; aut sapientias soli student, omissa religione ; cum alteram sine altero esse non possit verum." — Lactantius. " Meantime it seemed as if mankind in Europe, and especially in England and France, had now for the first time opened its eyes to Nature and to its strict conformity with law : and they who yielded themselves unreservedly to this tendency more and more lost sight of the independence and existence of spirit." — Doeneb, Hist. Prot. Theol, II. 258. LECTURE V. " There is a spirit in man : and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them understanding." — 3!oI> )Wt. 8. § i / T T is urged by some who look on Christianity objections *- as a bygone or a transient creed, that not method of only are the results of scientific inquiry formidable as being »., .,.-,. -... not indue- to the reception ot orthodoxy in detail ; its method tive. also is aggressive, incompatible with the stand point of theological beliefs. Inductive science rests essentially on the basis of individual and specific experience, on methodized observation. Its reason ing is that of common sense and common life. It appeals only to matters of fact. It is, therefore, from first to last,1 from principle to conclusion, from the first individual instance examined to the latest universal law registered for future inquiry, within reach, so to speak ; patent to sense, and Popular •f • mi • demand liable to verification. " The man of science," says for venfi. ("it i on Professor Huxley,2 " has learned to believe in justification, not by faith but by verification." Such a method has in it nothing transcendental, nothing superstitious, nothing supernatural. More over, it has on its side, it is said, the results of 1 Compare Comte, Phil. Pos., IV. 697-9. 2 Lay Sermons, p. 22. Mr. Matthew Arnold remarks, that " the licence of affirmation about God and His proceedings in which the reli gious world indulge, is more and more met by the demand for verifica tion." — S. Paid and Protestantism. 208 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. Reasons time and experience. Former ages have gone being very wrong in proportion as they have abandoned or ente™°ny failed to recognize the truth of the inductive tamed, Spir{t. It is now on all hands welcomed ; and the era of its triumphs has begun. But Theology, it is urged, alone refuses to be brought within its sway. Its information flows from another source. " In Theology,1 certain principles are taken for granted; and, it being deemed impious to question them, all that remains is, to reason from them downward." 2 The general truths which bind up and enwrap its conclusions, are the gift of anterior Revelation. They cannot be substantiated by facts, and are accepted with an unreasoning assent. For Re ligion, " taking its ground on the first conclusions obtained in the process of human reflection, thence forth obstinately defends what it holds to be Divine andTheo- revelations. But the supposed revelations inevi- Science tably come into collision with new ideas and to be dia- experiences to which Science alone can afford to opposed/ giye a hearing." 3 Thus, while Science is the result of inquiry, Theology is bred of faith ; its theory precedes experience and controls it. In 1 M. Guizot, Civil, en France, II. 385, points out how early this conflict arose between the scientific spirit and theological deduction, ¦when remarking on the Neo-Platonism of Alexandria, and the kindred views in medieval times of Scotus Erigena. Mr. Mackay, Rise and Progress of Christianity, p. 288, prefers to deduce the existing dualism of Theology and Science from the Nominalism of Occam. 2 See Mr. Buckle at length, Hist. Civ., III. 282-3, 464. 3 See Mr. Mackay, v. s., pp. 270-1. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 209 the one, doubt, scepticism, originality, aptness to discover, are virtues and the highest of duties. In the other, originality is the parent of heresy, and therefore a crime. Thus in Christianity it is an accepted principle that "there can be no con cerning truth which is not ancient ; and whatso ever is truly new, is certainly false." l Or, as it has been said, " That is true which is first, that is false which is after." Faith becomes thus an in dispensable duty, and credulity an honour. " It is impossible to establish the old theological premisses by a chain of inductive reasoning." 2 - § 2. I have quoted objections which show pretty Scepticism clearly the current of thought which is at present under setting in on the relations of Theology to Science, incom- 1 • 1 T 1 11 PatiblC In replying to them, I shall not now stay to prove with a . . _ ... religious that a fitting measure of scientific scepticism (a phiio- . . , sophy. term, however, covering very opposite meanings), is by no means out of place in the elements of a religious philosophy. It was a theologian3 to 1 Bp. Pearson, Expos, of Creed, dedication. This corresponds to the maxim of Vincontius Lirin., " Dum nove dicitur, non dicantur nova." 2 Mr. Buckle, III. 283. 3 Archbishop Leighton, thus declaring himself a, Cartesian. The noble maxims, " Intellecttim valde ama"; "Fides quserens intel- lectum," are worthy of the brightest age of culture. For the meanings and history of Scepticism, see Dr. Farrar, Bam.pt. L., 592-3. " The best Christian in the world," said Shaftesbury, Works, III. 72, " who, being destitute of the means of certainty, depends only on history and tradition for his belief, is at best but a sceptic-Christian." " Scep ticism," writes Bishop Harvey Goodwin, "implies only that a man is determined to look into matters for himself; not to trust every ussertion, not to repeat a parrot-creed." Leibnitz's golden rule must be P 210 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. whom we owe the remark, " that men that know nothing in sciences have no doubts." That during certain periods in the history of the Church belief was held meritorious in proportion to the doubt fulness of the subject, is perhaps true \x but it was Distinc- not so from the beginning. It will, however, tion be- i • i i i tween pri- probably be admitted that truths of Religion are mary and . . inferred of two kinds, primary or inferred, principles or religion, conclusions. The latter have certainly been ob tained by reasoning, and reasoning not neces sarily of one kind. The theology of the Reformers, b-^uen'r ^or example> showed that careful inductive exami- obtained nation into the sources and history of doctrines, the by indue- . •" ' 'ion. facts of our religion, and the contents of the Bible, is in no wise alien to the spirit of the Christian faith.2 The same spirit has survived and domi nated later controversies, and is at this very hour invading the precincts of Catholicism. But not only so. The records of our faith, their genuine- borne in mind : " II faut prendre garde de ne jamais abandonner les verites necessaires et eternelles pour soutenir les mysteres ; de peur que les ennemis de la religion ne prennent droit la-dessus de decrier et la religion et les mysteres." " Beligious disbelief and philosophical scep ticism are not merely not the same, but have no natural connection." — Sir W. Hamilton, Led., I. 394. 1 Compare Milman, Lat. Christ., I. 439. 2 Hence the historical labours of the Magdeburg Centuriators, and Selden's famous saying, that " the text ' Search the Scriptures ' had set the world in uproar." It would be interesting to inquire how far the impulse was thus given to inductive tendencies which culminated in the Baconian method. On the rule and practice of an " Inductive Exposition," Isaac Taylor, Hist. Enthusiasm, p. 314, grounds his expectation of the reunion of all Protestant bodies. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 211 ness, authenticity, and even inspiration, the value of the manuscripts on which they rest, and of the testimonies by which they are supported, all such points lie open to inductive instruments of inquiry ; and these are being more and more largely em ployed by the ablest theologians of the day. And if this be true in the case of the Sacred Volume, which in whatever measure conveys the Word of God, it is still more true in respect of doctrines J dependent for their authority on the practice and common tradition of the Church. Here at least the conclusions at issue, affecting the hereditary , standing of opinions and usages, are within the range of historical inquiry ; that is, of a science of observation, and are of a tentative character. In its inferential portion, then, Theology nowhere Theology .a science refuses to accept the ascending road of a patient of histori- i ¦ i • t i - cal criti- and rigorous induction. It stands on the same foot cism, with other branches of historical criticism. And to turn to the principles (for Christian dogmas have been properly termed the principles of Theo logical Science on which, as upon axioms, the cardinal truths of our Religion must finally turn), are these fairly described as the products of un reasoning acceptance, even if they have somereaching . . . even to its analogy2 with the maxims or conventional ultimata primary bJ truths. 1 See Mr. Ffoulkes' remarks, Divisions of Christendom, p. 196. 2 This is the view of Bacon, Augm. Sc, IX. i. " In rebus naturalibus ipsa principia examini subjiciuntur aliter fit in religione ; ubi et prima? propositiones authypostatse sunt atque per se subsistentes ; p 2 212 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. of legal and political science ? As dependent on facts received upon testimony and observation, they stand on historical evidence open to inductive inquiry. Christianity indeed, as an historic religion, has in this respect specific claims upon a Positive school of thought.1 Miraculous and portentous events, it has never been denied, must be subjected to this test, and stand or fall by its verdict, so that the latest assaults upon these have been directed to the end of discrediting any amount of testimony which may be brought on their behalf. The tendencies of human nature, it is held, in a credulous age are more than sufficient to account for the result.2 Nor when the facts of the Scrip tural narrative have been adequately attested, are its doctrines altogether exempt from the processes Employ- of a positive method. The analogy of Nature may natural be employed in attacking or in defending them. This line of argument may be applied within some extent even to those conceptions of the Divine et rursus non reguntur ab ilia ratione quae propositiones consequentes deducit. Neque tamen hoc fit in religione sola, sed etiam in aliis scientiis, tarn gravioribus quam levioribus: ubi scilicet propositiones primarias placita sunt, non posita; siquidem et in illis rationis usus absolutus esse non potest." 1 Compare Prof. Westcott's remarks in Cont. Rev., VIII. 373. He infers that there is no fundamental antagonism between the Positive method and Christianity; and that the former is no lasting religious power, but a transitional preparation for a fuller faith. 2 Bishop Butler's warning is here of importance: — "The credulity of mankind is acknowledged : and the suspicions of mankind ought to be acknowledged too ; and their backwardness even to believe, and greater still to practise what makes against their interest." Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 213 Nature on which the Christian system rests. It is sufficient to overthrow the objection, otherwise a plausible one, that in accepting a scheme of Revelation, we are but hallowing the creations of the human intellect — notions which, being limited, cannot but be inadequate and mislead ing ; thus, as it were, " sacrificing to our net, and burning incense to our drag." Again the facts in ,and of , ° historical regard of human nature and of human history evidence. which the system of Christianity assumes, and to which it addresses itself, are capable of inde pendent proof or disproof; and this of an experi mental kind. For the field of experience is not confined to material nature.1 The existence and validity of conscience, the facts of its testimony to spiritual truth, the existence and nature of the spiritual element in man, its inherent instincts, its unconscious but indubitable witness to the need °f obser- vation 1 See Dr. Mozley's powerful remarks in Cont. Rev., VII. 484. I cannot refrain from quoting the following fine application of this mode of reasoning : — " When, in reviewing the history of the past, you find certain ideas arising in the first known period of the life of humanity and co-existent with it : undergoing transformation from epoch to epoch : but remaining always and everywhere essentially the same, and inseparable from human society, gathering renewed strength from every social upheaval destructive of the temporary ideas of a single people, or a single epoch : when on interrogating your own conscience in supreme moments of deep affection, sacred sorrow, or devotion to duty, you find within your hearts an echo answering to the ideas transmitted by the ages ; those ideas are true, are innate in humanity, and are destined to accompany its onward progress. . . . God, immortality, duty, the moral law sole sovereign ... are ideas of this order." — Mazzini in Cont. Rev., XX. 161. 214 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. of Revelation, and to the subject-matter of its announcements ; these cannot be characterized as deductions from any a priori system, but rather as matters of fact, and not of probability, of im mediate experience less remote, indeed, than the and ex- proofs of external phenomena.1 Crucial instances penment. x J- and a doctrine of averages are not excluded from the treatment of them. Theology refuses certainly with scientific sternness to admit " that Religion 2 is to each individual according to the inward light wherewith he is endowed," or that " it consists essentially in an adaptation to the characters, ideas, and institutions of those who profess it." Such an assumption would be as fatal to its own validity as the admission of a sophistical psychology has of ex- shown itself in the history of philosophy. It planation ° x l j and verifi- confesses, however, the constraint of adequate and cation. . properly unexceptionable generalizations 3 both as regards individual experiences and general results. Thus it yields an experimental explanation of some 1 So J. P. Bichter observes, Selina (Works, XXXIII. 223), that the soul or mind is more evident and certam to me than my body : for only by it can I know and feel the body. A similar idea occurs in Augustin. d. Genesi ad UU., V. xvi., " God is nearer, more related to us, and therefore more easily known to us, than sensible, corporeal things." 2 Buckle, Hist. Civ., III. 477. 3 In inductive logic every exception should admit of separate ex planation, and so " prove the rule." But " the natural-history-sciences,'' remarks Dr. Bolleston, " do not usually admit of the strictness which says that an exception, so far from proving a rule, proves it to be a bad one." — Address before the British Assoc, 1870, p. 14. The same limit may accordingly be allowed as to generalizations of moral and spiritual facts. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 215 ultimate questions to which Metaphysic from its speculative character furnishes no abiding solution. S 3. Theology, as we have seen, has been at-Thede- 30 ^J ' . . '. . ductive tacked, and its progressive capacities disparaged, method on the score of its being essentially deductive.1 Such a criticism is, however, conceived in a narrow spirit. So far as it is true, it proves nothing against the general credibility of its doctrines, for it would not be contended that there is anything in the nature of demonstration, as such, vicious or erro neous. Deduction, as a mode of proof, where its premisses are not hastily or arbitrarily assumed, presents a scientific method more perfect, because as tru\y A J- ' natural as more truly natural than any other. "In itself the induc' ^ f tive, more perfect," says Hume, " it suits less the imper fection of human nature, and is hence a common source of illusion and mistake."2 Accordingly, it is very generally admitted that the progress of Natural Science trends in this direction.3 But 1 Thus even Whewell, Bridgew. Tr., III. v. vi., and Indie, of a Creator, p. 45, considers it a matter of fact that inductive philosophers have readily recognized an intelligent Author of Nature, where deductive reasoners have failed to do so. Mr. Lecky, H. E. M., II. 205, holds that " the growth of an inductive and scientific spirit is invariably hostile to theological interests." He afterwards apparently limits this to Catholicism. 2 Essays, IV. i. Liebig, in his criticism of Bacon, remarks : " In der Naturwissenschaft ist alle Forschung deduktiv oder apriorisch : das Experiment ist nur Hulfsmittel fiir den Denkprocess." — ap. Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, p. 349. s "A revolution," writes Mr. J. S. Mill, "is peaceably and pro gressively effecting itself in philosophy, the reverse of that to which Bacon has attached his name. . . . Deduction is the great scientific work of the present and of future ages." — Logic, I. 579-80. 216 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V however this be, in deduction we recognize an in strument of science, an ideal type of knowledge, of at least co-ordinate authority, sanctioned alike with its rival method by the constitution of the human and more mind ; a type antecedent perhaps in nature and the uiti- validity, and certainly more suited to the final rela- dition of tions of Knowledge and Being. Now, the subject- matter of Revelation cannot but be final in its cha racter, incapable of subsequent variation or revision. The gift of the " Father of lights," it "knows no Theology variableness, neither shadow of turning." No suc- necessanly ° final in its ceeding announcements can from the nature of the character. . case contradict the principles which it proclaims or implies. Nor can the ultimate posture of things fail to be in agreement with what has been thus previously declared of the Divine administration. The employment, therefore, of deduction in Reli gion, as a specific department of knowledge, is not properly liable to exception, even were this, which it is not, a solitary example of its application. Now, the test of the deductive stage of a science (and perhaps of all Science in the strict usage of the term) is the capacity of inferring from primary and fundamental conceptions a mediate system of anaio^us" *ru^ns- Space and Numerical magnitude are at to the gift once recognized as ideas of this fruitful character 1 of primary ° ~-v,j.. 1 See some very able remarks on this subject in the Christian Re membrancer, No. CXXXI., p. 230 ; and compare Prof. Westcott, Cont. Rev., VIII. 378, on the narrowness of the purely scientific view isolating and excluding Keligion. Lect. V.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 217 Such, also, are our notions of God and the human Soul, when the further conception is added of an accessory revelation. For it needed something more than the mere action of man's mind to " bring life and immortality to light." But the Christian ideas ofthe character and work of the Divine Being as the Father, Redeemer, and Sanctifier of mankind, once given, (even as the chief links in the colliga tion of scientific notions have ever flashed into the and co1- ligation of minds of discoverers by a power confessedly beyond ideas. the teaching of method, ' a vision and a faculty divine'),1 the legitimate inferences are the property of logical reflection, and can be tested by applica tion to the facts of man's nature and circumstances, as the verifications of Natural Laws already sur mised are obtained from the inspection of instances.2 This constitutes the appropriate evidence of truths received at the first " neither of man, nor after man, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ." ' § 4. But Religion, it is said, impedes knowledge objection to the truth of theology 1 So Tennyson speaks of — as being The fair new forms stationary That float about the threshold of an age, ant. re~ 0 ' actionary. Like truths of science waiting to be caught. 2 Hence Mr. Fairbairn remarks, Immortality of the Soul, Cont. Rev., XX. 29, that " Eeligion, or rather its philosophic theology, may now become a science as purely inductive as any of the physical sciences. The now possible analysis of the faiths of the world, if accompanied by a searching analysis of the faculties of the mind, will hand over to thought our primary and necessary religious ideas, which, as ultimate religious truths, constitute in their synthesis the foundation of the universal and ideal Eeligion of man." 21 8 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. by leading men to be satisfied with an easy belief, and by making inquiry a crime. All progress is in this manner barred, and there arises a marked and singular exception to the aggressive spirit of all other branches of knowledge. An essential in compatibility emerges between a stationary faith and a progressive philosophy. No doubt, we reply, it is beyond human power to add to the subject-matter of Revelation, though clearer light may, in the course of ages, be thrown upon its Reveia- obscurer regions. It may, in this view, be com- -tion, in ° J ' what sense pared to all great and organic truths, making up the stock of true human knowledge, and consti tuting a deposit of belief handed on to succeeding generations. Once discovered, these are not again lost in the history of culture, but become the ina lienable heritage of the race in its progress to fuller but admit- knowledge.1 But the application of Revealed Truth ting of . J- indefinite to the circumstances of human history, its practical applica- .... tion developments m living actual results, its inherent and unsuspected activity, its conformity with un known powers, and, it may be, principles of human nature ; these and other considerations supply a field for the enlargement of our acquaintance with the meaning and potential character of Christianity 1 Macaulay, indeed, Essays, pp. 536, 537, argues at length that we have no security for the future against the prevalence of any theological error that has ever prevailed in time past. Such a view deprives Eeligion of all benefit from contemporary light in other subjects of thought, which, if only free access be allowed, cannot fail to affect existing religious opinion. Lect. V.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 219 as a scheme of Revelation, which admits of endless advance and indefinite augmentation. " It is not at all incredible," writes Bishop Butler,1 speaking of the Holy Scriptures, " that a book which has been so long in the possession of mankind should contain many truths as yet undiscerned. For all the same phenomena and the same faculties of investigation from which such great discoveries in natural knowledge have been made in the present and last age, were equally in the possession of mankind several thousand years before." So too, the uiti- andverifi" ¦J ' cation, mate verification, and even, perhaps, enlargement adding to . . the bulk of this scheme by the facts of Science (which also of know- . . . . , ledge- has its revelations for mankind,) is a continually growing addition to the bulk of human knowledge. In this view Christianity must not be denied the place even of a progressive science.2 The laws of 1 Analogy, II. c. iii. " It is true, indeed," writes Mr. Sogers, Essays, II. 335, " that theology cannot be said to admit of unlimited progress in the same sense as chemistry, which may, for aught we know, treble or quadruple its present accumulations, vast as they are, both in bulk and importance. But even in theology, as deduced from the Scripture, minute fragments of new truth or more exact adjustments of old truth maj' be perpetually expected." Dean Stanley, Serm. on the Bible, p. 112, writes, " Never before our own age has there been so keen, so dis criminating a perception of the peculiarities (if I may so speak), the essential, innermost, distinguishing marks of the unapproached and unapproachable Character described to us in the Four Gospels. We have not arrived at the end of it. Far from it. In the very fact of the large traits of His life and character which still remain unexplored, lies a boundless hope for the future." 2 Compare Butler, Anal, II. iii. "As it is owned the whole scheme of Scripture is not yet understood ; so if it ever comes to be understood, ... it must be in the same way that natural knowledge is come at by the continuance and progress of learning and of liberty," &c. See some remarks by Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., II. 4. 220 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. Chris- natural development apply to its enouncements tianity, in what sense equally with those of other departments of truth. a progres- . „ . . , sive The realization of " things not seen as yet ; science ulterior applications of acknowledged principles and promises ; the laying aside inherited preposses sions antagonistic to the genius of our Religion, and from which the truth alone, when more and more reflected on and assimilated, can set man's spirit free •/ these are lands in the realm of Christian thought perhaps yet unexplored, and, certainly, not and a yet taken into possession. The gradual evolution develop0- of fundamental ideas, the discovery of new rela- missibie. tions involved in them, and new spheres in which they are valid ; these are elements of progress in herent and permanent. Such an ¦ advance in no way, indeed, impairs the final character of Christian truth as Revealed.2 And yet in this manner, side 1 On admissible developments of doctrine in Christianity, see Archer Butler (Letters, pp. 55-8). Dr. Newman's well-known " Theory " is an attempted solution of an admitted fact. See also De Quincey's Essay on Protestantism, at length. 2 In quitting this part of the subject I am anxious once more to insist on the necessity of a fixed and primitive standard of doctrine. It is one thing to hold with Bp. Law (Theory of Religion, p. 145) that " though the whole scheme of our redemption was completely delivered, and all its essential parts recorded during the extraordinary assistance and inspection of the Holy Ghost, and in some respects the primitive Chris tians seem to have the advantage of others ; .... yet it by no means follows that the true genius, import, and extent of this revelation must be as well understood by the generality of them as it could be by any that came after them." It is another to proclaim with Channing (Letter on Creeds) that " the wisest theologians are children who have caught but faint glimpses of the religion ; who have taken but their first lessons, and whose business it is to ' grow in the knowledge of Jesus Lect. V.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 221 by side with physical studies and philosophical deductions, Christian Science may still climb the starry heights of Thought and Being, and draw ever nearer the eternal springs of Intuitive Truth. - § 5. When the wondrous fertility of the present Practical era in discovery and information, physical and from the historical, is taken into account, undoubtedly a natural certain alarm lays hold of the religious mind, with reve- lest the advance of positive Knowledge, and our familiarity with the facts of Nature, should leave no room for the fears and hopes of a world unseen. The very difficulties for which Religion undertakes to account may, it seems, after all, disappear. Explanations of Laws of Nature may take the place of yearnings of heart and soul after the Ineffable and the Divine. Dim, ambiguous issues may be discounted for present certainty and immediate enjoyment. May it not be wiser to enjoy the pleasures of sense for a season ? Fatalism may be found to extinguish the terrors of wounded con sciences ; and the utterances of Inspiration may be analyzed into vulgar errors and unmeaning super- Christ.' Need I say how hostile to this growth is a, fixed creed, beyond which we must never wander ? &c." It needs hardly to be pointed out that the theory (of Hegel, Baur, &c.) which regards Christianity itself as a development in the history of Universal Eeligion, a phase in the evolu tion of the Universal Geist, and capable accordingly of a specific perfec tibility, is wholly beside our present point of view. So M. Comte looks on the present form of Christianity as the last and highest type of Monotheism, including within itself the characteristic elements of all the preparatory developments, and due to them. 222 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. and of ma- stitions. And certainly, if it can be shown that in tenahstic J opinions, the universe of things all is material,1 and bound by Laws of Matter ; that Life itself is but a trick of force ; that the realm of the Invisible, of Him " Who dwelleth in the light to which no man can approach, Whom no man hath seen, neither can see," is baseless, fictitious, inappreciable ; who shall fathom the sadness which should brood over heart and spirit,2 or fill the aching void which nothing Their can make good ? To leave this mortal scene, to effect upon _ ° ' a belief in shift this mortal coil, to "go we know not whither," immor- ° ' tality. To lie in cold obstruction and to rot ; this has assuredly been through all ages the ruling dread, the master-doubt which haunts the mind of man.3 What, then, if the sum of all our knowing be to find that he, also, is but the creature of a day, a modification of undying matter, an emanation, the sport of generative forces, a passing type, a sin- 1 Materialism really inverts the true order of existence. Compare Plato, Legg., X. 888, 889. " II parait bien," says Leibnitz of Spinoza, " que l'ame ne lui eloit qu'une modification passagere : et lorsqu'il fait semblant de la faire durable et meme perp^tnelle, il y substitue l'idee du corps, qui est une simple notion et non pas une chose reelle et actuelle." — Theodicee, p. 12, a most pregnant passage. 2 " Pretendent-ils nous avoir bien rejouis de nous dire qu'ils tiennent que notre ame n'est qu'un peu de vent et de fumee, et encore de nous le dire d'un ton de voix fier et content ? Est-ce done une chose a dire gaiement ? Et n'est-ce pas une chose a dire, au contraire, tristement comme la chose du monde la plus triste ? " — Pascal, Pens., Art. I. 3 It was this which led Epicurus to say that " if fear of the Gods and fear of death were not, we might well do without Physics : " and compare the effect of the preaching of Paulinus on the Northumbrians in Bede Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 223 gular variety, linked in the evolution of eternal Nature, or " throned in the arms of an Almighty Necessity " ? One fact, or set of facts, as yet repels this monster generalization, which would otherwise reduce all specific sciences to an absolute uniformity, and confound them in one undistin- guishable identity. One Science holds bravely on through these surgings of opinion, and the buffets This doc" o o o 1 trine asso- of an absolute criticism: the science of God and ^ted with religion, the Soul, existences essentially different from all material forms, and bound each to other by rela tions which give to Religion a meaning and a name.1 Man, it has been finely said, " is alone in nature, a world within a world;" (and yet he is not alone, for his Father is with him ;) "he alone of H. E., II. xiii. Hence the profound melancholy of classic Paganism on this topic. Soles occidere et redire possunt. Nobis cum semel occidit brevis lux Nox est perpetua una dormienda. — Catullus. Damna tamen celeres reparant caslestia lunaa. Nos ubi decidimus Quo pater iEneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus, Pulvis et umbra sumus. — Horace. Such thoughts are but echoes of the old plaint, " One generation passeth away and another generation cometh : but the earth abideth for ever." — Eccles. i. 4. " Unde enim metuunt mori et malunt in ilia asrurnna vivere quam earn morte finire nisi quia satis apparet quam natura refugiat non esse? " — August., Civ. D., XI. xxvii. It may be hereafter found to be true that a spiritual substance, by virtue of its essential constitution, is immortal ; but at present our knowledge of the fact must be inferential. See Mill, Examination, p. 211. 1 " Beliget ergo nos religio uni Omnipotenti Deo." — August., Ver. Rel, c. lv. sub finem. " Si enim divina aut a Deo data est anima, sine dubio datorem suum novit." — Tert., Test. Anim., ii. 224 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. all the creatures communes with a Being out of Nature; and he divides himself from all other physical life by prophesying, in the face of univer sal visible decay, his own immortality." 1 - The spirit of man, then, protests that it, too, is a fact, a and satis- distinct consciousness ; it lives, and, living, exists fiedbythe . . ' ' . &' Christian for that eternity of which it alone is cognisant. system. • c i • • But, lt the spiritual element in man be admitted, it is, at least, not unreasonable that there should exist a Revelation as the supply to its inevitable questionings. Even on a theory of Evolution, Christianity would have most claims to be heard.2 For it satisfies to the full the native testimony of the soul of man, rising, as it were, by a law of con tinuity from animalism to rationality, from the rule of the senses to speculative intelligence, and from self-seeking passion to self-sacrificing love. The only § g. Thus a true vital antagonism between tagonism Religion and Science, fatal to the permanence and between L religion progress of the former, alone emerges where, and and science . so long as, the latter recognizing only the validity 1 Mozley, Bampt. L., p. 89. " Immortality is not a doctrine of the schools, but a faith of humanity ; not based on the metaphysic or proved by the logic of a given system ; but the utterance of an instinct common to the race which has made itself heard wherever man has advanced from a religion of nature to a religion of faith. And there is no article of belief he so reluctantly surrenders even to the demands of system." — Fairbairn on Belief in Immortality. This proposition is sustained by the learned author through a large and careful induction of the most ancient religions of the earth. 2 " Aux yeux de I'histoire," says a Positivist writer, " il n'y a point de fausse religion : il n'y a que des religions incompletes, qui cheminent dans les temps et se perfectionnent." — Litti'6, Paroles, p. 19. in man. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 225 of phenomena, excludes from these all operation of man's spiritual part. In , strictness, Science must be held to comprehend the connection of all truths relative to tlie exist- certain from the laws and constitution of the ence of a human mind. If, however, it is assumed that in principle Nature l nothing exists but what is given in experi ence, represented in the forms of time and space and force, under the relation of cause and effect ; then, indeed, a principle which originates its own acts, which prophesies its own responsibility, and which explains, out of its own instinctive habit, its existence and destiny, its relations to God and to the universe in which it finds itself, can only be something beside and beyond Nature, even while related to it. It must, then, stand or fall at the caprice of Nature's worshippers.2 But, happily (apart from any verbal controversy), the existence 1 Compare Coleridge, A. R., pp. 48, 190. " The ways and pro ceedings of God with spirits are not included in Nature, that is, in tbe laws of heaven and earth." — Bacon, Confession of Faith (Wcn-ks, VII. 221). In the magnificent passage in Professor Huxley's Lay Sermons (p. 37), beginning, " That man, I think, has had a liberal education," &c, there is a total omission of any spiritual element in man capable of culture or expansion. On the importance of the spiri tual element in philosophy at the present time, see Janet, La Crise Philosophique, p. 7. 2 Leibnitz tells a story of a learned chemist, who "avoit fait une priere, qui pensa lui faire des affaires. Elle commenfoit : 0 sancta mater Natura, seterne rerum ordo. Et elle aboutissoit a dire que cette Nature lui devoit pardonner ses defauts, puisqu'elle en etoit cause elle-meme." — Theod., p. 605. He seems to have been ofthe same mind with Lear : Thou, Nature, art my Goddess : to thy law My services are bound. Q 226 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. of such a principle in man is capable, as with other psychological facts,1 of experimental and scientific biti0fCapa" Pro°f- I* is not simply that, as has been said, if scientific all argument is against it, all belief is for it. The grounds of that belief are patent. It is based, not alone on the precarious testimony of individual consciousness, but on a comparison of such con sciousness, under many aspects ; on a wide gene ralization of varying ages and countries, and a collection, practically unlimited, of particular instances. The notion of spiritual action is admitted by Mr. Darwin to be instinctive in man. mon 'an-'" " The conception of the human soul," writes the dent and historian of Primitive Culture,2 " is, as to its most modern, 7 ? essential nature, continuous from the philosophy of the savage thinker to. that of the modern professor of theology. Its definition has remained from the first that of an animating, separable, surviving entity, the vehicle of individual personal exist- 1 The fallacy met with in the writings of Mr. Buckle, as well as of the more purely Positivist school, is to assume that psychology is a branch of metaphysic ; that metaphysic does not study phenomena ; and that its object-matter is the individual mind. The impossibility is evident of accounting for the ideas of God and of man's personality on purely materialistic principles. On the Positivist notions of the soul, comp. Janet, La Crise Phil., p. 115. 2 Tylor, I. 453. " The minimum definition of religion is the belief in spiritual beings."— I. 383. In the shadow, pulse, heart, breath, he finds in the rudest tribes a generally apprehended representation or suggestion of the soul. On the mythology of the Soul (a distinct line of proof), see . Max Muller on the Philosophy of Mythology (Cont. Rev., XIX. 108). On the Hebrew and Indo-Germanic appella tions of man and spirit, compare Delitzsch, Biblical Psycholom, nn 82 143, E. T. U ' ' from ex amination Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 227 ence." The highest efforts of heathen philosophy in East and West culminated in a recognition of its authority and power, its sole or corporate immortality.1 Moreover, the reality of the personal affections in man, which are the groundwork of°f^an most of his acts, and of all which constitutes his true nobility, has never been denied. Yet, under a pure Naturalism, excluding all recognition of a spiritual life, whatever may be demonstrated as to their origin, these must appear both meaningless and void. Their earnestness and simple trust, their rich store of high and unselfish feeling, become fantastic and absurd.2 The same, also, is 1 It has been maintained, I am aware, that a belief in God is com patible with an ignorance of the soul's immortality ; and that this was the state of heathen opinion at the time of the coming of Christ (see Dean Merivale, Lectt., p. 24. At p. 54 he writes, " Belief in a, future state is the touchstone of all spiritual conceptions of human nature.") I do not think this has yet been proved. Plutarch's treatise, Non posse suave v. sec. Epic, should be consulted on the differences of opi nion among the Stoics. See Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, I. 353. It is quite possible, however, for ingenious disputants in all ages to argue against tbe instincts of common sense. Cicero (Tusc. Disp., I. xvi , xviii., xxxi.) writes : " Sed ut Deos esse natura opinamur, qualesque sint, ratione oognoscimus : sic permanere animos arbitramur consensu nationum omnium ; qua in sede maneant, qualesque sint ratione dis- cendum est." Herodotus (II. 123) makes it an Egyptian discovery : elsewhere he admits it to have been a Teutonic conception (IV. 94). It is no objection that this conviction is a gradual one (see Fairbairn, 11. s. C. R., XX. 374, ff.), any more than that the belief in a God has found recusants. See Harless, Christian Ethics, p. 42, E. T. 2 This line of argument against all systems tending to Atheism is indicated by Shaftesbury in his Enquiry concerning Virtue (Works, II. 69). The same topic is powerfully handled by Mr. Hutton, Essays, I. 19. " A fully realized Atheism will undermine the worth of per sonal human affections ; not merely indirectly by losing sight of immor- Q 2 228 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. true of the religious sentiment in man, of which, it cannot be doubted, his nature is capable when developed by culture and improvement. Thus from in- religious biography, exhibiting in various ages of analysis. Christianity and at different eras of civilization the same characteristic features and common results, pointing accordingly to a common origin, furnishes an argument of a strictly inductive kind for the determination of a spiritual element in human nature correspondent to influences of the Divine Spirit. Hence that communion of man with his its results. Maker, " the Father of Spirits," whereof he alone is capable, an excellency whereby he is distin guished from the beasts that perish,1 and is crowned with glory and worship. Ideo venerabile soli Sortiti ingenium divinorum que capaces. From that fountain flow his highest and purest inspirations ; but no less those contradictions and warrings of counter-impulses, the travail and the toil of yearning souls, conscious of Heaven, yet tality, but still more by cutting off the chief spring of their spiritual life. If that fine wide-spreading network, hidden from all human eyes, the winding crossing blending diverging threads of human affection, which hold together human society, be indeed conceived as issuing every where out of everlasting night; as spun, snapped asunder, and again repaired by the mere automatic operation of Nature's unconscious °and impersonal energy; the personal affections lose quite the richest and most permanent of the conscious influences at least, which minister to their life and growth." 1 Compare Lactant. (Div. Inst., III. x.). Thus man, created in the likeness of God, must be essentially a spirit (John iv. 24). Gregory Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 229 borne down to earth, unresting,1 unsatisfied while still the slaves of sense. But with the reality of itsconnec-tion with the spiritual principle in man is inseparably con- the exist- 1 i- -n i- 1 • enceofwill nected the presence of a will which, by its acts, in man, announces its own personality and individual being. As it is impossible to sever in conception the notions of spirit and will, so practically it is by the character of the will developed in act that the spirit itself is differentiated. Thus is it that we know " what manner of spirit we are of." It is for this reason probably that in Holy Scripture2 the term itself, as a power or property seated in the human soul, never stands singly, but is always specified. It is the " spirit of meekness," the "spirit of knowledge," the " spirit of fear," the " spirit of love," and the like. The recognition of this prin ciple from first to last, in the Old as in the New Testament, gives unity and consistency to Revela- of Nyssa (ap. Delitzsch, p. 197) makes use of the image of a piece of glass, which, although in very diminished proportion, reflects the entire form of the sun, to represent how out of the limited nature of man's spirit shine forth the copies of the inexpressible attributes of the Godhead. Thus Goethe : War' nicht das Auge sonnenhaft Wie konnten wir das Licht erblicken ? Lebt' nicht in uns des Gottes eigne Kraft Wie konnte uns das Gottliches entziicken ? See Sir W. Hamilton, Disc, p. 19. 1 " Quia fecisti nos ad Te, Domine, inquietum est cor nostrum, donee requiescat in Te."— August., Conf., sub init. 2 This remark is made by Coleridge, A. R., p. 42. Compare the teaching of the Homily for Whitsunday, Pt. I., sub fin. 230 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. tion.1 The proof, then, of our spiritual nature, together with the admission of this element in man, may be regarded as the one thing vital to all and reia- spiritual religion. It alone suffices to account for tion to the . , , c rw • perma- the existence, the office, and the success of unris- nence of -. ... , ¦. Chris- tianity. On its reality as a principle, and on the lamty' unquestionable character of its testimony rest the bases of our religion, as an enduring and undying- faith. Yet now we are called on to believe that it is the function of Knowledge (which is, however, the true image2 and mirror of Being) to extinguish the notion of such a spiritual principle in man, and to abolish all faith in the reality and power of its utterances. This, it seems, is to be the latest work of positive Science, its closing service to mankind, the crowning effort of the progress and culture of natural studies. Science S y, But it is said that in the advance of asserted to J ' be destruc- knowledge we are fast losing the elementary prin- reiigion ciples, both of divine worship and of religious belief. In surprise, if not in fear, according to the old observation of Aristotle3 (or, more strictly, of 1 " I stand before myself as before a riddle : whose key is not to be found in the human self-consciousness, but is given to it by God in the word of revelation." — Harless, Christian Ethics, p. 50. 2 " Scientia essentia? imago." — Bacon, N. 0., Aph. cxx. 3 Ata yap to 6avpd£etv ol avBpanvoi Kal vvv Kal to nparov rjp^avro (piXoo-ocpeiv- . . . 6 &' d-iropav Kal Bavpdfav olerai dyvoeiv' 8to Kal (biXopvBos 6 iX6o-o(p6s ttws iariv. — Arist., Metaph., I. ii. MdXa (piXo- o-u *aat tnus ^ least they'CO-exist ; the religion with ad- 0f Christ in its purest form is the religion of civi- civiiiza- lization. Nor, in saying this, do we undervalue the benefits of Knowledge and Science as true 1 " Le monde sera Sternellement religieux ; et le Christianisme dans un sens large est le dernier mot de la religion." — Renan, u. s. " Deism," he adds, " cannot be the final term of religion ; for it is not truly a religion at all : it is a scientific conclusion." The following sentences, written nearly half a century since, are now doubly interesting : — " We confess, the present aspect of spiritual Europe might fill a melancholic observer with doubt and foreboding. It is mournful to see so many minds, noble, tender, and high-aspiring, deserted of that religious light which once guided all such : standing sorrowful on the scene of past convulsions and controversies, as on a scene blackened and burnt up with fire : mourning in the darkness because there is desolation, and no home for the soul ; or, what is worse, pitching tents among the ashes, and kindling weak, earthly lamps, which we are to take for stars. This darkness is but transitory obscuration: these ashes are the soil of future herbage and richer harvests. Religion, Poetry is not dead; it will never die. Its dwelling and birth-place is in the soul of man, and it is eternal as the being of man."— Carlyle, M-iscell., I. 72. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 243 elements of progress ; or seek to stem and turn aside the tide of advancing culture. It is folly even to wish to reverse a movement in human affairs which is definite and uniform in operation. It is a question of fact whether Christianity has not or is not moved along with it, mingling with its advance, and assimilating its effects. " It is the peculiarity of the religion of the Bible," it has been well said, " that whatever be the aspect of the past, and of the present ; in spite of all glories of what we look back to, and all discouragements in what we see now, it ever claims the future for its own." 1 S 11. It is the truer, as it is the heartier, faith Meeting- 3 ' points ot to hold that, in the golden age which Science now knowledge 7 ° ° and reh- ranks as to come, and not as gone, Knowledge and gion. Religion must ultimately coalesce and coincide. The one is the science of the visible ; the other of that which, though invisible, is no less real, no less truly a phase of Truth and Being. But if both are founded in the reality of things, there must be between them a fundamental harmony. For " it is incredible that there should be two orders of truth in absolute and everlasting opposition."2 The 1 Dean Church, Univ. Serm., p. 72. " The tendency," says Sir H. Maine, " to look not to the past, but to the future, for types of perfection was brought into the world by Christianity."— Ancient Laiv, p. 74. " Hopefulness has ever been a note of the Church of Christ. It has been often mistrusted and misapprehended."— Merivale, Northern. Nations, p. 116. 2 Herbert Spencer, First Princ, p. 21. R 2 244 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. world began, we are now told, with Nature-wor ship ; can we on a theory of evolution believe that at its close it will have developed no higher form ? The dangers at present besetting Christianity are twofold. There is an ideal spiritualism abroad devoid of an objective basis. Where current, it brings Religion into contempt. There is also a secularistic Materialism, co-ordinate with a worship of Nature. Jamjam efficaci dat manus Scientia?. resufteof Extremes thus meet. We have not now the cult science. 0f (Jeres or Dionysus ; but under other names the forces of Heat, Light, and Fecundity have taken their place and rank. But all such ultimate, as sumed entities are to be deprecated, even if them selves forms of one Universal Force. They are questionable, unscientific resting-places in the ana lysis of truth, which must, to be complete, lead on to the source and origin of Force. There is surely a far higher boon in store to be conferred by the increasing light of Knowledge, when it shall be poured not solely on the simpler problems of the physical world, but upon the mysteries of the two voices in man, the microcosm of the universe, those jarring elements of Duty and Passion, of the relations8 an™a^ anc* tne spiritual, of Nature and Grace. of know- Originally created to be a part of the undivided ledge and . will. system of Nature, working in automatic harmony with the constitution of the world around him • Lect. V.] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 245 in the exercise of a will independent of Divine Wisdom and of the laws it had imposed, Man fell from his high estate. Only by the reconciliation of his will with perfect reason, by the recognition of foregone perversity, by the confession of the justice and the mercy of his God, and by the sub mission of mind and spirit to the higher law of Morality and Religion ; by these only, as subjective personal conditions of his Redemption, may he hope once more, in " the times of restitution of all things," to find himself in accord with a purified Nature, fulfilling the law of his being, the com mandment of his God, and made " partaker of the Divine Nature." So far, if it be no further, may the Tendency ... . of know- plummet of finite Thought, led by the indications ledge to of Revelation, sound the depths of the nature and moral evil. existence of evil in the world. Potentially real,1 a secondary development of things, its very being and action may be but temporary and relative, 1 Cf. Orig. c. Cels., VI. lv. Thus August., Civ. D., XL 9. Mali nulla natura est; sed amissio boni mali nomen accepit; following the more ancient opinion, to kokov to Svvdpei dyaBov. Arist., Metaph. N. iv. ovk eo-rt to kukov -irapa to irpdypara. Comp. Plato, Tlieaet. 176, A. So also Basil (Hexam. Horn., ii.). Leibnitz, ThSod., p. 550. " Quant a la cause du mal il est vrai que le diable est l'auteur du pe'che' ; mais l'origine du pecluS vient de plus loin, la source est dans l'imperfection originate des creatures," &c. His own explanation of this is well known. " Dieu a permis le mal, parce qu'il est enveloppe' dans le meilleur plan qui se trouve dans la region des possibles." — lb., p. 601. " II se peut que tous les maux ne soient aussi qu'un presque neant en com- paraison des biens qui sont dans Funivers." — p. 509. Bishop Butler (following August., Conf., II. v.), " There is nothing in the human mind contradictory, as the logicians speak, to virtue."— Anal., I. iii. " There is no such thing as love of injustice, oppression, treachery, ingratitude,' 246 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. conditioned by a finite state of existence and know ledge, admitting of ultimate explanation. That which is individual is in its own nature imperfect : and imperfection is a transient form of evil. But the will of man is confessedly individual, personal. Requires ^ f^^ent conflict of self-interest with the the co operation comm0n good can only be overcome by the con- 01 religion. ° j j viction that it is through conformity to the uni versal law, as the expression of the wisdom of the Creator, to the whole constitution of things, that the perfection of the individual is reached.1 This, if any, must be the lesson of ultimate civilization, Coincident and it is a lesson in the accomplishment of which k of the Faith of Christ may be expected to take a large worciviliza tion, share. " Christianity," it has been well said,2 " has been revealed as a social and as a personal power in the richest variety of circumstances. It remains for us to harmonize the idea of society and self as they are seen to be harmonized in the teaching of the Apostles. In this lies the highest problem of philosophy and the most worthy aim of life. ' The prize is noble,' as Plato said of the corresponding problem in his age, ' and the hope is great.' " In this &c. — Serm., I. Mr. Mackay (Progress of Intellect, I. 482) has touched this subject with much profundity and learning. Physical evil must of course be distinguished from the moral and metaphysical notions. It may prove to be a necessary tendency of general laws, and to redound in many ways to the formation of moral excellencies. 1 Compare Mr. Mill, Exam., p. 510, who quotes an observation of M. Reville respecting human freedom. "La liberie' complete, reelle, do l'homme est la perfection humaine, le but a atteindre." 2 Prof. Westcott, Cont. Rev., VI. 417. Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 247 law and scale of progress, that which we call evil must itself have been foreseen, and in a manner fore ordained and provided for, by the act of Eternal Wisdom. One day " the depth of the riches of that wisdom and knowledge," (now " past finding- out,") will be revealed, its ways disclosed ; and the sufferings of "a bondage of corruption"1 will show all unworthy to be compared with the glory that shall dawn upon the world become the king dom of the Lord and of His Christ. § 1 2. " The Master of all who have knowledge." 2 .Science 3 o msepara- Such is the title claimed by Dante for Aristotle, the ^thfl0m Prince of ancient thought. Shall it not hereafter be given to One greater than Aristotle, who shall rise up in the judgment with the men of this gene ration and condemn them, as many as have divorced Science from Faith. For in that day secular philo sophy, however glorious, will be transmuted into divine. The very course of the integration ofTendency ^ , of human human Knowledge may be expected to lead to the knowledge towardsperfection. 1 " L'imperfection qui accompagne la solution du corps pourroit donner lieu au sentiment d'une perfection plus grande, qui etoit suspendue ou arretee par la continuity qu'on fait cesser ; et a cet egard le corps seroit comme une prison."— Leibnitz, Works, p. 603. 2 " II Maestro di color chi sanno." " La plus forte tete de toute l'antiquite", le grand Aristote," says M. Comte (Phil. Pos., IV. 38), perhaps from an unconscious predilection; for it was very anciently remarked that Plato referred all to Mind, Aristotle to Law. The medieval reputation of Aristotle, whom the Schoolmen placed almost on a level with the Fathers, was according to Mr. Lecky (Hist. Rat., I. 417), due to the early heretics. See Dean Milman, Lat. Christ, VI. 267. 248 OBJECTIONS TO THE [Lect. V. reception of one common, universal Religion, when the relations of Matter to a central Force shall be understood. The latest generalization of the in ductive reason will be comprehended, as alone it can be comprehended, through the intuition of Him (for " we shall see Him as He is "), Who is the Author and Cause of all things, " Who is Alpha and Omega," " the Beginning and the End," the " First and the Last." In that day " whether there be knowledge, it will vanish away," because " we know but in part." What is there in the loftiest human speculation which should exempt it from the inherent fate of all finite things? "Positive knowledge1 defects of ° b positive does not and never can fill the whole region of know- -1111 -1 ledge. possible thought. At the utmost reach of discovery there arises and must ever arise the question — what lies beyond ? Science is a gradually in creasing sphere, and every addition to its surface does but bring it into wider contact with surround ing ignorance. But if knowledge cannot mono polize consciousness ; 2 if it must always continue 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Principles, pp. 16, 17. The same thought that the material world cannot of itself contain a revelation of the Divine, the finite of the Infinite, occurs in Tennyson — Forerun thy peers, thy time : and let Thy feet millenniums hence be set In midst of knowledge dreamed not yet. Thou hast not gained a real height ; Nor art thou nearer to the light, Because the scale is infinite. 2 "II n'y a que Dieu qui voie, comment ces deux termes moi et V existence sont life, c'est-a-dire, pourquoi j'existe." — Leibnitz, Nou- veaux Essais, IV, vii- 7 Lect. V] PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 249 possible for the mind to dwell upon that which transcends knowledge, then there can never cease to be a place for that which is of the nature of Religion." For what region can be found in all the realms of Science, which is not relative only to our present living powers and to the world we now inhabit ? What necessity 1 can be claimed for the Laws of Laws of Nature, as they are known to us, still less void of the for the several facts which represent and engender necessity. them, which can resist the sentence of mutability so legibly written upon them ? Knowledge then, as alone we now possess it, is of time, not of eternity ; it is marred by the imbecillities of man's understanding. " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man the things which God hath prepared for them that love Him." But " when that which is perfect is come, then that which is in part shall be done away." 1 See Sir W. Hamilton, Appendix to Reid, p. 971, who quotes Spinoza (de Intell Emend., § 108) ; " ideas quas claras et distinctas formamus ita ex sola necessitate nostra natura? sequi videntur, ut absolute a sola, nostril potential pendere videantur : confusa? autem contra." Chalmers's noble argument for the doctrine of immortality from man's capacities for knowledge is well known. " But for the truth of immortality man would be an anomaly in nature .... The whole labour of this mortal life would not suffice for traversing, in full extent, any one of the sciences. And yet there may lie undeveloped in his bosom a taste and talent for them all, none of which he can even singly overtake. For each science, though definite in its commence ment, has its outgoings in the Infinite and the Eternal." — Bridg. Treatise, Pt. I. sub fin. LECTURE VI. THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY INFERRED FROM THE CHARACTER OF ITS INFLUENCE. "Ne quisquam nos aliena tantum redarguisse, non autem nostra asseruisse reprehenderet ; id agit pars altera operis hujus." — Ar/errsTiNE, Retract, II. "Imperium facile his artibus retinetur, quibus initio partuni est." — Sallust, Bell. Catil, II. iv. LECTURE VI. " Who is he that overcometh the world, but he that believeth that Jesus is the Son of God? " — I 3Iohn i). 5. § 1. r I AHE direct or positive proof originally pro- Sta?e of -*¦ posed to be offered in these Lectures in iuiry- respect of the permanence of the Christian Religion led first to the inquiry, what are the vital forces of any Religion ; and next, in what degree are these exhibited in the past history and present condition of Christianity ? These forces, common to all systems Vit*lforces of Religion, may be compared with the powers of sions nutrition, reproduction, and growth in organic bodies. Such are the hold exercised by the theory of belief upon the spirit and conscience of its pro fessors ; the tendency of the system to extend itself by conversion ; and, thirdly, the power of assimi lating healthfully the varying conditions of progres sive civilization. With the last of these lines of proof we have been indirectly occupied throughout the four preceding Lectures. For the objections which *"r|^ have been considered to the progress of Christianity ^°™" have been such as belong to the highest stages of culture and scientific research as yet reached by the most civilized portion of mankind. Lastly, since ^onarUu! every form of Religion asserts for itself an absolute ment for 254 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. the per- possession of Divine Truth, its announcements are manence of Chris- to be considered final, or, at least, as preparative 1 to from the one complete scheme. A concluding argument will character . of its doc- hence arise in favour of the truth of Christianity from the universality of its tenets and their adapta tion to the history and circumstances of mankind, warranting in this manner its assumption of doctrinal finality. If its morality is sound and universal ; its type of character perfect and com plete, not partial, national, local, or generic,2 but correspondent to the unity of our race ; if its reve lations, replacing earlier creeds and inheriting all they held of truth, reach on to the horizon of humanity, and assure for ever the destinies of man, we need not greatly fear for the future of a Reli gion which can only be coeval writh our race. Present We now proceed to examine, in the first place, the into the character and extent of the influence exercised by nature and ™ . . . 7 . - extent of Christianity at various periods on the consciences the in- r . , , fluence of of its converts. tianity as § 2- If bas been asked by a leading thinker of at different * Sucl1 as the Mosaic system ; which cannot therefore be properly periods. attacked, as it has been by Kant and others (see ReUgion innerhalb, &c, Werke, VI. 301, ed. Hartenstein), as not Divine, because it did not preach immortality. Warburton's proposition on this subject is well known. 2 " The ceremonial law was succeeded by a pure and spiritual worship, equally adapted to all climates, as well as to every condition of mankind." — Gibbon, c. xv. Compare Palmer (Treatise on the Church, I. vii.) on the catholicity of Christianity. " The New Testament," says Prof. Seeley, Led. and Essays, p. 276, " is the text-book of uni versal or natural morality." On the objection that if Christianity be in harmony with human nature, it may be viewed as a human in vention, see Merivale, Conv. of N. Nations, p. 3. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 255 our time,1 " what are the conditions necessary to constitute a religion ?" " There must," he replies, " be a creed, or conviction, claiming authority over the whole of human life ; a belief or set of beliefs Prelimi nary ex- deliberately adopted respecting human destiny and animation duty, to which the believer inwardly acknowledges elements that all his actions ought to be subordinate. More- to the'suc- over, there must be a sentiment connected with religious this creed, or capable of being evoked by it, suffi-sy' ni> ciently powerful to give it, in fact, the authority over human conduct to which it lays claim in theory." In other words, the success of a religion may be held to result from the relation of its doctrines to the organ of belief in man, from tbe convictions which it furnishes to the faculty of Faith. For Faith, the outcome of our spiritual nature in its apprehension of God, is the vital spark of all Reli gion. If Faith be on the wane, there is a canker at viz. the re- ° lationofits the root of the creed. The external organization, doctrines 1 T • to the the ecclesiastical arrangements, may look vigorous principle • 1n ,, T .... . of faith. enough, but the end draws on. In criticising, then, the claims of a religion to acceptance from the side of experience, i. e. from its past success and present 1 Mr. J. S. Mill, A. Comte and Positivism, p. 133. He adds : " It is a great advantage, though not absolutely indispensable, that this senti ment should crystallize, as it were, round a positive object — if possible, a really existing one— though in all the more important cases only ideally present. Such an object Theism and Christianity offer to the believer." Mr. Lecky, H. R., I. 389, speaking of the first ages of Christianity, remarks that " it was then strictly a religion ; that is to say, it consisted of modes of emotion, and not of intellectual proposi tions." 256 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. condition, and in inferring from these grounds its ulterior prospects, regard must be had to the work which lies before it, to the end which it proposes to itself for accomplishment. Now, all positive Religions1 lay claim to some measure of Divine Ail reii- Revelation ; i. e. to communications from God to gionsproperly man beyond the ordinary modes of information vehicles of J ... revelation and knowledge. These it is its province to propa- nature, gate amongst mankind. Any religion, then, which should altogether divest itself of mysteries, the meeting-points between Nature and that which transcends it ; satisfied with the simple proclamation of moral truths, however refined, or with a re publication of the so-called Religion of Nature, which is, in fact, the apotheosis of moral abstrac tions ; thus carrying no further message to the spirit and higher reason of man ; any such religion may on 1 It has been said very truly that so-called Natural Beligion exists only in books. Beligions which have vital force and influence are positive religions ; that is, they make for themselves a Church, and rites, and dogmas. These dogmas are the solutions of the great problems which have ever disquieted the mind of man — the origin of the world, the origin of evil, its expiation, the future of our race. Quid sumus et quidnam victuri gignimur. Mr. Lecky, H. Rat, I. 182, points out that " Protestant Bationalism regards Christianity as designed to preside over the moral development of mankind In its eyes the moral element of Christianity is as the sun in heaven, and dogmatic systems are as the clouds that intercept and temper the exceeding brightness of its ray." In p. 335, he seems himself to incline to the view that dogmatic systems are a provisional arrangement for semi-barbarous periods, though he admits that Chris tianity is the solitary instance " of a religion not naturally weakened by civilization." Pietism in the hands of Spener, Francke, &c, as also the Bemonstrants, early endeavoured to separate religious morals from dogma. The movement has terminated in Strauss. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 257 these very accounts be suspected. It falls short of the due operation of Religion in itself; which, as a function of human nature, has its own appropriate work by the realization of which it must stand or fall. That work,1 though the contrary is not unfre- are not ,. .. ...... . . concerned quently asserted, is not identical with the inculcation with the i-ii ml inculcation of morality, however nigh, however pure. 1 he of mo- Science of Ethics falls legitimately within the ken ra ' y" of human knowledge, capable of improvement and advance. But when it has led man to the threshold of Religion, a sphere is discovered to him from which he has not borrowed morality.2 Thus the doctrines of a religious system, while properly in accord with morality, transcend by their nature the limits of its teaching.3 Morality is present in them, even if as 1 The most elementary forms of religion seem to afford little trace of ethics. Compare Mr. Tylor, Prim.. Cult., I. 386. In Confucianism, on the other hand, ethics overpower and extinguish the religious ele ment. See Dolliuger, Gentile and Jew, I. 56-8 ; Legge, II. 130, 319. " To give oneself earnestly to the duties due to men, and while respect ing spiritual beings to keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom," was the maxim and practice of its founder. It is not strange to find, from Mr. Cooper (Pioneer of Commerce), that his temples at the present day are deserted. Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, p. 537, says, " Die Religionen haben urspriinglich gar nicht einmal den Zweck der Sittlich- keit°zu dieuen." See Buckle, Hist. Civ., II. 303. " The Church," writes Dean Hook, " was not incorporated to inculcate a code of morals. The inculcation of morality is an incident of Christianity, and not of its essence." — Lives of Archbishops, N. S., I. 3. 2 Compare Guizot, Civ. in E., I. 87, ed. Bohn. Paley's Evid., Pt. II. c. ii., on the morality of the Gospel. Christianity, strictly speaking, is no new code of morals, but an appeal to the highest moral experience. 3 " Tliere is a fine line," writes Coleridge, " which, like stripes of light in light, distinguishes, not divides, the summit of religious Morality from spiritual Religion." — A. R., p. 81. S 258 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. Relation of a vital, yet as a rudimentary element. This fact morality to . . „ . , . , 1 a system of is evident on a comparison ot barbarous with "*"":" civilized races.1 To condemn a creed on moral grounds is not, therefore, properly conclusive, though it is, no doubt, the case that in proportion to its truth it will encourage a purer and more elevated morality,2 which varies in most men in proportion to their practical belief in God and His Proper promises. Its real test on the experimental side test of the i. . . .« success of lies in the accomplishment of its true specific end. a religion And this would seem to be so to educate, to mould and inform the spirit of man, as to restore it to its divine image, and prepare it for a future con tinuous existence.3 This work involves, indeed, moral issues. The correlations and interaction be tween the life that now is and its after-stage very soon become mutually interpenetrated. The spirit, as part at least of the principle of personality in man, is inseparable from those acts or decisions of the will which determine its character, and as includes Revelation instructs us, its ultimate destiny. Reli- moral in- ' •> fluence, gfon then, which occupies itself with the spiritual secondary 1 Compare Mr. Tylor, Prim. C, II. 326. 2 Hence the fine lines of Persius : Compositumjus fasque animo sanctosque recessus Mentis, et incoctum generoso pectus honesto ; Hase cedo ut admoveam templis et farre litabo. 3 Mr. Lecky well observes, H. E. M., I. 363-4, " Reverence and humi lity, a constant sense of the true majesty of God, and of the weakness and sinfulness of man, and a perpetual reference to another world, were the essential characteristics of Christianity, the source of all its power, the basis of its distinctive type." element. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 259 element in man, cannot be divorced from the morality which it must teach or tolerate.1 Its con verts will act upon the principles of their belief, which supply them with a new series of motives, and these will accordingly become evident in the conduct and disposition of the believer. In this A m°ral *¦ test thus manner a moral test may be applied ofthe character applicable and efficacy of the Revelation, for it may fail on either side. On the one hand, it may be found to put " bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter ;" it may put "darkness for light, and light for darkness ;"2 that is, its tenets, as in the case of many heathen idolatries, may corrupt the moral sense ; its positive enactments or promises may confound the natural law of right. On the other hand, its power of moral suasion, though wholesomely directed, may be feeble and inoperative. Its voice may utter no 1 Mr. Buckle, I. 425 (after Hallam) traces the scientific separation of theology from morals to Bishop Cumberland. Mr. Pattison (Ess. and Rev., p. 256) remarks very truly that those ages in which morality alone has been most spoken of have ever been those in which it has been least practised. 2 Isaiah v. 20. Thus Bishop Butler, Anal,U. c. iii. : " Though objections against the evidence of Christianity are most seriously to be considered, yet objections against Christianity itself are in a great measure frivolous ; almost all objections against it, excepting those which are alleged against the particular proofs of its coming from God. I express myself with caution, lest I should be mistaken to vilify reason ; which is, indeed, the only faculty we have wherewith to judge concerning anything, even Revelation itself: or be misunderstood to assert that a supposed revelation cannot be proved false from internal characters. For it may contain clear immoralities or contradictions ; and either of these would prove it false. Nor will I take upon me to affirm, that nothing else can pos sibly render any supposed revelation incredible." And again : " It is the province of reason to judge of the morality of the Scripture," &c. s 2 260 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. uncertain sound, but yet it may fail to nerve man- ofaprac- kinfI for the battle with evil. The standard, then, tical na ture, of the truth, and hence of the permanence of a reli gious system, apart from its particular evidences, will appear first and properly in the character of the hold gained by it on the spirit and conscience of those who profess it ; then, by consequence, but in a secondary degree, in its general moral effects as exhibited in practice. If without marked effect, or if immoral in tendency, a presumption arises against its truth, stronger or weaker in the former case in proportion to the length of date and nature of the circumstances attending its operation. Suc cess upon certain occasions affords, it is true, but slender guarantee for truth, for the result may be differently explained. But when itself the issue of unfavourable conjunctures and contrary to ordinary expectation, or when steadily continuous, however slow the process,1 it raises in the mind an almost instinctive conviction of its providential character and ultimate triumph. Different - § 3- "Very different reasons, as might be expected, asto^he bave been assigned to the rise and first successes of sucIks of Christianity, according to the varying temperament Chris tianity, i " The Christian body," says Dr. Mozley (B. L., p. 140), " is enlarged by growth and stationariness combined : each successive age con tributing its quota, and the acquisition, once made, remaining And the same principle of growth can at last convert the world : how ever slow the process, the result will come, if Christianity always keeps the ground it gets : for that which always gains and never loses must ultimately win the whole." Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 261 of particular thinkers. It has been regarded by some in the light of a moral protest against gene ral and overwhelming corruption. By others it is viewed as a stage in the history of superstitions, a phase and a necessary phase of mental enthusiasm. By others it is admitted to have embodied a large moral advance. By some, again, its rapid pro gress is explained through the advantage of an unrivalled organization. But those who attribute its success to its moral excellences, neglect to take into account its qualities as a religion. They ignore Neglect its . . * qualities as the fact that it is to these, and not to any mere a religion. ethical superiority, that its real advance is due. But, if it be regarded as but one among the many superstitions which had preceded it in East and West, the fact of its success, and still more of its continuance, remains yet to be explained. To the liberal zeal of Christianity, freed from the fetters of the Mosaic Law, Gibbon assigns much of the success view of • -r. i • • -i Gibbon of its preaching. But other superstitions, m the times of the Empire, were equally yielding, equally 1 Decline and Fall, c. xv. : " Under these circumstances Christianity offered itself to the world, armed with the strength of the Mosaic Law, and delivered from the weight of its fetters," &c. If, indeed, the remarks of this great historian be understood of a comparison between the genius of the Christian religion and the class-interests of previous systems as well as of the existing state of Roman society, they might well be received as a fair tribute to the intrinsic superiority of Chris tianity. M. Littre' (fitudes sur les Barbares et le Moyen-Age, p. 2) has some true and fine remarks on the sterility of the results arrived at by Gibbon, who in recounting the Fall of the Empire, takes no heed of the regeneration of the world by Christianity. 262 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. pliant in receiving proselytes, without being equally rewarded. And the intolerance of the simple-minded followers of Jesus for all other forms of belief; their impolitic vehemence against immoral institutions ; their somewhat narrow im patience of current philosophical systems; their jealous secrecy as regards the mysteries of the faith, while little in accord with the liberality to inade- which such great results have been attributed, are quale. ' known to have proved stumbling-blocks to a gene ral reception of the new Religion. It does not seem to have occurred to this writer that the secret of the success of Christianity may well have lain in the harmony of its doctrines with the re ligious needs of the time, the deliverance which it held forth from impending ruin at the end of the True world, by many deemed so near;1 the inward causes . of its calm and satisfaction which it wrought on the triumph. . minds of its converts ; the stores of spiritual strength which it instilled under circumstances of much worldly depression. These were its legitimate in struments of triumph.2 The miracles which it claimed, whatever part they may have had in the 1 This subject, it is well known, is especially brought forward by Gibbon, u. s. But he treats it in the light of a vulgar superstition, which must have been at least as dangerous through the discovery of its fallacious expectation, as powerful in the cogency of the alarm which it created. 2 " No other religion ever combined so many forms of attraction as Christianity, both from its intrinsic excellence, and from its manifest adaptation to the special wants of the time." — Lecky, H. E. M. I. 419. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 263 persuasion of unbelievers, were shared by it with rival faiths. Its virtues, like its doctrines, were certainly its own. The pen of our great historian, though dipped in gall, does not disallow the moral reformation introduced by Christianity, enforcing, Testtn|jed as it did, repentance for sin and blamelessness ofmoralre- ' 1 formation life.1 " He that nameth the name of Christ, let effected. him depart from iniquity," was long the rule and mark of Christian converts. Nor was this a result of which the causes remain unexplained. They are patient in the character of the Religion preached, as well as in the circumstances of the ag-e which received it. The doctrines of Christ- character 0 of its doc- ianity contained within them the core of man's trines. moral regeneration, a supply to his spiritual desti tution, motives to repentance laid in the atoning work of God for man ; motives to new action, founded evermore on promises of Divine grace.2 Hence the peculiar characteristics of Christian virtue, issuing in a new moral type built upon the 1 For testimonies to an admitted moral superiority on the part of the first Christians, compare Pliny, Epp., X. 97 ; Galen (ap. Gieseler, I. 126, ed. Clark) ; Justin M., Apol., II. i. xii. ; Parcen., c. xxxv. ; Athenag., Leg., c. ii. xi. ; Ep. ad Diogn., c. v. vi. ; Tertull., Apol, c. 45; Origen, c. Cels., III. 30; VII. 48, 49; I. 67: to Svopa tov 'Itjo-ov . . . ipwoiei Bavpao-tav riva -npaorrrra, Kai KaTao-ToXrjv toO rjBovs, Kal (piXavBpamiav, Kal xPV°"r^TrlTa> Kai r]pep&rrfra iv rois pr) Sta ra j3i ' period. new spirit which stole upon the philosophy of the age, in its broader and more eclectic character under the cosmopolitan system of the Empire, in its introspective and subjective tone, a temper of thought not ill-suited to the announcement of Christian morality.2 But the increasing corrup- nonC°arndP" tion of the outer world» against which Stoicism need of re- spent its strength in vain, despite the wholesome s 10 1 aii on t influences of daily duties and domestic intercourse, called for more drastic and intrinsic remedies. The need of a religion which might reconcile and 1 See Mr. Lecky's powerful, and in many respects adequate, inquiry into the moral causes which preceded the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire.— H. E. M., I. c. iii. Compare also Dean Merivale (Hist, of the Empire, VI. 356 ff.) ; and especially Neander's (I. 6-117) masterly review of the religious state of the world at the coming of Christ ; together with Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, I. 347 370 ¦ II 284-9. ' ' 2 See Prof. Lightfoot's learned disquisition on the relations of Stoicism to Christianity (St. Paul and Seneca), in his Commentary on the Epistle to the PhiUppians. He shows that Stoicism itself was indebted to Oriental sources, and probably to Christian teaching. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 265 in practice absorb the highest truths of conflicting philosophical systems was more and more felt. Its sanctions secured to the soul of man what centuries of argument and discussion had failed to effect. No closer relation than this needs to be sought between Pagan morality and Christian influence. The fixed idea of the religion of the time was that ^ to 0 religious of a national Providence, addressed on the part of ideas. man by ceremonial observances.1 The disintegra tion of social superstitions was due to their own inability to meet the wants of the period and the tendencies of the age.2 Credulity gave way before a real and growing anxiety to learn and know the truth — truth which would set men free from many a cruel and degrading practice. The same pro- The dr- cuius 1 3.n cos vidential arrangement which, having first created favourable the Macedonian Empire and ordained the Roman troduction Conquest, had prepared, against the promulgation tianity, of Christianity, a language common alike to East and West,3 had reserved for it an era markedly 1 It culminated in the Deification of Emperors. For an example of the declining condition of the old state-religion, see Tac, Ann., III. 58. 2 Thus Chrysostom writes (d. Babyla, Opp., II. 540) : Itt oiSevos ivoxXr)6elcrd rrore rr/s 'EXXrjviKrjs deiaidaipovias rj rrXdvrj dip' eavrrjs io~j3eo-Br], Kal rrepl iavrrjv Bieneae, KaBdrrep tg)v o-apdraiv ra rrjKrjdovi rrapaboBevTa paxpa, Kal pnhevos avra fiXdirTovros airopara (pBeiperai Kal SiaXvBevra Kara ptKpbv dapavl^erai. See ap. Gieseler, I. 321. Com pare Plutarch (d. Superstit., c. xxxiii.). It was remarked that there were no martyrs for heathen doctrines. " Quis eorum," says August., in Psalm. 141, § 20, " comprehensns est in sacrificio, cum his legibus ista prohiberentur, et non negavitV" " Paganism," writes Dean Meri- vale, " had no tap-root of moral renovation." 3 " GraBca leguntur in omnibus fere gentibus," says Cicero, pro Archid, 266 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. favourable for the introduction of the new doc trines, combining, as they did, a basis of historical facts1 with an appeal to personal religious con sciousness. " No other religion," it has been truly observed, " had ever united so many distinct ele ments of power and attraction ; so much ethical reality with a profound sympathy in human trials ; but an- so much feeling with so much truth." 2 This, swering to its distinc- however, must not lead us to forget that it is in tive tenets. the distinctive tenets of Christianity that we must look for the true causes of this very combination : in the spiritual convictions which if aroused and satisfied ; in the religious emotions which it con trolled ; in the promises which it alone fulfilled.3 c. x. Plutarch considered it the mission of Alexander, rrp> 'EXXdSa a-neipai. Compare Neander, I. 67, and some remarks by Mr. J. S. Mill (Positivism, p. 24). See also Droysen (Gesch. des Hellenismus). It must not be forgotten that the tendencies of an age are only the conse quences of its historical circumstances. 1 " Up to this time there had never existed among mankind any historical truth on which a religious faith could be based ; nor yet any philosophic faith founded on a personal religious consciousness residing within man's own breast, and finding its credentials and interpretation there. ' What is truth ?' asks Pilate. ' What can this barbarian teach us ? ' exclaims the Athenian." — Bunsen, God in Hist, III. pp. 66, 67 E. T. ¦ My line of thought in this Lecture leads me to contrast the permanent change of moral teaching, which accompanied Christianity, with the world as it found it. This was, however, fundamentally due to the miraculous element which was inherent in its, enouncements. This course of reflection is most ably worked out by Dr. Mozley (Bamp. Led., p. 170 ff.). 2 Lecky, H. E. M., I. 412-414. s If Christianity had been only or principally an intellectual move ment consequent on previous phases of thought, it would not have commenced with the poor. Compare Neander, I. 9. Dean Milman, Latin Christ, I. 451, has some good remarks on the strangeness and originality of the fundamental Christian ideas to the Roman world, and the consequent difficulty of their reception. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 267 In these and not in its moral worth, however highly estimated, lay the talisman of its triumph. The doctrine of salvation by belief, "which, then, for the first time, flashed upon the world," gave the real death-blow to philosophical scepticism.1 It was the new-born consciousness of sin, which, instances. awakening remorse, lit up the sense of responsi bility and turned it inward on the soul, that invested human life with a solemnity and import never before felt ; which opened,2 as they had never before been stirred, the lips of prayer. Pliny had deemed it but a pollution to the Infinite Spirit of God to concern Himself with the petty affairs of men.3 It was the Christian's privilege of suffering for and with a suffering Redeemer 4 (thus 1 "Apud Ciceronem et Blatonem aliosque ejusmodi soriptores multa sunt acute dicta et leniter calentia ; sed in iis omnibus non invenio, Venite ad Me."— Augustin., in Matt. xi. 28. See Confi, VII. ix. 13. Carlyle remarks : " The old world knew nothing of conversion. Instead of an Ecce Homo, they had only some Choice of Hercules. It was a new attained progress in the moral development of man ; hereby has the Highest come home to the bosoms of the most limited." — S. R., p. 136. For individual examples of the manner in which Christianity wrought upon educated minds, see Justin Martyr (Dial, c Tryph.), Augustine (Confi), Synesius, and the Reeogn. Clement., I. sub init. 2 See M. Denis, Idees Morales, II. 234, and Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, II. 75-7. A true Roman prayer may be found in Cato, Re Rust., c. 41. 3 Hist. Nat, II. iv., VII. i. : " Irridendum vero, agere curam rerum humanarum illud, quidquid est summum. Anne tarn tristi atque multiplici ministerio non pollui credamus dubitemusve ? " Comp. Cic, Nat. D., II. ii. ; Invent, I. xxix. ; and Seneca, Epp., 41, 95. He thinks Providence sometimes cares for men. 4 Compare Clem. Rom., ad Cor. I. xlix., and Ep. ad Diogn., c. x. Prof. Lightfoot (u. s., p. 326) well observes : " The moral teaching and example of our Lord will ever have the highest value in their own pro vince ; but the core of the Gospel does not lie here. Its distinctive 268 IHE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. Thisinfluence wholly a spiritual one, no mere ascetic truth that pain is good, and no evil); the requital of love for love, of sympathy for man in return for the sympathy of God ; l which transmuted the dross of universal luxury into the fine gold of the noblest self-sacrifice and heroic self-control. And thus, lastly, it was far more tbe hope of eternal life than the fear of ever lasting torment,2 which, to the Christian convert, dignified earthly sorrows and levelled worldly enjoyments. § 5. Thus the spiritual character of the hold exercised by primitive Christianity on the lives and consciences of its converts must be considered a fact beyond dispute. It is attested both by the character is that in revealing a Person it reveals also a principle of life — - the union with God in Christ, apprehended by faith in the present, and assured to us hereafter by the Eesurrection. This Stoicism could not give, and therefore its dogmas and precepts were barren." 1 " The great principle of vicarious suffering, which forms the centre of Christianity, spreads itself through the subordinate parts of the system, and is the pervading if not the invariable law of Christian beneficence." — I. Taylor, Nat. Hist, of Enthus., p. 162. " The pre cepts and examples of the Gospel struck a chord of pathos which the noblest philosophies of antiquity had never reached. For the first time the aureole of sanctity encircled the brow of sorrow, and invested it with a mysterious charm." — Lecky, Hist. Rat, II. 266. 2 In this matter M. Comte takes a truer view than Gibbon or Mr. Lecky. — See Phil. Pos., V. 422. Christianity, he thinks, preserved to itself the advantage of leaving the nature of future pains and rewards open. — See also IV. 190. On the influence of immortality as a Christian motive, compare Lucian, Mart. Peregrin., § 13. On the current views of immortality, see Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, II. 143-6. M. Bio remarks that the earliest delineations of Christian art represent ideas of joy and felicity. Conceptions of Hell and Purgatory come much later, and from heathen sources. There were Roman philosophers who erected to their friends tombs dedicated " Somno seternali." — Orelli, I. p. 262. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 269 voice of Christian Apologists, by the unwilling witness of adversaries,1 and still more convincingly by institutions and social and moral changes which remain as monuments of the influence of nascent Christianity. Testimonies to the active moral force but ex- . . . . 1 . hibiting of the new Religion abound, indeed, in the earlier moralresults. Fathers.2 Virtues, hitherto little, if at all, recog nized, now made rudimentary graces ; passive endurance ; forgiveness of injuries ; resignation under calamity, not as a necessity,3 but as a duty of the human spirit ; humility and meekness ; benevolent unselfish effort replacing a narrow instances. Egoism ;4 fortitude under pain and death for the cause of belief; a sense of sin, not as an outward offence, but as an inward stain ; a strengthened 1 As Epictetus, M. Aurelius, Julian. Cf. Lucian, d. Mort Pereg., XIII. 2 E.g. Justin M., Apol, I. xiv. xxv.; II. xii. Dial. c. Tr., 110, 119, 131. Tertullian, Apol., xxxix. Minuc. F., c. ix. Lactant., D. Inst, III. 26 ; V. 18. Origen, c. Cels., I. 67. See the temperate statements of Gieseler, I. 298, and Bobertson, C. H., I. 274. Compare some vivid remarks of Mr. Allies, Formation of Christianity, pp. 269, 270 : " The Christian faith had laid its hand on the individual man," &c. 3 In striking contrast, therefore, to the Mahometan virtue of sub mission, perhaps implied in the name " Islam." In Phil. Pos., IV. 190, Comte coldly analyzes this quality, which he thinks only compatible with the acceptance of laws of Nature : " Quant a la resignation reli- gieuse et surtout Chretienne elle n'est, a vrai dire, malgre' tant d'empha- tiques eloges qu'une prudente temporisation qui fait supporter les malheurs presents en vue d'une ineffable felicity ulterieure." * " Fecerunt itaque civitates duas amores duo, terrenam scilicet amor sui usque ad contemptum Dei, coelestem vero amor Dei usque ad con- temptum sui." — August., Civ. D., XXIV. xxviii. " Le principe qui dominait l'antiquite etait l'egoi'sme du plus fort, tant6t celui de l'^ltat, tantot celui de l'individu. La personnalite de l'homme, sa liberte, ses droits naturels, etaient meconmis." — Schmidt, Essai, p. 116. 270 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. conviction of the freedom and spirituality of the human will ; conversion from habits of vice, sudden, yet lasting ; the consolations of faith and prayer as the outpouring of the soul to its Re deemer ; the renovation of domestic virtues and proprieties, impaired by the vices of Roman society and the evil effects of slavery ; the duty of alms giving and active charity ; : the recognition of the rights of conscience and of religious freedom ; the severance of spiritual from political obligation ; a higher estimate of the value of human life; the sense of a real brotherhood among mankind, in volving religious equality with slaves ; 2 a moral ideal suited to high and low ; the replacement of hereditary priesthoods by common religious func tions ; an operative faith in the reality of another world ; these and other kindred ideas, pregnant with fruitful effects, bore witness to the power and originality of the Faith of Christ in regenerating tbe heart of man, when first it broke, like the light of morning, on the world,3 as upon men awakened 1 " Ad hanc partem (sc. beneficentife) philosophorum nulla prascepta sunt." — Lactant., D. Inst, VI. x. 2 Comp. Archdeacon Lee's Lectt. on Eccles. Hist., pp. 24-29 ; and on the operation of the Christian doctrines, Merivale, Lectt. pp. 155, 156. On the general services of Christianity at this epoch, Ozanam, Civilis., I. c. i. 3 asosrep ol tov virvov diroo-eia-dpevoi eiBeas iyprjyopacrav. — Clem. Alex., Peed.., I. vi. § 28. Mr. Mill on Liberty, p. 22, has some dis paraging remarks on the ease with which Christian precepts may be acquiesced in without their gaining a practical hold on the believer. Lange, Gesch. des Mat, pp. 530, 531, observes truly, that amidst many analogies between the condition of modern society and that of the Roman Empire, the differences induced by Christian ideas are palpable. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 271 out of slumber to renewed and vigorous life. The extinction, gradual but complete, of gladiatorial Vast moral • • p • ¦ i reforms. shows ; J of exposure of infants, and infanticide ; 2 the establishment of orphanages, refuges, alms houses, and hospitals;3 the emancipation of slavery;4 the sanctification of the marriage tie;5 the foundation (at least after the decay of all Imperial institutions) of primary and public schools ;6 are standing proofs of the tendency and influence of Christianity in apprehending and ad vancing the true welfare of mankind. These are 1 Compare here Ozanam, u. s., II. c. ii. ; and Luthardt, Apolog., pp. 243, 244, E. T. ; Lecky, Hist. Rat, II. 264. 2 reKvoyovovaiv aXX' ov ptirrovm to yevvispeva. — Ep. ad Diogn., c. v. See Milman, Lat Chr., I. 347. 3 See Gieseler, II. 60. Xnporpotpia and opapavorpoopia are known to date from the fourth century ; so also rrraxorpoopeia, voo-oKopeia, £eva>ves, and £evoSoxeia. The Bao-iXeias was a hospital for lepers. The charitable offices of the Farabolani, Fossani, or Komdrai (" ultimum illud et maximum pietatis officium peregrinorum et pauperum sepultura," Lactant., VI. xii.), should be added. On the non-existence of hospitals and infirmaries in Pagan times, see Schmidt, u. s., p. 75. * Comp. Bobertson, C. H., II. 229. Gregory Naz. and Chrysostom insist largely on the duty ; but the first instances are long before : e. g. Hermes, Prefect of Rome under Trajan, freed 1250 ; Chromatius under Diocletian, 1400, &c. Under this head fall all measures for the im provement of serfs by Gregory the Great, the laws of Constantine and Justinian, &c. Comp. Guizot, Civ. en Fr., II. 125, III. 137, ed. Bohn. Milman, Lat. Chr., I. 338, 365. Lecky, H. Rat, II. 256-258. The Romans often exposed and put to death sick slaves. — Suet., Claud., c. xxv. 5 Even with the Jews, marriage was only a political institution. Contrast with this the touching treatise of Tertull., ad Uxor., II. ix., &c. Compare Milman, Lat Chr., I. 344. 6 The first mention of Christian primary schools occurs in the fourth century in Chrysostom and Basil. See in Guizot, u. s., I. 351 ; II. 100. There is a treatise by M. Lalanne on the Influence des Peres de l'Eglise sur I 'education publique. 272 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. its fuller triumphs, the records of a world-wide humanity, new in motive and spirit as obligatory on the followers of Him Who died for all men. Difficulty Yet it is far more in its action upon individuals, of follow- . ing it into where Historv leaves no trace ; in calm and silent private . " and per- influences shed upon personal character, as genera tion after generation has worked its work aud passed ; in the purity of domestic life, in souls attuned to the practice of human charities, to the privilege of suffering, to a departure full of im mortality ; that the real work of Christianity as compared with other religions must be sought and found.1 Biography, more than History, is its true record. Never before was the reflection of a Divine Image mirrored so clearly in the human soul or in the practice of mankind. The summits of Christian heroism in martyr, saint, and con fessor, first touched with the tints of Heaven, were 1 See some good remarks in Robertson, C. Hist., I. 363 ; and Lecky, H. E. M., II. 156 : — " Christianity has suffered peculiarly from this cause. The spheres in which its superiority over other religions is most incontestable, are precisely those which history is least capable of realizing." " The record of the spiritual Church," says Isaac Taylor, Enthus., p. 191, " is ' on high,' not in the tomes that make our libraries proud." " The influence of religion," writes Paley, Ev., II. c. vii., " must be perceived, if perceived at all, in the silent course of private domestic life . . . The kingdom of heaven is within us. That which is the substance of the religion ; its hopes and consolations ; its inter mixture with the thoughts by day and by night ; the devotion of the heart ; the control of appetite ; the steady direction of the will to the commands of God, is necessarily invisible. Yet upon these depend the virtue and the happiness of millions." Christianity, as a system of human restoration, works from the individual to the general. See a fine passage in Milman, Lat. Chr., I. 24. Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 273 the first to shine out in the full radiance of moral splendour. But the warm rays were not long in winning their way to valley and to plain, shedding abroad their gifts of fruitfulness and life. § 6. Thus the hold of primitive Christianity on Superi- , . ,. -\ 1 d i °rity and the minds and consciences ot men was both of the force of the strongest and of the highest kind. For it sufficed element in to effect, through much individual suffering and chris-ive sacrifice, a moral revolution in the world; and ianly' completely changed, by moral force alone, the exist ing religions. And it must be observed that the changes effected, fraught indeed with very impor tant moral results, were brought about by strictly spiritual convictions. These are to be assigned as the true causes of the movement. Here lies the real point at issue with much of the critical philo sophy of our time.1 It is evidently possible, in reviewing the career of Christianity, to scan it from more than one point of view, provided only that these be not mutually inconsistent. Charges of failure are necessarily incompatible with admis sions of success. But the allowed successes may be variously explained. The benefits effected for The ser- vices of mankind by the Religion of Jesus Christ can hardly chris- now, as facts, be disputed, though they have some- sometimes times been forgotten by too hasty objectors. At us'JSl- t0 1 Neander (I. 3) remarks : " Because Christianity enters readily into ^^ '" all that is human, striving to assimilate it to its own nature, and to in terpenetrate it with its own power, it appears on a superficial view as if it were itself only a product resulting from the combination of the dif ferent spiritual elements it had drawn together." T unfounded. 274 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. present it is more common to attribute them to the influence of consummate positive institutions ; or at least to the operation of natural causes in such a manner as to eviscerate all native force and vigour in the supernatural elements of Chris tianity. 4 Neither the founder of Positivism,1 nor his most discerning followers, have denied the signal services of Christ's Religion to mankind. They contend, however, that this has been the result of the circumstances of the times, due really to the necessary evolution of ideas in intellectual and This view social advance. It is important, therefore, to remark how closely the effects of our Religion may be traced to the doctrines of its creed. No philo sophical improvements, no uprooting of effete institutions,2 no craving after moral reforms, no 1 Comte remarks, Phil. Pos., V. 328, that Catholicism (with him the embodiment of Christianity) has never been fairly criticised, having con stantly been the subject either of unlimited panegyric or boundless de traction. He admits the earliest ideal of the Christian Church (V. 229), viz. as an universal spiritual power independent of the temporal, to be the greatest triumph humanity has yet achieved. He regards Catholicism as having done its proper work from the fifth to the thirteenth centuries, placing the acme from the middle of the eleventh to the close of the thirteenth. Of this he writes (V. 326) : " Le systdme catholique du moyen-age forme le chef-d'oeuvre politique de la sagesse humaine." But everywhere he denies (e. g. V. 418, 419) that the moral excellence of Christianity is due to its doctrines, but only to its social constitution. M. Guizot (I. 85) more truly observes that it is " by moral life, by in ternal movement as well as by order and discipline, that institutions take possession of society. The Church mooted all the great questions which interest man : busying itself with the problems of his nature and the chances of his destiny. Hence its great influence on modern civilization." 2 Thus M. Littre (Barbares, p. 231), " Le Christianisme naquit de Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 275 agitation for political changes, no mere variation of social conditions, nor all these combined, are sufficient to account for the conversion to the Faith of the Nazarene of the Roman world. The cha racter and history of that change are, if dimly, adequately known and understood. A set of facts its true ... . ,.« history. and historical circumstances, making up the life, and death, and thoughts of a Galilean peasant, won the ear first of peasants like himself, of women and of slaves ;x by-and-by, of the men of thought and action ; and afterwards of nations and govern ments. It was found little by little to contain the elements of an universal religion, and to proclaim a Revelation congenial to the wants of mankind at large. In it the ends of the earth met. The leaven of an Oriental mode of faith wrought for the first time in harmony with the genius of the Aryan peoples. But its advance was through personal ^nop|^" influences, from heart to heart still more than from personal, 7 ttien puD- mind to mind. Had Christianity been only orlic' principally an intellectual movement, consequent l'union du Mcnothelsme helireu avec la philosophie grecque." In pp. 65, 68, he draws out admirably the cessation of Polytheism through the " malaise religieux " of the time. Christianity, he adds, supervened, and became for the many what philosophy had been for the few, a religion essentially moral (?) and open to all ; &c. Compare Mr. Lecky, H. E. M., I. 356 " Combining the Stoical doctrine of universal brotherhood, the Greek predilection for the amiable qualities, and the Egyptian spirit of reverence and religious awe, Christianity acquired from the first an intensity and universality of influence which none of the philosophies it had superseded had approached." This species of Eclecticism assumes everything and proves nothing. 1 See Origen, c. Cels., I. xxvii., III. ix. lv. T 2 276 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VI. on previous phases of speculation, it could not have commenced with the unlettered and poor. The mine of sympathy, which it opened, with all the deepest wants of man's spiritual nature, never afterward failed in its yield. In the hearts of the multitude it proved a source of moral regeneration. When placed in the crucible of philosophical criti cism, it transmuted all baser elements of human Thought, and survived the test. The thinkers of Alexandria, Athens, and Rome, gradually allied themselves with its teaching. When subjected to the rough handling of Barbarian hordes, it still called for conquered. The example of a Divine Life, the self-sacri- . fice, sacrifice of a Divme Atonement, meeting the two fundamental conceptions of all Religion, ancient as well as modern, the need of Sanctification and of Justification, wrought uniformly and universally. It appealed to latent instincts of spiritual belief.1 Sinful indulgence had, indeed, to be cast aside, Sacrifices, meet to purge the conscience, were de manded of habits, prepossessions, of the ordinary weaknesses and average endurance of mankind. Women faced the pang of separation more cruel than death, the ruin of their homes, the terrors of martyrdom. Men counted the cost of social degra- 1 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat, I. 389, observes: "Of all systems the world has ever seen, the philosophies of Ancient Greece and Eome appealed most strongly to the sense of virtue : and Christianity to the sense of sin. The ideal of the first was the majesty of self-relying humanity : the ideal of the other was the absorption of the manhood into God." Lect. VI.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 277 dation and loss, and set it down for gain. From what motive then, ethical or physical ? No doubt from a sense of duty ; but of what duty ? The instinctive call to love Him, Who " had first loved them," and to imitate His goodness.1 A new con- based on _ ' ° the lmita- ception of the eiffc of life, of the value of man's tion of ..... .. . Christ. soul, of its responsibilities, of its capacities, of its dangers, and its hopes, was opened out before them in the Incarnation and Intercession of the Son of Grod, in the abiding presence of His Spirit among men. Who would not now strive after the Eternal, the Divine? § 7. The hour came when Christianity, no longer Estabiish- an oppressed or tolerated faith, was seated on the Chris- tianity throne of the Caesars.2 Under Constantine it passed from being a set of beliefs into an institution ; from a religion into a church, with revenues, organiza tion, an independent machinery of its own. As a moral or spiritual influence only, Christianity, it may well be, could not have survived the conflict with barbarism. The doctrines believed are indeed the true core of a religion ; yet there may be times 1 Compare Neander (Memorials of Christian Life, pp. 56, 57, ed. Bohn). Thus Ep. ad Diogn., c. x. rrios dya-iTrio-eis tov ovtws Trpoayairr)- aavrd ae ; dyairr\ sacrifice : not the mere maceration of the flesh of a fakir. In the older and nobler forms of monastic life the loftier ideal combining active good with personal craving after holiness was still present. From the cloister came the most zealous Bishops : the most devoted and successful missionaries. In later times this spirit revived in the Mendicant and Preaching, and, in a different direction, in the Mili- 1 Milman, IV. 156. Compare Neander, Ch. H., VII. 325, and Lecky, H. E. M., II. 99, who remarks on the identity of feeling expressed by Sir T. Brown, Rel. Med., II. § 2 : "I give no alms to satisfy the hunger of my brother, but to fulfil and accomplish the will and command of my God." 2 Cf. Id. VI. 306. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 303 tary Orders. They spent themselves gladly for their brethren. The very capacity which has often been its ten- . . . . . dency to remarked in Monasticism of renewing its youth and seif-rege- . . . . . neration. reverting to the first principles of its constitution proves the same thing.1 There was the true salt within : and it had not lost its savour. The spirit of self-sacrifice was working still : and on the inten sity of that spirit, it has been truly said, " depends the moral elevation of an age, and upon its course the religious future of the world." The faith which forged this instrument to its use, was no baseless dream : it struck deep into the roots of human nature, and drew upon its most heroic qualities.2 Its J^sP|jjntt. best enthusiasm became its minister: it wrought sia-sm- its appointed work till " the history of self-sacrifice has become the history of the action of Christianity upon the world."3 The lofty and unworldly con ceptions, born of the faith of Jesus Christ, gave it its type and beauty ; and so called it into being. To their influence from first to last, while pure and uncorrupt, it has borne its witness of truth. 1 Comp. Robertson, C. K, II. 698. See Ranke, Popes, II. i. 3. 2 " The Middle Ages," says Montalembert, " were the heroic age of Christianity." Comp. Lecky, H. Rat, II. 267. 3 Lecky, u. s., p. 405. Milman, I. 234, thus sums up the benefits secured by Western Monasticism : " It compensated for its usurpation of the dignity of a higher and holier Christianity, by becoming the guardian of what was valuable, the books and arts of the old world ; the missionary of what was holy and Christian in the new civilization ; the chief maintainer, if not the restorer, of agriculture in Italy ; the culti vator of the forests and morasses of the North ; the apostle of the heathens which dwelt beyond the pale of the Roman empire." See also Hallam, M. A., III. 301. 304 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. The § 2. In a review, however rapid, of tbe spirit and efficacy of medieval Christianity, some estimate of the Crusades can hardly be omitted. They have been said to "have revealed Europe as Christian,"1 and form, indeed, the turning-point of its history from Different the eleventh to the thirteenth century. Their good of their and ill, their motive and character, have been variously estimated, and will always be diversely apprehended. Unjust, chimerical, unwise ; lavish of blood and treasure, beggaring families and nations : squandering the lives of a Barbarossa and a Saint Louis ; the causes and pretexts of misery, immo rality, and tyranny at home, of increased ecclesias tical domination in Pope and clergy;2 yet no less the source of subsequent heresy and revolution : they have been held up to condemnation as the type-instance of the fatality attaching to religious wars. Yet it is probably a truer view which re gards them as a defensive and not an aggressive struggle ; 3 as entered upon to raise a bulwark against Mahommedanism in Palestine rather than 1 See Guizot, I. 149. 2 " The Crusades had made the Bope not merely the spiritual but in some sort the military suzerain of Europe." — Milman, III. 439. On the miseries and ill-effects attaching to the Crusades, comp. Hallam M. A., I. 36, III. 307. 3 See a good summary in Canon Robertson's Oh. Hist., II. 644, 645, and compare Gibbon, c. lxi. jOn the defensive character of the Crusades, comp. De Maistre (Du Rape, Liv. IV., CEuvres, p. 450). Gibbon, indeed, (c. Iviii.) observes, somewhat narrowly, that " Balestine could add nothing to the strength or safety of the Latins." Milman comments fairly that the whole question of the justice of the Crusades turns on this point (VII. 185, od. Smith). Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 305 in Spain. If fraught with temporary evils, they ultimate yet abounded in ultimate benefits ; knitting the rendered nations of Europe in one common sentiment, in one Europe? ° common interest : and that by a holy bond draw ing each knight and baron from petty personal strifes to strike for a hallowed cause : educating them in the spirit of chivalry and generous compe tition with the stranger races of East and West,1 and borrowing from these their different civiliza tion ; navigation and commerce were improved : the wealth of the trading classes increased : the number of fiefs lessened, and the anarchy of the times thus reduced. Many of these results, it is Many of . ... n . these in- true, may be judged to be incidental to the course cidentai. of affairs ; and this, it may be said, cannot be con sidered to belong to the framework of the Christian system. They show, however, the manner in which under the Providence of God the operation of Furmsn an_ -i example of Christianity blended with the career of civilization the °P.era- •> tion of and improvement, till it becomes difficult to assign Christian x . ° influence to either its relative degree of importance. Had on the ... p -rt i course of Christian zeal in the person of a Bernard never civiiiza- kindled the spirit of the Crusades ; while it is pos sible that Christian Europe might have succumbed in detail to the attacks of Islam, it is certain that the progress of material improvement must have been indefinitely delayed. But, whatever estimate 1 See Guizot, I. 154. Gibbon thinks the advantage wholly on the side of the West. See Mr. Lecky's remarks, H. E. M., II. 266, 267. 306 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. In them selves a re markable witness to the power of religious influence, counter vailing Mahometan fanati- be taken of their political or social results, there can be but one view of the religious import of the Crusades.1 They stand forth, the proud answer of Christendom to tbe challenge thrown down by the creed of Mahomet. If its votaries were ready- minded to seek death on the battle-field in witness of their faith, so too did the followers of Christ. They wended even gladly on a pilgrimage of mar tyrdom ; and gave joyfully their lives, as they sup posed, in the cause of their dear and outraged Lord. Not indeed, as the Moslem, to behold the face of Allah through the blood of the infidel : but to win back from pollution the honoured shrine of Beth lehem and the ever-hallowed Mount of Calvary.2 1 Speaking of the English Crusaders, Matthew of Baris says, " Indig- num quippe judicabant animarum suarum salutem omittere et obse- quium ccelestis Regis clientelaj regis alicujus terreni postponere." — Hist. Maj., p. 671, quoted by Mr. Buckle, H. Civ., If. 6, who adds that the first tax ever imposed in England on personal property was in 1166, for the Crusade. 2 To chase these Bagans in those holy fields Over whose acres walked those Blessed Feet, Which fourteen hundred years ago were nailed For our advantage on the bitter Cross. Gibbon's well-known criticism that " the God of the Christians is not a local Deity, and that the recovery of Bethlem or Calvary, his cradle or his tomb, will not atone for the violation of the moral precepts of the Gospel," will be seen to be beside the mark of the present argument, which turns not on the justice or propriety of religious wars, but on their mode of exhibiting the spiritual character of an age and the power of religion as a practical motive. "The Crusades," Dean Milman admits, " are monuments of human folly ; but to which of the more regular wars of civilized Europe, waged for personal ambition or national jealousy, will our calmer reason appeal as monuments either of human justice or human wisdom? " Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 307 It has been hinted that these were, after all, the superstitious efforts of a dreaming age, inspired by an unreasoning enthusiasm ; which is past never to return, and indicates accordingly the decline of the spirit of religion. " The Crusader's sword," it is said,1 " has long been shattered ; his achievements idolized by the poet and the novelist. Liberty, and not theology, is the enthusiasm of tbe nineteenth century." Yet the same writer has elsewhere j^dex- frankly admitted,2 that " while ignorance and error l^™d of have, no doubt, often directed the heroic spirit into enthu- . siasm, wrong channels, and have sometimes even made it a cause of great evil to mankind ; yet the power of Christianity to evoke and sustain the highest, the most enlarged conceptions, can cease only with the annihilation of tbe moral nature of mankind." We may be pardoned, then, if we connect these triumphs of tbe strength of our holy Religion in less enligh tened ages, not merely with man's moral capacities, but with his spiritual insight : if we see in them not only a possible but an actual union of the heroic with the religious virtues, of the patriot with according the saint,3 after the apprehension of those far-off know- times ; if we read in them an evidence of a Faith the time. 1 See Lecky, Hist, of Rationalism, II. 244. 2 lb., p. 405. 3 " In the Middle Ages the saintly type being the standard of perfec tion, the heroic type was almost entirely unappreciated. The nearest approach to it was exhibited by the Crusader, whose valour was never theless all subordinated to superstition, and whose whole career was of the nature of a penance." — Lecky, H. R., II. 222. x 2 308 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. ever progressive, working after the measure of the knowledge of the age, even according to the pro mise of its Founder " overcoming the world ;" now " subduing kingdoms ;" now " quenching the vio lence of fire;" now " waxing valiant in fight;" " turning to flight the armies of the aliens ;" yet always and in all things more than conqueror " through Him that loved us." Want of § 3. Much evil, it must be admitted, has been discrimi- - . nation as done to the cause of Christian Truth by indis- separate criminate laudation ; l or, at least, through an m the'con- over-estimate of its effects, by way of answer to o/modem censures equally exaggerated. There are some urope' who have seen in Christianity the sole and sufficient agent in the work of civilization, dis joining it, like a fragmentary episode,2 from the ordinary influences at work upon the face of society. We have seen cause, with stricter and more profound thinkers, to take a different course. Christianity has been, no doubt, a leading and a distinct element in modern civilization; but it has3 1 See some good remarks on this point in Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 328. 2 Ovk eotKe 8' 17 (pvais eWo-oStcoo'ns oucra, aairep poxBrjpa rpaycoSla. — Arist., Metaph., XIII. iii. 3 " C'est la le beau role de la communaute chr<5tienne sur la terre : elle est comme un ferment de I'humanite, destine' a lui communiquer le principe fecond et indestructible d'une vie nouvellesans toucher violem- ment aux institutions ^tablies. Ardents pour la conversion des indi- vidus, les Ap&tres attendaient sans impatience le renouvellement des formes sociales. Ils l'abandonnaient a, Taction du temps et a la puissance irresistible de l'Esprit de J&sus-Christ. Toutefois s'ils ont respects les lois existantes, ils ont indique en meme temps les principes destines a les modifier en les conformant a la nature du Royaume de Dieu."— Schmidt, Essai, p. 175. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 309 worked in conjunction with other forces. And it is difficult accordingly, in some cases, to award duly the proportions of the resultant effect. We have already seen that Roman civilization left its legacy of complex influences in its Municipal system and Imperial traditions. We have seen likewise that in the physical and psychical elements of the Barbarian stock, in their inherited associations and ideas, fresh principles of recon struction were added to modern society. As wha' p°r- * tion due to Christianity modified the manners and tempera- the action J r ofChris- ment of the Teutonic race, so was there, in some tianity. respects, an inverse action on the form and direc tion of Christianity itself. No competent thinker will either deny the importance of Feudalism as an element in the general progress of these ages, or seek to attribute its consequences to the teaching or influence of Christianity.1 It coincided, how- Rs reIa- . tlons to ever, with the spirit of the new Religion in raising Feudai- the moral tone of society. Feudalism was itself the mingled outcome of German loyalty and German independence. The progress2 of society from villages and manorial residences to towns 1 Mr. Freeman, Norman Conquest, I. 97, distinguishes between the elements of Feudalism and a Feudal system. In the former, the Church could have no share, however readily she co-operated in de veloping the latter. Thus, a vast number of the ancient Charters are in favour of the Church. 2 " We must distinguish," says Hallam, M. A., I. p. 351, N. xviii., " the corporate towns or communities from the other class called bur gages, bourgeoisies. The Chatelains encouraged the growth of villages around their castles, from whom they often derived assistance in war, &c." In a former passage, he attributes more to the action of Chris- 3IO THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. operation. and trading boroughs was due, not to any eccle siastical arrangement of parishes, but to the operation of feudal tenures. They were, in fact, the molecules of Feudalism. Yet the operation and distribution of religious influence was pro bably rendered more favourable by this condition its joint of things. So the extinction of serfdom, though zealously assisted by Christianity, and not un- frequently assigned to its authority, was mainly,1 perhaps, due to secondary causes originating in the state of affairs just named. Tbe altered position of woman in modern society,2 though, tianity. " The subjection of a heathen tribe is totally different from that of a Christian province. With the Church came churches, and for churches there must be towns, and for towns a magistracy, and for magistracy law." — lb., I. p. 121. See Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, III. iii., on the rise and progress of cities and towns. 1 See Hallam, M. A., I. 197-202. In 1167, Alexander III. declared all Christians exempt from slavery. See Voltaire, Essais, torn. ii. c. 83. 2 Thus, Guizot, Civ. en E., I. 71 : " Was it not within the bosom of the feudal family that the importance of women developed itself?" and especially the picture drawn by him of the wife as Chatelaine, Civ. en Fr., III. 91. " This elevated and almost sovereign position, in the very bosom of domestic life, often gave to the women of the feudal period a dignity, a courage, virtues, a distinction, which they have displayed nowhere else, and has, doubtless, powerfully contributed to their moral development and the general improvement of their condition." Too much import ance has, no doubt, been assigned to the consideration in which women were held by the German tribes (Tacitus, Geim., xviii. xix.). Mr. Lecky, however, in his elaborate Essay, has pointed out some ingredients in this subject due to the action of Christianity, as the tendency of the religion to the milder virtues, the feminine ideal of the Virgin, the Christian laws of chastity, the part played by feminine martyrs, &c. See also Dean Merivale, North. Nations, Lect. viii. Had Asceticism been a strictly Christian virtue, it must have been reckoned as tending to debase the position of women (H. E. M., II. 336, 389 ; H. Rat, I. 235). Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 311 to some extent, due to the preceding efforts and to the co-operation of Christianity, as well as to doctrines immediately connected with its system, has been, with reason, traced to circumstances arising simply out of Feudalism. Chivalry itself, I.tsnrelta)" which also has been claimed for a Christian insti- chivalry, tution,1 may, with better right, be called the daughter of the feudal system. The estimate of its influence in elevating and refining the tone of modern society can hardly be over-charged. Yet the joint- efforts of Christianity to lend it all the strength of a hallowing faith, cemented by religious ceremonies and fostered by religious promises, are too well known to need description or comment. Thus, then, in all these cases it is not contended that Religion has been the only influence at work in eliciting our modern civiliza tion ; but rather that it has exercised a continuous and independent function. Even its crowning 1 As by Sismondi, Hist d. Fr., IV. 201 : "At an epoch when reli gious zeal became reanimated, when valour still seemed the most worthy of all offerings that men could present to the Deity, it is not surprising that they should have invented a military ordination, and that chivalry should have appeared a second priesthood, destined in a more active manner to the Divine service." Guizot, however, finds chivalry to be " the spontaneous consequence of Germanic manners and feudal rela tions ; " and that " religion and imagination, the Church and poetry, took possession of chivalry, making it a powerful means of attaining the ends which they pursued, of fulfilling the moral needs which it was their mission to satisfy." See at length Civ. en Fr., III. Leg. vi. ; and Hallam, M. A., III. 395, 396, who traces it to the age of Charlemagne. See the sketch of the relation of chivalry to the Church m Robertson (C. H, II. 507). 312 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. and to the an(j secular causes Teutonic character. Corrup tions of medieval Christianity benefit of distinguishing between tbe spiritual and the temporal power is in a measure due to other For while recognized funda mentally by the Religion of Christ, and enforced in its organization, it was no less congenial to that spirit of personal and individual liberty introduced in the Teutonic nature into modern society.1 The believer was not absorbed in the Deity whom he worshipped or in the Church of which he was a member, nor was the individual man sacrificed, as in the Republics of old, to the citizen. § 4. The incontestable fact that the course of Christianity has been affected in all its institutions and many of its doctrines by the infirmities of human nature and the historical circumstances of its advance,2 has led to unfavourable but ground- 1 See M. Guizot's excellent summary, Civ. en Fr., torn. i. Lee. vii. sub fin. : " The spirit of legality came to us from the Eoman world. To Christianity we owe the spirit of morality, the sentiment and empire of rule, of a moral law, of the mutual duties of men. The Germans con ferred upon us the spirit of liberty as we conceive it in the present day, &c." Liberty of thought, indeed, he elsewhere (Lee. xxx.) attributes justly to Greco-Boman civilization. This was received neither from Christianity nor from Germany, but is an idea which is essentially the daughter of antiquity. See Mr. Lecky's remarks, H. E. M., II. 197, on the relation of feudal organizations to the Church. Dean Merivale, Northern Nations, p. 127, holds that " patriotism was a Pagan virtue, but loyalty is a Christian grace." " To his own Lord the Christian must stand or fall. And as patriotism was the classical, so was loyalty the feudal principle." 2 Compare the testimony of Jerome (Vit.Malch., submit.). "Scribere disposui ab adventu Salvatoris usque ad nostram astatem, quo modo et per quos Christi Ecclesia nata sit ; et adulta, persecutionibus creverit et martyriis coronata sit; et postquam ad Christianos principes venerit potentia quidem et divitiis major, sed virtutibus minor facta sit." Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 313 less criticisms of its authority and value. I have already alluded to causes which, in the Eastern Church, debased the genius of Christianity, cor rupted its practice, and arrested its progress. It is plain that as the Religion enlarged its boundaries and .established its predominance, its moral effects would decline, for various reasons. There may inevitable well be a tendency, under a rigid dogmatic system, for morals to assume the form of positive com mands, and thus to lose their spiritual savour. To speak, however, of no other cause of declension, the inducements of temporal advancement were now on tbe side of conversion instead of being against it. The establishment of a State Chris- fr°m.its 0 political tianity led indirectly to the repetition of General position. Councils, as a ready instrument; these to the inevitable enforcement of often transcendental dogmas; these, by a reaction, to political dis-^r^fviis putes and to theological intrigue and persecu tion. Orthodoxy now brought its own reward; and sanguinary contests for pre-eminence usurped that rivalry of love, which had once been the honourable badge of the earliest believers in Christ. " The very scenes," we are told, " of the Saviour's mercies ran with blood shed in His name by His ferocious self-called disciples." 1 The growing necessity of conforming a new faith to the apprehensions and habits of barbarous races 1 Milman, Lat Chr., I. 213. 3H THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. led of itself, in many ways, to a direct variation of its standard, both as to morals and religious yet neces- belief.1 This, however, it must be remembered is sary to its persis- no evidence of intrinsic or permanent declension. tency and progress It has been truly observed that " the very offences signalized are a token of progress, since it is the strongest proof of the firm hold of a party, whether religious or political, upon the public mind, when it may offend with impunity against its own primary principles. That which at one time is a sign of incurable weakness or approaching dissolution, at another seems but the excess of healthful energy and the evidence of unbroken vigour." 2 It was not, then, to be expected but that in the West also Christianity should exhibit transitions often foreign to the spirit of its teach ing. Amidst the barbarian elements ^mong which it had to work, Christianity itself began to bar- in a bar- barize. As the price of its influence on an age barous age ... and nation, dark and superstitious, its doctrines were exhibited in a debased, ambiguous form, productive of last ing consequences on the purity ofthe faith. As the cost of its power over a warlike aristocracy, and of its establishment by the side of feudal tarmcha- mstituti°ns> the higher clergy are seen assuming racter. i g£e Dean Milman's remark, Lat. Chr., I. 443 : " The historian who should presume to condemn this universal popular religion as a vast plan of fraud, or the philosopher who should venture to disdain it as a fabric of folly, would be equally unjust, blind to its real uses, assuredly ignorant of its importance and its significance in the history of man." 2 See Robertson, C. IL, I. 143. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 315 the character and pursuits of barons and the employments of a warlike profession.1 The growing strength of the Mahometan invasion gave rise to wars which, having the defence of religion for their aim, threw a decent cloak over the martial tendencies of Bishops and Abbots, and gave to the Christianity of the age a military and violent aspect. The Crusades, which had proved so serviceable an instrument for extending eccle siastical and Papal influence, were not readily allowed to cease. They were continued with Rdlg10US •> wars. greater success and more barbarity, in the form of religious wars against heretical and unortho dox sectaries. Nor were these contests confined solely to the aim, however unjustifiable, of esta blishing uniformity of belief by force of arms. The claims and encroachments of the Papal and sacer dotal systems upon the temporal power of the European monarchies involved grievous and con tinual conflicts. The questions of Investiture and of the particular relations of the Papacy to the personal rights of sovereigns were urged with varying fortunes, but undiminished persistency, until the close of the thirteenth century. Then Decline of came the ebb in the tide of spiritual domination, PowerPafrom close 1 Comp. Gieseler, II. 374, ed. Clark; Hallam, M. A., c. II. Pt. ii. of thir- They were used by the German sovereigns as a balance of power against teenth the nobles, thus receiving whole counties as fiefs, but with the obliga- centu]T- tions of feudal tenure, e. g. military service, the leading troops in person, &c. This custom may be traced as late as Agincourt. See Lecky, H. E. M., II. 265. Moral 316 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. which had overflowed the several kingdoms of the West. "Slowly," says Hallam,1 "like the retreat of waters or the stealthy pace of old age, that extraordinary power over human opinion, the Papal Empire, has for five centuries been subsiding." But how had its tyranny arisen? Where lay the hidden secret of its power ? Where but in the mission it existed to fulfil ? In its hold upon ages of anarchy and ignorance, of brute force and dormant intelligence, sucrras only a common faith, a rigid ceremonial, a priesthood linked in one vast hierarchical confederacy, could dignity effectively control. The right of excommunicating Papacy, sovereigns for moral delinquencies showed the supremacy of the Church in at least its noblest aspect ; even though the implied claim of tbe spiritual over the temporal power was as in defensible as vague. The attitude of a Hilde brand and an Innocent, and even of an Alexander and a Boniface in rebuking injustice, murder, and lust, is full of moral power ; rising, in its appeal to the consciences of men, to the dignity of the Jewish Prophets.2 Men might seem to see again an Ambrose closing the doors of the Church of 1 Middle Ages, II. 233, 12th ed. 2 Compare Dean 'Stanley, Sermons on the Bible, pp. 65, 66. " II est vrai," says Villemain, " que l'ambition a souvent abuse1 de cet exemple." Tableau de VEloq. Chre't, p. 327. De Maistre (GSuvres, p. 370) argues that the influence of the medieval Popes was in the main a spiritual, moral, and beneficial one ; and quotes to this effect Voltaire, Essai, torn, ii., c. 60, 65. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 317 Milan against the blood-stained hands of a Theo- dosius ; or a Leo arresting; by his sole unarmed authority, the licentious advance of a Genseric to the sack of Rome. But the assumption of the Causes of its cIgcIgii" power of the sword by the Vicegerent of Christ sion, was as fatal in its consequences to break this spell, as it was without foundation in the doctrine of Christ's Religion. Who could doubt but that when men had opportunity to examine such monstrous claims there would come that secret working of the leaven of truth, which would break forth into spiritual rebellion against the abuse of a religious despotism? Tbe division of interests between laity and clergy ; the price paid for tbe vast access of influence secured to the Church in Monasticism and the celibacy of its ministers, was destined in its effects to rend the and offub- ' sequent institution it had been created to subserve. Theo- changes. logy became the privileged domain of the clerical order, their instrument of power, which it was not in human nature not to turn into a weapon of persecution. The secular arm tamely executed the censures of the Church ; while Catholicism lapsed into a theocracy, siding in all temporal matters with the advocates of absolute power. S c. I have already alluded to the subject of Cormp- •> J J . . tions of corruptions of worship and doctrine. The creation doctrine. of Theology, which may be defined to be a scien tific or orderly statement of Divine Truth, was the 318 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. growth of a natural development of reflection upon the revelations to the human mind, contained in Rise of the words of Christ. It was the fruit of the first as a five centuries of the Faith in East and West. Its substitution for the direct teaching of Scripture was the historical result of circumstances attending the progress and spread of Christianity. The Fathers who had codified, summarized, or expanded tbe truths of our holy Religion, were to the theo logians of after-times what the Apostles and the books of Holy Writ had been to themselves.1 But with this difference. It was impossible in those times, and in that stage of culture, to forge again the link which bound tbe utterances of tbe earlier Fathers of the Church with the fresh living springs of Christian truth, from which they drew the inspiration of their teaching. A Scholastic Theology was the exposition of the thought of the age upon the mysteries of the Faith. It was a its in- poor expression, even in the hands of the devouter defects. Mystics, of the mind of a Chrysostom, an Origen, an Augustine. Little by little the ideas of men on the subjects of religious inquiry were riveted to traditional stand-points, and made to run within 1 See Guizot's remarks in Civ. en Fr., ~Lee. xxix. He considers the theology of the Middle Ages to have commenced in the ninth century. Gibbon, not unjustly, observes, that " for the five hundred years after Christ the disciples were indulged in a freer latitude, both of faith and practice, than has ever been allowed in succeeding ages " Dean Meri vale, Conv. of N. Nations, p. 40, says, " the fourth century places the Religion of Christ definitively on the basis of a Revealed Theology." Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 319 appointed channels. Side by side with this arti ficial, though scientific treatment of sacred truths, was working in practice the influence of legendary corruptions,1 constituting a sort of secondary its false Gospel, and ruling with all the force of poetical ments, imagination tbe heart and belief of the time. Every Christian man, as well as every department of the Church, had his interceding Saint, himself encompassed with miracle, and the vehicle of miraculous intervention, to the worshipper as necessary a medium of spiritual conception and of Divine influence as the ethers and entities of a corresponding stage in physical knowledge. The ^f^fj consequences of such a state of things, in modifying the effects of the simple tenets of the Gospel, were doubtless very large and difficult of estimate. The compromise thus represented between the essential teachings of Christianity, and the slow advances of the barbaric mind towards a higher point of spiritual culture, affects other regions of the Faith. The prevailing views of evil Angels, magic, and witchcraft ; of Purgatory, which, at the beginning of the period we have reviewed, was, to the mind of Gregory the Great,2 but a probable truth ; but 1 Compare Milman, Lat. Chr., VI. 247, who styles this the age of " the mythic literature of Christendom." 2 I follow the expression of Dean Milman, Lat. Chr., I. 442, VI. 252. Gregory's words are, " Sed tamen de quibusdam levibus culpis esse ante judicium purgatorius ignis credendus est." — Dial, IV. 39. A stronger passage occurs in Ps. iii , Pcenit. sub init Laud (Conference with Fisher, p. 296) says : " As for St. Augustine he said and unsaid it, and at the 320 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. was soon fraught with the concomitants in practice of absolution, masses, and indulgences, Those massy keys of metal twain, The golden opes, the iron shuts amain, borne by " the Pilot of the Galilasan lake ; " and no less also the doctrines of mortal and venial sins, of councils of perfection,1 and works of supere rogation, are instances of similar tendencies. They tending ign^ indeed, a factitious superficial authority to to subvert Medieval Christianity2 in its rough encounter with the autho- J ° nty of the the temper of the age ; an influence, however, more Church. . . .- or less unreal, since uncongenial with the true spirit and aims of the Religion itself; and destined, accordingly, to pass away in the hour of account, when " the fire should try every man's work," and " the day should declare it " of what sort it is. TheRefor- § 6. We know, Brethren, how that hour came, that day of darkness and gloominess, of " clouds and of thick darkness ;" yet " as the morning spread upon the mountains." For though terrible with " the last left it doubtful : which, had it then been received as a point of faith, he durst not have done. Indeed, then, in St. Gregory the Great's time, in the beginning of the sixth age, Purgatory was grown to some perfection. For S. Gregory himself is at Scio, it was but at Puto a little before." See Bp. Browne on the Articles, pp. 500, 501. 1 Consilia Evangelica, as distinguished from Proscepta. See at length Jeremy Taylor, Duct. Dub., II. xii. 2 There is a tendency in the Bositivist School to exalt the doctrines and institutions of medieval Catholicism, such as Purgatory, Confession, Celibacy, Papal Supremacy ; and from their decline to infer the ulti mate dissolution of Christianity. Comp. Comte, Phil. Pos., V. 269- 348. This criticism, however, does justice to the secondary benefits of the system, flowing, indeed, from the tenets of the Eeligion itself. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 321 earthquakes of nations," it still rose fraught with hope. It was a movement which convulsed tbe frame of Europe ; one of which, it may well be, we have as yet seen but the beginning ; for already men's hearts are set upon a second Reformation. At present we are concerned only to estimate the Nature of nature of its testimony to the permanence of Chris- dence to • • xt • -i -1 / c theper- tianity. Has it rendered the prospects ot our manence -!-. . . . -, p . „ T-f -1 . .of Chris- Religion more hopeful ? Has it redressed previous tianity. shortcomings ? or has it, as in the view of some,1 opened a vista of religious disorganization leading inevitably to a negative philosophy, and to demo cracy in Church and State? The Reformation it proved . . tobea proved, indeed, many things. First, certainly, the searching test of the presence of corruptions inherited and traditional in truth and _,.,„„.. . of the cor- the framework of the h aith ol Christ ; corruptions nations of of belief and practice ; of the substitution of man trines. for God ; of the Church for the Gospel ; of sacer dotalism for the moral sense, as the last religious appeal ; of salvation by positive ordinances and ritual observances, rather than by personal holiness and implicit belief of a Faith fast losing its hold on the morality and true dealing of the time.2 All this it proved. But it proved equally the inherent vigour of a Religion which, thus in tbe course of 1 This is the view of M. Comte; developed at length in Phil. Pos., Vol. V. 2 Compare Dean Milman's sketch, Lat. Chr., VI. 379, 380, of the virtual teaching of the German Mystics, the " Reformers before the Reformation." Y 322 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. ages, could purify itself like running water, from the errors and defilements of the past : that it is no system which must lean always on ignorance, ™*a despotism, or craft.1 The great hope for Chris- h°Peful tianity, the standing witness of its perpetuity symptom. •> ' ° ; . and truth, must lie always in this possibility of reconstruction, this return upon itself; in this ten dency and capacity of expelling all foreign and unhealthy matters, not of kin with the true ele ments of the Faith of Jesus Christ. But the Refor mation, impartially examined, proves likewise that the history of the Western Church prepared for itself the test which was then applied, and which itisim- ft nag successfully survived. However dormant, portant J ' that this there lay within its doctrines and institutions that crisis arose ^ out of the appeai i0 reason and to the religious conscience nature and -1 •"-_ ° history of which, in fact, produced those effects. In the the reii- ' r gion. Monasteries, Schools, and Universities,2 themselves the creations and nurselings of the Faith of Christ, arose slowly, yet surely, that spirit of inquiry ; that love of reality and truth ; that consciousness of spiritual wrong, and of a higher law than the con straint of existing practice ; which, slowly ripening, 1 Comp. Isaac Taylor (Hist of Enthus., p. 267). 2 See Guizot, Civ. en Fr., Lee. v., vi. Dean Milman (Lat Chr., V. 485-8) shows the relations of the Monasteries to the Universities. Mr. Lecky (II. E. M.) remarks too narrowly that "it was not till the education of Europe passed from the Monasteries to the Universities, not till Mahommedan science and classical free-thought and industrial independence broke the sceptre of the Church, that the intellectual revival of Europe begins." Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 323 contained the pledge of future amendment and of continuous progress. From knowledge alone, however improved and matured, the Reformation could never have taken its rise.1 But when once spiritual conviction and enthusiasm were enlisted on the side of reflection and inquiry, the result could be no longer doubtful or precarious. S 7. It is ever the misfortune of human effort, shortcom ings of the whether in politics or religion, that the movements Reforma- it originates must needs reflect the passions, weak nesses, and shortcomings of their authors and their times. The good which a generous enthusiasm pro mises to itself,is never altogether realized. The evils expected or exaggerated by unfavourable critics remain at least in part to mar the benefits which, on the whole, ensue. I am not concerned to strike a balance between the estimates of those who see in the theological results of the Reformation nothing but g-ood or unmixed evil. It is time that the violent Different 0 ... estimates and unintelligent antagonism between Catholicism of its true 0 character. and Protestantism, unworthy of the enlightenment of our times, and arising simply from traditional 1 See Gieseler's excellent remarks, V. 202, ed. Clark. This is a truer view than with Mr. Lecky (H. Rat, I. 284) to refer the causes of the Reformation to an increased acquaintance with Latin classics and Greek philosophy. Dr. Ullmann well observes (Reformers before the Reforma tion, II. 3, ed. Clark), " On only one side did philosophy contribute to the revival of Christian piety and knowledge. We allude to Blatonism, which, being naturally akin to the Gospel, now entered into league with the new and living theology, and rose with fresh vigour against the Aristotelianism of the Schoolmen." Luther and Melancthon were however, on opposite sides in this matter ; at least after 1529. Y 2 324 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. causes, should give way before a calmer, a more discerning, a more comprehensive analysis. I desire only to insist on facts now generally ad mitted by impartial investigators. The servipes of Medieval Catholicism should, as we have seen, be no longer ignored. Neither must its corruptions be denied.1 The state of the Church of Christ in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was such as to demand renovation both in its theory and in its Undoubt- practice. Let us think only of its immorality, its edly in- . . . . evitabie as simony, its superstitions. We have already seen reform, that the evils which then afflicted Religion were in many ways the historical consequences of the cir cumstances under which Christianity had taken possession of the world ; the treasure of a Divine Faith poured into earthen vessels. These evils had grown with the growth of the Church : in some doctrinal accretions they touched its vitality nearly; yet without being inherent in the essential prin ciples of the teachings of Christ. Their removal or amendment could be effected only by practical reforms of a nature to eradicate the immorality of the times, more especially in the case of the clergy. but only But these reforms depended ultimately for their possible ... through a authoritative reception on a reconstitution of Chris- purgation of doc- * Comp. Db'llinger, The Church and Churches, Introd. ; and Lectt on trine. Re-union of the Churches. The necessity ofthe Reformation is sufficiently shown by the impotence of the General Councils of the fifteenth cen tury to abolish abuses. The episcopal system was wholly subject to Papal domination; a fact which told unhappily on the course of the subsequent movements. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 325 tian doctrine. Had the Reformation been only a moral advance ;l an improvement of life and man ners ; as some have preferred to regard it, and as at its outset it undoubtedly seemed to its precursors ; practical changes would have sufficed. It was, however, not so ; the causes of the movement lay deeper ; the spiritual element of disturbance was of more account than the moral ; and in this fact and in its gradual superiority over all opposition lies the guarantee of continuous religious regeneration, and so of the permanence itself of Christianity. Had the results of the Reformation been solely of a Hence moral character, tbe ultimate interests of the Reii- spiritual gion of Christ might indeed have been imperilled. The chief cause of the existing corruption lay in the distortion of doctrine through human additions and human institutions. Where, then, stood tbe remedy, and what led to its adoption ? It consisted in a re-examination of the Religion itself; of the traditional developments and actually existing system by the moral and by the spiritual sense of the age. If it survived the test, it was once more testing the 0 persis tency of 1 The moral movement which preceded the actual outburst of the tlle prm_ Reformation (which may be considered to have formally commenced ciples of with the Papal Bull, Exsurge Domine (June 15, 1520), rejecting Chns- Luther's propositions and excommunicating him ;) can hardly be dis- tlamty- tino-uished from the religious revival which accompanied it. This exhibited itself in simple apostolical preaching; in fraternities for the encouragement of piety and good works, for the circulation of the Scriptures, and the like. Hagenbach ( Vorlesungen, I. 18) points out the importance of assigning an historical commencement to the Reforma tion. This he identifies with Luther's Thesis at Wittenberg (1517). 326 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. replaced in its native purity and dignity, as the fulfilment and crown of the aspirations of the soul of man. Such, accordingly, was the character of the witness rendered by this, the most important religious crisis in modern history, to the per- Spirituai petuity of the Christian Faith. The Christianity of declension . . . . „ of Cathoii- Catholicism had in the mam become, (not ot course to all, or indeed to the highest natures,) an objec tive law, an external ordinance, a compendium of statutes,1 as well in spiritual beliefs as on its moral side. Good and wholesome influences were still abiding in it, but trammelled and overlaid by secular corruptions. There was needed, then, a re sumption of its first claims on man's intelligence and spiritual apprehension. The Religion must be seen again to be what it really is : not a set of for mulae for action or belief ; 2 not a visible Theocracy implicated and involved in political embarrassments by an assumption of temporal power ; but rather a personal instinct of love and gratitude,3 based, indeed, on eternal facts of human interest ; the out- 1 Comp. Ullmann, u. s., II. 617; or, as M. Comte has happily ex pressed it, "too much of an institution, too little of a spirit." It encouraged learning, but sacerdotally ; industry, but through guilds ; chivalry, through military orders, &c. 2 " Protestantism, as compared with the other two great Church par ties of Christendom, rests content neither with a mere intellectual appropriation of Christianity, whether in a speculative form or in a recollective form that faces a traditional doctrine ; nor with a mere subjection of the will to a dogmatic or even practical Church law." — Dorner, Hist, of Prot. Th., I. 5, ed. Clark. * See Ullmann, Reformers, II. 618. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 327 come of a living faith, acting powerfully to regene rate and sanctify man's heart, transforming, as a new Divine element of life, the character of indi viduals and nations. No doubt, this true Christian Real im- spirit manifests itself as a moral law and doctrine in Reforma- agreement with its nature. But its appeal is to a higher consciousness, both as to Reconciliation with God and Sanctification, than belongs to the perform ance of moral duties ; and rests more truly on an assurance of facts which are bound up with the mysteries of the Faith. Such was the real import of a struggle which had been maturing through many generations. Its °bs.cured incidents have often been treated as though they t°"ca-1 ° ~ character were the simple effects of circumstance. In this view Gospel light first streamed from Boleyn's eyes. Men fought, as it appeared, for a mere dogma i1 and one, too, on which the more moderate thinkers on either side were practically agreed. But the true issues of tbe conflict lay deep in the- constitu- 1 Luther's language as to Justification by Faith is well known. It is the " articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesiae. De hoc articulo cedere, aut aliquid contra ilium largiri nemo piorum potest, etiamsi ccelum et terra et omnia corruant. Nam in hoc articulo sita sunt omnia, qua? contra diabolum et mundum universum in tota vita nostra testamur et a ' J tical aspect prime agents, the martyrs and confessors of the of the Re- has been since gone to God to answer it ; to Whom I leave them." — Laud, the most Confer., xxiv. 5. In the words of Leibnitz, " Ce sont les defauts des studied. hommes, et non pas ceux des dogmes." The fanaticism of the Anabap tists belongs, as Dorner has shown, not to the principles of the Reforma tion carried to excess, but rather to the social and religious maladies of the pre-Reformation period. See some good remarks of Hallam, Lit. of E., I. 371, on the passions which were instrumental in the Reformation, and Dean Hook, Lives, New Ser., I. 20. 1 Such, e.g., was Xicolaus Lyranus, a Franciscan monk, who as early as 1330 completed his Postillaz perpetuus. It was of this exposition it was said : — Si Lyra non lyrasset Lutherus non saltasset. Soe Mosheim, II. 644. On the Biblical factor in the Reformation, noticeable as early as the Waldenses, and traceable through Wycliffe (1380) and the various vernacular translations of tlie Bible in tlie four teenth and fifteenth centuries, see Dorner, u. s., I. 63, 441. Lastly, the labours of Reuchlin, Erasmus, &c, must be taken into account. 330 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. movement, they have enlisted sympathy and won admiration. Doubtless at such crises decision and self-sacrifice are of more apparent value than the results of slow and just reflection. Yet, on looking back, it is now sufficiently clear that the doctrines for which men died, the contributions of patient thought and learning,1 form the abiding results of this great epoch in religion, and were the true its true preparation for it. If, then, this view be correct, importance as a the very essence of the Reformation lay, not in belief. any practical correction of abuses, nor in a moral advance, but in its theology and belief. It has been called the reaction of Christianity, as a teach ing of the Gospel,2 against Christianity, as a de claration of Divine Law. It was, indeed, a free doctrine of grace and faith, of love and spirit, leading to the fulfilment of legal and moral righ teousness, as a prompting of the heart restored to fresh union with the God of its salvation, and conscious of its own restoration;3 ideas once 1 Such were the labours of the Reformers before the Reformation, Johann von Goch, Johann Wessel, who held explicitly the doctrine of justifying faith, Gerhard Groot, Jacob von Jiiterbock, &c. Of Wessel Luther said : " If I had read Wessel first, mine adversaries might have imagined that Luther had taken everything from Wessel." — Werke, ed. Waich, xiv. 220. He also claimed kindred with the efforts of the earlier Mystics, Tauler, Eckhart, and the Friends of God. 2 It was a saying of Luther's, that " the law and the Gospel aro as far apart from one another as heaven and earth." 3 Luther thus distinguishes hetween fides, fiducia,andcertitudo salutis. Cf. Dorner, I. 149, 230, who well remarks on the fruitfulness of this principle from a scientific or philosophic point of view, as regards the subsequent history of Protestantism ; while the Greek and Roman Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 331 familiar to the Christian mind,1 and at no time excluded from its potential teaching, yet which had long been disused or misapplied. The prin ciples it has secured to mankind are those of faith, of a true spiritualism, of individual accountability for belief and practice, as inherent elements of our common Religion. These are the pledges which it Full of has supplied to Christianity of its future share in efficacy. the advance of human civilization. What has been called the principle of private judgment is, in truth, an element of indefinite, though not as is often urged, of unrestricted progress. It is true that the Reformation assumed essentially the obligation of a continual purifying and perfecting alike of practice and doctrine,2 of the Church and Not in- of the world, of Religion and of Science. And this is a principle of vital progress. But, then, this advance is always to be made upon the foundation Churches in no way insist upon personal assurance. Calvin (Inst., III. ii. 6) says : " Cardo fidei in eo vertitur, ut promissiones intus amplec- tendo nostras faciamus." 1 Comp. Ep. ad Diogn. C. xii. "Hra o-ai Kap8ta yvaats - far) 8e Xoyos dXijBrjs, xopoipevos. Under Catholicism the personal yearning after salva tion and closer communion with God, had too often to fiud refuge in conventual retirement. We have already noticed the intrinsic selfish ness which lay at the root of this system. 2 " In our own times there is a constant disposition to consider the liberty of the Reformation as an abstract form ; to fancy that any imaginable substance may be put into it ; and hence to conceive Protestantism as implying a principle of progress absolutely unrestricted, and it matters not whether beyond the pale of Christianity, or even in direct opposi tion to it. No such teuet has any foundation upon the idea of liberty as conceived by the Reformers and their predecessors." — Ullmann, Reformers, I. xviii. 332 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. that is already laid, the testimony of the Gospel, and the rule of strictly primitive tradition.1 The Re- s g. It is further evident that the Reformation, formation ¦> y presents rightly considered, presents no interruption of the in the con- continuity of human affairs,2 no founding over tinuity of . Chris- again of the Church of Christ. In its truest and a system, best development there was no breaking with the past. It called for no belief that the Church had been at any time wholly forsaken by the Spirit of her Lord, or disinherited of His promises. It never renounced the historical basis of Christianity. No phase It was no mere phase of negation or of destruction, of nega- ... tion. but rather a reconstruction ; a transition apparently spontaneous from beliefs, themselves transitional and relative to new modes of religious thought and belief, limited by the canons of Apostolic teaching. The very idea of a Reformation implies a return to a standard or point of outset already known and fixed.3 It is a spiritual re-edification ; and, as such, a recall to primitive Christianity, to the words and examples of Christ. For Chris- 1 Comp. the concluding declaration of the Confession of Augsburg : " Tantum ea recitata sunt quas videbantur necessario dicenda esse, ut intelligi possit in doctrina ac caeremoniis, apud nos nihil esse receptum contra Scripturam aut Ecclesiam Catholicam."— Syllog. Conf., pp. 158, 232. 2 " Protestantism in all its movements and antitheses preserved the steadiness or continuity of a historical and growing formation." — Dorner, Hist. Prot Th., I. 9, and the excellent remarks in p. 50. " The Reformation would lose its historical basis and connection, if, in order to furnish a triumphant justification of it, we were to see nothing but darkness before it." 3 Gal. i. 7, 8, 9. For there cannot bo two Gospels. Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 333 tianity itself was at the beginning a purely spiritual No un- religion, a strong invincible conviction of renewed reaction. individual fellowship with a merciful God and Father, effected by the Incarnation and Sacrifice of His Son. It was no less as the offspring and pro duct of this conviction in the believer ; or, in other words, of this living faith, a life of love and spon taneous morality.1 Its body is, indeed, the Church animated ever by the vital presence of Christ and of His Spirit, yet liable to admixture and deteriora tion, subject to the conditions of earthly things, the results of time and succession, of political issues, and historical development. The balance of com- The true . balance of plementary doctrines may, in the course of affairs, doctrine become overthrown, without, however, those doc trines being severally contradicted or lost; such, for example, as the parallelism of a dogma of Justification with that of Sanctification ; of Christ's Atonement with the need of personal holiness ; of subjective faith with objective righteousness; of grace with works ; of positive commands with moral obligations ; of external symbolism with a living consciousness of its significance; of ecclesiastical constitution with spiritual worship. This balance its contri- T . . ~ bution to the Reformation sought to restore. It has left the future some truths clearly defined as its contribution to chris- future ages of the Church, more especially man's b!"""' need of individual regeneration ; that this cannot 1 Compare Ullmann, Reformers, I. p. 4. 334 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VII. be wrought out by natural means alone ; that by a Divine Revelation, and in a Divine relation with the creature of an abiding and universal character, man's salvation is secured. " Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace, whose mind is stayed upon Thee." § i o. Thus, if Christianity be indeed the " salt of the earth," x it must needs be purgative, and is ever tending to throw off the accumulations of worldly impurity; an impurity which reaches to the lowering of heavenly doctrines, as well as to the marring of their realization in practice. The its protest- Christian idea, the imitation of Christ, made pos- ant ele- x ment- sible by the Incarnation of the Word, will always, in a manner, protest against the defects inherent and immanent in its manifestation in the world.2 At varying epochs this antagonism could not but show itself forth. The conflicts to which all human progress seems liable, its corruptions, its hindrances, must needs attend equally the action of Christianity upon mankind. Yet " a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump." And this self- 1 " It was necessary that the Gospel, which had once already proved the preserving salt for the world, where putrefaction had begun, should again penetrate in its original purity, power, and leavening influence, into the hearts and lives of the people." — Dorner, I. 40. 2 " The Protestants did not get that name by protesting against the Church of Rome, but by protesting (and that when nothing else would serve) against her errors and superstitions." — Laud, Conf. with F., xxi. 3: viz. at Speier, April 16, 1529; where it had been decreed by the Papal party, " contra novatores, ut omnia in integrum resti- tuantur." Lect. VII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 335 quickening, self-renewing process will not be wanting even to the end, while there remains among men the opposition between truth and error, between holiness and sin, between the king dom of God and the kingdoms of the world. LECTURE VIII. THE PERMANENCE OF CHRISTIANITY INFERRED FROM ITS MISSIONARY CHARACTER AND PRESENT STANDING. " Ex quo intelligimus Ecclesiam usque ad finem mundi concuti quidem persecutionibus, sed nequaquam posse subverti : tentari, non superari. Et hoc fiet, quia Dominus Deus Omnipotens, sive Dominus Deus ejus, id est, Ecclesias, se facturum esse pollicitus est : Cujus promissio lex naturas est." — Hieron., Comment in Amos, sub fin. " Is it possible to expect a further and more perfect manifestation of Religion, as we may expect a further and more perfect manifestation of Art, or Science, or Philosophy ? No. Never, either in our days or in the remotest future, can any religious progress hope to rival the gigantic step which humanity made through the revolution effected by Christ." — Strauss, Life of Christ, Vol. II. p. 49, 3rd ed. LECTURE VIII. " Lo ! I am with you alway; even unto the end of the world." — £39att. vjimi. 20. § 1. HT^HERE is a growing tendency to regard Tendency •*- the results of the Reformation in two views of the Refor- very opposite aspects. It has been assailed as the mation on J L1 r . the present commencement of an era of unbelief, of unsettle- estimate of 1 • i p^e <-:'1"s" ment of all authoritative teaching ; as the cause of tian re- all subsequent fluctuations of opinion on religious subjects.1 Its historical course has been held up as a warning ; as exhibiting the Nemesis of a revolt from traditional doctrine. Strange to say, the Romanist and the disciple of Comte, though from very opposite suggestions, are of one opinion as to the demerits of Protestantism. While the former eyes it with sternness, or, at best, with compassion, as the outcome of human waywardness and re bellion ; the latter regards it only with philoso phical contempt.2 To him it is an interruption, a view of 1 Gibbon (VII. 61) struck the first chord of this ill-omened pre- tivists diction. " The friends of Christianity are alarmed at the boundless impulse of inquiry and scepticism ;" &c. He here appears in the un wonted garb of " the candid friend " of the Religion of Christ. " Le Protestantisme le grand reveil chretien," says M. Renan more truly. 2 Comte notes as marks of the religious disorganization of the age, the resistance of Catholicism to intellectual emancipation, and the secu larization of the ruling classes. These are the results of Protestantism, i. e. of the right of private judgment, which leads inevitably to Demo cracy in Church and State, to a negative philosophy, attacking first z 2 School. 340 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. stumbling-block, a logical inconsequence, an issue of mental anarchy, a period of transition, of con fusion, of necessary evil, fraught with social and political disturbance. As the introduction to after- changes; the pioneer of Positivism ; a main agency in dissolving the older military and hierarchical organizations ; tbe accompaniment of an era of free, metaphysical discussion ; it might, one would have thought, have been entitled to passing re- of the spect. This is not, it seems, to be accorded. But istic there is also another view of this great historical movement, one which has affected so largely and so permanently the condition and fortunes of Europe ; which is now becoming popular. The Reformation is looked on as the companion, and as itself the result, if not the precursor, of a spirit religious truth, while all other becomes a lesser and included result. He divides Protestantism into a. Lutheranism, which is really an attack on Catholic discipline, the dogmatic differences being slight : b. Cal vinism, an assault on Catholic organization or hierarchy, of the most powerful kind : c. Socinianism, a dogmatic revolution of the deepest character, being a protest in favour of Monotheism. See Phil. Pos., V. 680, ff. In V. 353 he speaks of " l'esprit d'inconsequence qui carac- terise le Protestantisme," and mourns the intellectual fluctuation, the malady of the age, which has flowed from it. He thinks the recogni tion of the solidarity of man and the continuity of human life have been lost in the anarchy which has been the work of Protestantism. This era of revolution, of dispersive analysis, began, indeed, from the fourteenth century, continuing to the present time, when it is about to close irrevocably. Phil. Pos., V. 233, 346 ; Pol. Pos., III. 417, 500. See also Littr£, A. Comte, p. 223 ; and Paroles, p. 60. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., I. 272, points out that the Reformation principle, which has been so often termed disorganizing, and has even been confounded with the spirit of revolution, gave effect, with a power previously unknown, to the divine right of civil authority. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 341 of Rationalism ; x an inevitable consequence, in deed, and one not, therefore, to be condemned; part of the natural progress of human effort, and of the growth of the human mind. This pro gression, evident in all other departments of social activity, in industrial and secular advance, in national morality, in philosophy and speculation, could not fail to make itself felt in the region of theological opinion. This estimate of Protestant- its esti- ° x mate of ism will be found (however it may be connected Protes- ... tantism. with it,) not to be identical with that of Positivism •, which regards it either as a pure negation, or as a confused form of theological belief. I have already given reasons for believing that Religion, as to its own evolution, is not dependent on moral progress, and is only indirectly affected by intellectual culture. It remains onlv to dis- How it •> affects the engage the future of Christianity from the conse- future of v i i -c • • i Chris- quences to which it must be liable ; if it is to be tianity. regarded, (together, indeed, with all religions,) as a thing of the past; a lingering survival of an anterior stage of thought or civilization ; or again, as a mere vehicle, though of an exalted and highly commendable kind, for passing on to future gene rations the gift of an improved morality.2 1 See Mr. Lecky, //. Rat, I. 181, 288. Rationalism, he thinks, is the totality of the influences of civilization. Continental Protestantism has continually developed towards it. 2 In this, according to Rationalistic theologians, consists the per fectibility of the Religion of Christ ; viz. in expanding the doctrines of Christianity into those eternal truths of reason, which constitute the 342 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. Theory of § 2. The former view regarding the prospects of the Christian Church and more immediately of Protestantism, being that of the Positivist school, forms part of an elaborate but highly artificial criticism of life and history ; which must, if at all, be accepted as a whole. It must defend itself along its whole line ; if it is to be taken as a true explanation of the world and of the times in whether which we live. At present we are concerned no answering „ . to facts, further than to inquire whether it offers the only legitimate account of the course of human affairs in respect of Religion, and whether its view is sufficiently confirmed by present facts and actual probabilities. No doubt, as has been already said, the Reformation presents no interruption of the continuity of History.1 It was itself the slow universal possession of the race. There is something ominous in Mr. Lecky's language when he says: "Loyalty, patriotism, and attachr ment to a cosmopolitan cause, are three forms of moral enthusiasm respectively appropriate to three successive stages of mental progress : and they have, I think, a certain analogy to idolatrous worship, Church feeling, and moral culture, which are the central ideas of three stages of religious history." — H. E. M., I. 142. 1 " The error of Positivism," writes Dr. Westcott, "is in limiting Christianity to the view of Catholicism. Christianity is supremely fitted to mould for itself the organism which is best suited to meet the intellectual, or social, or moral wants of the age. It is manifold in embodiment, though one in essence. It is not a principle of order, but a spirit of life. It is limited not by laws of logical construction, but by laws of free growth. It survives the decay of one organization, to animate another."— Cont. Rev., VI. 415. " II est incontestable en effet d'apres l'ensemble de notre passe intellectuel pendant les trois derniers socles, sans avoir besoin de remonter plus haut, que la continuite" et la fecondite" sont les symptomes les moins equivoques de toutes les con ceptions vraiment scientifiques."— Comte, Phil Pos., IV. 209. We claim these also for Christianity. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 343 result of time and previous changes. Similarly Results of also it has in turn initiated changes which are still mation °r going on, and are still the subjects of discussion progress. and dispute. The real point is fhe nature of these changes and of their consequences. The Christian world, it is not denied, is endlessly divided, and shows as yet few signs of ultimate reunion. Is this, then, to be held the beginning of the end ? Does it mark a decline in the power and spirit of Division of sects Religion ? — in its hold upon the life and mind and whether a conscience of its professors? — in its capacity of of decline. assimilating surrounding conditions of culture and of converting unbelief ? I cannot see that it does. I see in these facts rather the evidence of the working of a leaven ; which, if it ceased to ferment, might be justly suspected of inefficacy and decay. This leaven (if we have learned any lesson from the past history of Christianity, it is this;) works variously in accordance with the circumstances of the time under review. In Protestantism it has Historical been conditioned by the advance of opinion ment of through intellectual discussion and physical dis- tantism. coveries ; by military history ; by social and poli tical vicissitudes tending to a multiplicity rather than to unity of form.1 It has been crushed under 1 " However imposing," remarks Prof. Westcott, " the apparent unity ofthe religious life of the Middle Ages may be, it cannot be questioned that socially and individually the principles of Christianity are more powerful now than then. We lose the sense of their general action in the variety of forms through which they work." — Comte on Chris tianity, Cont. Rev., VI. 416. 344 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. the burden of successive revolutions. It has been made the pretext for administrative changes, and thus complicated with political interests; at one time for resisting democratic tendencies ; at another as the enemy of all political absolutism.1 It has alternately been held to be the friend or foe of freedom of thought ; the ally or enemy of philoso phical opinion ; as fearing or welcoming the vast and ever-progressing influences of industrial Periods of development. But through all it has worked on ; orreac- and worked after its own kind. There have indeed been times when, exhausted by its struggles for existence and for toleration, its spiritual powers lay dormant, and might seem well-nigh extinct.2 During long periods the secularism of court intrigues, the heats of metaphysical controversies, the atheistic intolerance of the French Revolution,3 appeared to have expelled all interest in the 1 See Lecky, Hist. Rat, II. 182-186. The internecine struggles of Catholicism and the Reformed- Faith in Prance, Germany, and the Netherlands, may justly be claimed as testimonies to the power of the Religion which was held to be at stake. — Cf. Dorner, II. 3. 3 Mr. Herbert Spencer, First Princ, p. 331, well observes that " Religion, beside its occasional revivals of smaller magnitude, has its long periods of exaltation and depression ; generations of belief and self- sacrifice following generations of indifference and laxity. . . ; . When from corruptions accumulated around them, national creeds have fallen into general discredit, ending in indifferentism or positive denial ; there has always by-and-by arisen a re-assertion of them, if not the same in form, still the same in essence." See Dorner's remarks on the permanence of the Christian Faith through all assaults of philosophical Deism in England, France, and Germany.— Hist Prot. Th., I. 207 ; II. 45, 392. 3 See Buckle, H. Civ., II. 254. He admits that its leaders com mitted what he thinks was an involuntary error-: " In attacking the Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 345 message and prospects of Christianity. Yet the instincts of Religion (and, we may fairly add, the virtue of its specific doctrines,) prevailed. Successive revivals of the missionary spirit super- followed vened on eras of religious indifference ; and the vais. truth of Christian teaching has been both vigorously defended and confirmed by actual results. § 3. The question of the direction and degree in New eie- which the prospects of Christianity have been progress ...... . -\ -r\ p • introduced affected by its history since the Reformation may by the Re- be narrowed to the inquiry as to what fresh elements have been introduced into the circum stances attending its progress and with what results. These may be briefly summarized as the principle, or rather the fact, of the Renaissance in sentiment, philosophy, and art ; of Positivism in material knowledge; the substitution of inquiry for traditional authority ; the doctrines of religious liberty and toleration, including the freedom of the press and the disappearance of religious dis abilities;1 the gradual divorce of religion from politics, with its effects upon the alliance of Churches and States. What is the tendency of These stm in move- clergy, they lost their respect for religion. In their determination to ment> weaken ecclesiastical power, they attempted to undermine the founda tions of Christianity." Isaac Taylor, Hist. Enthus., p. 269, has some fine and just remarks on the triumph of the Christian Religion at this period. 1 It will be understood that these are, as Gibbon remarks, the con sequences, not the design, of the Reformation. whether adverse to Chris tianity. 346 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. these changes in opinion and practice, changes which are still ripening into action on every side through the length and breadth of Europe ? If there be contained within them nothing really and essentially unfavourable to the growth and well-being of Christianity, there is no ground on this account at least to augur the decline of the Religion. If, indeed, they tend in harmony with its doctrines towards the spread of a simpler and more tolerant Christianity, there is rather reason to infer a larger and lasting measure of success for its tenets. It becomes necessary, then, to enter, although but briefly, on some consideration of their several characters and operation. The cias- § 4. By some the Reformation has been altogether human eie- traced to the importation of the classical or purely modem human element into Western Europe,1 which was tion'za tbe result in the first instance of the impact of Mahommedanism upon Christianity, and of the fall of Constantinople. Philosophy and taste were revo lutionized by contact with the independence of 1 See Ranke, Hist of Popes, I. ii. § 3, and Gieseler, Vol. V., § 154, who assigns to this element its due share of result. Herder almost couples Ulric v. Hutten with Luther in the work of Reformation. See Hallam, Lit. E., I. 290-7. At first the progress of literature seemed checked : and Erasmus writes (1528), " Ubicunque regnat Lutheranis- mus, ibi literarum est interitus." At an earlier stage he had made similar complaints of the Catholic party. " Hairesis est polite loqui : han-esis Grace scire." See Sir W. Hamilton, Disc, p. 209. Socinianism may be rightly regarded as the issue of the Reformation in Italy, where philosophic and aesthetic culture gained the ascendency over the ethical and religious elements. See Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th. II. 427. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 347 ancient modes of thought and feeling : and quickly sought new outlets of expression. Hence the in fluence of the so-called Humanists on the direction and character of the Reformation, the success of which was in many minds identified with the pro gress of classical literature. The proof of so wide an assertion must certainly remain doubtful. For our present purpose the admission is sufficient that the presence of " the new learning " was a fact con temporaneous with the tendencies towards a refor mation in religion. The relations of an increased recognized o and em- acquaintance with the original tongues to the doctri- P%£d by nal interpretation of the Scriptures are immediately formers apparent ; and their value was accordingly sub stantially acknowledged by some of the leading Reformers :x to whom, both in Germany and Eng land, the improvement, and in some cases the foun dation, of public schools is due. The wider influence of classical models in framing new standards of literan^ philosophical, and moral conceptions, in not ... .. . . dangerous loosening the shackles of traditional dogmatism, mtoChris- transforming religious sentiments by the instru- dendes, mentality of art, may be differently estimated, but 1 In 1525 Luther addressed a Treatise to the Councillors of every town in Germany, " that they ought to institute and maintain Chris tian schools," i. e. national schools. Melancthon and Camerarius laboured at the establishment of classical schools, Lycea, and Gymnasia. Melancthou himself kept for many years a schola privata. See Dorner, H. Prot. Th., I. 261-270. Hallam, Lit. of E., 1. 330. For England, comp. Seebohm's Oxford Reformers, sc. Colet, Linacre, More, &c. See further Whewell, Ind. Phil, I3k. XII., ix. 348 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. will hardly be denied. It would, however, be but a narrow view which regards the tendencies of Classicism as essentially irreligious or un-Christian.1 Rather may we see in this period of European repre- civilization the introduction to a permanent syn- senting an j. •/ aspect of thesis of two differing sides of human nature and truth, _ ° human history : of the natural with the spiritual : of reason with religion : of an sesthetical appre hension of the Beautiful with the higher aspira tions of Christian devotion : a synthesis ever in process of completion yet unfulfilled. Christianity which in its origin had successfully contended with heathen Philosophy and Art in their decline, was inevitably destined, at some future stage of human necessaiy culture, to encounter the elements of Truth which to their compie- they enshrined, to adopt them into its own theory of reality, and mould them after its own 1 A recent historian (Lecky, II. 322) has endeavoured to trace the in fluences of Rationalism upon Art, " a chief organ of religious sentiments ;" and shows how in the course of secularization the ideal of piety was ex changed for that of beauty ; more especially in Painting and Architecture, following th'e intellectual condition of the times, lb., 1. 263-286. There can be no question as to the immediate and, in some respects, lasting effect of the introduction of classic models, and of the sense of freedom gained at the era of tbe Reformation. Nothing, however, is proved by it as to the declension of Christian influence. Id Architecture, the Gothic style, a conception which, if any, is the creation of the Church of Christ, is once more in the ascendant: and there are indications of a similar tendency in the Poetry of the time. Of Painting I need hardly speak. Schlegel remarks that, of the sister arts, Painting is the most truly spiritual, and, together with Music, has in modern Christendom been most employed to exhibit or suggest the mysteries of Divine Love. Sculpture, and to some extent Architecture, as its attendant, occupied with the development of organic form, attained even in heathen times their richest cultivation. tion Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 349 thought. The result thus far would not appear to have been either the decline or degradation of Religion ; much less the contradiction or empover- ishment of tenets essential to the sum of Christian Faith ; but rather the introduction of a broader yet deeper religious type in the adaptation of Revealed Truth to the abstract conceptions of the mind. No doubt the tendency of a classical revival in Science Apparent . . . divorce of and in Art has been, in the first instance, towards art from the separate cultivation of distinct principles of senfiment Truth and Beauty. Hence the apparent and tem porary divorce of Religion from Science; and during the last century, and partly in our own, from Art itself. The medieval intellect may be said to have been entirely and extravagantly reli gious ; just as in Greece and Rome it showed itself exclusively human.1 It still remains to develope a type of thought and conception which shall har monize, after the fundamental idea of the Religion of Christ, the Human and Divine. There is, then, tempo- raxy. little to suggest that the separation of Art and Phi losophy from Christian influence is other than transient and contingent : or to show that Classi cism and the entrance of a so-called Rationalistic 1 " In the East intellect is entirely religious ; in Greek society it is exclusively human ; in the modern world the religious spirit is mixed up with everything, but excludes nothing. Modern intellect has at once the stamp of humanity and of divinity. Human sentiments and interests occupy an important place in our literature; and yet the religious character of man, that portion of his existence which links him to another world, appears in every step."— Guizot, Civ. en Europe, Lee. vi™- 350 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. Position ofthe element have exercised any morbific effect upon the powers of Revealed Religion. § 5. The relations to Christianity of an increased Positive knowledge of the material world, and, as its result, sciences. ° -iti of a Positive system of philosophy, have already been considered in various aspects. The notion that the world through the possession of the Posi tive Sciences has, since the older classical and medieval periods, entered on a new phase of know ledge and reflection, is plainly not without founda tion. If we compare the present condition of the Natural Sciences with times in which Mathematics together with the rudiments of Astronomy, Mecha nics, and Medicine constituted their whole domain ¦} when Physics, Biology, and Comparative Physio logy existed only in outline ; and Chemistry and Geology were wholly unknown ; the difference is Their large indeed. Yet this was all that antiquity could in medie- bequeath to after-ages ; and all that the industry and penetration of the Arabians, having culled from their intercourse with the Greek Empire, brought into the common stock of knowledge. 1 "La mathematique et l'astronomie, seul domaine que l'antiquite posseclat dans la positivitd (la physique et la biologie n'eiaient qu'e1- bauche'es, et la chimie n'existait pas)," &c. — Littre, Etudes sur les Barbares, p. xvii. Humboldt pronounces the Arabians the true founders of the Physical Sciences, according to the modern acceptation of them. They added to the old Greek conceptions the use of Experiment and Computation. See Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, p. 83. Comte considers Physics to have commenced with Galileo's discoveries on the fall of heavy bodies : and that Geometry almost begins with Descartes ; that of the ancients having been of a special and limited character. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 351 There was an absence, whatever may be said of the inductive processes indicated by Plato or by Aris totle, not only of real information, but also of the method to seek it and to use it when found.1 Is it, then, to be supposed that with these changes the limits or direction of even abstract speculation could have remained modelled only on ancient practice ? It is further true that, through the sup- Their re pression by medieval Catholicism of the critical unfavom-- spirit, the antagonism between the defenders of Religion, Revealed and the investigators of Natural Truth, more apparent than real, was largely increased. Nor at first was this doctrine of authority much impaired by the interposition of Protestantism. The Reformation, it has been well said by Hallam,2 "h°* w^or " was but a change of masters," and those great ™0asta"t0 men, who had been really, though unconsciously, them- contending for a perpetual freedom of belief, were the first to coerce speculation, and to inhibit differ ences of opinion in matters of faith. But it is for gotten by the leaders of the school of thought, which would substitute positive knowledge for theological beliefs, that the general emancipation of thought effected by the Reformation was posterior 1 See at length Whewell, Hist of Induct. Sc, Bk. IV. Religion, or rather Theology, being in the Middle Ages the only outlet for human effort and human interests, may seem to have suffered from the very introduction of other fields of inquiry. 2 Literature of Europe, I. 370. Lecky, Hist Rat, I. 404, pursues this topic with some vehemence. 352 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. to the religious revolution and dependent upon it.1 Religion also during the same period with Science had entered upon a new phase or stand-point of opinion; of which, however, the Reformation was the true cause and spring. Science and Religion may be long in working out upon a common footing the Prates- details of their respective systems. But it can be friendly to no real argument (although repeatedly urged by M. Comte) against the truth of a Protestant Chris tianity, that it has revolted from the domination of an unreasoning Catholicism : however imposing in speculation, or even in its historical results, may be the idea of unity. Rational- S 6. If it were true, as has been alleged, that ism not the . . true con- Rationalism is the legitimate result of Scepticism sequence ... of toiera- and Toleration in religious belief ;2 it might next be opinion. 1 Guizot, Civ. en E., Lee . xnm6, points out that " while the civil and religious societies have undergone the same vicissitudes and been subject to the same revolutions, resulting in the overthrow of absolute power, the religious society has always been foremost in this career." So, in pronouncing on the English Revolution of 1688, Hallam observes that it " is justly entitled to honour as the era of religious, in a far greater degree than of civil, liberty : the privilege of conscience having had no earlier Magna Charta, and Petition of Right, wbereto they could appeal against encroachment." — Const Hist, II. 324. So also Mr. Buckle Hist. Civ., II. 138, sees "in the Reformation of the sixteenth century the seeds of those great political revolutions which, in the seventeenth century broke out in nearly every part of Europe." 2 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat, I. 400, 406, regards Rationalism as the issue of the Reformation ; and Toleration as the result and measure of Rationalism in Protestant countries. He nowhere, indeed, in his work, defines Rationalism ; but in more than one passage sufficiently describes his notion of it. It is a disbelief in authority (I. 90), a demand for evidence. "The essence of the rationalistic spirit is to interpret the Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 353 asked whether Scepticism may not be considered to have been the natural result of the Reformation and of the changes which were then inaugurated. And there are writers of a free and philosophic spirit who seem to see nothing mediate between Roman Catholicism and what they denominate Rationalism. But while admitting that toleration of opinion is the legitimate consequence of private involved judgment, and that the principle of private judg- principle ment was the privilege asserted for human thought Judgment. in the act of the Reformation ; it still remains to be shown that private judgment itself is identical with Rationalism in anything like the current accepta tion of the term, or in a sense to be held perilous Real sense to the claims of Revelation. Faith, it needs hardly aiism. be repeated, is, on the one hand, no unreasoning acceptance of truths, however sacred. Nor again is the admission of Authority in matters of Religion articles of special creeds by the principles of universal religion, by the wants, the aspirations and the moral sentiments which seem inherent in human nature. It leads men, in other words, to judge what is true and what is good, not by the teachings of tradition, but by the light of reason and of conscience." Adopting Dr. Farrar's learned and careful history of the term, " Rationalism is properly opposed to Super naturalism, having Reason, and not Revelation, for its formal principle ; and stands for a purely philosophical view of religious truth." — Bamp ton Lectt, pp. 589-592. It is hence of importance to insist that the right use of reason does not tend to diminish faith in the supernatural ; nor was there any such tendency inherent in the principles of the Reformation ; which gave the occasion only and imposed the duty of free inquiry. Hegelianism (Panlogism, as it has been termed) is the acme of Rationalism, which supersedes or constitutes reality. " Alles, was wirklich ist, ist verniinftig." 2 A 354 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. within limits other than a reasonable principle.' The English Divines, to go no further than our own country, who have fought the battle of reli gious toleration,2 were neither Sceptics nor, as the word is generally understood, Rationalists. In the Church of Rome Scepticism has indeed at all times shown a direct and dangerous opposition towards Perilous Christianity itself:3 because the very truth of position of ° •> Roman Christianity is there staked upon the positive insti- dsm. tutions of the Church ; and now, as it would appear, upon the infallibility of its visible head. But it has not been so within the domain of Protestantism ; in England, America, or even in Germany. Here Protestantism, as admitting toleration of religious opinion, shows itself the hope of Christian doctrine, Aic'aff°rcI~ and the ground of its ultimate permanence. " There principle is no such thing," it has been truly enough said, ofProtes- .... ° tantism. " as a theological antiseptic." But Protestantism, by blending with and consecrating the prevailing Rationalistic spirit,4 affords a standing remedy for traditional and authoritative corruptions of belief. 1 See this argued by Hooker, E. P., V. viii., who does not exclude " invincible arguments found out by the light of reason." 2 Hales, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor : not to speak among laymen of Milton and Locke. s Thus, very early in the age of the Reformation, the attempt was made by the Italian Humanists to unite the extremes of sceptical unbelief and passive obedience to the authority of the Church. See Dorner, Hist Prot. 'Th., Vol. II. ; Lecky, H. R., I. 406, and Mr. Buckle's remarks on the causes of the French Revolution, II. 249. 4 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat, II. 92, justly observes, " When a country, which is nominally Roman Catholic, is very tolerant, it maybe inferred, with almost absolute certainty, that the social and intellectual influence Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 355 § 7. Love of truth may be pronounced to Love of have been the rudimentary virtue of Reformed rudimen- Christianity. This virtue, in the intensity of taryvirtue- its spiritual conviction, lay at the root of the movement; and is still the proper attribute of Protestantism as a system. It' is true that fana ticism may sometimes have done it injustice in this respect ; and, through intolerance in theory and practice,1 have raised the doubt as to its pre ference of an authorized creed to the results of genuine inquiry. Yet it has rarely, if ever, subor dinated moral distinctions to positive expediency ; the means to the end ; or sanctioned pious frauds.2 In its love of truth it has ever sympathized with obscured by preju- the instincts of physical discovery, and the employ- dice. ment of a scientific method.3 The marked diffusion of the Church is comparatively small. But England and America con clusively prove that a nation may be very tolerant, and at the same time profoundly Protestant. ... It is this fact which is the most pro pitious omen of the future of Protestantism." 1 Hallam's verdict (Const. Hist., I. 94) is, "the difference as to tolerance in religion between Catholics and Protestants was only in degree, and in degree there was much less difference than we are .apt to believe;" and see Mr. Lecky's severe strictures, H. Rat, II. 54-61, and Buckle, II. 51. Vet Hallam (u. s., p. 119) seems to admit that the principle of toleration was early and persistently avowed by Protestants. Certainly, it must be allowed to have lain as a germ in the system, however late in bearing fruit, both in our own and other countries. The principles of Romanism are unfortunately committed to persecution. 2 On the degree to which the medieval interpolations and forgeries had " blotted out the very sense and love of truth from the minds of men," see Mr. Lecky's just remarks, II. Rat, I. 434-6 ; H. E. M., II. 225. 3 In England, we may fairly instance Bacon, Boyle, and Newton. Among the founders of the Royal Society were Wilkins, Spratt, Glanvil, and other Churchmen. 2 a 2 356 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. of a truthful spirit, which has been the characteristic of the era of Protestantism, has been variously ascribed to the revival of ancient independent systems of philosophy, to the influence of modern secular thinkers, and to the general results of Physical advancing civilization.1 It may with equal reason, discovery indebted and with perhaps more probability, be attributed tantism. to the reaction of religious inquiry upon philoso phical speculation and active life. But in either case its possession by a religious system, as part of its inherent and fundamental principles, is both an element of real progress, and a guarantee of per manence to the Faith which it upholds. hberfy°im- § 8- The doctrine of religious liberty, although involved7 ** did not immediately bear fruit, is in principle formation^ fairly and incontestably due to the Reformation ; which did not, however, take its rise in any notions of political freedom.2 Experience shows, it is true, that, under all systems, persecution for opinion is dear to human nature. But it has never been proved to be a consequence of Christian doctrine. Until the establishment of the Church under Con stantine, the testimony of tbe Fathers is wholly in favour of toleration of belief. It is in practice itonScenottfiat the difficulties emerge of working out the secured. 1 Lecky, II. R., I. 440 ; H. E. M.,1. 143. 2 " Political liberty," says Hallam, Lit. E, I. 352, " in the sense we use the word, cannot be reckoned the aim of those who .introduced the Reformation." See also the section (II. 33) on the Political Philosophy of the sixteenth century. Compare Mr. Mill on Liberty, Introd. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 357 application of the principle of freedom without dis turbance, yet without injustice. The removal of religious disabilities, and the relations of theolo gical beliefs to political government, have, since the Reformation, become of necessity the questions of the age ; and once more, after an interval of temporary cessation, loom large on the horizon of public opinion in Europe. But their solution no Practical longer involves the rise or fall of Christianity, its still ex- success or decline. The usefulness of Establish- pei) ments1 and of National Churches in preserving a just liberty of belief against sectarian or unsec- tarian tyranny ; as also in combating so formidable an opponent as " the close phalanx of Rome ;"' may be too readily forgotten. On the other hand, but no p i longer there is good reason to augur, from the mtrinsi- dangerous cally spiritual character of our Religion, that it ;stence of would, under the most voluntary system, be found tianity, the most readily to flourish.3 But in any case the true interests of Christianity are independent of 1 On this side may be claimed so liberal a thinker as Shaftesbury, who quotes Harrington to the effect that " it is necessary people should have a public leading in religion." " Why," he adds, " should there not be public walks, as well as private gardens?"— Characteristics, I. 17. 2 " It is still very doubtful whether the close phalanx of Rome can be opposed, in ages of strong religious zeal, by anything except established or at least confederate Churches."— Hallam, Hist. Lit, I 372. 3 See Sir G. C. Lewis's observations (Essay on Authority, p. 301) : Mr. Buckle (Hist. Civ., II. 53) considers that "a religion, not protected by the Government, usually displays greater energy and greater vitality than one which is so protected." He further gives a rationale of the fact. 358 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. the secularization of politics. They are bound up nor to its with the maintenance of the Scriptures, its sole terests. authoritative records, and with the earliest prin ciples of their interpretation, historically ascer tained ; and these, it must be admitted, are on the side of religious equality, and a reasonable employ- Question ment of private judgment.1 It may, however, be of religious . . „ . establish- remarked, that a belief in the progressive power of the Religion, and of its capacity and value in civilization, seems a necessary part of a theory of religious establishments ; for, as representing a system of abstract truth only, few would care greatly to support them.2 Were the Faith of Jesus Christ confined in its teaching to any one form of political government, absolute or popular ; this might, in some quarters, and with some show of fairness, be deemed an evidence of its transient and 1 On the equality and diversity of particular Churches, it may be remarked that the Primitive Liturgies and even Creeds bear evidence of the independence of their several forms, while united by a community of doctrine; see Bingham, E. A., Bk. II. c. vi. Some good remarks on the relation of private judgment to a common standard of authority existing in the Church will be found in Bp. Browne, Expos, of Arts, p. 480 ; in Gladstone, Church and State, c. v. ; and Palmer, Treatise on the Church, II. vi. 2 The grave question as to the duty of the State to propagate truth is, at the present time, practically superseded by a belief that it is not for the interest of the truth to seek the assistance of the State. With out taking up the high ground of Mr. Gladstone (Church and State, c. iii. viii.), it is enough to observe that even Macaulay (Essays, p. 487) would maintain the duty of religious instruction on the part of the Government as a secondary obligation from its utility as a moral in strument. If, then, its value as a spiritual agency be taken into account, the obligation is surely enhanced ; as well as the danger of making no provision against false outlets for the enthusiasm un doubtedly natural to mankind. Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 359 limited character. Such, however, we know from its own doctrines, as well as from the course of its history, not to be the case. Born under the grow- Relations ing absolutism of the first years of the Roman tianity as Empire, the Church, though instinctively leaning of religion to the rights of possession, as the best practical proof of its negation of all claims to temporal power;1 favoured political progress and liberty. True it is, that the original freedom of its prin ciples has, in the course of human affairs, been limited and arrested by the force of circumstances, and the errors of individual leaders. It has accord ingly been reproached with its tendencies to Theo cracy ; with the alliances it has contracted with despotism ; and with the slavishness of its passive obedience.2 Yet no doctrine of Divine Right can be proved in reality to encumber its system ; and 1 Mr. Buckle treats the distinction of de facto and de jure with much contempt ; and as a quibble invented to save the pockets of the clergy, or to cover Jesuitry. Hist Civ., I. 413. While acknowledging to the full the high qualities of the Non-jurors, I still regard this view as a narrow one. 3 Shaftesbury denounced Christianity as incompatible with freedom ; and even Mr. Buckle seems to agree in the opinion that, " by being a good Churchman, a person may become a bad citizen." No doubt, medieval Catholicism has neutralized its earlier services of distinguish ing spiritual from temporal authority by its later attempts to subordi nate the latter to the former. Montesquieu, E. L., XXIV. iii. v., con siders the genius of Christianity best suited to a constitutional form of Government; while Mahometanism is the religion of despotism ; and that Catholicism has an affinity for monarchy, but Protestantism for a republic. Guizot, however, admits that, historically, the Church has always presented herself as the interpreter and defender of theocracy or despotism, under a religious or civil form. The origin of this fact he 360 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. the highest supporters of the Papal power have at times maintained even ultra- democratic opinions. itsinde- Democracy, indeed, in the opinion of many the pendence. . ultimate form of existing governments ; the neces sary result, it is maintained, of the conclusions of political economy, of the increase of capital, of the Supposed expansion of knowledge,1 and of industrial move- leaning to- . wards de- ments ; is in some respects the truest aspect of the mocracy. ..„-..... spirit of Christianity as the last and highest expres sion of the Christian ideal of the brotherhood of mankind.2 " Unam omnium rempublicam agnos- cimus mundum," cries Tertullian in his defence of Christianity ; " Omnium Christianorum respublica est," is the echo of Augustine.3 In this freedom, or, it may be, indifference, of the political stand- traces to the natural conflict between religious restraint and human liberty.— Civ. en E., Lee. vim6. " Le Christianisme," says De Maistre, OSuvres, p. 121, " est monarchique ; comme tout le monde le sait." — See Du Pape, I. 249. 1 " The state of knowledge," says Bacon, " is ever a Democratie ; and that prevaileth which is most agreeable to the senses and conceits of people."— Works, III. 227. 2 Lecky, H. Rat, II. 248. Comp. Schmidt, Essai, Bk. II. c. ii. Dean Milman, Hist Lat. Chr., VI. 210, has eloquently pointed out the liberal elements in medieval Catholicism, their effects on social rank and in proclaiming the equality of mankind. See also Guizot's remarks, Civ. en E., Lee. vme, on the amount of individual freedom which modified the spiritual tyranny of the pretensions of the Church. 3 Tertull., Apol, c. xxxviii. ; Augustine, De Op. Monach, c. xv., xxxiii. The indifference of Christians to political affairs, not unnatural under the circumstances of the time and at the rise of the new Religion, was at first- thought a consequence of their doctrines. It was held " doctrinam Christi adversam esse reipublicaj." — August., Ep. cxxxviii., ad Marcell. Mr. Lecky, H. Rat, II. 108, regards all patriotism as a pagan, and not a Christian, virtue. Even if this view were correct, it would but show the suitableness of the religion to co-operate in the Lect. VIII.] OF CHRISTIANITY. 361 point, may certainly be discerned no unfavourable augury of the probable operation of Christianity amid future revolutions of public opinion in succeed ing ages. Strengthened from within by its own Semiar- . . - ization not native resources ot influence, it may be expected to fatal or un- become gradually independent of all such means of influence as governments are undoubtedly capable of exercising upon religious belief,1 whether bene ficially or not. § 9. An argument not infrequently urged for the probable decline of Christianity remains to be con sidered. The principle of private judgment, it is said, objection in matters of religion, which is more and more assert- principle 0 of private ing itself in reason and in fact as the law of Chris- judgment tian communities, penetrating even the armour of Roman unity, is a principle of dissidence and divi sion, making blunt the true instrument for the con version of the world, — Christian love and oneness of belief. How, it is objected, is mankind to be as the°- . . . retically brought over to the Faith of Christ, when the prin- and in fact . . . . incompa- ciple of religious disagreement is both sanctioned tMe with • • missionary and maintained?2 Who shall judge whether this success. disagreement does not extend to matters essential to largest speculations as to the ultimate federation of mankind. Comte admits that the rise of industrial Republics in the Middle Ages is a proof that Christianity is not incompatible with this form of government. — Phil Pos., V. 458. 1 See on this subject Sir G. C. Lewis, Influence of Authority, p. 291, and Mr. Lecky, Hist. Rat, II. 2-4. 2 Comp. Voltaire, Essai sur les Meeurs, I. iv. " Le plus grand obstacle a nos succes religieux dans l'lnde, c'est la difference des opinions qui divisent nos missionnaires ; " &c. 362 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. personal salvation 71 And, at any rate, if the missionary efforts of the Church, while still united, failed to procure the full conversion of the heathen to the knowledge of the truth, what better pro spect can attend the labours of isolated bodies ? If it is impossible to secure unity within the Church ; what are the chances of succeeding with those "that are without; " of winning to the One Fold a power tne sheep that are scattered abroad ? It has been of conver- *¦ sion an ad- already admitted that, in the tendency of any mitted test . J . . ofthevi- religious system to extend itself by conversion of tality of ° . J J any Re- unbelief, may be found one of the most real tests ligion, . . of its permanence, power, and, ultimately, of its not ques- truth.2 No obiector can deny to certain periods of tioned as j j 1. to Chris- the history of Christianity the presence of this tianity in ^ J L iis earlier test. Those periods have already, in the course of stages. x ^ these Lectures, come fully under review. "We are now led to form, though very briefly, an estimate of the present condition and ultimate prospects of our Religion in respect of its missionary efforts. This prin- § 10. But, first, it must not be forgotten, as ciple and 3 . . . ° ' duty in- bearing upon this portion of our subject, that the the system missionary spirit of Christianity, as compared with of Chris tianity. 1 This objection, it is clear, may be carried too far. All errors, even in matters of faith, cannot be considered defide and heretical. Roman Catholic divines admit that there may be true Churches without the entire profession of the truth ; nor is actual unity in all matters of faith a real note of the Church of Christ. See Palmer, Treatise, I. v. § 4, These considerations must largely modify any definition of " Funda mentals." ; See Grant, Bampton Ltd., vi., sub iriit. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 363 other faiths, was marked in its very origin1 by the example and action of its Founder. He came, as He expressly records, "to seek and to save that which was lost." One of the grandest miracles of this Religion and of its most important announce ments, the descent of the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost, had direct reference to the work of Evangelization.2 In some respects this eagerness to make proselytes might be considered as tradi tional with the Jews, and was so remarked by heathen writers before the spread of Christianity.3 In some respects, also, it has been shared by other How far Eastern religions, by the faiths of Buddha4 and Buddhism, Mahomet. With the worshippers of Islam, how- ^h^e. ever, the instrument and end of conversion was tan faith. conquest ; not the moral or spiritual elevation of the believer. They massacred ; they did not con vert.5 It has, indeed, been asserted that even in the 1 On the real and disinterested character of the first missionary labours of the Christians, see Origen, c. Cels., III. ix., VIII. Iii. ; and on the .necessary connection between such efforts and a belief in doctrine, comp. Dr. Mozley, B. L., pp. 182-5. " Zeal in missionary enterprise is essentially the child of faith," &c. We may set proselytism to the account of Christianity as against persecution. " Le zele qui convertit et qui fonde est aussi le zdle qui poursuit et qui d&ruit." — Littre", Les Barbares, p. 150. See Guizot, Meditations, II. 143. 2 Comp. Luke xxiv. 47-49. 3 Comp. Neander, I. 90-93, ed. Clark : Dollinger, Gentile and Jew, II. 181. * See Max Muller, Chips, I. 257, 293. 6 " Concerning the means of procuring unity, we may not take up the third sword^ which is Mahomet's sword or like unto it; that is, to propagate religion by wars, or by sanguinary persecutions to force con sciences "-Bacon, Essays, Works, VI. 383. It is too true that the 364 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIIL present day Mahommedanism still makes its con verts:1 a result, however, obtained by secondary agencies, such as the institution of domestic slavery, rather than by any combined or genuine effort to Original enlarge the area of its beliefs. But with the Faith with the ° Christian of Jesus Christ conversion of unbelief has been religion, ... from the first an intrinsic and palpable duty. "Go ye and teach all nations (/m^TjTeuo-are) ; baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," was the commission of His Apostles. " Out of all nations and kindreds and tongues and peoples " was His Church to be built up; and "unto them that dwell in all the earth" was " the everlasting Gospel " to be preached.2 Nor has there ever been any long space in the history and per- 0f the Church, especially when freed from domestic carried struggles, during which this work has not been carried on by at least some branch of the Christian Communion. No age has been altogether without some fruit of its labours. At the present hour it is being vigorously and honourably maintained : and an important testimony is thus rendered to the life and activity of our Religion, and to the prospects of its extension and permanence. A few proofs in policy of Ferdinand and Isabella to Jew and Moor was a copy of this example. — Milman, Hist, of Jews, III. xxvi. ; Gieseler, III. v. § 6. 1 See W. G. Palgrave, Essays on Eastern Questions, p. 124; also Dollinger, Lectures on Reunion of Churches. The Church Missionary Society's Report for 1872 says, " In some parts of India Mohamme danism is extremely strong, if not increasing ; . . . among the African tribes it continues its onward movement." 2 Matt, xxviii. 19 ; Rev. xiv. 6. out Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 365 connection with this part of our' subject are all that can be given here. § 11. At the time of the Reformation the ereo- sketch of 0 missionary graphical limits of the Faith of Christ were for the efforts • • i i p -n since the most part identical with those of Europe. Poland Reforma- and Lapland had at length received the Gospel;1 and although Constantinople had admitted within its walls its Turkish conquerors, its Christian popu lation still retained one-half of the churches to their use with liberty of worship.2 In Asia missionaries had touched China : and Nestorianism had made advances in Central Tartary. But other worlds now opened before the march of Christianity ; and as if to meet the fresh demand, the nations of the Evils of the con- West rose to a new energy, and became endued with quest of 1 T • America, greater intensity of enterprise and purpose. It is true that in America and Western Africa the spread of the Gospel was at first utterly thwarted by the avarice and ferocity of the Spaniards and Portuguese. What else could be looked for from men who had mercilessly expelled from the soil of Spain the Jew and the Moor, with the option of 1 Beo-un in the middle and close of the fourteenth century, but it was long before idolatry was extinguished. — Gieseler, C. H, IV. 259 ; Guericke, Kirchengesch., II. 321 ; Maclear, Hist of Missions in Middle Ages. 2 Gibbon, VIII. 180, ed. Smith. 3 Comp. Grant, 3. L., p. 281. Dr. Dorner, Hist. Prot. Th., II. 447, remarks generally : " The intensive and extensive processes alternate with each°other in the Church's history. The latter, though naturally arising from the former, brings the Church into a defiling contact with the world, from which it can only be delivered by a fresh concentration and a recurrence to the purifying and intensive process. Nevertheless, the work of Christianity upon the human race is progressive." 366 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. conversion or exile.1 In vain the Dominicans with righteous rigour refused absolution to the inhuman torturers of the native Indians.2 In vain the devoted and venerable, if mistaken, Las Casas lived and died among the heathen of Mexico and Cuba. of the No one can desire to palliate these enormities any slave trade. more than the miseries of the Slave Trade, that long and grievous stain on the fair scutcheon of modern Christianity. Yet it must be remembered that then, no less than in our own day, the social element, first Social brought into contact with savage and aboriginal causes of ° ° these re- populations, is that which is, for the most part, suits. L least under the control of religious and spiritual ideas. The missionary succeeds the settler, the slaver, and the gold seeker. The reproach cast by Lord Bacon on his contemporaries in the days of Elizabeth would hold good even now. " Surely the merchants themselves shall rise in judgment against the princes and nobles of Europe. For they have made a great path in the seas unto the ends of the world ; and set forth ships and forces of Spanish, English, and Dutch, enough to make China trem ble ; and all this for pearl, or stone, or spices ; but for the pearl of the kingdom of Heaven, or the stones of the heavenly Hierusalem, or the spices of the Spouse's Garden, not a mast hath been set up." 3 1 See the remarkable discussion given in Prescott (Ferdinand, III. 430) between Sepulveda and Las Casas. " The Spaniard," says the indignant historian, " first persecuted the Jews, and then quoted them as an autho rity for persecuting all other infidels." See also Helps, Las Casas, c. xi. 2 Gieseler, V. 204. Prescott, u. s., III. 428. Helps, Life of Las Casas, c. ix. " Bacon, Works, VII. 19, ed. Spedding. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 367 S 12. And yet when we compare the three Progress . _ of missions hundred years which have elapsed since the era of large and the Reformation with the fifteen centuries which had preceded, can we say that little has been done or is doing to fulfil the great Christian duty of propagating the Faith ? Little, perhaps, to satisfy the eager expectation which calculates (perchance too fondly) l on the universal spread of the kingdom of Christ, ere that kingdom be accomplished ; ever crying, " How long, 0 Lord ? " " Wilt thou at this time restore again the kingdom to Israel ? " Little, it may be, to answer the cavils at the as sumed failure and unreason of all missionary efforts which proceed from some objectors to Revelation and from half-hearted friends.2 Of the labours of Efforts of ... . . ..le Roman the Church of Rome during this period in the held church. of missions, I would speak with all respect.3 That Church, which sent forth a Xavier ; which fostered the devotion and noble self-sacrifice of the Jesuit Fathers ; which (with whatever errors of concep tion and execution) has planted missions through 1 See Archdeacon Grant's observations, B. L., p. 301. See also some good remarks in Isaac Taylor (Hist, of Enthus., p. 183), on the probable evils which would accompany a speedy conversion of mankind. 2 Paley, in his Evidences (Works, V. 239), remarks with truth that the slow progress and ill-success of modern efforts only magnify the miracle of thefirst conversion of the Roman world to Christianity. 8 The Congregatio de fide Cath. propaganda was "erected" by the Bull of Gregory XV. in 1622. The " Seminarium" dates from 1627. As to the Missions here touched on, Charlevoix's Histories for Japan and Paraguay are well known; H. Coleridge's Life of Xavier may also be consulted ; and for a general account of Catholic Missions, Wittmann, Allgemeine Geschichte der Katholischen Missionen, Vol. III. The most recent account of the Mission in China will be found in Cooper's Pioneer of Commerce. 368 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. the length and breadth of America, from Paraguay to the snows of Canada ; no less than in the far East, in India, Tonkin, China, and Japan, and on the coasts of Western Africa ; and still maintains with unabated vigour in much of these regions, as well as in the English colonies, its centres of opera tion ; is no sluggard in this work. Xavier alone, xavier. in his heroic faith and zeal, his quenchless love of souls, his entire spirit of self-sacrifice, his earnest piety, and careful wisdom, offers, it has been well said, " all that we can desire, all that we can conceive in the character of a Christian preacher sent forth among the heathen to teach repentance toward God, and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ." x Why should it be held that the light of such an example is perished from the earth, never to re-illume the horizon of Christian enterprise ? His ex- Surely it cannot any longer be urged with truth capable of against Protestantism that in its hands Christianity tion. has lost its expansive power : that neither the spirit of wisdom nor of self-sacrifice animates its efforts for the conversion of the heathen.2 Long, it is true, this note of an Apostolic Church was wanting while a reformed faith was struggling for existence or reviving its shattered energies.3 No 1 Grant, B. L., p. 145. 2 See in Grant, u. s., p. 183. Thus De Maistre, Du Pape, III. c. i. ; IV. v. He adds, bitterly : "Les eglises sont steriles, et rien n'est plus juste ; elles ont rejete l'^poux." 3 " The constructive intelligence of the seventeenth century possessed itself of the materials accumulated during the Reformation era, to Lect. VIII ] OF CHRISTIANITY. 369 doubt, the outbreak of the Reformation " isolated 0f the , Reformed the English Church as well as kindred continental Churches. bodies from the vast system with which they had been bound up." 1 They were thrown suddenly on their own resources. But little by little, with the return of strength and the opportunity of reflection, the sense of this duty re-awaked among the Pro testant Churches. Denmark established the first mission in Hindostan,2 and also in Greenland. Germany. Holland laboured earnestly in Java, Amboyna, Formosa. Germany, in the missions of the United Brethren, showed an unrivalled pattern of wisdom and self-devotion over an area extending from South Africa to Labrador. I will not now seek to recount the efforts made through the Missionary Societies of our own country to wipe away the^nf"s" reproach of past indifference in this the prime of Christian works of mercy. But I would ask you to compare the present state of British India with its aspect a century ago ; to look abroad on the work which has been done during the same period in America, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa, fashion them into means of offence and defence. . . Within the citadel a vigorous spiritual life, which gave evidence of its existence chiefly in sacred song and music, was not lacking. But the notion of winning the world to the Gospel, and of the moral expansion of the Protestant prin ciple according to its different aspects, had almost disappeared."— Dorner, H. Prot. Th., II. 99. 1 Grant, B. L., p. 185. Guericke, Kirchengesch., III. 374. 2 Having later among its missionaries (from 1751-1798) that truly excellent man, Christian F. Schwarz. A general history of Protestant Missions was first brought out by Wiggers, Hamburg, 1856, in 2 vols. 2 B 370 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. and to say whether we can see in it only the expiring embers of a faith all but extinct, in capable of further effort or enthusiasm. Do we not rather mark in it the signs under God's blessing of a revival, pure, and fresh, and heartfelt, of a primitive zeal such as has ever stamped the leading Present eras of Christian advance ? Though much, very the work, much remains to be done to consolidate the empire of Christ even in the regions where His name is named, there is still ground in past and present effort for the highest expectations of success. Is it not so that in these latter days the truest seal of missionary devotion has not been withheld in the constancy of an entire Church, as also of individual Christians? Witness the blood-stained cliffs of Madagascar! Witness the island of the South Pacific, which so lately saw our English Bishop Patteson close with a martyr's death the life of an Apostle ! Happier in this his meed than Xavier himself. " If," said that faithful servant of Christ, "I should happen to die by the hands of the heathen, who knows but all of them might receive the faith ? For it is most certain that, since the primitive times of the Church, the seed of the Gospel has made a larger increase in the fields of Paganism by the blood of martyrs than by the sweat of missionaries." l Surely Mission work will be found the true Crusade of the nineteenth cen- 1 See Dryden's Life, p. 174, ap. Grant, p. 179. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 371 tury. It is not for nought that Christianity, once Favour- ..... . „ n _. able con tne civilizer and creator of modern hiurope, now juncture of puts forth its plastic power to re-mould the stances. religions of the world, and summon to one common shrine the aboriginal races of the earth. It is true that many such tribes, the sad survivors of the infancy of our race,1 have perished as by an unseen law, and are perishing at the first touch of civilization. The Church of Christ but plants itself on their forgotten graves. Yet, if indeed we believe in civilization as the vocation of man kind, and in nations as specifically gifted for this work, how vast is the future now open to Chris tian enterprise ! For the soul and source of all real civilization we hold to be Religion.2 Colonization and conquest, intercourse and trade, are its pioneers, and to each of the dominant sections of the Christian world may perhaps, in the Divine councils, be reserved a separate portion of this common work. Each of the three Families of £™|>*te to each of the lead- 1 " Quant aux races sauvages, ces tristes survivants d'un monde en ;ng divi- enfance, a qui l'on ne peut souhaiter qu'une douce mort, il y a presque rions^ofthe derision a leur appliquer nos formulaires dogmatiques, fruit d'iine chu™hmn reflexion de vingt siecles."— Renan, Questions Contemporaines, p. 361. I have to some extent followed the far-reaching speculations of the same able mind in estimating the future spread of Christianity. Mean while philosophy, it must not be forgotten, has done nothing in this work. " Condorcet," writes De Maistre, " nous a promis que les philo- sophes se chargeraient incessamment de la civilisation et du bonheur des nations barbares. Nous attendrons qu'ils veuillent bien com- mencer." — GSuvres, p. 130. 2 See Luthardt's remarks, Apolog., E. T., ed. Clark, p. 199. 2 b 2 372 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. Christianity,1 the Latin or Celtic, the Teutonic, the Greco-Slave, (for in accepting this new element the Greek Church also has found its Renaissance ;) has at least a probable appointed area of labour. Russia may yet subdue the realms of Buddhism and of Confucianism. For Latin Catholicism may remain the Turkish and Persian Orient. The Moslems of the East, it is true, fix their gaze on Constantinople as the centre of their hopes,2 looking to a restoration of the Caliphate, and with it of their former glory. But surely they lean on a broken reed. For Teutonic Christianity and our own English-speaking race3 lies in store the vast appanage of Hindostan, the continents of Australia and North America, and, as it would seem, of Central and Southern Africa, 1 " Throughout the world, wherever the Teutonic is the groundwork of the language, the Reformation either is or, as in Southern Germany, has -been dominant : wherever Latin, Latin Christianity has retained its ascendancy."— Milman, L. Chr., I. 8. " Protestantism," says Mr. Froude, Short Studies, p. 131, " is' Teutonic ; Catholicism Latin and Celtic." As to the Greek Church, comp. Dean Stanley, Led. on Eastern Ch., p. ix. pp. 345, 492, and Neale's Holy Eastern Church, I. 14, 15. 2 See Grant, B. L., p. 285. W. G. Palgrave's Essays, p. 131. 3 " The spread of the English stock, and language, and literature, over the North American continent, has afforded a distinct and very significant indication of the power of Christianity to retain its hold of the human mind, and of its aptness to run hand in hand with civilization, even when unaided by those secular succours to which its enemies in malice, and some of its friends in over-caution, are prone to attribute too much importance." — I. Taylor, Enthus., p. 271. In the East, the opening of Japan, the adoption, as it is stated, of English as the State language, and the large dimensions of Chinese Coolie migration to America, Australia, and India, tend in the same direc tion. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 373 " even all the isles of the heathen." As the final Room for progress. term of human religions, susceptible of a pro gressive application,1 the Avatar of Christianity has still before it a future, which in vastness may overshadow the history of the past.2 §13. Let us not, then, the creatures of a day, Conciu- . sion. whose term of earthly life but spans the commence ment of an immortal existence, deem that progress slow, that career uncertain. For what shall be No true standard our standard of measurement ? " The blindness of ofthe rate p n 1 • i p • i °f progress the greatest men, ot the highest races, 01 wideofchris- continents " will not shake our faith, that the uam y' Divine purpose revealed in the scheme of our holy Religion shall surely come to pass. There are not wanting indications that, " both in the case of men and of nations, the longest training and the dreariest periods of abeyance of spiritual life are often preparations for its fullest growth." 3 Eras of 1 Comp. Milman, u. s., p. 9 ; VI. 447. 2 Want of space forbids me to dwell on the symptoms, now happily universal, of the intensive progress of Christianity in our own and other countries. These to some extent compefe and interfere with missionary labour. Such are the vast efforts made in England during the last half century, not only by the Established Church, but also by Nonconformist bodies, to overtake, as to spiritual provision, the large and steady increase of population, a task the more difficult from foregone neglect ; the build ing and renovation of churches and chapels; the erection and main tenance of schools, in which the clergy are admitted to have taken so great a share ; the growing interest in matters of doctrine and prac tice often involving much personal sacrifice ; not to speak of individual acts of Christian religiousness, the growth of charity answering to the increase of national wealth. In proportion as many of these tasks are remitted to the superintendence of the State, the extensive action of the Church may be expected to fill a larger field. 3 Hutton, Essays, p. 122. 374 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. Retrogres- apparent retrogression may be designed to act but diaiyto as goads to discipline the faith which hopes and advance. ox works unshaken to the end. And certainly the new consciousness now dawning on mankind of spaces of duration, hitherto beyond conception, yet now falling into their rank and place in the scheme of evolution of human existence, may teach us to be wary of hastily determining the future of Chris tianity and of our race by -any previous limits of anticipation. It has probably been one cause of the slowness of the spread of the Gospel, now, happily, very generally felt, where over-hasty mis- Progress sfonary efforts have neglected all consideration of ledge win previous stages of development, intellectual and missionary moral ; and have introduced races hardly reclaimed success. from savagery to theological controversies, or the acceptance of religious practices, which represent the thought of centuries. But the issue of the work of Evangelization can never be doubtful, so long as we reflect upon the characteristics of the truths which Christianity reveals to mankind, and Argument their position in the history of our race. In this for the r . J progress respect we may, without undue assumption, appeal mate per- to the internal evidence of truth furnished by the of Chris- character of its doctrines ; their universality,1 their tianity, 1 " There is nothing which to any reflecting mind is more signal a proof of the Bible being really the guiding book of the world's history than its anticipations, predictions, insight into the wants of men far beyond the age in which it was written. That modern element which we find in it — so like our own times, so unlike the ancient framework of its natural form — that Gentile, European turn of thought, so Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 375 adaptation to the nature which it is their aim to regenerate ; their very presumption of finality in the promises which they hold out to assure the spirit of man. Other religions have been local, from the L cosmopoli- temporary, limited, fitted for definite stages of tan charac- . . ter of its culture, partial in their hold upon particular doctrines, truths, in accord with the spiritual standing, so to speak, only ofthe people or race. They have accord ingly developed tribes and nations to a fixed line and point of progress, and then their course seems stayed.1 They have no further message to the soul of man; no onward mission to evoke his Divine capacities, or renew his fallen nature. But ^jch fad Christianity has not only, in its history, shown ment in itself adequate to all the circumstances of its de- lopment human unlike the Asiatic language and scenery which was its cradle— the race- enforcement of principles and duties which for years and centuries lay almost unperceived, because hardly ever understood in its sacred pages; but which now we see to be in accordance with the utmost requirements of philosophy and civilization ; those principles of tole ration, chivalry, discrimination, proportion, which even now are not appreciated as they ought to be, and which only can be realized in ages yet to come ; these are the unmistakeable predictions of the prophetic spirit of the Bible, the pledges of its inexhaustible re sources."— Stanley, Sermons on the Bible, p. 80. I shall readily be excused for quoting this fine passage at length. 1 " History shows in many ways that Mahometanism has its root only in the past. There is no growth in the faith ; no power of adapting itself to the new ages. Mahomet as he was rules Maho metans as they are. His word was petrified and crystallized m Mecca and can assimilate no new truth. But the history of the Christian Church is a history of constant growth in spite of sacer dotal resistance ; and I believe that the upward course of that growth has ever been the communion with a living Christ."— Hutton, Essays, I. 277. 376 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. velopment; its definite announcements permit a judgment on its genius and character as a Religion framed for permanence and finality.1 If true, it proclaims a scheme for the redemption and im provement of mankind, which is unique, complete, its tenets and incapable of repetition. Its overtures to the responsive to the individual soul, limited to no race, or caste, or convic- class, or set of faculties, extend from its entrance civiliza- into life to the hour of departure ; are adapted to its real wants and failings ;2 and provide for that immortality which strikes an answering chord in the heart of every man. Its type of moral per fection, correspondent to the actual phenomena of Science*1 numan nature, is laid in the union of opposed yet not discordant virtues, of impulsive affections and controlled passions, of self-sacrifice identical with the truest self-love, and terminating in the restora tion of real self-respect. " He who saves his life 1 Compare H. J. Rose, Prot. in Germany, pp. 191, 192. 2 On these topics see Miller's Bampton Lect. on the Adaptation of Holy Scripture to the real state of Human Nature; more particularly Lectures iv. and vii. " There never was any religion as that of Christ ; so congenial to our highest instincts; so persuasive, so ennobling, so universally acceptable to rich and poor; so worthy of the intellect, so consistent and uncompromising in its rules for advancing moral excel lence. Men could not, would not turn from it if it was properly brought home to them ; if it was not tendered to them with some admixture of earth about it, exciting their suspicions and robbing it of its heavenly fragrance." — Ffoulkes, Div. of Christendom, p. xiv. " Many, I think, are agreed, that after all the most striking evidence for the Divine origin of our faith lies in. the patent fact of its existence ; of its growth and diffusion; its proved' superiority to all other forms of spiritual thought; its proved adaptation to all the spiritual wants of man."— Merivale, Lectt, p. 6 ; and Northern Nations, p. 28. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 377 shall lose it : but whosoever shall lose his life for Jesus' sake and the Gospel, the same shall save it."1 The term of man's moral progression is by its means indefinitely extended, and rises into a and to the new and nobler sphere than that of ordinary ethics, needs of It alone assuages the sorrows of existence, (from nature as wliich ere now philosophy has taken refuge in developed. suicide),2 hallows and explains the mystery of suffering, and takes away the sting of dissolution. Its revelations, while confessedly beyond intellec tual comprehension, are guaranteed by their corre spondence with the spiritual intuitions of our race ; being acknowledged alike by the richest culture and by the lowest barbarism. Man's wants and weaknesses, his hopes and desires, his powers and aspirations, his personal and social capabilities, are together forestalled. Thus the doctrines of Chris tianity, uniting the human and Divine, make the only adequate provision for the claims of the human spirit in its sense of sinfulness and need of reconciliation, in its yearning after Divine com- S™V£™1 for the 1 Mark viii. 35. Christianity is plainly in accord with that higher ^^f aspect of Utilitarian Morality which teaches that a man is bound to live mankind in harmony with the order of the universe, and contribute his part to the common good. Again, each soul of man is " one for whom Christ died " (Rom. xiv. 15). " Magnum opus Dei es, Homo," says Ambrose, Serm. x. in Ps. 118, § 11. 2 See Archer Butler, Lect on Ancient Phil, I. 443, 459 ; (it was prac tised by Zeno and Cleanthes, the Stoics ;) and Mr. Lecky, H. E. M., II. 46, for the history of Christian influence on this point. Buckle, Hist. Civ., I. 26, remarks on the fruitlessness of legislation to stay this evil. 378 THE PERMANENCE [Lect. VIII. munion.1 For, by the gift of the Holy Ghost, assured through ordained means of reception, man's spirit is associated with his Maker and Redeemer, and life in time with life in eternity. Thus the Ideal merges in the Actual, the Visible in a per- the Unseen, and Earth in Heaven. Raised above an manentsystem, atmosphere of chill Materialism, the Christian walks and lives in a world where things are no longer what they seem ; but glow with a new light, and are suffused with a deeper significance. Largior hie campos asther et lumine vestit Purpureo : solemque suum, sua sidera norunt. A door is opened in Heaven ; and he hears the Voice which saith, " Come up hither." No real & 1 3. And it is of this Religion that we are decay of the power bidden to believe, that it is fraught with the fate of lence of bygone superstitions, stricken with palsy, hasten- pei. ' ing to decay. Although day by day it gives evi dence of the living fruits of faith, and zeal, and charity, of a benevolence well-nigh boundless, of a sympathy universal as our race.2 Surely the love which has done so much for man, is no unreal 1 " The Gospel, as mere historical truth, would be something past and dead, like a mere doctrinal system of eternal truths, without life and reference to the living person. It is the nature of the Gospel that it is truly known and apprehended only when the historical Christ is at the same time embraced as the present, as well as the eternally abiding, and therefore also future Christ ; as still livingly active to-day, and pointing forward into the depths of an eternity whose vital energies repose in Him."— Dorner, Hist. Prot Th., I. 232. 2 See Mr. Lecky's eloquent testimony, Hist Rat, I. 204, 205 ; and compare Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, p. 556. Lect. VIIL] OF CHRISTIANITY. 379 sentiment ; it has its root in the truth of things ; The . Church of it is an effluence from Him, Who Himself is Christ, . . based on revealed as Love, in the person of Jesus Christ, the the fact express Image of Divine Holiness, the Channel ofmiseof Divine Grace, the Author and Example of all true dwelling self-sacrifice. " They who would deprive mankind necessarily of Him, would tear out the corner-stone of the noblest edifice of humanity."1 But this they can never do. And in the darkest hour of human degradation and depression, the word of promise standeth sure, having this seal : " It is I, be not afraid : " " Lo ! I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world." 2 Amen. 1 Luthardt, Apolog., p. 297: "As little as mankind will ever be without religion, so little will they ever be without Christ — an his torical, not a mythical Christ — an individual, not a mere symbol. Christ remains to us, as the highest we know and are capable of imagining within the sphere of religion— as He without whose presence in the mind perfect piety is impossible." — Strauss, Soliloquies, 67 (quoted by Dean Stanley, Sermons, p. 111). See Mr. Hutton, Essays, I. 278. 2 Matt. xiv. 27, xxviii. 20. So Luther had good reason to liken the Church of Christ to the amaranth, which neither withers nor decays. " Sprinkled," he said, " with water, it becomes fresh and green once more, as if raised and wakened from the dead. Even so is the Church by God raised and wakened as out of the grave. For though tem poral empires, principalities, and kingdoms have their changings— and, like flowers, soon fall and fade away— this Kingdom, so deeply rooted, by no power can be destroyed or wasted, but remains eternally."— Table- Talk, 172, ed. Bohn. "Wherefore, being Christ doth promise His Presence unto the Church even unto the end of the world ; He doth thereby assure us of the existence of the Church until that time, of which His Presence is the cause."— Pearson, on the Creed, Art. ix. INDEX A. Administbation, Divine, harmony of, 127. Admiration has a personal basis, 232. Altruism not incompatible with Christianity, 82, 377. Anabaptists, their fanaticism not due to the principles of the Re formation, 329. Analogy of Nature, a theological ground of argument, 212. Antiquity no actual test of truth, 28. Arabians, their services to physical science, 350. Aristotle, his medieval reputation, 247. Art, its early relation to Christi anity, 280; its present position, 348. Asceticism not essential to the theo logical spirit, 299. Asylum, privilege of, 289. Augsburg, Confession of, its con cluding declaration, 332. Augustine, S., his view of miracles as evidential, 139. B. Bacon, Lord, on religions contro versy, 11; his view of missions, 356. Barbarians readily admitted by the Church, 281 ; mode of conversion, 286 ; its true causes, 288. Barbaric Codes, show the influence of Christianity, 284. Becket habitually performed harvest work, 300. Belief, Christian, standard of, in Scripture and Creeds, 31. Biography, Religious, importance of, 228. Bishops, popular election of, 280 ; by royal mandate, 285 ; their beneficial influence, 283, 288. Bossuet, his argument against Pro testantism lies equally against Christianity, 11. Brahmanism, stationary, 26, 27, 29 ; its doctrine of Absorption, 30. Buckle, Henry T.,his obligations to Condorcet, 71 ; his views on civi lization, 146 ; on theology, 208 ; confounds asceticism with self- restraint, 299. Buddhism, 26, 27 ; once a mis sionary religion, 29, 363; extin guished caste, 30; favours Mon asticism, 297, 298. Butler, Archer, on doctrinal develop ment, 45. Butler, Bishop, 14, 20, 188, 212, 219. Calvin, his doctrine of personal assurance, 331. Casuistry, its moral value, 166. Catholicism, Medieval, its declen sion, 326. Causes distinguished from occasions of events, 134. Chance equivalent to ignorance of 382 INDEX. Chivalry, its relation to Medieval Christianity, 311 ; its origin, ib. Christ, Jesus, perennial influence of His example, 35, 334. Christianity, most vigorous in the ¦ most civilized regions, 3 ; a factor Cin civilization ; 8, 152, 308 ; a fact of long standing, 9 ; its dura bility ascertainable, 23; its anti quity, 28 ; an historical and docu mentary religion, 34, 64, 212; —the religion of progress, 51, 220 ; its perpetuity a doctrinal tenet, 52, 56, 57, 264, 379 ; its assumed failure, 58 ; as being a phase of reUgion, 60; not a necessary result only of antecedents, 144, 180 ; its progress, how far super natural, 145, 265; natural, 162; limited, 169, 171 ; in advance of, £, yet co-existent with, civilization, 172, 242 ; importance of its ideal standard, 173 ; did not originate in a moral protest, 169 ; not eclectic, 177 ; is not a new code of morals, 257 ; has not declined in moral effect, 175 ; its part in ad vancing morals, 170, 176 ; its slow progress not due to feeble ness, 188, 373 ; has survived changes of opinion, 203 ; theories of its origin, 261, 275 ; true ^causes of its success, 262, 266, 268, 273; its moral power, 269, 272, 276; its services wrongly attributed to positive institutions, 274 ; founded on a sense of sin, 276 ; its early influence on litera ture, 281 ; intellectual services in Middle Ages, 193; its politi cal affinities, 359 ; whether demo cratic, 360; internal evidence of its permanence, 375, 376; its benevolence, 378. Christians, moral excellence of the first, 263. Church, The, temporal supremacv of, 185. Circumstances, their coincidence ad mits of no law, 129. Civilization, multiform, not a mere intellectual advance, 146, 147 ; answers to the whole nature of man, 149 ; difference of Ancient and Modern, 148. Classicism, its effects on Christianity, 346, 348. Communism, early view of, in the Church, 187. Confucius, his view of Providence, 125 ; of religion, 178, 257. Consciousness, testimony of, analo gous to perception, 106. Constantine established Christianity, 277 ; its consequences, 278. Controversy a sign of religious acti vity, 11. Conversion, power of, an element in religious vitality, 26, 253, 362 ; essential to Christianity, 363. Creeds, how connected with Scrip ture, 37, 38; independent form of, 358. Cromwell, Oliver, cause of his death, 131. Crusades, The, criticisms of, 304 ; really defensive, ib. ; their services to civilization, 305 ; their spiritual import, 306 ; exhibit the heroic type of Christianity, 307 ; later Crusades, 315. Cycles, theory of, in history, 131. D. Deduction, its character as an in strument of proof, 215, 216. Design, Argument from, not identical with order, 22. Development, Theory of, its influ ence on the perpetuity of Christian doctrine, 42 ; dubiously admitted, ib. ; rests on authority, 43 ; really an historical process, 44 ; Rational istic theory of, 46. Discovery in Natural Science a species of Revelation, 217. Distance of time necessary to clear judgment, 9. Dominicans, their humane efforts, 366. Durability, test of, in religions, 26. Duration a relative idea, 23. INDEX. 383 E. Eastebn Chtjboh, its failings, 170 ; its subordination to the Greek Emperors, 285 ; its Monachism, 298 ; its future, 372. Effectual Call, sense of, in theology, 101. Epicureanism, modern, traceable in the view of Laws of Nature, 115. Erasmus, his complaints, 346. Error, slow extension of, 15. Establishments, Church, usefulness of, 357, 358. Evangelical Preparation, truth and importance of, 144. Evil, existence of, explained by partial knowledge, 20 ; nature of moral and physical, 245 ; mode of its extinction, 246. F. Faith the basis of all scientific acquirement, 240. Fatalism contradicted by conscious ness, 102. Feudalism, its relation to Medieval Christianity, 309 ; its origin, 310. Final Causes, fallacy of assuming, 19, 21. Free Will, in what respects a theo logical tenet, 79 ; compatible with physical uniformity, 80. French Revolution, its intolerance, 344. Froude, J. A., his view of Calvinism, 80 ; of General Laws, 136. G. Geneeal Laws, personification of, by recent writers, 136 Gibbon, his view of the success of Christianity, 261; inadequate, 262. Gladiatorial shows, extinguished by Christianity, 271. _ Greek nature controversial, 169. Gregory the Great, synchronizes with the final Cbristianization of Europe, 284 ; his view of Purga tory, 319. H. Hegelianism, its essence, 353. History sometimes confounded with biography, 135. Hospitals, a Christian institution, 271. Humanists at the Reformation, 347 ; their servility, 354. Ideas gain credence from repetition, 61. Induction not excluded by theo logy, 208 ; unknown to antiquity, 351. Infanticide, a Pagan custom, 271. Inquisition, The, how a means to toleration of opinion, 139. Instincts, existence and testimony of, 82, 85 ; imply design, 84. Investiture, Right of, 315. J. Justification by Faith only, Lu ther's view of, 327; its relation to the Reformation, 328. K. Kant, on design in Nature, 23. Kepler, his view of planetary spirits, 136. Knowledge being positive, finite in character, 249. L. Las Casas, his devoted life, 366. Laws of Nature, wrongly identified with a theory of Existence, 103 ; meaning of General Laws, 115 ; views as to their nature, 118 ; not yet proved to be universal, 120 ; by some held to be the term of knowledge, 122. Leibnitz, his theory of Parallelism, 93. Love to God, an essentially Christian precept, 165. 3^4 INDEX. Luther, his vehemence, 328 ; efforts for education, 347 ; view of the permanence of Christianity, 379. Lyranus Nicolaus, his Postillm per- petuce, 329. M. Mahometanism, 26, 27 ; its present progress, 363, 372, 375. Man, how superior to the animals, 109. Mansel, Dean, his view of Divine interposition, 133. Marathon, religious importance of this victory, 135. Marriage, Christian view of, 271. Martyrs in Science as in Religion, 197. Materialism, its connection with Positivism, 68 ; incompatible with ignorance of physical causes, 91 ; its gloomy character, 222 ; its present as [..ect, 244. Matter, not eternal, 90 ; warrants in ference of the existence of God, 95. Medieval Christianity, its corrup tions, 313, 355 ; inevitable, 314 ; its military character, 315 ; cor ruptions of doctrine, 317 ; false supports, 320 ; extravagance, 349 ; suppression of criticism, 351 ; its liberality, 360. Melancthon, 323, 327, 347. Method of Residues applicable to History, 128. Middle Ages, their religious charac ter, 173. Miracles, classification of, 138. Missions, whether incompatible with Private Judgment, 361 ; prospects of, 362, 370 ; early recognition of, 363 ; continuous, 364 ; their pro gress since the Reformation, 365, 366, 368. Monasticism, Christian, its origin, 297 ; a remedy to excessive indus trialism, 299 ; involved labour, 300 ; merits of, 301 ; its defects, 302 ; self-regenerative power, 303. Mouotheism, its relation to Christi anity, 85. Morality truly progressive, 163, 164 ; advanced by Christianity, 165 ; Christian morality the corollary of its doctrines, 178 ; distinguished from Religion, 258. Mysteries, essential to Religion as re vealed, 141 ; economy of Christi anity in respect of, 141. Mysticism, the correlative of Ration alism, 142 ; its relation to Mate rialism, 142. N. Natueal Science, its prepossessions as to Theology, 63 ; these histori cally justified, 66 ; present Mate rialistic tendencies of, 67, 76 ; easily passes into dogmatism, 69. Nature, uniformity of, tends to a First Cause, 88 ; exhibits also variety and irregularity, 130. Neo-Platonism, its failure, 237. Nescience, Philosophy of, often i ends, though not necessarily, to Mate rialism, 97, 117. Newton, Sir Isaac, on the Nature of God, 137. Numbers no test of truth in Reli gion, 27. 0. Obigen, his view of planetary spirits, 136. Orphanages, when first founded, 271. P. Paganism, inefficient as a religion, 27 ; its reaction upon Christianity, 171. Pantheism, essence of, 96 ; its anti dote, ib. Papacy, spiritual function of, as a tribunal of appeal, 291; decline of, 316 ; its moral dignity, 316. Pascal, his view of Prophecy, 139. Patriotism recognized by Jesus Christ, 81 ; a Christian virtue, 360. Patteson, Bishop, his death,. 370. Penitentials, their influence as part of Christian Law, 291. Permanence, a test of reality, 13. INDEX. 385 Perpetuity, a testof religious truth, 6. Persecution for belief, its origin, 184, 356. Physical Studies not irreligious where not exclusive, 116 ; ancient cultivation of, 350; indebted to Protestantism, 356. Platonism, its share in the Reforma tion, 323. Pliny, his view of Prayer, 267. Positive, history of the term, 67. Positivism assumes all religious be lief to be imaginary, 16 ; a belief in Laws, 59 ; negative in its ten dencies, 66 ; defective as an ex planation of phenomena, 97 ; its relation to Free -Will, 108; its failure as a religion, 237 ; its his torical criticism of Christianity, 320 ; confounds Christianity with Catholicism, 342 ; its view of the Reformation, 340. Prayer, its relation to human re sponsibility, 74. Prescription, limits of argument from, 2. Priscillian, his execution, 184. Progress not limited to advance in knowledge, 168 ; standard of, 373. Property Tax, when first imposed in England, 306. Prophecy, historical character of, as evidence, 139 ; fulfilled in the progress of Christianity, 140. Protestant, origin of name, 334. Protestantism, its defect, 200 ; its true function, 200 ; asserted to have made no converts, 201 ; its duty of toleration, 202 ; a gua rantee of permanence, 354. Providence, theory of, essential to Christianity, 113; general and special, 123 ; sphere of, 125 ; mis interpretations of, 132. R. Rationalism views Religion as a phase of morality, 256 ; this error examined, 257 ; not a consequence of the Reformation, 352 ; defined, 353. Reformation restored the individual influence of Christianity, 11 ; and of the Bible, 41 ; not a mere moral protest, 168,326, 327 ; its theology inductive, 210; in itself a test of the truth of Christianity, 321 ; spontaneous, 322 ; not a result of improved knowledge, 323 ; its defects, 323 ; its practical changes rested on renewed doctrines, 324 ; date of its commencement, 325 ; not indefinite, 331 ; or negative, 332 ; restored the balance of doc trines, 333 ; its permanent effects, 334 ; how a protest, 334 ; Roman and Positivist views of, 340 ; Ra tionalistic view of, 341 ; still in progress, 343 ; introduced new elements of progress, 345. Reformed Churches, their missionary efforts, 369 ; and prospects, 372. Religion, an element in civilization, 149 ; its changes not due to in tellectual progress, 150; its true function, 156 ; not a mode of pro claiming morality, 161 ; influences the advance of morals, 168 ; its tacit force, 174; deals with spi ritual truth, 195 ; not reaction ary as to secular knowledge, 196 ; how related to Natural Science, 225 ; independent of advances in knowledge, 236 ; the Science of the . Soul, 223 ; a necessity of human nature, 241 ; its vital forces, 253 ; necessary elements, 255 ; a vehicle of Revelation, 256 ; assumes Mysteries, 256 ; test of its success, 258 ; how far a moral one, 259; its periodicity of re vival, 344; foremost in pohtical reforms, 352. Religion of Nature, its ambiguities, 161. Religions perishable, 2; historical sequence of, 144. Religious Disabilities, removal of, 357. Religious Wars, true character of, 183. Revelation, how far a natural pro cess, 47. 2 c 386 INDEX. Ritual, its influence in conversion, 289. Roman Empire, its condition at the coming of Christ, 264 ; why not saved by Christianity, 278 ; effect of its extinction on Christianity, 283. Roman Catholicism, its present danger, 202, 354 ; its missionary zeal, 367 ; and prospects, 372. Royal Society founded partly by Churchmen, 355. S. Saints, Intercession of, general in Middle Ages, 319. Salmasius, his defence of usury, 187. Salvian, his estimate of Christian declension, 279. Sanctuary, Right of, its spiritual character, 290. Scepticism admissible as to religious evidence, 209 ; not formidable to Religion, 239 ; whether a re sult of the Reformation, 353 ; its peril to the Church of Rome, 354. Scholasticism, its effects, 301. Schools, how far due to Christianity, 271 ; and to the Reformation, 347. Science, how far predictive, 130 ; in what respects ineffectual tohuman happiness, 154 ; theories as to its relations to Religion, 191, 192; their assumed incompatibility, 193 ; their meeting-points, 243. Scripture, its authority, 38; its power of prolonging personal influence, 39 ; this an element in the per petuity of the religion, 40 ; erro neous interpretations of, 186 ; its relation to the Reformation, 41, 329. Secularization not necessarily un favourable to Christianity, 357, 360. Sensation, fallacies of, 102. Serfdom, how far extinguished by Christianity, 310. Slavery, emancipation of, by Chris tianity, 72, 271. Soul, proof of its existence induc tive, 226 ; its immortality, whe ther recognized at the coming of Christ, 227. Spinoza, his view of Providence, 117. Spirit, denial of its existence sub versive of all Religion, 225. State, The, duty of, in propagating truth, 358. Statistics, defective as a means of showing the operation of the Will, 103, 104. Stoicism, its incapacity as a system of religion, 237 ; its sources, 264. Suicide advocated by heathen philo sophy, 377; its true remedy in Christianity, ib. T. Tempoeal Powee clearly distin guished in medieval Christianity, 292. Teutonic character, 309, 312 ; Chris tianity, 372. Theism, its relation to Christianity, 70. Theology a science of historical criti cism, 211 ; its method how far deductive, 215, 216 ; whether stationary, 218 ; or progressive, 219 ; rashly assumed to be op posed to induction and verifica tion, 207 ; and to science, 208 ; includes both primary and in ferred truths, 210; commence ment of, as a science, 318. Time, a test of truth, 17 ; in what sense an agent, 18. Toleration, its fundamental prin ciple, 203 ; neglected by the Re formers, 351, 355 ; not a cause of Rationalism, 352, 354 ; advocated by the Fathers before Constan tine, 356. Tradition, Christian primitive, its relation to Scripture, 38. Truce of God distinguished from " Peace of God," 190. Truth progresses slowly but inevi tably, 9 ; how far an attribute of institutions, 13. INDEX. 387 U. Ulphilas, the missionary of the Goths, 286. Unity, present need of, 12 ; the ulti mate prospect of Christianity, 200. V. Veddahs destitute of a belief in God, 68. Verification admissible in religious experience, 214, 219. W. Wab, increasing rarity of, due in part to Christianity, 190. Wealth, increase of, no guarantee for real advance, 155. Will of man essentially motive, 78 ; homogeneous with the Divine, 99 ; conditioned in action, 100 ; spiri tual character of, 229. Women, position of, in medieval so ciety, 310; how far elevated by Christianity, 310. Wonder, how an element in Religion, 321. Xavieb, his character and death, 368, 370. LONDON : rRINTED BY WrLLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. A SELECTION FROM THE BOOKS PUBLISHED DURING 1869, 1870, AND 1871, BY Messrs. RIV INGTON, HIGH STREET, OXFORD; TRINITY STREET, CAMBRIDGE; WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON. A SHADOW OF DANTE. Being an Essay towards Studying Himself, his World, and his Pilgrimage. By Maria Francesca Rossetti. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. io£ 6d. " The 'Shadow of Dante' is a well-con ceived and inviting volume, designed to re commend the ' Divina Commedia' to English readers, and to facilitate the study and com prehension of its contents." — Athenaeum. " And it is in itself a true work of art, a whole finely conceived, and carried out with sustained power, — o?ie of those reproductions and adumbrations of great works, in which mere servile copying disappears, and which are only possible to a mind which, however inferior to its original^ is yet of the same order and temperament, with an unusual faculty for taking the impressions of that ofiginal and refecting them undimmed. It is much to say of a volume I ke this. But it is not too much to say, when, after going through it, we consiu er the thorough knowledge ofthe subject shown in it, the patient skill with which the i?itricate and puzzling arrange ments of the poem, full of what we call the conceits a?id pztzzles of the contemporary philosophy, are unravelled and made intel ligible ; the discrimination and high principle with which so ardent a lover of the great poet blames his excesses; the high and noble Christian faith which responds to his ; and, lastly, the gift of eloquent speech, keen, neh, conde?ised, expressive, which seems to have passed into the writer from the loving study of ihe greatest master in his own tongue of all tke inimitable harmonies of language —the tenderest, the deepest, the most awful. — Guardian. ,, " The work introduces us not merely to th* author's life and the political and ecclesiastical conjunctures under which he lived, but to the outlines of the Catholicised systems of ethics, astronomy, and geography which he inter preted in classifying his spirits and assigning them their dwellings ; as also to the drift of his leading allegories ; and finally, to the general conduct of his Poe?n — which is amply illustrated by citations from the most literal verse translations. We find the volume furnished with useful diagrams of the Datit- esgue universe, of Hell, Purgatory, a?id the ' Rose of the Blessed,' and adorned with a beautiful group of the likenesses of the poet, and with symbolic figures (on the binding) in which the taste and execution of Mr. D. G. Rossetti "will be recognised. The exposition appears to us remarkably well arranged aud digested ; the author s appreciation of Dante's religious se?itime?tts a?id opinions is peculiarly hearty, and her style refreshingly independent and or ginal." — Pall Mall Gazette. " It bears traces throughout of having been due to a pat.e?it, loving and appreciative study of the great poet, as he is exhibited, not merely in the ' Divina Commedia,' but in his other writings. The result has been a book which is not only delightful in itself to riad, but is admirably adapted as a?t encouragement to those students -who wish to obtain a prelimi nary survey ofthe land before they attempt to follow Dante through his long and arduous pilgrimage. Of all poets Dante stands most i?i need of such assistance as this book offers,* — Saturday Review. Mtzzxis. pit)i^9t0n'0 § ublicationjs A DEVOTIONAL COMMENTARY ON THE GOSPEL NARRATIVE. By the Rev. Isaac Williams, B.D., formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. A New and uniform Edition. In Eight vols. Crown 8vo. $s. each.' THOUGHTS ON THE STUDY OF THE HOLY GOSPELS. Characteristic Differences in the Four Gospels. Our Lord's Manifestations of Himself. The Rule of Scriptural Interpretation furnished by our Lord. Analogies of the Gospel. Mention of Angels in the Gospels. Places of our Lord's Abode and Ministry. Our Lord's Mode of Dealing with His Apostles. Conclusion. A HARMONY OF THE FOUR EVANGELISTS. Our Lord's Nativity. Our Lord's Ministry — Second Year. Our Lord's Ministry — Third Year. The Holy Week. Our Lord's Passion. Our Lord's Resurrection. OUR LORD'S NATIVITY. The Birth at Bethlehem. The Baptism in Jordan. The First Passover. OUR LORD'S MINISTRY. SECOND YEAR. The Second Passover. Christ with the Twelve. The Twelve sent forth. " Tliere is not a better co7npanion to be found for tke season than the beautiful 'De votional Commentary on the Gospel Narra tive? by ike Rev. Isaac Williams. . . . A rich mine for devotional and theological study." — Guardian. "So infinite are the depths and so innumer able the beauties of Scripture, and more par ticularly of the Gospels, that there is some difficulty in describing the ma?iifold excellences of Williams' exquisite Commentary. Deriv ing its profound appreciation of Scripture from the -writings of the early Fathers, it is only what every stitdent knows miist be true to say that it extracts a -whole wealth of meaning from each se?itence, each appare7itly faint allusion, each word intthe text." — Church Review. tc Stands absolutely alone in our English literature ; there is, we should say, no chance of its being superseded by any better book of its kind; and its merits are ofthe very higiiest order." — Literary Churchman. 11 It would be diffictdt to select a more use ful present, at a small cost, than this series -would be to a young ma?i on his first entering into Holy Orders, and many, no doubt, will avail tlwmselves of the republication of these useful volumes for this purpose. There is an abundance of sermon material to be drawn from any one of thent."-~CHUliCH Times. OUR LORD'S MINISTRY. THIRD YEAR. Teaching in Galilee. Teaching at Jerusalem. Last Journey from Galilee to Jerusalem. THE HOLY WEEK. The- Approach to Jerusalem. The Teaching in the Temple. The Discourse on the Mount of Olives. The Last Supper. OUR LORD'S PASSION. The Hour of Darkness. The Agony. The Apprehension. The Condemnation. The Day of Sorrows. The Hall of Judgment. The Crucifixion. The Sepulture. OUR LORD'S RESURRECTION. The Day of Days. The Grave Visited. Christ Appearing. The Going to Emmaus . The Forty Days. The Apostles Assembled. The Lake in Galilee. The Mountain in Galilee. The Return from Galilee. " This is, in the truest sense of the word, a- ' Devotional Commentary1 on the Gospel nar rative, opening out everywhere, as it does, the ¦ spiritual beauties and blessedness ofthe Divi?ie message ; but it is something more than this, it meets difficulties almost by anticipation, and throws the light of learning over some of the very darkest passages i?t the New Testa ment." — Rock. " Tlie author has skilfully compared and blended the narratives of the different Gospels, so as to give a ^synoptical view of the history ; and though the commentary is called 'devo tional,' it is scholarly and suggestive in other respects. The size of the -work, extending, as it does, over eight volumes, may deter pur chasers and readers ; but each volume is com plete in itself, and we recommend students to taste a sample of tlie author's quality. Some things they may question; but the volumes are really a helpful and valuable addition to our stores." — Freeman. " The high and solemn verities of the Saviour's sufferings and death are treated with great reverejice and ability. The thorough devoutness 'which pervades the book commends it to our heart. There is much to instruct and help the believer in the Chris tian life, no matter to what section of the Church he may belong." — Watchman. Mzmxx. ]&xbmQt(m'& fhtbtfeatnm* THE STAR OP CHILDHOOD. A First Book of Prayers and Instruction for Children. Compiled by a Priest. Edited by the Rev. T. T. Carter, M.A., -Rector of Clewer, Berks. With Six Illustrations, reduced from Engravings by Era Angelico. Royal i6mo. 2s. 6d. " All the Instructions, all of the Hymns, and ¦most of the Prayers here are excellent. A nd when we use tke cautionary expression i most of the,' Sr'c., we do not mean to imply that all tke prayers are not excellent in themselves,' but o?ily to express a doubt whether in some cases they may not be a little too elaborate for children. Of course it by no means follows that when you use a book you are to use equally every portion of iti what does not suit one may suit a score of others, and this book is clearly compiled on the comprehensive principle. But to give a veracious verdict on the book it is needful to mention this. We need hardly say that it is well -worth buying, and of a very high order of merit" — Literary Church man. "Messrs. Rivington have sent its a manual of prayers for children, called ' The Star of Childhood* edited by the Rev. T. T. Carter, a very full colbzction, including instruction as well as devotion, and a judicious selection of hymns.'" — Church Review. " The Rev. T. T. Carter, of Clewer, has Put forth a much needed and excellent book of devotions for little children, called ' The Star of Childhood. ' We think it fair to tell our readers, that in it they will find that for children who have lost a near relative a short commemorative prayer is provided; but we most earnestly hope that even by those who are not willing to accept this -usage, the book will not be rejected, for it is a most valuable one.'" — Monthly Packet. "One amongst the books before us deserves especial notice, entitled ' The Star of Child hood,' and editedby the Rev. T. T. Carter: it is eminently adapted for a New Yearns Gift. It is a manual of prayer for children, with hymns, litanies, and instructions. Some of the hymns are illustrative of our Lords life; and to these are added reduced copies from en gravings ofFra Angelico." — Penny Post. " Supposing a child to be capable of using a devotional manual, the book before us is, hi its general structure, as good an atteynpt to ?neet the want as could have been put forth. In the first place it succeeds, 'where so many like efforts fail, in the matter of simplicity. The language is quite within tke compass of a young child ; that is to say, it is such as a young child can be made to understand ; for we do not suppose that the book is intended to be put directly into his hands, but through the hands of an instructor." — Church Bells. " To the same hand which gave us ihe ' Treasury of Devotion ' we are indebted for this beautiful little manual for children. Be ginning with prayers suited to the comprehen sion of the youngest, it contains devotions, litanies, hymns, and instructions, carefully proportioned to the gradually increasing pow ers of a child's mind from the earliest years, until confirmation. This little book cannot fail to influence for good the impressible hearts of children, and -we hope that ere long it 'will be in tke hands of all those who are blessed with Catholic-minded parents. It is beautifully got up, and is rendered more attractive by the capital engravings of Fra A ngelico's pictures of scenes ofourDord's childhood. God-parents could scarcely find a more appropriate gift for their God-chlbJren than this, or one that is more likely to lead them to a knowledge ofthe truth."— Church Union Gazette. " * The Star of Childhood1 is a first book of Prayers , and instruction for children, com piled by a Priest, and edited by the Rev. T. T. Carter, rector of Clewer. It is a very care ful co7npilatiou, and the name of its editor is a warrant for its devotional tone."" — Guar dian. "A handsomely got up and attractive volume, with several good illustrations frojn Fra Angelica's most famous paintings" — Union Review. BY THE SAME COMPILER AND EDITOR. THE TREASURY OP DEVOTION: A Manual of Prayers for Gene ral and Daily Use. Fourth Edition. Imperial 32mo, 2s. 6d. ; limp cloth, 2s. Bound with the Book of Common Prayer, y. 6d. THE WAY OP LIFE : A Book of Prayers and Instruction for the Young ((at School). Imperial 321110, is. 6d. THE GUIDE TO HEAVEN : A Book of Prayers for every Want. For the Working Classes. Third Edition. Crown Svo, is. 6d. ; limp cloth, is. THE PATH OP HOLINESS: A First Book of Prayers, with the Service of the Holy Communion, for the Young. With Illustrations. Crown i6mo, is. 6d. ; limp cloth, is. Mi&bxb. fiiuingtoit's ^publication* THE LIFE OP JUSTIFICATION. A Series of Lectures delivered in Substance at All Saints', Margaret Street, in Lent, 1S70. By the Rev. George Body, B.A., Rector of Kirkby Misperton. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. " On the whole we have rarely met with a more clear, intelligible and persuasive state ment of the truth as regards the important topics on which the volume treats. Sermon II. in particular, will strike every one by its eloquence and beattty , but we scarcely like to specify it, lest in praising il we should seem to disparage the other portiofis of this admirable little work." — Chuhch Times. " Tlie Rev. George Body, 'who has acquired a considerable reputation as a preacher of the mission type,- gives to ihe general public the series of lectures on ' The Life of Justification' which he delivered at All-Saints, Margaret Street, in Lent 1870. These discourses show that their author's position is due to something more and higher than mere fluency, gesticula tion, and flexibility of voice. He appears as having drunk deeply at ihe fountain of St. Augustine, and as understanding how to translate the burning words of that mighty genius into the current language of to-day." — Union Review. " That Mr. Body has made his mark as a preacher everybody that knows anything about the work of the Church of England is fully aware; but it is not everybody wito knows how or why this is the case. T he volujne before us "will. however, sufficiently account for it to those who hitherto have failed to understand the power which he has unquestionably exercised over such large numbers of people. There is real poiver in these sermons ; — power, real power, and plenty of it. . . . There is such a ¦moral veraciousness about him, such a pro found and oz>er-mastering belief that Christ has proved a bona-fide cure for unholiness, and such an intensity of eagerness to le:d others to seek and profit by that means of attaining tke true sanctity which alone can enter Heaven — that we wonder not at the crozuds which hang upon his preaching, nor at the success of his fervid appeals to the human conscience. If any one doubts our verdict, let him buy this volume. No one 'will regret its perusal." — Literary Churchman. SELF-RENUNCIATION. From the French. With Introduction by the Rev. T. T. Carter-, M.A., Rector of Clewer. Crown 8vo. 6s. " It is excessively difficult to review or criticise, in detail, a book of this kind, and yet its abounding merits, its practicalness, its searching good sense and thoroughness, and its frequent beauty, too, make us wish to do something more than announce its publication. . . . . The style is eminently clear, free from redundance and prolixity." — Literary Churchman. " Few save Religious and those brought into immediate contact with them are, in all probability, acquainted with the French treatise ofGuillore, a portion of which is now, for the first time we believe, done into English. Hence the suitableness of such a book as this for those who, in the midst of their families, are endeavouring to advance in the spiritual life Hundreds of devout souls living in the world have been encouraged and helped by suck books as Dr. Neale's ' Sermons preached i?i a Religious House. ' For such the present work will be found appropriate, while for Religious themselves it will be invaluable." — Chukch Times. ' ' A most successful attempt to adapt the higher lessons of what is called ihe religious life to the daily and ordinary Christian course, a?id its lessons are full of nervous power." — Church Review. ST. JOHN CHRYSQSTOM'S LITURGY. Translated by H C. Romanoff, Author of " Sketches of the Rites and Customs of the Greco Russian Church," &c. With Illustrations. Square crown 8vo. 4J-. 6d. " The clever author of ' Sketches of the Rites and Czistoms of the Greco-Russian Church' has given us a very interesting description of the various ceremonies connected with ' The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom.' It is rather an explanatio?i than a translation of the Liturgy, and may be profitably studied iu connection with Dr. Neale's "work on the L iturgies ofthe East. The illustrations afford considerable help in understanding tlie text, and the style is so attractive that it will win many readers -who m ght shrink from, a formal liturgical treatise." — Church Times. " M. Romanoff gives a translation of the Liturgy of Chrysostom, 'with explanatory re marks derived chiefly from Russian manuals, JOHN "WESLEY'S PLACE IN CHURCH HISTORY, deter mined with the aid of Facts and Documents unknown to, or unnoticed by, his Biographers. By R. Denny Urlin, M.R.I. A., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, etc. With a New and Authentic Portrait. Small 8vo. 5j. 6d. in the book novo before us. It is written for the general reader, and does not profess to give all the words of the office, nor does it describe the rite with that minuteness which would make the book one of reference for liturgical students. But these characteristics make the book more interesting to a wider circle of readers; and in these days of easy travelling, when so large a number of Englishmen are not content with tke old-fashioned traditional visit to Switzerland or the Rhine, but prefer visiting more distant lands, there must be an increasing number of travellers to whom this book would be a very useful guide." — ATHEN AEUM. ittessrs. pbmgtort's iubliottums BIBLE READINGS POR FAMILY PRAYER. By the Rev. W. H. Ridley. M. A., Rector of Hambleden. Crown 8vo. Old Testament — Genesis and Exoius. -is. New'Testament, 1 ^ \~V\ and St: John; fs- ' ( St. Matthew and St. Mark. 2s. The Four Gospels, in one volume, y. 6d. HOUSEHOLD THEOLOGY : A Handbook of Religious Information respecting the Holy Bible, the Prayer Book, the Church, the Ministry, Divine Worship, the Creeds, &c, &c. By John Henry Blunt, M.A. New Edition. Small 8vo. $s. 6d. SERMONS POR CHILDREN ; being Thirty-three short Readings, ad dressed to the Children of S. Margaret's Home, East Grinstead. By the Rev. J. M. Neale, D.D., late Warden of Sackville College. Second Edition. SmaU 8vo. y. 6d. A. MANUAL OP CONFIRMATION, Comprising— I. A General Account of the Ordinance. 2. The Baptismal Vow, and the English Order of Confirmation, with Short Notes, Critical and Devotional. 3. Meditations and Prayers on Passages of Holy Scripture, in connexion with the Ordinance. With a Pastoral Letter instructing Catechumens how to prepare themselves for their first Communion. By Edward Meyrick Goulburn, D.D. Dean of Norwich. Ninth Edition. Small 8vo. is. (id. THE REFORMATION OP THE CHURCH OP ENGLAND : its History, Principles, and Results, A.D. 1514-1547. By John Henry Blunt, M.A., Vicar of Kennington, Oxford. Second Edition. 8vo. ids. " The reader -will gladly acknowledge the bitt tltose views and principles are not forced impartiality of treatment ami liberality of upon the facts, but are educed from them as tone which are conspicuous iti every page. It their necessary results. The true account, in- is distinctly a learned book. The author is deed, of his book is, that it is a sketch of the reign not a secoud-harui retailer of facts; he is a of Henry VIII. in its theological changes, painstaking, conscientious student, who de- -which proves in detail the Church view of rives his knowledge from original sources. those changes. And if that vievj is the true We have said that he does not command a view, how can a true history do otherwise ? brilliant style ; but he is by no means a dull T he merit of a history is, that it allows facts writer — on the contrary, he is always read- to evolve views, and does not pervert or con- able, sometimes very interesting, and shows ceal facts in order to force upon them precon- considerable skill in the grouping and arrange- ceived views of its own. Aud when we cha- ment of his facts." — Times. racterize Mr. Bluut's volume as stating tke " Mr. Blunt gives us, in this volume, an ChurcHs case throughout, we conceive it to be instalment history of the Reformation, in the an ample justification to say that if he is to just proportions of a history, and written relate t/ie facts fairly he could not do other- careful ly from contemporary documents and wise; that lie fairly alleges the facts, and the evidence . . . with scholarly knowledge, with facts prove his case. We hold the book, then, an independent judgment, and with careful to be a solid and valuable addition to our support given to each statement by quotation Church history, just because it does m the of evidence And Mr. Blunt has given greater main establish the Church case, and bring it effect to his narrative by a skilful division and ably and clearly before the public, upon unan- grouping of his subjects. Undoubtedly, he swerable evidence, impartially and on the writes upon very definite views and principles, whole correctly stated."— Guardian. PAROCHIAL AND PLAIN SERMONS. By John Henry Newman, B. D., formerly Vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford. Edited by the Rev. W. J. Copeland, Rector of Farnham, Essex. From the Text of the last Editions published by Messrs. Rivington. In 8 vols. Crown 8vo. 5*. each. Sold separately. Mzmtx. fUbingtotfa fl ttbJfcatiim* LETTERS FROM ROME ON THE COUNCIL. By Quirinus. Reprinted from the " Allgemeine Zeitung." Authorised Translation. Crown 8vo. 1 2 s. " Their calm criticism of tke proceedings of the Council, their dignified -remo?istra?ice against ihe proceedi7igs of the Roman Curia, and their outspoken fears as to the results •which will follow upon ihe proclamation of the dog7na of Infallibility, must have do?ie muck to stre?igthen and consolidate the Op position (as it is called) in ihe Coimcil. . . . 'A word as to the translation. It reads like an English work — the similarity bet-ween this and ' Janus' 'will suggest itself at ofice." — Athenaeum. " It is not much more than a iwclvc77ionth si7ice we noticed att some length the E?iglish translation of ike remarkable work of ' Janus ' on the Pope and the Council, "which has since passed rapidly through three editions, and has commanded hardly less attention z'« this country tJian in Germany. 'Janus' closed with a sorrowful prediction that, whatever else might be said of t/ie Vatica7i Synod, it would have no clai7?i to be co?isidered a free asse7nbly, and the volume uozv before us is one long illustration from begin ning to e7id of the jtistice of that anticipation. The two books, though evidently e7nanating from different authorship, have much in common. Both, as we are ass?*7'ed, are 'ex clusively the work of Catholics ; ' both repre- se7tt the same school of religious thought ; both give evidence of deep learning, though there is of course more scope for its direct applica tion i?i the earlier volume ; both are writte?i with co7isu77t7nate ability a?id unmistakeable ear7iestness, and in a clear and lucid style ; a7td both, we may add, are ad7nirably tra7is- lated. The English reader, if he had not referred to ike litlepage, might easily suppose that the Letters were fro77i the j>en of a countryman of his own. But it is 7iot z'« graces of style, still less on any artificial ornament, that the book depends for its grave and perma7ient interest. It tells a plaiii wi- vamished tale, the j7iore impressive fro 171 its severe a7id terrible si77iplicity, which inti- 7?iately concer7is the credit and prospects of the Papacy and Ro7nan Catholic hierarchy, and bears indirectly, but 7iot less really, on the future, 7tot only of the vast organizatiofi under their rule, but of universal Christen dom. . . . Several points of i7iterest we have bee7i compelled to pass over for want of space, but this is the less to be regretted as the ' Letters ofQuirinus* arc pretty sure by this ti?ne to be in tlie Jiands of very 7na7iy of our readers. Whatever may be the final upshot ofthe conflict evoked by the Vatican Sy7iod in the bosom ofthe Ro77ian Catholic Church — and it will probably take years before we see the end of it — this collection will retain a perman ent value as a faithful record of o?ie of the most remarkable phenomena of the present eventful century, which must inevitably leave its mark for good or for evil, though in a very differe7it way fro)7i 'what its pro7noters de- sig?ied, on the future of Christianity a?id tke Christian Church." — Saturday Review. GLOSSARY OP ECCLESIASTICAL TERMS. Containing Brief Explanations of Words used in Theology, Liturgiology, Chronology, Law, Architecture, Antiquities, Symbolism, Greek Hierology and Mediaeval Latin ; together with some account of Titles of our Lord, Emblems of Saints, Hymns, Orders, Heresies, Ornaments, Offices, Vestments and Ceremonial, and Miscellaneous Subjects. By Various Writers. Edited by the Rev. Orey Shipley, M.A. Crown 8vo. i8j. "Mr. Shipley a7id his coadjutors deserve great praise — the chief share beitig of course the editor's due— for the industry a?id care with which this ' Glossary' has been compiled and for the complete7iess which it possesses. We have not found, as far as our search has gone, anything ¦tnissijig or a?iythi7ig like a blunder. . . Its brevity is especially ad7iiirable. It 'would be difficult to find as much informatimi crowded into equal space." — Spectator. " Tke last fruits of Mr. Orby Shipley's ¦unwearied toil as an editor, lie before -us in the for7n of ' A Glossary of Ecclesiastical Terms' an octavo volume of 77iore than 500 pages of S7nall type, containing without doubt the very greatest number of vocables we have seen in a dictionary of the kind." — Union Review. " A laborious and painstaking 'work, and •will be found of very great service as a book of reference." — Church Times. "Mr. Shipley deserves the cordial thanks of Churchmen for his laborious 'work. Tke book is admirably arranged, the double columns and ike use of special type for the headings of the several paragraplis, not 07ily making it a ka7idso77ie piece of typographical work, but rendering it thoroughly clear for refere7ice. It is a Dictionary which laity and clergy alike ought to possess, and we trust it will have, as it deserves, a re77iu7ierative sale." — Church man's Shilling Magazine. NOTITIA EUCHARISTICA. A Commentary, Explanatory, Doctrinal, and Historical, on the Order of the Administration of the Lord's Supper, or Holy Communion, according to the Use of the Church of England. By W. E. Scudamore, M.A., Rector of Ditchingham, and formerly Fellow of S. John's College, Cambridge. 8vo. 2%s. MzmtB. ^ibingtott'B JublixatiottB A KEY TO THE KNOWLEDGE OP CHURCH HISTORY (Modern), Edited by the Rev. John Henry Blunt, M.A. Forming a New Volume of "Keys to Christian Knowledge." Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. A KEY TO CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE AND PRACTICE FOUNDED ON THE CHURCH CATECHISM. By the Rev. John Henry Blunt, M.A. (Forming a Volume of "Keys to Christian Knowledge.") Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. instruction of the Sunday-school teachers themselves, where ihe parish priest is 'wise e?wugh to devote a certain time regularly to their preparation for their voluntary task." — Union Review. "Another of the many useful books on theological and Scriptural subjects which have been written by the Rev. John Henry Blunt. The present is entitled 'A Key to Christian Doctrine and Practice, founded on the Church Catechisnn,' a7id will take its place as an elementary text-book upon the Creed in our schools a7id colleges. The Church Catechis77i is clearly and fully explaified by the atithor in this 'Key' Nnmeroits re ferences, Scriptural and otherwise, are scattered about tlie book."— Public Opinion. " Of cheap and reliable text-books of this nature there has hitherto been a great zvant. We are often asked to recommend books for ¦use in Church Sunday-schools, a7id we there fore take this opportunity of saying that we know of none more likely to be of service both to teachers and scholars than these ' Keys.1" — Churchman's Shilling Magazine. " This is a7iother of Mr. Blunt 's 7nost use ful manuals, with all the precision of a school book, yet diverging into matters of practical application so freely as to make it most service able, either as a teacher's suggestion book, or as an intellige?it pupil's reading book." — Literary Churchman. " Will be very useful for the higher classes in Swiday-schools, or rather for the fuller THE PSALMS. Translated from the Hebrew. With Notes, chiefly Exegetical. By William KaY, D.D., Rector of Great Leighs; late Princi pal of Bishop's College, Calcutta. " Dr. Kay's exegetical notes, though brief, are for the most part admirable, and we can 071 the whole cordially recommend this portion ofthe word."— Church Times. "Like a sound Churchman, he reverentces Scripture, tipholdi?ig its authority against sceptics; and he does not de7iou7ice such as differ from him z« opinion with a dogmatism unhappily too common at the presenit day. Hence, readers will be disposed to co7isider his conclusions worthy of attention ; or perhaps to adopt them without inquiry. It is super fluous to say that the translation is better and 77iore accurate ou the whole than our received one, or that it often reproduces the se7ise of ihe original happily"— Athenaeum. "Dr Kay has profound reverence Jor 8vo. 12S. 6d. Divine truth, and exhibits considerable read ing, with the power to 7nake use of it." — British Quarterly Review. " The execution ofthe work is careful and scholarly."— Union Review. "To 7netition the name of Dr. Kay is enough to secure respectful attention to his 7iew translation of the Psahnis. It is en riched with exegetical 7iotes containing a wealth of sound learning, closely occasionally, perhaps too closely conde7ised. Good care is taken of the student not learned in Hebrew; we hope the Doctor's example will prevent any abuse of this consideration, and stimulate those who profit by it to follow him into the very text of the ancient Revelation" — John Bull. HISTORICAL NARRATIVES. IFrom the Russian. By H. C. Romanoff, Author of "Sketches of the Rites and Customs of the Greco- Russian Church," &c. Crown 8vo. 6s. "These narratives have been translated from the Russian by M. Romanoff. 1 hey relate to certain Russian customs, and to one or two Russian celebrities. English readers will be most interested by the sketches given of tlie lives of the Empress Catherine and tlie Emperor Paul. The particulars given of Catherine's peculiarities and habits of hfe. and of her favourites, are curious, and very characteristic ofthe Semiramis of the North. Two of her favourites are glanced at — Orloff and Potemkin— and we are told that when Catherine, at the age of sixty-two; heard of the death of the latter, site felt it so keenly that she wept. The narratives are from sources of undoubted veracity."— St andard. " The reader will find ' Historical Narra tives ' an entertaining and instructive book, and will not regret tliefew hours spent in its perusal."— Nation (N. Y.) ¦D-nn-rvr t "RATIONS OF OBER-AMMERGAU IN 1871. By BBS?NRY Nutcombe Oxenham, M.A., late Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Crown 8vo. 3*. 6d. ffltmxs. Hitbrngton:'* ^ublimtkm* CONSOLING- THOUGHTS IN SICKNESS. Edited by Henry Bailey, B.D., Warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury, Large type. Fine Edition. Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. Also, a Cheap Edition, is. 6d. ; or in paper cover, is. AIDS TO PRAYER ; OR, THOUGHTS ON THE PRAC TICE OF DEVOTION. With Forms of Prayer for Private Use. By Daniel Moore, M.A., Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen, and Vicar of Holy Trinity, Paddington, Author of "Sermons on Special Occasions," Hulsean Lectures on " The Age and the Gospel," &c. Second Edition. Square 32mo. 2s. 6d. " The valuable characteristic of this work 'will be recognised by every serious, thoughtful Christian, in a word, by all who perceive a7id lament the grooving te?ide7tcy to prefer the claims of external service, ecclesiastical C07i- troversy, or multiplied activities to tlie practice of private devotion. l Aids to Prayer' offers both e7tcourage7tient and help to t/iose who aspire to higher attainnnients in the Divine Life. Every page bears the impress of THE TWO BROTHERS, and other Poems. By Edward Henry BlCKERSTETH, M.A., Vicar of Christ Church, Hampstead, and Chaplain to the Bishop of Ripon, Author of " Yesterday, To-day, and for Ever." Second Edition. Small 8vo. 6s. a matured judgment, and of an experi77iental acquai}ita7tce 'with a subject conifesscdly dif ficult, and of supreme importance. ^' — Record. "Eloquently, ably, and practically "written.^ — English Churchman, " 'Aids to Prayer' has deservedly reached a seconid edition. The sermon method of treat ment has bee7t "wisely disco7iti7iued." — John Buul. "Mr. Bickersteth is already known tofa77te as tke author of a very successful and beautiful epic poem ou the difficult subject of " Yesterday, To-day, and for Ever.' tl is verses have ihe genuine ring of poetry, anid his touch is often delicate and 7/iasterly, always truthful and tasteful. . . . The 7?iore recent poems of Mr. Bickersteth are instinct with the spirit of true poetry, full of origi7ial power aud con ception, and are often imbued with a delicate sweetness and truth oj feeling all their own. Like Keble, Mr. Bickersteth is essentially a Christian poet, a7id the greater part of these poems appeal, a7id with success, to the deepest and 7nost devotional sympathies of the soul. In nnanly of the nniore rece7it poems -we fiinid much that reminds us of Ten7iyso7i." — Standard. " Carefully written, with some mastery of language and versification, aud with S077ie rhetorical force." — Spectatok. " We there/ore gladly commend to our readers this pleasant volume, which ennbodies ¦many holy anid tender thoughts, and gathers up many waifs and strays of past years •which ought not to perish," — Christian Observer. A KEY TO THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. By John Pilkington Norris, M.A. (Forming a Volume of "Keys to Christian Knowledge.") Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. ' ' It is a remarkably well-written and interesting account of its subject, ' Tke Book of the Acts,' giving us the ttarrative of St. L,7tke with exactly w.'.at we -want in the way of connecting links a/id illustrationis. One 7/iost notable and praiseworthy characteristic of tke book is its candour. . . . The book is one •which we cant heartily recommend." — Spectator. " Of Canon Norris's ' Key to the Narrative ofthe Four Gospels,' we wrote in high approval not many montlis ago. The present is not less carefully prepared, and is full of the unosten tatious results of sound learning and patient thought." — London Quarterly Review. " 'This little volume is one of a series of 1 Keys' of a more or less educational character, which are in the course of Publication by Messrs. Rivington. It gives appa7-ently a very fair aud tolerably exhaustive rdsum^ of the contents of the Acts, with which it deals, not chapter by chapter, but consecutively in the order of thought." — School Board Chron icle. "Pew books have ever given us more un- mixed pleasure tha7i this. It is faultlessly written, so that ii reads as pleasantly and e7itici7igly as if it had 7iot the least intention of being an ' educational' book. It is complete and exhaustive, so far as the narrative and all its bearittgs go, so that students may feel that they need not be knitting up other books to supply the lacunse. It is the work of a classical scholar, a7id it leaves nothing wanting int the •way of classical illustrations, 'which in the case of the Acts a7-e of special importance. Aud, lastly, it is t/ieologically sound,"— Liter ary Churchman. " This is a sequel to Canon Norris's ' Key to the Gospels* -which was published two years ago, and which has become a general favourite •with those who wish to grasp the leading features of tke life a7id word of Christ. The sketch of the Acts of the Apostles is done in tke sanne style ; there is the sa77ie reverent spirit and quiet enthusiasm running through it, and the same instinct for seizing the lead- ing points in the 7iarrative." — Record. Mtj&Bt*. flitoingtan'* Publication* BRIGHSTONE SERMONS. By George Moberly, D.C.L, Bishop of Salisbury. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. */s. 6d. THE SAYINGS OP THE GREAT FORTY DAYS, Between the Resurrection and Ascension, regarded as the Outlines of the Kingdom of God. In Five Discourses. With an Examination of Dr. Newman's Theory of Development. By George Moberly, D.C.L., Bishop of Salisbury. Fourth Edition. Uniform with Brighstone Sermons. Crown 8vo. ys. 6d. A SELECTION FROM THE SPIRITUAL LETTERS OF S. FRANCIS DE SALES, BISHOP AND PRINCE OF GENEVA. Translated by the Author of "Life of S. Francis de Sales," " A Dominican Artist," &c, &c. Crown 8vo. 6.?. " This is a necessary sequel, and appropriate companion, to the ' Life of S. Francis de Sales,' by the same able translator, 'which was published a few months since. It is a collect ion of epistolary corresp07tdence of rare interest and excellence. With those who have read the Life, there cannot but have been a strong desire to know more of so beautiful a character as S. Francis de Sales. He 'was a model of Christian saintliness and religious virtue for all time, and one everything relating to whom, so great were the accomplishments of his mind- as well as tke devotion of his heart, has a charm which delights, instructs, and elevates." — Church Herald. "A few months back we had the pleasure of welcoming the Life of S. Francis de Sales. Here is the pronnised sequel:— tke 'Selection from his Spiritual Letters ' the7t announced: — and a great boon it 'will be to 77iany. The Letters are addressed to people of all sorts : — to 7nen and to women : — to laity and to ecclesiastics, to people living in the world, or at court, and to the inmates of Religious Houses. A nd what an idea it gives one ofthe widely ramifying influence of one good man and ofthe untiring diligence of a man, who in sfite of all his external duties, could find or make the time for all these letters. We hope that with our readers it may be totally uced- less to urge such a volume 07t their notice." — Literary Churchman. S. FRANCIS DE SALES, BISHOP AND PRINCE OF GENEVA. By the Author of "A Dominican Artist,'' "Life of Madame Louise de France," &c, &c. Crown 8vo. <)s. " To tlwse who have read the previous works by the author of this Life of S. Francis de Sales, it is unnecessary for us to say a word of commendation of the present volume. It is written with the delicacy, freshness, and absence of all affectation which characterised the former works by the same hand, and which render these books so very much more pleasant reading than are religious bio graphies in general. The character of S. Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva, is a charming one] a more simple, pure, and pious life it would be difficult to conceive. His unaffected humility, his freedom from dogmatism in an age when dogma was placed above religion, his freedom from bigotry -in an age of persecution, were alike admirable. — Standard. . , . " Tlie author of 'A Dominican Artist, in writing this new life of the wise and loving Bishop and Prince of Geneva, has aimed less at historical or ecclesiastical investigation than at a vivid and natural representation of the inner mind and life ofthe subject of his biography, as it can be traced m his own writings and in those of his most intimate and affectionate friends. Tlie book is written with the grave and quiet grace which charac terizes the productions of its author, and can not fail to please those readers who can sympathize with all forms of goodness and devotion to noble /^^."-Westminster Review. . ,t j s i;r» " A book which contains the record of a life as sweet, pure, and noble as any man by divine help, granted to devout sincerity of soul, has been permitted to live upon earth. TJte example of this gentle but resolute and energetic spirit, -wholly dedicated to the high est conceivable good, offering itself, with all the temporal uses of 7)ie7ital existence, to tke service of infinite and eternal beneficence, is extremely touching. . . . It is a book won'thy of acceptance." — Daily News. "One cannot wo)ider at its having been thought desirable to introduce so excellent a work as this to English Churchmen. We say to English Churchnnen, because it 77iust be especially, altJiough it is intended, we learn, that his life shall be immediately followed by a translation of the ' Spiritual Letters of Si. Francis de Sales' together with the ' Esprit de S. Francois de Sales,' and tlie ' Traits' de r Amour de Dieu,' by Bishop Belley — works -which tke perusal of tlie present volume must create a strong desire to possess," — Church Review. " The acco7iipiished author to whom we owe the recent t life of Pere Besson, the Dominican, has laid us under afresh debt of gratitude by a later work, a biography of S. Francis de Sales, Bishop and Prince of Geneva. It is not a translation or adaptation, but an origi nal work, and a very charming portrait of one ofthe most winning characters in the long gallery of Saints. And it is a matter of entire thankfulness to us to find a distinctively A nglican writer setting forward tke good Bisliof's -work among Protestants, as a true missionary task to reclaim souls from deadly error, and bring them back to the truth." — Union Review. IO JttcjsstB. fttbmgtott'0 fl ubticxtxorus RIVINGTON'S DEVOTIONAL SERIES. Elegantly printed with red borders. l6mo. 2s. 6d. each. THOMAS A KEMPIS, OF THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. Also a Cheap Edition, without the red borders, ij\, or in Cover, 6d. "A very beautiful edition. We C07nmend it to the Clergy as an excellent gift-book for teachers a7id other -workers." — Church Times. " This -work is a precious relic of mediaeval ti77ies, and will continue to be valued by every section of the Christian Church." — Weekly Review. " A beautifully printed pocket edition of this marvellous production of a 7na7t, who, out of the dark mists of popery, saw so much of experimental religion. Those who are well grounded in evangelical truth 7nay use it with profit." — Record. "A very cheap and handsome edition." — Rock. " This new edition is a marvel of cheapness." — Church Review. "Beautifully printed, and very cheap edi- tio7ts of this long-used Jtand-book of devotion" — Literary World. THE RULE AND EXERCISES OF HOLY LIVING. By Jeremy Taylor, D.D., Bishop of Down and Connor, and Dromore. Also a Cheap Edition, without the red borders, is, THE RULE AND EXERCISES OF HOLY DYING. By Jeremy Taylor, D.D., Bishop of Down and Connor, and Dromore. Also a Cheap Edition, without the red borders, is. The l Holy Living' and the < Holy Dying ' may be had bound together in One Volume, $s. ; or without the red borders, 2s. 6d. *' An extn-ennely well-printed and well got up edition, as pretty and graceful as possible, and yet not too fine for real use. We -wish the devotions of this beautiful book were more commonly used."—- Literary Church man. " We must admit that there is a want of helfs to spiritual life annongst us. Our age is so secular, aud in religious movements so bustling, that ii is to be feared the inner life is too often forgotten. Our public teachers 77iay, we are sure, gain by consulting books ¦which show hozu contentedness and self renun ciation nnay be increased ; and z« which the j>atkology of all human affections is treated with a fulness not common in our theological class roonns " — Freeman. " 7 lie publishers have done- good service by ihe production of these beautiful editions of works, "which -will never lose their precious ness to devout Christian spirits. It is not necessary for us to say a word as to tkein- intrinsic merits; we have only to testify to the good taste, judgment, and care shown in these editions. They are extremely beautiful in typography and in the general getting up." — English Independent. " We ought not to conclude our notice of recent devotional books, without mentioning to our readers the above new, elegant, and cheap reprint, whick we trust will never be out of date or out of favour in the English branch of the Catholic Church. "—Literary Churchman. " These nnanuals of piety written by the pen of the 77iost beautiful writer and the 77iost i7npressive divine ofthe English Church, need no commendation from us. They are known to tke world, read in all lands, and translated, we have heard, into fifty different languages. For two centuries they have fed the faith of thousands upon thousands of souls, now we trust happy with their God, and perhaps medi tating in Heaven with gratitude on their celestial truths, kindled iu their souls by a writer who was little short of being inspired." — Rock. " These little volunnes will be appreciated as presents of inestimable value."-— Publi& Opinion. " Either separate or bound together, -may be had these two sta7idard works of tke great divine. A good edit ion very tastefully printed and bound." — Record. A SHORT AND PLAIN INSTRUCTION FOR THE BETTER UNDERSTANDING OFTHE LORD'S SUPPER; to which is annexed the Office of the Holy Communion, with proper Helps and Directions. By Thomas Wilson, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man. Complete Edition, in large type. Also a Cheap Edition, without the red borders, is., or in Cover, 6d. " The Messrs Rivington have published a Supper. The edition is here presented in new and unabridged edition of that deservedly three forms, suited to the various members of popular work, Bishop Wilson on the Lord's the household"— Pubhc Opinion JHeaara. llibington'* ^ubiitationjs ii RIVINGTON'S DEVOTIONAL SERIES— Continued. " We cannot withhold th'e expression of our admiration of the style and elegance in which this work is got up."— Press and St. James* Chronicle. "A departed author being dead yet speak- eth in a way which will never be out of date ; Bisiwp Wilson on the Lord's Supper, pub lished by Messrs. Rivington, in bindings to suit all tastes and pockets." — Church Re view. " We may here fitly record that Bishop Wilson on ihe Lord's Supper has been issued in a new but unabridged fo7V7i." — Daily Telegraph. INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVOUT LIFE. From the French of Saint Francis of Sales, Bishop and Princeof Geneva. A New Translation. " A very beautiful edition of S. Francis de Sales' * Devout Life:' a prettier little edition for binding, type, and paper, of a very great book is not often seen." — Church Review. " The translation is a good one, and the volume is beautifully got up. It would serve adnnirably as a gift book to those •who are able to appreciate so spiritual a writer as St. Francis." — Church Times. " It has been the food and hope of countless souls ever since its first appearance two cen turies and a half ago, and it still ranks 'with Scupoli's ' Co7nbatiinnento Spirituale,' and Arvisenet's ' Memoriale Vita Sacerdo talis,' as among the very best -works of ascetic theology. We are glad to com77iend this care ful and convenient version to our readers'' — Union Review. " We should be curious lo know by haw many diff erent hands ' The Devout Life' of S. Francis de Sales had bee7i translated into English. At any rate, its Popularity is so great that Messrs. Rivington have just issued another translation of it. The style is good, and the volume is of a 7ntost convenient size." — John Bull. " To readers of religious treatises, this volume will be highly valued. The Intro duction fo the Devout Life' is preceded by a sketch of the life of the author, and a dedica tory prayer of tke author is also given." — Public Opinion. PRACTICAL TREATISE CONCERNING EVIL THOUGHTS : wherein their Nature, Origin, and Effect are distinctly con sidered and explained, with many Useful Rules for restraining and suppressing such Thoughts ; suited to the various conditions of Life, and the several tem pers of Mankind, more especially of melancholy Persons. By William Chilcot, M.A. "An elegant edition of an old devotional manual by a clergyman who was a rector in Exeter at the beginning of the last century. It see7ns to contain a great deal of valuable truth as to the sources of evil thoughts and tke mode in which they may be expressed." — English Independent. " The book is worthy of a careful perusal, and is one which once known is likely to be recurred to again and again, a characteristic not always to be met •with in works of our own day." — Record. "Messrs. Rivington have done all that publishers could do to give strengthening matter a cheerful for7n." — Church Review. THE ENGLISH POEMS OF GEORGE HERBERT, together with his Collection of Proverbs, entitled Jacula Prudentum. " This beautiful little volu7ne will be found specially convenient as a pocket manual. The 'Jacula Prudentunn' or proverbs, deserve to he 7nore widely known than they are at present. In many copies of George Herbert's writings these quaint sayings have bee?i un fortunately omitted." — Rock. " George Herbert is too 77tuch a household na7ne to require a7iy introduction. It will be sufficient to say that Messrs. Rivington have published a nnost compact and convenient edition of the poems a7id proz-erbs of this illus trious English divine."— English Church man. ,. . j7 , "An exceedingly pretty edition, the most attractive fornn we have yet seenfronn this de lightful author, as a gift-book."— Union Review. " A very beautiful edition ofthe quaint old English bard. All lovers of the ' holy' Her bert will be grateful to Messrs. Rivington for the care and pains they have bestowed in supplying them with this and withal conveni- e?it copy of poems so well known and so deservedly prized. " — London Q u arterly Review. "A very tasteful Utile book, and will doubtless be acceptable to many." — Record. " We commend this little book heartily to our readers. It contains Herbert's English poems and the ' Jacula Prudentum? in a very neat volume which does 77iuch credit to the publishers ; it will, we hope, 7neet with extensive circulation as a choice gift-book at a moderate price." — Christian Observer. 12 M.Z88X8. ^Mncjton'z publication* NEW THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. DICTIONARY OP DOCTRINAL AND HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. By various writers. -Edited by the Rev. John Henry Blunt, M.A., F.S.A. Editor of the Annotated Book of Common Prayer. Second Edition. Complete in one volume of 833 pages, imperial Svo {equal to six Svo volumes' of 406 pages each), and printed in large readable type, 42s. or half-bound in morocco, tfls. 6d. 1. Nature of the work. This Dictionary consists of a series of original Essays (alphabetically arranged, and 575 in number) on all the principal subjects connected with the Doctrines of the Christian Church. Some idea of the subjects, and of the length of the articles, may be formed from the following titles of those which occupy the work from page 700 to page 720. Sign. Spinozism. Suffragan. Simony. Spirit. Sunday. Sin. Spirit, The Holy. Supererogation. Sinaitic Codex. Sponsors. Supernatural. socinianism. subdeacons. superstition. solifidianism. sublapsarianism. supralapsarianism. Soul. Substance. Supremacy, Papal. 1. Object OF the Work. The writers of all the Essays have endeavoured to make them sufficiently exhaustive to render it unnecessary for the majority of readers to go further for information, and, at the same time, sufficiently suggestive of more recondite sources of Theological study, to help the student in following up his subjects. By means of a Table prefixed to the Dictionary, a regular course of such study may be carried out in its pages. 3. Principles of the Work. The Editor and his coadjutors have carefully avoided any party bias, arid consequently the work cannot be said to be either "High Church," "Low Church," or "Broad Church." The only bias ofthe Dictionary is that given by Revelation, History, Logic, and the literary idiosyn- cracy of each particular contributor. But the Editor has not attempted to assist the circulation of the book by making it colourless on the pretence of impartiality. Errors are freely condemned, and truths are expressed as if they were worth ex pressing ; but he believes that no terms of condemnation which may be used ever transgress the bounds of Christian courtesy. 4. Part of a Series. The Dictionaiy of Theology is complete in itself, but it is also intended to form part of a Series, entitled, "A Summary of Theology," of which the second volume, "A Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, and Schools of Thought," is in the press. "Taken as a whole the articles are the is the work of a single mind. We have here work of practised writers, and well informed a wider range of thought from a greater and solid theologians . . We know no variety of sides. We have here also the work book of its size and bulk which supplies the of men who evidently know what they write information here given at all; far less which about, and are somewhat more profound (to supplies it in an arrangement so accessible, say the least), tlian the writers ofthe current with a completeness of information so thorough, Dictionaries of Sects and Heresies "— Guar- and with an ability in the treatment of pro- dian. found subjects so great. Dr. Hook's most " Mereantiouarianism.howeverinteresting, useful volume is a work of high calibre, but it has little place in it. But for all practical Jfte&sr*. piuington's flublications 13 Purposes its historical articles are excellent. 'They are of course, and of necessity, a good deal condensed, yet they are wonderfully complete; see for example such articles as ' Atkeism,' ' Cabbala,' ' Calvinisnn,' ' Can- oniza tion , ' ' Couvoca tio7is, ' ' E vaugelica I, ' 'Fathers,' ' Infant Baptism,' &>c, &*c. But the stre7igth of the book lies in tke theology Proper, and herein nnore particularly in what one niay call the nnetaphysical side of doctrine : — see the articles on ' Conceptualisnn* ' Doubt,' 'Dualism,' ' Election," Eternity,' 'Everlast ing Punishment* 'Fatalism,' and the like. We me7itio7i these as characteristic of the book. At the same time other more practical matters are fully dealt with. There are ex cellent aud elaborate papers on such words as ' Eucharist,' 'Confession,' 'Blood,' 'Cross,' 1 A n tichrist, ' to say nothing ofthe host oj minor matters on 'which it is most couve7iie7it to be able to turn to a book which gives you at a glance the pith of a whole library in a column or a fage. Thus it •will be obvious that it takes a very much wider range than any undertaking of 'the sa7ne kind i7iour language ; and that to those of our clergy who have 7iot the fortune to spe7id in books, and would not have the leisure to use them if they possessed them, it will be the 77iost serviceable and re liable substitute for a large library we ca7i think of. A nd iu many cases, while keeping strictly within its province as a Dictionary, it contrives to be marvellously suggestive of thought and reflections, which a serious minided nnan -will take with hinn and ponder over for his own elaboration and future use. As an example of this we may refer to the whole article 071 Doubt. It is treated of under tlie successive heads of — (1) its nature; (2) its origin ; (3) the history of tke principal periods of Doubt; (4) the consciousness — or actual experience of Doubt, and how to deal with its different phases and kinds ; (5) ihe relations of Doubt to action and to belief To explain a little we 'will here quote a para graph or two, which may not be unacceptable to our readers. . . . The variety of the references given in ihe course of this article, a7id at its co/iclusion, show how carefully the writer has thought out and studied his subject in its various manifestations in nniany various minds, and illustrate very forcibly how much reading goes to a very small amount of space in anything worth the name oj 'Dictionary of Theology' We trust -most sincerely that the book 77iay be largely used. For a prese7ii to a clergyman on his ordination, or fro77i a par ishioner to his pastor, it would be most appro- f7-iate. It may indeed be called 'a box of tools for a working clergyman'" — Literary Churchman. ' ' Seldom has an English work of equal magnitude bee7i so permeated with Catholic instincts, and at the same ti7ne seldonn lias a work 071 theology been kept so free front the drift of rhetorical incrustation. Of course it is 7iot meant that all these re77iarks apply in their full extent to every article. In a great Dictionary there are compositions^ as in a great house there are vessels, of various kinds. Sonne of these at a future day may be replaced by others more substantial in their build, more proportionate in their outline, a7id nnore elaborate in their detail. But admitting all this, the whole remains a home to which the student will constantly recur, sure to find spacious channbers, substantial furniture, and {which is most important) no stinted light." — Church Review. " The second and final instalment of Mr. Blunt* s useful Dictionary, itself but apart of a more connfrekensive plan, is now before tke pub lic, aud fully sustains the nnainly favourable impression created by the appearance of the first part. Within^ the sphere it has marked out for itself, no equally useful book of reference exists in English for the elucidation of theolo gical problenus. \ . . Entries •which dis play much care, research, and judgment in compilation, and 'which will make the task oj tke parish priest who is brought face to face with any of tke practical questions which they involve far easier than has been hitherto. Tke very fact that the utterances are here a7td there so7newhat nnore guarded and hesitating than quite accords with our judgment, is a gain iu so far as it protects the workfronn the charge of inculcating extrenne views, and •will thus secure its adnnissiou in many places where ?noderatiou is accounted tlie crowning grace.' — Church Times. " The •writers who are at work on it are scholars and theologians, and earnest de fenders of the Christian faith. They evi dently holdfast the fundamental doctrines oj Christianity, and liave the religious instruc tion of the rising ministry at heart. More over, their scheme is a noble one ; it does credit not only to their learning aud zeal, but also to their tact and discretion. ' — London Quar terly Review, " Infinitely the best book of ihe kind in the language; and, if not the best conceivable, it is perhaps the best we are ever likely to sec within its compass as to size and scope. Accu rate and succinct in statement, it may safely be trusted as a handbook as regards facts, while in our judgment, this second part stilt ¦maintains the character we gave the first, na7nely, of showing nniost ability in its way oj treating the nnore abstract and metaphysical side of theological questions. The liturgical articles also in this part deserve especial men tion. The book is sure to make its own way by sheer force of usefulness." — Literary Churchman. "It is not open to doubt that this work, of which the second and concluding part has just been issued, is in every sense a valuable and important one. Mr. Blunts Dictionary is a most acceptable addition to English theological literature. Its general style is terse and vigorous. Whilst its pages are free from wordiness, there is none of that undue conden sation which, under the plea of judicious bre vity, ve:ls a mere empty jotting down of fami liar state inents {attd mis-statements), at seco7id or, it may be, third hand from existing works. Dean Hook's well-known Dictionary makes the nearest approach to the one now before us, but Mr. Blunts is decidedly the better of the two." — English Churchman.' "It will be found of admirable service to all students of theology, as advancing and main taining the Church 's viezvs on all subjects as fall within the ra7ige of fair argument anc inquiry. It is not often that a work of so comprehensive and so profound a nature is marked to the very end by so many signs oj wide and careful research, sound criticism, and. well-founded and well-expressed belief" — Standard. 14 Mz%%x%. ftibittgton,0 fltoblfcatimws SERMONS. By Henry Melvill, Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. 5-f. each. Sold separately. " Messrs. Rivington have published very opportunely, at a time "when Ckurch7ne7t are thinki7ig with satisfaction of the new blood infused into the Chapter of St. Paul's, sermons by Henry Melvill, who in his day ".vas as cele brated as a preacher as is Canon L iddon now. Tke seTvnons are not only c'oucked in elegant language, Out are replete with matter which the younger clergy would do "well to study." — John Bull. " Henry MelvilTs intellect was large, his imagination brillia7tt, his ardour intense, and his style strong, fervid, and picturesque. Often he seemed to glow with the inspiration of a prophet." — American Quarterly Church Review. "It -would be easy to quote portions of ex ceeding beauty andpower. Itwas not, however, the charm of style, nor wealth of words, both which Canon Melvill possessed in so great abundance, that he relied on to win souls; but the pmven' and spirit of Him 'who said, ' /, if I be lifted up, will draw all men to Me.*" — Recokd. "Every 07ie who ca7i remember the days •when Canon Melvill was the preacher of tke day, will be glad to see these four-and- twenty of his ser7no7ts so nicely rep7roduced. His Ser- B.D., late Canon of St. Paul's, and New Edition. Two vols. Crown 8vo. mons were all the result of real study and genuine reading, "with far more theology in the77i than those of many who make much more profession of theology. There are sermons here which we can personally rennennber; it has been a pleasure to us to be reminded of them, a7id we are glad to see them brought before the present generation. We hope that they may be studied, for they deserve it tho roughly."— Xiterary Churchman. " Few preachers have had more admirers than the Rev. Henry Melvill, and the new edition of his Sermons, in two volu7nes, will doubtless find plenty of purchasers. Tke ser- nnons abound in thought, and the thoughts are couched in English which is at 07ice elega7it in construction a7td easy to read." — Church Times. " Tke Ser7nons of Canon Melvill, now re- Published in two handy volu7nes, 7ieed only to be mentioned to be sure of a hearty •welcome. Sound learni7ig, well -weighed words, calm a7id keen logic, and solemn devoutness, mark the whole series of masterly discourses, "which em brace sonne of the chief doctrines ofthe Church, and set them forth in clear and Scriptural strength." — Standard. A HELP TO CATECHISING. Por the Use of Clergymen, Schools, and Private Families. By James Beaven, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the University of Toronto. New Edition. iSmo. 2s. THE FIRST BOOK OP COMMON PRATER OP EDWARD VI., and the Ordinal of 1549, together with the Order of the Communion, 1548. Reprinted entire, and Edited by the Rev. Henry Baskerville "Walton, M.A., late Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. With an Intro duction by the Rev. Peter Goldsmith Medd, M.A., Senior Fellow and Tutor of University College, Oxford. Small Svo. 6s. " A volume like this is worth two of Church History. In many respects, indeed, it is ihe subject of history itself ; and with Mr. Medd's introduction and Mr. Walton's editorial 'work we maybe said to have both subject and history thereof. The volume should be in the hands of every member of the Church of England : we tnay say, it should be in those of every student of Church History." — Athenaeum. " We welconne the seasonable appearance of this work, which indeed supplies a long-felt want, for ' the First Book' kas been hitherto accessible to very few. . . . It is especially important at the present time that tlie princi ples of the first Refornners should be under stood; and no one ca7i look through this edition without gaining so7ne definite infor mation on that point. We commend this new editio7i of tlie First Prayer Book, "with its intraductal to the study of all that are desirous of understanding the Pri7iciples oj those "who originated the 'reform of our public Services." — Church News. " The more that English Churchmen be come acquainted with the Reformed Pn'ayer Book, as our E7iglish Divines refornned it, apart from the nneddling of foreigners — i.e., the better people becanne acquainted with 'Edward VI's first book,' the better both for themselves and for the English Church at large. We are therefore delighted to welco77te this handy and ha7idsome repri7it, with which every pai7is has bee7t taken to make it as accurate as possible.'" — Literary Church man. " Mr. Walton deserves tke very best thanks of Anglican Churchmen, for putting this most innportant volume •within their reach in so convenient and 'handsome aform." — CHURCH Review. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THB USB OP CANDIDATES POR HOLY ORDERS, And of the Parochial Clergy ; with Acts of Parliament relating to the same, and Forms proposed to be used. By Christopher Hodgson, M.A., Secretary to the Governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. Ninth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo. 16s. Mtssts; pibington's publications 15 THE PRAYER BOOK INTERLEAVED ; With Historical Illus trations and Explanatory Notes arranged parallel to the Text. By the Rev. W. M. Campion, D.D., Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, and Rector of St. Botolph's, and the Rev. W. J. Beamont, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. With a Preface by the Lord Bishop of Ely. Sixth Edition. Small 8vo. -Js. 6d. A PLAIN ACCOUNT OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE. From the Earliest Times of its Translation to the Present Day. By John Henry "Blunt, M.A., Vicar of Kennington, Oxford; Editor of "The Annotated Book of Common Prayer," &c. Crown 8vo. 3-r. §d. ANCIENT HYMNS. From the Roman Breviary. For Domestic Use every Morning and Evening of the Week, and on the Holy Days of the Church. To which are added, Original Hymns, principally of Commemora tion and Thanksgiving for Christ's Holy Ordinances. By Richard Mant, D.D., sometime Lord Bishop of Down and Connor. New Edition. Small 8vo. 5.T. " Real poetry wedded to words that breathe have no hesitation in awarding the palm to the the purest and the sweetest spirit of Christian latter, the former are an evidence of the earli- devotion. The translations from the old Latin est germs of that yearning of the devout mind Hymnal are close and faithful renderings." — for something better than Tate and Brady, Standard. and which is now so richly supplied." — Church "Asa Hymn -writer Bishop Mant deserv- Times. edly occupies a prominent place in the esteem " This valuable manual will be of great of C hurchmen, and we doubt not that many assistance to all compilers of Hymn-books. will be the readers who will -welcome this new The translations are graceful, clear, and edition of his translations and original com- forcible, and the original hymns deserve the positions'- — English Churchman. highest praise. Bishop Mant has caught the " A new edition of Bishop Mant's ' Ancient very spirit of true psalmody, his metre flows Hymns from the Roman Breviary ' forms a musically, and there is a tuneful ring in his handsome little volume, and it is interesting verses which especially adapts tliem for con- to compare some of these translations with the gregational singing." — Rock. more modern ones of our own day. While we PARISH MUSINGS; OR, DEVOTIONAL POEMS. By John S. B. Monsell, LL.D., Rural Dean, and Rector of St. Nicholas, Guildford. Fine Edition. Small 8vo. 5-f. Cheap Edition, i8mo, limp cloth, is. 6d.; or in Cover, is. ENGLISH NURSERY RHYMES. Translated into French. By John Roberts, M.A., Fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Square i6mo. is. 6d. SACRED ALLEGORIES. Illustrated Edition. By the Rev. W. Adams, M.A., late Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. The SHADOW of the CROSS. Illustrated by Birket Foster and G. E. Hicks. The DISTANT HILLS. Illustrated by Samuel Palmer. The OLD MAN'S HOME. Illustrated by J. C. Horsley, A.R.A., and Birket Foster. The KING'S MESSENGERS. Illustrated by C. W. Cope, R.A. New Editions. Square crown Svo., is. 6d. each. The Four Allegories in one Volume. Square i6mo. 5^. The Cheap Editions may still be had, i8mo., is. each, or (sd. in Paper Covers. 1 6 Mzs&xs, fliliington's ftobliratirjttjs A MEMORIAL VOLUME OP SERMONS. By the late Rev. John Henry Holford, M.A. With a. short Biographical Preface by the Rev. E. H. Bickersteth, M.A. Small 8vo. $s. THE HOME LIFE OF JESUS OF NAZARETH, &c. By the Rev. Augustus Gurney, M.A., Vicar of Wribbenhall, Kidderminster, in the Diocese of Worcester. Crown 8vo. $s. PRAYERS AND MEDITATIONS FOR THE HOLY COM MUNION. With a Preface by C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Glouces ter and Bristol. With rubrics and borders in red. Royal 32mo. is. 6d. " Devout beauty is the special character of Holy Communion.' intended as a manual for this new manual, and it ought to be a favour- the recently confirTned, nicely printed, and zte. Rarely has it happened to us to nneet theologically sound." — Church Times. with so rennarkable a combination of thorough " In freshness and fervour of devotion, few practicahicss with that almost Poetic warmth modern manuals of prayer are to be compared which is the highest fiower of genuine devo- with it. Its faults are a too exclusive sub- tion. It deserves to be placed along with the jectiveness, and a want of realising the higher manual edited by Mr. Keble so shortly before Catholic teaching. Thus, the Holy Sacrifice his decease, not as superseding it, for the scope has not its due pronninence, the sacrament of of the two is different, but to be taken along Penance is ignored, our full communion with with it. Nothing can exceed the beauty and the sai7its departed is obscured, and the fulness of ihe devotions before communion in Catholic Church on earth as an outward Mr. Keble's book, but we think that in some organisation is put too much in ike back- Points the devotions here given after Holy ground. The book, i7i short, is strictly Communion are eve7i superior to it." — Liter- A7iglican, but zuith a strong tendency to ary Churchman. mysticism. For all that, it has a war7nth of "Bishop Ellicott has edited a book oj feeling and a reality of devotion which will 1 Prayers ^ and Meditations for the Holy endear it to the hearts of many Catholics, and Communion,' which, annong Eucharistie man- will make it especially a most welco7ne com- uals, has its ow7i special characteristic. The panion to those a77iong the young who are Bishop recommends it to the newly confirmed, earnestly striving after the spiritual life." — to the tender-hearted a7id the devout, as Church Herald. having been compiled by a youthful person, " Among the supply of Eucharistie Manu- and as being nnarked by a peculiar 'freshness* als, one deserves special attention and corn- Having looked through the volume, we have nnendation. ' Prayers and Meditations' merits pleasure in seconding the recommendations of the Bishop of Gloucester's epithets of ' warm, the good Bishop. We know of no nnore suit- devout, and fresh." And it is thoroughly Eng- able manual for the newly confirmed, and lish Church besides." — Guardian. nothing nnore likely to engage tke sympathies "We are by no means surprised that of youthful hearts. There is a union of the Bishop Ellicott should have been so much deepest spirit of devotion, a rich expression of struck with this little work, on accidentally ex per in _ -innental life, with a due recognition of seei7ig it in manuscript, as to urge its pub lica- the objects of faith, such as is not always to be tion, and to preface ii with his commendation. found, but which characterises this manual in The devotion which it breathes is truly fervent, an eminent degree"— Church Review. a7id the language attractive, and as proceed- " The Bishop of Gloucester's imprinnatur is ing from a young person the work is altogether attached to ' Prayers and Meditations for the not a little striking."— ^Record. THE STORY OF THB GOSPELS. In a single Narrative, combined from the Four Evangelists, showing in a new translation their unity. To which is added a like continuous Narrative in the Original Greek. By the Rev. William Pound, M.A,, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, Principal of Appuldurcombe School, Isle of Wight. 2 Vols. 8vo. 36J. COUNSELS ON HOLINESS OF LIFE. Translated from the Spanish of "The Sinner's Guide," by Luis de Granada. Forming a Volume of THE ASCETIC LIBRARY, a Series of Translations of Spiri tual Works for Devotional Reading from Catholic Sources. Edited by the Rev. Orey Shipley, M.A. Square crown 8vo. 5s. THE DIVINITY OF OUR LORD AND SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST ; being the Bampton Lectures. for 1866. By Henry Parry Lid- don, D.D., D.C.L, Canon of St. Paul's, and Ireland Professor of Exegesis in the University of Oxford. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. 5J. Jfttasr*. flibingtnn'* Arbitration:* 17 THE HIDDEN LIFE OF THE SOUL. From the French. By the Author of " A Dominican Aitist," " Life of Madame Louise de France," &c. Crown 8vo. $s. "' The Hidden Life of the Soul,' by the author of 'A Dominican Artist,' is from the writings of Father Grou, a French refugee priest 0/1792, who died at Luhvorth. It well deserves the character given it of being 'ear nest aud sober,' and not 'sensational.'" — Guardian. " Between fifty and sixty short readings on spiritual subjects, exquisitely expressed, and not nnerely exquisite in expression, but pre senting a rare combination of spiritual depth and of strong practical common sense. We have read carefully a large number of them, for, after reading a few as texts, we could not lay it down without going much further tka7i was sufficient for the mere purpose of re- porti7ig 071 the book. The author was one Pere Grou, a native of Calais, bom in 1731, 'who in 1792 found an asylum from the troubles ofthe French Revolution at Luhvorth Castle, known doubtless to many of our readers as the ancestral home of 't/ie old Ron nan Catholic family oj 'Weld, where he died in 1 803. There is a tvonderfid charnni about these readings — so calnn, so true, so thoroughly Christian. We do 7iot know where they would come anniiss. As materials for a consecutive series of 7ueditatio7is for the faithful at a sen-ies of early celebrations they would be excellent, or for private reading during Advent or Lent." — Literary Church man. " Fro7n tlie French of Jean Nicolas Grou, a ¦bious Priest, whose works teach resignation to the Divine will. Tie loved, we are told, to inculcate simplicity, freedonn from all affectation and unreality, the patience and humility which are too surely grounded in self-knowledge to be surprised at a fall, but withal so allied to confidence in God as to make recovery easy and sure. This is ihe spirit of the volume which is intended to fur nish advice to those who would cultivate a quiet, meek, and childlike spirit." — Public Opinion. " The work is by Jean Nicolas Grou, a French Priest, who, driven to England by the first Revolution, found a home with a Roman Catholic fannily at Luhvorth for the ten re maining years of a retired, studious, devout life. The work bears internal evidence of being that of a spirit which had been fed on such works as tke ' Spiritual Exercises* the ' Imitation of Christ,' aud the 'Devout Life' of St. Francis of Sales, and which has here -reproduced them, tested by its ow7i life-experi ence, and cast iu the mould of its own indivi duality. How much the work, in its present form, may owe to the judicious care of the Editor, we are not aware ; but as it is pre sented to us, it is, while deeply spiritual, yet so earnest aud sober in its general tone, so free from doctrinal error or unwholesome senti ment, that we confidently recommend it to English Church people as one of the most valuable of this class of books which we have tne t with" — Church Builder. THE WITNESS OF ST. JOHN TO CHRIST; being the Boyle Lectures for 1870. With an Appendix on the Authorship and Integrity of St. John's Gospel and the Unity of the Johannine Writings. By the Rev. Stanley Leahies, M.A., Minister of St. Philip's, Regent Street, and Pro fessor of Hebrew, King's College, London. 8vo. ios. 6d. CATECHETICAL NOTES AND CLASS QUESTIONS, Lite ral and Mystical ; chiefly on the Earlier Books of Holy Scripture. By the .late Rev. J. M. Neale, D.D., Warden of Sackville College, East Grinstead. Crown 8vo. $s. from other of Dr. Neale's papers, and in particular we would specify an admirable appendix of extracts from Dr. Neale 5 sermons (chiefly unpublished) bearing upon points touched on in the text." — Literary Church man. " The writer 's wide acquaintance with Medieval theology renders his notes on the Old Testament peculiarly valuable." — John Bull. " Unless we are much mistaken this will be one ofthe most practically useful of the various posthumous works of Dr. Neale, for the publi cation of which we are indebted to the S. Margaret's Sisters and Dr. Nea/e's literary executors. Besides ' class notes'— lecture notes as most people would call them — on the earlier books of Holy Scripture, there are some most excellent similar notes on the Sacraments, and then a. collection of notes for catechizing chil dren. Throughout t/iese notes are supplemented HERBERT TRESHAM. A Tale of the Great Rebellion. By the late Rev. J. M. Neale, D.D. New Edition. Small 8vo. y. 6d. mi' j- ji •;„,.,. „ nmi edition ot 'Dr. surrender of Bristol by Prince Rupert, afford v£,rf!r&7^.™l££%'& preofofilieversatilityofhisgeuius.--Cno.cn in the time of ihe great civil war, and vivid pictures are drawn of some of the startling events that then disgraced the history of this country. The martyrdom of A rchbishop Laud is described in a manner few besides its outlier could equal, while the narration of the disas trous battle of Naseby, and tlie disgraceful Times. " A pleasant Christmas present is Dr. Neale' s ' Herbert Tresham.' Such a book is well calculated to correct current views ofi-jth century history."— Chukch'Review. " Nothing could be more admirable as a Christmas present." — Church News. Mzbbxb, liibingtott'* $ ublixatioras SELECTIONS FROM MODERN FRENCH AUTHORS. With English Notes. By Henry van Laun, Master of the French Lan guage and Literature at the Edinburgh Academy. Crown 8vo. 3-r. 6d. each. Honore de Balzac. H. A. Taine. " This selection answers to the require- " This is a volume of selections from ihe ments expressed by Mr, Lowe in one of his works of H. A. Taine, a celebrated contenn- speeches on education, where he reconnnnended porary French author. It forms an instal- that boys should be attracted to the study of ment of a series of selections from modern French by means of 'its lighter literature. M. French authors Messrs. Rivington are now van Laun has executed tke task of selection issuing. The pri7it, the extracts, and the with excellent taste. The episodes he has notes, are as excellent as in a previous publi- chosen fronn the vast 'Human Comedy' are cation of the sa77te kind zve lately noticed coni- uaturally such as do not deal with passions taining extracts from Balzac. Tke notes, in and experiences that are proper to nnature age. particular, evince great care, study, and Even thus limited, he had an overwhelnning erudition. The works of Taine, fronn which variety of material to choose from; and his lengthy quotations are given, are, 'Histoire selection gives afair impression ofthe terrible de la Litterature Anglaise,' ' Voyage en power of this wonderful writer, the study of Italic,' and ' Voyages aux Pyrenees.' These whom is one of the nnost important means of compilations would form first-rate class-books self-education open to a cultivated man in the for advanced French students." — Public nineteenth century ." —V ma. Mall Gazette. Opinion. WALTER KERR HAMILTON : Bishop of Salisbury. A Sketch Reprinted, with Additions and Corrections, from "The Guardian." By H. P.Liddon, D.D., D.C.L., Canon of St. Paul's. Second Edition. 8vo. 2s. 6d. Or bound with the Sermon "Life in Death," 3 s. 6d. THE MANOR FARM : A TALE. By M. C. Phillpotts, Author of "The Hillford Confirmation." With Illustrations. Small 8vo. 3J. 6d. " The Manor Farnn, by Miss Phillpotts, and gentle daughter. Tke story is a capital author of the 'Hillford Confirnnation,' is a illustration of the value of per severa7ice, and' pious story, which amongst other things shows it is a book that •will be very useful in parochial tlie dawning of light in superstitious 7ninds." reading libraries " — John Bull. — Morning Post. "A prettily got-up and prettily 'written " ' The Manor Farm ' relates how, utider little book above tke average of tke class it be- good influence, a selfish girl becanne a useful longs to." — Edinburgh Courant. A PLAIN AND SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLAND FOR CHILDREN : in Letters from a Father to his Son. By George Davys, D .D. , formerly Bishop of Peterborough. New Edition. With Twelve Coloured Illustrations. Square Crown 8vo. 3J. 6d. SKETCHES OF THE RITES AND CUSTOMS OF THE GRECO-RUSSIAN CHURCH. By H. C. Romanoff. With an Intro ductory Notice by the Author of "The Heir of Redclyffe." Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. " The twofold object of this work is 'to "The volu7ne before us is anything but a present tlie English with correct descriptions for7nal liturgical treatise. It nnight be more of the ceremonies of tke Greco-Russian Church, valuable to a few scholars if it were, but it and at the same time with pictures of donnestic would certainly fail to obtain perusal at the Ufe in Russian honnes, especially tlwse of the ka7ids of the great 7najority of those whonn the clergy and the middle class of nobles ;' and, -writer, not unreaso7tably, hopes to attract by beyo7id question, the author's labour has been the narrative style she has adopted. What she so far successful that, whilst her Church has set before us is a series of brief outlines, scenes 7nay be commended as a series of most -which, by their sinnple effort to clothe the dra7natic and picturesque tableaux , her social information given us in a living garb, sketches enable us to look at certain points be- ren7iinds 7ts of a 07ice-popular ckilds' book 7ieath the surface of Russian Ufe, and nna- which we rennember a generation ago, called terialty enlarge our knowledge of a country 'Sketches of Human Manners'" — Church concerning which we have still a very great Times. deal to learn." — Athem^um, WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE WAR? By Scrutator. With an Appendix, containing Four Letters, reprinted (by permission) from the Times. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. Mzbbxb. ^xbhxQton'B flublkationB *9 FIFTEEN SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNI VERSITY OF OXFORD, between a.d. 1826 and 1 843. By John Henry Newman, B.D., sometime Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Printed uniformly with the u Parochial and Plain Sermons." New Edition. Crown 8vo. 5s. THE MACCABEES AND THE CHURCH ; Or, the History of the Maccabees Considered with Reference to the present Condition and Pros pects of the Chnrch. Two Sermons preached before the University of Cam bridge. By Chr. Wordsworth, D.D., Bishop of Lincoln. Crown Svo. 2j. 6d. YESTERDAY, TO-DAY, AND FOR EVER : A Poem in Twelve Books. By E. H. Bickersteth, M.A., Vicar of Christ Church, Hamp- stead. Seventh Edition. Small Svo. 6s. "The most simple, the richest, and the 7nost perfect sacred poem which rece7it days have produced f — Morning Advertiser. " A poem worth reading, worthy of atten tive study ; full of noble thoughts, beautiful diction, and high imagination." — Standard. "Mr. Bickersteth writes like a man who cultivates at once reverence and earnestness of thought." — Guardian. "In these light miscellany days there is a spiritual refreshment in the spectacle of a 7nan girding up the loins of his mind to the task of producing a genuine epic. And it is true poetry. There is a definiteness, a crispness about it, which in these moist, viewy, hazy days, is 710 less invigorati7ig tha7t novel." — Edinburgh Daily Review. A DOMINICAN ARTIST ; a Sketch of the Life of the Rev. Pere Besson, ofthe Order of St. Dominic. By the Author ofthe "The Tales of Kirkbeck," "The Life of Madame Louise de France," &c. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. "The author of t/te Life of Pere Besson writes with a grace and refine7iient of devo tional feefaig peculiarly suited to a subject- matter which suffers beyond most others from any coarseness of touch. It would be difficult to find ' the simplicity and purity of a holy life' more exquisitely illustrated than in F"atker Besson 's career, both before and after his joining the Dominican Order under the auspices of Lacordaire. . . . Certainly we have never come across -what could more strictly be termed in the truest sense ' the life of a beautiful soul.' The author has done well in presenting to English readers this singularly graceful biography, in which all who can appreciate genuine sinnphciiy and nobleness of Christian character will find much to admire and little or nothing to con demn."— Saturday Review. "It would indeed have been a deplorable omission had so exquisite a biography been by any neglect lost to English readers, a7id had a character so perfect in its simple and com plete devotion been withheldfrom our admira tion . ¦ But we have dwelt too long already on this fascinating book, and must now leave it to our readers."— Literary Churchman, , J. 7 , , "A beautiful and most interesting sketch ofthe late Pere Besson, an artist who forsook the easel for the altar. "-Church 1 imes. "A book which is as pleasant for reading as it is profitable for meditation. —Union Ke- Vl*™We are indebted to the graceful pen ofthe translator of Madame Louise de France for anther Ca'tkolic . L^ ^eautiful^ritteni, andfulloftJu spirit of love. —Tablet. " This tastefully bound volume is a record ofthe life of Pere Besson. Fronn childhood to his premature death in April 1861, at the age of forty-five, he was pre-eminently suited to a life of self-denial, and so full of love and charity, that his saintly character calls forth the warnnest admiration, and we feel sure the perusal of it will give pleasure to our readers." — Church Herald. " Whatever a reader may think of Pere Besson' s profession as a monk, no one will doubt his goodness ; no one can fail to profit who will patiently read his life, as he7-e written by a friend, whose sole defect is in bei7ig slightly unctuous."— Athenaeum. " The life of the Rev. Pere Besson, who gave up an artist's career, to which he was devotedly attached, and a mother whose affec tion for him is not inaptly likened to that of Monica for St. Augustine, must be read in its entirety to be rightly appreciated. And the whole tenour of the book is too devotional, too full of expressions of the most touching de pendence on God, to nnake criticisnn possible, eve7i if it was called for, which it is not." — John Bull. " The story of Pere Besson' s life is one of much i7iterest, and told with si7nplicity, ca7i- dour, and good feeling."— Spectator. "A beautiful book, describing the most saintly and very individual life of one of the connpanions of Lacordaire." — Monthly Packet. " We strongly recommend it toour readers. It is a charming biography, that will delight and edify both old and young."— Westmin ster Gazette. 20 Mzbbxz, flibington's publications THE CHURCH BUILDER. A Quarterly Journal of Church Extension in England and Wales. Published in connection with The Incorporated Church Building Society. With Illustrations. Volumes for 1870 and 1871. Crown Svo. is. 6d. each. STONES OF THE TEMPLE ; OR, LESSONS FROM THE FABRIC AND FURNITURE OF THE CHURCH. By Walter Field, M.A., F.S.A., Vicar of Godmersham. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. "Any one -who -wishes for simple information on the subjects of Church-arckitecture and furniture, cannot do better than consult 1 Stones of the Temple. ' Mr. Field modestly disclaims any intention of supplanting the existing regular treatises, but his book shows an amount of research, and a knowledge of what he is talking about, •which make it prac tically useful as well as pleasant. The •wood cuts are numerous and some of them very pretty." — Graphic " A very charming book, by the Rev. Walter Field, -who was for years Secretary of one of the leading Church Societies. Mr. Field has a loving reverence for the beauty of tke domus mansionalis Dei, as the old law books called the Parish Church. . . . Thoroughly sound in Church feeling, Mr. Field has chosen the medium of a tale to embody real incidents illustrative of the various portions of his subject. There is no attempt at elabora tion ofthe narrative, which, indeed, is rather a string of anecdotes than a story, but each chapter brings home to the mind its own lesson, and each is illustrated with so7ne very interesting engravings. . . . The work •will properly command a hearty reception from Churchmen. Tke footnotes are occasion ally most valuable, and are always pertinent, and the text is sure to be popular with young folks for Sunday reading." — Standard. "Mr. Field's chapters on brasses, chancel screens, crosses, encaustic tiles, mural 'paint ings, porches a7id pavements, are agreeably •written, and people with a turn for Ritualism -will no doubt find them edifying. The volume, as -we have said, is not -without significance for readers -who are unable to sympathize with the object of the writer. The illustrations of Church-architecture and Church ornaments are very attractive." — Pall Mall Gazette. THE HAPPINESS OP THE BLESSED CONSIDERED as to the Particulars of their State : their Recognition of each other in that State : and its Differences of Degrees. To which are added Musings on the Church and her Services. By Richard Mant, D.D., sometime Lord Bishop of Down and Connor. New Edition. Small 8vo. 3-s\ 6d. "A -welcome republication of a treatise once highly valued, and 'which can never lose its value. Many of our readers already know the fulness and discrimination -with -which the author treats his subject, -which must be one of the most delightful topics of meditation to all whose heart is where the 07ily true trea sure is, and particularly to those -who are entering 11P071 the evening of life." —Church Review. " The value of this book needs not to be re ferred to, its standard character having been for many years past established. The edition in which it reappears has evidently been care fully prepared, and will be the means of mak ing it nnore generally known." — Bell's Mes senger. "All recognise the authority of the conn- mand to set the affections on things above, a7id such works as the 07ie now before us -will be found helpful towards this good end. We are, therefore, sincerely glad that Messrs. Rivington have brought out a new editio7i of Bishop M ant's valuable treatise." — Re cord. " This beautiful and devotional treatise, which it is in7ipossible to-read without feeling a more deepened interest in the eternal blessed ness which awaits the true servants of our God, concludes very appropriately with ' Mus ings on the Church and her Services,' wkich we cordially recommend to our readers." — Rocic. SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. By Henry Parry Liddon, D.D., D.C.L., Canon of St. Paul's, and Ireland Professor of Exegesis in the University of Oxford. Fourth Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. $s. SERMONS BEARING UPON SUBJECTS OP THE DAY. By John Henry Newman, B.D. Edited by the Rev. W. J. Copeland, Rector.of Farnham, Essex. Printed uniformly with the "Parochial and Plain Sermons." With an Index of Dates of all the Sermons. Crown 8vo. 5j. Mzbbxb. pibfttgton'js ftoblkatiotts 21 EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE UPON SPECIAL SUBJECTS. Translated and Abridged from the French of Tronson. Forming a Volume of THE ASCETfC LIBRARY ; A Series of Transla tions of Spiritual Works for Devotional Reading from Catholic Sources. Edited by the Rev. Orby Shipley, M.A. Square Crown 8vo. $s. "It isa much larger and more elaborate work than is usually devoted to this subject, and arranged on a different plan. The chief virtues and sins have each a section given to them, and tke examen is cast in the form of a meditation, with first, second, and third Points. The enquiries made of the soul are very searching, and are so fra7ned that self- knowledge, and as a consequence selfcon- de7nnatio7i, most necessarily result from the conscientious use of the book. It is especially adapted for those who find a difficulty in using the ordinary manuals, and who are yet aiming at a higher life tka7i co7mnon. For Religious Houses it will be found invaluable, more especially, perhaps, to mistresses of novices. It strikes us as a book highly sugges tive to those who conduct retreats." — Church Times. " This is volume IV. of the series known as tke 'Ascetic Library,' and of all the volumes of the series yet Published it strikes us as by far tke most ttseful. . . . Singularly practi cal and judicious , so that it is difficult to say to wkat class of persons it will be most useful — those who take it for personal use, those who adopt it as a guide in receiving confessions, or the preacher who uses it as a help in tke co7n- position of sermons addressed to tke conscience rather than to the intellect. There are some excellent pages on Devotional Reading ; while as to the subject of penitence it may give some idea of the method of the book to mention the headings of its successive sections 'Fruits of Penitence,' viz.: — Hatred of Sin, — Self-Ab horrence, — Love of the Cross, — Peace of Heart." — Literary Churchman. "It is a pleasing sign to see such books as these re-edited for the supply of so great a need. No one but a master of tke spiritual life could have compiled a set of reflections so searching and yet so exalting as the book be fore us. We kntow of nothing 7nore calculated to lay open to itself the mind of the most spiri tual, to reveal tke self-deceptions and snares lying in its way, and tke subtle forms by which perfunctoriness insinuates itself. The book •will be found beyond measure useful to all -who desire to k7iow themselves in some degree as God knows them, while to religious and lo the clergy it must be an inestimable boon." — Church Review. "Louis Tronson's self-questionings and meditations range over a -wide field— from faith and love to God, down to ihe demeanour Practised in -working and rising, conversation, and travelling. We should be far fronn as serting that his book contains nothing good ; on tke contrary, muck that is excellent in sentiment and devout in expression may be found in it."— Record. SERMONS ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS. By Daniel Moore, M.A., Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen, and Vicar of Holy Trinity, Pad- dington; Author of Hulsean Lectures on "The Age and the Gospel," "Aids to Prayer," &c. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. " The Sermons which Mr. Moore has here collected into a single volume, tkough preached to widely differing audiences, are all dis tinguished by the dominant characteristic which 77iarks all his writings— a calm sobriety of thought, feeling, and expression, well be fitting tke topics which he selects, but not likely to present any very new and striking t/wughts, or to meet the special requirements of an eager, busy, and intellectual age. Whether preached before the Queen and ihe Royal Prince, to a more select audience, or to assembled thousands under the dome of St Paul's, they speak the same quiet thoughtful message, clothed in the same chastened language, and aiming at one effect. —Stan dard. „, ., , "We do not wonder at Mr. Moores long continued popularity with so many hearers; there is so muck painstaking and so muck genuine desire to discharge his duty as a preacher visible through all the volume. What we miss is the deeper theology, and the spontaneous flow of teaching as from a spring which cannot help flowing, which some of our preachers happily exhibit. But the Sermons may be recommended, or we would not notice them." — Literary Churchman. " Rarely have -we met -with a better volume of Sermons. . . . Orthodox, affectionate, and earnest, these Sermons exhibit at the same tir7ie much research, and are distiuguisked by an elegance and finish of style often wanting in these days of rapid writing and continual Preaching." — John Bull. "Sermons like those of Mr. Moore are, however, still of C07nparative rarity — sernnons in -which we meet -with doctrine which cannot be gainsaid ; with a kndwledge of the peculiar circumstances of his hearers, -which nothing but accurate observation and long experience can secure, and a peculiar felicity of style -which many -will envy, but to -which it is the lot of few to attain."— Christian Observer. " We fave had real pleasure, however, in reading these sermons. Here are nnost of the elenne7iis of a preacher 's power and usefulness : skilful arrangennent of tke subject, admirable clearness of style, earnestness, boik of tkougkt and language, and tke prime qualification of all, 'in doctrine, uncorruptness.'" — London Quarterly Review. THE SHEPHERD OF HERMAS. Translated into English, with an Introduction and Notes. By Charles H. Hoole, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Small 8vo. 4s. 6d. 22 MtBBXB. Iflitoirtgion'js ijpublfc&ttoits CURIOUS MYTHS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. By S. Baring- Gould, M.A., Author of " Post-Mediseval Preachers," &c With Illustra tions. New Edition. Complete in One Vol. Crown 8vo. 6s. " These Essays "will be found to have some thing to satisfy most classes of readers ; tke lovers of legends proper, the curious in popular delusions, tke initiated in Darwinian and Monboddoan theories ; and if, in the chapters on Tell and Ge Her t, we are a little struck with the close following of Dasent's track, in his Preface to the Norse tales, it must be owned that there are chapters — e.g., those on the Divining Rod, the Man in the Moon, and the Seven Sleepers — which present new matter, and deserve the praise of independent research." — Quarterly Review. *' The author, indeed, is sometimes fanciful and overbold in his conclusions ; but he con ducts -us through marvellous ways — ways which he has studied -well before he undertook to guide others ; and if we do not always acquiesce in his descriptions or arguments, we seldom differ from him without hesitation." — Athenaeum. ' ' We have no space to li7iger longer about a book which, apart from its didactic pretensions, is an exceedingly a7nusing and interesting collection of old stories a7td legends of the middle ages." — Pall Mall Gazette. " That, on his first visit to the varied field of mediaeval mythology, Mr. Baring-Gould should have culled as samples of its richness the 7nost britlia7it of the flowers that bloo7ned in it, is scarcely to be -wondered at. But it shows how fertile is the soil vuken he is enabled to cull from it so goodly a second crop as that •which he here presents to us. Tke myths treated of in the present volume vary in in terest — they are all curious and well worth reading." — Notes and Queries. THE LIFE OF MADAME LOUISE DE FRANCE, daughter of Louis XV. Known also as the Mother Terese de St. Augustin. By the Author of "Tales of Kirkbeck." Crown Svo. 6s. ' Such a record of deep, earnest, self-sacri ficing piety, beneath the surface of Parisian life, during what we all n'egard as the worst age oj French godlessness, 07tgkt to teach us all a lesson of hope and faith, let appearances be •what they nnay. Plere, from out of the court and family of Louis XV. there issues this Madame Louise, whose life is set before us as a specimen of as calm a7id unworldly devotion — of a devotion, too, full of shrewd se7ise and practical administrative talent — as any we have ever met with." — Literary Church man. " On the i$th of July, 1737, Marie Leczin- ska, the -wife of Louis XV., and daughter of the dethroned King of Poland, which Prussia lielfed to despoil and plunder, gave birth to her eighth female child, Louise Marie, known also as the Mother Tirese de St. Augustin. On the death of the Queen, tke fri7icess, wko had long felt a vocation for a religio7ts life, obtai7ied the consent of her royal father to •withdraw from the world. The Carmelite convent of St. Denis was the chosen place of retreat. Here the novitiate was passed, here the final vows -were taken, a7id here, on the death of the Mere Julie, Madanne Louise be gan and terminated her experiences as prior ess. The little volume •which records the simple incidents of her pious seclusion is designed to edify those members of the Church of England in wkom tke spirit of religious self-devotion is reviving. The substance of the memoir is taken from a so77iewkat diffuse ' Life of Madanne Louise de France,' compiled by a Car77ielite 7iun, and printed at Autun." — Westminster Review. "This 'Life' relates tke history of that daughter oj Louis XV. -who, aided by the example and instructions of a pious motiier, lived an -uncorrupt life in the midst of a most corrupt court, -which she quitted — after longing and wai ting for years to do so — to enter the severe order of Mount Carmel, -which she adorned by her strict and holy life. We can not too highly praise the present work, -which ' appears to us to be "written in t/ie most excellent good taste. We hope it may fi.7id entra7ice into every religious House iu our Con>i77iunion, and it should be in tke library of every young lady." — Church Review. " The Life of Madame Louise de France, the celebrated daughter of Louis XV., 'who became a religieuse, and is known in thi spiritn-al world as Mot/ier TSrcse de St. Augustin. The substance of tke memoir is taken from a diffuse life, compiled by a Car melite nun, and printed at Autun; and the editor, the author of Tales of Kirkbeck,' -was pronnpted to the task by the belief, that ' at the present time, "when the spirit of religious self- devotion is so greatly reviving in the Church of England' the records of a princess wlio quitted a dazzling and profligate court to lead a life of obscure piety will meet with a cordial re ception. We may remark, that should thi event prove otherwise, it will not be from any fault of worknnanskip 071 the part of the editor.''— Daily Telegraph. " The annals of a cloistered life, -under ordi7iary circu77istances, would not probably be considered very edifying by the reading public of tlie present generation. Wlien, however, such a history presents the novel spectacle of a royal Princess of modern times voluntarily renounc ing her high position and tke splendours of a court existe7ice, for the purpose cf enduring the asceticism, poverty, and austerities of a severe monastic rule, the case 77iay well be different." — Morning Post. THE PRIEST TO THE ALTAR ; or, Aids to the Devout Celebration of Holy Communion ; chiefly after the Ancient Use of Sarum. Second Edi tion. Enlarged, Revised, and Re-arranged with the Secretae, Post-Com munion, &c, appended to the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels, throughout the Year. 8vo. -]s. 6d. Mzbbkb. ^ibingtrnt's JublkattonB 23 HELP AND COMFORT FOR THE SICK POOR. By the Author of "Sickness; its Trials and Blessings." New Edition. Small 8vo. is. A KEY TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF CHURCH HISTORY. (Ancient.) Edited by John Henry Blunt, M.A. (Forming the third Volume of Keys to Christian Knowledge). Small 8vo. is. 6d. " ft offers a short and condensed account of the origin, growth, and condition of the Church in all parts of the -world, from a.d. i down to the end of tke fifteenth century. Mr. Blunt's first object has been conciseness, and this has been admirably carried out, and to students of Churck history this feature -will readily recommend itself. As an elementary work ' A Key ' wilt be specially valuable, in asmuch as it points out certain definite lines of thought, by which those who enjoy the opportunity may be guided in reading the statements of more elaborate histories. At tke same time it is but fair to Mr. Blunt to remark tkat, for general readers, the little volume co't tains everything that could be con sistently expected in a volunne of its character. There are many notes, theological, scriptural, and historical, and the ' get up ' of the book is specially commendable. As a text-book for tke higlier forms of schools the -work will be acceptable to numerous teachers." — Public Opinion. "It contains some concise notes on Churck History, compressed into a small connpass, and we think it is likely to be useful as a book oj reference." — John Bull. "A very terse and reliable collection of the mainfacts and incidents connected -with Church History" — Rock. "// -will be excellent, either for school or home use, either as a reading or as a refere7ice book, on all the main facts and names and controversies of the first fifteen centuries. It is both 'well arranged and well written." — Literary Churchman. THE POPE AND THE COUNCIL. By Janus. Authorized trans lation from the German. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. " A profound and learned treatise, evidently the work of one of the first theologians of the day, discussing -with the scientific fulness and Precision proper to German investigation, the great doctrinal questions expected to come before the Council, and especially tlie proposed dogma of Papal Infallibility. There is pro bably no -work in existence that contains at all, still less -within so narrow a connpass, so complete a record of the oriein and growth of the infallibilist tlieory, and of all the facts of Church history bearing upon it, and that too in a form so clear and concise as to put the argument -within the reach of any reader of ordinary intelligence, while the scrupulous ac curacy ofthe writer, and his constan t reference to the original authorities for every statennent liable to be disputed, makes tke monograph ,as a whole a perfect storehouse of valuable infor mation for the historical or tkeological stu dent." — Saturday Review. " Beginning with a sketch of the errors and contradictions of the Popes, and of the position which, as a matter of history, they held in tlie early Churck, tke. book proceeds to describe tke three great fon-geries by which the Papal claims were upheld — the Isidorian decretals, tke donation of Constantine, and the decretum ofGratian. The last subject ought to be care fully studied by all whi wish to understand the frightful tyranny of a complicated systenn of laws, devised not for the protection of a people, but as instruments for grinding them to subjection. Then, after au historical out line of the general growth of tlie Papal power in the twelfth aud thirteenth centuries, the writers enter upon the peculiarly episcopal aud clerical question, pointing out how mar vellously every little change worked in one direction, invariably tending to throw the rule of the Church into the power of Rome; and how tke growth of new institutions, like the monastic orders aud the Inquisition gradu ally withdrew the conduct of affairs from the Bishops of tke Church in general, and consoli dated the Papal influence. F"or all this, ko-w- ever, unless we could satisfy ourselves •with a mere magnified table of contents, the reader must be referred to the book itself in which he -will find the interest sustained without flag ging to the end." —¥k\a* Mall Gazette. In France, in Holland, and in Germany, there has already appeared a multitude of dis quisitions on this subject. A mong these seve ral are tlie acknowledged compositions of men of high standing in the Roman Catholic world, — men admittedly entitled to speak zuith the authority that must attach to established re putation : but not one of them has hitherto produced a work more likely to create a deep impression than the anouynnous Gemman pub lication at the head of this notice. It is not a piece of merely polemical writing, it is a treatise dealing with a large subject in an impressive though partisan manner, a treatise grave in tone, solid in matter, and bristling with forcible and novel illustrations." — Spec tator. " Rumour will, no doubt, be busy with its conjectures as to tlie name -which lurks beneath the nom de plume of ' Janus' We do not intend to offer any contribution towards the elucidation of tlie mystery, unless it be a con tribution to say that the book bears internal evidence of being the work of a Catholic, and that there are not many Catholics in Europe •who could have written it. Taking it alt in all, it is no exaggerated praise to characterize it as the most damaging assault on Ultra- montanism that has appeared in modern times. Its learning is copious and complete, yet so adnnirably arranged that it invariably illustrates -without overlaying the argument. Tke style is clear and sinnple, aud there is no attempt at rhetoric. It is a piece of cool and masterly dissection, all tlie more terrible for tlie passionless nnanner in 'which tlie author conducts the operation." — Times. 24 Mtmxx. fUbittgton'js ^ublimtimt* FEMALE CHARACTERS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. In a Series of Sermons. By the Rev. Isaac Williams, B.D., formerly Fellow oi Trinity College, Oxford. New Edition. Crown Svo. 5-r. THE CHARACTERS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. In a Series of Sermons. By the Rev. Isaac Williams, B.D., formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. New Edition. Crown 8vo., $s. " This is one of the few volumes of published sermons that we have been able to read with rea I pleasure. They are written with a chastened elegance of language, and pervaded by a spirit of earnest arid simple piety. Mr. Williams is evidently w/iat would be called a very High' Churchman. Occasionally his peculiar Church views are apparent; but bating a few passages here and tliere, these sermons will be read with profit by all ' who profess and call themselves Christians.'" — CONTEMFORARY REVIEW. " This is a new editio7i of a very popular — and deservedly popular — work on the biography ofthe Old Testament history. Tlie characters are ably and profitably analysed, and that by tlie hand of a master of style and thought. . . . The principle of selection has been that of prominence ; aud partly, too, tliat of signi ficance iu tlie characters so ably delineated. A more masterly analysis of Scriptural characters we never read, nor any •which are more calculated to innpress the mind oj tlie reader wiik feelings of love for -what is good, and abkorre7tce for wkat is evil." — Rock. THE WITNESS OF ST. PAUL TO CHRIST : being the Boyle Lectures for 1869. With an Appendix, on the Credibility of the Acts, in Re ply to the Recent Strictures of Dr. Davidson. By the Rev. Stanley Leathes, M. A., Professor of Hebrew, King's College, London, and Incumbent of St. Philip's, Regent Street. 8vo. ior. 6d. A KEY TO THE NARRATIVE OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. By John Pilkington Norris, M. A., Canon of Bristol, formerly one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. (Forming the Fourth Volume of Keys to Christian Knowledge.) Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. with -which he treats it. " This is very much the best book of ils kind we have seen. The only fault is its shortness, which prevents its going into the details -which -would support and illustrate its statennents, and which in tlie process of illustrating tkenn would fix them upon tlie minds and mennwries of its readers. It is. however, a great inn- frovennent upon any book of its kind -we know. It bears all tke marks of being the condensed •work of a real scholar, and of a divine too. Tlie bulk oj the book is taken uf with a 'Life oj 'Christ' compiled fro77i the Four Gosfels so as to exhibit its steps and stages aud salient points. Tke rest of the book consists of inde pendent chapters on special points." — Liter ary Churchman. " 'Plus book is no ordinary compendium, no mere ' cram-book' ; still less is it an ordinary reading book for schools ; but the sclwolmaster, the Sunday-school teacher, and the seeker after a comprehensive knmvledge of Divine truth -will find it ivor thy of its name. Canon Norris writes sinnply, reverently, without great dis play of learning, giving the result of much careful study in a short compass , and adorn ing tke subject by tlie tenderness and honesty We hope that this little book will liave a very wide circulation and tliat it will be studied ; and we canpromise that those who take it up will not readily put it down again." — Record. " This is a golden Utile volume. Having often to criticise unsparingly volumes pub lished by Messrs. Rivington, and bearing the deep High Church brand, it is the greater satisfaction io be able to commend this book so emphatically. Its design is exceedingly modest. Canon Norris writes primarily to help 'younger students' in studying tlie Gospels. But this unpretending volume is one -which all students may study with advantage. It is an admirable manual for those who take Bible Classes through the Gospels. Closely sifted in style, so that all is clear and weighty ; full of unostentatious learning, a7id 'pregnant with suggestion; deeply reverent in spirit, and altogether Evangelical in spirit ; Canon Norris' book supplies a real want, and ought to be welcomed by all earnest and devout students of the Holy Gospels. "—London Quarterly Review. THE PRINCIPLES OP THE CATHEDRAL SYSTEM VINDICATED AND FORCED UPON MEMBERS OF CATHEDRAL FOUNDATIONS. Eight Sermons, preached in the Cathedral Church of the Holy and Undivided Trinity of Norwich. By Edward MeYRIck Goul- uurn, D.D., Dean of Norwich, late Prebendary of St. Paul's, and one of Her Majesty's Chaplains. Crown 8vo. 5.?. Mzbbxb. flibingtcm'0 JubHcatimt* 25 A THEORY OF HARMONY. 'Founded on the Tempered Scale. With Questions and Exercises for the Use of Students. By John Stainer, Mus. Doc, M.A. , Magd. Coll., Oxon., Organist to St. Paul's Cathedral. Royal 8vo. Js. 6d. " It is the first work oj its class that needs no apology for its introduction, as it is really muck needed especially by teachers, who would fail without the aid of its principles to account for many of the effects iu modern music, used in direct opposition to the teach ng of the schools. It is difficult, if not i7iipossible, to give a more elaborate description of a book destined to effect an entire change in musical teaching without entering into details that could not but prove uninteresting to the general readers, while to the musician a7id amateur, tlie possession of tlie book itself is recom7nended as a valuable confirmation of ideas that exist to a large extent in the minds of every one who has ever thought about music, and wko desires to see established a more uniform basis of study. The great a7id leading characteristic of tke work is its logical reasoning and definitions, a cliaracter not possessed by any previous book 071 tke S7tbject, a7idj'or this Dr. Stainer' s theory is certain to gain ground, and be the means of opening an easy and pleasant path in a road hitherto beset -with the thorns and briars of perplexing technicalities." — Morning Post. " Dr. Stainer is a learned musician, and his book supplies a manual of information as •welt as a rick repository of musical erudition in ihe form of classical quotations frojn the great 77tasters."—]oHN Bull. " Dr. Stainer, in his thoughtful book, sees clearly of amalgamating opposing systems in on-der to found a theory of harmony. He bases kis work on the tempered scale, and he devel- opes and illustrates his theory by questions and exercises for the use of students. His opening exposition ofthe rudiments af viusic is clear : •when he reaches the regio7is of harnnony he connes on debateable ground." — Athenaeum. " To the student perplexed and chained down by the multitudinous rules of the old theorists, we ca7i7tot give better comfort than to advise him to read forthwith Dr. S tamer's ingenious aud thoughtful book. It is exceed ingly well got up, aud from tke clearness of the type used, very easy and pleasant to read." — Choir. THE ANNUAL REGISTER : A Review of Public Events at Home and Abroad, for the Year 1870. 8vo. \%s. ** All the Volumes ofthe New Series from 1863 to i£ price iSs. each. < may be hadt " Well edited, excellent type, good paper, and in all respects admirably got up. Its re view of affairs, Home, Colonial, and Foreign, is fair, concise, and complete." — Mining Quarterly. "Solidly valuable, as well as interesting." — Standard."Comprehensive and well executed." — Spectator. " The -whole -work being well-written, and compiled -with care and judgment, it is i7tter- esting reading for tke present day, 'will be more useful as a -work of reference in future years, and will be most valuable of all to readers of 'another generation. Every student of history lc7iows tke worth, for the time that it covers, of the old 'Annual Register,' and this new series is better done and nnore com prehensive than its predecessor." — Examiner. " This volume of the new series of the ' Annual Register' seems well and carefully compiled. The narratire is accurate, and it is obvious that the "writers have striven to be impartial." — Athen/eum. " The whole of the compilation, however, is readable, and some of its nnore important parts are very well done. Such is, among other historical portions, the account of the situation in France before and at the beginning of the war. The narrative of the military events is clear, comprehensive, and attractive." — Nation (NevV York). FABLES RESPECTING THE POPES OP THE MIDDLE AGES. A Contribution to Ecclesiastical History. By John J. Ign. Von DoLLINGER-. Translated, with Introduction and Appendices, by Alfred Plummer M. A., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford. 8vo. 14J. "For that large class of English readers to ¦whom German is still a sealed book, Mr. Plummer's clear and readable version of a •work of considerable historical interest, and displaying all the profound and conscientious research for -which the autlior is distinguished, ¦will be a most valuable boon."— Saturday Review. ... -JT Jf r- " Those who are acquainted with the Ger man edition of this book of Dr. Bollinger s will be surprised, perhaps, to see the moderate pamphlet swollen in its English dress to the size of a comely volume. This may partly be accounted for by the long and able ' Introduc tion' from the pen of the translator , and by Notes and Appendices with which he has elucidated portions of the text. T/ie transla tion is such as may be read easily, no slight praise by the way, and the side notes indicat ing the contents of the paragraphs are highly serviceable in a work of this kind. Students of Church H istory wlio find an English book less trouble to read than a German one will thank the translator for the pains which he has taken in their behalf'- — Church Times. 26 Mzbbxb. JUtoingtotrje; fhtblimtumB THOUGHTS ON PERSONAL RELIGION ; being a Treatise on the Christian Life in its Two Chief Elements, Devotion and Practice. By Edward Meyrick Goulburn, D.D., Dean of Norwich. New Edition. Small Svo. 6s. 6d. An Edition for Presentation, Two Volumes, small 8vo. ior. 6d. Also a cheap Edition. Small 8vo. $s. 6d. DEVOTIONAL COMMENTARY ON THE GOSPEL AC CORDING TO S. MATTHEW. Translated from the French of Pasquier Quesnel. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. " We can hardly give, him {Pasquier Ques nel) higher praise than to say that lie reminds us in many ways of the author of tlie ' Imita tion.' There is the same knowledge of human nature, shrewdness of observation, intimate acquaintance -with tlie special trials, diffi culties, and temptations of the spiritual life, and that fervour and concentration which result from habitual meditation and prayer." — Clerical Journal. , " Tkis Commentary is wkat it purports to be ' devotional.' Titers is no criticism, no suggestion of difficulties, no groupings of 'various readings' Its object is to give ' the spiritual sense' of Holy Scripture, and this object is admirably carried out. We are glad to be able to give it our hearty and unqualified approval." — John Bull. ' The -want which many devout per sotis feel for a Cornt77ientary on tlie Scriptures with in dividual, practical, and dez>otional application, can hardly be better salisfiea than by that of *Quesnel.'" — Church News. " This translation is based upon that -made by the Non-juror Russell, and it has been especially adapted for the -use of mennbers oj the English Church in private devotion. It is a very acceptable manual for the religious, and its simple a7id practical character 7nay be gleaned from the following comment." — Rock. " Tke Comments are brief but pointed, and there is so much to profit the reader by show ing him what a depth of spiritual wisdom is treasured up even in tlie sinnplest utterances of oter Lord, that -we are sorry we cannot give ihe book an unqualified recommendation. Works on the Gospels, suited to the wants oj, scholars, have been tolerably numerous of late years. Such a book as this, in wliich consider able intellectual force is blended with devo- tio7tal feeling, is more rare, and would be welcome were it not that tlie good in it is ¦marred by tlie Sacra77ie7itarianism which continually obtrudes itself." — English Inde pendent. THE HILLFORD CONFIRMATION : A TALE. By M. C. Phillpotts. i8mo. is, APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION IN THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. By the Rev. Arthur W. Haddan, B.D., Rector of Barton- on-the-Heath, and late Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. 8vo. I2J. in question, in the minds of Church people. . . . We hope tliat our extracts •will lead our readers to study Mr. Haddan for themselves." — Literary Churchman. " This is not only a very able and carefully written treatise upon the doctrine of Apostoli cal Succession, but it is also a calm yet noble vindication of tlie validity of the Anglican Orders : it well sustains the brilliant reputa tion which Mr. Haddan left behind him at Oxford, and it supplements his oilier profound historical researches in ecclesiastical matters. This book will remain for a long time the classic work upon English Orders." — Church Review. ' ' A very temperate, but a very well reasoned look."— Westminster Review. " Mr. Hadda7i ably sustai7is his reputation throughout the work. His style is clear, his inferences are reasonable, and ihe publication is especially well-timed in prospect of the coming Oecumenical Council." — Cambridge University Gazette. " Mr. Haddan's estimate of the bearing of his subject, and of its special i?7iportance at the Present juncture is characteristic, and 'will well repay attention. . . . Mr, Haddan is strictly argumentative throughout. He ab stains "with so77ie strictness fronn everything •which -would divert either his reader or him self fronn accurate investigation of his reason ing. But his volume is thoroughly -well •written, clear and forcible in style, and fair in tone. It cannot but render valuable service in placing the claims of the Church in their true light before ike English public." — Guardian. "Among tke many standard theological worlds devoted to this important subject Mr. Haddan's will hold a high place" — Standard. " We should be glad to see the volume ividely circulated a7id generally read." — John Bull. "A -weighty and valuable treatise, and we hope that the study of its sound a7id -well- reasoned pages will do much to fix the impor tance, and ihe full meaning of the doctri7ie A MANUAL POR THE SICK; with other Devotions. By Lancelot Andrewes, D.D., sometime Lord Bishop of Winchester. Edited with a Preface by H. P. Liddon, D.D., D.C.L., Canon of St. Paul's. With Por trait. Second edition. Large type. 24mo. is. 6d. Mzzbxb. |XibinQt0tt,0 fublkati0n0 27 ARITHMETIC, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By W. H. Girdlestone, M.A., of Christ's College, Cambridge, and Principal of the Gloucester Theological College. Second Edition, Revised and En larged. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. Also, a. School Edition, without the Appendix. Small 8vo. %s. 6d. ( Copies may be had without the Answers to the Exei'cises. ) " We may congratulate Mr. Girdlestone on " We must content ourselves with tkis brief having produced a thorougkly pkilosopkical general notice of the 'work, wkich -we consider book on this most useful subject. It appears one of the highest order of its kind— far, very to be Especially suited for older students, wko, far superior to those of former days." — having been taught imperfectly and irration- Nautical Magazine. ally in the earlier part of their school career, "Mr. Girdlestone 's definitions are concise desire to go over the -whole ground again from but explicit, and quite plain to modest under- tke beginning; but in the hands of an intelli- standings. So successful a work has rapidly gent and discriminating teacher, it may also wonfaziour, and the first edition having been be perfectly adapted to the compreliensiou of exhausted, a second has now been issued, bear- young boys." — Times. ing further marks of the author's comprehen- " Mr. Girdleslo7te's Arithmetic is adnnir- sive ability. An Appendix contains examina- ably suited to the requirements of higher tion papers of Oxford, Cambridge, Winches- forms in schools, and for men at tke Uni- ter, Eton, &>c, and will be found most useful versities. Mr. Girdlestone shows himself to students preparing for public examinations. a tliorough teacher; processes are lucidly ex- This book should rank as a standard one of plained, and prictica I solution of problems its class." — Examiner. well given." — Guardian. PHYSICAL PACTS AND SCRIPTURAL RECORD ; OR, EIGHTEEN PROPOSITIONS FOR GEOLOGISTS. By W. B. Gal loway, M.A., Vicar of St. Mark's, Regent's Park, and Chaplain to the Right Hon. Lord Viscount Hawarden. 8vo. Ioj. 6d. THE GREEK TESTAMENT. With a Critically Revised Text; a Digest of Various Readings ; Marginal References to Verbal and Idiomatic Usage ; Prolegomena ; and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. For the use of Theological Students and Ministers. By Henry Alford, D.D., late Dean of Canterbury. New Edition. Four Volumes. 8vo. \02.s. The Volumes are sold separately as follows : — Vol. I.— The Four Gospels. 2&?. Vol. II. — Acts to II. Corinthians. 24s-. Vol. III. — Galatians to Philemon. 18s. Vol. IV. — Hebrews to Revelation. 32s. DEAN ALPORD'S GREEK TESTAMENT, with English Notes intended for the Upper Forms of Schools and for Pass-men at the Universi ties. Abridged by Bradley H. Alford, M.A,, late Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. \os. 6d. THE NEW TESTAMENT FOR ENGLISH READERS : containing the Authorized Version, with a revised English Text ; Marginal References ; and a Critical and Explanatory Commentary. By Henry Alford, D.D., Dean of Canterbury. New Edition. Two volumes, or four parts. 8vo. 54J. 6d. The Volumes are sold separately, as follows : — Vol. I, Part I. — The Three first Gospels. 12s. Vol. I, Part II. — St. John and the Acts. ios. 6d. Vol. 2, Part I.— The Epistles of St. Paul. 16s. Vol. 2, Part II. — Hebrews to Revelation. 8vo. 16s. 28 ittessts. fliturtgtmr'js f ublkatiotus ARISTOPHANIS COMOEDIAE. Edited by W. G. Green, M.A., late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Classical Lecturer at Queen's College. THE ACHARNIANS AND THE KNIGHTS. This Edition of the Achamians and the Knights is revised and especially adapted for Use in Schools. Crown 8vo. 4s. P. TERENTII AFRI COMOEDIAE. Edited by T. L. Papillon, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford, and late Fellow of Merton. ANDRIA ET EUNUCHUS. Forming a part of the "Catena Classi- corum." Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. CLASSICAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. Edited, with Notes and References, by P. J. F. Gantillon, M.A., sometime Scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge ; Classical Master in Cheltenham College. Crown 8vo. ys. 6d. Or interleaved with writing-paper for Notes, half-bound, 10s. 6d. HISTORIC ANTIQUE EPITOME : Founded on the Two First Portions of the Lateinisches Elementarbuch, by Jacobs and Doering. By the Rev. Thomas Kerchever Arnold, M.A., formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Eighth Edition. i2mo. 4s. THE ILIAD OP HOMER, from the Text of Dindorf. With Preface and Notes. By S. H. Reynolds, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Bocks I. to XII. Crown 8vo. 6s. Forming a Part of the " Catena Classicorum. " MATERIALS AND MODELS POR GREEK AND LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. Selected and arranged by J. Y. Sargent, M.A., Tutor, late Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford ; and T. F. Dallin, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford. Crown 8vo. Js. 6d. PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES IN LATIN ELEGIAC VERSE. By C. G. Gepp, B.A., late Junior Student of Christ Church, Oxford ; Assistant Master at Tonbridge School. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 3.?. 6d. Tutor's Key, $s, THE PROPERTIES OP TRIANGLES AND THEIR CIRCLES TREATED GEOMETRICALLY. By C. W. Bourne, M.A., Assistant Mathematical Master at Marlborough College. Fcap. 4to. 2s. td. A HANDY BOOK ON THE ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPI DATIONS ACT, 1871. With Remarks on the Qualification and Practice of Diocesan Surveyors. By Edward G. Bruton, Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and Diocesan Surveyor, Oxford. Crown 8vo. V- *>d. Mzbbxx. fUbingW* Publication* 29 DEMOSTHENIS ORATIONES PRIVATAE. Edited by the Rev. Arthur Holmes, M. A., Senior Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge; and Preacher at the Chapel Royal, Whitehall. De Corona. Forming a new Part of " Catena Classicorum.5' Crown Svo. $s. "Mr. Holmes has compressed into a con venient shape Ike e7iom7tous mass of annotation wklch has been accumulated by critics, En glish and foreign, on Demosthenes' famous oration, and has made no trifling contribu tions of his own. . . . In purely critical questions the notes show all the subtle scholar ship which we should expect from so re nowned a classic as Mr. Holmes" — Spec tator. " This is the latest of that excellent series 'Catena Classicorunn.' . . . Mr. Holmes has a high reputation at Cambridge, and his notes on ihe De Corona show an accurate and painstaking scholarship." — Record. " With so admirable an edition of this great and difficult speech of the greatest of ancient orators, there can be no valid reason -why any sckoolmaster should exclude the De Corona from the classical course of his pupils. Its points of lazv, its historical allusions, its illustrations of Greek scholarship, upon -which Mr. Holmes's notes give every assistance, are far too valuable to be lost sight of either by pupil or master. It is by far the most scholarly and the most useful edition -we have yet seen of Demosthenes." — Standard. RIVINGTON'S MATHEMATICAL SERIES ALGEBRA. Part I. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A., of Gonville and Caius College, and late Lecturer at St. Peter's College, Cambridge. 121110. zs. 6d. With Answers, 3^. " The design of tkis treatise is to explain all that is commonly included in a First Part of Algebra. In the arrangement of the chapters, I ha7>e followed tlie advice of experienced teachers. I have carefully abstained from making extracts fronn books in common use. The only work to •which I ann indebted for any nnaterial assisia7ice is the Algebra of the late Dean Peacock, •which I took as tke 77iodel for the commencement of my treatise. Tke ex- annip les, progressive and easy, kave been selected from university and college examination papers, and fronn Old English, French, and German works." — From the Pkeface. " It is evident that Mr. Hamblin Smith is a teacher, and has written to meet the special •wants of students. He does not carry ike student out of his depth by sudden plunges, but leads him gr adually onward, never beyond kt's depth from any desire to kurry forward. Tke examples appear to be particularly well arranged, so as to afford a means of steady progress. With suck books the judicious teacher -will have abundant supply of examples aud problems jor tliose who need to have each step ensured by familiarity, and he -will be able to allow the 7nore rapid learner to travel onward witk ease and swiftness. We can confidently recommend Mr. Hamblin Smith's books. Can didates preparing for Civil Segr ice examina tions under tke 7iew system oj pen competition ivill find these works to be of great value.'' — Civil Service Gazette. EXERCISES ON ALGEBRA. Part I. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A. i2mo. is. 6d. Copies may be had without tlie Answers. ELEMENTARY TRIGONOMETRY. M.A. l2mo. 4-r. dd. By J. Hamblin Smith, ELEMENTARY HYDROSTATICS. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A. l2mo. y. ELEMENTS OP GEOMETRY. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A. Part I., containing the First Two Books of Euclid, with Exercises and Notes, arranged with the Abbreviations admitted in the Cambridge Examinations. I2mo, 2s. ; limp cloth, is. 6d. Part II. , containing the Third and Fourth Books of Euclid, with Exercises, &c. I2mo, zs.; limp cloth, ls. 6d. Parts I. and II. bound together, 3.?. Part III., to complete the Volume, is just ready. ELEMENTARY STATICS. By J. Hamblin Smith, M.A. i2mo. 3*. 3o Mzsbxz. ^ibington's fltttrlteatimts THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OP RELIGIOUS BELIEF. By S. Baring-Gould, M.A., Author of "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages." Vol. I. MONOTHEISM and POLYTHEISM. Second Edition. 8vo. I$S. Vol. II. CHRISTIANITY. 8vo. i$s. " The ability which Mr. Baring-Gould dis plays in the treatment of a topic which branches out in so many directions, and re quires suck Precise handling, is apparent. His pages abound -with the results of large reading and calm reflection. Tke man of culture, thought, philosophic cast, is mirrored in tlie entire argument. Tlie book is sound and healthy in tone. It excites the reader's interest, and brightens tlie patk of inquiry opened to his view. The language, too, is appropriate, 7ieat, lucid, often happy, son7ie- tinnes wonderfully terse and vigorous." — Athenaeum. "Mr. Baring-Gould has under taken a great and annbitious -work. And no one can deny that he possesses some eminent qualifications for this great -work. He lias a -wealth of erudition of tlie most varied description, espe cially in those particular regions of nnedieeval legend and Teutonic mythology wkick are certain to nnake large contributions to tke Purpose he lias in ha7id. It is a contribution to religious thought of very high value'' — Guardian. ' ' Mr. Baring-Gould' s work, fronn the im portance of its subject and the lucid force of its expositions, as well as fronn the closeness of argument and copiousness of illustration -with wkick its comprehensive views are treated, is entitled to attentive study, and will repay the reader by amusement and in struction." — Morning Post. " There is very much in the book for High Churchmen to p07ider over. This remarkable book teems with striking passages and it is written in a quiet, self-possessed, loving spirit, and our hope is that if any of our readers take up the book to read, they will read it through to the end, since by so doing -will tliey alone be able to enter into the spirit of one who in these times will have much power for good or evil iu our Anglican Church." — Church Re view. " The book is a very remarkable 07ie, -which very jew of our modern divines could liave -written, and none but those who study it with care and a keen intelligence will be able to understand or appreciate. Within our present limits, we can but glance at its general characteristics, and must still leave the knotty problenns in divi7iity which it leaves unsettled to be discussed and settled by the nnore lawful judges. . . . But in spite of the magni tude of his subject, its difficulty, grandeur, and importance, -we are bound to add tliat lie has 7uanaged to deal vigorously and wisely -with many of these topics, and again and again opens to tke reader new li7ies of thought of tke deefest interest and most profound import ance. Mere desultory readers it will do little 7nore than annoy and disappoint ; but all -who are really in earnest, and love the truth -well enough to work hard for it, will here find much worthy of their most careful study." — Standard. "Mr. Bar ing- Gould's book is interesting, learned, ingenious ; bringing contributions to his thesis fronn 77iost divergent points, he fits thenn in with masterly completeness and logical consistency." — Nonconformist. SCENES PROM GREEK PLAYS. Rugby Edition. Abridged and adapted for the Use of Schools, by Arthur Sidgwick, M.A., Assistant Master at Rugby School, and formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. ARISTOPHANES. The Clouds. The Frogs. 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