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Prehistoric Archaeology
and
The Old Testament

Prehistoric Archaeology
and
The Old Testament
Being the Donnellan Lectures delivered before
the University of Dublin in 1906- 1907
Enlarged, and with Notes and Appendices
By
H. J. Dukinfield Astley, M.A., Litt.D.
F.R.Hist.S., F.R.S. L., Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute
Late Hon. Editorial Secretary of the British Archaeological
Association, Etc. Etc.
Vicar of East and West Rudham, Norfolk

Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 38 George Street
1908

Printed by
Morrison & Gibb Limited,
FOR
T. & T. CLARK, EDINBURGH.
London: simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, kent, and co. limited
new york : charles scribner's sons.

[All Rights reserved.']

TO
EDWARD DOWDEN
M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE UNIVERSITY
OF DUBLIN
I DEDICATE THESE LECTURES
IN ACKNOWLEDGIVIENT OF HIS ENCOURAGEMENT
AND SUPPORT
DISCIPULUS MAGISTRO
AMICUS AMICO
GRATIAS IMMORTALES AGIT

PREFACE

The aim of the following Lectures is to trace the
course and progress of modern scientific discovery
in regard to the earth and man, and the position of
the latter as the last and final issue of the evolution
ary process, which, under the informing presence
and power of God, immanent yet transcendent, has
brought him and all things into existence. How
ever much this presentation may differ from ideas
derived from a pre-scientific era, the endeavour is
made to show that in the results attained by a study
of the ancient Scriptures of Israel under the light of
the Higher Criticism, a method may be discovered
which shall enable science and religion to meet and
clasp hands.
In one word, the truth of the Christian religion
and of the revelation of Jesus Christ, the place of
the Church as the appointed channel whereby grace
is conveyed from God to man, and of the Sacra
ments as the vehicles and means of grace, is shown
not to be bound up with the Jewish cosmogony nor
with a literal acceptance as historical facts of the
legends in which the poets and prophets of Israel
figured to themselves the origin and first develop
ment of the story of man, and of their own history.

viii PREFACE
The development of this theme has been outlined
in the first Lecture, and need not be further insisted
upon here.
The author does not venture to lay claim to
originality except in the method of presentation,
nor to expert knowledge except in the sphere of
Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology, while a
study of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament
extending over many years gives him some claim
to speak with authority on that subject ; but if in
the course of these Lectures he has been able to
throw any fresh light on the difficult problems with
which he deals — light which shall help any who feel
perplexed by the effort to reconcile the anthropo
logical and the theological views of the origin and
constitution of man, and of the nature of sin — he
will be more than repaid.
At the same time, he desires specially to address
those teachers of religion who frighten away seekers
after truth by making it consist in adherence to
antiquated notions and outworn dogmas ; and in
this connection he cannot do better than quote the
glowing words in which Fogazzaro makes Benedetto,
in 77 Santo, address the Holy Father — alas, as
recent pronouncements have shown, in vain : " Wor
shippers of the letter, they wish to force grown men
to exist upon a diet fit for infants, which diet grown
men refuse. They do not understand that although
God is infinite and unchangeable, man's conception
of Him becomes ever greater from century to
century, and that the same may be said of all Divine
Truth. . . . Speak one word, Holy Father, before

PREFACE ix
the whole Church . . . counsel expounders and
theologians to advance prudently, for science, in
order to progress, must be prudent; but do not
allow men who are an honour to the Church, men
whose minds are full of truth, whose hearts are full
of Christ, who fight in defence of the Catholic faith,
to be condemned. Those who would condemn them
are worshippers of the past; they wish to remain
immovable in the Church, even to maintaining
senseless traditions, which expose us to the derision
of unbelievers, and this is a great sin in God's
sight." In conclusion, the author would associate himself
with words lately written by Mr. A. C. Benson, in
which his own position is more ably and eloquently
set forth than in any which he could choose for him
self; they will be found in the Cornhill Magazine,
August 1907 : —
" Far from desiring to minimise faith in God and
the Unseen, I think it is the thing of which the world
is more in need than anything else. What has
made the path of faith a steep one to tread, is partly
that it has got terribly encumbered with ecclesiastical
traditions ; it has been mended, like the Slough of
Despond, with cartloads of texts and insecure
definitions. And partly, too, the old simple un
disturbed faith in the absolute truth and authority
of the Bible has given way. It is admitted that the
Bible contains a considerable admixture of the
legendary element; and it requires a strong intel
lectual and moral grip to build one's faith upon a
collection of writings, some of which, at all events,

x PREFACE
are not now regarded as being historically and
literally true. ' If I cannot believe it all,' says the
simple bewildered soul, ' how can I be certain that
any of it is indubitably true ? ' Only the patient
and desirous spirit can decide ; but whatever else
fades, the perfect insight, the Divine message of the
Son of Man cannot fade; the dimmer that the
historical setting becomes, the brighter shine the
parables and the sayings, so far beyond the power
of His followers to have originated, so utterly
satisfying to our deepest needs. What I desire to
say with all my heart is that we pilgrims need not
be dismayed because the golden clue dips into
darkness and mist ; it emerges as bright as ever
upon the upward slope of the valley. If one dis
regards all that is uncertain, all that cannot be held
to be securely proved in the Sacred Writings, there
still remain the essential facts of the Christian
revelation, and more deep and fruitful principles
than a man can keep and make his own in the
course of a lifetime, however purely and faithfully he
lives and strives. To myself the doubtful matters
are things absolutely immaterial, like the debris
of the mine, while the precious ore gleams and
sparkles in every boulder.';

H. J. DUKINFIELD ASTLEY.

East Rudham,
Christmas 1907.

CONTENTS

LECTURE PAGE
I. Genesis and Science : Astronomy and Geo
logy ...... i
II. Genesis and Science : Biology and the
Theory of Evolution . . . .41
III. Genesis and Science : The Antiquity of Man 89
IV. The Origin and Development of Religious
Belief . . . . . -131
V. The Religion of Old Israel . . .171
VI. Anthropology and the Christian Revelation 213
Appendices— I. The Higher Criticism and Christian
Teaching ..... 273
II. The Higher Criticism and the Miracu
lous . . . . 288
III. Frames of Mind . . . 294
IV. Reasons for signing the "Declaration
on Biblical Criticism" . . . 298
Bibliography ...... 303
Index . . . . . . • 3°9

LECTURE THE FIRST
GENESIS AND SCIENCE: ASTRONOMY
AND GEOLOGY

" ' In a beginning God
Made heaven and earth.' Forth flashed
Knowledge : from star to clod
Man knew things : doubt abashed
Closed its long period. . In flowed
Ever resistless fact :
No more than the passive clay
Disputes the potter's act,
Could the whelmed mind disobey
Knowledge the cataract.
Then life is — to wake not sleep,
Rise and not rest, but.rpress
From earth's level where blindly creep
Things perfected, more or less,
To the heaven's height, far and steep,
Where, amid what strifes and storms
May wait the adventurous quest,
Power is Love — transports, transforms
Who aspired from worst to best,
Sought the soul's world, spurned the worms'.
I have faith such end shall be :
From the first, Power was — I knew.
Life has made clear to me
That, strive but for closer view,
Love were as plain to see.
When see ? When there dawns a day,
If not on the homely earth,
Then yonder, worlds away,
Where the strange and new have birth,
And Power comes full in play."
Browning, Asolando, Reverie.
'¦ The old order changeth, yielding place to new,
And God fulfils Himself in many ways."
Tennyson.

LECTURE THE FIRST
IN the 1 02nd Psalm the Hebrew poet contrasts
the majesty, the eternity, and the unchangeable-
ness of God with the fleeting and changing
character of the world that He has made ; in the
104th Psalm another poet pours forth his soul in
a glorious Hymn of Creation. This latter is a
poetic version of the first and second chapters of
Genesis, and was written when these records of
the origins of the Heavens and the Earth which
are placed in the forefront of Hebrew literature
had already taken the form in which they have
come down to us. Into the question as to when
that period was, our investigation will be directed
in the course of this inquiry ; for the present it
is enough to point out the dominant idea in the
mind of the later Hebrew poets and writers.
This was, as is evident to the most superficial
reader, the conviction, firm, settled, and unshake-
able, that behind all the transitory phenomena of
the Universe there was to be discerned the creative
energy and the guiding and directing will and
purpose of the Divine Being. With this thought

4 PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
the soul of the Hebrew poet and prophet was
penetrated through and through, and it finds
utterance again and again in glowing and im
passioned language. Listen to the 2nd Isaiah as
he describes the God of Israel addressing His
people : " Lift up your eyes on high, and behold
who hath created these things, that bringeth
out their host by number : He calleth them all
by names by the greatness of His might, for
that He is strong in power; not one faileth."
" Hast thou not known ? hast thou not heard, that
the everlasting God, Yahweh, the Creator of the
ends of the earth, fainteth not, neither is weary?
there is no searching of His understanding " (Isa.
xl. 12-29).
Whence did the great orators and writers of
Israel derive this grand thought ? From what
sources did it spring ? Was it original or was it
derived, and if derived, whence came it, and how
had the Hebrew writers arrived at it? We
shall endeavour to answer this question later on ;
here at least we may say that in their expression
of it we have an all-sufficient proof of their
inspiration, the evidence that they spoke by the
impulse of a divine revelation in their souls.
This is the great message of Israel, at the latest
stage of her development, to the world : God the
Creator, the Sustainer, of the Universe, distinct
from it in His eternal Personality, yet its abiding

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 5
Light and Life ; and nothing that modern science
or modern criticism can say can impair the value
of this great inheritance. The idea as enunciated
by the later Hebrew writers was the outcome of
a long process of evolution — of training, as we
believe, by God Himself, and in the fulness of time
the stage attained by Israel's greatest thinkers was
surpassed in the Christian revelation, which finally
took shape in the dogma of the Trinity, the triune
God — One God in three Persons, Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost — implied in the teaching of Jesus Christ,
implied in the Christology of St. Paul and St. John,
and finally formulated, after a long road had been
traversed, as has been shown by Harnack in his
History of Dogma, in the theology of Nicasa and
the later Church. The Hebrew looked out upon the
heavens above and the earth beneath, and he
beheld the great dichotomy, God and the Uni
verse : the Christian surveys the same scene, and he
beholds what may be described as the true Monism,
to use a word to be explained later, i.e. all things
united in the person of the Eternal Christ, the Son,
the Word, of the Father, who appeared in time as
Man, and who is yet He by whom all things were
made, and in whom all things, through all changes,
find their fixed point and stability.
In the language of St. Paul, He " is the image
of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation :
for by Him were all things created that are in

6 PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
heaven and that are in earth, visible and invisible ;
... all things were created by Him and for Him,
and He is before all things, and in Him all things
consist " ; and in the language of the Fourth Gospel,
" In the beginning was the Word, and the Word
was with God, and the Word was God. All things
were made by Him."
The expression and phraseology of the thought
may be Alexandrian, but it is only the putting into
concrete form of the Hebrew poet's declaration, " By
the word of the Lord were the heavens made, and
all the host of them by the breath of His mouth."
Whether Christian theology was justified in
associating the person of the historic Jesus of
Nazareth with these high statements, and making
Him, as the glorified Christ of St. Paul, the
equivalent of the Logos, the Word, of God, is not
the question before us now, nor has science any
thing to say on the subject either for it or against
it. As an example of the trend of modern thought
I will quote here the words of a writer in the
Hibbert Journal (July 1906), who, although some of
the conclusions drawn in the course of his paper
are considerably more advanced than those I would
myself draw, must yet be reckoned with. His
article is entitled " Why not face the Facts ? " and
in it the writer says : " It is hopeless to attempt
to understand the New Testament, or the
history of Christianity, or the needs of our time, so

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 7
long as we continue to confound Jesus with the
Christ : — the first, an historic figure of the first
century ; the second, a reflection of the historic
figure, in which there is always of necessity a
subjective element. The Christ is the increment
of Jesus, the person expanding into an ideal. The
Christ of medievalism drew its elements from
medieval life. The Christ of the Nicene period
was a Logos-Christ. The Christ of Matthew
Arnold is a modern apostle of sweetness and light.
Men cannot get away from themselves, do what
they will, and their Christ is the expression of their
own ideal ; the work which they conceive Him as
doing is the work which they think necessary to
be done." And again : " It must be constantly
borne in mind that whenever men begin to set
forth their Christ, it is an ideal either of themselves
or of someone they deeply revere and love. It
cannot be otherwise. 'An ideal necessarily mingles
with all conceptions of Christ,' said Jowett ; ' why
should we object to a Christ who is necessarily
ideal ? Do persons really suppose that they know
Christ as they know a living friend? Is not
Christ in the Sacrament, Christ at the right hand
of God, Christ in you the hope of glory, an ideal ?
Have not the disciples of Christ, from the age of
Paul onwards, been always idealising this memory?'
How true these words are, and how simple ; yet
how much dogmatism would disappear were they

8 PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
frankly accepted. The worst of all dogmatisms,
and the most inveterate, is that which claims that its
own ideal of Christ is the (only) right one. How
fortunate that dogmatism about the actual Jesus
is not possible ! He is only partially known to
us ; ' enough to assist us, but not enough to constrain
us,' as Jowett goes on to say. ... It is just because
the details of the life of Jesus are so meagre that
the ideal of the Christ has grown around it — giving
it in the first place a location and a name, and, in
the second place, finding for it new organs of ex
pression in every age, developing new powers, and
assimilating new elements of human life as that life
grows richer and deeper."
This is all very true, but what this writer
appears to forget is the fact that this very idealising
of " the Christ " is only possible in the subjective
consciousness of the Church and of Christians
throughout the ages, on account of the unique im
pression which Jesus of Nazareth made upon His
contemporaries, leading some to follow Him with
adoring love and worship through persecutions to
a martyr's death, while others hated Him with a
deadly hatred springing from a feeling of the con
demnation of their lives and doings involved in
His life and teachings; and through the records
handed down by His followers and their successors,
and the ever-abiding witness of the Church, that
impression has been transmitted to our day.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 9
It is because Jesus of Nazareth was unique,
because He was, and is, as we reverently believe,
the only-begotten Son of God, that the idealising
of His figure into the glorified Christ of St. Paul,
and the identifying of Him with the Logos of St.
John, under the guiding inspiration of the Holy
Ghost, the third Person in the ever-blessed Trinity,
and all that He has been to the Church and to
individual believers from the first days until now,
becomes possible. (Cf. Pfleiderer, Primitive Chris
tianity, pp. 378—382 et sqqi)
The same process which we see at work in the
development of the figure of the ideal Christ out of
the historic figure of Jesus of Nazareth was at work
through all the ages in the development of the
idea of God from the first glimmering consciousness
of mankind, which we of to-day can study in the
savage peoples who survive, up to its great expression
in the later prophets of Israel, and its admission by
the greatest thinkers and philosophers and scientists
of the present time. In each case it is the objective
reality behind that makes the subjective ideal
possible ; i.e., it is God Himself who has been teach
ing mankind, in all races a little, in one race,
and through that race, the world, more fully to
know Him, and in this consists His revelation to
mankind. Thus the idea of God in the mind of man
grew and advanced, by a process of orderly evolu-

10 PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
tion, such as marks everything else in His universe ;
and we can trace this evolution through the pro
gressive stages of revelation until we arrive at the
Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which itself is,
after all, only an inadequate presentation of the
Real. It is in the tracing out of the growth of
this idea that the critical study of the Old Testament
provides an indispensable aid in the arranging of
the documents in their correct order and sequence,
one of the criteria of which is provided by paying
attention to this very circumstance.
As we study the progress of the idea of God in
the Old Testament, we shall find that in its beginnings
it followed the precise lines characteristic of all
primitive peoples. The Yahweh of Gen. iii. is hardly
to be distinguished from Baiame or Daramulun of
the Australians, or Unkulunkulu of the Zulus.
The Yahweh of early Israel is the national god, just
as Chemosh is the national god of Moab, and he
is often cruel, vindictive, and jealous ; when Israel
takes full possession of Canaan, her national god
becomes lord of the land, the Baal par excellence,
having ousted all the Canaanite Baals, and is
worshipped largely with their rites and at their
shrines. With the Deuteronomists and the earlier
prophets, Yahweh is on the way to becoming the
One God of the whole earth ; and the holiness of
God, which in its origin was connected with ideas
of separation and taboo, has taken on an ethical

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 11
significance, while Israel is a holy, i.e. separated,
people, dedicated to the sole worship of Yahweh,
and called to be holy because He is holy.
From this stage it is an easy advance to the
full monotheistic faith of the later prophets and
psalmists, as referred to above, and the way is
prepared for the fuller revelation still of God in
Christ, which could only find its complete expression
in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, as de
veloped in the New Testament.
To this the Jewish people were providentially
guided by the will and purpose of God Himself,
while other races and nations remained at varying
stages of inadequate expression of the idea, whether
in the stages of animism, fetishism, or polytheism,
through all of which Israel or her ancestors passed,
as we shall see later on, but which she left behind ;
and in this consists her revelation and the inspiration
of her literature.
Thus, in these Lectures, we take it for a revealed
truth that God exists, that the Universe is not self-
existent, but proceeds from the hand of God, and
that God both transcends, as against the Pantheist,
and is immanent in, as against the Deist, the
Universe He has called into being.
In other words, we approach the subject of these
Lectures as firm believers in the Christian creed,
while admitting that there are many points in
which the hitherto prevalent understanding of that

12 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
creed needs modification, in deference to the new
knowledge of our age. In this we are only following
the line which God Himself marked out from the
beginning in the progressive stages of His revelation
of Himself to man, dealing with him as a child
before He could deal with him as an adult —
" precept upon precept, precept upon precept ; line
upon line, line upon line ; here a little and there
a little" (Isa. xxviii. 13).
With these preliminary observations, we pro
ceed to the more immediate subject of these
Lectures. This may be briefly stated as an
investigation, on the basis of the Jewish and
Christian revelation, as set forth above, of the
question as to how far we are enabled by the
science of modern historical criticism to adjust our
conceptions of the origin of man and of the re
ligious principles of mankind to the facts which
have been brought to light by the newly developed
sciences of prehistoric Archaeology and Anthro
pology ; i.e., the study of primitive man in antiquity,
and as manifested in the savage races of the pre
sent day, even as we have been compelled by the
sciences of Astronomy, Geology, and Biology to
modify our ideas as to the origin of the Universe,
of the earth, and of life upon the earth. Many
and various are the attempts that have been made
to seek this adjustment while still holding to the
pre-critical view of the Old Testament, but it is my

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 13
firm conviction that in the one case as in the other
the only true solution is to be found in accepting
the light which is thrown upon the ancient literature
contained in the Old Testament Scriptures by a
scientific study of the books of which they are
composed, and by allowing these books to take
their place as one among the great literatures of
the world, and to tell their own story of their origin
and development.
The remainder of this Lecture will be devoted to
a study of the modifications necessitated in the old
theology by the teachings of Astronomy and of
Geology, and the efforts made to adjust the teach
ings of these sciences to a literal interpretation of
the first two chapters of Genesis. The second
Lecture will treat of the rise of the science of
Biology with its concomitant results in the doctrine
of Evolution through Natural Selection conditioned
by heredity and environment. The third Lecture
brings us to the science of prehistoric Archseology
and the antiquity of man, together with a view of
his advance from the earliest Stone Age down to
the historic period. The fourth Lecture will deal
with the science of Anthropology and the Origin of
Religion, giving a survey of the progress of the race
from the lowest savagery through barbarism to
civilisation from the scientific point of view, and
illustrating the condition of primeval man by the
ideas and customs of present-day savages. The

14 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
fifth Lecture will deal with the results of the modern
historical criticism of the Old Testament and with
the religion of Israel down to and including the
eighth century B.C. ; and the last Lecture will carry
on the story through the Deuteronomists and the
Priestly Code, the times of Josiah and the Exile,
on to the establishment of Judaism, demonstrating
the progressive character of the Old Testament
revelation till it culminated in the manifestation
of the Christ. Thus it will be shown that a right
understanding of the Old and New Testament
Scriptures in the light of the truths as to their
origin which they themselves furnish when sub
jected to a patient and reverent investigation pro
vides a method whereby the underlying harmony
between science and revelation, both of them in
their essence divine, may be brought out, with
special reference to the doctrines of the Fall and of
original and actual sin in the light of the anthro
pological view of man's origin and constitution.
All truth is one even as God is one, and the varying
and seemingly at times discordant notes which reach
the inquirer's ear are but the chords which combine
to make up the majestic and eternal music of the
spheres ; and as we follow the strains of this
celestial orchestra, we find ourselves insensibly but
inevitably pursuing the path trodden by Hebrew
poets and prophets of old, and we are drawn ever
onward and upward till we reach the summit of

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 15
those " great altar-stairs which slope through dark
ness up to God."
The subject to which we propose to address
ourselves in this course of Lectures is thus, as will
be seen, very wide — too wide, it may be said, to be
attempted by one individual in one short series of
discourses ; and where so many wise and great men
have seen nothing but divergences and differences
and separation, is it to be supposed that we may be
fortunate enough to discover the really underlying
harmony? It may be we are too bold, but the
attempt is worth making from the point of view
both of science and of religion, and to fail even in
a great cause is better than to succeed in a poor one !
"That low man seeks a little thing to do,
Sees it and does it :
This high man, with a great thing to pursue,
Dies ere he knows it.
That has the world here — should he need the next,
Let the world mind him !
This throws himself on God, and unperplexed
Seeking shall find Him."
Browning, A Grammarian's Funeral.
I do not deprecate any criticism, provided
it is honest and impartial ; I only ask that those
who cling to antiquated methods of interpreting
the Scriptures will at least admit the difficulty of
harmonising these with the plain facts which
modern investigation of the Universe, of Nature,
and of Man have brought to light, and ask them-

16 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
selves what is to be their position in view of these
facts. Surely this is a wiser and better method
than to attempt to shut one's eyes to the facts
altogether, and continue in happy ignorance, as so
many do ; or, like the ostrich, to bury one's
head in the sands of prejudice, while all the time
the field is left open to those who say, " These
are the facts ; your interpretation of the Bible is
entirely opposed to them ; so much the worse for
the Bible."
The field is wide, and we can attempt no more
than a broad, but, it is to be hoped, not the less
useful, survey. As regards the greater part of the
ground to be covered, I cannot pretend to give
more than the results of other men's labours ; but
in that portion comprised under the terms of
Anthropology and prehistoric Archaeology I can
give the results of my own research, and with these
I can combine the results of studies extending
now over many years in the literature of Old
Testament criticism. I have found the latter
throw a flood of light over what was dark and
inexplicable in the former when seen from the
viewpoint of the old theology, and it is my earnest
desire and prayer that what may be said in the
course of these Lectures may be the means of
affording help to some who ' have perhaps been
troubled by the same difficulties which formerly
perplexed myself.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 17
To anyone who casts his eyes back over the
last sixty years it is evident that in the opening
period of Queen Victoria's reign all things were
still to a considerable extent as they had been
from the beginning in the theological world. It
was to all intents and purposes, from a modern
point of view, a pre-scientific era ; but the mutter-
ings of the coming storm were commencing to
make themselves heard. Herbert Spencer was
planning the principles of his Synthetic Philosophy,
and Charles Darwin was thinking out the doctrine
of Evolution by Natural Selection, but the dove
cotes were still at rest, for the sciences of Anthro
pology and prehistoric Archaeology were unborn.
It is true that a really literal interpretation of
the first two chapters of Genesis was even then
no longer possible, for since the day when modern
Astronomy was born, with the discoveries of Galileo
and the succeeding work of Copernicus, Kepler,
and Sir Isaac Newton, down to Laplace and
Herschel, the ancient view of the Universe was
no longer tenable.
For what was this view, which a truly literal
interpretation, not only of these two chapters,
but of the whole Jewish literature, necessitates —
a view held by St. Paul, and prevalent in some
form even after the promulgation of the Ptolemaic
cosmogonies down to the close of the medieval
period ?

18 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
It was that the earth was at the centre of a
vast revolving sphere, itself settled on firm founda
tions, " which never could be moved at any time "
(what these were laid upon did not appear, for
the Hebrews never formulated their ideas to the
extent that the Hindus did, when they placed
the earth upon an elephant, the elephant on a
tortoise, and so on) ; over the earth was spread
a solid firmament, on the other side of which
were stored up the waters which are above the
firmament, and in which sun, moon, and stars have
been set as light-bearers to the earth, while when
the rain falls it is because the windows, or trap
doors, in the firmament have been opened.
In early Hebrew thought, Yahweh, the tribal
god, was represented sometimes as having his
abode in Sinai ; sometimes, in accordance with
Assyrian and Babylonian ideas, in the mountains
of the North ; and later, when Yahweh had become
the God of the whole earth, He was represented
as having His earthly abode in Mount Zion, while
His real dwelling-place was above the firmament,
in what afterwards became Heaven.
Under the earth lay the dark and dismal realms
of She61, the dwelling of the cold shades of the
departed, whither men go when they die, to
which they are sometimes dismissed by the earth
opening her mouth and swallowing them up alive,
and whence the spirits of the departed can be

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 19
summoned by necromancy and witchcraft to impart
tidings for good or ill to men whose souls are
perplexed with the shadow of impending disaster.
There also, or down in still deeper depths,
dwell Satan and his host of fallen angels — but this
is a somewhat late development from Babylonian
mythology. Passing over later Jewish developments, let us
see with what eyes St. Paul, a representative
Pharisee, looked out upon the Universe after he
had become a Christian apostle. " To him, as to
his people," says Professor Weinel, in his study
of St. Paul: the Man and his Work, "the world
appears as a three-storeyed building: the lowest
storey is the realm of the dead ; above this the
terrestrial world ; and over it, heaven with its
inhabitants. Heaven is a space, an arched dome,
from the midst of which Christ appears, within
which God dwells, surrounded by angels and
spirits. There are several heavenly domes one
above another, ' with many mansions,' in which
even the glorified bodies of the redeemed are
already at rest. Paul himself has once been in
the third heaven and in Paradise, which latter,
according to the passage in question and accord
ing to other contemporary indications, must have
been conceived as situated in one of the various
heavens. This earth is a small place. Between
the pillars of Hercules and the Indies are con-

20 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
tained all that on earth shall bow the knee before
the Lord." 1
From this point of view it is easy to under
stand the early Christian notion of the physical
ascent of the risen and glorified Saviour into
" the heavens," and how it was that St. Stephen
saw Him standing on the right hand of God,
when " the heavens were opened," and how he
appeared in the flash of blinding light to Saul
the Persecutor on the road to Damascus.
Now all these ideas and the fixed cosmogony
which they represent are of the greatest interest
when viewed in the light of their origin and of
a comparative study of the primitive conceptions
of the human race, but as a revelation of literal
facts they received their deathblow from the
moment that Galileo discovered that the earth
is merely one of the planetary spheres in the
solar system, and faced his persecutors with the
epoch-marking declaration : " E pur si muove."
What is true of Astronomy is true also of
Geology, which, in the early- Victorian period,
had already won its way to recognition.
Even as late as the seventeenth century Bishop
Pearson could say, in his Exposition of the Creed,
" Heaven and earth were most certainly created
within not more than six, or, at the farthest,
seven thousand years " from the age in which he
1 Weinel's St. Paul: the Man and his Work, pp. 24, 25.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 21
was writing. Voltaire, in the eighteenth century,
could regard the sea-shells which were found high up
on Alpine ridges as relics of the Noachian Deluge ;
but by 1840 it was seen that just as Astronomy
previously, so Geology also necessitated a modifica
tion, an adjustment, in the literal interpretation of
what had been hitherto looked upon as a primeval
revelation to mankind.
Astronomy had shown that so far from it being
possible that sun, moon, and stars (the latter in
their innumerable array being all included together
in one insignificant phrase) should have been the
work of a fourth day of Creation, the solar system
itself is but an infinitesimal unit in the vast con
glomerate of the Universe, and that unnumbered
ages have been required since the period when
it was a nebulous mass until it arrived at its
present condition. As Dr. Driver points out
in his Commentary on the Book of Genesis,
" Astronomers, by the study and comparison of
the heavenly bodies, have risen to the conception
of a theory explaining by the aid of known
mechanical and physical principles, the formation
of the earth itself. The solar system — i.e., the sun,
earth, and other planets with their satellites —
existed once as a diffused gaseous mass, or
nebula, of immense dimensions, which gradually
condensed and became a rotating sphere; and
from this in rotation the different planets were

22 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
flung off, while the remainder was more and more
concentrated, till it became what we call the sun.
One of these planets, the earth, in process of
time, by reduction of temperature and other
changes, developed the conditions adequate for
the support of life. The time occupied by all
these processes cannot of course be estimated with
any precision, but it will in any case have
embraced millions of years : a recent work on
astronomy places the time at which the moon
was thus flung off" from the then liquid earth"
(and, say some, from that portion which is now
the Pacific Ocean) "at about 57,000,000 years
ago." 1
Nor is this all. What Astronomy has done for
the Universe at large and for the solar system in
particular, Geology has done for the earth on which
we live. To quote Professor Driver again :
" Geology has disclosed by testimony which cannot
be gainsaid, the immense antiquity of the earth.
The earth, as we now know, reached its present
state, and acquired its rich and wonderful adorn
ment of vegetable and animal life, by a gradual
process, extending over countless centuries, and
embracing unnumbered generations of living forms.
Those white cliffs which rise out of the sea on
our northern coasts, when examined by the
microscope, are seen to consist mostly of the
1 Driver's Genesis, p. 20.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 23
minute shells of marine organisms, deposited at
the rate of a few inches a century at the bottom
of the ocean, and afterwards, by some great
upheaval of the earth's crust, lifted high above
the waves. Our coal measures are the remains
of mighty forests, which have slowly come and
gone upon certain parts of the earth's surface, and
have stored up the energy, poured forth during
long ages from the sun, for our consumption and
enjoyment. These and other formations contain,
moreover, numerous fossil remains ; and so
geologists have been able to determine the order
in which, during the slowly passing ages of their
growth, higher and higher types of vegetable and
animal life were ever appearing upon the globe." :
All this was already beginning to be apparent
in the early- Victorian period, and all manner of
efforts were being made to adjust the ascertained
facts of science to a supposed literal revelation to
Moses of the facts of Creation. These efforts have
not altogether ceased in some quarters even now,
though their futility in the light of the teaching
of Evolution and Biology and Anthropology
becomes, as will be seen later, ever more and
more pronounced.
On the one hand it was advanced that the
" days " of Gen. i. represented long periods, on
the analogy of Ps. xc. 4, 2 Pet. iii. 8, "One
1 Driver's Genesis, p. 20.

24 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
day is with the Lord as a thousand years," and
various attempts were made to adjust the work
of Creation as described in Genesis with the
order of succession of the geologic periods, while
the creation of light on the first day was supposed
to represent a sort of zodiacal light which diffused
itself throughout the Universe, and the creation
of the sun, moon, and stars on the fourth day was
supposed to represent the concentration of light
in the various heavenly bodies, with a special
view to their usefulness to the earth — " the greater
light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule
the night. He made the stars also." This theory
is particularly connected with the names of
Buckland in his Bridgewater Treatise, and later
with Sir J. W. Dawson.
Another method by which it was attempted to
maintain the literal accuracy of the so-called
Mosaic cosmogony was by the ingenious device
of imagining a hiatus of unlimited extent and
duration between the first and second verses of
Gen. i. The first verse, so it was said, describes
in general terms the creation of all things — the
heavens and the earth — by God; with the second
verse begins an account of the preparation of the
earth, which had fallen into a condition of chaos,
apparently at the close of the geologic periods,
for the abode of man, and this took place in a
space of six days about six or seven thousand

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 25
years ago. " But neither so did their witness
agree together," for this explanation had the mis
fortune to agree neither with science nor the
Biblical narrative, for it could not be brought into
harmony with the latter without a violent wresting
of its plain and literal meaning, and science knew
nothing of any hiatus in the geologic periods, nor
of any lapse of the earth into chaos, from which
state it needed to be freshly and specially prepared
for man ; moreover, the discoveries of M. Boucher
de Perthes and others, on which we shall presently
enlarge, were beginning more and more to throw
back the beginnings of the human race into the
far distant past. This theory was advocated by
Kurtz and Dr. Chalmers.
Yet a third method of solving the difficulty was
found in the so-called " vision " theory, by which
it was supposed that the course and method of
Creation was revealed to Moses in a sort of moving
panorama, either when he was on Mount Sinai, or
when he was in the cleft of the rock and the glory
of the Lord passed by him, and that he afterwards
wrote down the vision as he had seen it. This
theory, which was ably set out by Hugh Miller
in The Testimony of the Rocks, need not detain us
long, for it is only possible on the supposition
that Moses was the author of this account of
Creation, and with the dissipation of that supposi
tion it at once falls to the ground. It is only

26 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
interesting as showing the expedients to which
men will resort whose preconceived prejudices (and
want of knowledge) prevent them from being
capable of allowing the documents to tell the true
story of their origin and significance.
The whole raison detre of these and other such
attempts to preserve the literal accuracy of the
Mosaic account or to harmonise it with the
teachings of Astronomy and Geology in such a
manner as to seem to preserve its character as
a revelation by sacrificing something of the literal
meaning which the words bore on the face of
them, was undertaken in the interests of theology.
It was felt that, at all hazards, the doctrines which
Christianity from the beginning had taught with
respect to God and Man, Angels and Devils,
Heaven and Hell, the Fall and Redemption, must
be true and must be upheld. The solar system
might indeed be but a speck in the mighty
Universe of worlds, the earth might be a globe
revolving with her sister planets round the sun,
unnumbered ages might have passed since first
the molten mass cooled down and the crust of
the earth began to be formed, countless centuries
might have elapsed since life first showed itself,
the succession of the stratified rocks, and the
order in which living plants and animated
creatures appeared might even be correctly
described by Geology, but man at least stood

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 27
alone. Man at least was a special creation. Man
" was made in the image of God " by a special
act of creative power, and the first man was so
glorious in his perfections, that, in the language
of Bishop South, " Plato and Aristotle are but the
rubbish of an Adam, and Athens but the rudiments
of Paradise." It is not to be wondered at that a firm and
determined stand was made here, for the whole
system of theology hung together, and it was felt
that to make a breach in the system at this point
was to threaten the whole scheme of revealed
religion with destruction.
Thus, long after theologians had been driven
from their outworks, and even down to the present
day, as witness Professor Orr's recent book, God's
Image in Man and its Defacement in the Light of
Modern Denials, they took their stand here.
Adam was our first forefather, brought into
existence innocent if not perfect. The story of
Paradise, of Adam and Eve, of the Trees of Life,
and of Knowledge of Good and Evil, the Serpent-
Tempter, the primal curse and the promised
deliverance, the accounts of the antediluvians and
of the Noachian Deluge, are all literal history enacted
within the space of six thousand years ; original
sin is the inheritance bequeathed by Adam to the
race descended from him, and through original sin
man is very far gone from original righteousness.

28 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
If all this be not literally true, then the scheme of
redemption and the Person of the Redeemer lose
their intention and their significance.
Thus it was argued, and timid souls, whose eyes
were beginning to be opened, were frightened ;
shrinking on the verge of unknown dangers, and
feeling that the faith on which their hopes depended
for time and for eternity was slipping from under
their feet, they made their trembling appeal to
Heaven, " If the foundations be destroyed, what
shall the righteous do ? "
And they did right to shrink and hesitate if
Christianity is bound up with the literal truth of
these stories ; the scheme which had been developed
by theologians out of the premiss that they are
literally true was a compact, a logical, and a
systematic whole, and it seemed that no stone
could be removed without bringing the whole
structure to the ground.
But to place the defence of Christianity on the
hypothesis of the literal truth of these stories is
to place it on a wrong basis altogether. For, as
we shall see, they are not, and were not intended
to be taken as, literally true.
They are part and parcel, and a precious part
and parcel, of the Hebrew literature, taking their
place with the cosmogonies and folklore of kindred
peoples, aye, and of races widely scattered over the
surface of the globe, part of the poetry of the

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 29
Hebrew race, even as are also the stories of the
patriarchs and of the wilderness wanderings, of
Balaam and his ass, of the sun and moon standing
still over the vale of Ajalon, of Samson and other
heroes of the great period of the Judges. They
bring before us Israel's picture of her past, of her
origin and of the origin of the human race, and
they are a divine revelation because they enshrine
precious truths and precious lessons which man
might never otherwise have learnt, or, at any rate,
which God did not intend that man should learn
in any other way.1
These early narratives teach us, not in myth or
in allegory, but in stories which are eternally true
to poetry, if not to fact, stories which derive their
substance from the earliest imaginings of the race,
as in Gen. ii., iii., the ideas which possessed a special
people at a special period as to the progress of
creation and man's place in nature, and as to how
he was thought to have arrived at the condition in
which all experience finds him — a being of weak
will, biassed to wrong-doing, and in consequence
subject to sorrow, suffering, pain, and death.
Behind this present phase of his existence there lay,
so thought these poets of the Hebrew race, a
golden age when man walked the earth with head
erect, the conscious and favoured son of God,
dwelling in a beautiful garden, in which were to be
1 See Note A, p. 33.

30 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
found all that could delight the senses and conduce
to happiness. These poets of Israel were not
alone in their imaginings, nor were they original.
Among all races are found fond dream-pictures of
a golden age, and the garden, the trees, the
serpent have their place therein. Even among
savages so low as the native Australians we find
the tradition of the Alcheringa times, of which the
present is but a debased and feeble copy.
Upon the Hebrew version of the Babylonian
story theology has built its vast superstructure of
the Fall and original sin and all that it involves.
On the other hand, the sciences of Anthropology
and prehistoric Archaeology teach us, as we shall
see, that man derives his ancestry from a long line
of animal predecessors — that, in fact, there is an
unbroken, or practically unbroken, succession of
ever-advancing life-forms from the first living cell
till man at length appears, and that, in consequence,
man comes into the world bringing with him all
the inherited tendencies of his ancestry, but that
in spite of them his course, at least as regards the
higher and more favoured races, has been constantly
upward, aiming at an ever increasing growth in
the complexity of civilised life, and a higher
standard of ethical attainments and conduct. How
to bring this new view of man's place in nature and
of his upward progress into relationship with the
old theology, and how to gather from these

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 31
primitive stories the truths they undoubtedly
convey, we shall endeavour to show after we have
traversed the course of this inquiry — and have
discovered not only what Biology, Anthropology,
and prehistoric Archaeology, but also what a critical
study of the Hebrew Scriptures, have to teach.
Here it may suffice to point out that if man
comes into the world with a heritage of tendencies
derived from his animal ancestry, it is easy to see
that each individual human being no sooner awakes
to consciousness than the possibilities of yielding
to these spring to life in the following of his own
will ; and through the combined influences of what
we have learnt to call heredity and environment,
but which, in the case of man, may equally well
be called by the old names of original sin and
outward circumstance, he falls into the actual com
mission of evil. Being a creature of weak will
and biassed to the lower rather than the higher
choice, he needs help if he would rise, and this
help is what man has ever been seeking under all
forms and varieties of religion. Moreover, man
has realised that his actual sins, if not his hereditary
tendencies, merit punishment, and this he has ever
striven to avert by sacrifice.
All that man needs and has striven after is sup
plied in the gospel of Jesus Christ, in which the
gropings and yearnings of mankind find their ful
filment, in a higher and better way than the old

32 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
theology dreamed of; for here we have revealed a
Father who cares for the struggling, erring child,
who gives him pardon for his faults and failings,
and helps him to rise ever higher, by uniting
Himself to the race in the Person of His Son ; and
through sacramental union with Him, under the
overshadowing, and through the indwelling, influ
ence of the Holy Ghost, man is led along the road
that shall at last conduct him to a life of perfected
harmony with the will of God in the ages to come.
This is Christianity,1 and it is independent alike
of the " scheme of redemption '' propounded by the
Schools, and of that literal interpretation of the
early chapters of Genesis and of other Hebrew
Scriptures with which it has been too hastily
bound up.
The message, then, that we have to deliver, a
message which this whole course is intended to
convey, is this : that Christianity, regarded in the
light of the fuller understanding of the Universe
and of man which it is the privilege of this present
age to enjoy, has nothing to fear from the facts
which are taught by science, nor from the fuller
understanding of those ancient Scriptures which a
study of their origin and intent bestows.
1 Cf. Harnack, Das Wesen des Christentums, published in English
by Williams & Norgate under the title, What is Christianity ? and
Weinel, St. Paul: the Man and his Work, p. ii.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 33

NOTE A, p. 29.
" One is disposed, futile and perhaps wrong as
the feeling may be, to regret that the early Church,
beginning with St. Paul, was so fully determined
to baptize into Christ the Jewish cosmogony.
True though it be that the account of the creation
in Genesis, when compared either with the parallel
tales which have in recent years been discovered
on the clay tablets of Babylon, or the stories of
Greek mythology, show a nobler religious tinge,
yet one cannot but see how far astray the Church
has been led by her adoption of them in a too
literal and prosaic fashion. St. Paul derived from
them a doctrine of the Fall, which has had enormous
influence on the history of the Church. Whether
on the whole that influence has been for good or
not we cannot tell, since, if it had not been there,
we do not know what would have taken its place.
But we see how the survival of the view, amid
surroundings to which it is ill adapted, has become
an impediment. And from the time of Galileo
downwards, almost every great scientific discovery
has been regarded by the great authorities of the
Church as hostile to Christianity, simply because
those authorities cannot cut themselves wholly loose
from Jewish primitive views of the nature and the
origin of the visible universe, which, one may
venture to say, have no more connection with the
teaching of Jesus Christ than they have with the
dramas of Shakespeare. In this matter, as in all
3

34 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
other phenomena of religion, as well as of politics
and ethics, good and evil are intermingled. And
it is safest in most cases to think that on the whole,
in the long run, good has resulted rather than evil
from nearly all the modes of religious belief which
have existed in the world. Yet one cannot but
feel that there lay ready to hand, even in the Old
Testament, a cosmogony with infinitely more natural
affinity for Christianity. In a magnificent chapter
of Proverbs, Wisdom is spoken of as the spirit
which presided at the creation of the world. ' When
the Lord prepared the heavens, I was there : when
He set a compass on the face of the depth : when
He established the clouds above : when He strength
ened the fountains of the deep : when He gave
to the sea His decree, that the waters should not
pass His commandment : when He appointed the
foundations of the earth : then I was by Him as
a master workman, and I was daily His delight,
rejoicing always before Him.' The writer to the
Hebrews must have thought of this passage when
he wrote, ' The worlds were framed by the word
of God,' the word and wisdom being expressions of
like meaning. And that Christ was the Word of
God was soon believed. The cosmogony of the
Fourth Evangelist and of Proverbs has in it nothing
with which science can quarrel or which is quite
worn out with time." — GARDNER, The Growth of
Christianity, pp. 71, 72.
To the same effect Canon Driver says, — and I
cannot improve upon his words : —
" The cosmogony of Genesis is treated in popular

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 35
estimation as an integral element of the Christian
faith. It cannot be too earnestly represented that
this is not the case. A definition of the process
by which, after the elements composing it were
created, the world assumed its present condition,
forms no article in the Christian creed. The
Church has never pronounced with authority upon
the interpretation of the narrative in Genesis. It
is consequently open to the Christian teacher to
understand it in the sense which science will
permit ; and it becomes his duty to understand
what that sense is. But, as the Abbe" Loisy has
justly said, the science of the Bible is the science
of the age in which it was written ; and to expect
to find in it supernatural information on points of
scientific fact is to mistake its entire purpose. . .
Upon the false science of antiquity the author
has grafted a true and dignified representation of
the relation of the world to God. It is not its
office to forestall scientific discovery; it neither
comes into collision with science nor needs recon
ciliation with it. It must be read in the light of
the age in which it was written ; and while the
spiritual teaching so vividly expressed by it can
never lose its freshness or value, it must on its
material side be interpreted in accordance with
the place which it holds in the history of Semitic
cosmological speculation." x
And that which Canon Driver so well expresses
1 Driver's Genesis, p. 33, and see the note, with references given
therein. The whole passage from which the above extract is taken is
well worth study, and must commend itself to every thoughtful reader.

36 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
here, more particularly with respect to Gen. i., must
be applied, mutatis mutandis, as we shall see, to
all the early narratives of Israel.
Again, in the striking words of the writer in
the Hibbert Journal, July 1906, already quoted, in
the article entitled " Why not face the Facts ? " we
have this point well expressed : — " The truth is that
the Churches have never yet really faced the
spiritual situation created by the new knowledge
of our day. A writer in this Journal {Oct. 1905)
points out that ' not even yet has the truth of the
Copernican astronomy become thoroughly soaked
into the substance of Christian thought.'
" The scheme of dogma which has claimed to be
the creed of Christendom received its deathblow at
the hands of a priest in the middle of the sixteenth
century, for every one of the doctrines which make
up that creed fit, like a picture into a frame, the
universe as known to ancient and mediaeval times.
That scheme is wholly out of place in the enlarged
universe which is taught to our children in every
secular school in the land. This is what makes
the orthodox creed seem to the average man so
much ' in the air.' It grew out of and is dependent
upon that exploded scheme of the universe. ' Our
religious beliefs,' said Principal Fairbairn, in an
early utterance, ' can never be dissociated from
our conception of the universe, and as the latter
grows larger and finer the former must be trans
figured that they may live and shine in the new
light.' The call then is loud and clear for the
Churches to bring their teaching into harmony

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 37
with the larger universe, to make their beliefs a true
reflection of it, large with its largeness, deep with
its depth, sublime with its sublimity, to front an
altered world, to expand to the larger thought of
God and of spiritual reality which it gives. This
call is yet, as the writer above referred to points
out, only partially answered.
" It is true that Copernicus has completely
triumphed, but the consequences which follow
logically from his new universe are not yet
accepted. The result is bewilderment, paralysis
of faith, and doubt about the future. The whole
framework has vanished in which has been repre
sented the great drama of Redemption as conceived
by the mediaeval and Reformation Churches — from
the Garden of Eden to the Second Advent of
Christ. But when this is frankly and thoroughly
accepted, it is seen that the larger universe is
destructive only of narrow conceptions, which the
world can do better without. A new age of faith
will come, when the religious instincts of devout
souls turn with joy to the new knowledge. Then
faith will be not dissonant with things, as many
feel it to be now, but harmonious, because it will
take form from the larger universe in which it
dwells." This is on the whole very well put, and expresses
in clear and forcible language what many are feeling
to-day ; but the writer allows himself to be led too
far when he says that in the enlarged Universe the
creed of Christendom is wholly out of place.
Certain deductions which the old theology drew

38 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
from its scheme of the Universe may have to be
abandoned, certain phrases in the Apostles' Creed,
for example, may have to be differently explained,
but the main outlines of that Creed are eternally
true, and the real problem of the age is not to
overthrow, but to fit in these previous conceptions
to which the Church of old was guided with that
larger and nobler Universe which science reveals
to us ; to this end we seek the aid of a critical
study of the Old Testament, which shall show
us that the revelation of God is in no way
wrapped up with the pre-Copernican view of the
Universe. At the Yarmouth Church Congress in October
1907, the Rev. J. T. Manley read a very able and
interesting paper on " How to teach the Old Testa
ment," but it is vitiated by the endeavour to make the
statements of Gen. i. " harmonise " with the teachings
of science. In this endeavour he is supported by the
Rev. Dr. Irving in a correspondence carried out
in the Guardian during October and November,
to which Dr. Driver contributes some telling
replies. My own share in this correspondence I
subjoin, as bearing out the thesis of these
Lectures : —
As one who has given prolonged study to the sub
ject embraced in the heading of this correspondence,
may I say how entirely I agree with Professor Driver's
letter in your issue of October 23rd? The efforts made
by Mr. Manley in his Congress paper at Yarmouth, and
of Mr. Irving in your columns last week, to reconcile the
statements of the first chapter of Genesis with the ascertained
facts of modem science, are most interesting as examples

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 39
of mental legerdemain, and as survivals of a method
which is fast passing, happily, into the lumber-room of
forgotten things, but they have no real bearing on the
controversies of the present day.
Science teaches that the earth, and life, and man came
into being and attained their present position through the
orderly sequence of evolution — an evolution "directed"
(to use Professor's Henslow's word), as we Christians
believe, by the omnipresent Spirit of the immanent and
yet transcendent God ; and it is impossible to reconcile
the orderly sequence of Nature with the plain statements
of the writer of Genesis i. as to the work of the six days of
Creation, more particularly the creation of the sun and
moon and stars on the fourth day, after light has already
shone forth on the first day and life is already flourishing
on the earth. And this is not a case for juggling with
words or explaining away their clear meaning. Nor is
there any necessity for doing or attempting to do so when
once the truth as to the early chapters of Genesis is
grasped. This has been stated over and over again by
students like Professor Driver, the Bishop of Winchester,
and others.
Leaving on one side the second and third chapters of
Genesis, which preserve the folk-stories and legends of
old Israel as they were told by the poets of the eighth
century b.c. in the kingdom of Judah, and which present
the picture of the " Origins " of the existing condition of
things as they were figured in that age, I will confine
myself here to the first chapter. This magnificent piece
of philosophical speculation — which is sometimes mistaken
for poetry — belongs to the latest strata of the documents
of the Hexateuch, those known as the Priestly Code, to
which it was prefixed as an Introduction. It belongs to
the period of the Exile, and emanates from a school of
priests who were deeply imbued with Babylonian learning,
and who were fully cognisant of the Babylonian cosmogony.
Hence the reference to Chaos, and the conflict between
the monster Tiamat and Merodach, the god of light,
which characterise the earlier verses; hence also the
sevenfold division of time and the importance assigned

40 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
to the heavenly bodies, not only as light-givers, but more
especially as measurers of time. From this point of view
the chapter is most interesting as presenting the perfected
scheme of creation as the Jewish thinkers of the fifth
century b.c. figured it to themselves; but when one
realises that this was its origin and purpose, the futility
of attempting any harmonistic scheme of "reconciliation"
between its declarations and the teachings of modern
science as to "Origins" immediately appears. It is as
futile as it would be to attempt to harmonise science with
the Brahmanic or Buddhist cosmogonies, or with the
fancies of primitive peoples. Moreover, Gen. i. is quite
inconsistent with the earlier statements of Gen. ii., with
which it was afterwards combined — no harmony being
considered necessary by the latest editors. The inspira
tion of Gen. i. consists in its spiritual teaching, in the fact
that animism and polytheism are alike brushed aside in
the sublime revelation vouchsafed to Israel of the One
omnipotent and eternal God, "who spake, and it was
done ; who commanded, and it stood fast."
Revelation teaches, and science cannot deny, that " In
the beginning God created the heavens and the earth";
both alike teach that man was the ultimate outcome of
the creative purpose. Revelation tells of the "whence"
and "whither," science of the "how," for revelation was
not intended to teach what man's God-given faculties can
discover without its aid. — The Guardian, Nov. 7, 1907. 1
1 Cf. Prof. Darwin's reference to Tyndall's Belfast Address (1874),
in his own Address to the British Association in that city in 1902 :
"His" (Tyndall's) "successors have no longer any need to repeat
those significant words, ' We claim and we shall wrest from theology
the entire domain of cosmological theory.' The claim has been
practically, though often unconsciously, conceded." — British Associa
tion Report, Belfast, 1902, p. 9.

LECTURE THE SECOND
GENESIS AND SCIENCE: BIOLOGY AND
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

' ' Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting :
The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
Hath had elsewhere its setting,
And cometh from afar ;
Not in entire forgetfulness,
And not in utter nakedness,
But trailing clouds of glory do we come
From God, who is our home."
Wordsworth, Ode on Immortality.
"The Poet's age is sad : for why ?
In youth the natural world could show
No common object but his eye
At once involved with alien glow —
His own soul's iris-bow.
And now ? The lambent flame is — where ?
Lost from the naked world : earth, sky,
Hill, vale, tree, flower, — Italia's rare
O'er-running beauty crowds the eye —
But flame ! The Bush is bare.
Hill, vale, tree, flower — they stand distinct,
Nature to know and name. What then ?
A Voice spoke thence which straight unlinked
Fancy from fact : see, all's in ken :
Has once my eyelid winked ?
No, for the purged ear apprehends
Earth's import, not the eye late dazed :
The Voice said, ' Call my works thy friends !
At Nature dost thou shrink amazed ?
God is it who transcends.'" Browning, Asolando, Prologue.
"A philosopher's life is spent in discovering that, of the half-dozen
truths he knew when a child, such an one is a lie, as the world states
in set terms ; and then, after a weary lapse of years, and plenty of
hard thinking, it becomes a. truth again after all, as he happens to
newly consider it and view it in different relations with the others ;
and so he restates it, to the confusion of somebody else in good time."
Browning, A Soul's Tragedy, Act ii.

42

LECTURE THE SECOND
In the previous Lecture we arrived at the conclusion
that a right understanding of the teaching of the
sciences of Astronomy and Geology, as to the origin
and constitution of " the heavens and the earth,"
was incompatible with the idea that in the first
chapter of Genesis there was given to mankind an
authoritative and verbally inspired revelation of the
details of such origin and constitution. Leaving
on one side the vast and unexplored, but possibly
limited, Universe beyond, we have seen our solar
system gradually shaping itself into its present
state from the remote era when it existed in the
guise of a gaseous and fiery nebula in the depths
of space ; and we have seen the planet on which
we live gradually and continuously evolving from
the primary condition of heated gases in which it
existed when it first took independent form as a
constituent unit in our system, revolving round the
central mass which is now the sun, until it became
a sphere fitted for the abode of life.
We have now to see what science has to teach
us as to the origin of life, and its development and

44 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
progress till the day when man first appeared, and
commenced that wonderful upward march in the
region of mind and spirit, which is as marvellous
as the evolution of his material frame from the
primordial cell ; and which will only culminate
when " the tabernacle of God shall be with men,"
and " God shall be all in all."
Reference was made in the previous Lecture
to the labours of Charles Darwin and Herbert
Spencer, the pioneers of the school of Evolution,
which now holds the field in all the scientific
thought of our time, and this reminds us that the
science of Biology, to which we are now brought,
is entirely the child of our own age, and due to the
life-work of the two great men just named and
their contemporaries, Wallace, who is still living,
Huxley and Tyndall ; and their crowd of successors,
to whom the crowning of the edifice, so far as it
has yet reached, must be attributed, and of whom
it will suffice to name Cope, Eimer, Weismann,
Nageli, Haeckel, Lankester, and Sir Oliver Lodge.
These may be divided into two schools, on the
question of the possibility or the reverse of the
" inheritance of acquired characters," but on the main
doctrine of Evolution they are all agreed.1
1 The real author of the theory of Evolution was Lamarck (1744-
1829), who discovered the fundamental truth that the world of
organisms as we know it is not the result of a number of specific
creations, but of a long and complicated process of evolution from
the simple to the complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous,

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 45
In former days, above all in the eighteenth
century, when the theology of the Deists was in
the ascendant, and God was regarded as an
autocrat who ruled the Universe He had made
from a distance beyond and outside it, or, to use the
language of the Freemasons, as the Divine Architect
of the Universe, and when Paley's simile of the
watchmaker and the watch seemed natural as an
illustration of the relationship between God and
the Universe, it, was equally natural and possible to
believe in special acts of creation ; to believe, that
and this was a great and lasting service. Darwin's claim to fame rests
on his proof that this process is accomplished through the interaction of
four factors — variability, heredity, excessive fecundity, and selection.
The first is probably the property of every organism. The third
allows for the tremendous struggle within each species (not, as M.
Paul Bourget mistakenly says, " between different species "), by which
the weak and unfit are killed off and only those fitted to their
environment survive ; the fourth is the result of this, viz. , that out
of the great number of organisms produced only those will survive
which are best adapted to the condition of the struggle for existence.
The second, heredity, marks the distinction between the older and
newer schools of biologists. Lamarck explained the mechanism of the
evolutionary process by the hereditary transmission of mental and
bodily modifications resulting from functional use or disuse — on the
assumption that somatic characters are capable of being modified by
surrounding conditions, and that these modifications are capable of
hereditary transmission, but, since his day, the science of embryology
has sprung into being, and led to the distinction drawn by Weismann
between the germ-plasm, which is continuous and immortal and the
vehicle of heredity, and the soma-plasm, which passes away with the
individual, and any changes in which are not hereditary or trans
missible, which theory now holds the field.
Weismann and his school do not deny the fact of heredity— they
call in question the heredity oj acquired characters which are purely
somatic in their origin.

46 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
is, that each species of plant and animal was
specially created when the time for its appearance
had arrived, and, in the same way, that man, both
as to his material frame and intellectual and
spiritual capacities, was the result of a special and
final act of power on the part of the Almighty ;
and this idea derived its highest sanction from
a literal interpretation of the first chapter of
Genesis. But such a view of nature and of the origin and
progress of life upon the earth is impossible to us
of the twentieth century. Just as the older notions
in regard to the place of our earth in the Universe
have had to give way to the truer views discovered
by Astronomy, and just as the catastrophic Geology
of the earlier students down to Sir Chas. Lyell
(which found Biblical support in the story of the
Deluge), have given way to the Uniformitarian
Geology of the present day, so is it with the story
of life upon the earth.
An interesting and suggestive illustration may
be found in the present views on the subject of the
progress, or evolution, of Architecture. In the early
years of the last century it was possible to regard
each period of Architecture as standing by itself, an
isolated product of the country or period to which
it belonged ; and Rickman, for example, did a good
work when he classified the various periods of
Gothic Architecture in England into their obvious

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 47
periods as Norman, Early English, Decorated, and
Perpendicular, each, as it were, out of relation to
the others. Further study, however, showed that
transition periods lay between each, and that, in
fact, it was impossible to make a hard and fast
dividing line, or to fix any date when one ended
and the next began; and now Mr. F. Bond has
developed this very idea in his great work on Gothic
Architecture in England, and shown the organic
unity and orderly development of Architecture as
a whole according to the laws, if we may say so, of
heredity and environment.1
Heredity and environment ! These two in their
mutual play and interaction have been, and are, the
controlling factors in the shaping of the wonderful
world of life and action of which we form part.
Everything that lives brings with it into the world
qualities derived from its ancestors, and is, in its turn,
acted upon and modified by the conditions in which
it finds itself placed. This is as true of the monad
as of man, and vice versd.
1 We may take as an illustration, both interesting and instructive,
the magnificent Abbey of Selby, which was so unfortunately destroyed
by fire in the year 1906. Founded by William the Conqueror, it con
tained within its walls examples of every style of Architecture from the
Norman to the Decorated, with the transitional periods between each.
It was a living growth, not a mechanical composition, and its evolution
was guided by the directing mind of its builders. It may be briefly
stated thus: Founded 1069; East Nave, 1097-1123; Central Nave,
1123-1175; West Nave, 1175-1190; parts of Upper Nave and West
Front, 1 190-1220; Choir, Aisle, and Sacristy, 1280-1300; Choir
completed in the 2nd quarter of the fourteenth century.

48 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
This brings us to the question of the origin of
life and its modifications.
" What is " life " and whence comes it ? The old
answer was simple enough, but it was connected
with ideas in respect of God and His methods of
working with which it is impossible now to agree.
" Life," it was said, was due to the presence in
certain forms of matter of a mysterious entity,
known as " vital force " or " the vital principle,"
and all things that live were brought into existence
under their different genera and species, which were
successively and severally created, fixed and un
changeable, by the fiat of God.
How different, and, I venture to say, how far more
worthy is the idea which is given of God's method of
working by the theory of Evolution as interpreted
by the most reverent and cautious science of the day !
It is true that Haeckel, in his enthusiasm for the
system he favours, to which he has given the high-
sounding name of " Monism " (and of which he
appears to fancy himself the creator, forgetting
that it is really quite old, older than Plato and
Parmenides), does away with any rational notion
of God, as well as with the freedom of the will and
immortality, in his interpretation of the theory of
Evolution. But Haeckel, as Sir Oliver Lodge has
well said, " although a splendid scientist is a poor
philosopher," and " the progress of thought has left
him, as well as his great English exemplar, Herbert

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 49
Spencer, somewhat high and dry, belated and
stranded by the tide of opinion which has now
begun to flow in another direction. He is, as it
were, a surviving voice from the middle of the
nineteenth century ; he represents opinions which
were then prevalent among many leaders of
thought — opinions which they themselves in many
cases, and their successors still more, lived to out
grow ; so that by this time Professor Haeckel's voice
is as the voice of one crying in the wilderness, not as
the pioneer or vanguard of an advancing army."
Thus much it was necessary to say in reference to
Professor Haeckel, for his books have been sown
broadcast ; and, to quote Sir Oliver Lodge again,
" so far as Professor Haeckel's writings are read by
the thoroughly educated and well-informed, they can
do nothing but good. ... So far as they are read
by unbalanced and uncultured persons, with no
sense of proportion and but little critical faculty,
they may do harm, unless accompanied by an
antidote against the bigotry of their somewhat hasty
and scornful destructive portions." :
The truth is that all philosophy aims at being
monistic ; it is bound to aim at unification, however
difficult of attainment, and the philosopher who
abandoned the quest and contented himself with a
permanent antinomy — a Universe composed of two
or more irreconcilable and antagonistic agencies —
1 Lodge, Life and Matter, pp. 58, 59, and 5, 6.
4

50 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
would be held to be throwing up his brief as a
philosopher, and taking refuge in a kind of permanent
Manichaeism, which experience has shown to be an
untenable and ultimately unthinkable position. An
attempt at Monism is therefore common to all
philosophers, and the only question is what sort of
Monism are you aiming at ?
There is the Pantheistic Monism of Herbert
Spencer and Spinoza ; the Idealistic Monism of
Bishop Berkeley and Hegel, down to William
James ; there is the Materialistic Monism of
Tyndall ; and here we find Haeckel, whose Uni
verse hangs upon a law which he calls the Law of
Substance, and who looks upon life as a mere
mechanical product.1 Finally, there is the Christian
Monism, as it is summed up by St. Paul in Eph. i. 10.
In justice to Herbert Spencer, it must, however,
be here remarked that he never formulated a
definite materialistic philosophy. He always left
room for the presence and working of the Power
whom he called " the Unknowable," which Power,
as Dr. Saleeby has shown with great ingenuity in
his book, Evolution the Master-key, may be argued,
though Unknowable, apart altogether from revela
tion, to be " One, Eternal and Uncreated, the infinite
and eternal energy from which all things proceed, that
wells up in ourselves in the form of consciousness." 2
1 Lodge, Life and Matter, pp. 7-10.
2 Saleeby, op. cit., p. 353.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 51
But this carries us a little further than we have
yet reached. We must go back and discover the
answer science gives to our questions as to life.
There was an old saying, " Omne vivum ex ovo,"
which was made much use of in the controversy as
to " spontaneous generation " some years ago, and,
so far as it goes, it is true ; for " all life originates
in the cell " ; but what is the " cell," and whence
does it possess what we call " life " ? Let us first
see in what " life " consists.
" Life," said Herbert Spencer, " is the sum of
the forces which oppose death " ; or, again, " the
continuous adjustment of external relations to
internal relations " ; but this does not carry us
much further : it is nothing more than a veiling
of the mystery by words which practically mean
nothing. Among biologists, the late Lord Kelvin and
Sir Oliver Lodge stand alone in predicating the
necessity of any such mysterious entity as " vital
force " or " vitality." The latter states : " Life is
itself a guiding principle, a controlling agency ;
i.e., a live animal or plant can and does guide
and influence the elements of inorganic nature,
. . . hence, whatever life is or is not, it is certainly
this : it is a guiding and controlling entity which
interacts with our world according to laws so
partially known that we have to say they are
practically unknown, and therefore appear in some

52 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
respects mysterious." 1 Lord Kelvin stated at
Cambridge in 1903, that "modern biologists are
coming once more to a firm acceptance of some
thing — and that is ' a vital principle.' "
But we must remember that this " entity " or
" vital principle " is always and only found
associated with certain special forms and combina
tions of matter, and thus the answer which Pro
fessor Ray Lankester, the foremost exponent in
our country of biological science, makes to Lord
Kelvin and Sir Oliver Lodge must be admitted
to hold the field.
The Professor states : " I will not venture to
doubt that Lord Kelvin has such persons amongst
his acquaintance. On the other hand, I feel some
confidence in stating that a more extensive ac
quaintance with modern biologists would have led
Lord Kelvin to perceive that those whom he cites
are but a trifling percentage of the whole. I do
not myself know of anyone of admitted leadership
among modern biologists who is showing signs
of ' coming to a belief in the existence of a vital
principle.' " We biologists take no stock in these mysterious
entities. We think it a more helpful method to
be patient and to seek by observation of, and
experiment with, the phenomena of growth and
development to trace the evolution of life and
1 Lodge, Life and Matter, p. 134.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 53
of living things without the facile and sterile
hypothesis of ' a vital principle.' " J
We shall refer to Professor Ray Lankester's
application of this point of view to " Man " in
our next Lecture.
As a matter of fact, we must confess with Dr.
Bastian that " all things having qualities," i.e.
everything in the Universe, has "life" of its
own ; but these are reckoned to be " living "
or " not living " according as they possess or
do not possess a small group of qualities.
These are: (i) apparently spontaneous or in
stinctive movement, (2) assimilation, and digestion
followed by assimilation, (3) fission, due to the
unstable equilibrium of the molecule; hence
arises the power of reproduction. All things
possessing these qualities are reckoned " alive,"
and all " life " begins in a cell. This cell in
which " life " is found must of course be of a
certain constant and uniform constitution, though
capable of infinite modifications ; and such is the
case. The particular combination of elements
which make up the living cell consist of carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, together with a little
sulphur and phosphorus, and is known as "proto
plasm," which Huxley rightly called " the physical
basis of life.'' This " protoplasm " belongs to
" the class of albumenoids, the nitrogenous car-
1 Prof. Ray Lankester, The Kingdom of Man, pp. 64, 65.

54 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
bonates that are distinguished for the extraordinary
size of their molecules, and the unstable arrange
ment of the numerous atoms (more than a thousand)
that compose them." Hence it is that living matter
is intrinsically mutable : this, says Dr. Bastian, is
" the fundamental property of protoplasm." x
This being so, we can see at once how natural
selection acting with heredity and environment and
leading continuously to the modifications which
tend to " the survival," in every case, " of the
fittest " for the position they have to occupy, has
led to the infinite variety of living things which
we see around us to-day.
In the earlier of the rocks there are no traces
of life. Life springs full-fledged, as it were, in the
later rocks, and fishes, a very highly organised
form of life, appear in the Silurian. Whence
comes it that all the forms of life leading up to
this highly developed organism have disappeared ?
Many naturalists and geologists have tried to
answer the question since Darwin, but none satis
factorily. A very valuable and suggestive ex
amination of the various theories has lately been
put forward by Dr. A. L. Lane, and we will
begin at the wrong end of his speculations by
stating the surroundings of early life on the earth
as he believes they may have been. Life began
in the ocean, and the early forms of life were of
1 Bastian, Nature and Origin of Living Matter, pp. 10, 21, 137.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 55
the nature of jelly fish or simple organisms which
were permeated by the fluid in which they dwelt.
The salt ocean was in fact their body fluid. It
was a warmer ocean then than it is now, and
there is some reason for placing its temperature
at something above ioo degrees Fahrenheit. It
may have been nearly double that. It was also
an ocean which had much less lime and deposit
in it than now. But as the ages went on the
lime and other deposits were brought down from
the land in increasing quantities, and the water
became more and more hard. Conditions began
to change, and the animals in the sea began to
change in form too. Up to that time they had
been jelly-like, formless, open. Some of them,
as a physiological reaction to the increasing
" hardness " of the vital medium in which they
lived, began to secrete hard parts (as cells on the
human skin sometimes secrete horny matter), and
consequently animals with shells began to make
their appearance. Other soft-bodied animals closed
themselves up for a similar reason. Thus there
now began to exist animals whose dead bodies
left some traces of their tenants, whereas all trace
of the boneless, shell-less animals disappeared as
soon as they died. Other animals migrated by
way of the sandbanks and the shoals to land in
search of better conditions. When once shells
and skins were started, their great advantages

56 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
soon made themselves felt, and evolution retained
them. A minor question is the temperature of the
ocean in those early days of boneless, unformed
animals, all traces of whose existence have dis
appeared. It has been suggested by the French
physiologist, R. Quinton, that it was about 1 1 1 de
grees Fahrenheit, which is the highest tempera
ture of the body fluid of existing birds. Quinton
suggests this for the reason that just in the same
way that in the bodies of the higher animals,
such as man, there are traces of a fish-like ancestor,
so the body fluid, the blood serum, is the relic
of the fluid in which that fish-like animal in its
lowest stage of development was bathed. Quinton
regards the higher animals as compound colonies
of individual cells. The cells are, firstly, those
which are made up of living matter or proto
plasm ; secondly, those of secreted dead matter,
such as bone or muscle or shell ; thirdly, of
various secretions, such as milk ; and fourthly,
the vital fluid, the saline blood serum, in which
the other cells live. This vital fluid bathes all the
other living cells, and is the universal circu
lating fluid. Quinton states that this vital fluid,
which is but the sea-water in which they live to
the lower sea animals, represents the same thing
in the osmotically-closed higher animals. He
accordingly compares man to a marine aquarium

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 57
filled, not, however, with present-day sea-water,
but with that of the early ocean. And he
therefore imagines the early ocean to have been
a warm ocean with a temperature above the blood
heat of man and about the blood heat of birds,
and with a composition of water tinged chiefly
with sodium chloride. There have been changes
in the body fluid since it was once merely the
ocean water, but the animals have preserved its
composition fairly well, because it was best suited
to the nutriment and composition of the proto
plasm of which they are built.
It is a curious and interesting fact that sea-
water is the only fluid in which the corpuscles
of the blood of man and other animals can live
when removed from their own vital element.
A short sketch may here be given of the way
in which Darwin was led to the idea of Natural
Selection as a factor — the principal factor it may
be, but not the only factor — in the process of
Evolution. The clue was given him, as he tells
us, by reading Malthus on Population. More
of all races of living beings are produced than
can come to maturity. Here is evidently the
required material for selection. Living forms of
all kinds tend to vary slightly from their parents,
and these variations do not all stand an equal
chance. Any variations that are better adapted
to the conditions tend to be preserved. Under

58 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
changing conditions some new variation is
likely to be better adapted. The " preserva
tion of favoured races in the struggle for exist
ence " may hence be called " Natural Selection."
This theory was elaborated with marvellous
ingenuity in The Origin of Species, and its main
conclusions have never been since overthrown,
although later workers, such as Cope in America,
and Eimer, have considered that the importance
of Darwin's principle has been much over
estimated, and that more allowance must be
made for the secret causes of variation and the
directive force of the environment ; and in the
Nineteenth Century, Professor Henslow, from his
own observation and experiments, arrives at the
conclusion that Darwin's theory has to be corrected.
He would substitute the following for Darwin's
statement : " adaptation to the conditions of life
by means of the direct response of the organ
isms." Since Darwin's day the matter has been further
complicated by the controversy as to the inherit
ance of acquired characters, of which mention was
made above, and it is important for us to notice
this in view of what we shall have to say later in
regard to " sin."
Darwin, in 1868, in The Variation of Animals
and Plants under Domestication, promulgated the
theory of " Pangenesis " to bring together and

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 59
explain the fact of heredity. According to this
theory, all the cells of the body, during the
process of self-division by which they multiply,
throw off " gemmules." By aggregations of these
the sexual elements are formed. The gemmules
themselves multiply by self-division, and every
gemmule admits of being developed into a cell.
Sir Francis Galton accepts the distinction between
body-cells and gemmules, but instead of taking the
developed organism he takes the ovum as the
starting-point of the theory, and in this way is able
completely to transform it. The sum-total of
germs or gemmules in the newly fertilised ovum
he calls the " stirp." Only the smaller part of
this, he supposes, becomes developed into the
" personal structure " of the organism. Out of
the residue of undeveloped germs or gemmules
are formed the sexual elements of the next
generation.1 Besides these theories there have
been those of the " idioplasm " of Nageli, the
" catagenesis " of Cope and many others, but none
of these meet the facts as does Weismann.
Thus the notion of a germinal residue " con
tinuous," as Weismann puts it, from one generation
to another, is substituted for Darwin's notion of
an aggregate newly forming from the body-cells
in each new organism. In Weismann's theory
hereditary transmission of character depends wholly,
1 Galton, fournal of the Anthropological Institute, 1875.

60 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
in Galton's it depends mainly, on this undeveloped
residue. Weismann, and in this he was anticipated by
Galton in the communication to the Journal of
the Anthropological Institute referred to above,
holds that " acquired characters are not inherited "
where they only affect the soma-plasm which
perishes from generation to generation, and not
the germ-plasm which is continuous and im
mortal. He says : " New characters in plants
and animals are (a) blastogenic and transmissible,
or (b) somatogenic and non-transmissible; i.e., the
new characters transmitted to the progeny are
only those connected with and due to changes
in the ' germ-plasm.' "
Haeckel, on the other hand, maintains that
" the history of parasites provides abundance of
the most striking proofs of the much-contested
inheritance of acquired characters." Dr. Bastian,
however, contends that the difference is not so
great as might be supposed, and that Weismann
is not altogether consistent with himself. He
says : " The real difference which divides the two
schools is as follows : according to Weismann,
changes in the soma cannot lead to or be
associated with definite and correlated changes
in the germ-plasm ; though changes in the germ-
plasm are in some inscrutable way, through the
intermediation of his countless armies of deter-

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 61
minants and biophors, supposed by him to be
capable of leading to precise correlated changes
in the soma. According to Spencer and others,
however, changes in the soma induced by external
conditions may become associated with definitely
related changes in the germ-plasm. Such corre
lated changes are held by them to be no more "
(and, we may add, no less) " impossible or in
scrutable than those which we see every day actually
occurring in reverse order, viz., the development
of animals and plants from their germs, although,
in view of the excessively complicated nature of
the processes, we are obliged, as Spencer says,
to admit that the actual organising process
transcends conception. Thus, in the opinion of
Weismann, the soma cannot communicate precise
changes to the germ-plasm, though the germ-
plasm can lead to an exact building up of the
soma ; while, according to Spencer, the germ-
plasm and the soma are mutually capable of
influencing each other in specific ways.
" But," he goes on, "Weismann is not consistent,
and indeed frankly admits the whole point in dis
pute, viz., that acquired characters can be and are
frequently inherited. He says, for example, ' It is
indubitable that external influences, such as those
emanating from the environment or media in which
the species live, are able to cause direct variation
in the germ-plasm, ?'.£., permanent, because hereditary,

62 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
variations,' and this he calls ' induced germinal
selection.' Again, he speaks of the germ-plasm as
' ready and able to furnish any variation possible
in a species, if that is required by external cir
cumstances.' " J
But what Weismann has really proved, and
that which constitutes the permanent advance in
biological science associated with his name, is
the non- hereditability of acquired characters acting
wholly on the soma-plasm ; and the theory, of which
he is the author, viz., that the germ-plasm is that
substance by means of which alone the capacity
for development and reproduction possessed by an
organism is handed on to the offspring, — that it is
the hereditary substance, the vehicle for hereditary
transmission, the substance by means of which the
continuity of life is secured, — is the one which is
most in harmony with the facts, the one which
seems most likely to survive, not without modifica
tion, perhaps, but in all its fundamental ideas. It
is, as a recent writer expresses it, " a brilliant
construction, consistently thought out, and cleverly
adjusted to the facts of which it affords a logical
explanation," and thus it is " a monumental work,
bearing the impress of an original and powerful
intellect." 2
1 Weismann, Evolution Theory, vol. ii. pp. 196, 267 ; Bastian,
op. cit., p. 135.
8 Chatterton-Hill, Heredity and Selection in Sociology, p. 26 ; and
see pp. 65 seq.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 63
Dr. Bastian's researches have further shown it
to be possible, if not probable, that the mystery
of the origin of life is not merely a mystery of the
far distant past, but that it is a continuous one,
and one that is taking place, in all probability,
down to the present time. Thus, in his opinion,
spontaneous generation, as it may be called, is con
tinuously and continually taking place ; i.e., wherever
the necessary combination of the four elements,
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, together
with a little sulphur and phosphorus, is found in
suitable circumstances, there is protoplasm ; and,
again given favouring circumstances, where there
is protoplasm, there is life. Hence new life, he
holds, may be ever appearing, and indeed the
mystery should be relatively less, and the " miracle "
less wonderful now when the world is full of proto
plasmic materials derived from previously existing
living forms than it was when life first appeared
upon the earth. This conclusion agrees admirably
with the opinions of physicists as to the age of
the earth. Whereas Haeckel demands " hundreds
of millions of years " as the period during which
life must have been developing on the earth, and
fixes on 1 00,000,000 years as the term since which
invertebrates first appeared, and Darwin spoke of
" Natural Selection only acting by very short and
slow steps," while Prof. Darwin, at the South Africa
Meeting of the British Association, in 1905, said, " It

64 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
does not seem extravagant to suppose that 500 to
1000 million years may have elapsed since the
birth of the moon," it is well known that physicists
have been only willing to allow a much shorter
period for the whole existence of the earth as a
separate member of the solar system. Lord Kelvin
will only allow from 20 to 40 million years
for this, and prefers the limit of " nearer 20 "
than 40 ; Joly prefers 90 million years, but, even
so, is a long way from the demands of the ex
treme biologists, while Professor Sollas prefers " about
30,000,000." Hence the gulf between these two
opposing sets of opinions seemed to be impassable,
but Dr. Bastian has provided a bridge. He says :
" Instead of believing with Darwin that ' all the
living forms of life are the lineal descendants of
those that lived before the Cambrian epoch,' and
that ' all the organic beings which have ever lived
upon the earth may be descended from some one
primordial form,' we must admit that life originally
started from multitudes of centres ; that from the
earliest stages of the earth's history up to the
present, new starting-points of simplest form have
been ever taking place all over the surface of the
earth. Thus the facts concerning ' persistent types '
may be explained, and also how the time needed
for the whole evolution of life on the globe may
not have been so long as has been supposed. The
routes may have been many, contemporary, and

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 65
simultaneous, and thus multitudes of facts can be
explained, many of them absolutely irreconcilable
with the old point of view. This theory assumes
that ' the forms of nature and material properties
have ever remained the same, and that new births
of living matter have ever been taking place.'
Thus," Dr. Bastian concludes, and I quote this,
because it provides an " antidote " to Haeckel, and
falls in with the point I wish to make, " there are
good reasons for the conviction that the same
Forces which are now in action within and around
us have been and are constantly operative through
out the whole Universe, everywhere producing the
most uniform and complex results, which combine
in testifying to the existence of one supreme and
all-pervading Power of which these results are the
phenomenal manifestation." It is refreshing to
listen to words like these from the mouth of one
of our foremost men of science ; and such words
and similar ones from Sir Oliver Lodge form a suf
ficient answer to all who would say that " Science is
committed to Haeckel's materialistic Monism." It
is not so. " One supreme and all-pervading Power ! "
Who is this but the transcendent and immanent
God of the latest philosophical speculation ?
Transcendent above the Universe in a better and
nobler sense than ever the Deists or those who
hold by traditional views of the Old Testament
can conceive, and yet immanent in the Universe
5

66 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
He has called into being ; pervading all space,
animating every living cell, and all the multi
tudinous combinations of complex organisations
of which those cells, in His hands, have proved
themselves capable ; Himself one with and yet
distinct from all things that are — the soul of the
Universe. Even Monists are not always consistent with
themselves, however, in their materialism, and often
attribute personal qualities, for example, to Natural
Selection, which imply either that this abstract
property is itself " God," or guided by " God."
E.g., Weismann more than once speaks of Selection
in terms of personality, as, for instance, when
speaking of variations in the germ-plasm and the
soma, he says, " Selection continually keeps watch
over both kinds of variations " ; and again, " Selec
tion eliminates all that lessens the purity of the
specific type." And even Haeckel moves far on
the road towards Spinozism and Pantheism, though
he repudiates any transcendent and supreme God,
when, in his Last Words on Evolution, he writes
thus of his practically deified " Matter " : " Our
Monistic God, the all-embracing essence of the
world, the Nature-God of Spinoza and Goethe, is
identical with the eternal, all-inspiring energy, and
is one, in eternal and infinite substance, with space
filling matter. It ' lives and moves in all things,'
as the Gospel says. And we find God in natural

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 67
law itself. The will of God is at work in every
falling drop of rain and every growing crystal, in
the scent of the rose and the spirit of man."
May we not say of one who can write like this,
that, in spite of his occasional scoffs and lapses into
bad taste, he is not far from the kingdom of God ?
Thus the Christian who is at the same time
open to the teaching of the best modern science
can say, in a deeper sense than the old Hebrew
priestly writer understood, " In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth " ; and at the
same time a further meaning is given to the words
of the Christ, " My Father worketh hitherto, and
I work." Can we proceed to find a deeper and truer meaning
in the further statement in Gen. i. : " In the image
of God created He man " ?
We have seen that all life originates in the cell,
and that from the variations produced by heredity
and environment and the growing complexity of
organised beings in the process of evolution, all the
varieties of plants and animals, including man
himself, have been derived. If the original life-
centres were innumerable, and if new life is ever
being produced, this is only to say that while we
can no longer affirm that all things now living on
the earth are derived from one primordial cell, yet
the line that culminates in man may be clearly
traced from one or more primordial cells.

68 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
In this respect, as Biology is more and more
unmistakably showing, phylogeny and ontogeny
are one ; every living thing passes, perceptibly or
imperceptibly, through every preceding stage in the
scale of being up to the point that its parents have
reached, and by the slow process of variation
induced by heredity and environment and aided by
selection, prepares the way for further advance.
Thus the babe, ere it is born into the world, as
it grows day by day from the microscopic cell
in which its potentialities lie wrapped up in the
moment of conception, epitomises within itself all
the stages of the evolution of the human race from
the first primordial cell which was to develop into
man, and brings with it ancestral memories and
hereditary tendencies which will, in their turn,
be modified by the environment in which it finds
itself placed on its entrance into being.1 Whence
then comes the soul and the mind of man ? It
was all there in potentiality from the beginning.
It is impossible to say where consciousness begins ;
for just as life is inherent in certain forms of matter,
so consciousness is inherent in life, and the brain of
a Goethe and a Shakespeare was potentially present
in the first primordial cell from which the human
race is derived. This, however, is only to say that
God was working with that end in view throughout
the ages, and it is still true that " God breathed
1 See Note A, p. 79.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 69
into man's nostrils the breath of life," under
standing by this that God endowed the primordial
cell, which after its age-long progress was to
culminate in man, with all the possibilities of
mind and soul which make man what he is, —
" the paragon of animals." All " life " is so far
conscious. Haeckel speaks of the " memory " of
the " radiolaria " ; but in the growing complexity
of the cells which compose the brain, and in the
development in this way of the organ of mind, we
find the secret of ever-increasing consciousness.
It is the mind of God working in and through the
variation and evolution of the brain-cells until the
being who shall become a reasoning man is
produced, and thus in a deep and true sense " man
is the image of God."
Mind, therefore, is not a property of living
matter, though associated wholly with certain
special organs as the being becomes more
differentiated and complex ; but it is potentially
present in all living matter, inherent in the cell
ere differentiation takes place, and the force that is
behind and guiding all the processes of evolution
till we arrive at the consciousness and free-will
of man is the will and purpose of God.
Keeping this in view, we may agree with
Weismann when he says : " Even although we
assume that we might succeed in understanding the
mere chemistry of life, ... the so-called ' animal '

70 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
functions of the living substance would remain
uncomprehended — Sensation, Will, Thought. We
can understand, in some sense, how the liver
secretes bile ; also, given a sensitiveness to
stimulus of living substance, how a sense impression
may be conveyed to the nerves by the brain, but
how the activity of certain brain elements can give
rise to a thought which cannot be compared with
anything material, which is nevertheless able to
react on the material parts of our body, and, as
Will, to give rise to movement — that we attempt in
vain to understand. Of course the dependence of
thinking and willing on a material substratum is
clear enough, and it can be demonstrated with
certainty in many directions, and thus materialism
is so far justified in drawing parallels between brain
and thought on the one hand, and liver and bile on
the other, but this is by no means to say that we
have understood how will and thought have come
to be. In recent times it has been pointed out that
the physical functions of the body increase very
gradually with the successive stages of the organisa
tion, and from the lowest beginnings ascend slowly
to the intelligence of man in exact correspondence
with the height of the organisation reached by the
species. This, however, does not mean that we
have understood Spirit. Man has evolved from
animal ancestors, whose nearest relatives were the
Anthropoid Apes. Hence the factors which brought

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 71
about the development of man from his Simian
ancestry must be the same as those which have
brought about the whole of evolution : change of
external influences in its direct and indirect effects
(environment), tendencies to germinal variation
(heredity) acted upon by Selection, which only
gives rise to what is suited to its end ; beyond
that it can call forth nothing.
" Must this," Weismann continues, " be true
of the human mind ? Can it only be developed
as far as its development is of advantage to man's
power of survival ? Certainly in a general way,
but certain individuals may from time to time be
more highly endowed " ; and, as a proof of this, we
notice the undoubted fact that " geniuses never
raise the average mental capacity of the race."1
From time to time they appear, but they transmit
none of their high mental qualities to their descend
ants, as may be seen, for example, in the cases of
Mohammed, Oliver Cromwell, Shakespeare, Goethe,
to mention only one or two outstanding instances.
As regards man's physical frame, then, his
descent from animal ancestors is an absolutely
ascertained fact of biological science ; and as regards
his mental and spiritual capacities, these are due to
the special development of his brain, the organ
par excellence of mind, under the guiding hand of
" Selection " acting through heredity and environ-
1 Weismann, op. cit., vol. ii. pp. 392 seq.

72 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
ment — i.e., as we Christians reverently believe, under
the guiding hand of God.1
I have dwelt at perhaps too great a length on
Dr. Bastian's theory as to the possibility of the
production of new life in its primal form of
protoplasm at all stages of the earth's history, from
the first dawn of life upon the globe down to the
present time, for, notwithstanding his own researches
and Mr. Burke's discovery of " Radiobes," the
problem is by no means settled as yet, and Dr.
Bastian's theory is not popular, but I have done so
both because of the reverence of its author, and
because it does provide a bridge, if necessary,
between the physicist on the one hand and the
astronomers and geologists and biologists on the
other. But the discovery of radium has put the
matter on a different footing, and perhaps made
this bridge unnecessary. The property of radium
is, as is now well known, to diffuse heat without the
slightest appreciable loss, while at the same time the
emanations from radium transmute themselves into
helium. Only the merest fragment of radium has
been, so far, isolated, but it is now held that this
element is everywhere present in the constituents
of which the solar system is composed, and that,
owing to its property of diffusing and maintaining
heat without losing substance, all the time required
1 See Note B, p. 83.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 73
by astronomers and geologists and biologists as
against the physicists may now be granted them.
Thus Professor Ray Lankester, at the York
Meeting of the British Association, in 1906, spoke
as follows : 1 —
" Radium has been proved to give out enough
heat to melt rather more than its own weight of
ice every hour ; enough heat in one hour to raise
its own weight of water from the freezing-point
to the boiling-point. After a year and six weeks
a gram of radium has emitted enough heat to raise
the temperature of a thousand kilograms of water
one degree. And this is always going on. Even a
small quantity of radium diffused through the earth
will suffice to keep up its temperature against all
loss by radiation ! If the sun consists of a fraction
of one per cent, of radium, this will account for and
make good the heat that is annually lost by it.
" This is a tremendous fact, upsetting all the cal
culations of physicists as to the duration in past and
future of the sun's heat and the temperature of the
earth's surface. The geologists and the biologists
have long contended that some thousand million years
must have passed during which the earth's surface
has presented approximately the same conditions
of temperature as at present, in order to allow time
for the evolution of living things and the formation
1 The Lecture from which this passage is quoted has since been
published in The Kingdom of Man, pp. 66-158.

74 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
of the aqueous deposits of the earth's crust. The
physicists, notably Professor Tait and Lord Kelvin,
refused to allow more than ten million years
(which they subsequently increased to a hundred
million) — basing this estimate on the rate of cool
ing of a sphere of the size and composition of the
earth. They have assumed that its material is
self-cooling. But, as Huxley pointed out, mathe
matics will not give a true result when applied to
erroneous data. It has now, within these last five
years, become evident that the earth's material is
not self-cooling, but, on the contrary, self-heating.
And away go the restrictions imposed byphysicists
on geological time. They now are willing to give
us not merely a thousand million years, but as
many more as we want."
To this testimony we may add that of Sir
Robert Ball, late Astronomer-Royal of Ireland,
whose name is well known in the University of
Dublin. In a lecture at the Bishopsgate Institute
in October 1906, he stated that the "problem had
now been set at rest." 1
1 Sir Robert Ball, in an address delivered at the Bishopsgate
Institute, said that the discovery of radium had gone a long way
to solve an important controversy between mathematicians and
geologists as to the peopling of the earth. Lord Kelvin, basing
his figures on our present knowledge of the internal heat of the earth
and of the condition of the cooled rocks of the earth's crust, had
calculated that not more than twenty million years ago the earth's
surface was so hot that water would not rest on it ; the oceans were
vapour. Twenty million years, therefore, was the limit of time

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 75
Thus, even supposing that life originated once
for all in the Cambrian Epoch, and that all existing
llfe — the whole process of organic evolution — is the
outcome of that primal cell endowed with life,
sufficient time has now been found for the develop
ment to have taken place.
In his most fascinating book on The Evolution
of Matter, published in 1 906, Professor Rutherford
has a chapter on " The Origin and Life of Radium,"
in which he gives a veritably romantic account
of this wonderful element. This extraordinary
substance is indisputably an element, and yet it
compels us completely to modify our conception of
an element. The atom of radium, we now know,
is an evolutionary product of the still larger and
during which geologists had to " get through their work of peopling
the earth with forms of life." The geologists complained that they
could not make their discoveries and deductions accord with that
"miserable allowance of time." Still, the mathematicians going
over their calculations again, would not give them a week
longer. In this difficulty, however, radium had come to the aid
of the geologists. The Hon. Mr. Strutt, son of Lord Rayleigh,
had shown that in the rocks in the crust of the earth there was a
considerable quantity of radium, which was for ever pouring out heat
at a great rate. This being the case, the date at which the earth
first became cool enough for life must have been far more remote
than twenty million years ago. It must have been so far remote as
to give the geologists the eight hundred million years that they wanted
to account for the phenomena they had found. The discrepancy to
which he had alluded had long been a problem in science, but he
believed the controversy had now been set at rest. Mr. Strutt had
shown that a very small quantity of radium would go a very long way
to explain the heat that we found as we bored into the earth. All the
radium that had yet been got would not fill a lady's thimble. (Report
of Sir R. Ball's address in the Morning Post. But see Note C, p. 85. )

76 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
more complicated atom of uranium, and further
more it has a life-history of its own. It is born,
it lives, it dies. Nothing is lost, but all is changed ;
and it is now practically certain that in due course
the atom of radium, which can be found to " grow "
in solutions of uranium, is transformed into an
atom of lead and five atoms of helium. All this
is discussed in abundant detail by Professor
Rutherford. We have now accorded an all too rapid survey
to the sciences of Astronomy, Geology, and Biology
as they affect our special subject, and we have
arrived at the point when man, the last and highest
creature in the scale of organised being, because he
is the only creature who is conscious of himself , the
only one who, as he gazes out upon the Universe,
can say, " I am I," " Cogito, ergo sum," stands upon
the earth, and we have seen that any literal
interpretation of the first two chapters of Genesis
are entirely inconsistent with, and incompatible
with, the facts of science as they are known in this
twentieth century.
In the next Lecture we proceed to inquire into
the length of time which may reasonably be
supposed to have elapsed since the foot of man
first trod the earth, and into the mental and
physical condition of the earliest and succeeding
generations of the human race till we arrive at
the confines of History.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 77
Here, then, we enter the domain of Prehistoric
Archaeology, to which the long march of evolution
from the primordial cell to man has slowly but
surely brought us, for " Archaeology begins where
Geology ends," and henceforth " the highest study
of mankind," as Pope says, will be our theme.
We have traversed a large tract of country, and
surveyed the scene from the dawn of life upon
our globe until man appears, and we have seen,
through all the wondrous transformations and
changes, the overruling and guiding hand of God,
and on the whole the story has been one of ad
vance, of progress, throughout. Haeckel's Monism
has been tried and found wanting, for it is only
old Materialism writ large, and it deals wholly with
effects, not causes ; it explains the processes of
Nature's working, and leaves out of sight the great
Cause of all. To use the illustration from a
tramcar, of which the Professor, or his fidus Achates
Mr. Jos. McCabe, is very fond, it sees that, like
the car, Nature moves along certain fixed lines,
but it forgets that those lines were pre-ordained,
and that, just as the car, unguided, will overleap
the lines, and rush downhill to destruction, so
Nature requires the constant care and guidance
of the Divine Being, who in His infinite and
eternal Essence transcends Nature, and called her
into existence, and who is the Fount and Origin
of all her processes, the informing and immanent

78 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Spirit ; who, as transcendent, forms with the
material Universe a dualism from which it is
impossible to escape ; and who, as immanent,
sums up in Himself the true Monism after which
Haeckel vainly strives.1
The Universe in which we live is a Universe of
Divinely ordained and perpetual change, and these
changes are for the most part in the direction of
constant advance and progress, notwithstanding
back-currents and eddies which may be observed
even in Nature herself, but are more especially
noticeable in the case of man, in whom we
have to deal with a being who is conscious, in
spite of all the dogmas of determinism, of a power
of choice, and choice implies free-will, and free-will
implies a possibility of choice for the worse and
not for the better. In succeeding Lectures we shall
endeavour to discuss the problem as to how man
chose, and how God has overruled man's choice
for the furtherance of His own eternal and un
changing purpose.2
1 See Note D, p. 86.
2 The final word on the whole theological opposition was said by
Darwin, referring in a letter to a sermon by Dr. Pusey against
Evolution ( 1878) :—
" Dr. Pusey's attack will be as powerless to retard by a day the
belief in evolution, as were the virulent attacks made by divines fifty
years ago against geology, and the still older one of the Catholic
Church against Galileo ; for the 'public is wise enough always to
follow scientific men when they agree upon any subject, and now
there is almost complete unanimity among scientific men about

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 79

NOTE A, p. 68.
In his recent book, The Scientific Temper in
Religion, Father Waggett very ably attacks the
purely materialistic theory of Evolution — though
at the present day no evolutionist, certainly not
Nageli or Cope or Eimer, nor Weismann in
reality, and not even Haeckel himself, would own
to being pure materialists, as we have seen — by
impaling the holders of such a theory upon the
horns of a dilemma, which, however, does not state
the case altogether fairly. He argues thus : —
'' If there existed, as no naturalist will say there
does exist, a thinker so acute and so successful
that he had traced his path all the way by secure
steps down from the varied scene of mammalian
existence to the formless but still living reality of
the cell-like protozoon, he would not really have
reduced the gulf to an easy leaping-space between
non-life and lowest life, for he carries along with
him in his very knowledge of the characteristics of
protoplasm, all the facts that go to the full descrip
tion of the entire varied scene of organic life . . .
his last term is shown to contain, in Tyndall's
phrase, ' the promise and the potency of all the
rest.'" This is true up to the extent of our, at present,
evolution, though there is still cnosiderable difference as to the
means." The same thing, mutatis mutandis, may be said as to the present
position of the historical criticism of the Old Testament.

80 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
actually ascertained knowledge ; but if Dr. Bastian's
deductions or Mr. Burke's experiments should ever
succeed in proving the possibility of effecting the
transition from non-life to life in the laboratory,
the " leaping-space " itself will have been abolished,
and we shall have a further demonstration of that
which all experience points to, viz., that there are
no gaps in Nature.
Father Waggett continues : — " With regard to
this humblest form ... we are in a dilemma,
shutting us up on either hand to a hopeful con
clusion. Grant first — and it is a bold concession —
that the relation between the lowest protozoon and
the mammal is a relation of time ; that the one
represents an earlier form than the other ; that
there has been, in short, a succession of forms on
the earth, a succession such that the earlier linger
on with the later arrivals. Grant further that the
succession is wholly one of descent ; that the
various forms are related to one another in kinship.
Then follows our dilemma. Either the progressive
differentiation of the later, younger, more com
plicated forms has been wholly due to the original
quality of the protozoon (of course under the
various stimulations and opportunities of the
environment), or it has not. If it has not, then
additional forces of life, forces of vigour, and forces
to shape and qualify have been introduced into
the series of descent from outside. From whence?
... To suppose them is to say that . . . the
primitive form is not in any true sense an ancestor,
but only the leading member of a file; that in

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 81
reaching that simplest form we have not at all
narrowed the description or lessened the wonder
of life.
" What is the other horn of the dilemma ? If
the descent has been indeed a descent, if no forces
have been at work except such as were present in
the earliest form, and required only the environ
ment for their development, then mark what
follows. It follows that instead of taking the
undifferentiated jelly as explanation of the flocks
and herds, of man with his society and the
creations of his art, we have to take these as the
explanation, as the large and manifested descrip
tion, of the hidden potencies of the jelly. . . .
Your stately civilisation, your art, your prayer,
says the Naturalist-Agnostic, these are no spiritual
creation. They are but the last result of nervous
reflexes which exist in essence in the simplest
monad. Your life is nothing greater than a speck
of jelly opened out. And we reply : Your jelly is
nothing less than human society folded up!'
And then Father Waggett goes on to show, on
the authority of Mendel, that " the Selection
theory does not even propose to account for one
special feature of living substance, viz., its tendency
to variation."Of course it does not — the province of the
naturalist is to note and record facts, not to offer
explanations. To return to Father Waggett's dilemma. The
materialist would not admit that he was tied down
to either of its horns, and for the theistic argument

82 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
it is unnecessary. The answer of the materialist
would be that nothing in the process of evolution
has been introduced from outside except what is
due to assimilation from the environment, but that
all that is to be the future outcome of the process
is implicitly present from the first. He goes no
further, but he does not deny what the Theist
asserts, viz., that the process is due to, and is
evidence of, a guiding and informing purpose and
will. He only says, " Nature, of herself, does not
either assert or deny this."
The Theist does not assert that the process is
brought about by the introduction of qualities from
outside on the part of God as transcendent, as the
first horn of the dilemma postulates, but he does
maintain that all that is to be is present implicitly
from the first, and is guided and brought to its
ultimate issue by the presence and through the
purpose and will of God, as immanent, working in
and with every detail of the age-long process.
An illustration may be found in embryology.
The physiologist can detect no difference in
the speck of jelly which is, to issue in the dog,
for example, and the man, and, up to a certain
stage, the course run is precisely similar. A dog
at six weeks from conception is undistinguishable
from the human being at eight weeks. The process
continues : nothing is introduced from outside, but
the embryo is developed and nourished by its en
vironment — it is in the mother and the mother in
it, and in due course, in the one case a puppy is
born, and in the other an infant.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 83
Thus is God immanent in all the processes of
nature, while transcending and guiding all in
accordance with His purpose.

NOTE B, p. 72.
Mr. Headley thus summarises the results of a
comparative study of the " Minds of Men and
Animals " from the point of view of the thorough
going evolutionist. " Starting with the simplest
forms of animal life," he says, " I have shown reason
to believe that even the Amoeba and the Infusorians
have some rudiment of intelligence. . . . Higher
in the scale we are able to divide actions into three
classes — reflex, instinctive, intelligent. ... In man
we find what appears an immeasurable advance
beyond the high-water mark of other animals.
Instead of instincts, he has instinctive impulses that
set him at work to learn. He has a wonderful
power of attention, so that he can deVote all the
energy of his complex brain to one subject. . . .
We stand at the top of the pile and try (or do not
try) to add something to it, so that our successors
may begin at a slightly higher level than ourselves.
Language and writing have made possible for the
human brain its greatest achievements. . . . Yet it
would seem that the long course of evolution has
added no absolutely new power. In the lowest
organisms we have protoplasm with little of
specialisation, with nothing of complication. In the
human brain we find specialisation and complica
tion carried to the highest point. . . . Beyond a

84 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
doubt it is the most wonderful thing in nature. In
itself, and in its achievements, it is so wonderful that
it is difficult to believe in its humble origin. Still
the raw material for this most glorious of structures
is to be found in the one-celled micro-organisms.
. . . With all his brain-power man is akin to the
micro-organisms. " Here is a very definite verdict, but one that will
convey widely different meanings to different people.
Some will think of the micro-organisms as sharing
the greatness of man. Others will see in it rather
the degradation of man than the ennobling of the
lower ranks. Fresh from laboratory experiments,
they will say that man, like the unicellular
organisms, gives to every stimulus from without an
inevitable response. His environment plays upon
him as a musician plays upon an instrument. . . .
When Cranmer held his right hand in the flame,
he was only doing, they would say, what he could
not help doing, being what he was, just as the
heliotropic Euglena cannot help moving towards
the light. ... If an Infusorian is but an instrument,
man must be set down equally as an instrument
that is played upon, though a very splendid one.
But though the laboratory men abolish will (indeed,
quite apart from them and their experiments free
will in the old sense is unthinkable), yet there
remains something as yet unexplained. There is
the wave of consciousness that never ceases its
onward movement. What is ethereal, incorporeal,
seems to affect the body. Mind seems to influence
matter. . . . Here then is something that, so far,

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 85
has not yielded to the attacks of the materialist. To
be honest, however, it is difficult to see how the
explanation, whatever it may be, can give us free
will. We should remain automatic. Yet one can
not help cherishing some poor shred of hope that
we may be free in some true sense. And here,
too, is a consolatory fact : for practical purposes,
what is wanted is not free-will, but a working
belief in it. When the time for decision and for
action comes, a man must feel that he is free to
choose or he is lost. And this working belief in
free-will, even though the thing itself be proved to
be a phantom and an illusion, is the inalienable
property of every healthy man." — HEADLEY, Life
and Evolution, pp. 2 1 2—2 15.
NOTE C, p. 75.
That Dr. Bastian's theory that " new births of
living matter have ever been taking place " may
still provide a useful bridge, if the views of the
physicists should in the end, after all, prevail, is
evident from the fact that Lord Kelvin was, to
the last, unconvinced of the possibilities provided
by radium.
This will appear from the following letter
written by Lord Kelvin to Professor Orr of
Glasgow, on the age of the earth, which is believed
to be his latest utterance on the subject : —
Netherhall, Largs, fanuary 29th, 1906.
Dear Professor Orr, — Absence from home last
week has prevented me from sooner answering your

86 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
letter of January 19th. I do not think there is any
serious probability in the suggestion of Professor Darwin
and Mr. Whetham, that either the heat of the sun or
the underground heat of the earth is practically due in
any considerable proportion to radio-active matter. The
gravitational theory is amply sufficient to account for the
heat of both bodies and of all the stars in the universe,
and it seems almost infinitely improbable that radium
adds practically to their energy for the emission of ^heat
and light. It may be indeed more probable that the
energy of radium may have come originally in connection
with the excessively high temperature which we know
to have been produced, and to be at present being
produced, by gravitational action throughout the universe.
You will find a good deal more on the subject of later
date than the passage to which you refer in pages 10 to
131, volume 2, of my popular Lectures and Addresses, and
in Philosophical Magazine, 1899, first half-year, page 66,
making a strong body of evidence that the age of the
earth as an abode fitted for life cannot probably be vastly
greater than twenty million years. Most of this evidence
would not be seriously affected, even if radium concurred
appreciably with gravitation in producing the heat and
light which we have at present in the universe.
(Signed) Kelvin.

NOTE D, p. 78.
" So completely has the idea of Evolution, in
one or other of its many forms, justified itself as
an instrument of inquiry — and no human thought
is more than such an instrument — that it has not
only been applied to the sacred book, to the history
of belief, and the innermost contents of religious
faith, but it is already modifying our conception
of God. At the present day it is hardly too much

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 87
to say that ' Deism ' is no longer a living faith.
. . . The centre of religious interest has moved.
Those who seek God seek for witnesses of Him in
the bountiful earth, and the broad sky, and in the
widening marvel of human history. Many believe
that all that is, and has been, and is yet to come, is
not too vast to reveal Him. . . . Evolution has
been silently habituating us to the conception that
what is, was ; and that what will be, is. It has
brought the ' End,' the final goal, to the beginning
of things, and made all the expanse of the natural
creation and the moving panorama of human
history its declaration and manifestation of itself.
All is one scheme, and God is the meaning of it.
Thus, almost without knowing it, we have come
to adopt the conception of God as immanent.
It was implicit all along in the idea of Evolu
tion." But God is transcendent as well as immanent.
In this way only can His perfection and the
reality of evil and genuine freedom of choice be
vindicated. Thus the writer continues : " Unless
any analysis of the religious consciousness is alto
gether false, it must endeavour somehow to main
tain both the Immanence and the Transcendence of
God. It can yield up neither of the two con
ceptions, except with its own life. Actual living
religion, the religion which is both trust and devotion,
requires a God who is very near to man, the life
within his life, the truth, the inner essence, the
very substance of his being ; and yet it demands
a God who transcends finite reality, and from the

88 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
very fulness of His perfection is known by us only
as in a glass, darkly."
The writer goes on to develop his" argument
from the experience of the self-conscious ego, and
concludes : " If we take the products of our own
spirits and the nature of our own self-consciousness
as our clue, we shall find some hint of the way in
which He who lives in all things may transcend
all things. Self-consciousness is always its own
content and more; for it is the content gathered
into a diaphanous unity. The very intimacy of its
indwelling in every element of its experience makes
it transcend that experience."
Thus, " we can believe in a God who is tran
scendent because He is immanent." — Professor
Henry Jones, LL.D., F.B.A., " Divine Immanence,"
Hibbert Journal, July 1907.
The whole article is worthy of study, and bears
out the view which the author independently formed
and has here endeavoured to enunciate. Compare
and contrast " Immanence and Christian Purpose,"
by Professor A. C. M'Giffert in the same issue of the
Hibbert Journal.
Compare also the article by Professor G. Henslow
on " Directivity " — a word coined by Professor A. H.
Church — to express the uniform characteristic of
" Life," and which implies the presence " as im
manent of an Omnipotent Director," whose attri
butes are " Consciousness and Will," in the Hibbert
Journal, October 1907.

LECTURE THE THIRD
GENESIS AND SCIENCE: THE ANTIQUITY
OF MAN

" Man is man, whatever he came from."
' ' Amid the supreme realities of the moral and spiritual world, or
in the devotional study of the word of God, it becomes a matter
of relative unimportance to a Christian whether he is to trace his
pedigree back directly or indirectly to the dust. For it is God's
world after all." — AUBREY MOORE, Science and the Faith, 212, 214.
" What a piece of work is a man ! how noble in reason ! how
infinite in faculty ! in form and moving how express and admirable !
in action how like an angel ! in apprehension how like a god ! the
beauty of the world ! the paragon of animals ! And yet to me what is
this quintessence of dust ? " — Hamlet, Act ii. sc. 2.

LECTURE THE THIRD
The two previous Lectures have sufficiently demon
strated, if demonstration were needed at the present
day, and if one did not feel that in laying stress
upon the proof and the facts proved one were
repeating and emphasising what the progress of
science has made almost a commonplace, that the
early chapters of Genesis cannot be " reconciled,"
in any literal acceptation, with the truths of
Astromony, Geology, or Biology. As regards the
material Universe, and the earth's place therein,
the constitution and progress of the earth from
her primal condition to her present state, and the
orderly evolution of life upon the globe through
all the orders of living things — plants and animals
— up to the appearance of man, these chapters
cannot any longer be taken as a revelation of the
manner and method of Creation.
Just as Astronomy shows us the solar system
taking its place among unnumbered similar systems,
and the earth taking its place as a member of that
system, and just as Geology teaches us the gradual
and age - long stages through which the earth
91

92 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
passed in her advance from the condition of a
fiery mass until she was capable of supporting life,
so Biology teaches us the orderly march and pro
gression of life upon the globe from the primordial
cell, through all the ranks of plants and animals,
until we arrive at man, that wonderful being who
stands erect and looks out upon the face of Nature
conscious of himself. Here theology made her
last stand. If all other special creations must be
abandoned, this at least must be held fast to.
Man was made, by some special creative act, " in
the image of God," " a little lower than the
angels." But can man thus be left out of the ac
count ?
His physical frame is merely a modification, not
so great as many previous ones, of pre-existing
models, and though no one of the existing tribes of
apes may be accounted his ancestor, yet physiology
plainly teaches that in the "far backward and
abysm of time " man and the apes had a common
ancestor. Neither are his mental endowments
sufficient to postulate a special creation ; for the
development of his brain is, as we have seen, only
the outcome under the combined influence of
heredity and environment of faculties inherent in
the cell. Further, the student of Prehistoric
Archaeology and Anthropology has now oppor
tunities of seeing, as it were, man in the making,

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 93
and he beholds him taking his place, in due course,
in the orderly scheme of nature.1
The search for the " Missing Link " has been
abandoned, for, with the knowledge that man
diverged from the apes in a far distant past it is
no longer necessary, but Professor Dubois dis
covered in Java a very early type of man, little
removed from simian characteristics, in the
Pithecanthropus erectus. Prehistoric Archaeology,
however, can show us man, and of a relatively
high type, existing in Europe in a very remote
past. Sixty years ago, or thereabouts, it was still easy
to picture the human race as commencing its
earthly career with our forefather Adam some six
thousand years ago, and to imagine " Adam " to
have started as a full - grown and absolutely
1 " There is, it may be said without exaggeration, no school or body
of thinkers at the present day, who are acquainted with the fact,
now ascertained, which denies the orderly evolution of the Kosmos
by the regular operation of a more or less completely ascertained
series of properties resident in the material of which it consists. The
process of evolution — the interaction of these ascertainable, if not
fully ascertained properties — has led (it is held), in the case of the
cooling cinder which we call the earth — by an inevitable and pre
destined course — to the formation of that which we call living matter,
and eventually of Man himself. . . . Man is held to be a part of
nature, a product of the definite and orderly evolution which is uni
versal ; a being resulting from and driven by the one great nexus of
mechanism which we call nature. He stands alone, face to face, with
that relentless mechanism. It is his destiny to understand and to
control it." — Ray Lankester, Kingdom of Man, pp. 6, 7; and cf.
pp. 8, 9, and 62 seq.

94 PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
innocent being in a blissful Paradise from which
he, by transgression, fell. These ideas were largely
due to a literal reading of the third chapter of
Genesis, and still more to Milton's magnificent poem
of Paradise Lost. It is not too much to say that
the ordinary Englishman's notions of the Creation
and Fall of man were almost wholly derived, in
many cases perhaps unconsciously, from the ideas
embodied in that great work of art, just as the
Italian's conceptions of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven
were derived, albeit also unconsciously, from Dante.
But coincidently with the discoveries of Darwin
and Wallace, and the accumulating proofs of man's
derivation from an animal ancestry through Evolu
tion acting by Natural Selection on heredity and
environment, evidences of the antiquity of the
human race began to be discovered, first in what
may be compared with a trickling stream, then in an
ever widening and deepening flood, which could no
longer be withstood. It is true that as far back as
the end of the seventeenth century, a magnificent
specimen of a Palaeolithic celt (now in the British
Museum),1 along with the bones and tusk of the
mammoth, had been unearthed in excavations that
were being made in Gray's Inn, but this was
glibly attributed to the " Ancient Britons," and no
more was thought of the matter. Neolithic arrow-
1 It is figured in Leland's Collectanea, and in Evans' Ancient
Stone Implements of Great Brilaiit, p. 582.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 95
heads, too, had long been known in Italy, Scotland,
and elsewhere, but these were described as elfin
bolts or thunderstones, to which magic properties
were attributed, and which were often set in gold
and employed as charms or amulets ; these dis
coveries, however, led to nothing, for if the age is
not prepared for a discovery it falls barren and
fruitless to the ground.
In this respect, as in every other, the education
of the human race has been along progressive lines ;
and what is dark and mysterious in one age
becomes clear and luminous in the next.
It was not till 1797 that the true significance of
worked flints began to be recognised, when Mr. John
Frere, in describing his discoveries at Hoxne in
Suffolk, referred these implements to " a very
remote period, and to a people who had not the
use of metals."
More than forty years passed away, and then in
1 84 1 M. Boucher de Perthes discovered evidences
of man's existence in Western Europe at the time
when the upper gravels of the Somme Valley were
deposited, and in 1846 he electrified the world with
the publication of his discovery. Along with the
worked flints which were the proofs of man's
craftsmanship, were found the remains of numbers
of extinct animals, including the mammoth, woolly
rhinoceros, urus, cave-lion and cave-hyaena, as well
as those of the horse and reindeer. " For seven

96 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
years longer," as Lord Avebury says, " M. Boucher
de Perthes made few converts ; he was looked upon
as an enthusiast, almost a madman," for if his
discoveries were to be admitted it was recognised
that the existence of man upon the earth extended
back to the Quaternary Epoch, and almost to the
confines of the Tertiary — and another nail was
driven into the literal interpretation of the Mosaic
story of Creation. But from 1853, when scientists
felt themselves driven to admit the truth of the
discoveries, evidences of man's long existence on
the earth have been accumulating in ever increasing
numbers, and the trickling stream, as I said above,
has become a mighty torrent which the barriers
raised by an antiquated theology are powerless to
withstand. We can here only recapitulate as briefly as
possible the present state of knowledge on the
subject, and would refer those who wish for fuller
information to the Notes and the works referred
to in the Bibliography.
Much that will be said will perhaps appear the
merest commonplace to many of those who belong
to this ancient shrine of learning, but for the sake of
those who are not so well informed, it is advisable
to state plainly how the matter now stands.
It was soon seen that the implement discovered
in Gray's Inn in 1690, and those found by Mr.
Frere at Hoxne in Suffolk in 1797, belonged to

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 97
the same age as that of M. Boucher de Perthes'
discoveries, viz., to the River-drift, or Diluvium,
as it is called on the Continent, in the Quaternary
Epoch ; and now that men's eyes were opened to
see, evidences of man's handiwork were continually
being brought to light from the gravels deposited
where ancient rivers flowed, but which now lie many
hundreds of feet above the level of the present
streams, not only on the Continent and in England,
but in all parts of the world. At the same time,
the exploration of Kent's Cavern, near Torquay,
of the Caves in Derbyshire, and then that wonderful
series of discoveries in the caves of Belgium, France,
and elsewhere, to which reference will be made when
we come to consider the condition of our earliest
ancestors, made it plain that the men of the Drift
and the men of the Caves lived at a period when
the Continent of Europe stretched far out into the
Atlantic. The British Islands formed the western
extremity of that Continent ; a great river flowed,
where the Channel now divides England from
France, westwards to the ocean ; and the Rhine
and Elbe carried the drainage of the Continent
through a great valley, now covered by the North
Sea, into the Polar Ocean. About the time when
these discoveries were taking place, the Northern
archaeologists, of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,
had been led by their investigation of the kitchen-
middens, barrows, and other remains of early man,
7

98 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
to divide the prehistoric period into the three
Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, and these divisions
all subsequent research has proved to be correct.
Further study of the Stone Age proved that it should
be subdivided into the Old and the New Stone
Ages, or, to use the now universally accepted names
given to them by Lord Avebury, the Palaeolithic
and Neolithic Ages. To the first belong all the
implements of the Drift and the Caves, — roughly
chipped implements of flint, chert, and other stones,
as well as many fashioned from reindeer and other
bones, such as harpoon-heads, needles, awls, borers,
and such like — all of a definite and unmistak
able type ; to the latter belong the ground or care
fully chipped arrowheads, spearheads, the polished
celts and tools of various kinds, too well known
and too widely distributed to need detailed
description here.
Of late years the researches of Mr. Harrison at
Ightham, in Kent (the deductions from which were
sanctioned by Professor Prestwich), and of many
students abroad, among whom it may suffice to
mention M. Rutot, M. Boule, and others, have made
it probable that an earlier stage of the Stone Age
than the Palaeolithic must be recognised in Western
Europe, and to this the name of Eolithic has been
given ; if the very rude and primitive implements
belonging to this period are finally recognised and
admitted as of human origin, the beginnings of

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 99
" Man " will date back into the Tertiary Epoch.
But this is of no consequence for the purpose of
our study in these Lectures. The time since man
appeared upon the globe is in any case a very long
one, — Professor Haeckel dates it back 300,000
years, — but admitting, as we do, the existence of
man in the first Inter-glacial Period in Europe, his
earliest appearance cannot be less than from
80,000 to 1 20,000 years ago, according to the
data of the Cave deposits and the River-drift.
The cradle of the human race may well have
been somewhere in the uplands of Asia, and those
who migrated thence to the fertile plains watered
by the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile may
have reached at a comparatively early date the
stage of culture represented by the Neolithic Age ;
but to see man in his beginnings we must note the
remains he has left behind him in Europe, together
with some few relics of himself.
Not in a beautiful garden specially prepared
did man first awake to consciousness, as ancient
poets dreamed, but in a world in which he had
to bend his energies to an unceasing conflict with
the forces of Nature, and in which he was sur
rounded by foes ; and it was to this very conflict,
and to the fact that, if he would survive, he
must use his wits to master those foes, that all
his upward progress may be traced. Those who
arrived in Babylonia and Egypt, and those who

100 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
travelled Eastwards and settled in what is now and
has been for ages the unchanging empire of China,
must have passed through the earliest stages, and
reached the organisation represented by the union
of clans and tribes, characteristic of the Neolithic
Age, ere they left their primeval abodes, but in
Europe we can behold the progress of the strife,
and trace out all the stages of man's gradual
emergence from a condition of life in which he
was little removed above the animals amidst which
he dwelt, through savagery and barbarism to
civilisation. Of Eolithic, i.e. Pre-glacial, man, in the Tertiary
Period, we have evidence only in the shape of
the rudest flint implements, just sufficiently shaped
to testify to intelligent design, discovered in the
Pre-glacial gravels of the Kentish Plateau, and in
Belgium ; and although a good deal of controversy
has been raised lately as to whether many of the
supposed Eolithic implements may not have been
naturally formed by the action of rolling in ice
and water (as similar forms have been produced
by artificial processes in the cement factories at
Mantes), yet a sufficient number remain to prove,
in my opinion, the existence of a being on the
way to become, if not already arrived at the stage
of being, man in the Tertiary Epoch. I lay no
stress on the Calaveras skull found in America,
because grave doubts are still expressed as to its

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 101
genuineness, but if genuine, it proves that man
was already " man " at that remote period.
When we arrive at Quaternary or Palaeolithic
man we are on sure ground, and not only are the
evidences of his existence since the close of the
Tertiary Epoch decisive, but the investigations of
a host of modern scientists have enabled a precise
classification of his progress to be drawn up.
In the early days of anthropological study the
division of " The Stone Age " into the two groups
of Palaeolithic and Neolithic, the former comprising
all the remains of the Cave men and the River-
drift indiscriminately, was considered sufficient, and,
the geologists being satisfied with one great Ice
Age, it was argued that man was certainly Post
glacial, and that the Palaeolithic Age embraced
one continuous period from man's first appearance,
when the great Ice-cap began to recede until
the commencement of modern conditions in the
Neolithic Age.
It is now established, however, as will be seen
from the Note at the end of this Lecture,1 where
a Table is given, that there were no less than four
Glacial Periods in the Northern hemisphere, each
of varying duration, separated from one another
by Inter-glacial Periods of equally varying length,
during each of which man existed ; and a distinct
advance can be perceived as we move forward,
1 See Note A, p. 126.

102 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
until, with the passing away of the last great Ice
cap, we arrive at the present condition of things
and the Neolithic Age.
Man, as we know him, first appears during the
first Inter-glacial Period. His remains are found
in the River-drift of the Somme, the Thames, and
elsewhere, in all parts of Europe and England ;
also in Caves at Brixham, Kent's Hole, Robin-
Hood (Derbyshire), Mentone, Spy, Neanderthal, and
in the Cevennes and elsewhere in France. At
Spy and Neanderthal remains of his skull and
other bones, as well as implements, were found.
Thus it will be seen that there is no difference
in period between the River-drift and the earliest
Cave men. From the fact that the first discoveries
were made by M. Boucher de Perthes on the
Somme, this period is called the ChelleVMousterian
Period, and man was then contemporary with the
Elephas antiquus, meridionalis, and primigenius,
and with other fauna belonging to a warm climate ;
physically, the race of Spy or Neanderthal, as
it has been called, must have been tall and
strong and well developed, though the receding
forehead and prognathic jaw point to low mental
attainments, which is just what might be expected.
The second Inter-glacial Period is known as the
Solutrian, and the remains of this period are found
wholly in the Caves, most of them the same as in
the preceding. During this period the climate was

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 103
much colder than during the last, and man is now
contemporary with the mammoth, the cave lion,
cave bear, and cave hyaena, and he commences his
career as a hunter by the chase of the stag and
other cervine animals, of the wild-horse, and of
animals useful for food. He no longer fashions
rude implements only for slaughter, but by making
scrapers, awls, and bone pins and needles, etc., he
shows that he is beginning to clothe himself in
the skins of slain beasts, and has made a further
advance on the road that leads from utter savagery
to barbarism.
In the succeeding, or third Inter-glacial Period,
which is known as the Magdalenian, from the
celebrated cave of La Madeleine in the Dordogne,
the climate is still colder than in the last, though
it improves towards the end, and man is now con
temporary with the reindeer throughout the whole
of Central Europe, and with the elk in Western
Europe, while the wild beasts remain pretty much
the same, and the struggle for existence being
more severe, adverse conditions of climate being
added to his continual warfare with his foes in
the natural world, man takes another step forward.
It is from this period that are derived the earliest
specimens of man's skill as an artist, and the most
wonderful circumstance about this is that the first
examples of his art display a finished perfection,
which entirely died out with the coming of the

104 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
next and last Glacial Period, and to which Neolithic
man never attained. Whether these drawings have
any connection with the dawning of a religious
consciousness in man will be discussed in our next
Lecture, but to speak of them now only from
the artistic standpoint, they merit comparison with
some of the masterpieces of later ages, and do not
lose by it. No more vigorous or lifelike drawings
can be conceived than those of the mammoth, and
the reindeer feeding, from the grotto of Thayngen
and the Cave of La Madeleine, and other specimens
drawn on bone or ivory ; and, more surprising still,
those drawings of the mammoth, the bison, and other
animals, which have been discovered on the walls
and roofs in the dim recesses of the caves where the
hunter sought shelter from the cold, which at this
period obtained for nine months of the year. To
quote M. Salomon Reinach, in his brief survey of
the art of this period : " During the last few
years," says this writer, " prehistoric paintings of
the highest interest have been discovered in the
caves of PeVigord and the Pyrenees. In those
caves of France where it has been found possible
to observe the superposition of the various strata,
it has been found that figures in the round, carved
in stone or in the bones of mammoth and reindeer,
lay buried more deeply, and are consequently earlier
than those carved in relief or drawn."
It may be mentioned, in passing, that various

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 105
human figures or figurines belonging to this period
have been found with the other remains, from which
it would appear that the Magdalenian race was steat-
opygous — i.e., characterised by a marked develop
ment of the hips, such as may be seen in some of
the African tribes of the present day, and which is
also characteristic of some of the earliest inhabitants
of Egypt. To continue : " Drawings made with a
style, the products of this art in its greatest perfec
tion, are contemporary with paintings which show
the same characteristics, and deserve no less admira
tion. Of these characteristics the most striking is
realism. Fancy seems to be absolutely excluded ;
whether represented alone or in groups, the animals
are depicted with a correctness to which we find no
parallel in the art of the modern savage. The next
characteristic is sobriety. There are no useless
details ; certain animal forms of this period, either
engraved or painted, will bear comparison with the
fine animal studies of modern artists. Finally — and
this is perhaps the most extraordinary trait of all
— the artist of the reindeer age is in love with life
and movement : he likes to represent his animals in
lively and picturesque attitudes; he seizes and repro
duces their movements with extraordinary precision.
It must, of course, be understood that these eulogies
do not apply to all the works of art of the Cave
dwellers. Then, as always, there were gifted and
mediocre artists ; but they apply to some thirty

106 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
or forty objects, carved, engraved, or painted, which
may be accounted masterpieces among the hundreds
that have been collected and reproduced. How
and where was this art developed ? It is evident
that its finest productions were the final outcome of
a long progression. The man of the Quaternary
Period, like the modern man, was perhaps born with
the artistic instinct, but he was not born an artist.
Many generations had to pass before he had learnt
to draw the outline of an animal correctly with his
sharpened flint, before his first essays, his first
scrawls, took on the dignity of true works of art.
Our knowledge of this period is as yet far too
restricted to enable us to trace the stages of this
development. It is indeed possible, and even
probable, that it began in another part of Europe ;
for the reindeer, which no longer existed in France
in the warm phase of the Quaternary Epoch, must
then have abounded in the more northern regions,
and there is every reason to suppose that the
ancestors of the reindeer hunters of Perigord and
the Pyrenees flourished together with their favourite
game. The evolution of art, however, cannot have
made much progress in this primitive field ; and no
doubt it was in the basin of the Garonne that it
was accelerated and accomplished. When the cold
period came to an end, the reindeer disappeared
almost suddenly, and was replaced by the stag. At
this epoch, which marks the close of the Quaternary

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 107
Period, the drawings become rare, and finally dis
appear altogether. The civilisation of the reindeer
hunter seems to have died out, or to have migrated
with the reindeer towards the north of Europe. But
so far no trace of it has come to light, nor has it been
possible to establish any definite connection between
the art of the reindeer hunter and that of civilisations
of great antiquity, though certainly more recent
than theirs, such as those of Egypt and Babylonia.
" Thus we find that the art of Quaternary France
forms a clearly defined phase in the very genesis
of art history. We may trace the successive ap
pearance of the desire for symmetry, of sculpture,
bas-relief engraving, and painting ; of all the loftier
forms of art, architecture alone is absent." 2
This is high, but not too high, praise, and it
testifies to the lofty place in intellectual attainments
to which man had attained by the time the fourth
and last Glacial Period supervened, and buried him
and his achievements in an oblivion which endured
until the present day.
Whether he had reached the stage of even dawn
ing religious ideas, and if so, of what sort these
were, is a consideration which, as stated above,
must be deferred for the present ; but one thing at
least is clear, that in all this long development, of
which Anthropology leaves no doubt, no room is
found for any such experience, as a matter of con-
1 Reinach, Story of Art throughout the Ages, pp. 5, 6.

108 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
crete fact, as is described in the story told in
Genesis iii.
What was the origin of that story, and what
value must be assigned to it in the religious sphere,
in the light of present-day knowledge, will appear
later on. So far we have seen man making a con
tinual upward progress, to the extent that his cir
cumstances permitted, in the arts and crafts of life,
until he stands before us a consummate artist, but
beyond the limits of his requirements he was no
doubt intellectually a child, and spiritually he may
be said to have been hardly born. He was perhaps
organised in isolated family groups, the idea of
property in wife and children and goods probably
existed, but there was as yet no tribal organisation,
and no social arrangements ; with these commence
ideas of right and wrong, in conforming or other
wise to the rule of the tribe, and this again is a step
in advance. When religious ideas began to be
fixed, a supernatural sanction for " right-doing," and
like punishments for wrong-doing, with the institu
tion of wise men, both prophets and priests, and
the notion of communion and propitiation, would
soon find place, as among the Australian and
African natives to-day. But we have not arrived
at this point yet.
In speaking of the " Ages " of Stone, Bronze, and
Iron, it must be borne in mind that no hard and
fast line of demarcation can be set as their

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 109
boundaries either for a terminus a quo or for a ter
minus ad quern, nor can any fixed dates be assigned
which invariably apply. Here again our illustration
from Architecture applies,1 as it does to the evolution
of life on the earth.
In Western Europe there seems to be a great
gap between the disappearance of Palaeolithic man
and the appearance of the Neolithic races, marked
by the subsidence of the land and the severing of
the British Islands from the Continent.
The last Ice Age passed away in Europe some
8000 or 10,000 years before Christ, by which time
the configuration of the land and the climate, the
flora and the fauna, had become much what they
are to-day, and the last reindeer had disappeared
from the Alps and the Pyrenees after the last mam
moth. How soon afterwards Neolithic man began to
spread himself abroad we cannot tell, but when he
first appears he was at a relatively low stage, and
possessed not a vestige of the artistic abilities of
his predecessor. At this time he was already
dwelling in the Nile Valley, and probably in the
delta of the Euphrates and Tigris, but while he
has left abundant traces of his occupation of the
former, those of the latter are but few.
Visitors to the British Museum may see one of
the earliest examples of Neolithic burial in the
Egyptian Gallery, where, in the sarcophagus, as they
1 Vide supra, p. 46,

110 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
were found, lie the remains, bitumenised into a
mummy, with rude specimens of pottery around
him, of an individual of the red-haired Neolithic race
of Egypt. He is buried in the fashion peculiar to
man in the Neolithic stage of culture all the world
over, viz., on his side, with his knees drawn up to
his chin, as A. Lang describes it : —
"He buried his dead with his toes
Tucked up : a peculiar plan ;
Till his knees came right under his nose :
'Twas the method of primitive man."
The line of march of the Neolithic peoples may
be traced from their original home in Central Asia,
through Asia Minor, across Europe and North
Africa, to Western Spain and France and Britain,
by the dolmens in which they buried their dead,
fashioned on the model of the dwellings which they
inhabited when alive, and placed on the summit of
some natural hill or concealed in the interior of an
artificial long barrow ; and by the menhirs (to give
them their Celtic name) and stone avenues and
circles which they erected. These latter include not
only the smaller examples, but even such gigantic
specimens of man's workmanship as Carnac and
Avebury and Stonehenge, as Sir Norman Lockyer
has proved, which had been supposed hitherto to be
temples erected in the Bronze Age. In the graves
they placed rude pottery, often unbaked (not
fashioned on the wheel as in later times, but moulded

GENESIS AND SCIENCE ill
by hand), weapons and implements, beads and
other ornaments for the use of the departed ; and, at
the burial of a chief, his wives, attendants, dogs and
other animals, were slain, that he might not feel
himself lonely on the long journey, a custom which
has continued in Africa down to the present day.
All this is evidence of a belief in a future life,
and, together with the stone circles and menhirs,
testifies to a dawning religious consciousness — of
what sort will appear in our next study. The
summit of the long barrow was usually planted
with trees, and when the grave was on a natural
hill, beside the dolmen stood the menhir, and a
grove of trees surrounded it.
The Neolithic peoples in Europe belonged to the
great Iberian race, which was non-Aryan, probably
Turanian, and is represented to-day by the Berbers
in North Africa and the Basques in Spain and
France; their blood is largely intermixed with
that of their later Aryan conquerors, the Celtic and
Teutonic nations, and may be easily traced, where
it exists, as in the short, squat, dark-haired people
of South Wales, who are the modern descendants
of the ancient Silures described by Tacitus.
Neolithic man had attained one great step in
advance of his Palaeolithic predecessor — he was no
longer dependent upon the produce of the chase or
of fishing for his subsistence. He had learnt the
art of agriculture, and was a keeper of cattle and

112 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
sheep ; he had, moreover, tamed the horse, the dog,
and the cat to be his servants. The most advanced
vestiges of the Neolithic civilisation and culture are
to be seen in the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland,
where, as at Robenhausen and elsewhere, we can
discover the whole domestic economy of these
primitive people, and where continuous occupation
can be traced for several thousand years, through
the Bronze and Iron Ages, down to the period of the
Roman conquest.
The arts of painting and engraving seem never
to have been attained by the Neolithic peoples, and
do not reappear before the Bronze Age and the
period of the Mycenean civilisation in the Medi
terranean lands, but their weapons and implements
are beautifully fashioned. Their arrowheads and
spearheads and celts are not merely of chipped flint
or other stone, but are for the most part finely
polished ; they made numberless human and animal
figurines, and even sometimes carved large blocks
of stone into a rude semblance of the human
figure, usually female, and often without mouths,
like the figures found by Dr. Schliemann at Troy
and Mycenae (mistaken at first for owls), with what
object we will not now discuss ; while, in some
localities, as in Caria, Cyprus, Crete, and Spain
and Portugal, they seem to have arrived at an
alphabetiform method of conveying ideas anterior to
the formation of the Egyptian hieroglyphic or the

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 113
Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform scripts, or even
the Chinese syllabaries, out of the former of which
the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabets were de
veloped ; and it is a question now whether the later
Greek and Latin alphabets were derived from these
latter, or not rather from this prehistoric Medi
terranean script, through the Bronze Age Mycenean
culture. Curiously enough, the Neolithic alphabeti
form signs attach themselves to similar signs which
are found on pebbles among the relics of the Cave-
dwellers at Mas d'Azil, discovered by M. Piette,
the celebrated French anthropologist, whose lamented
death occurred in June 1906, and in these we have
the only link connecting the Cave men of the
Palaeolithic Age with their Neolithic successors,
except that which consists in sculpture in the round —
i.e., the figurines of women and animals, and in these
the later fabricators show no advance, but rather
a falling off in style.
A remarkable similarity of form displays itself in
the figurines fashioned by the Neolithic peoples of
the prehistoric period wherever they may be found,
whether among the early inhabitants of Egypt, as
shown by M. Capart in his excellent digest of the
labours of those who have explored the earliest
tombs at Nagada and elsewhere, entitled Primitive
A rt in Egypt ; or among the ancient Finnish popula
tion of Central Europe, themselves belonging to the
great non-Aryan, and probably Iberian race, as
8

114 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
may be seen in the Hon. John Abercromby's Pre-
and Proto-historic Finns, or among the Lake-
dwellers of Switzerland, or the Neolithic peoples of
Western Europe and our own Islands, testifying to
identity of origin, to intercourse along prehistoric
trade-routes, and, as we shall see, to community of
religious beliefs. All this will be found more fully
described in the works referred to in the Bibliography,
where also the similarity between these forms with
those fashioned by peoples in the Neolithic stage of
culture at the present day — eg., the Negro peoples
of Africa and the South Sea Islands, but not, or
at least to a very small extent, the natives of
Australia — is pointed out. The primitive art of
Egypt, where history begins some 4000 years B.C.,
goes back for thousands of years before that time,
but it held its own in Europe right through the
Bronze Age, and even down to almost historic times.
Another phase of Neolithic art is seen in the cup
and ring markings on rocks, and also on stones,
pebbles, and shells, together with circular and spiral
drawings, which are characteristic of the Age all
the world over, and are found among the natives of
Australia to-day. Judging by what we know of
their present-day significance, these seem to point
to the arrangement of society on a totemistic basis,
and can be best described, as I have ventured to do
elsewhere, as " the heraldry of primitive man." The
spirals, perfected and made more complex, survived

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 115
into the Bronze Age, as may be seen on the tombs at
New Grange in Ireland ; and became characteristic of
the Mycenean civilisation, as may be seen in the ceil
ings and wall paintings of Knossos and Mycenae and
Tiryns ; these finally achieved their highest develop
ment in the returning spiral characteristic of Late-
Celtic art, as may be seen in the weapons and
ornaments of that age ; they are continued in lineal
succession in the MSS. for which the Christian art
of Ireland is celebrated, as in the Books of Kells and
Armagh in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin ;
they were carried across the sea to reappear in the
Lindisfarne MS. of the Gospels, and are even found
on Saxon fonts, as at Deerhurst in Gloucestershire.
But this consideration of the origin and develop
ment of spiral ornamentation has carried us far afield.
The Neolithic Age in Egypt goes back to at least
10,000 B.C. ; it terminated in Northern Europe by
about 1 500 B.C., by which time the Egyptians had
passed through their Bronze Age, and had arrived
at the Golden Age of the 18th Dynasty, when they
were in the full enjoyment of Iron Age civilisation,
while the races of the Egean were flourishing under
the Mycenean Bronze Age civilisation, which was
destined to be swept away by the irruption of the
barbarians from the North, known to the Greeks as
the Dorian invasion.
In Northern Europe the Bronze Age reached
its highest point with the civilisation represented

116 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
by the discoveries in the cemetery at Hallstatt,
and by the Etruscans ; it was derived in large part
from the pre-existing Mediterranean Mycenean
civilisation, and lasted a thousand years, when it
gave place to the Iron Age civilisation which marks
the empire of the Celts, and which found its highest
expression in the culture known as that of La Tene.
In one sense the whole civilised world is at the
present time in the Iron Age, which, however, has
merged during the last century into the age of steel,
steam, and electricity ; but what we have to remember
is that these succeeding " Ages " represent succeeding
"stages of culture" in the ever-advancing upward
progress and evolution of mankind.
Neolithic man was succeeded in the Nile and
Euphrates Valleys by a bronze-using people, and
already, as soon as history begins with Menes,
4500 B.C., and Sargon I. and his son, Naram-Sin,
3800 B.C., they are in the Bronze Age, and use stone
implements, such as knives, only for sacrificial and
ceremonial purposes, as the Israelites did in the time
of Joshua, and as the Romans did down to the end
of the Republic.
In Central and Western Europe Neolithic man
gave way before the bronze-using Celts, who arrived
in two streams, first the Goidelic branch, and then,
some centuries later, the Brythonic branch, who
in the third century B.C. had founded a mighty
empire which extended from the Black Sea to the

'GENESIS AND SCIENCE 117
confines of the Western Ocean. These were in their
turn driven into ever narrowing limits by the irrup
tion of the Teutonic nations, who received from
them, nevertheless, the rudiments of Iron Age
culture, and brought with them those tribal arrange
ments which lie at the root of the present organisa
tion of society. Rome never conquered the Teutons,
but they, in their turn, felt the pressure of succeeding
hordes of barbarians from the East, until at length
the whole fabric of Roman civilisation toppled to
the ground, and the foundations of modern Europe
were laid.
Meanwhile the Bronze Age culture of the
Mediterranean, to which the name of Mycenean has
been given, from the vestiges of it discovered in
recent years in Asia Minor, Crete, and Greece,
perished before the assaults of barbarians from the
North about iooo B.C. ; the great empires of Egypt
and Babylon ran their course ; the Phoenicians — the
English of the old world — became a great nation
founded on sea-power, colonised all the shores of
the Mediterranean, traded to Britain and circum
navigated Africa ; the Hebrews were established in
Palestine, never a great power, but destined to have
an abiding influence on the spiritual destiny of man
kind ; and Greece and Rome flourished and passed
away. Time was when man first opened his eyes upon
the world in which he found himself called to live

118 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
as a conscious being. Feeble in his physical frame,
not armed with tooth and claw like the beasts among
which he dwelt, he would soon have succumbed in
the ceaseless war of Nature had it not been for his
mental endowments. Ere long some genius arose,
who discovered that, armed with a stone implement,
fashioned more or less "by art and man's device," he
was more than a match for his foes, whether they
were beasts or other human beings like himself, and
soon tools for the necessities of existence began to
be made as well as weapons of war or for the chase.
No monument commemorates this genius, no docu
ment records his name, but his fame deserves to be
as great as that of any inventor of our own day ; and
from that time to this man's advance in the arts and
crafts of life has been continuous and unceasing —
i.e., where the conditions have been favourable to
such advance. Many races have never progressed
beyond the Palaeolithic stage, as the Esquimaux,
who are held to be the nearest representatives to-day
of Palaeolithic man in Europe, and the now extinct
Tasmanians. More still have never progressed beyond the
Neolithic stage until they came in contact with
more highly civilised peoples, as the greater part of
the North American Indians, — though the Mexicans
and Peruvians seem to have been in the Bronze
Age stage of culture (at which they had arrived
independently of the rest of the world, owing

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 119
probably to the favourable conditions in which they
found themselves), and many tribes used implements
made of native copper, particularly those around
Lake Superior, — the inhabitants of the South Sea
Islands, Australia, many parts of Asia and most
parts of Africa; for the majority of these peoples
it has no doubt been a misfortune that they have
had to pass per saltum from their own primitive
condition into the very midst of our civilisation,
without any intermediate stage to soften the
abruptness of the transition.
Long ages have passed since the Neolithic
stage was left behind in Babylonia and Egypt,
where, in the alluvial lands watered by the great
rivers Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris, man seems, so
to say, to have ripened early, and where history
begins in the fifth millennium B.C.
China, also, must very early have emerged into
the Bronze, and thence into the Iron, Age, but
her isolation until recent times kept her civilisation
distinct and separate from the rest of the world,
and we have no means of discovering when the
working of metals first began there.
For us the interest centres rather in the plain of
Babylonia than in the Nile Valley, for with the rise
there of organised empire under Sargon I., Naram-
Sin, and their successors, consequent on the dis
covery of the smelting of copper and its blend
with tin to make bronze, also arose organised

120 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
religion and those stories of the origin of gods
and men which were carried by the Israelites in
their migration Westward, and which finally
crystallised into the monotheistic narrative of the
earliest portion of Genesis. For in this respect
Israel is one of the youngest of the nations, deriving
her civilisation and her religion from the East,
the child of Babylonia, as the story of Abraham's
parentage shows, with no genius for native art or
commerce, but with an inborn genius for religion,
which we are surely justified in ascribing to the
same Spirit who has guided all the evolutions of
Nature and of Man ; a genius that, through the
long line of the Prophets, manifested an ever-in
creasing distinctness of utterance till it culminated
in the Christ.
To understand the place occupied by Israel and
Israel's sacred books in the scheme of the world's
religions, it will be necessary to investigate man's
earliest religious ideas, as they are manifested in the
most primitive races of ancient and modern times,
and in doing so we shall be helped to realise how
much of primitive man there was in old Israel —
aye, and how much there is still in ourselves.
This Lecture has reached its limit, for the
question of the origin and progress of religious
ideas carries us beyond the point where we must
now pause ; but enough has been said in this brief
and all too rapid survey to enable us to realise

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 121
something as to the condition of the world when
a being worthy to be called "man" first opened
his eyes upon it, and as to the conditions of those
earliest ancestors of our race.
In this long story, in which we have only too
briefly surveyed the fortunes of the human race
since the disappearance of the last Ice Age and the
commencement of the present order of things, we
see the same phenomena as before — continued
progress in the arts and crafts of life, continued
advance among the higher races from savagery,
through barbarism, to civilisation, conditioned by
struggle and the survival of the fittest, in which,
as in the world of plants and animals, Natural
Selection plays its part. Nowhere is there any
room for a literal acceptation of the story told in
Genesis iii. ; but everywhere, as we shall see, we
find man becoming more and more a religious
being, until the universal animism with which
he begins passes through fetishism into idolatry
and polytheism ; this is the characteristic of
the great organised empires, and develops into
the mythologies of Greece and Rome; among
the Semites each tribe or nation has its own
supreme or national god, originally the Sun-god,
or Baal, the Life-giver, the Father who has over
against him the Earth-mother, as his feminine
counterpart and the completion of his being. In
this way Israel first conceived of Yahweh, who

122 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
was, as we shall see, her national god ; it was
this conception that made it so easy for the people
to syncretise his worship with the Canaanite Baals,
as was done all through her history, equally under
the two kingdoms as in the undivided kingdom
and in the times of the Judges, and to import into
it practices derived from earliest antiquity.
But God had a different fate in store for Israel,
and for the world through Israel, and therefore His
Spirit, which lived and moved in all things and in
all men, imparted a special inspiration to certain
chosen men in Israel, men who had a deeper insight
and a fuller vision than belongs to the ordinary run
of mortals, and through these, the long line of the
prophets, He progressively unfolded the revelation of
Himself. Gradually, as time went on, and through
the vicissitudes of her strange history, in which she
found herself at length dominated and brought
almost to the verge of extinction, after untold
sufferings, by the great world-powers, — first of
Egypt, from which she was wonderfully delivered
to begin her existence as a nation, and then of
Assyria and Babylon, where five-sixths of her
people lost not only their nationality and inde
pendence, but their individuality, and were absorbed
by the conquerors, and whence one-sixth alone
returned, no longer a nation nor independent, but
a Church, — Israel learnt the unity, the majesty, and
the holiness of God; with this she learnt also

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 123
an ever-deepening sense of sin, no longer merely
as a ceremonial uncleanness, consequent on the
breaking of a taboo, as will be later on explained,
but as error inherent in man's nature, in itself
abhorrent to the holiness of God, due to rebellion,
and, as manifested in outward act, needing pro
pitiation as well as forgiveness. Then it was that
pious souls in Israel gathered together and collected
the ancient stories as to man's origin, which had
been long current among the Semites in Babylonia,
and had been woven into a grand epic of the
conflict of the gods with the serpent of Chaos,
Tiamat, and of the power acquired over men by
this serpent of Chaos, who hated the introduction
of Order into the Universe, and gave them the
monotheistic colouring and the form which, after
many editings and in different periods, they have
assumed in the early chapters of Genesis. Recog
nising that man has not, in his progress upwards,
followed the line marked out for him, but that,
owing to a moral obliquity, due to the nature he
shares in common with the animals from which
he has sprung, and to the freedom of his will, the
necessary concomitant of intelligence, — in the pos
session of which, as the only denizen of earth who
is conscious of himself, i.e., the only one who pos
sesses the divine gift of personality, lies the truth
that he is " made in the image of God," — he has
chosen the life of self-pleasing, which is the easier

124 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
way, and needs to be raised out of it into the life
of self-sacrifice by " a power not his own that makes
for righteousness," i.e., by the Spirit of God, in which
alone the image of God can be restored ; — recog
nising all this in a dim and half-childish fashion,
they told the stories of Creation and of the Fall in
the only way in which they could picture the facts
to themselves, or the people of their own age could
understand them ; and they pointed ever forward
in images derived from the sufferings of their own
people to a Deliverer who should come from God,
and who, Himself human and divine, should " loose
the bands of wickedness and let the oppressed go
free." In the stories of the antediluvians they picture
their conception of man's material progress as it
had been handed down in other ancient stories
current among the Semites, and in the story of
the Deluge they picture the judgment of God
against a self-willed race, which is again exemplified
in the story of the Tower of Babel, the locality
of the tale revealing plainly from what source it
was derived; and then, just as God had a chosen
race and a chosen servant to rescue from the
Deluge, so later on He had a chosen servant in
Abraham, whom He called out of Chaldaea to be
the ancestor of the Hebrew people. Thereupon
the story narrows itself down to the fortunes of
the Patriarchs until the entry of Jacob into Egypt

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 125
and the four hundred years' sojourn there. These
stories are none of them history, but they give us
a priceless insight into the ideas of their authors
(lost in the dim mist of ages) and editors as to the
origin and development of mankind, and into the
life and circumstances of the times from which
they come down.
From these we may discover that, although, as
Prehistoric Archaeology surely teaches us, " man
is but a thing of naught, his days pass away like a
shadow," although with all his upward progress in
material civilisation he remains morally impotent
and spiritually dead, yet he is at the same time a
being of religious instincts and immortal destinies ;
for, hid in the bosom of God, there lies the Eternal
Son, the Word of the Father, who in the fulness
of time shall be made flesh and dwell among us ;
in whom we behold the glory of the only-begotten
of the Father, full of grace and truth, Himself the
Archetype and Head of humanity, who by uniting
man to Himself, and in Himself to God, shall
teach the beauty of self-sacrifice, and redeem man
from sin, which is, in its essence, selfishness and
self-will, and thus fulfil the splendid vision of the
Psalmist : " Thou madest him a little lower
than the angels to crown him with glory and
honour" in that day to which all creation, now
groaning and travailing together in pain, tends,
and for which it yearns, when "the tabernacle of

126 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
God shall be with men, and God Himself shall be
with them and be their God." x
How man pursued his path of moral and
religious development, and the part which Israel
played in the great drama, will come before us in
our next and succeeding Lectures.
NOTE A, p. 101.
The question of the existence of pre-glacial man
was at one time of great importance, and, the Glacial
Period being regarded as continuous and of long
duration, it was held that Palaeolithic man must of
necessity have been altogether post-glacial, in spite
of accumulating evidence to the contrary. Recent
research has, however, shown that there was more
than one Glacial Period, with intervening periods
when the climate was warm and genial, and a
systematic study of the remains of the Palaeolithic
Age has enabled a definite classification of them
to be made. I have followed Dr. Hoernes' system
in the text, and will here subjoin the Table in which
he exhibits it, as it is the one which the anthropo
logical world accepts to-day : —
I. First Glacial Period (Geikie, Pliocene).
I. First Inter-glacial Period : Deposit of
Tilloux-Taubach (with Elephas meridion-
alis, antiquus, and primigenius), or Chelleo-
Mousterian.
II. Second Glacial Period : Gap (at least east
of France). 1 See Note B, p. 129.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 127
2. Second Inter-glacial Period : Mammoth Age,
or Solutrian (cave bears, lions, and hyaenas).
III. Third Glacial Period: end of the Older
Pleistocene Fauna ; presence of Arctic animals
(reindeer). 3. Third Inter-glacial Period :
(a) Reindeer Age, or Magdalenian, over
the whole of Europe.
(b) Stag Age, or Asylian (Tourassian), in
Western Europe.
IV Fourth Glacial Period : Arisian (etage
coquillier), in Southern France. Simultaneous gap
over the rest of Europe.
4. Post-glacial : Neolithic Age.
The names given to the classified remains of
Palaeolithic man are derived from the localities in
which the chief deposits have been found. In
England, deposits belonging to the several periods
have been found as follows : —
1. Chelleb-Mousterian : The alluvial gravels of
the Thames, the Ouse, and the Avon ; Brixham,
Kent's, Robin Hood and Wookey-Hole Caverns.
2. Solutrian : Robin Hood and Creswell Caverns,
Derbyshire ; and Kent's Cavern, near Torquay.
3. Magdalenian : Kent's Cavern and Church Hole
and Robin Hood Caverns, near Creswell. It was
in Church Hole Cavern that the solitary specimen
of the art of Palaeolithic man — the horse's head
engraved on bone — in England was found, which
proves the identity of the Palaeolithic race in this
country with its contemporaries on the Continent.
But it must be remembered that the " British

128 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Islands " did not then exist. The " Continent "
stretched in one unbroken sweep of land many
hundreds of miles westwards of Ireland towards
Greenland. Deposits belonging to this age are
found universally from Southern Russia, Russian
Poland, and Austria-Hungary, through Germany,
Switzerland, Italy, France, Spain, and Belgium, to
England, but, curiously enough, not in Scandinavia
nor in Ireland.1
Thus, according to Dr. Hoernes, there were no
less than four Glacial Periods in Europe, and the
earliest positive remains of the human race ascend
to the first Inter-glacial Period immediately after
the Pliocene. Eolithic, or Tertiary, man, the direct
descendant of the Pithecanthropus erectus, goes back
to definitely pre-glacial times, and as we watch the
process of evolution, and note the condition of mental
and physical development attained by Palaeolithic
man, we should have to postulate his existence
even if no traces of him whatever remained.
Thus the antiquity of man is enormous ; and the
Palaeolithic Age must have endured for untold
centuries, when we think what must have been the
duration of those seven alternating periods of cold
and heat immediately before the present condition
of things in Europe was ushered in !
Indeed, we may ourselves be living, for aught we
know, in an Inter-glacial Period now, and some
geologists think that another period of cold may
supervene about ten thousand years hence. Qui
vivra, verra !
' Hoernes, Der Diluviale Mensch in Europa, pp. 7-12, 186-188.

GENESIS AND SCIENCE 129
NOTE B, p. 126.
A great deal has been said lately on the subject
of the so-called " New Theology," as propounded
by its latest protagonist, the Rev. R. J. Campbell,
at the City Temple. Mr. Campbell seems to be
obsessed by a feeling of the necessity for the
re-statement of ancient theological beliefs in har
mony with the data of modern science, and in so
far he is perfectly justified, and his aim is that
set before the writer and the readers of the present
Lectures. But in speaking as he does of the Divine
Immanence, as though it were some new idea
discovered by himself and revealed now for the
first time to the British public, and of the
"humanity of God and the divinity of man," he
shows a want of appreciation of the true significance
of Sin and of the real meaning of Atonement. He
has not grasped either the teaching of the Old
Theology, properly understood, which (as may be
seen in the Fathers, and in the writings of
St. Thomas Aquinas among the medieval doctors,
and among moderns, of Maurice, Kingsley, Robert
son of Brighton, Bishop Gore, to mention no others
and these only English and of our own Church),
is not bound up with forensic notions of Sub
stitution, but is founded on the idea of the Eternal
Son made man, and, as such, the Archetype and
Head of humanity ; nor has he grasped the true
meaning of the teaching of Archaeology and
Anthropology as to Man. The Divine Immanence
9

130 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
is, as we have seen, true and needed emphasising,
as against Deism, but the Divine transcendence
is equally true as against Pantheism, and needs
emphasising to-day as much as it ever did — God
in, and yet over against, and above, His creation ;
three Divine Persons in one Godhead, in whom
and through whom and to whom are all things ;
and Man, endowed with personality, which implies
free will, and not only possessed of the possibility
of choosing the wrong in place of the right, but
who, as all his history proves, both in the race
and the individual, has actually done so.
The best exposition of the " New Theology "
in its true outlines is to be found in the Catechism
propounded by Sir Oliver Lodge in the July 1906
part of the Hibbert Journal, which has since
been published in book form, and, as will be seen,
in it is left full scope for the Catholic Church,
or any other body of professing Christians, to
put forward their own distinctive views of the
Christian Faith.1
1 Sir Oliver Lodge, The Substance of Faith. But cf. the Hibbert
fournal, vol. v. pp. 893 seq.

LECTURE THE FOURTH
THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
RELIGIOUS BELIEF

" It may be said that man is religious in the lowest sense because
he is an animal ; religious in the higher sense because he is a man.
The material of religion, in fact, seems to have been already existent
before man emerged from the brute stage. It is perhaps fanciful
to say so, but we can hardly deny the germs of religion to the animal
world. However that may be, this religious material fills so com
pletely the narrow elemental channel of primitive life from which
all our civilisation flows, that we may alter a famous phrase and say
that, if we except the blind forces of nature, nothing moves in this
world of ours that is not religious in its origin." — Crawley, Tree
of Life, p. 228.
' ' The whole force of evolution directs our glance forward — %PV
rAos bpav is its motto. It is only the "dead hand" of the old
Deism which makes man still explain things by their first beginnings.
Everything is that which it may become, not that out of which it
came. Its explanation lies neither behind it, as materialism teaches,
nor within it, as pantheism would have us believe, but beyond it
and above it, is a moral order gathered up into a Moral Being.
'And so the whole round world is every way
Bound by gold chains about the feet of God.'"
Aubrey Moore, Science and the Faith, xlvii.
" We are born believing. A man bears beliefs as a tree bears
a pies." — Emerson.
"Children of men! the unseen Power, whose eye
For ever doth accompany mankind,
Hath looked on no religion scornfully
That men did ever find.
Which has not taught weak wills how much they can?
Which has not fallen on the dry heart like rain ?
Which has not cried to sunk self-weary man :
Thou must be born again ?
Children of men ! not that your age excel
In pride of life the ages of your sires,
But that ye think clear, feel deep, bear fruit well,
The Friend of man desires."
Matthew Arnold, Progress.

132

LECTURE THE FOURTH
"We are born believing," says Emerson; it may,
with almost greater truth, be said of the human
race that it came into the world religious, and the
Christian who believes, with the Psalmist, that man
lives under the dominion of a God who is " mindful
of him," and with St. Paul, that " God is not far
from any one of us," and that " He has not left
Himself without witness," for " in Him we live and
move and have our being," can well understand
how this should be so.
But when we come to study the origin of religion
and the dawnings of the religious consciousness
in man, we must be prepared to go back to very
crude and simple beginnings, and we must not be
surprised if we discover some races, at least, which
have never attained to the idea of a Supreme Being
at all. So large a part does environment play in
the development of man's moral and spiritual
nature. In this Lecture I shall approach the subject,
about which so much has been written that it
seems almost impossible to say anything new, but
133

134 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
which appeals to us from its bearing upon the
received Biblical view of the earliest condition of
mankind, from the standpoint of the anthropologist
and antiquary, and not from that of the theologian.
I may be permitted to look at it from the theological
side later on.
We have seen " Man " appear on the earth, the
last and highest product of the evolutionary process,
a creature endowed with reason, conscious of him
self, it may have been in the Tertiary, but certainly
at least in the Quaternary Epoch. When the truth
of this first became apparent, desperate attempts
were made, as by Prebendary Reynolds and others,
to save the traditional view of the account in Genesis
by describing the men of the Stone Age as pre-
Adamite, and by imagining some special act of God
in the case of "Adam" which started the present
human race on its career ; and even Dr. Orr makes
a similar attempt, by endeavouring to carry back
a literal interpretation of Genesis ii. and iii. to the
beginnings of our race. But all such attempts
must fail from the very nature of the case, and,
from the point of view of the historical criticism of
the Old Testament, they are as unnecessary as they
are vain.
I spoke in the second Lecture of " ontogeny and
phylogeny " as running a parallel course in the case
of the development of the perfected individual from
the germ. This same truth holds good in the case

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 135
of the individual human being and the race, and we
shall consider in our last Lecture the bearing which
this has upon the doctrine of sin.
As the individual human being advances from
childhood to youth and from youth to maturity, so
the race has advanced from the non-moral, and, if
we may say so, childish innocence of its early con
dition to the maturity of its present-day civilisation
in the case of its highest representatives ; and along
with growing civilisation and complexity of life has
come a growing sense of failure, of shortcoming, of
sin ; thus the Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron
represent in more senses than one "stages of
culture." Moreover, just as there are certain stunted
individuals who never leave their childhood behind
them, so there are certain stunted races who have
never advanced beyond childhood, so to say, in
religious or in any other ideas, by studying whom
we may hope to arrive at some notion of man's
earliest religious condition, and to trace the faltering
steps by which he was led, in the case of one chosen
people, along the path that led to Christianity.
Leaving on one side, as undiscoverable, the
question as to whether Eolithic man, if such a
being existed, had any religious ideas at all, or
whether he was not rather in the absolute uncon
sciousness of earliest childhood, the problem as to
the religious ideas of our earliest known ancestor,
Palaeolithic man, meets us on the threshold. His

136 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
only modern representatives, the Tasmanians, have
died out, while the Esquimaux have been for too
long under the influence of missionaries for it to be
possible to discover anything as to their primitive
notions. We know that ideas which must have their origin
in the very childhood of the race, and which
must be rooted in feelings derived from our
animal ancestry and unconsciously remembered,
are found to-day among savage peoples, and sur
viving as "superstitions" among ourselves, and
these will come up for notice when we discuss the
religious ideas of Neolithic man. Of Palaeolithic
man we have too few remains extant to be able to
judge with what rites, if any, he buried his dead,
and his tools and weapons tell us nothing of his
religious condition. We only know that he was a
hunter, living by the produce of the chase and of
fishing, and that thus he must have been struck
with the sublimity and grandeur of Nature as he was
overtaken by the thunderstorm in the heart of the
" forest primeval " or on the mountain-side, and no
doubt also by her gentler aspects in the beauty of
the sunset and the dawn, and these must have left
indelible impressions on his mind ; we know also
that he was an artist. Among the specimens of
his art are those drawings of the mammoth,
reindeer, ibex, horse, etc., rendered with a
freedom and skill which testify to a high artistic

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 137
capacity, as was shown in the last Lecture. These
are executed on mammoth tusks, reindeer antlers,
and other objects. Among the most spirited are
the mammoth on a portion of the animal's tusk
from the cave of La Madeleine, Dordogne, a replica
of which is in the British Museum; reindeer
feeding from the grotto of Thayngen, Schaffhausen ;
and a remarkable group from Les Eyzies, Dordogne,
representing an eel or serpent between fishes, with
two horses' heads, and between them the earliest
known representation of a man, a nude individual
brandishing a spear. There is also the solitary
specimen of his art, a horse's head, from the Robin
Hood Cave, Derbyshire, which proves that Palaeo
lithic man in the caves in what is now Britain
possessed the same artistic capabilities as his fellows
in the Dordogne. In addition to these drawings,
there are others executed on the rock-surface of
some of the walls in the very darkest recesses of the
caverns, which can only be seen by the aid of
artificial light, and which are quite equal to these in
their technique. How they were ever done is a
mystery, but that they were done with some object
is certain ; for it is an axiom in Anthropology, that
primitive man does not give himself trouble merely
for an aesthetic purpose, but always with some
practical object in view, and it may therefore be
argued with great plausibility that all these draw
ings testify to a religious instinct, and were done

138 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
with some definite purpose, the exact import of
which it is now impossible to determine.1
When we pass on to consider the religious ideas
of Neolithic man, we find ourselves in a region in
which help may be obtained from those of modern
savage races, whom I have described as being in a
state of stunted childhood, and from the super
stitions surviving among the higher races of to-day.
This is the region which has been so fully explored
in Professor Tylor's Primitive Culture, and in Dr. J. G.
Frazer's Golden Bough, as well as by a large number
of modern writers, among whom may be mentioned
Mr. A. Lang in The Making of Religion and Myth,
Ritual, and Religion, and other works, and Mr.
Ernest Crawley in The Mystic Rose and The Tree
of Life, and on which a flood of light has been thrown
by the studies of Messrs. Spencer and Gillen, Mr.
Howitt, Mr. Fison and others among the Australian
natives, Miss Mary Kingsley, Major Leonard, Mr.
Dennett, etc., in West Africa, Dr. Oldham and Mr.
Crooke in India, and a host of workers elsewhere.2
Time was when the school whose greatest repre
sentative was Professor Max Miiller held the field ;
the school, namely, of mythologists, who derived all
the gods of Greece and Rome, and, behind these,
the gods of India, from sky myths, and there is
some foundation in truth for the idea ; but it is now
recognised that the origin of religion and of the
1 See Note A, p. 164. 2 See Note B, p. 166.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 139
gods must be sought elsewhere, and is much more
complex than was supposed.
In passing from Palaeolithic to Neolithic man, we
pass from a race of hunters and fishermen to a race
or races in which agriculture was known, who had
begun to till the soil and to domesticate flocks and
herds, to use the horse, and to tame the cat and
dog. This must inevitably have produced a totally
different outlook upon Nature, and would lead to a
familiarity not merely with her sterner and larger
aspects, but with her more intimate and gentler
moods. The changing seasons, the fruitful rains,
the ripening suns, the processes and results of the
tillage of the soil, the tending of the flocks and
herds, would all have their influence on man's mind
and soul. Moreover, as the period advanced men
became more and more separated and collected
into communities and tribes united by a common
bond of totemistic or family relationship, and no
longer wandered in small groups as they had done
when food was precarious and enemies everywhere
to be feared; and thus the foundations of future
aggregations of tribes into states were laid. The
best examples of such communities are to be found
in the earliest Lake-dwellers of Switzerland, though
such settlements continued down to the Iron Age,
and even into the seventeenth century in Ireland,
and continue in Siam to-day. Herodotus well

140 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
describes some that existed in his own day. Remains
of the Neolithic Age are to be seen in all parts of
the world, and indeed it exists among the backward
races to - day ; and if we would understand the
religious ideas of Neolithic man as he existed in
Europe and Asia thousands of years ago, ideas which
yet run powerfully in our own blood, it can only
be by studying the ideas of the stunted children of
our race still in that stage of culture, as has been done
by the writers named above, and thus we shall arrive
at some understanding of the way in which, by the
providence of God, the Semitic peoples were led
to higher and nobler ideas, which culminated in
Judaism and Christianity.
" Broadly speaking," says Dr. Saleeby, " there are
two theories as to the origin of religion, apart from
such effete notions as that the revelation of one God
has been granted to all men, and that polytheism
and fetishism as seen among the savages of to-day
are developed from a primitive monotheism by a
process of degeneration." J " These two theories,"
he continues, "are first Animism," and he pushes
this contemptuously on one side, " and secondly
Ancestor-worship." This latter theory, which was
the one favoured by Herbert Spencer, receives the
support of the learned author as it did of the late
Mr. Grant Allen ; but there is really no antagonism
between the two theories, and, in my opinion, the
1 Saleeby, Evolution the Master Key, pp. 223 seq.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 141
facts derived from a study of modern savages, un
known to Herbert Spencer, and from a study of
surviving folklore and superstition among the
higher races, are all in favour of according the prime
factor in the evolution of religion to that method of
looking out upon Nature to which Professor Tylor
has given the appropriate name of " Animism."
What is meant by this term? Primitive man,
and I am speaking now only of man when he has
attained to the Neolithic stage of culture, previous
to which he may be described as being in the stage
of Naturism, is conscious of himself, and knows
that he is alive. He looks out upon Nature and sees
other creatures, beasts and birds and creeping things,
all endowed with a power of volition and of motion,
andpossessingfaculties and necessities like his own, —
eating, drinking, propagating their species, — and he
knows that they too are alive. He looks out on the
trees of the forest, and sees them bending beneath
the blast of the tempest, or gently murmuring in
the evening breeze, putting on foliage and flowers
in the springtime and summer, bringing forth fruit
in the autumn, and unclothing themselves till no
thing is left but bare boughs in the winter; and
though they have no volition or motion, he knows
that they too are alive. He cultivates his crops, and
the seed-corn, of which he soon learns to make his
bread, tells him that these also grow to maturity
by virtue of life. And this faculty of life he passes

142 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
on to mountain and plain, to sea and river, to
rock and stone, until he lives in the midst of an
enchanted world in which everything is alive, and
nothing is wonderful, because all is wonderful,
and nothing unexpected. Here, too, comes in the
greatest wonder of all. Primitive man is neither a
materialist nor a pantheist, — his outlook is not broad
enough nor deep enough for such an enlarged out
look, — but he is a spiritualist in the correct accepta
tion of the term. He explains the life that is in
everything on the theory of souls. Each and every
object and every plant and creature with which he
comes in contact is alive by virtue of the soul that
it possesses, or rather that possesses it ; and this soul
is something that is not permanently attached to
any particular creature or object, but may transfer
itself at will, and hence transformation and inter
change of souls become a part of his creed. This is
animism, very briefly stated, and it has been well
called " the seed of religion," for it lies at the root of
all man's religious ideas, of ancestor-worship among
the rest, as well as of all that later on developed into
sacrifice and sacrament.
Among primitive races we find this associated
with the arrangement of society on a basis of
totemism and a system of magic, while among
higher savages it runs into the system to which, has
been given the name of fetishism and idolatry.
If we wish to see human society at about as early

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 143
a stage as possible, we find it among the natives of
Australia. Here we have peoples who, in respect of
the " comforts " of life, are in a far more backward
condition than were the Neolithic inhabitants of
Europe, who yet have developed a most elaborate
system of social arrangements and of religion and
magic. As Mr. A. Lang has said : " As far as what we
commonly call material civilisation is concerned, the
natives of the Australian continent are probably the
most backward of mankind, having no agriculture,
no domestic animals, and no knowledge of metal-
working. Their weapons and implements are of
stone, wood, and bone, and they have not even the
rudest kind of pottery. But though the natives are
all, in their natural state, on or about this common
low level, their customary laws, ceremonials, and
beliefs are rich in variety." 1
Their social arrangements depend on a system of
marriage rules, and these are based on what is called
"totemism." The word is derived from the Red
Indians of North America, who possess a similar
system, and indeed from indications in the primitive
religion of Egypt, among the Semites and Hindus,
and from survivals in the folklore of the civilised races,
we may argue that this represents the most primitive
social arrangement of the human race. The totem
is an animal, plant, or insect representing the
1 Langloh-Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, Introduction, p. xi.

144 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
original ancestor of the human being, and this
descent is derived in the first instance through the
mother, and only as a later development through the
father. Every Australian is born into a totem clan,
or, as it is termed, phratry, and of these some tribes
have two, some four, some eight ; no member of a
totem clan may marry a member of the same clan,
but whereas the rules are simple enough where
there are only two divisions, and where descent is
reckoned through the mother, they become more
and more elaborate as the advance is made to eight
divisions, and descent becomes reckoned through
the father. The elaboration of rules certainly
argues advance, and yet though all the tribes are on
the same level of animism, i.e., attribute a living
soul to every object, making it to be what it is, we
note a curious degradation of religious ideas co
incident with the advance in social arrangements.
The tribes with eight divisions, such as the Arunta,
in the centre of the continent, are entirely without
any idea of a Supreme Being ; they carry back the
origin of things to what they speak of as "the
Alcheringa times," the " Alcheringa " being mythical
beings who lived on the earth at a time beyond
which the mind of the native cannot go, and
afterwards some ascended into the sky, and others
descended into the earth. But ere they went each
deposited a stone or stick bearing mystic signs
representative of the totem in a secret place, which

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 145
is therefore sacred, in which its spirit was enshrined,
and every Arunta child is a re-incarnation of one
of these spirits. In the other tribes, every child
belongs as a matter of course to the totem clan of its
mother or father as the case may be, but among the
Arunta and the tribes which share their belief the
child belongs to the totem of the district in which it
happens to be born, and the first thing to be done
is to seek for the " Churinga," the secret and sacred
stone or stick whose Alcheringa spirit is re-incarnated
in the child, and if it cannot be found then one
is fashioned to represent it. The depositaries
of these sacred Churinga, called Ertnatulunga, are
known to the Wirreenun, or wise men of the tribe,
but the spirits themselves are ever waiting and
anxious for re-incarnation, — their location is by some
sacred tree or spring, — and in consequence un
married girls or women who do not wish to be
mothers will hurry by the spot lest the spirit
should enter them. The only idea of the meaning
of the intercourse of the sexes which the Arunta
have is that it is the preparation of the woman for
the entry of the spirit-child who is waiting to be
born. Now all this is a highly philosophical and
closely reasoned system, and it absolutely dispenses
with any need for a belief in a Supreme Being. On
the other hand, the tribes which do not share the
Arunta belief in re-incarnation, though they mostly
have something corresponding to the belief in the

146 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Alcheringa times, do possess a belief in a Supreme
Being, and this argues that primitive man, along
with his animistic beliefs which led to fetishism and
polytheism, also possessed a belief in a high god,
which some races have lost, but which in the soil of
Israel led to Judaism and Christianity. For instance,
the Euahlayi tribe believe in Baiame, and even pray
to him ; for he is the All-Father, the Creator and
upholder of men and all things. Other tribes
believe in Daramulun, and even make rude figures of
him on the trunks of trees, but these beliefs are
kept secret from the women and children, who are
not supposed to breathe his name, and are known
only to the initiated. It has been argued by some
that this belief in the All-Father is derived from
missionaries, but on this point Mrs. Langloh-Parker,
speaking of the Euahlayi, says : " The nearest
missionary settlement was founded after we settled
among the Euahlayi, and was distant about one
hundred miles " ; and Mr. Howitt, speaking of
Nurrundere, Nurelli, Koin, Bunjil, Daramulun or
Baiame, under all which names the All-Father is
known in different tribes, distinctly eliminates all
possibility of his derivation from intercourse with
missionaries, and shows that he belongs to the
inherited stock of beliefs in these tribes, while the
very fact that his name is concealed from women
and children and from the uninitiated goes to
confirm this.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 147
Among the Arunta this belief has been lost, and
in none of the tribes is it carried to any practical
consequences; but Mr. Howitt is justified in saying,
" Although it cannot be alleged that these aborigines
have consciously any form of religion," — religion here
meaning " the worship of a Supreme Being," — " it may
be said that their beliefs are such that, under favourable
conditions, they might have developed into an actual
religion based on the worship of Baiame. There is
not any worship of Daramulun, but the dances round
the figure of clay and the invocating of his name by
the medicine-men certainly might have led up to it.
"If such a change as a recognised religion had ever
become possible, I feel that it would have been
brought about by those men who are the depositaries
of the tribal beliefs, and by whom, in the past, as
I think, all the advances in the organisation of their
society have been effected. If such a momentous
change to the practice of religion had ever occurred,
those men would have readily passed from being
medicine-men to the office of priests," 1 and may we
not add, of prophets, i.e., inspired teachers, for the
antagonism between these is of later growth ?
This is exactly what did occur among the higher
and more favourably situated races of mankind, and
above all among the Semites.
Before we leave Australia, we may just note the
1 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-east Australia, pp. 499-508, et
passim.

148 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Euahlayi belief as to souls, which is also found
among the other tribes, because it will meet us
again in West Africa. Everything that is has its
soul, but man has more than one ; and it is this
belief in the multiplicity of souls, so to say, that
leads to the belief in the deified ancestor which we
see flourishing everywhere in ancient religion, and
so to the evolution of the idea of the' high god,
Baiame, Daramulun, or whatever his name may be.
Thus the belief in a " high god " or gods is
in its essence the offspring of animism, for when
he is analysed he is discovered to be a supra-
normal human being, who is, in fact, though the
connection has in many cases been lost, the deified
ancestor of the race. He is everlasting, for he
existed from the beginning of all things, and he
still lives. But in being so he is merely in that
state which primitive man believes everyone would
be in if not prematurely killed by evil magic.
But in Australia, as in West Africa and else
where, this high god is practically of no con
sequence, for he is far removed from human affairs,
and cares little or nothing for his subjects, like the
faineant kings of the Merovingian line in France.
It is much more important to be able to enter into
rapport with and to control the spirits that animate
and rule all nature, including man, and this is done
v through the agency of the medicine-men and by the
exercise of magic, sympathetic and otherwise.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 149
Magic has been well defined as the " science of
primitive man." He sees that certain effects
follow certain causes, and he argues that the wise
men, originally the elders, then a certain class of
the initiated, will be able to produce similar results
in a sphere beyond his ordinary control. Hence
arises the power of the magician, the machinery of
witchcraft, and later on, among more advanced
races, the institution of priesthood and sacrifice,
and later still, as the final development of sym
pathetic magic, the efficacy of sacrament.
In these Lectures we are only able to take a
broad survey over a vast subject. More detailed
information and the working out of our argu
ments must be sought in the books mentioned in
the Bibliography attached. We have seen that
primitive man, finding himself in a world in which
his existence can only be maintained by struggle,
in which light and darkness, pain and pleasure, are
strangely intermingled, explains the position on the
theory that everything possesses life, and that life
is due to the animating soul or spirit of the object.
Sun, moon, and stars, earth, water, air, rocks, stones,
and trees, are all the abode of spirits who are
favourable to him or the reverse according as he
learns to control them to his purpose by his magic,
and he lives in an enchanted world in which all
things are possible to him that believes. What
civilised man calls "miracles" are no miracles at

150 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
all, for they are the natural outcome of his view of
the world ; and that rocks and stones and trees and
beasts and birds should converse together and with
him is no marvel, but just as natural as that he
himself should have the power of speech, for are
they not animated by the very same life-powers or
souls that animate himself?
This is the origin of all that, later on, developed
into the polytheism of Egyptians, and Semites, and
the classic mythology of Greece and Rome, and
survives in the sacred trees, and wells, and stones
of European folklore. This is the origin also of
idolatry, for the spirit that animates an object can
be transferred by sympathetic magic to its image,
which therefore can be rendered favourable by
propitiatory worship, or coerced into becoming so
by magic.
We have seen that the simplest expression of
the ideas of primitive man is to be found in those
stunted children of our race, the natives of Australia.
An advance forward is found among the natives
of Africa, whose system of fetishism and magic,
as described by Miss M. Kingsley and other
travellers, gives us the truest picture to be obtained
in the present day of what must have been the
condition of our Neolithic ancestors in Europe.
Their monuments are found all along the line
of their westward march from the plains of Asia,
through Syria and Northern Africa, to Western

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 151
Spain and France and the British Isles, in the
menhirs, or sacred standing stones, the dolmens,
and the long barrows, as well as in the great
temples which they erected at Avebury, Stonehenge,
and Carnac. That their system of social arrange
ments was totemistic is proved by the cup and
ring marked rocks, and the spiral or circular
engravings, as well as others, such as, in some
localities, representations of footprints, which may
have been those of "Alcheringa" ancestors, which
everywhere mark their course.
They were more advanced in their religious
ideas, and became more and more so as time went
on, under more favourable conditions, than the
Australians, or West Africans, or other modern
primitive races have ever become, but the essentials
of their religious and magical ideas were precisely
the same, and were rooted in animism. The
menhir was the shrine of a spirit, the sacred tree
was its abode ; the dolmen, fashioned in the likeness
of the earthly abode of the living, and in many cases
that very abode itself, enshrined the spirit of the de
parted chief or ancestor to whom worship was paid.
The " temples," so called, as at Stonehenge, Avebury,
or Carnac, in Brittany, which are the primeval models
of the Egyptian Karnak, of the Mycenean Baitylon,
of the Parthenon, of Baalbec, and of the medieval
cathedral in all its glory, were for the worship of
the mighty Sun, the lord and life-giver to all things,

152 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
even to " breeding maggots in a dead dog, being a
god kissing carrion," as Hamlet says ; but the line
of evolution led them, as it did most races, to
polytheism, and it was only through contact with
Israel in far later times that the European races
reached the notion of the one high God, the
All-Father, which the poor aborigines of Australia
have reached unaided, and in some cases cast off;
but which Israel attained as the result of the
teaching of the later prophets inspired to a unique,
and by other races unattainable, degree by the
same Spirit who has watched over and guided the
whole development of mankind.
The folklore of Europe to-day enshrines count
less precious relics, like flies in amber, of the
old Neolithic animistic ideas, and in numerous
instances these early beliefs were taken up and con
secrated by the Church ; or, as in the case of
magic and witchcraft, were sanctioned with terrible
results, and have thus been preserved to our day.
Here it may be permitted to notice a point in
which I am compelled to differ from the late Mr.
Grant Allen. That talented and gifted writer, in his
comments on the Attis of Catullus, of which he has
given a most beautiful rendering in English, is
inclined to derive the worship of trees from ancestor-
worship, and supports his argument by a reference
to the fact that on the summit of most, if not all, of the
Neolithic long barrows there grows a clump of trees.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 153
These, he says, were understood to enshrine the
spirit of the chief or great man buried beneath, and
thus themselves became objects of worship, which was
afterwards extended to other sacred trees.1 This, I
am persuaded, is an inadequate and unnecessary
explanation. The two things are quite distinct,
but both are a natural and necessary outcome of
the animistic view of Nature. Trees are worshipped
because, like all the rest of man's surroundings, they
are alive ; their voice, or the voice of the enshrined
spirit, breathes in the evening zephyrs, or howls in
the wintry gales, and for example, as a matter of
induction from known facts,' all the great gods and
goddesses of Greece and Rome were tree-spirits
before they were admitted to the mythological
pantheon. The ancestor or great man, chief or
medicine-man, is worshipped because he is still alive,
and powerful as in life.2 His spirit visits his
descendant or his worshipper in dreams, and the
hierophant knows that there is no such thing as
death. What seems death is only a transference of
1 Grant Allen, The Attis of Catullus, pp. 31 seq. See " Tree and
Pillar Worship," by the Author, Transactions R.S.L., vol. xxiv.
2 Natural death is an idea inconceivable to the Australian. When
a man dies it is because "evil magic" has been put upon him, and
the doer must be sought and slain. The Australian is in the same
stage of culture as Wordsworth's " Little Maid," of whom he says—
" A simple child,
That lightly draws its breath,
And feels its life in every limb,
What can it know of death?"

154 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
life to another sphere, where the influence of the
seeming dead is more powerful and more capable
of being favourably invoked than ever it was in
life. The spirits of the departed still take an
interest in, and still influence the things and people
they cared for in life.
According to the beautiful Indian expression of
the thought, " The hunter still the deer pursues,
The hunter and the deer a shade ; "
and the man who was great and powerful in life
can by worship and the exercise of sympathetic
magic be induced to use his power and impart his
strength to his worshipper.
It was stated above that both sacrifice and
sacrament have their root in animism, and derive
their potency from the notion of sympathetic magic.
The essence of sacrifice, as of sacrament, is com
munion, and we shall note, later on, the bearings of
this upon the sacrifices of the ancient world, and
upon the sacraments of the Church.
The communion is the partaking of, the sharing
in, the communication of life, and of all that life
implies. The Australian, the West African, the Fijian,
to-day, like our primitive ancestors, believes that by
eating an object he becomes possessed of its
inherent vital powers.
There is no such thing as actual priest or

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 155
sacrifice among the Australians, but he will eat his
totem animal, plant, or insect on ceremonial occa
sions, that he may share its life. The Fijian ate
his fallen foe that he might gain his strength. The
West African eats of that which he offers in
sacrifice to his fetish for the same purpose. The
essence of sacrifice lies not so much in the slaying
or the offering of the victim, — this is a much later
idea, — as in the eating of it, by which its life and all
that that carries with it becomes absorbed in, and
a part of the very being of, the offerer. But by the
time we can allow ourselves to speak of '¦ offerer "
and " victim " we have already arrived at a later
strain of ideas ; in the earlier times, as among the
Australians to-day, it is the totem, or, among other
races, the spirit of the slain object, and later, the
god himself, with whom man enters into com
munion through eating, and this idea persists and
is turned to purely spiritual ends in the Christian
Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. Thus the most
primitive intuitions of early man find their fulfil
ment and highest realisation in the most sacred
mysteries of the Christian faith, although these
include also all the deeper and more profound ideas
which sprang in later ages from the sense of sin and
the need of propitiation.1
Another method by which early man wrought to
bring himself en rapport with the spirit in sacred
1 See Note C, p. 167.

156 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
tree or stone or spring was that which has been
mentioned under the name of " sympathetic magic."
This is so called in contrast with ordinary magic
and witchcraft.
By means of these latter maleficent spirits could
be controlled and counteracted, the machinations
of enemies defeated, death dealt on a foe, and all
the complicated machinery of man's struggle with
Nature and with his kind turned to useful purpose ;
but sympathetic magic makes use of beneficent
spirits and the kindly forces of Nature, and turns
these to useful purpose.
The very idea of communion through eating is
itself a sort of sympathetic magic ; but when, as in
European folklore and folk-customs, we find sacred
trees and stones and wells adorned with rags or
other articles from the body of the devotee, or when
a sacred stone is smeared with oil, we know that
the old idea is at work, and that this is done not
with the notion of propitiation or worship, but that
the life that is in the sacred object may become a
part of the life of the offerer, and that thus he may
share in the beneficent influences which that life has
to bestow.1
1 In Ireland, sacred trees are met with in many localities, and are
of a variety of species. The mountain-ash is popularly supposed in
that country to have a peculiar virtue against the attacks of witches,
fairies, or malign influences generally. When the dairymaid churns
for a long time without making butter, she will stir the cream with a
sprig of rowan, and strike the cow with another, thus breaking the
spell. The ancient Irish believed that the first man sprang from the

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 157
Our holy wells, and gospel oaks, and holed stones
with all their mystic rites testify to the survival of
man's earliest ideas down to this twentieth century,
and they meet us on the threshold of the Christian
religion when " virtue " went out of our Lord at the
touch of the poor diseased woman on the hem of
His garment, and when " handkerchiefs and aprons "
were brought to the sick from the body of St. Paul
and healed them, and when the very shadow of
St. Peter passing by imparted healing to the sick.
This last is a very striking instance of the survival of
primitive ideas, for in the thought of early man the
shadow is a part of himself. Indeed, it is one of his
souls, and possesses all the potency that is in him
self. For, unlike other objects, man has three or
sometimes four souls.
This is the case among the Euahlayi, and among
some of the West African natives, and represents
a very early strain of primitive thought. There is
alder, the first woman from a mountain-ash. Both trees are still
believed to be endowed with mystic properties. On May Eve,
withes made of the branches of the mountain -ash are tied round the
horns of cows ; temporary hoops, formed in the same way, are placed
round churns, to counteract the spells of the fairies, always busily
engaged on May morning trying to steal the butter of the farmers.
Articles from the person, pieces of rag or other things, are hung on
the boughs of the sacred tree or dropped into the waters of the
sacred well to bring the devotee en rapport with the numen,
nowadays some saint, whose presence makes the place sacred.
Sacred trees may not be cut down, for that would be to destroy or
scare away the consecrating presence. (Wood-Martin, Traces of the
Elder Faiths of Ireland, vol. ii. pp. 114, 152-157.)

158 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
the soul proper, which animates the living man ; the
dream soul, which is wakeful while he sleeps, and
journeys far off holding communion with the
departed and the unseen, but always returns when
he awakes, for if it does not he never wakes again ;
the shadow soul, which always accompanies him,
and which must not be injured unless you wish to
injure the man himself, for it possesses all the virtue
that is in him — hence the Irish expression, " May
your shadow never grow less ; " x and the animal
soul — i.e., that which regulates the animal and
physical functions of the body.
Now, all these primitive ideas which are dealt
with in this Lecture, and which survive as present-
day beliefs among savages and in the folklore of
the European races, are found in the sacred
literature of Israel, and are themselves, accordingly,
eloquent witnesses against the traditional view of that
literature, and in favour of the view which holds to
the long evolution of our race in the sphere of
religion and morals no less than in that of the
evolution of our physical and mental being.
As Mr. Howitt says, speaking of the source of the
Australian ideas as to dreams, " How far back in
man's mental evolution this may be I am not
prepared to suggest ; " but when some scholars speak
of the " Bible and Babylon," and derive the origin
1 Compare De la Motte Fouque's wonderful story of The Shadowless
Man.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 159
of all the religious ideas found in the Bible from
Babylon, I would answer that it is necessary to go
much farther back into the past than that, and to
seek the origin of the religious ideas of Israel and
Babylon alike in the primitive ideas of our race.
At the very beginning of the Bible, following
immediately the philosophical introduction in the
first chapter, stands the earliest Hebrew story of the
origin of things (as will appear in our next Lecture),
and at the very outset there is a hint of
totemism in the fact that the animals are brought
to Adam " to see what he would call them ; and
whatsoever Adam called every living thing that was
the name thereof." Then in the garden whence
man first looks out upon the world there are the
two sacred trees, " the tree of life " and " the tree of
knowledge of good and evil/' of which the former
probably belongs to the original story, while the
latter is a later addition. The Tree of Life is the
"Living Tree" par excellence; the tree whose in
dwelling spirit is specially powerful and bene
ficent, by partaking of which man shall be
rendered immortal ; the tree which recurs in every
mythology, and is everywhere a witness to primitive
thought. Following on this we have the story of
the speaking serpent, whose subtlety exceeds that of
every beast of the field ; and finally the beautiful
touch in which the sighing of the trees of the garden
in the evening breeze is to the guilty pair as the

160 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
voice of Yahweh Elohim walking in the garden in
the cool of the day.
Again, the name " Elohim," which in later times
signified the one eternal God of the whole universe,
and is so used in the first chapter, and indeed, with
few exceptions, wherever it occurs in the Old
Testament, carries us back to those primitive and
far-away pre-Babylonian times when the ancestors
of Israel were in the animistic stage of religion ;
for what are the " Elohim " but the spirits which
animate all things, and through whom all things
live? In a few cases, as I have hinted, the plural
" Elohim " is used in later times for the " gods " of
the heathen, or even applied to the rulers of the
people, and in early times "Yahweh Elohim" may
have signified that the national " high god "
Yahweh was lord of the " Elohim," but the phrase
very soon cystallised in Hebrew theology, and
"Yahweh Elohim" came to signify God in His
covenant relationship with Israel, and is very
properly rendered the "Lord God." Then there
is the remarkable fact that the turning-points or
crises in the lives of the Patriarchs are all associated
with sacred trees and wells and stones — Abraham
with trees, Isaac with wells, and Jacob with
stones ; and at these sacred spots they build altars,
and worship the god to whom the place belongs.
(Of course in all the stories, as they have come down
to us, the monotheistic editor has been at work.)

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 161
Jacob not only has a dream at Bethel, induced by
the spirit inhabiting the sacred stone which he had
inadvertently taken for his pillow, in which the
" God of Bethel " speaks to him on his setting out on
his journey to Padan Aram, but he sets it up for a
pillar, i.e., he restores it to the position it had
occupied in the circle of sacred stones, and anoints
it with oil, a refinement on the more ancient custom
of smearing the stone with the fat of a slain beast,
and thus brings himself en rapport with and in the
communion of a common life with the god or spirit
belonging to it. Furthermore, in the account by
another hand of his return journey, he again stops
at Bethel and sets up a pillar, which he again
anoints, and pours a libation over it.
Moses has a communication from God out of a
bush which burns with fire but is not consumed ;
Joshua sets up twelve sacred stones in the midst of
Jordan ; and who does not remember the beautiful
Song of the Well in Numbers xxi. 17, 18? David
takes the swaying of the mulberry branches in the
wind as the signal of the presence of the Lord and
the pledge that He would give him the victory, but
" the Lord " is the later rendering of the tree-spirit.
Every altar in old Israel was erected on a "high
place," i.e., originally on some Neolithic long barrow
on a hilltop, surmounted by its grove of sacred trees,
and with its Asherah, or sacred post, and its Matzebah,
or sacred monolith, beside it. Solomon erected the

162 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
twin pillars, Jachin and Boaz, in front of the Temple
at Jerusalem, just as Hiram did before the temple
of Baal or Melcarth at Tyre, and as the Myceneans
erected the sacred post before the house of the god
of the Double Axe.
The consultation of Yahweh by means of the
Urim and Thummim was a piece of pure magic.
The earlier companies of the " sons of the prophets "
were just Hebrew Wirreenun, or medicine-men, as
David himself was when he charmed the evil spirit
from Saul by the music of his harp. Witchcraft and
wizardry still lingered on ; Saul consulted the Witch
of Endor, although in obedience to an earlier law he
had sought out and destroyed all the witches he
could find, and she, by her magic arts, brings Samuel
from the grave to pronounce Saul's doom.1
The story of Balaam again introduces us to the
speaking ass ; and when Sisera fought against Israel,
the stars in their courses, or the spirits inhabiting
and animating them, fought against him. And
finally, that Israel had passed through the totemistic
stage of society is seen in the number of names
taken from beasts and plants which are found
persisting to historic times, and which represent
the old totem clans, as well as in the law of the
levirate, and the prohibition of certain classes of
food ; and both Jeremiah and the 2nd Isaiah
testify to the still abiding tendencies which had
1 See Note D, p. 170.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 163
their root in totemism, while the prohibition of
tattooing, i.e. the marking themselves with the totem
crest, points in the same direction.1
All these instances, and they might be multiplied,
are, every one of them singly (and their force is
multiplied tenfold by their abundance, and when
they are regarded in their totality), as was said above,
eloquent witnesses to the fact that the ancestors of
the Israelites had passed through the very same
phases of animistic belief which characterise modern
savage peoples who have never emerged out of
animism, and which survived among them as they
survive in the folklore and folk-customs of the
cultured races to-day.
How far they were still living beliefs, even in the
time of the Patriarchs, or rather in the days to which
the original stories belong, is a moot question ; but
all the stories and the whole history have, as we
shall see, undergone thorough editorial revision in a
monotheistic sense ere they came down to us, and
we may be grateful that so much remains, as it
does also in European folklore, to testify to the
early condition of our race.
Further light will be thrown on the subject as we
proceed to study the documents in which these
ancient beliefs are enshrined, and to trace the up
ward progress of Israel till she became the bearer to
mankind of a world-religion, and the means whereby
1 Jacobs, Biblical Archceology, pp. 64-103. Isa. lxv. 3-6, lxvi. 3.

164 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
God unfolded His purposes for our race ; but enough
has been said to show that in her earlier stages
Israel differed in no wise from the rest of mankind,
and her inspiration and the revelation of which she
was the bearer is no longer to be sought by taking
literally the story she tells, nor by setting her apart
in her beginnings, and differentiating her from the
rest of mankind as having retained a primeval
revelation which all the other races of men have
lost, but by marking her providential guidance and
her unique history, through which she was led by
the hand of God to a more rapid progress and a
more vivid apprehension of the divine than the rest
of mankind were permitted to attain.

NOTE A, p. 138.
" The masterpiece of this phase of art is perhaps
the group of reindeer engraved on an antler dis
covered in the cave of Lorthet (H. Pyrenees).
First we see the hind feet of a reindeer which is
galloping away. Next comes another galloping
reindeer in an attitude first revealed to us in
modern times by instantaneous photography as
applied to the analysis of rapid movement. An
artist of our own day, Aime Morot, first made use
of the knowledge gleaned from photographs and
reproduced this action in his horses. It was un
known to all the artists of intermediate ages. The
second reindeer is followed by a doe, turning her

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 165
head to bell and call her fawn ; her action again
is like that of the deer in front of her. Between
the animals, the artist drew some salmon, as if to
fill up the empty spaces ; above the last reindeer
he placed two pointed lozenges. It has been
suggested that these constitute a signature. But
what is the meaning of the salmon ? This associa
tion of the great river-fish with the reindeer is
doubtless due to some religious idea ; the artist
combined the two species which formed the princi
pal nourishment of his tribe or clan. It is, in fact,
to be noted that all the animals represented by
quaternary art are of the comestible kinds, which
savages engraved or painted in order to attract
them by a sort of magic sympathy. Civilised man
makes hyperbolic use of the expression 'the magic
of art.' The primitives actually believed in it. . . .
" Among all these surprising discoveries,
this seems to be the most amazing ! These
paintings, consisting sometimes of over a hundred
animals of large dimensions, could only have
been executed and were only visible by artificial
light ! Why, then, did their authors take the
trouble to execute them ? Was it only to please
the eye of the reindeer hunter, when, retiring to
his cavern at nightfall, he made his evening meal
on the spoils of the chase, by the dim light of
smoking lamps filled with oil from the fat of deer ?
It is impossible to accept such an hypothesis. I
have already spoken of the magic element in the
works of art, carved, engraved, or painted by
primitive man. They show us the first steps of

166 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
humanity in the path which led to the worship
of animals (as in Egypt), then to that of idols in
human shape (as in Greece), and finally, to that of
divinity as a purely spiritual conception. The
study of the birth of religion is interwoven with
that of the origin of art. Born simultaneously,
art and religion were closely connected for long
ages ; their affinity is still evident enough to the
thinking mind." x

NOTE B, p. 138.
" Apart from diversity of race, manners, and
language, we find that along almost any section
of Africa from coast to centre, the farther the
traveller advances into the interior, the better is
the condition of the natives found to be.
"These various interior natives, in their normal
condition, I would describe as infantile. In con
fidence and suspicion, in easy anger and easy
reconciliation, in rapid demoralisation under evil
influences, in undeveloped intellect, in unenlightened
spiritual instincts, run into fetishism — in unknown
yet assuredly existing possibilities for good, they
are essentially children. They are adult neither in
wisdom nor in wickedness, but will become so as
they are trained. They live in families — the family
tie and rights of property are respected. . . . Iso
lated for thousands of years, their life can hardly be
called evil or degraded. Among them, both
pastoral and agricultural, are to be found germs of
1 M. Sal. Reinach, The Story of Art throughout the Ages, pp. 5, 6.

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 167
all the useful arts — metal working, pottery making,
spinning, weaving, etc. etc.
" In the fetichism'of the Africans we may see the
childlike outcome of an instinctive spiritual belief,
rarely presenting any opposition or great difficulty
to Christian teaching, which indeed, intelligently
presented, comes to them as a revelation of the
God they have already been ignorantly worshipping
or seeking after." 1

NOTE C, p. 155.
As Mr. Crawley says : 2 —
" The life of the savage can hardly be said to
have any other sphere than the elemental ; his
rudimentary culture is almost entirely bounded
by the elemental facts of existence.
" Let us now compare the case of the civilised
religious man. His religion does not enter into his
professional or social hours — his life is in two parts
— but that with which religion is concerned is the
elemental. This fact explains the general truth
that the more primitive stages of culture are more
religious than the later.
" We may therefore narrow our search by con
fining it to this sphere, and by looking for the
source of religion in the elemental material variously
sanctified under the names of religion and magic,
1 Tanganyika, Ed. Coode Hore, Stamford 1892. (The author
travelled in the years 1877-79, 1880, seq.)
- Crawley, Tree of Life, pp. 205-224.

168 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
superstition, animism, and taboo. . . . Religion is
the expression of something so obvious, so universal,
and so permanent, that it is one of the last things
to be recognised by man, like gravitation or the
atmosphere. " The elemental facts of life are ' secret ' and
therefore ' sacred ' — as is seen in the ' Churingas '
mentioned above — and in all the ceremonialism of
the Australians." Various illustrations are given by
the author, and may be found in his book.
" It seems," he continues, " that there is only one
hypothesis which avails to colligate these and
similar applications of sacredness to elemental
crises. All these phenomena are concerned with
one fundamental fact, and this is — Life. Through
out primitive habit it is the fundamental processes
of organic life that are invariably the subject first
of secrecy and then of consecration. . . .
" Life then, we may take it, is the key to our
problem. The vital instinct, the feeling of life, the
will to life, the instinct to preserve it, is the source
of, or rather is identical with, the religious impulse,
and is the origin of religion. . . . Sacredness is the
result of the religious impulse ; the feeling of life
is the cause." This is noticeable in regard to all
the great crises of life — childbirth, the churching
of women, marriage, puberty, initiation cere
monies, confirmation, eating and drinking, and
such like.
" The sacramental idea is a special application of
the principle of religious sacredness. When human
instincts crystallise into sacraments, religion is be-

ORIGIN OF RELIGION 169
coming codified, but the original intention of
acquiring or transmitting life and health and
strength is still present and often still explicit.
It is not the spirit of the corn and vine as such,
but the life-giving virtue of bread and wine that
is the essence of the sacrament. On the lowest
plane, food is sacred because the vital instinct
affirms its importance; on a higher plane, the
meaning is still the essence of life, eternal life
with a risen body hereafter, and now grace and
strength in a purified body, and the virtue proceeds
from the body of Christ. To eat the flesh of the
Son of God and to drink His blood gives eternal
life." This cannot be better expressed, except that
in all sacramental observances there is contained
also the idea of communion — the communication
of higher life to the worshipper on the part of
the worshipped, whether it be by water, or the
laying on of hands, or the partaking of a common
meal. The god and his worshipper meet in
" communion " and share a common life. This
idea of primitive man the Christian Church has
taken up and consecrated to the highest uses.1
1 For the statements in the text as to the beliefs of the Arunta and
other tribes of Central Australia, see Spencer and GiUen, Native
Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 52, 123-125, 126, 132 seq., 265,
335-338 ; and the same authors, Northern Tribes of Central Australia,
pp. 145, I47-I5I, 155 seq., 161 seq., 169 seq., 173-176, 33°, 606.
For the beliefs of the Euahlayi, see Mrs. Langloh-Parker, The
Euahlayi Tribe, pp. 2, 5, 35 seq. ; for the West Africans, see Miss
M. Kingsley, West African Studies, pp. 95-186, especially 169-177.

170 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
NOTE D, p. 162.
"The Hebrew prophets were believed to be
temporarily possessed and inspired by a divine
spirit who spoke through them, just as a divine
spirit is supposed by West African negroes to
speak through the mouth of the dedicated men his
priests. Indeed, the points of resemblance between
the prophets of Israel and West Africans are close
and curious. Like their black brothers, the Hebrew
prophets employed music in order to bring on the
prophetic trance ; 1 like them, they received the
divine spirit through the application of a magic oil
to their heads ; 2 like them, they were consulted not
merely in great national emergencies, but in the
ordinary affairs of everyday life. Indeed, we learn
that the old name for a prophet was a seer,3 a word
which implies that his special function was divination
rather than prophecy in the sense of prediction. Be
that as it may, prophecy of the Hebrew type has
not been limited to Israel ; it is indeed a phenomenon
of almost world - wide occurrence." (See below,
Lecture VI.) "What does distinguish Hebrew
prophecy from all others is that the genius of a
few members of the profession wrested this vulgar
but powerful instrument from baser uses, and by
wielding it in the interests of a high morality
rendered a service of incalculable value to humanity.
This is the glory of Israel." — Dr. J. G. Frazer,
Adonis, Attis, Osiris, pp. 66, 67, and cf. pp. 45-47.
1 1 Sam. x. 5, xvi. 23, etc. z 1 Kings xix. 16; Isa. Ix. I.
3 1 Sam. ix. 9.

LECTURE THE FIFTH
THE RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL

" For rigorous teachers seized my youth,
And purged its faith and trimmed its fire,
Showed me the high, white star of truth,
There bade me gaze and there aspire.
Even now their whispers pierce the gloom :
What dost thou in this living tomb ?
Wandering between two worlds, one dead,
The other powerless to be born,
With nowhere yet to rest my head,
Like thee, on earth I wait forlorn.
Their faith, my tears, the world deride, —
I come to shed them at their side.
For the world cries your faith is now
But a dead time's exploded dream ;
My melancholy, sciolists say,
Is a past mode, an outworn theme —
As if the world had ever had
A faith, or sciolists been sad !
Years hence, perhaps, may dawn an age,
More fortunate, alas ! than we,
Which without hardness will be sage,
And gay without frivolity.
Sons of the world, oh, speed those years ;
But while we wait, allow our tears ! "
Matthew Arnold, Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse.
' ' Again and again I have been haunted and almost checked by the
misgiving : What you are saying is true. But in presenting the
truth as a truth, are you not imperilling its beauty ? Are you not
making it less lovable even while you are insisting on its claims to
be loved?" — Dr. Butler, Cambridge Theological Essays, The
Christian Ideal and Christian Hope.
"It needs no prophet to foresee that the time will come when
ideas, which to-day are strange and unwelcome, will be seen to possess
a beauty of their own, to be necessary to the completeness of truth,
and to belong, no less than many which are long familiar, to the
common treasury of the kingdom of God." — Dr. Swete, Cambridge
Theological Essays.
" Be ye wise money-changers." 172

LECTURE THE FIFTH
In one of His most pregnant sayings our Lord
enunciates a principle which is eternally true, and
one which, notwithstanding, is ever being lost sight
of or forgotten. He plainly tells the " scribes and
Pharisees," the representatives of all that was
authoritative in His day in the religion of Israel,
that they were really the representatives of a " creed
outworn," that the time had come for a further
revelation of God, of which He was the bearer, and
that it would be a hopeless task to attempt to " sew
the new cloth " of the message He had come to bring
on to the " old garment " of Judaism, or to " pour the
new wine " of His religion into the ancient and dried-
up leathern wine-skins of the ritual and ceremonial of
the Law. There must be a departure wholly new :
the new cloth must be fashioned into a new garment ;
the new wine must be poured into new bottles — or,
to use a more modern phrase, the new organism,
though bearing with it the unmistakable traces of
its origin through heredity, must also inevitably
fashion for itself, and be modified by, a new en
vironment (Mark ii. 21, 22). 173

174 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
The primitive apostles were slow to learn this
lesson, and made heroic efforts to adapt the new
religion of Christ to the old environment of the
Temple. It was not until the labours of St. Paul
were justified by the destruction of Jerusalem, and
the ancient fabric of Judaism collapsed in dust and
ashes, that the final break was made, and Christi
anity started on its career of conquest as a world-
religion. No sooner, however, was her position
established than the old fatal tendency reasserted
itself, and " the Church," having formulated her
creeds and dogmas, and fixed the main line of
her ceremonial and ritual practice, settled down in
the comfortable assurance that the " truth " had been
once for all expressed, and that nothing remained
for mankind to do save to accept that which was
already determined. As long as the boundaries
of knowledge remained circumscribed within the
narrow limits of the pre-scientific era, this fixation of
belief was not perhaps of so much consequence,
although in every age there could be found those
who refused to be bound by the dogmatic utterances
of the past, and from time to time the door which
it was supposed had been closed was pushed ajar,
only to be fast shut again.
At last, with the great awakening of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of which the
Renaissance formed the literary and, so to say,
scientific side, and the Reformation the religious

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 175
side, the door received a push which none of the
forces of reaction have since been able to counteract,
and the mind of man, emancipated from the
leading-strings of a thousand years, refused any
longer to be bound, and commenced that onward
march in the search for truth in which it is our
privilege and our duty to take our part.
This applies to the view we take of the books
which contain the Hebrew and Christian revelation
equally with any other products of human intelli
gence, and it is becoming more and more widely
recognised under the stress of present-day problems.
Fortunately, neither the undivided Church, nor the
later Church in any of her subdivisions, neither the
Orthodox Greek, nor the unchanging Roman, nor
the dignified Anglican, whether in Synod or Formu
laries or Articles, has ever laid down a hard and fast
decision as to what constitutes the inspiration of
the Bible, or wherein the revelation consists, and
thus no student who brings the currents of
modern thought to bear upon the ancient Scriptures
need fear that he is going counter to any opinions
or dogmas to which he may be supposed to have
given his allegiance by the fact of his adhesion to
the Church. " We have this treasure in earthen
vessels," said St. Paul, speaking indeed of the frail
and perishing " vessel " of the body which enshrines
the spirit of the Christian teacher and dispenser of
the gospel " treasure" ; but the saying is equally true

176 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
of the human documents which convey the revelation
of God to man. And it is the part of wisdom that
this should be recognised before the new wine of
modern discoveries of God's methods has rent the
old wine-skins, withered and shrunken with the
use of a hundred generations, and before the new
effervescence of the Divine Spirit, bearing not a new
but a somewhat altered gospel, has shattered the
earthen vessels made thin and worn by time. To
drop the metaphor, the wise will welcome every
means whereby the undoubted truths of the anti
quity of man and the origin and course of his
existence upon earth can be shown not to clash
with any but preconceived notions and long inherited
opinions of what has been supposed to be the
teaching of revelation on these subjects.
And the means which appears to provide a
golden bridge on which science and revelation may
meet and clasp hands is that which is opened by
what is known as the historical, or, to use a phrase
which is much misunderstood and therefore, per
haps, feared, the Higher Criticism of the Old and
New Testaments.
This word " Higher," as I have pointed out in a
pamphlet which I have ventured to reprint, as an
Appendix to these Lectures, implies no proud or
superior standpoint. It is simply so called because,
in contrast with the " Lower " Criticism, which deals
with the differences of readings in different versions

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 177
and manuscripts, its sphere is found in the endea
vour to discover the source and origin of the
documents which underlie many of the books which
the labour of a vast army of students has proved
to be unmistakably composite, and to assign them
to their correct age and place in the history of
Israel, while at the same time viewing them in the
light of the meaning which they originally possessed
for their first writers and readers or hearers. The
process consists in the endeavour to view them in
their historical setting ; it is historical acumen that
is needed for their unravelling and deciphering ; and
thus the name " Historical " Criticism may be used
with equal justice to describe it, as being at once
truer and less obnoxious than that of the Higher
Criticism, to which some object.
I have only mentioned the New Testament par
parenthese above, as it will not come within our
purview, except incidentally, in this series of Lec
tures ; our interest is centred more particularly in
the historical portions of the Old Testament, i.e., the
Hexateuch, Judges, Samuel, Kings and Chronicles,
and a comparison of these with the views of the
Prophets and Psalmists of Israel.
After all, the science of historical criticism is, in
one sense, no new thing — it is as old as the scribes,
who taught that not the literal meaning of the
stories or events of the Old Testament was what
mattered, but the allegorical or mystical teaching

178 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
conveyed. St. Paul, who held that "the letter
killeth, the spirit givith life," was a master of this
method, as may be seen in numerous passages of
his writings, e.g. i Cor. x. and Gal. iv. Origen, one
of the greatest of the Church Fathers, was also a
master of this method, and laid down the principle
that all Scripture was to be read in three senses — the
literal, which was the least important; the allegorical;
and the mystical or spiritual, which latter was that
which alone really mattered for Christians.
Our own Church merely asserts that " Holy
Scripture containeth all things necessary to salva
tion ; so that whatsoever is not read therein nor
may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any
man that it should be received in any common
wealth," and this article was really directed by the
Reformers against the doctrina Romanensium, that
tradition was of equal authority with Scripture.
Of course, as long as it was possible to take the early
narratives of Genesis at all in their literal meaning,
the matter was not of such vital importance as it
has now become. If the world was made in six
days about six thousand years ago, and if Adam was
the first man, and the events recorded of him and his
immediate successors really took place, it mattered
not whether Moses was the author of the Pentateuch
as it stands, whether immediately through inspira
tion or mediately through earlier documents, except
from a literary point of view, and it was possible to

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 179
picture the story of Creation and of the early history
of man on earth as having been handed down in a
direct line from mouth to mouth from Adam to
Abraham through Noah, and so on to Moses, Adam
himself being the recipient of the story of Creation,
and the narrator of what happened in the Garden
of Eden and afterwards ; but in these days such
childish ideas are no longer possible, and now that
the horizon of man has been so vastly extended
by the sciences of Anthropology and Prehistoric
Archaeology, as we have shown in the preceding
Lectures, it becomes of supreme importance to see
whether a sane and reverent criticism cannot be
made the fairest handmaid both of science and
religion. Sane and reverent criticism, I say; for it
cannot be denied that a good deal of what has
passed for such, especially in Germany, has given
excuse for the accusation of irreligious rationalism,
not to speak of the blatant blasphemies of Brad-
laugh, or the more polished attacks of Mr. S. Laing.1
That it need not be so, and that the truest under
standing of the Scriptures can only be attained by
applying its principles, a short sketch of the progress
and present position of the historical criticism of the
Old Testament will show.
It was in the eighteenth century that Jean Astruc,
a French physician, who towards the end of his life
devoted himself to theological and linguistic studies,
1 See Note A, p. 209.

180 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
published his Conjectures sur les memoires originaux
dont il paroit que Moyse s'est servi pour composer le
livre de la Genese. In this he first distinguished
between the Elohistic and Jehovistic writers, and
concluded that Moses made use of an Elohim and
a Jehovah document. Eichhorn next arranged the
first fifty-two chapters of the Pentateuch under the
two writers, and proved that a difference of style
existed in the two documents so far distinguished.
De Wette pointed out the peculiarities of Deutero
nomy; and Ewald, whom all students of the Old
Testament acknowledge as a master, first pointed
out that the differences between the Elohim and
Jehovah documents extended all through the Penta
teuch, and even into Joshua.
In these early days it was supposed that the
document then named Elohistic, which comprised
what is known as " The Priestly Code," was the
earliest, and that with it were combined a his
torical Jehovistic document and the greater part of
Deuteronomy, which, with many of the Psalms, such
as the 31st, was assigned to Jeremiah.
This was the state of affairs when Bishop Colenso
shook the theological world of England with his
books on the Pentateuch, and when Essays and
Reviews was published.
Meanwhile a new school was arising in Germany,
represented by Graf, Wellhausen, Reuss and others,
and by Kuenen in Holland, with whose views the

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 181
majority of critical students are now in the main
agreed. It was seen that the old view was untenable
because it allowed for no progress or develop
ment in the religion of Israel, and this was contrary
to the principle of evolution on which it has pleased
God to order His dealings with man, as He has
.ordered the organic and inorganic worlds. If the
so-called Elohistic document was the oldest writing
in the Hexateuch, then the religion of Israel sprang
full-grown from the brain of Moses like Minerva
from the head of Jove, and to this idea the data
contained in the works of the earliest writing
prophets and in the Books of Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, not to speak of the so-called "Jehovistic"
document itself, were absolutely opposed. More
over, a closer study of the documents showed that
the so-called " Jehovistic " document was itself com
posite, and that many of the " Elohistic " passages in
reality belonged to it. It was then that Wellhausen
was led to his epoch-making discovery that the
" Prophets " came before the " Law," and with this
the whole history of Israel and her religion was
thrown into right perspective, and the chosen race
was brought into its proper relationship with the
other races of mankind.
It then became possible to place the documents
which enshrine the story of Israel and her religion
in their historical sequence, and to bring out the
progressive character of the revelation contained

182 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
in the Old Testament, and thus a great step in
advance was gained.
This is the school of criticism which was first
popularised in England by Matthew Arnold, the
brilliant poet, critic, and writer, but somewhat
flippant theologian. I can well remember the stir
that was created when, in his Literature and Dogma,
he defined " God " as " the eternal not-ourselves
that makes for righteousness," and reduced the
impulses of the Divine Spirit to a " stream of tend
ency ; " but the " whirligig of time brings its re
venges," and it caused me no surprise when, not long
ago, I found him hailed in a sober American maga
zine as " Matthew Arnold, Defender of the Faith."
As a matter of fact, it has proved true in the case
of the historical criticism of the Old Testament,
as in other instances where science and religion
have been supposed to clash, that " the Heterodoxy
of one generation is the Orthodoxy of the next,"
and the ashes of the fires which raged around Bishop
Colenso and Essays and Reviews and Matthew
Arnold are now extinct. But the activity of the
human mind will never allow controversy to die
out, and the battle still rages, though the battle
ground has been shifted. It is my humble hope
that these Lectures may do something towards
proving that in the acceptance of critical results an
eirenicon may be found for the anthropological and
religious views of the origin and constitution of man.

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 183
The principal representatives of the Graf- Well
hausen school in England at the present moment
in its main outlines are Professor Cheyne on the
advanced, and Professor Driver on the more moder
ate, side. The former has done yeoman service in
the cause of criticism, and is permeated throughout
with a reverent dependence on the guidance of the
Holy Spirit of God ; but in certain of his theories
he has gone beyond what a sober criticism warrants,
and as regards the stress he lays upon the notion
of a North Arabian land of Muzri, and the import
ance of Jerahmeel, he may even himself be inclined
now to agree with Professor Petrie in his proofs of
the real dominion of Egypt over the Sinaitic
Peninsula and the consequent disappearance of
any necessity for an independent " land of Muzri,"
and in his sarcastic references to "the dominance
of Jerahmeel in a large part of modern critical
literature." x The latter has done a splendid work
in showing how the latest results of criticism are
compatible with a reverent regard for the real
inspiration of the Old Testament and a right
understanding of its moral, and spiritual teaching.
Not only in Germany, where thought is perhaps
freer than anywhere else in the world, nor in our own
country, where we are still to a certain extent under
the dominion of formulas derived from the past, but
1 Compare Dr. Schmidt on "The Jerahmeel Theory," Hibbert
Journal, vol. vi. pp. 322 seq.

184 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
also in France, among the more learned priests and
laymen of the Roman Church, the " Zeitgeist," as
Matthew Arnold loved to call it, may be felt, and
the new light which is shed by historical criticism
upon the books both of the Old and New Testament
is finding acceptance. It will suffice to mention
M. Loisy, M. Houtin, and Pere Lagrange. The book
by the latter on Historical Criticism and the Old
Testament has been translated into English under
the auspices of the Catholic Truth Society, and is
published with the imprimatur of the Roman Church,
notwithstanding that it certainly contravenes the
dictum of the Vatican Commission on Biblical
Criticism with respect to the Mosaic authorship of
the Pentateuch.1
It is time, then, that we should state, with as much
brevity and yet perspicacity as our space permits,
the results at which Biblical scholars have arrived as
1 Since the words in the text were written, Pope Pius x. has issued a
new Syllabus, and has followed it up with an Encyclical in which the
doctrines of the "Modernists," as they are called, are wholly and
emphatically condemned — the " Modernists " signifying such men as
Father Loisy and M. Houtin in France and Father Tyrrell in England.
This attitude makes one despair of the official Roman Church, and
forces one to conclude that there is more hope for enlightened ideas at
the hands of a statesman like Leo XIII. than at those of a " saint " like
Pius X. But practically the Pope is helpless in the grasp of the Vatican
camarilla, and in that group of medieval schoolmen the principles
that condemned Galileo still hold sway. Roma non movebit is as
true as it ever was, and we may thank God for the freer atmosphere
of our own historic Church. See " Prospects of Modernism," by
Father Tyrrell, and cf. "The Papal Encyclical," by Father Gerard,
S.J., Hibbert Journal, vol. vi. pp. 241-263.

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 185
to the source and origin of the documents which
compose the Old Testament, and when this is done
it will be possible to show the bearing of these
results upon the problems of Anthropology and the
Christian doctrines of Sin and Salvation.
The earliest writers of Israel whose works have
come down to us substantially as they left them, are
the two prophets of the Northern Kingdom, Hosea
and Amos, in the eighth century B.C., and contem
porary with them was the compiler who combined
the documents J and E into the narrative JE.
This compiler has done his work so well that at
times it is difficult to disentangle the constituent
parts, but for the most part he has allowed each
author to tell his own story, and where, as in the
case of the selling of Joseph into Egypt, he has
combined the two stories into one whole, it is
possible by careful study to discover the portions
that belong to each. This document runs right
through the Hexateuch and the Books of Judges
and Samuel, and was continued afterwards by the
Deuteronomic editor to the end of the Books of
Kings. This is known as " the Prophetic History."
The close of the eighth century witnessed the
activity of the prophet Isaiah, and was signalised by
the reformation of Hezekiah in Judah. Upon this
followed the long reign and apostasy of Manasseh,
and then at the close of the seventh century took
place the great reformation of Josiah, which was the

186 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
last expiring gasp of Hebrew pre-exilic religion.
This received its impetus by the finding of the
" Book of the Law " in the Temple. This " Book "
consisted of the central portion of our present Book
of Deuteronomy. It was evidently quite new a and
previously unheard of when first " found," and was
due to the activity of a special school of prophets
speaking in "the spirit and power" of Moses to a new
generation as Moses would have spoken had he then
been living. This school is known as that of the
Deuteronomists, and by them the already combined
document JE was re-edited and combined with D,
making the composite document JED. Jeremiah,
the greatest of the Deuteronomists, though not himself
the author of D nor one of the compilers of JED,
continued his active ministry to the fall of Judah
and the commencement of the Captivity. During
the Exile the voice of prophecy was not silent, and,
among others, Ezekiel bore the message of Yahweh
to his afflicted people. He was a priest, and in the
last chapters of his book he describes the worship
and practice of the pre-exilic Temple under the guise
of a reconstituted Temple service in the future.
Contemporary with him was the last and greatest
exponent of the old prophetic religion of Israel, the
great prophet of the Exile, whose message is con
tained in the last twenty-seven chapters of the Book
1 It was thought necessary to commune with a prophetess about
its validity (2 Kings xxii. 14 seq.).

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 187
of Isaiah, and which commences with the cry so
well calculated to cheer the hearts of the fainting
exiles : " Comfort ye, comfort ye My people, saith
your God." But the day of the prophet was past, and
prophecy henceforth takes another tone — the day
of the priest had come. Following up the line
indicated by Ezekiel, some among the priests
embodied the previously unwritten practice of the
Temple in the Law of Holiness, H, which forms the
greater part of our Book of Leviticus, while others
compiled a document which commences with the
creation of the world, Gen. i.-ii. 4, and which runs
through the whole Hexateuch pari passu with JE
and D, and is known as P, or the Priestly Code.
After the Captivity, when the exiles returned to
their own land, the documents JED, H, and P
were once more edited and combined to form our
present Hexateuch, and it was this finished book
which was published on the occasion of the great
Feast of Tabernacles recorded by Nehemiah. To
the period of the Exile must also probably be
assigned the Book of Job, which, under dramatic
guise, describes the sufferings and subsequent
restoration of Israel, the man of God.1 The Book
of Psalms, containing, in the first book, some pre-
exilic compositions, finds its highest inspiration
during the Exile, and down to Persian and even
1 Professor Cornill, Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old
Testament, makes Job post-exilic.

188 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Maccabean times, and was the sacred Hymn-book
of the second Temple.
In the fourth century B.C. the Chronicler compiled
his history in the spirit of P, and continued down
to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, and in the
same spirit lived and worked the latest prophets,
Zechariah and Malachi; while about the same
time the compiler of the Book of Daniel, which
is largely written in the Aramaic or new Hebrew
of the day, and contains numerous Greek words
and phrases, commenced the era of Apocalypses
with which the later Hebrew literature so largely
abounds. In the same age were collected the
ancient proverbs and wisdom - sayings of the
Hebrew people, and published as " The Proverbs of
Solomon," that great king having a reputation for
" wisdom " which made his name an appropriate
one to which to assign these " sayings " ; and to
him also was assigned the melancholy scepticism of
the author of Ecclesiastes. These led up to the
Wisdom of Solomon and to Ecclesiasticus and
the later " Wisdom " literature, which, like the later
Apocalypses, were not admitted into the Canon of
Sacred Scripture. Finally, a place was found for
Esther, because it told a splendid story of the Exile,
and explained the origin of the Feast of Purim ;
for Ruth, because it contained a beautiful picture of
life in old Israel, and bore upon the origin of the
family of David ; and for the exquisite little col-

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 189
lection of old Hebrew folk - songs belonging to
marriage rites, which is known as the Song of
Solomon, and about which the members of the Great
Synagogue hesitated long as to whether it " defiled
the hands " or not, i.e., whether or not it should be
admitted into the Canon, finally deciding in its favour.
With this brief summary of the results attained
by criticism as to the true sequence of the docu
ments which make up the literature of the Old
Testament, it becomes possible to take the docu
ments themselves, and discover what their writers
really held and taught, and thus to trace the course
and onward sweep of God's progressive revelation
of Himself to Israel, and through Israel to the world.
Already to the prophets Amos and Hosea Israel
is God's people in a peculiar and distinguishing
sense, and she is apostatising from Him. "You
only have I known of all the families of the earth,"
cries Amos, " therefore I will punish you for your
iniquities." Under the guise of a faithless wife
Hosea teaches the same lesson. Hosea knows the
story of the birth of Esau and Jacob, and how the
latter kept sheep for his wife in Syria, and asserts
that " by a prophet " (unnamed) " Yahweh brought
Israel out of Egypt, and by a prophet he was
preserved." Therefore Yahweh is Israel's " God
from the land of Egypt." So Amos refers more
than once to the fact that God had brought Israel
out of Egypt, — Israel is " the whole family which

190 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
I " (Yahweh) " brought up from the land of Egypt " ;
and twice over he mentions the forty years' wander
ing in the wilderness, showing that this was a well
established tradition in his day. All this points to
a long course of history before the Prophets' time —
how long they only leave to be inferred — and points
also to the deliverance from Egypt, the desert-
wanderings, and the " taking possession of the land
of the Amorite " as having been the commencement
of the national life of Israel.
It is to JE that we turn to discover Israel's ideas
in the eighth century as to the then already
lengthy course of her history, and to trace the
development of the religion of Yahweh.
From various indications, such as the prominence
given to Judah in J's contrasted with the pro
minence given to Reuben in E's narration of the
Joseph-story, we discover that J belonged to the
kingdom of Judah, and E to the Northern King
dom ; both were at work collecting and committing
to writing the ancient legends and traditions current
in Israel in the ninth and eighth centuries, and, for
the most part, as stated above, their narratives are
kept distinct by the compiler.
Thus he allows J, who seems to have been a man
of simple and earnest temperament, with the child
like simplicity, reverence, and faith of the poet, to
tell the story of the world's early days, of Adam
and his descendants, of Noah and the Flood, of the

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 191
division of the earth among the sons of Noah, of
Nimrod and the Tower of Babel,1 and does not
introduce E, who appears to have been a more
practical and prosaic writer, until the time of
Abraham.2 J would seem to have revelled in the
folk-tales and in the stories which embodied the
consciousness of the people from the remotest past,
and he tells these tales without comment, and with
all the frank anthropomorphism which had already
become repugnant to E, and the compiler leaves
them as they stand, although they presented a very
different conception of God to that which was
current in his own day.
Besides the stories derived from tradition and
transmitted from mouth to mouth through many
generations, in which Israel pictured to herself the
early condition of the world and man, which stories
embodied ideas descended from Neolithic and
Bronze Age times, principally from Babylonian
sources, and the legends of the Patriarchs from whom
Israel derived her origin, which legends in reality
embody the recollection of the early tribal struggles
from which she evolved, in the form of stories in
which the tribes are personified and become the
eponymous heroes of the nation — exactly as was
the case in the early Greek legends — we find traces
in JE of earlier written documents which are in
corporated in the narrative. The Song of Deborah,
1 Gen. ii. 4-v., vi.-ix., xi. 2 Gen. xv.

192 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
for example, in its fire and flow, is evidently con
temporary with the prophetess, and the Blessings of
Jacob and of Moses are also drawn from very old
material. Further, mention is made of other sources,
such as "the Book of the Wars of Yahweh," which
evidently contained a narrative of the struggle of
the tribes of Israel after their emergence from
Egypt, and from which is quoted the beautiful Song
of the Well in the Book of Numbers, and " the Book
of Jashar " ; while for later times the continuation of
the "prophetical document" mentions numerous
sources, such as the Book of Gad the seer, of Nathan
the prophet, etc.
An original source is also to be discovered in the
Book of the Covenant, both in its longer and shorter
recensions, which may very well contain material
from the hand of Moses himself, such as the original
form of the " Ten Words " (without the priestly
commentaries on the Second and Fourth Command
ments), but which points notwithstanding to a long
continued agricultural life on the part of the people.1
Israel herself, as previously stated, was the
youngest of the nations. Her history cannot be
said, in any strict use of the term, to commence
before the Exodus, which Kuenen dated in 1320 B.C.,
but which Professor Petrie brings down still further
to ten years before or after 1285 B.C., if indeed we
can speak of actual history before the time of
1 Ex. xx. -xxiv., xxxiv.

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 193
David. The histories of Egypt and of Babylon,
from which latter country she derived her origin,
ascend to more than three thousand years before this
date, and four hundred years before it the Mycenean
Bronze Age civilisation of the Egean had attained
its zenith.
The only thing that differentiated Israel from her
neighbours, from the point of view of world-import
ance in the future, was the fact that she possessed
a literature which was destined, as the vehicle of a
religion which gave birth in process of time to a
world-religion, to be never lost sight of; whereas
the histories and religious opinions of these neigh
bours, greater and mightier than herself, were for
ages lost, and have only been recovered during the
last hundred years by the spade of the excavator,
and the patient labour of scholars in deciphering the
remains of civilisations so long perished and un
known. Whence was this ?, It was because Israel, under
the inspiration, as we believe, of the living Spirit
of God, and through the influence of the Prophets,
commencing with Moses, who were the living
vehicles of revelation, attained in a manner peculiar
to herself, at a comparatively early period, to
adequate notions of God, of man's relationship to
God, and of the worship due to Him.
As we study the document JE, now under con
sideration, we can observe the evolution of the
r3

194 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
ideas of God, of man, and of religion, in Israel,
up to the eighth century B.C.
Like the religions of Egypt, of Babylonia (from
which her own was more directly derived), of Greece,
and of all the nations of antiquity, Israel starts
from ideas rooted in animism, fetishism, and poly
theism, which have come down from Neolithic times,
which to a more or less advanced degree mark the
savage races of to-day, and which, in the shape of
folklore and fairy tale, find their echoes among
ourselves. In the account given by J of the first man and
woman in the beautiful garden from which they
are expelled for disobedience to the behest of
Yahweh, and of the subsequent fortunes of the
antediluvians, we have a comparatively late but
thoroughly poetic picture of the way in which the
story-tellers of Israel tried to explain the origin of
civilisation and the mysteries of sin, sorrow, and
death. We can trace the old animistic religion in
the part played by the serpent and the two sacred
trees in the garden ; and Yahweh is, as previously
stated, frankly anthropomorphic, although He
clearly stands out as the Maker and Ruler of
man, which is a step in advance, and marks the
late emergence of the story as we have it.
In the account of the days before the Deluge we
find the B'ne ha-Elohim, the spirits of the air, having
intercourse with mortal women, and their progeny

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 195
in the " giants who were in the earth in those days,"
a story which may be paralleled in every race, and
which survives in the stories of giants which delight
our children.
In the story of the Garden of Eden Yahweh is,
apart from later touches, no more than a magnified
man, resembling closely, though on a slightly higher
level perhaps, Daramulun or Baiame, or the All-
Father of the Australians, Unkulunkulu of the
Zulus, Nzambi, Mbuiri, or Tando of the West
Africans and others, the principal distinction being
that whereas these and other savage races have
never advanced to any higher ideas owing to the
unpromising nature of their environment, civilised
man, commencing with the Semites and, above all,
the Prophets of Israel, has been ever advancing
towards more and more spiritual ideas of God.
Yahweh meets man in friendly intercourse, he walks
in the garden in the cool of the day, he brings the
animals to man to see what he will call them, but
he also commands and punishes.
When the Tower of Babel is being built, Yahweh
hears a rumour of it up in heaven, and comes down
to see what is going on, whereupon, in dread lest
man should become too powerful, he confuses their
tongues, and brings about the dispersion of the
nations. Passing on to the stories of the Patriarchs,
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, we find in these a

196 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
highly idealised picture of what the inspired writers
of the eighth century conceived to be the origin of
their own race, together with much material derived
from primitive traditional ideas, which had still a
living force in that age.
Whether Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his sons
represent actual individuals is not relevant to our
subject. It is possible that they do ; but what is
certain is that under the form of biography they tell
us what was traditionally current as to the move
ments of the Israelitish clans before they crystallised
into a nation, and they also, in the characters drawn,
give a wonderfully accurate portrait of the several
characteristics of the Hebrew people.
In Abraham we see the Puritan who obeys the
inner call, which he recognises as the voice of
Yahweh, and, like a true Semite, abandons the
ancient civilisation and cult of the Chaldean empire,
throws off the shackles of city life, and goes out
into the unknown to lead the simple life in direct
dependence upon God. In Isaac we see the quiet,
contemplative man, who communes with the
Unseen, and is so filled with the spirit of other-
worldliness that he becomes the prey of his more
worldly relatives. In Jacob the keen business
capabilities and cunning of the race stand pro
minently out.1
J tells us of direct theophanies and visions of
1 See Note B, p. 211.

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 197
angels ; E tells us of communications by means of
dreams and oracles, and it is he also who tells us
of the early struggle to put down the practice of
human sacrifice,1 which had descended from
Neolithic times, and was a marked feature of the
Chaldean cult, as it was of the surrounding nations,
Moab, Phoenicia, etc., and which is to be found in
all survivals of primitive religion, whether it be the
Greeks and Romans, the Mexicans when first dis
covered, or in Ashantee, Dahomey, and other West
African tribes down to the present day — the practice
being founded on a primitive instinct of the human
mind to seek communion and fellowship with the
deity through the offering of the most precious human
possession, and thereby to secure the favour and
protection of the divinity worshipped.
It never seems, however, to have had a place in
Egyptian religion at any period.
In other respects also the stories of the Patriarchs
are full of reminiscences of primitive religion. When
the ancestors of the Hebrews first entered Canaan,
they entered a land in which the ancient animistic
beliefs were emerging into a higher faith — the cult
of the Baal, the lord of the land— but in which the
practices of animism still held sway.
Thus we find Abraham setting up his altars to
Yahweh under the sacred tree which marked each of
the localities chosen for his halting-places; Isaac
1 Gen. xxii.

198 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
worships at the holy wells ; and Jacob not only
worships at the dolmens which marked the resting-
places of Neolithic warriors, and consecrates these
shrines of ancestor-worship to the cult of Yahweh,
but associates himself with the worship of the sacred
pillar which marks the presence of the divinity, and
he also enters into communion with the deity who
dwells therein by the ceremony of anointing with
oil — a refinement on the more ancient smearing with
the fat of the sacrifice, of which the god and his
worshipper then partook. Jacob also sets up
boundary-pillars and " heaps of stones " to mark off
the territory of Yahweh from that of his neighbours,
from whence Yahweh may keep watch and ward over
his land. It is in the camp of Jacob, too, that we
find mention made of the teraphim, or figurines, like
those described on p. 113, which represented the
household divinities of the tribe, as did the Lares
and Penates of the Romans, the place of which is
taken by the figures of the saints, or the sacred
pictures, in every house in countries owning allegiance
to the Roman and Greek Churches to-day.
It should be observed here that in speaking of
" Yahweh " in the age of the Patriarchs we do so by
a prolepsis, of which JE sets us the example; for
the cult of Yahweh as the national God of Israel was
not established until the time of Moses, and was the
fruit of his work. It is going too far to say with the
Encyclopedia Biblica that Moses himself is unhistori-

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 199
cal, and to hold it doubtful whether such a personage
in fact existed. I believe that a sane and sober
criticism, while holding that much which is attributed
popularly to Moses is unhistoric, including the whole
of the Deuteronomic and Priestly legislation and a
great part of that comprised in JE, must yet admit
that the exodus from Egypt is a historic fact, that
it was the work of Moses, who was a great leader
and legislator, and the reformer of the national faith.
The recent book of Professor Petrie, Researches in
Sinai, has made it probable that the numbers of
those who came out of Egypt have been enormously
exaggerated, through the rendering of " Alef" by
" thousand " instead of " family," and that the actual
number of heads of families was about 5000, a body
quite capable of being supported by the resources of
the country during a prolonged stay in the Sinaitic
Peninsula, and also of forming the nucleus of the
host by whom the very gradual conquest of Canaan
was undertaken, — whether the manna could have
been snow seems very doubtful, — but all the details
of the story, so far as historical, become hereby very
much simplified.
Moses was not, indeed, in any sense a monotheist —
the time for monotheism had not yet arrived. The
religion he taught was henotheism and monolatry,
as may be seen in the very phraseology of the first
three of the " Ten Words." Yahweh is the God of
Israel, and it would be gross ingratitude for Israel to

200 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
worship any other gods. He had been worshipped
in Egypt apparently under the form of an ox or calf,
a worship which Aaron strove to perpetuate, and
which was re-established by Jeroboam I., but Moses
would have none of it. Yahweh's dwelling-place is
on Sinai, where the people heard his voice in the
thunder, but saw no similitude, the only visible tokens
of his presence being the lightning flashes which
accompanied his manifestation.
Besides his dwelling-place on Sinai, Yahweh was
also locally present in the camp of his people in the
Ark, which was their most sacred possession, and the
pledge of that presence lay in the block of unhewn
stone which the Ark enshrined. This was entirely
on the lines of primitive religion, and its counterpart
is to be found in the unhewn or roughly hewn stones
of Palaeolithic and Neolithic times, and in the
aniconic stones and baetylic altars of the Mycenean
cult. The work of Moses consisted first in the
leading of Israel out of Egypt at the behest and
under the protection of Yahweh whose servant he
was, and then in the purifying and reform of a long
established cultus, and in the legislation, the outlines
of which are contained in the " Ten Words " and the
Book of the Covenant, both in its earlier and later
recensions (Exodus xxxiv. and xx.-xxiii.). To him
also, as is plainly witnessed in the Oldest Document,
is to be attributed the earliest adumbration of the
idea of the holiness of Yahweh, which, although it

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 201
had its origin in the primitive notion of " taboo," yet
received from Moses the first outline of that ethical
significance which in the hand of the succeeding
" Prophets," of whom he was the first, received its
gradually increasing spirituality, and became under
the Priestly Code the dominant note of Israel and
the God whom she worshipped.
But the reforms to which Moses gave the earliest
expression had little effect upon the nation for
generations after, as may be seen when the older
documents which run through the historical books
from Judges to Kings are separated from the pro
phetic and Deuteronomic additions, and when we
remember that it was the practice of later historians
to throw back into the past the customs of their own
age. Thus even in the eighth century the notion
entertained of Yahweh was still very crude, and
the cultus retained to a considerable extent the
characteristics of earlier times.
In the Song of Deborah, as in some of the earlier
Psalms (though perhaps in these the idea was more
poetic than real), Yahweh still has his abode on Sinai,
whence he comes to fight for and bring deliverance to
his people.
Jephthah practises human sacrifice, and, in his
remonstrance with the king of Moab, he asks him why
he cannot be content with the land which Chemosh
his god has given him, and leave to Israel peaceful
possession of the land which Yahweh her God has

202 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
given her — Chemosh being recognised as the god
of Moab in as true a sense as Yahweh was the
God of Israel. Here, however, we must also notice
the earliest historical recognition of Canaan as
Yahweh's land, because he had given Israel pos
session of it, and the transition to the belief that
Yahweh had abandoned his ancient abode on
Sinai, and taken up his dwelling in the land which
he had given to his people, became easy, and the
way was prepared for the further belief that he had
ousted the Baals of Canaan, but must nevertheless be
worshipped at the old shrines and in the old way,
and thus the syncretism of early Israelitish religion
in Canaan becomes easily explicable.
In the days of Eli the Ark, which enshrined the
presence of Yahweh at Shiloh, fell into the hands
of the Philistines, and no real prosperity could
accrue to Israel until it was restored. Yet Canaan
is still Yahweh's land, and one of the reproaches
which David levelled at Saul consists in the fact
that, having driven him out of Yahweh's land, he can
no longer worship Him, but must perforce worship
the god of the land in which he had taken refuge.
Looking at Yahweh in this light, as the national
god, it was perfectly natural for Solomon to build
altars at which his foreign wives could worship
the gods of their respective nations, though we may
sympathise with the horror expressed by the
Deuteronomic editor at the practice.

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 203
Elijah, on Mount Carmel, when he had repaired
the altar of Yahweh which had been allowed to fall
into ruins, — the significance of which will be referred
to later, — does not reproach Israel for forsaking the
only God for a false one, however much this may
have been read into the story, but only in that they,
the people of Yahweh, have allowed themselves to
be seduced by Jezebel to worship the Tyrian Baal
or Melcarth.
The question now arises : What were the charac
teristics of the cult of Yahweh in Israel up to and
including the eighth century ?
To answer this question we must free our minds
from all ideas derived from the statements of later
writers, who, as we have said, were in the habit of
projecting into the past the thoughts and practices
of their own times, and we must confine ourselves
entirely to the data contained in JE and the pro
phetical continuation of his story to his own time,
apart from all Deuteronomic and Priestly additions.
Casting a broad and comprehensive glance over
the material thus provided, the first thing to strike
us is the fact that the religion of old Israel was free,
joyous, and unconstrained. No problems of sin and
judgment and the inequalities of life bore as yet
upon the nation. Israel kept her weekly and
monthly feasts, her " sabbaths and her new moons " ;
and an annual feast, at the place where the Ark
of Yahweh was located, which corresponded with the

204 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
ingathering of the harvest, while there are traces in
early times of two other feasts which were afterwards
developed into those of the Passover and Tabernacles ;
but, as their name implies, these were occasions of
joyful gatherings of families and tribes, or of the
nation, when the worshippers, after entering into
communion with Yahweh by a partaking in common
of the flesh of slain beasts, the choicest parts of
which belonged to Yahweh and were consumed by
the priest if he were present, indulged in festal
dances and merry-making. The advent of a
stranger, especially if he were a prophet, was also the
occasion for a festal sacrifice (i Sam. xvi.). Wor
ship was offered to Yahweh, who had taken the
place of the Canaanite Baals as the Lord of the land,
in the high places, consecrated from of old, and
originally, probably, the scenes of Neolithic an
cestor-worship, and "under every green tree," i.e.,
the trees accounted sacred from ancient times, the
"juju" trees of the aboriginal tribes, and beside
sacred wells and streams, and old Neolithic cairns
and dolmens, which were usually on elevated ground.
These would serve as altars for worship, or, in their
absence, the unhewn altar would be set up, and
beside it would stand the sacred pole, the Asherah,
and the sacred stone, the Matzebah, the shrines of
the deity whose presence they represented and
ensured. An altar of this kind was the " altar of
Yahweh" which Elijah repaired on Mount Carmel;

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 205
and even the temple of Solomon was not considered
complete until the twin " Pillars of the House,"
as at Knossos and Mycenae, were erected in front
of the Porch.
In connection with all these survivals in religious
thought and practice derived from the old animistic
faith, there was, as might be expected, much super
stition, which had its roots in fetishism such as we
find in modern savage religions, and of which so
much survived to be a dark blot on medieval
Europe. The belief in witches and in witchcraft was uni
versal, and the practice of magic was very prevalent.
It is as easy, if not easier, for primitive man to be
lieve in malevolent as in benevolent spirits ; for
while the evil spirits are very active, and do untold
mischief to crops and flocks and herds, and deal
death and destruction on the wings of stormy wind
and tempest, and in the blast of the murrain and
the pestilence, the good spirits are often lethargic
and inactive, or sit in silent contemplation at a
height far removed from the world of men and
affairs. Magic is the religion of primitive man as
it affects the evil spirits, and the belief in it was as
potent in old Israel as it was in Europe down to
recent times. The best minds in Israel, taking for
granted the reality of the powers of magic and
witchcraft, set themselves steadily to put down the
evil thing in the interest of the true religion of

206 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Yahweh. Even the oldest Code contains the enact
ment, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live," and
this was repeated, with further details, in the later
Codes. Yet Moses himself was a great magician,
as witness the plagues of Egypt, many of which
were matched by the magicians of Pharaoh's court.
Balaam was a great magician, and when Yahweh
turned his sorceries against Israel into blessings, he
bewitched the people so that they turned aside to
follow Baal-peor.
When Abimelech made himself king in Shechem,
it was a " wise woman " who caused his overthrow.
Saul, the first recognised king of Israel, set himself
to root the witches out of the land with a zeal as
great as that of Matthew Hopkins, the celebrated
witch-finder of King James's time ; yet he himself
was believed to be bewitched by an evil spirit which
caused all his troubles, and which later writers called
" an evil spirit from Yahweh," implying that it was
sent to punish him for his disobedience to Yahweh's
behests, and it was only the music of David's harp
that could bring relief to the unhappy monarch.
In these days we should say that Saul suffered from
melancholia and passing fits of madness, the
paroxysms of which were soothed by the strains
produced by the shepherd-lad — an effect which is
testified to by Shakespeare, and beautifully described
in Browning's Saul.
In spite of his vigorous proceedings against the

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 207
witches, it is Saul who in the crisis of his fate is glad
enough to have recourse to one, to find, if he can,
some alleviation for his troubled soul ; and the Witch
of Endor is recorded to have brought Samuel from
the tomb by her necromantic arts, but only to pro
nounce Saul's final doom.
David was reconciled to Absalom by the device
of Joab in bringing a " wise woman " from Tekoah
to influence the king in favour of his son.
Jezebel, a much maligned woman, whose only real
object was to introduce something of the civilisation
and amenities of life which characterised the court
of Tyre into the barbaric court of Ahab, was
denounced as a witch and met a witch's fate at the
hands of Jehu. This is not to say that Elijah
was not right in opposing her projects, for in
leading the people to worship the Tyrian Baal she
was seducing them from the worship of Yahweh,
Israel's God, but only to show how in those days, as
in later ages, what was misunderstood was im
mediately explained as witchcraft.
From their own point of view, and from the point
of view of the religion of Yahweh, the compilers of
the Israelitish codes were perfectly right in their
denouncement of witchcraft, and believing in the
reality of the magic powers supposed to be possessed
by the witches, they could not but suppress it with
a strong hand, for it belonged to a lower phase of
religion, and was opposed to the worship of the

208 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
righteous Yahweh ; but no one will ever know the
amount of untold misery and suffering which was
brought upon thousands of unhappy men and
women, perhaps worst of all in the seventeenth
century in England and Scotland, by taking the
enactments of those Codes as the inspired sanction
for a belief in the reality of witchcraft, and as being
valid for all time !
Thus the picture we have drawn from the oldest
Hebrew documents shows us Israel, as regards her
popular beliefs and practices, in no way differing
from the nations by whom she was surrounded.
The popular religion consisted in the worship indeed
of Yahweh, but it was at the ancient shrines and in
the ancient modes practised by their predecessors
in the land.
The expressions used by the king of Moab in
addressing Chemosh (on the Moabite Stone) are
precisely those which any pious Israelite might
have addressed to Yahweh. And meanwhile super
stition was rife, and beliefs derived from the old
animistic and fetishistic religions held full possession
of the people's heart.
But a force was at work which was destined to
lead Israel onward and upward till she arrived at a
true idea of God, and prepared the way for the
revelation of God in Christ, and this force lay in the
Prophets. The consideration of the work of the Prophets

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 209
and their influence upon Israel and the world is
reserved for our final Lecture.

NOTE A, p. 179.
In this connection it is interesting to observe
Browning's justification of the " Higher Criticism " of
the Iliad as inaugurated by Wolf in his Prolegomena,
in a poem entitled " Development " in his latest book,
Asolando. Much of Wolf's criticism of Homer has
indeed passed into the limbo of forgotten things,
and most scholars now believe that the blind poet
was in fact the author of the great works that have
gone for so long by his name, however much they
may have been edited, added to, and revised in later
times; but the words of Browning may be well
applied, mutatis mutandis, to the Higher Criticism
of the Old Testament, which, me judice, has in its
broad outlines, and without committing oneself to
every detail, come to stay.
The circumstances of the two cases are wholly
different : in the one we are dealing with an entire
literature, in the other with a single set of poems.
However, let us hear Browning. He describes how
in his childhood, at five years old, he first heard the
story of Troy from his father, then two or three
years afterwards he read Pope's Iliad, and at last,
having learned Greek, attacked Homer for himself,
and read the grand old story in its majestic
hexameters, and Homer and his heroes and heroines
were all real to him. Then he proceeds :—
14

210 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
" Thus did youth spend a comfortable time ;
Until — 'What's this the Germans say is fact
That Wolf found out first ? Its unpleasant work
Their chop and change, unsettling one's belief.
All the same, while we live, we learn, that's sure.'
So I bent brow o'er Prolegomena.
And, after Wolf, a dozen of his like
Proved there was never any Troy at all,
Neither Besiegers nor Besieged, — nay, worse, —
No actual Homer, no authentic text,
No warrant for the fiction I, as fact,
Had treasured in my heart and soul so long —
Ay, mark you! and a fact held still, still hold,
Spite of new knowledge, in my heart of hearts
And soul of souls, fact's essence freed and fixed
From accidental fancy's guardian sheath.
Assuredly thenceforward — thank my stars ! —
However it got there, deprive who could —
Wring from the shrine my precious tenantry,
Helen, Ulysses, Hector and his spouse,
Achilles and his Friend? . . .
But then ' No dream's worth waking ' — [Browning says :]
And here's the reason why I tell thus much.
I, now mature man, you anticipate,
May blame my Father justifiably
For letting me dream out my nonage thus,
And only by such slow and sure degrees
Permitting me to sift the grain from chaff,
Get truth and falsehood, known and named as such.
Why did he ever let me dream at all,
Nor bid me taste the story in its strength?
I might have — somehow — correspondingly —
Been taught by forthrights not meanderings,
My aims should be to loathe, like Peleus' son,
A lie as Hell's gate, love my wedded wife,
Like Hector, and so on with all the rest.
Could not I have excogitated this
Without believing such men really were?"

RELIGION OF OLD ISRAEL 211
Thus, in precisely the same manner, the child, and
those in the position of children, the unlearned, the
pagan, may learn from those simple Old Testament
stories, which are as real to them as any fairy tale,
the evil of disobedience, of yielding to the lusts of
the flesh, of lying, of murder, with the sense of
shame, of sin, and of fear which these produce ; and,
on the other hand, the beauty of truth, of purity,
of self-denial, of obedience, of heroism — in a word,
of virtue, which in its totality is beautiful as vice is
hideous ; and these lessons endure even though the
tales in which they are enshrined are shown in later
life to be but the fancy and the poetry of the child
hood of our race.

NOTE B, p. 196.
Discussing " The ' Jerahmeel ' theory and the
historical importance of the Negeb " in the Hibbert
journal, January 1908, Professor Schmidt says :
" Scholars have widely accepted the view that
Abram once was the local divinity and hero of the
Calebites in Hebron." He states that " Professor
Eduard Meyer regards Moses as the mythical
ancestor of the Levitical priesthood at Kadesh
Barnea, and first representative there of the cult
of Yahwe, the God of Sinai, a volcanic mountain
in Southern Edom"; and continues: "Professor
Felix Adler once called my attention to the re
markable similarity of the story of Aaron to that
of Jeroboam. Both make golden calves ; the sons
of both have the same names, Nadab and Abihu.

212 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
The figure of Aaron seems, indeed, to have been
modelled, or remodelled, on that of Jeroboam.
I prefer to say remodelled, because originally
he appears to have been an Edomitish divinity,
having his shrines on Mosera and Hor. ... As an
Edomitish god, Aaron was apparently coupled with
his brother Moses, the ' deliverer.' Now Jeroboam
had been a sojourner in Egypt, and an Egyptian
sojourn may, therefore, also have been ascribed to
that other maker of golden calves and father of
Nadab and Abihu. Moses, the ' deliverer,' who
had his shrines farther south, on Sinai and at
Kadesh Barnea, then, naturally followed his older
brother." The conclusion Dr. Schmidt draws is as follows : —
" From a religious point of view the historical
importance of the Negeb can be summed up in the
following statements. It was the land where the
patriarchal figures, Abram, Isaac, Jacob, Lot and
Ishmael, Sarah, Rebecca, and others developed,
by a rationalising process, from local divinities to
human heroes, types, ideals. It was the home of
Mosaism, where an influential priesthood learnt to
use the torah, to give oracles in the name of the
mythical ancestor, and whence, therefore, the im
pulses came which in course of time produced the
Ephraimitish Code, Deuteronomy, the priestly laws
of the Persian period, the Mishnah and the Talmuds.
It was the cradle, if not the birthplace, of Yahwism,
where the faith was first nursed which issued in the
religion of the prophets, Christianity, and Islam."

LECTURE THE SIXTH
ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE CHRISTIAN
REVELATION

213

"Christianity as a historical religion cannot be exempted from the
principles of historical inquiry ; nor can the Bible, as literature, be
exempted from the canons of criticism which apply to the other
religions of the world and their sacred books.
" On one side we now compare religions ; on the other, a closer and
more intimate knowledge of the Bible itself, as a living book and not
a mere repertory for proof texts, is one of the marks of our time.
"Criticism has been bringing the sacred books into relation with the
sacred history, and has done something to restore them to their real
and living significance ; ... by binding book and people together,
and thus connecting them with the providential order of the world, it
has given back the idea of the God who lives in history.
"Whatever be the results of the literary analysis of the biblical
books or the bearing of archaeological discovery on the history they
record, this is the aim of historical criticism." — Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible.
" The Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament do not claim to be
history, but books of devotion. It is very characteristic that the
Jewish Canon itself does not know the designation ' historical books,'
but includes the histories among the prophets.
" It is a matter of course that the methods of the Higher Criticism
alone enable us to understand and appreciate the Bible." — Cornill,
Prophets of Israel.
" Unduped of fancy, henceforth man
Must labour ! — must resign
His all too human creeds, and scan
Simply the way divine !
The world's great order dawns in sheen,
After long darkness rude,
Divinelier imaged, clearer seen,
With happier zeal pursued.
What still of strength is left, employ
That end to help, attain :
One common wave of thought and joy
Lifting mankind again ! "
Matthew Arnold, Obermann once more.

LECTURE THE SIXTH
At the commencement of his treatise the post-
apostolic writer of the so-called " Epistle " to the
Hebrews sums up the Christian view of the method
by which God had been pleased to carry out His
revelation to mankind. In old times God had
spoken to the fathers by divers portions and in
divers manners in the Prophets, and now in these
last days He has spoken unto us in His Son. A
better summary of the progressive nature of God's
revelation could not be given, and in it there is the
expression of the innate consciousness of the Hebrew
people that all through their long and varied history
they had been in a condition of special relationship
with God, which was intended to lead up to the
culminating revelation of Himself in the Person of
Jesus Christ, who from the human and national
point of view was the last of the Prophets, and from
the divine side was, and is, His Son.
How the Jewish people and their rulers came to
miss this great fact, which was the raison detre of
all their history, does not concern us here. It was
reserved for a few among them, and those not the
215

216 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
most important, to grasp it, and in passing it on as
the gospel of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles, to trans
form what was of purely passing and local signifi
cance into a world-religion ; and this world-religion
still contains a message of supreme importance to
mankind, when divested of all those transitory
notions as to the world and man which the pro
gress of science has made it impossible any longer
to hold.
God spoke of old time to the fathers in the
Prophets — i.e., the prophets of Israel were the bearers
in different ways and in many portions of a unique
message from God to man.
Prophetism is the grand outstanding fact of
Israel. But the thing itself was not unique — it is only so
when viewed in its outcome and results.
We have seen that the religion of Israel in the
eighth century B.C. differed little whether in ideas
or ritual from the religions of the surrounding
nations, but there was a motive force in Israel which
carried her forward to a point which the surrounding
nations never attained. This force resided in the
Prophets. But neither in its origin was prophetism
unique. The spirit which, under the guiding hand
of God, issued in the prophets of Israel is inherent
in all primitive religions, just as is also the spirit
which led up to the priest ; but the prophet is older
than the priest, and this fact, which comparative

ANTHROPOLOGY 217
religion teaches, furnishes an external proof of the
truth of Wellhausen's dictum as to Israel, that " the
Prophets preceded the Law."
That is to say, the spirit of prophetism is con
sistent with, and may find its source in, animism ;
the priest does not derive from earlier times than
those when animism has already passed into
fetishism, and fetishism is passing into polytheism.
Among the most primitive animistic peoples of
the present day we find the prophet — the medicine
man and magician, who delivers messages from some
divine source — by whatever name he may be called ;
where the religion is fetish and polytheistic, there
we find also the priest. The Australian natives are
examples of the former ; the West Africans, and, in
the South, the Becwana and others, if not the Zulus,
of the latter; and whereas in the animistic stage
totemism is a living social arrangement, in the later
stage it is decadent or dead. Israel had long passed,
like the nations from which she sprang, through the
stages of animism and fetishism, before she appears
on the page of history, although traces of both, as
we have seen, survive through all her literature in the
shape of folk-tales and folklore, as they do among
the cultured races to-day ; and although the popular
religion was ever tending towards a syncretistic
polytheism, yet from the earliest dawn of her
national consciousness there were those among her
greater sons who had conceived the idea of heno-

218 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
theism — that one God — who was afterwards known
as Yahweh — belonged to Israel, and that to Him
alone worship was due. Thus through henotheism
and monolatry the way was prepared for the future
monotheistic faith. To this the stories of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob point, and the God of Israel is
known as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
before the name of Yahweh is proclaimed as His
distinctive title by Moses.
Moses and Aaron come before us as the Prophet
and the Priest in the pages of the Hexateuch ; but
in thinking of them as they actually were we must
divest ourselves of all ideas derived from D and P,
in which we have the finished conception of later
writers transferred to the distant past, and even of
much that had grown around them by the time that
JE was composed, and we must look at them
in the light of Israel's religion as we know it, from
the Books of Judges and Samuel apart from
Deuteronomic redaction. From this we see that
Moses was a prophet, because he felt himself to be
acting under the direct influence of Yahweh, whose
oracles were committed to him, although his work
only consisted in leading a small band of fugitive
slaves out of Egypt, and was so insignificant that
it was not deemed worthy of being noticed on any
Egyptian monument; and in bidding the people
worship only Yahweh, their deliverer, he was sowing
the seeds of a faith destined to bring forth fruit that

ANTHROPOLOGY 219
he knew not of; and Aaron was the priest of a
simple cultus, the full ritual of which did not
develop for a thousand years. But these two great
men set Israel on the road which was destined to be
of world-wide significance, although we must judge
of them by the data derived from the earliest
documents as interpreted according to the spirit of
the age in which they lived, apart altogether from
the ideas belonging to the age in which those earliest
documents themselves took shape, and, of course,
apart from the later development which those ideas
attained in the Deuteronomic and Priestly redaction.
After the fall of Israel in 720 B.C., the insignificant
kingdom of Judah alone remained as the shrine of
Yahweh worship, and the Prophets, of whom Isaiah
was the greatest, set themselves, during the reign of
Hezekiah, to purify that worship still further,
and especially to set it free from the polytheistic
associations which were inevitably attached to the
old high places by concentrating the cultus at
Jerusalem ; though even Isaiah does not object to the
Matzebah, which accompanied the hill-altars as the
pledge of the presence of Yahweh, per se, for he looks
forward to the time when a Matzebah to Yahweh
shall be set up in the land of Egypt.1 Hezekiah's
reformation was a failure, and only led to the frightful
reaction under Manasseh, but during all that dread
ful time a faithful band of followers of Isaiah was
1 See Additional Note, p. 269.

220 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
at work, and it was by them that the Book of
Deuteronomy was compiled, and the reform of the
older Codes of Law and Ritual carried out on the
basis of the unification and concentration of worship
at Jerusalem, the place which Yahweh had chosen,
and the entire abolition of all the outlying shrines.
Thus the foundations were laid of the great reforma
tion which was accomplished under Josiah, when the
" Book of the Law " {i.e., the Book of Deuteronomy
from chapter xii. to xxviii., omitting chapter xxvii.)
was " found." There is no question here of" forgery."
These prophetic men only carried on the progressive
revelation of God a step further, and legislated as
Moses would have done had he lived in their age.
Israel, or all that was left of it in Judah, was the one
holy people of the one holy God, and it was fitting
that He should be worshipped in one holy place, while
the advance in spirituality is seen in the emphasis
laid upon love. " Thou shalt love Yahweh thy God "
is the foundation of the whole Deuteronomic legis
lation. With the final abolition of the high places
the country priests were removed to Jerusalem, and
assigned duties in the Temple service as " Levites,"
a secondary order inferior to the Temple hierophants,
who thus became priests par excellence. But the
reformation of Josiah was short-lived ; for, in spite of
all the efforts of Jeremiah, the death-knell of the
monarchy had struck, and in 596 and the following
years Jerusalem was destroyed, the Temple burnt,

ANTHROPOLOGY 221
and the remnant of the people transported to
Babylon. It was then, during the long years of the
Captivity, that the redaction of the Hexateuch and
the historical books was carried out in a Deutero
nomic sense ; at the same time Ezekiel prophesied,
and thought out the plans for a reformed ritual on
the basis of the pre-existing usage, and a band of
priestly writers compiled the Priestly Code and the
legislation of Leviticus, which carried the reformed
ritual a stage further than even Ezekiel had dreamed
of. Thus the way was prepared for the emergence
of the Jews from the fires of the Captivity as a
Church-nation, and for the publication of the finally
edited Hexateuch and the stereotyping of religion
as a due performance of a fixed code of ritual in the
second Temple under Ezra and Nehemiah. But
the Captivity did more than this for the best minds
among the captives of Judah. It gave a sad and
gloomy turn to their thoughts, which impressed
them with a sense of sin, as an offence against a
holy God, as they had never been impressed before.
It taught them that earthly prosperity is no proof
of the favour of God, but that the very sufferings of
the righteous may be, and are, a proof of His love
and of His guiding and educative hand upon them.
Then they learnt the meaning of sacrifice as ex
piation as well as communion, and began to look
for the Deliverer, the Righteous One, who should
be at once the Messianic King and the Suffering

222 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Servant of Yahweh; and in this way a further
step was taken in the preparation for the Christ.
Thus they allowed the old story of the Fall, with
its foreshadowing of One who should overcome the
serpent, to stand in their sacred books, but the
question of what is called Original Sin derived from
a definite act on the part of the progenitors of the
human race did not trouble them very much, and
they never refer to it again. It is only in the
Pauline theology that it reappears and takes a
leading place in that great theologian's scheme,
in the rabbinical contrast which, in accordance with
his conception of man's creation and of his lapse
from God's original intention with regard to him,
he draws between the first Adam who was " a
living soul " and the second Adam, the Christ, con
ceived as the archetypal man present from all
eternity in God, and manifested in human flesh,
who is a quickening, i.e. a life-giving, spirit.
It is much more with sin in the nation and sin in
the individual that they are concerned ; and sin is,
for the first time, spiritually conceived as being not
a mere infraction of an objective law, but as an
inherent bias to wrong on the part of every member
of the human race. The writer of the Book of Job,
impressed with Zoroastrian teaching, is the first to
introduce Satan as a distinct personality, hostile
to the human race, the embodiment and leader of
all the old animistic spirits of evil ; but he keeps

ANTHROPOLOGY 223
himself free from its dualism by making Satan
subordinate to Yahweh and one of his servants, just
as the lying spirit in the mouth of the prophets
of Ahab is beheld by Micaiah coming forth from
Yahweh in the latest recension of the Books of Kings,
and the same subordinate position is assigned to
Satan later on by Zechariah, and by the author of
the Books of Chronicles in his version of the story of
David numbering Israel.
Job is a righteous man, typical of Israel, and by
his unmerited troubles — unmerited so far as outward
acts are concerned — he learns the lesson which
Israel learnt in the Captivity, i.e., in the person of
her noblest sons, that the holiest of men cannot
stand acquitted in the presence of God : " I have
heard of Thee with the hearing of the ear, but now
mine eye seeth Thee, wherefore I abhor myself and
repent in dust and ashes." It was the same lesson
which Isaiah had learnt at the time of his call, when
he beheld the wondrous vision of Yahweh, and saw
the seraphim standing veiled before Him : " I am a
man of unclean lips . . . and mine eyes have seen
Yahweh, Yahweh of hosts " ; the same lesson which
St. Peter learnt, as he stood in the presence of the
Christ : " Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, O
Lord ; " the same lesson which every saint has learnt
in proportion as he knows more of God and of
himself. Thus it was during the Captivity that the
Second Isaiah uttered that marvellous threnody in

224 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
which he portrays the sufferings of God's righteous
Servant on account of, and on behalf of, sin — sin,
not His own, but ours ; x and it was while they were
in the same furnace of affliction that we hear the
plaintive wail of the 51st Psalm, and the triumphant
answer of the 32nd Psalm, the thunderings of Ezekiel
against sin, and the promises of the impartation of
a new heart and a new spirit, in which sin shall be
conquered and goodness become possible for man.
The Captivity ends ; after many vicissitudes the
people are restored to their own land, no longer
as an independent kingdom, but a subject province,
first of the Persian, then of the Greek — we make no
account here of the brief spell of independence won
by the Maccabees after the atrocious persecutions of
Antiochus Epiphanes, for it was a priestly, not a
regal independence — then of the Roman, empires.
During this period the long line of the Prophets
ends with Malachi ; the free spirit of God breathing
in the heart and finding utterance on the lips of the
" Chosen Man " becomes dumb. " We see not our
tokens ; there is no Prophet more," is the lamentable
wail of more than one of the later Psalmists ; and
in place of the Prophet there comes the Wisdom
Literature, very beautiful and very instructive, but
speculative and practical rather than spiritual and
revealing ; and the Voice of God is heard no more
until it reawakens in John the Baptist, the fore-
' Isa. liii.

ANTHROPOLOGY 225
runner of the Christ ; He is Himself the " Word of
God," and after His departure the Spirit of God
continues for a time, during the first enthusiastic out
burst of Church-life, to speak through His followers,
until once more the free Spirit is quenched in the
stereotyping of religion. The universal course
which religion has taken in every race and nation
of mankind, to a greater or less degree, is here
exemplified. It is always first the Prophet, then
the Priest ; first the free utterance of the inspiring
spirit, then the fixing of rites and ceremonies
according to rigidly appointed rule and order ; first
the evoking of devotion in faith and love to an
inspired person on the part of those who will listen
to his message, then the fixation of religion according
to hard and fast formulae, and the making it consist
in belief in certain dogmas and doctrines rather than
in personal love and devotion — belief about instead of
faith in the inspired person.1
The evolution of religious ideas and the methods
of worship took a course precisely analogous to this
among the Jews after the Captivity. As we have
seen, the Prophet ceased, and with a deepening sense
of sin, as at once an offence against God and the
result of moral obliquity, the Priest comes into his
heritage. The proof of this is to be found in the
completion and the promulgation of the Priestly
Code, and the importance attached to sacrifice. But
1 Cf. Dr. Paul Wernle, Die Anfdnge unserer Religion,
r5

226 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
sacrifice has taken on a new connotation unknown to
old Israel. It is no longer wholly, if at all, a joyous
feast in which the worshipper enters by the act of
eating into communion and fellowship with his God,
a means whereby he becomes a partaker in and a
sharer of the Divine life, but the deepening sense of
sin, casting a gloom over human life, and a dark
shadow over the soul, has brought with it a growing
sense of the need of a Redeemer and of redemption
from sin. Over against God stands Satan, sub
ordinate, it is true, but the adversary of mankind,
the sovereign of the powers of evil, through whose
malign influence man has come under the bondage
of sin, from whom, in being redeemed from sin, he
shall be set free ; and so, alongside the impassioned
utterances of the Second Isaiah, of Ezekiel, and of the
later Psalms, we have the ritual of Leviticus, of the
sin-offering,the burnt-offering, and the peace-offering,
and that of the great Day of Atonement and of the
Scapegoat. In this latter, indeed, we have an
adaptation of very early animistic conceptions, which
had no doubt survived in the folklore of the people,
to the necessities of the more recently evolved notions
of sin and the idea of a sin-bearer. Thus sacrifice has
become a means of expiation, of propitiation, of
atonement — -at-one-ment — of reconciliation between
God and man. In the emphasis laid upon the death
of the slain beast, the pouring out and sprinkling of
the blood which is its life, and the offering of the

ANTHROPOLOGY 227
flesh, we see the survival of very old ideas adapted
to new needs ; and the way is prepared for the In
carnation of the Son of God who is at the same
time Son of man, in whom shall be fulfilled the
great words of the Second Isaiah : " He was wounded
for our transgressions, He was bruised for our
iniquities. All we like sheep have gone astray, we
have turned every one to his own way, and the Lord
hath laid on Him the iniquity of us all. Thou shalt
make His soul an offering for sin. He hath poured
out His soul unto death. He was numbered with the
transgressors, and He bare the sin of many. My
righteous Servant shall justify many, for He shall
bear their iniquities " (Isa. liii.).
The time has come for us to ask, How does the
foregoing presentation of the course of evolution of
the religious ideas of the later Jewish Church bear
upon the problems which have come before us in
these Lectures ? How may we reconcile the
theological with the anthropological conception of
man ? What truth does the old theological view of
the relation of man to God, and its answer to the
problems of sin and redemption, convey to us
whom Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology
have taught very different conceptions of the origin
of man and of his evolutionary progress on the
earth? What bearing have the old doctrines of
the Fall and Original Sin upon the problems of the
present day, and what teaching have they for us in

228 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
the twentieth century? In the language of St.
Paul we answer, " Much every way ; " and this course
of Lectures will have badly served its purpose
if the answer we now attempt to give does not
afford some help to minds that have found them
selves perplexed by the apparent impossibility of
reconciling ideas which at first sight seem to
stand in two opposing categories. On the one
hand, it is impossible any longer to hold belief in
the stories of the Creation, of Adam and Eve, of the
Garden of Eden, of the serpent Tempter, of the
twin Trees, of " man's first disobedience and the
fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
brought death into the world with all our woe and
loss of Eden," — in one word, of " the Fall " and of
" Original Sin " as a consequence of that definite
act, and of man as belonging to a fallen race which
needed to be restored to a place previously occupied
but lost, and which has been thus restored in Christ.
Moreover, we have seen how these stories arose;
how they are rooted in the prehistoric conceptions
of our race, and were handed down by story
tellers from generation to generation until they
took their place in the Hebrew literature. We
have seen that the story of the Creation in Gen. i.
belongs to the very latest stratum of the Hexa
teuch, the Priestly Code, and that it is derived
from the Babylonian conceptions of the Universe;
in these the earth is supposed to have emerged

ANTHROPOLOGY 229
from a primeval chaos as a result of the conflict
between Merodach, the god of light and order, and
Tiamat, who is Chaos personified, in which Merodach
overcame ; and this is merely a projecting into the
far distant past, after the custom of these early
thinkers, of the eternal conflict, which they saw
going on before their eyes, between light and
darkness, and which became a type of the equally
eternal conflict between the powers of moral light
and darkness, of good and evil ; so that Tiamat, the
Chaos in the physical sphere, becomes the prototype
of Satan in the moral sphere, and the victory of
Merodach over Tiamat typifies eventually the far-
off", but sure and certain, victory of good over evil.
We have seen how the later Hebrew thinkers took
over this story in the days when they had already
arrived at a monotheistic view of the Universe, and
accordingly purified it from all taint of polytheism —
although the continued use of the word Elohim for
God points back to the primitive animistic conception
of Nature which lies at the base of all later poly
theistic ideas, but animism and polytheism are both
negatived by the use of the verb bara, created, in the
singular as the predicate of Elohim in the plural — and
how God evokes an ordered Universe out of Tohu va
Vohu, the Hebrew equivalent of Tiamat, the primeval
Chaos, which afterwards became equated to Tehom,
the Abyss, out of which all things sprang, and to
which they return.

230 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
With the details of the six days' work and the
seventh day's rest as portrayed in Gen. i. we are
not concerned, except so far as they are an interest
ing evidence of the workings of the mind of the
Hebrew sage as he pondered the mystery of the
origin of things, and note how he modified the data
derived from his Babylonian authority, though
keeping true to the framework which it provided.
It may be noted here that it is in the priestly
recension of the " Ten Words " that we find the
reason given for the Sabbath rest : " Because in
six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea
and all that in them is, and rested the seventh
day." The Ten Words, as originally promulgated,
consisted, as stated previously, only of the commands
such as we find them in the case of the Sixth to the
Ninth Commandment, all beyond in the other Com
mandments being of the nature of later comments and
additions ; and in the case of the Fourth Command
ment we are fortunate in having had the earlier
Deuteronomic commentary preserved to us, in which
the reason assigned refers to the deliverance from
Egypt, and not to the creation.1 That this is the
correct account of the "Ten Words" follows also from
the analogy of the Code of Hammurabi, king of
Babylon between 2500 and 2000 B.C., with which
the Hebrew legislator was no doubt acquainted.
The revelation and inspiration of Gen. i. lies in
1 Cf. Ex. xx. 11 with Deut. v. 15.

ANTHROPOLOGY 231
its sublime monotheistic faith : " In the beginning
God created the heaven and the earth." In the
same way we have seen that the story of Creation
and the Fall ; of the doings of the first descendants
of Adam ; of the Flood ; of the Tower of Babel and
of the descendants of Seth down to Abraham ; and
of the Patriarchs themselves down to the exodus
from Egypt and the conquest of Palestine (except
the framework, which belongs to P), contained in
the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and succeeding chapters of Genesis,
belong to the earliest written document, which is
itself composite, and gives us Israel's picture of the
origin of the human race and of her own origin as she
figured it to herself in the tenth to the eighth centuries
B.C. ; it was then that the stories which had long
been handed down in folklore and tradition were first
committed to writing by the poets, who, in writing
them down, preserved the naivete' and primitive
simplicity that marks all such tales, and who, while
retaining clear traces of ideas common to the race
in their primal outlook upon Nature and man,
were yet guided by the overruling Spirit of God
to convey moral and spiritual lessons of unfailing
value such as no other literature possesses.
On the other hand, we have seen man as his origin
is disclosed to us by the teachings of Prehistoric
Archaeology and Anthropology. We have seen how
the first discloses him arriving on this planet at the
end of a long course of evolution ; at first no more

232 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
than an ape-like being, the Pithecanthropus erectus ;
then, man indeed, but rude and animal, bringing
with him ideas derived from his animal ancestors,
passions rooted in his nature, and religious instincts
which in their origin are common to him with the
higher animals from which he has sprung. We have
traced him from the far-distant Eolithic days of the
Tertiary Period, through the millennia of the Palaeo
lithic Age, during the inter-glacial epochs of the
Quaternary Period, down to the emergence of the
present races of mankind with the commencement
of the Neolithic Age, after the passing away of the
last glacial epoch, and the establishing of the
present order of things on the surface of the globe.
We have seen him everywhere advancing from
savagery through barbarism to civilisation — rapidly
in more favoured districts, slowly in others, and in
others not yet advanced beyond barbarism and
savagery. We have seen how everywhere his
religious and social instincts have followed the same
line, so that it is possible, from the social condition
and religious ideas of barbarous and savage races
to-day, to argue as to the social condition and
religious notions of our remote ancestors. We have
seen that man's first outlook upon Nature is
animistic — the doctrine of souls, with which is
connected ancestor - worship ; and that from this,
when the object is no longer thought of as itself
alive, but rather as the shrine of an indwelling spirit,

ANTHROPOLOGY 233
has sprung fetishism and polytheism, with their con
comitant accompaniments of idolatry and magic.
The study of the origin and course of religion
among the various primitive races of the world with
which he comes in contact is part of the work of
every competent anthropologist at the present day —
a study that is differentiated from the methods of
Max Miiller and his school, and from those of too
many missionaries, by a sympathetic endeavour to
see things as the primitive human being sees them,
and to look out upon the world and man from
his point of view, and the results are seen to be
everywhere the same in essence, though differing
in details, and are as sketched above. This should
be, also, part of the training of every theologian.
One of the most painstaking and sympathetic of
these studies is that performed by Major A. G.
Leonard, in his work on the Lower Niger and its
Tribes, referred to in a previous Lecture, and we
cannot do better than give here the summary of the
conclusions arrived at by him, as given by Mr.
A. C. Haddon in his Preface to that book; for,
mutatis mutandis, they apply universally. " One
great merit," says Mr. Haddon, " of Major Leonard's
method of investigation is his appreciation of the
fact that the social and religious expression of the
Nature-folk is as much the direct result of their
environment as is their material culture. No longer
is it possible to dissociate religion from geography.

234 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Again and again he rightly insists that religion is a
natural result of human evolution, having its ulti
mate sources in pre-human conditions. Religion
originated as the response of the emotions and
dawning intelligence of man to the world around
him and within him, and as in the past it served to
satisfy certain human needs, so it has continued to
do : sometimes widening, but at other times narrow
ing its scope ; in some instances deepening its
experience, in others becoming more and more
superficial ; occasionally it is stifled by convention
and strangled by ritual, only to break away under
the guidance of a reformer — the eternal conflict
between the priest and the prophet. But the ebb
and flow, periods of growth and resting stages,
gradual evolution, and departure along new lines of
emotion and interpretation, are all ultimately the
outcome of the conditions of existence and the in
teractions of the human environment. Thus no
phase of religious development can be understood
apart from the social history of the people." Taking,
eg., two widely separated regions as an illustration:
" The environment of steamy, tropical West Africa
is very different from that of the dry steppes and
scrub of Central Australia, so it is not surprising that
there is a marked contrast between the social life
and religion of Negroes and Australians. The
latter have to contend against a niggard earth, and,
not being cultivators of the soil, they depend entirely

ANTHROPOLOGY 235
for their sustenance upon collecting and hunting;
but even among these wandering hunters the
religious sense is not lacking," as we have shown
above. " Of late years evidence has been accumu
lating to prove the spirituality of many savage and
barbaric peoples. Because the outward symbolism is
usually crude, the observer assumed that the ideas that
lie behind it are equally elementary and ignoble, . . .
but we now know that our brethren most backward
in material culture are imbued with ethical and
religious ideas which do not materially differ from
those inculcated by the teachers of the religions of
civilised peoples." To this latter point we shall have
to return presently. We note here that, as evidenced
by their earliest literature, the ancestors of the
Hebrew people had passed through the very same
course of evolution which marks all primitive races,
and we can trace the gradual progress by which, for
example, Yahweh develops from being ( I ) a magnified
man, (2) then the tribal, and (3) next the national
god, until he becomes the High God par excellence,
the Creator and Father, the one eternal God, Lord
of heaven and earth ; and coincidently we see the
chosen men among the chosen race becoming more
and more conscious of failure, of shortcoming, of
sin, and more and more anxious as to the means by
which a right relationship may be established between
the High and Holy God and His weak and erring
creature, man. In the course of this development and

236 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
its continued progress through prosperous times, and,
still more, through times of adversity, until it cul
minates in the Person of the Christ, we behold the in
spiration of the Hebrew people and of their literature,
and the revelation of which, under the guiding pro
vidence of God, they were the vehicle to mankind.1
So, when we ask ourselves what place can be
found for the old theological dogmas of the Fall
and Original Sin, derived from a prosaic and literal
understanding of the ancient Hebrew stories, in the
human race anthropologically regarded, and what
place sin, considered as a fact, and the ideas of
redemption have in the anthropological view of man,
we answer : The sciences of Prehistoric Archaeology
and Anthropology leave no room for the story of the
" Fall " as it is told in Gen. iii., and theology has
no need of it as a record of literal historical facts.
The so-called " Fall " represents in a picture what
takes place in the case of each individual human
being as he emerges from the ignorance and selfless
ness of childhood into the self-consciousness of the
adult, or rather the maturing, personality. It is
connected with the awakening of the sexual instincts
at the advent of puberty. And thus in every race
we find this period signalised by definite ceremonies
of initiation marking its significance and its import
ance. With the awakening of the sexual instincts
comes all that train of lower passions which mark
1 See Note A, p, 255.

ANTHROPOLOGY 237
man!s affinity with the brute creation from which
he has sprung, and which is the sign of the
exchange of childish innocence for sexual know
ledge, when the eyes are opened and the sense of
shame springs into existence.1 Here, in these sexual
instincts and animal passions, which in themselves
are perfectly natural and innocent, but which with
the acquiring of self-knowledge bring with them a
sense of shame unknown and unfelt before, we
have what the theologian calls Original Sin, and
attributes to the Fall, but which the anthropologist,
in language more familiar to, and intelligible to, the
"man in the street," calls "hereditary tendencies,"
or " heredity " ; and it is just here that Weismann's
doctrine comes in so appositely ; for it is these very
instincts and passions that belong pre-eminently to,
and are handed on from generation to generation
through, the germ-plasm, which is continuous and
unchanged throughout the race.
Thus sin is, in its essence, the hereditary tendency
or bias towards evil, i.e. wrong-doing, through the
infraction or abuse of laws implanted in their very
nature, of a race advancing towards perfection but
not yet perfect. We have seen man struggling
upward from savagery through barbarism to civil
isation, and every stage is marked by an increase in
the catalogue of actions which so far as they subtend
the idea of God are sins, and so far as they concern
1 Cf. Pfleiderer, Primitive Christianity, pp. 286, 287.

238 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
man's social relations are crimes, until they come to
include not merely outward objective acts, but acts
of the will, sins of thought as well as word and deeVl1
"The doctrine of Original Sin, then, is the ex
pression of a profound psychological truth. We
have, first, the hesitation involved in the development
of consciousness generally ; secondly, we see from
savage custom and other psychological facts, not only
the idea of the possibility of disobeying nature, or
the supernatural sanction of taboo, or the Supreme
Being, but also the notion that sin is closely con
nected with certain functions, a notion half reflex
and accidental, and half the result of the affirmation
of life and its sources. In the Christian doctrine"
(as it has been deduced from the old Hebrew
story) " the original sin of our first parents has been
generalised as disobedience, but its quality is perhaps
sexual ; it is concerned at least with the animal
part of our nature, and may well be regarded as
inherent in our flesh and blood. There is thus in
the old theological doctrine a curious glimpse of
biological theory, and the process of eliminating
original sin coincides with human evolution — the
elimination of the monkey from man." So writes
Mr. Crawley, in his book, The Tree of Life, p. 294.
In other words, it is the continuous mastery of
our inherited tendencies in the conquest of the
lower nature as man progresses upward in the
1 See Note B, p. 258.

ANTHROPOLOGY 239
moral and spiritual sphere, and becomes more and
more truly man, and less and less of the purely
animal remains to be eliminated.
Thus, as Mr. Crawley also says, " the story of
Eden is a real psychological document," and the
experience therein portrayed repeats itself from
generation to generation. The real seat of sin is
in the will, which is free either to obey or disobey
the impulses of good, and the whole meaning and
purpose of religion in every race is to strengthen
the impulses towards that which is good — good
for the race, and good for the individual, both
personally and as a member of a society to which
he is bound in indissoluble bonds.
To quote Mr. Crawley again : " The Christian
doctrine of sin is well put by Gore in that aspect
of it which we have been considering. ' It is
common to all the anti-Christian views of sin that
at the last resort they make sin natural, a part of
nature. It is characteristic of Christ's view of sin
— of the scriptural ,view of it — that it makes it un
natural. It is characteristic, again, of the non-
Christian view that it makes the body, the material,
the seat of sin. It is essential to the Christian view
to find its seat and only source in the will.' Now
this account applies exactly to the primitive con
ception : the savage, like the Essene," and, we may
add, like the authors of the story of the Fall,
"regards sin as a transgression of nature. Sin

240 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
breaks taboo, and is so far, in Lang's happy phrase,
a ' mystic misdeed.' But the taboo is intended to
preserve the integrity of human nature, to keep
intact the sources of life. Sin is thus essentially a
violation of what is absolutely sacred ; inasmuch as
it is a perversion of the will, and a corruption of the
vital instinct, which is the source of religion, sin is
a crime against life. " x
It is essential that we keep this thought clearly in
mind, because it is here that, although we are
looking at the subject now wholly from the
anthropological standpoint, and not in regard to
the Person and work of the Christ, that we part
company entirely from that which arrogates to
itself the name of the " New Theology." However
much we may respect the aims of the promulgator
of its tenets, which are not new but very old, being
practically only Pelagianism in a new dress, we
must emphasise that he takes a wholly inadequate
view of sin. Sin, as we have seen, is something
positive, not a mere negative — the shadow cast by
goodness. Sin is indeed, as he states, selfishness, —
the undue assertion of the individual and his
supposed interests against the interests of the
community, which are in their totality the ex
pression of the will of God, — but it derives its
origin from positive tendencies rooted in the race,
the outcome of which in act needs forgiveness, and
1 Crawley, Tree of Life, p. 295.

ANTHROPOLOGY 241
the power of which needs to be overcome. This in
adequacy of the views of the New Theology in
respect of sin, and what may be called the Christian
view, is well expressed by Dr. Robertson Nicoll in
a recent number of the British Weekly, and as
expressing the views of an eminent Nonconformist
may be fittingly compared with the statement we
have quoted above from Bishop Gore : x —
" It is a sound Christian instinct which has led so
many critics of the New Theology to fasten on its
attitude towards sin as a test of its real character.
Paradoxical as it may seem to say so, the doctrine
of sin is, in the strictest sense of the words, a
Christian doctrine. It is only the Christian
conscience which can tell what sin is, and the
truth about it is vital because with it stands or falls
the truth about all that is most real and dear in
Christian experience. Faith in Christ, when we
go to the very core of it, means faith in the sin-
forgiving love of a holy God ; the kingdom of God,
in which the Christian realises his salvation, is a
kingdom of redeemed sinners. ... At the present
moment many people are looking through the
other end of the telescope. They are taking a view
of the phenomena of sin from which God, so to
speak, is excluded. The dominant idea in their
minds, the category which rules all their instinctive
intellectual movements, is not God, but Nature.
1 And see Note C, p. 259.
16

242 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Man is part of the great system of Nature, and
the explanation of all the phenomena of human
life, including those which theology has called sin,
must, like that of all phenomena whatever, be
sought within the system. In some sense, sin
must be natural. It must have its place and
function in the natural order. It must be incidental
to development, analogous in one part of man's
nature to what in another part of it are called
growing pains ; it is present not that we may
despair about it, or bring groundless accusations
against ourselves, but because it is contributory
in some way to a fuller life which is yet to be. . . .
It must be admitted that the older Protestant
theology, preoccupied as it was with the
universality of sin, took too little account of
degrees of responsibility- — and we are paying for
that oversight now. Such omissions have always
to be made good sooner or later, and Churches
should therefore be careful not to sow the seeds
of future trouble by hasty and peremptory decisions
on complex doctrinal questions. But to ignore
differences of degree in presence of the one
overwhelming fact was a nobler and more hopeful
error than, under the pressure of considerations
which do not come from the moral world at
all, to deny the validity of the ideas and experiences
by which that world, as we know it, is constituted.
. . . Scientific men may have an interest in dis-

ANTHROPOLOGY 243
cussing what qualities are or are not transmissible,
but for the moralist or the philosopher the question
is not vital. Such as we are we are born into the
world, and our whole nature is our inheritance. If
a man says he is not responsible for his nature
because he has inherited it — it is not, strictly
speaking, his nature at all, but the nature of his
kind — it is a fair question to ask him, For what,
then, do you take responsibility? The responsi
bility may no doubt be lighter or heavier according
to circumstances which it is beyond our power to
calculate, but such as it is, light or heavy, a man's
inherited nature is the field on which he has to
assume it. It is there he has to fight with beasts
or with devils, and to fight for his life. It is his
nature, the constitution he was born with, of which
he had to take up the responsibility ; to decline to
do so is to decline to be a man."
In one sense, indeed, sin is " natural," for it is the
inevitable outcome of the nature which man derives
from his animal ancestry, just as the first dawnings
of religion in man may be traced to that same pre
human ancestry. But what is natural to the animal
and no sin — for whatever the actions or passions of
an animal it is impossible to attribute sin to it — is
unnatural to man in so far as he is " man " and has
risen to a higher stage in the ladder of evolution.
The reason lies here : that an animal is unconscious
of itself, it has no personality; it is not a person,

244 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
and therefore has no responsibility; but it is not
an automaton ; for animals, certainly the higher
animals, have freedom of choice as to whether they
will do this or that, but not self-conscious will. Man,
on the other hand, so soon as he is man, is conscious
of himself, he has a personality, he is a person and
therefore is responsible. He has freedom of will, he
may choose to contravene the true laws of his
being, which in him include social as well as
personal relationships, and if he does so, he sins
against himself, against his fellows, and against
God. This is the truth which the poet-thinker of
Israel intended in his naive and childlike fashion
to convey when he narrates in the oldest Hebrew
story that " Yahweh breathed into man's nostrils the
breath of life ; and man became a living soul ; " and
what the priestly philosopher of the first chapter of
Genesis intends in his more deeply reasoned state
ment when he says, " Elohim created man in his own
image, in the image of Elohim created he him."
The whole subject of the origin and propagation
of sin has been very ably treated in his Hulsean
Lectures under that title by the Rev. F. R. Tennant,
and to those Lectures I would refer the student ; but
in one respect I think he has misapprehended the
real argument as to the bearing of the teachings of
Biology with regard to heredity on the question
of the theological doctrine of Original Sin. He
emphasises the point, against which I must once

ANTHROPOLOGY 245
more enter a protest, that sin is something foreign
to man's nature, introduced from outside by a
definite act on the part of the early progenitors of
the race in the past, and then argues for its trans
mission as an "acquired quality" from generation
to generation, and he bases his presumption of
the possibility of this on the supposition that
Weismann's theory of the non-transmission of
" acquired qualities " is not as yet a universally
accepted biological fact. Even granting that this
were so — and we have shown in a previous Lecture
that the consensus of biological opinion is in favour
of the truth of Weismann's theory — it is a mistake
to argue at all, from the anthropological standpoint,
that sin is an acquired quality. As we have shown
above, what partakes of the quality of sin in man is
rooted in his nature as derived from his animal
ancestry ; and, as belonging to the race, transmitted
from generation to generation through the germ-
plasm, which is continuous, it constitutes an
hereditary tendency, or theologically, Original Sin ;
as belonging to the individual, i.e., the soma-
plasm, and taking effect in action, whether of
thought, word, or deed, due to environment acting
on heredity, it becomes actual sin. The advantage
of our statement of the matter is that it is in harmony
both with the most probably ascertained facts of Bio
logy and with the data derived from Anthropology.
Thus, as we study the psychology of the lower

246 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
races and mark the development of their religious
ideas until we pass on to races that have emerged,
with many vestiges of primitive notions, and many
survivals of primitive customs such as exist even
among ourselves, into larger and wider regions
of thought, we see man, in the persons of his
higher representatives, ever struggling upward ; and
the sense of imperfection, of sin, as inherited
tendency and actual wrongdoing, the fruit of
heredity and environment, becomes ever more
acute in the more advanced races. Some of the
Babylonian hymns and prayers breathe an almost
Hebraic sense of sin and shortcoming and a longing
for redemption, as do also many of the ancient
Vedic poems, and the prayers that were uttered by
the Mexicans and Peruvians ; and a similar sense
of sin is found expressed in tones more of despair
than of hope in the prayers of the Greek and
Roman pagan ritual and in the words of the
philosophers, particularly of the Stoic school.
But it was reserved for one race to carry onward
both the sense of sin and of the means whereby
sin itself may be both atoned for and forgiven
and overcome, to a point never attained by any
other race ; in this lies its justification to the claim
to be the "chosen people," and its history and its
literature are, for that reason, the inspired history
and literature of an inspired people. It is this looking
at the matter from the Godward side; from the

ANTHROPOLOGY 247
manward side we may say that this race had an
innate faculty for the highest achievements of the
religious consciousness ; from whichever side we
look at it, it is the work of the immanent Spirit
of the transcendent God which was and is ever at
work everywhere in every race and in every
individual of mankind ; but which specially mani
fested itself in this race in the line of the inspired
prophets, ay, and in the priestly ritual and sacrifices
both of the earlier days and of the second Temple,
preparing the way for God's last and greatest Revela
tion in the manifestation of Himself in the Person
of the Christ, the Eternal Word of the Father,
the Archetype and Head of humanity veiled in
human flesh, who "for us men and for our
salvation came down from heaven." In the
words of the inspired writer of the Epistle to the
Hebrews, " God who in divers fashions and in
many portions spake unto the fathers in the
prophets hath in these last days spoken unto us
in His Son whom He hath appointed heir of all
things, by whom also He made the worlds."
The God-inspired prophets of Israel showed the
futility of all man's efforts after goodness unless
he could look for forgiveness for failure and help
towards the perfecting of his nature from God
Himself; the God-inspired ritual and sacrifices
of the Temple displayed the methods of God's
forgiveness and the means whereby strength to

248 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
rise higher might be obtained ; and so both alike
led up to the Person and work of the incarnate
Christ, the help of the Holy Spirit, and the
sacramental life of the Church.
The view of humanity which has been put forth
in these Lectures will, no doubt, appear at first
sight strange and unwonted to minds which have
been theologically trained ; but it is a view
necessitated by the facts of science, and should
therefore be welcomed both by the theologian
and the religiously disposed scientist, because it
offers a readjustment of ideas between theology
and science which is in harmony with the latter and
not opposed to the absolutely necessary conceptions
of the former, and may therefore be accounted in
the nature of an eirenicon between two otherwise
opposing and divergent forces. There may have
been among those who followed as they were
delivered, and there will assuredly be among those
who read these imperfect and inadequate, because
all too brief, expositions of what I believe to be
the only lines on which a view of mankind that
is consonant with science and not out of harmony
with a true theology can be pursued to-day, many
who are more familiar with the facts of Biology,
and with the sciences of Astronomy and Geology,
Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology than
I have been able to make myself in the midst

ANTHROPOLOGY 249
of a busy and otherwise occupied parochial life,
and they may have been tempted to give more
attention to Haeckel's system of materialistic
Monism, which seems to furnish a ready-made
solution of the problems which may be summed
up under the title of The Riddle of the Universe,
than it deserves, and I would ask them to pursue
their studies with an open mind, and, while
giving its due effect to every fact revealed by
science, not lightly to throw away those supports
of the higher life and incentives to a nobler outlook
which are furnished by religion. There may be,
on the other hand, some among them who tremble
at what they are inclined to call the introduction
of "the thin end of the wedge," and who in their
fear for the inner sanctuary of religion would cling
to all the outposts which have been erected by
the presuppositions and prejudices of a theology
which looked out upon the Universe with far
other eyes than ours, and endeavoured to solve
the riddles of existence and the mysteries of sin
and suffering by paying attention to man apart
from his origin and environment, and by the
setting up of a system marvellously complete and
self-contained, but which the facts of science have
proved, " like the cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous
palaces," to be but " the baseless fabric of a vision "
and a dream, which at the first touch of reality is
destined to vanish into nothingness, and I would ask

250 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
them too to pursue their studies with an open mind,
to put away all prejudices and presuppositions, and
to believe that in this restatement of the case,
although much that they had been led to value
may have disappeared, yet much, and that the only
thing that really matters, the only thing that is
of essential and eternal significance, remains.
With the disappearance of the notion of mankind
as a " fallen " race it might at first sight appear that
the need for redemption, for grace and the means
of grace, disappeared too. But a deeper study and a
more profound research show that this is not so.
The Incarnation of the Son of God— the redemption
wrought, the forgiveness won, the grace bestowed —
was in the mind and purpose of God from all
eternity ; all the gropings and upward longings, the
religious sentiments and ceremonial observances of
primitive man, and all the revelation, the special
inspiration of the Spirit of God, bestowed on Israel,
were meant to lead up to the Christ, the God-man
incarnate, the Head and King of a redeemed and
perfected humanity. That the work was accom
plished in and for a race which began its career in
the non-moral stage in the far distant past, and only
slowly acquired a sense of sin as the moral law
became slowly revealed in the advance of mankind
from a tribal and social to an individual personality,
only enhances our ideas of the eternal purpose of the
glorious God who is at once transcendent above, apart

ANTHROPOLOGY 251
from and, in the infinity of His Being, over against
the Universe which He has made, and yet is one with
and immanent in it, the guiding Force and directing
Spirit of the souls which He has called into existence,
and this enables us in some degree to understand
the sublime intuition of St. Paul that it was His will
from all eternity " to sum up all things in the Christ."
In Him, through the Incarnation, the chain which
bound the race to its hereditary tendencies is
broken, and redemption is secured through the
solidarity of the race of whose nature He partook,
and which, in virtue of the Incarnation, is united to
Him, and in Him to God.
This union is sealed to each individual of the race
in the holy Sacrament of Baptism, confirmed in the
Laying on of Hands, and maintained through
participation in the blessed Sacrament of His Body
and Blood. Herein lies the power of an endless life,
the sacramental life which is the portion of each of
the redeemed in His Church.
Thus the Christ is the last and unique Revelation
of God, the culmination of the progressive revelation
of the Old Testament, the Perfect Man.
Sacramentally united to Him, who is the Arche
type of the race, man overcomes the evil tendencies
inherent in the germ-plasm, and thetemptationswhich
come to him individually through the soma-plasm ;
he conquers heredity and environment, and becomes
capable of an endless progress towards perfection.

252 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
What the God-guided impulses of primitive man
ordained, what the savage aims at in the rites of
initiation, the common eating of the sacrifice slain
to procure communion between the god and his
worshipper, and in the blood-brotherhood with his
god and with his fellows secured- thereby, what Israel
found in circumcision and sacrifice, that is really
bestowed in Baptism, Confirmation, and Communion.
Those were but the shadows of the true ; the fore-
shadowings and adumbrations, and gropings after
the things which are alone eternally real and
valid.1 The Christ, in His earthly life, in His dealings
with sinners, and in His teaching, was the last of the
Prophets ; in His death upon the cross He was the
last of the Priests, and the last, because the one all-
Sufficient and all-prevailing sacrifice. That Sacrifice,
because it is the death of the Incarnate God, and
the grandest display of self-sacrifice, the crucifying
of the fleshly impulses and the selfish will to live in
obedience to a higher and a nobler law, is the
redemption of mankind; and Christians are an
initiated people, the new race, the people of God
not for themselves, but for the whole race. Thus
we may see the meaning and work of the Church —
the highest expression of God's purposes for man
kind. It is sometimes said that the sacramental
system of the Church is nothing but pure fetishism.
We accept the phrase. It is fetishism — but
1 See Note D, p. 264.

ANTHROPOLOGY 253
fetishism raised to the nth degree— i.e., it is the con
summation of, and by its means is really and validly
bestowed on the faithful Christian, all that fetishism
groped after and implied. In separating themselves
from the Church's system, and aiming at what they
consider a more spiritual Christianity divorced from
material adjuncts and aids, our Nonconformist
brethren are depriving themselves of that in which
alone the true Christian life consists. Emphasising
individualism and denying or ignoring the social
solidarity of mankind which is secured in the Church,
they are in danger of losing all real spirituality, as
may be seen by the vagaries of the " New Theology,"
and the transforming of the Nonconformist bodies
from religious into purely political corporations.1
So for us there is no fear of the new and enlarged
view of human nature, and of the length of time
during which our race has existed on the globe,
which is supplied by Prehistoric Archaeology and
Anthropology. Each baptized, confirmed soul must
fight, must struggle, must press on, forward and up
ward, must seek the grace imparted and the strength
given in communion with Him whom God has given
to be " Head over all things to His Church, which is
His Body, the fulness of Him that filleth all in all,"
'' until we all come in the unity of the faith and of the
knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man,
unto the measure of the stature of the fulness, of
1 See Note E, p. 265.

254 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Christ." So struggling, so fighting, so pressing on,
we can possess our souls in patience, and await the
dawning of the perfect day when " the tabernacle of
God shall be with men, and God Himself shall be
with them and be their God." x
To conclude with the eloquent words of a great
teacher : " Though fierce travails, though wide seas
and roaring gulfs lie before us, is it not something if
a Loadstar in the eternal sky do once more disclose
itself; an everlasting light, shining through all
cloud-tempests and roaring billows, ever as we
emerge from the trough of the sea: the blessed
beacon, far off on the edge of far horizons, towards
which we are to steer incessantly for life? Is it not
something; O Heavens, is it not all? There lies
the Heroic promised land ; under that Heaven's
light, my brethren, bloom the Happy Isles, — there,
O there ! Thither will we ;
'There dwells the great Achilles whom we knew.'
There dwell all Heroes, and will dwell : thither all ye
heroic-minded! — The Heaven's Loadstar once clearly
in our eye, how will each true man stand truly to
his work in the ship ; how with undying hope will all
things be fronted, all be conquered. . . . The Past
is a dim indubitable fact : the Future too is one, only
dimmer; nay properly it is the same fact in new
dress and development. For the Present holds in it
1 See Note F, p. 267.

ANTHROPOLOGY 255
both the whole Past and the whole Future ; — as the
Life-Tree Igdrasil, wide-waving, many toned,
has its roots down deep in the Death-kingdoms,
among the oldest dead dust of men, and with
its boughs reaches always beyond the stars ; and
in all times and places is one and the same Life-
tree!"1 NOTE A, p. 236.
Professor Otto Pfleiderer, in his recent book on
Primitive Christianity, shows very clearly that the
Apostle St. Paul's theology, especially his doctrine
as to the Natural Man, Redemption, and Life in
the Spirit, and therefore, of course, to a larger extent
than is generally recognised, the theology of the
Church, is based ultimately upon primitive animistic
beliefs. From these arise his conceptions as to the
conflict between the Body and Soul, i.e. the Flesh
and Spirit ; the efficacy of Christ's Sacrifice ; and the
life of the Believer " in the Spirit " ; from this, too, the
efficacy of Sacraments, as the Christian mysteries,
and Means of Grace. In this respect St. Paul is the
true author of the Sacramental System of the Church.
Here it will suffice to quote : " If the question is
asked what are the sources or the affinities of
Pauline anthropology in general, it must be said
that it is neither Hellenistic philosophy nor Phari
saic theology, but a Christian modification of the
popular anthropology which was common to the
whole of antiquity, and which we usually call
1 Carlyle, Past and Present, bk. i. c. 6.

256 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Animism, according to which the soul or spirit is
a generally invisible, yet not wholly immaterial
being, which stands in so loose a relationship to
the body as its containing vessel that it can at
times pass out of it (cf. 2 Cor. xii. 2), just as other
spiritual beings can temporarily or permanently
enter into it and dwell in it. The view of sin
especially, as a demonic power, a spiritual being
which dwells in the material body, which rouses the
passions, enslaves the will, and causes death, corre
sponds exactly to the fundamental animistic view
according to which all abnormal excitations of the
soul life, whether in a good, or more especially, in
a bad sense, are referred to the overmastering
influence of spiritual beings who take possession
of man."
Again : " According to this theory, all extraordinary
phenomena in the life of Nature and of man are
due to the influence of spirits, or living creatures at
once supersensible and sensible, which are not
indeed bound by the limits of the gross, visible,
corporeal world, but are not, on that account, wholly
immaterial, but possess a finer, usually invisible
corporeity, as is evidenced by the fact that the word
for spirit in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin is identical
with, or closely related to, the word for wind or
breath." Professor Pfleiderer then describes the
ideas of Philo and of Seneca, and points out how
for St. Paul the multitude of spirits are all con
densed, so to say, or concentrated in the one " Spirit
of God," which is equated with the " Spirit of Christ,"
for " the Lord is the Spirit"; and this is manifested in
the virtuous life of the Christian, which is the test

ANTHROPOLOGY 257
of the so-called miraculous gifts. And he continues :
" The relationship of these theories with the Pauline
doctrine of the Spirit is so striking that one might
feel tempted to suppose dependence on the one
side or the other. And yet that would not be true.
Their affinity is merely due to the fact that these
ideas were then in the air, and answered to a religious
need which was felt at the same time in different
quarters." And further : " The explanation of it {i.e.,
St. Paul's system) is to be found simply in the fact
that the apostle had no other forms at command for
the expression of his Christian experiences than the
animistic conceptions of ancient supernaturalism,
which hypostatised extraordinary phenomena of
consciousness as spiritual beings. When we have
once recognised that the ground of the difficulty lies
in the form of representation which was inevitable
at that period, we can the more easily, abstracting
from this, grasp and rejoice in the abiding kernel of
the Pauline ethic. It is certain that Paul by his
teaching laid the theological foundation of a new
ethical system, which gives man the strongest bond
of union, of solidarity, of moral order — love, which,
taking root in the pious heart, draws ever new
nourishment from religious faith and hope, and finds
the norm which it must seek to realise in the highest
ideal, in God and His Son."1
Professor Wernle, likewise, in his Beginnings of
Christianity, shows how the first Christian theology
is based on popular animistic conceptions, although
1 Pfleiderer, Primitive Christianity, i. 289, 290, 370, 376, 408,
409. '7

258 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
he describes the fact without employing the term.
Thus he commences by saying : " It is no doubt
true that Christianity is a daughter of the Jewish
faith ; yet it strikes its roots deep down into a soil
which we may call beliefs common to all the re
ligions of antiquity. In that soil the characteristic
features of the various religions of the ancient world
are not as yet distinguishable. Among these common
beliefs may be included the whole body of ideas
concerning the earth, nature, man, the soul and the
world of spirits. Before the dawn of science these
popular ideas bore undisputed sway, and they live
on even to the present time engaged in a ceaseless
struggle with scientific conceptions of the universe." x

NOTE B, p. 238.
Just as in the case of every child there comes a
time when it awakes from the innocent unconscious
ness of childhood to the consciousness of the difference
between right and wrong, and to the knowledge
that, as a matter of practical experience, it is free to
choose, and that on its choice praise or blame
depends, so in the course of the evolution of the
human race there came a time, how early we know
not, when the like consciousness arose, and, under
the guidance of God, it is probable that the system
of taboo, established in the primitive aggregations
of families and tribes, played a leading part.
This is implied in the narrative of Gen. iii., where
1 Wernle, Beginnings of Christianity, i. p. 1 ; and see Weinel, St.
Paul: The Man and his Work, etc., pp. 113-123.

ANTHROPOLOGY 259
the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge is taboo to the
primal pair, and it is all that is necessary for us to
hold as Christian believers and students of Anthro
pology. The subtleties indulged in by Professor
Bernard in his article on the subject of " The Fall "
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, and indeed by
Canon Driver in his commentary on Gen. iii. in
The Book of Genesis, pp. 56, 57, go beyond what is
needful, and are, so far, more likely to confuse than
to help. The paragraph commencing, "Of the
actual beginnings of man upon this earth we know
nothing," on p. 54 of the last mentioned book, is
excellent and cannot be improved upon, as is also
the summary statement on " The Antiquity of Man,"
pp. xxxvii-xlii.
NOTE C, p. 241.
Mr. Campbell's doctrine of sin is confused. In one
passage he is practically a Platonist : " Evil is a
negative, not a positive term, . . . good is being, evil
is not being," etc. In another passage he is as really
an out-and-out Pantheist : " Life is God. And when
the tendency goes round and works havoc in the
world, it still remains a quest for God, although
a blundering one ; " upon which follow the celebrated
illustrations from the drunkard and the roue in Picca
dilly, who are both seeking life and therefore God.
And yet again he is the Christian preacher denoun
cing the love of self in every class and every society :
" Sin is the murder-spirit in human experience."
But the fountain-head of Mr. Campbell's difficulties

260 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
lies, as it must do in the case of every thinking man,
in the mistaken ideas about the Fall, which have
been made the foundation of the whole Christian
doctrine of sin, and in what he says in the following
passage I entirely concur : " The theological muddle
is largely caused by the inability of many people
to free themselves from archaic notions which have
really nothing to do with Christianity, although they
have been imported into it. The principal of these,
in relation to the question of sin, is the doctrine of
the Fall. This doctrine has played a mischievous
part in Christian thought, more especially, perhaps,
since the Reformation."
Upon this I will quote the remarks of a writer in
the Church Quarterly Review, July 1907, which
exactly express the point of view that I am endea
vouring to put before the readers of these Lectures.
After pointing out that the theology of the Fall
hardly appears in the Old Testament, that it has
left hardly any traces, if any at all, in the Gospels,
and that it does not in reality form the actual basis
of the theology of St. Paul even in the Epistle to
the Romans, where not the Fall of Man but the fact
of sin is at the foundation of his teaching, while the
story of the Fall is only alluded to in two places,
both very obscure, the writer continues : —
" At the present time there is, and there is rightly,
a reaction against some of the extremer forms of
the Reformation doctrine. Both Biblical criticism
and the study of ethnology " — he should have added,
Anthropology — " make it impossible for most people
to believe in the story of the Fall as a historical fact,

ANTHROPOLOGY 261
A one-sided conception of the meaning of evolution
makes a large number of people desire to construct
a theory of life which shall have no place in it for
any fall of man. But none of these changes in
thought and none of these theories do away with
the actual facts which have made people in the past
believe in sin, and which led to such speculations as
those concerning the origin of evil. No theory of
evolution can explain away facts, and the fact, so
far as we can see, is this — that man alone amongst
created beings has the gift of conscious knowledge "
(we might ask how this " knowledge " could be
unconscious ! ) "of right and wrong, the power of
choosing right and rejecting wrong, and that he has
often chosen the wrong and rejected the right. The
result of this has been that state of mankind which
we call sinful. . . . And our knowledge about sin is
not confined to what we see. It is a fact of our own
personal experience" — the power of which and the
blessedness of escape from which was expressed
for all time by the Psalmists of Israel in such inspired
utterances as we find in Pss. xxxii. and li.
Lastly, as summing up the raison d'etre of Mr.
Campbell's position as a revolt from and yet the
outcome of individualistic Protestantism and the
upholding of the sole authority of the Bible — an
authority now proved insufficient and non-existent
— I will quote the writer's concluding remarks.
" What is to be our authority ? The Bible has gone
in the sense of a final authority. But this is not new.
The result of the newest criticism is only to continue
a process which Erasmus began. . . . The higher

262 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
criticism does not overthrow the Bible : it only
introduces another and we believe a more rational
method of interpreting it. It has made the problems
of the Old Testament very much less difficult ; it
brings out its reality and spiritual religion. It is
only to those to whom the Bible has been the one,
only, final authority that the difficulty is really
serious. But the Church of England has always laid
down in her many formulae, in one way or another,
that the Christian faith is older than the New Testa
ment. ' The New Testament was the product of
this faith, not its foundation. . . J1
" In the authority of the Church as interpreting
Scripture and as controlled by Scripture we can, in
the present day, find a quite adequate basis of belief."
The problems of the age and its difficulties are
much enhanced by the fact that " the inadequate
conception of ' Churches ' has taken the place of the
Church as a great ideal. . . .Mr. Campbell fails because
he starts as an individualist — and shall we say as a
Protestant? — and not with the life of corporate
Christianity behind him. . . . The clever critic fails, as
he always will fail, because he has no reverence.
The solution of the problems that Mr. Campbell
raises will always be more adequate and true the
more the thinker is Catholic and not merely
Protestant." — Church Quarterly Review, July 1907,
pp. 418-22, 431-35.
Compare also the following : —
" Two ways of regarding Christianity, which the
Reformers inherited from the Middle Ages and
1 Walker, What about the New Theology ? p. 18.

ANTHROPOLOGY 263
retained, have had on subsequent ages a sad
influence. The first of these was an unhistoric
and uncritical way of regarding the Bible. Driven
to produce some authority which could be
put in the balances against the authority of
the visible Church, to what could men appeal but
to Scripture? And accepting the Holy Scriptures
as an inspired and infallible authority, they accepted
them as a whole. . . .
" The greatest by far of all the troubles and dangers
at present threatening the reformed Churches arises
from the fact that their founders made an inspired
and infallible Bible the corner-stone of their
systems. The growth of historic criticism, whatever
be in the long run the gain that it will bring, is
at the moment sapping the foundations on which
these Churches were built.
" The second of the great misfortunes of the
Reformers was that they often regarded Christianity
as a body of opinions rather than a way of life. . . .
They looked on the Fourth Gospel as just as valuable
historically as the other three; and they accepted
the Pauline Epistles as of the same authority as the
teaching of Jesus Himself. . . . Hence the importance
attached to the drawing up of confessions; . . .
the bitter quarrels of Lutherans and Calvinists ;
the burning of Servetus and the splitting up of
the Church of England." — Gardner, Growth of
Christianity, pp. 229, 230.1
1 See Note on p. 270.

264 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
NOTE D, p. 252.
" The religion of the Niger delta natives is based
on the adoration of ancestral spirits, materially
represented by emblems, the latter being nothing
more nor less than convenient forms of embodiment,
which can be altered or transferred according to
circumstances. These objects, rude and senseless
as they may be, are regarded as vehicles of spiritual
influence, as something sacred because of their
direct association with some familiar and powerful
spirit, and not as objects which in themselves have,
or carry with them, any so-called supernatural
powers. It is not the object itself, but what is in
the object, that is the power for good or for evil.
Hence, though they may venerate the object itself,
they do so only because of the spirit which resides
in or is associated with it. The object accordingly
becomes nothing more nor less than a sacred re
ceptacle, and its holiness is merely a question of
association. The thing itself is helpless and
powerless ; it cannot do harm, just as it cannot do
good ; the spirit which is invariably ancestral, even
when, deified, alone does the mischief or wreaks
the vengeance in the case of iniquity or neglect, or
confers the benefits and blessings when the ancestral
rites are performed with due piety by the house
hold. The insignificance of the object is of no
consequence, nay, rather, the greater is its in
significance, the greater the reflected glory and
power of the spirit. This is the essence of fetishism." x
1 Leonard, Lower Niger and its Tribes, Preface (by Dr. Haddon),

ANTHROPOLOGY 265
Yes, and can a better description be given, mutatis
mutandis, of the sacramental system of the Church ?
There we have the insignificance of the object, com
mon water, the freest and fullest of God's gifts, com
mon bread and wine, the most universal necessities
of life, but sanctified, made holy, because of the spirit
which resides in or is associated with them. Baptism
in which water is sanctified by the Spirit of God to
the purifying of the soul ; bread and wine which are
made by Divine power the means of communion
with the risen and glorified Christ — really bestowing
those life-giving and life-sustaining blessings which
the savage, and primitive man, dimly grope after.
NOTE E, p. 253.
" Religion," says Mr. Chatterton-Hill in his book
on Heredity and Selection in Sociology, "is still a
force in Society which has not yet lost all its old
vitality. And if the religious spirit has survived
all the storms and all the attacks which have been
directed against it; if those who are most eager,
either to supersede it by some new Positivist ideal,
or to weaken it in one way or another, are com
pelled finally to arrive at the very point they were
seeking to avoid ; ... if every great philosopher
who seeks to give a value to the ideal of life, is
forced to go beyond life in order to find that value;
after all this, we may reasonably see in the besoin
de croire, as Brunetiere has called it, in the ' need to
believe,' some justification for the view that religion
is a sociological necessity!'
Now, " religious idealism can only hope to be a

266 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
social force in proportion as it is embodied in a
coherent organisation, . . . and the only organisa
tion capable of constituting a spiritual organisation of
idealistic and supra-rational principles adequate to the
needs of Western civilisation is the Catholic Church."
The writer, probably, means by this the Roman
Catholic Church ; but for us in England there is an
organisation of ancient foundation, but of greater
freedom, based on apostolic lines, and appealing to
the nation as no other body of Christians can. I
mean the Catholic reformed mother Church of
England, and, as applying to her, I accept the
statement without any reservation.
" Religious belief," he goes on, " corresponds to
the necessities of the emotional nature, even as
science corresponds to the necessities of the intellect.
. . . The intellectual nature of man finds adequate
satisfaction in science ; the emotional nature of man
can find such satisfaction only in religious belief. . . .
" Alike from the purely individual point of view
of the expansion of the emotional nature, and from
the larger sociological point of view of social in
tegration and stability, religion is a necessary factor
in human life. In truth these two points of view
are in reality one. Religious belief is a sociological
necessity ; and to fulfil its indispensable social
functions, this belief must be incarnated in an
organisation which is truly social in its nature.
The stability of the social structure is dependent on
the security of its spiritual foundation." x
1 Vide op. cit., pp. 504-538; andcf. Headley, Problems of Evolution,
pp. 281-316, particularly pp. 290-293.

ANTHROPOLOGY 267
NOTE F, p. 254.
" Both the idea of sacramental worship and the
forms under which it is performed by the Christian
Church are the almost universal heritage of man
kind. The symbolic uses of washing and eating are
the most natural, the simplest, and the most
widely diffused of all such ceremonies. So natural
are they, that we may say with some confidence that
if Christ had not instituted Baptism and the
Eucharist the Church would have had to invent them.
A Christianity without sacraments could never have
converted Europe. In fact, the two great sacraments
were almost the only Christian rites which answered
to the ancient idea of religion as cultus — as the per
formance of some prescribed form of service to the
Deity. . . .
" The need of sacraments has been universally
felt both by savage and civilised mankind. It has
been met everywhere in much the same way — by
attributing a mysterious efficacy to certain pre
scribed symbolical acts, which are generally chosen
from the simplest and commonest functions of
ordinary life, such as washing and eating. The
special boons which the worshippers expect to
obtain by these ceremonies are the goodwill and
protection of the Deity, the forgiveness of their sins,
the acquisition of Divine grace by mystical union
with God, and the consecration of human bonds of
brotherhood by the solemn communion of every
member of the society in the presence of God. . . .
" And the Christian sacraments are real vehicles or
instruments of grace. . . . The Christian, when he

268 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
receives Baptism or Holy Communion, pledges
himself to make his life a living sacrifice to God ;
he transacts the forms, ordained, as he believes, by
Christ Himself, by which that pledge is ratified on
his part, and by which the promised grace is con
firmed to him by God. The sacraments are not
magical formulae which the spirits must obey " (as was
very largely the belief of the post-apostolic Church,
under the influence of animistic ideas, which were
then still living beliefs in the case of the vast mass of
those to whom the message of the Church came) ;
" but they are ' means by which we receive ' real and
great spiritual benefits. If we probe the mystery to
the bottom, we find that it is really part of a mystery
which environs us in all the circumstances of our
life, and which is by no means peculiar to acts of
worship. . . . For myself, I believe that Gregory
of Nyssa was right when he said that ' Christianity
has its strength in the mystic symbols.' " J — Contentio
Veritatis, " The Sacraments," by Dr. W. R. Inge,
pp. 279, 284-85, 297-99, and consult the whole essay,
which is very clearly and thoughtfully reasoned out.
Cf. the corresponding paper in Lux Mundi, by the
present Bishop of Oxford ; and see Gardner, Growth
of Christianity, pp. 131-136.
1 "Two streams of religious tendency meet in Christianity," say
the Germans, "the Sacramental (mystical, magical) and the
Spiritual: and the former in winning has killed the latter ; hence the
divergence between the Catholic and Protestant type of mind."
But is it so in reality ? Words themselves are but symbols, and the
Spirit of God in Nature and in the soul of man works only through
means : i.e., the Spirit must have a body to work upon and to mani
fest itself in.

ANTHROPOLOGY 269
ADDITIONAL NOTE, pp. 219-221.
The following extract from Dr. J. G. Frazer's
Adonis, Attis, Osiris, puts in a very striking and
graphic manner ideas similar to those expressed in
the text : —
"The great prophets of the eighth and seventh
centuries by the spiritual ideals and the ethical
fervour of their teaching had wrought a religious
and moral reform perhaps unparalleled in history.
Under their influence an austere monotheism had
replaced the old sensuous worship of the natural
powers: a stern Puritanical spirit, an unbending
rigour of mind had succeeded to the old easy supple
temper with its weak compliances, its wax-like im
pressionability, its proclivities to the sins of the
flesh. And the moral lessons which the prophets
inculcated were driven home by the political events
of the time. . . . The long agony of the siege ot
Samaria must have been followed with trembling
anxiety by the inhabitants of Judaea. ... Its final
fall and the destruction of the northern kingdom
could not fail to fill every thoughtful mind in the
sister realm with sad forebodings. It was as if the
sky had lowered and thunder muttered over Jeru
salem. Thenceforth to the close of the Jewish
monarchy, about a century and a half later, the
cloud never passed away, though once for a little it
seemed to lift, when Sennacharib raised the siege of
Jerusalem, and the watchers on the walls beheld
the last of the long line of spears and standards
disappearing, the last squadron of the blue-coated

270 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Assyrian cavalry, sweeping in a cloud of dust, out
of sight. (Ezek. xxiii. 5 sq., 12.)
" It was in this period of national gloom and de
spondency that the two great reformations of Israel's
religion were accomplished, the first by King
Hezekiah, the second a century later by King
Josiah. We need not wonder then that the re
formers who in that and subsequent ages composed
or edited the annals of their nation should have
looked as sourly on the old unreformed paganism of
their forefathers as the fierce zealots of the Common
wealth looked on the far more innocent pastimes of
Merry England ; and that in their zeal for the glory of
God they should have blotted many pages of history
lest they should perpetuate the memory of practices to
which they traced the calamities of their country.
All the historical books passed through the office of
the Puritan censor {i.e., the Deuteronomic redactor),
and we can hardly doubt that they emerged from
it stripped of many gay feathers which they had
flaunted when they went in." — Frazer, op. cit., pp.
20-22.
NOTE, p. 263.
In reference to what is said on p. 260, cf. Professor
Armstrong in his address to section L. of the British
Association at Belfast, 1902. " To use the apt words
of the Master quoted by the Poet at the Breakfast-
table : ' if for the Fall of Man science comes to
substitute the Rise of Man, it means the utter dis
integration of all the spiritual pessimisms which have
been like a spasm in the heart, and a cramp in the
intellect of men for so many centuries.' "

APPENDICES
I. The Higher Criticism and Christian Teaching.
II. The Higher Criticism and the Miraculous.
III. Frames of Mind.
IV. Reasons for signing the " Declaration on
Biblical Criticism " contained in a letter to
the Standard, May, 1905.

I.

how far do the results of the higher
Criticism affect Christian Teaching?
A Paper read before the West Norfolk Clerical Society,
April igoj.
I HAVE purposely thrown the thesis of this Paper
into the form of a question, the answer to which, so
far as I am able to formulate one, will, I hope, appear
as we proceed. But, first, we must address ourselves
to another question, which will perhaps occur to
some readers, and that is, What is meant by the
" Higher Criticism " ? Is it a term arrogantly
assumed by those who do not agree with the
current teachings of tradition ; and if not, what does
it really imply ?
The answer is very simple. The " Higher
Criticism" is so named in contrast with that criticism
which has to do only with the text of Scripture, and
which may therefore be called " Lower."
The latter, i.e. the Lower Criticism, deals with the
differences which are found between the readings of
different MSS. and versions, and decides, as far as
may be, which is the one which correctly represents
the mind of the writer.
18

274 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
The " Higher Criticism," on the other hand, goes
into the questions of date and authorship, and
decides, chiefly from internal evidence, whether or
not a document proceeds from the author to whom,
and belongs to the date to which, it has been ascribed,
and, further, whether books hitherto ascribed to one
author are not in reality composite productions pro
ceeding from many authors and belonging to many
dates. For example, it is one of the results of the
Higher Criticism that the books traditionally
ascribed to Moses, with the Book of Joshua, which
together form the " Hexateuch," did not assume
their present form until after the Exile, in the fifth
century B.C., and are a composite document con
taining the writings of authors known as J, E, D,
and P, combined and unified by means of editorial
notes and comments. It would take us too far
afield to attempt to describe here the means by
which these are distinguished. Full information
may be obtained in Dr. Driver's Genesis, or in the
same writer's Introduction to the Old Testament.
It must suffice to say here that the results are
certain and indisputable. J and E, the earliest
historians, belong to the ninth and eighth centuries
B.C. ; D, the Deuteronomist, to the seventh ; and P,
the Priestly Document, while embodying earlier
practice, belongs, in the main, to the fifth century.
Secondly, my subject in this article is confined
entirely to the Old Testament, the Higher Criticism
of which, after being a burning question for the greater
part of the nineteenth century, has now practically
attained to certain sure and fixed results. There is

APPENDICES 275
a Higher Criticism of the New Testament, but I do
not propose to touch on that in this paper.
Thirdly, I would say that whatever views I may
put forward, and however much they may run
counter to cherished opinions — I will even say
convictions — I would ask my readers to believe
that I am speaking only as a loyal son of the
Catholic Church, and subject to her ruling, and I
would remind them that nowhere — through all her
long history — has the Church formulated a hard
and fast decision as to what she means by inspira
tion, nor as to the contents of revelation. No single
doctrine of the Catholic faith is endangered by
genuine, honest, reverent criticism, though it may
receive a new setting more fitted to twentieth-century
thought and knowledge than the stereotyped ideas of
the older theology; rather does the realisation of the
fact that the revelation of God to man was given
through " earthen vessels " — men like ourselves, sub-
jecttoall the errors and misconceptions of ourcommon
humanity — given, too, " as men were able to bear it "
— enhance the bright shining of the light of God's
truth, fed by the constant supply of the oil of God's
Holy Spirit, with which those " earthen vessels," like
the lamps of old Roman days, were filled.
My question, then, presupposes that certain results
have been at length reached by the Higher Criticism.
I do not propose to go into the long history of
the painful and painstaking processes through
which those results have been attained. No doubt,
in the process, many mistakes were made, and good
men went further than the evidence warranted, but

276 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
as to the results there is a general consensus of
opinion among scholars at the present time — not
withstanding that "much land yet remains to be
occupied," and many obscure details still need light
to be thrown upon them.
As to the results, I cannot do better than quote
the words of Professor Collins in his Prefatory Essay
to the 33rd volume of the Encyclopaedia Britannica:
" In no department of theology has there been so
great a change as that which has come over the
study of the Old Testament since about 1870. In
a word, these years have seen the triumph of the
Higher Criticism, i.e., that criticism which deals not
merely with textual and documentary dates, but
which submits the documents themselves to analysis
and reconstructs the history which they embody by
the consideration of the spirit which underlies them,
the whole atmosphere which they exhale, and all the
knowledge that we can derive from external sources ;
in other words, that very historical criticism which
has given us such large results in other fields of
study. ... Its main results are now accepted on
all hands amongst scholars, for even the French
Catholics, as M. Houtin " (I shall refer to him again
presently) "has reminded us in his Question
Biblique chez les Catholiques de France (1902),
are now accepting them freely. It is agreed that
the Prophets, not the Law, must be the starting-
point of all our study of the history of Israel " (this
was Wellhausen's great discovery), "and that the
Hexateuch must be recognised as a compilation of
late date, the chief constituent elements of which

APPENDICES 277
have been distinguished and identified ; that the
early parts of Genesis, down to the call of Abraham,
are great religious prose poems, based upon the
folklore which the early Israelites had inherited in
common with their neighbours, and that the story
of the Patriarchal period has reached us as recorded
by much later generations, though probably based
on genuine historical tradition ; that much of the
contents of the Book of Judges is authentic ; and
that with the Books of Samuel we enter upon real
and authentic history, which history is re-told from
a later and biassed point of view in the Chronicles ;
lastly, that the whole Levitical system was a later
growth, of which we can trace the stages with more
or less of clearness. So far there is agreement ; and
results, assured as far as they go, have been reached."
Thus far Professor Collins, now Bishop of
Gibraltar. To what he says, for he is tied to
brevity, I may add what I consider, after long
study, to be equally assured results, viz. : —
(i) That the Book of Job is a late production,
almost certainly post-exilic, and that it is a
magnificent drama, in which the problems of life
are looked at from very much the same point of
view as that from which they are regarded in
Hamlet, though the finale is different. In fact, Job
is the one example of a Hebrew tragedy, as the
Song of Solomon is of a pastoral comedy.
(2) That the Book of Isaiah is a composite com
pilation of many dates, emanating from Isaiah and
his school, and that the last twenty-seven chapters
are post-exilic.

278 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
(3) That the Book of Psalms is a late compilation,
and .that, though it may, perhaps, contain one or
two Psalms which may be ascribed to David — whose
character of warrior-king as depicted in Samuel
makes him totally unfitted to be the author of its
most sublime poems — it is the Hymn-book of the
second Temple. So 1 might go on, but enough has
been said to awaken interest, and I doubt not, in
some minds, strenuous opposition, because it is felt
that all the solid ground won in childhood is being
washed away by the incoming tide. These are the
results upon which all scholars are agreed. Before
passing on, however, I must devote a few words
to the subject of the Book of Daniel. This is
necessitated by the fact that not long ago the
traditional view with regard to this book was put
forward at Norwich by one who, I suppose, must
be reckoned a scholar. The consensus of opinion
is, notwithstanding, against him ; and for myself, I
agree with Dr. Driver in assigning it to a date not
earlier than 350 B.C. Moreover, Dr. Pinches, in a
book recently published by the S.P.C.K. itself {The
Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records
and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia), frankly
gives up any attempt to defend the authenticity of
the events supposed to be recorded in this book,
and the furthest to which he will go in the matter
is to say : " Even though his {i.e. Daniel's) book
be regarded as a romance, there is always the
question whether the personages mentioned therein
may not really have existed."
Such, then, being, in broad outline, the results of

APPENDICES 279
the Higher Criticism as to the historical setting
and authorship of the Old Testament Scriptures,
we go on to ask, " How far do these results affect
Christian teaching ? "
Here we must distinguish. The educated, well-
read layman will find them out for himself, or, at
least, he has the opportunity of doing so, if he can
spare time for the intellectual side of religion from
his politics, and his business, and his pleasure. He
will need guidance and help, need to be shown
that the larger knowledge of the origin and growth
of God's Word is no more opposed to the Holy
Catholic Faith, and no more a cloak for infidelity
or veiled Agnosticism, than are the results of
science in the sphere of Astronomy and Biology.
More of this anon. Alas ! I fear the educated
layman, if he does not get the cold shoulder, as a
suspected heretic, from his clerical brother, is likely
to get little help from the majority of the clergy on
these subjects at present.
But there is the unlearned layman to be con
sidered. The comfortable man of business, who,
like Gallio, cares for none of these things ; the
labourer, who thinks but little, and forgets almost
all he was ever taught. Are you to unsettle these
people — to say nothing of the majority of women,
whose minds are set for the most part on the
sentimental side of religion, caring nothing for its
intellectual side, knowing nothing of theology — by
giving them new ideas which they will find it hard
to assimilate, and, perhaps, in the process under
mining their simple faith ?

280 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
To deal with the latter class, perhaps the most
difficult one, first.
It is quite possible— I say it boldly — for the clergy
and other religious teachers to be true to their
honest convictions and to let the results of their
knowledge, provided only they know, permeate
and leaven their teaching, both in the pulpit and
out of it, in Bible class and school and private
ministrations, without undermining the simple
faith of the veriest babe in Christ, and to make
the teaching of the Catholic Church come home to
the thoughtless and the careless and the irreligious
in a way it has never done before.
Too much of the teaching of the Old Testament
has been made to hang upon a few great names.
To Moses has been given the honour, not only of
being the greatest lawgiver and general of antiquity,
but almost one of its greatest historians and most
voluminous writers. To David has been given the
honour not only of being a mighty warrior-king,
the welder of a number of petty tribes into a
homogeneous nation, but also of being a great
spiritual poet and teacher, the sweet Psalmist of
Israel. So with Solomon, so with Isaiah, and
others. Is it nothing, or is it something quite
incomprehensible to simple minds, to show that
far otherwise was God's method of revelation ?
Will not the simplest perceive its beauty when
they realise that, coming as it did through count
less minds and through unnumbered generations
of unknown singers and teachers and writers, it is
comparable rather to the slow and silent and im-

APPENDICES 281
perceptible growth of the forest tree than to the
succession of violent cataclysmic upheavals of an
exploded theory of Geology? And here the
doctrine of Evolution in the physical world steps in
to illustrate the progress of God's revelation of
Himself to man. " Precept upon precept, line upon
line, here a little, and there a little," God revealed
Himself, His will, His purposes.
Thus one is able to explain the apparent incon
sistency that the God who is Love should have
commanded the indiscriminate slaughter of the
Canaanites or the Amalekites. In that age the
loftiest minds in Israel had not, nor could they
have, reached the conception of God vouchsafed
to St. John, or even to Isaiah, and yet through, or
in spite of, the misconceptions of the human
instruments of revelation in the childhood of the
race, God's purposes for mankind were being
wrought out.
In the same way, to take another illustration :
when it is realised that the story of Joshua com
manding the sun and moon to stand still is, like
many another misunderstood passage, merely a
fragment of an early poem, couched in the high-
flown imagery so dear to the Eastern mind, the
foolish question will no longer be asked, " How
can the facts of science be harmonised with this
(supposed) fact of revelation ? " Nor will clever
men any longer waste their time in trying to do
it ! Here I may call to mind Matthew Arnold's
dictum, which increasing knowledge only proves
more and more true, " That more than half of the

282 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
so-called difficulties in the Bible arise from taking
Eastern poetry and trying to make it fit in with
the bald literalness of Western prose." Thus, if
I may be allowed for a moment the apparent
egoism of mentioning my own practice, I never
preach from a Psalm or the Book of Job, or any
other Old Testament passage, without first showing
its historical setting, its meaning for the writer and
those whom he addressed, before I go on to draw
its lessons for ourselves.
Once more, to take an apparent contradic
tion in the Sacred Books themselves — how are
we to reconcile 2 Sam. xxiv. I and 24 with
1 Chron. xxi. 1 and 25 ? The first is the
historical narrative, taken from annals con
temporary with the events ; the second is the
narrative of the same events coloured by the
Chronicler's desire to exonerate God from the
notion of temptation ; he therefore substitutes
" Satan " in harmony with the ideas of the later
Jews, derived from the Babylonians during the
Exile, which same ideas may be seen in Job, and
he exaggerates the amount paid by David in
accordance with his ideas of what ought to have
been the magnificence and wealth of that monarch.
The date of his account is about the fourth
century B.C.
We now come to consider the case of the more
learned or better educated among the laity. These
men read the Encyclopedia Britannica and other
works, and they ask how they are to reconcile the
story of Creation, or the story of Paradise, or the

APPENDICES 283
Fall of Man, or the Flood, and all that theology
has built upon these things, with the teachings of
science — of Geology, Biology, Evolution, and
Anthropology ? The answer of the Higher
Criticism is complete. There needs no harmony,
no reconciliation. All such attempts are doomed
to failure, — are, therefore, mere waste of time, and,
moreover, are needless. When it is understood
that the " early parts of Genesis are great religious
prose poems," all that is necessary has been said,
for everything is wrapt up in that answer. But
let me explain. Science, which is the inspiration
of the Spirit of God acting on the mind of man
through the facts of the physical Universe, so
far as they can be ascertained, teaches the truth
as to the early condition of the world and the
processes by which man came to be. These " great
religious prose poems " teach, in language fitted to
the childhood of the race, man's rightful place in
the Universe, and his spiritual relationship to the
God who brought him into being, through all the
marvellous progression of the ages. The Universe
is the work of God ; man, so far as we know,
is the highest work of God, a being possessed
of a higher than the mere animal nature, akin
to God Himself. What we call the soul, the
spiritual nature in man, was intended to overcome
and subdue the lower nature derived from his
animal ancestry. Original sin is the hereditary
tendency in every child of man to allow the lower
to master the higher, and the Fall of Man is
repeated in the case of everyone who by yielding

284 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
to the temptations of the lower and the material,
and allowing inclination to master duty, commits
actual sin in thought, or word, or deed. Paradise
tells of man's dream of a golden age in the past,
only to be realised in the future. The Deluge is
the reminiscence of some great catastrophe which
overwhelmed a race of sinners, and proclaims the
merited wrath of God against sin.
These stories were taken over by the Israelites
from the Accadians and Sumerians, among whom
they had been current for countless ages, and
purified, and thus adapted to high moral ends. In
this way it can be shown how the value of the Old
Testament lies in its moral teaching, and in its
progressive revelation of the character and purposes
of God, until at length, through patriarch and
prophet and seer, and through all the history of
the chosen race, the way was prepared for the
coming of the Perfect, the Ideal, Man, the Incarna
tion of the Son of God, whose life exhibits the
life of the Spirit in perfect mastery over the flesh,
whose death shows that only by the absolute
sacrifice of the lower self can man attain the
victory, and whose resurrection and ascension
have procured gifts for men, the impartation
of the Holy Spirit of God through the sacra
mental channels of grace, whereby man's weak
will may be strengthened, and his hereditary
tendency to evil subdued, and, through union
with Him who overcame, he too may overcome.
This appears to me to be a much more open
and honest, and, if I may say so, English method of

APPENDICES 285
proceeding than the German plan, whereby all
the discoveries and theories are confined to the
professor and the classroom, and the "Predicants"
are bidden to confine themselves wholly to the
ancient orthodoxy in their ministrations.
It remains for the Church of England to point
out a wiser way than either the method of the
German Lutherans described above, or than the
method of the Church of Rome, which, hampered by
the decrees of the Tridentine and Vatican Councils,
and by Papal letters and encyclicals, seeks to lower
the standard, and to check even the desire of learn
ing among the clergy, and has placed on the Index
both M. Houtin's book, to which I referred above, and
M. Loisy's book, L'Evangile etlAglise, which created
so great a sensation when it was first published.
For this the Church of England is eminently
fitted by her middle position between Rome and
Geneva — subject neither to the autocracy of a
(supposed) infallible Pope, nor bound to the blind
worship of a (supposed) infallible book. This she
will do, if her clergy and laity are earnest and
vigilant and studious, if they do not allow her to
throw away the golden opportunities which now
exist for laying the foundations of an understanding
between theology and modern ways of thinking by
an obstinate adhesion to medieval positions, or a
refusal to admit even the existence of difficulties. I
hope that what M. Houtin says of the state of things
in the Church of France may never be true of the
Church of England : " At the end of the nineteenth
century, perhaps, on an average, only two priests

286 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
in twenty could be found who interested themselves
in Biblical questions. Of these one declared him
self an uncompromising defender of tradition, the
other one was open to the new ideas. Between
these two battle would often be joined at clerical
meetings or conferences. Discussion would
promptly degenerate into bitterness or sharp
words. The traditionalist would treat his adversary
as a heretic, and the other, though his antagonist
might be old, would end by answering him in terms
but little flattering to his intelligence or his informa
tion. The others would remain dumb, embarrassed,
anxious not to compromise themselves, judging the
young man indeed exceedingly rash, but wishing
all the same that he might be right, because they
would no longer have to argue with M. Homais "
(or, as we should say, Hodge) "about Adam and
the apple or Jonah and the whale."
I said at the commencement of this paper that I
intended to speak boldly and frankly, and if any
timid Christians should be shocked or grieved I
would ask them to forgive me and themselves seek
for further light. We must remember that Galileo,
who, when put in prison for maintaining that the
earth was a sphere revolving round its own axis and
round the sun, exclaimed, " E pur si muove," was
right, as all the world now holds, and all the
doctors of the Church were wrong. We must
remember how the teachings of Geology were
received, and how the doctrine of Evolution was de
cried as atheistical in the nineteenth century, though
all the world now accepts them, and that in neither

APPENDICES 287
the one case nor the other has any damage been
done to the cause of true religion. Science and
religion move on different planes, but each alike is
the revelation of God, and it is the part of wisdom
to discover the processes of the Divine working, so
far as may be, and " to justify the ways of God to
man." As regards the Bible itself, the earthen vessel
which contains the heavenly treasure whereby man
may know God and be made like Him, no words
can better express my own sense of its inestimable
and permanent value than those used by Mr.
Balfour at the Centenary Meeting of the Bible
Society on March 6th, 1903 : " In my view, for
whatever that view may be worth, the increasing
knowledge which we have of the history, not only of
Israel, but of all the nations which influenced, or were
influenced by, the Jewish people, our better knowledge
of the texts . . . — these things, so far from rendering
the Bible less valuable to us, or less interesting to us,
from a religious point of view, greatly augment the
value which it must have for an educated com
munity. These researches make it far more of a
living record of the revelation of God to mankind
than it ever was or ever could be to those who,
from the nature of the case, had no adequate con
ception of the circumstances in which that revela
tion occurred, or the people to whom it was
vouchsafed. And I most truly think that not only
is the Bible now what it has always been to the
unlearned, a source of consolation, of hope, and of
encouragement, but it is to those who are more

288 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
learned, but not probably nearer the kingdom of
heaven, augmented in interest, and not diminished,
and a more valuable source of spiritual life now
than it could ever have been in pre-critical days."
Or, to quote Professor George Adam Smith : " It
is, then, a Revelation ; this is the supreme thing for
you as preachers. In this is summed up all your
opportunity and all your confidence in the Old
Testament." Or, Professor Kirkpatrick : " The testimony of
Jesus is the spirit of prophecy ; and in the light of
historic experience it bids us rest assured that the
work of Redemption which we see carried to a point
of completion, which is in itself a new and unique
beginning, will not fail or be frustrated, but will
finally reach that supreme conclusion, when God
shall be all in all" x
II.
The Higher Criticism and the Miraculous.
Let us consider how the matter stands when the
whole field of "the miraculous or non-miraculous
point of view " is introduced. First of all, what is
meant by a miracle ? If a miracle is the arbitrary
intervention in the affairs of the Universe of a Deity
who stands outside it, and causes some act to be
performed contrary to its laws merely in the way of
portent or prodigy, then no one to-day outside the
1 Smith, The Preaching of the Old Testament to the Age, p. 59 ;
Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets, p. 527.

APPENDICES 289
ranks of the uneducated and the ignorant believes
in such a Deity, or in such actions on His part. But
if a miracle is the calling into action of some higher
law, previously unknown to experience, on the part
of a Deity who is immanent in, and the informing
intelligence of, the Universe He has made, then no
educated person will to-day deny the possibility of
such action on the part of such a Deity for a worthy
object. It was of the former eighteenth-century Deistic
conception of a miracle that Matthew Arnold wrote,
" Miracles do not happen."
It was of the latter philosophico-scientific concep
tion that Professor Huxley wrote, " Miracles are not
a priori impossible."
The former was the only conception possible in a
pre-scientific age.
The latter is the only conception possible to us
now ; but it is possible ; and to deny it would be to
assume, as Bishop Butler puts it, that human ex
perience covers the whole range of created things,
and that there is no " vasty deep " unexplored
beyond. There is another point, however, to be borne in
mind. To children, as to savages, miracles are of
everyday occurrence, or rather they are not miracles
at all. The thunder is the voice of God, the light
ning is His arrow, whether that God be Jove or
Jehovah ; birds and beasts converse ; and even
inanimate things, such as trees and stones, have a
power of utterance.
Hence we are not surprised that in a literature
19

290 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
which embodies much of the ideas consonant with
the childhood of the race, we should read of a
" talking donkey " or a serpent able to converse, but
we know exactly what value to attach to these
interesting relics of antiquity, just as we do to the
fables of Pilpai or AEsop.
Again, when we read of the walls of Jericho
falling at the blast of the trumpet, or of the sun and
moon standing still, or of the adventures of Jonah
in the sea monster's belly, we know that we are
reading poetic embellishments of legendary stories,
exactly of the same kind as that which occurs in the
74th Psalm, which is admitted poetry, where we are
told in connection with the dividing of the Red Sea
and the maintenance of the Israelites during their
desert journey : " Thou didst divide the sea through
Thy power ; Thou brakest the heads of the dragons
in the waters. Thou smotest the heads of leviathan
in pieces, and gavest him to be meat for the people
in the wilderness." The sacred writer is here refer
ring to the mythical dragon, Tiamat, and to his being
a many-headed monster like Cerberus, but who will
say that even he himself intended his statement to
be taken literally ?
These are all bits of primitive folklore common
to the Israelites with all races of mankind in their
childhood, and perfectly natural and easy of belief
to people who look out upon the world with the
eyes of children, and, in fact, as Dr. Tylor has
shown, they are the embodiment of the " science "
of the primitive races. Thus I deny in toto that the
principle of the miraculous, rightly defined, stands

APPENDICES 291
or falls with the literal truth of the story of Balaam's
ass, or the falling of Jericho's walls. In the child
hood of the race the commonplaces of our everyday
existence, our railways and motor cars, our telegraphs
and telephones, the wonders of electricity and of
radium, the marvels accomplished by the Rontgen
rays, would all have been " miracles." To take an
example. Ariosto, in the sixteenth century, invokes
praeterhuman aid to transport a British army in one
day from Picardy to Paris, a journey which is now
accomplished in a few hours.
When we come to the New Testament and the
question of the Incarnation and Resurrection of
our Lord Jesus Christ, we are on different ground
altogether, and the man who reproaches us with
believing in these great truths, although we may not
believe in the literal truth of the story of Balaam's
ass, is confounding the two conceptions of the
miraculous of which I spoke above, and assuming
that his experience covers the whole range of possi
bilities, exactly in the same way as Ariosto would
have done had he absolutely denied the possibility of
ever journeying from Picardy to Paris in a few hours
without supernatural aid, because it was contrary to
his and all men's experience up to his time.
Putting on one side all the documents of the New
Testament, except the earliest Gospel, i.e., the
original Gospel of St. Mark (the Ur-Marcus of the
Germans), and the universally admitted authentic
Epistles of St. Paul, viz., i and 2 Corinthians,
Romans, and Galatians, we find in them a picture
of the Christ as He impressed His two greatest

292 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
followers, St. Peter and St. Paul, which can only be
explained on the assumption that He was, in a
special sense, as St. Mark says, " Son of God " as
well as " Son of Man " ; and, the redemption of the
human race being a worthy object, the probability
that the birth of the Redeemer should be accom
plished in an unusual way becomes enhanced, and
enters the region of the possible ; the " Incarnation "
thus becomes no more marvellous or unbelievable,
as the action of the immanent Deity, in the Person
of the Eternal Word, the Second Person in the
Trinity, bringing Himself into a close personal
relationship with the one intelligent race of creatures
produced in the course of evolution, than the fact
that Professor Loeb has been able recently to fertilise
the eggs of the sea-urchin by the action of certain
salts instead of in the usual process of Nature, or the
fact of parthenogenesis among insects, are unbeliev
able, however wonderful. In these instances we have
the calling into action of higher laws than are known
to ordinary experience by Nature herself, by man,
and by God, and these three are, mystically, One.
Christ being what He was, in His own conscious
ness, with which His life and charactor agree, Son
of God, apart altogether from the miracles attributed
to Him, the Incarnation becomes the only truly
scientific method of explaining His being.
As regards the miracles attributed to Christ and
the apostles, we must remember that the early
Christians were still as much in the pre-scientific age
as were the Israelites of Joshua's days, or the heathen
from among whom they were called, or Ariosto in

APPENDICES 293
the sixteenth century. Early Christianity shares
with all world-religions a boundless belief in the
miraculous. The whole earth is thereby transformed
into an enchanted world. The world of Nature is a
world of wonders, and though faith in the miraculous
surpasses all bounds, yet it is not consciously dealing
with exceptional cases, but with everyday pheno
mena which are perfectly natural. Apart from the
miracles of healing, which are of the same kind,
though on a higher plane, with modern faith-healing,
this is no doubt the explanation of the miracles with
which early Christian literature abounds, and even
perhaps of such miracles of Christ as the walking on
the sea or the turning the water into wine ; although,
for my own part, believing Him to be the Incarnate
Son of God, I have no difficulty in accepting these,
and similar " wonders " ascribed to Him, as facts.
So also the actions of the human mind and the
domain of the Spirit were mysteries to the early
Christians as to all pre-scientific Anthropology, and
thus the phenomena of lunacy were ascribed to the
being possessed by demons, and the ecstatic state
which manifested itself, for instance, by the speaking
with tongues was ascribed to the direct impulse of
the Holy Spirit of God.
As regards the Resurrection, the appearances of
the Risen Lord to His followers are stated as an
undoubted fact by St. Paul in the cardinal passage,
i Cor. xv. 4-8; but we must remember that the
apostle employs the same Greek word, meaning " he
was seen," to describe the appearance to himself on
the way to Damascus, and those to Cephas and

294 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
James and to the " five hundred brethren at once."
This evidently implies that he conceived of all as
being of the same nature, i.e., a heavenly vision
visible to those who had eyes to see, and beyond
this we do not need to go.
The question of the empty tomb and the risen
body are of entirely secondary importance, and
depend on the laws of ordinary human evidence and
the authenticity of documents, and must be judged
accordingly. It was St. Paul's belief that he had seen the Risen
Lord, and been commissioned by Him, that trans
formed the world ; and, like the apostle, the Christian
who will win the world for Christ is the man who
" knows Him and the power of His resurrection."
The non-miraculous point of view, in the first
sense of the word " miracle," is established by an
enlarged study of Nature and by scientific Anthro
pology ; but a non-miraculous Christ in the second
sense of the word " miracle " is inconceivable. My
belief in Him, and in the credibility of the " mighty
works which showed forth themselves in Him," is
not founded on any a priori assumptions, but on
reasoning that is both a posteriori and a fortiori. —
The Norfolk Review, Sept. 1905.

Ill
Frames of Mind
I will subjoin here a letter which I wrote in the
course of a correspondence in the Eastern Daily

APPENDICES 295
Press, as it puts my views on the points discussed
in a nutshell, and will therefore be of interest
beyond the circle originally addressed : —
" Really the obtuseness in one direction of some
of the ' non-clerical ' participants in this discussion,
of which your correspondent 'X.' in to-day's
Eastern Daily Press is an example, is quite a match
for any obtuseness or dogmatic bigotry in the
other direction which may be displayed by some
clerics. " Has ' X.' never heard of the ' historic per
spective,' by means of which those clerics who are
not tied to antiquated formulae are enabled with
perfect honesty to adjust their point of view, and,
in Holy Writ, to separate the kernel from the husk ?
" To take ' X.'s ' two illustrations from the Ten
Commandments and the belief in witchcraft. I will
tell him what my ' frame of mind ' is : —
"(i) I repeat the Fourth Commandment with the
full persuasion that the provision of one day's rest
in seven — whether the seventh day, as enjoined
in this Code, or the first, as enjoined by the
Christian Church in memory of the Resurrection
— was a wise and humane proceeding on the part of
the Hebrew legislator. It did not originate with
him, as a similar provision is found in the Code of
Hammurabi, king of Babylon, iooo years before.
" The original ' Ten Words ' were in all probability
each framed in the same way as the Sixth to the
Ninth commandments appear — i.e., the injunction,
with no commentary attached. Thus the Fourth

296 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Commandment would simply run : ' Remember the
Sabbath day to keep it holy.' The commentary in
this case is the work of one who was acquainted
with the priestly narrative of the Creation in
Gen. i.-ii. 4, and he accordingly emphasises the
command by assigning the reason he does for it.
A previous writer, viz., the Deuteronomist in the
seventh century B.C., assigns a very different and
more human reason for the injunction, viz., that
the Israelite might be reminded of his redemption
from Egypt (Deut. v. 15), and this idea is carried
on in the Christian commemoration of the world's
redemption on the Lord's Day.
" I think myself the Church would do wisely to
substitute this form of the Commandment for the
one now in use, but until that is done I continue
to obey her ruling, remembering the value of the
injunction, and that, though the reason given may
not appeal to me in the twentieth century of the
Christian era, it was true, and therefore forceful to
the writer in the age in which he lived. I am not
hereby contravening the spirit of the 6th Article
of the Church of England, which merely affirms
that ' Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary
to salvation ' ; but not what it contains besides,
nor the method and mode of its contents.
" (2) Here again the historic perspective and the
study of Anthropology make the fact that such a
command as this, 'Thou shalt not suffer a witch
to live,' is included in the Israelitish Code of intense
interest to the student of God's Word. It testifies
to the fact that down to the seventh century B.C., and

APPENDICES 297
probably much later, the Israelites were no more
advanced than the rest of the nations of antiquity
in their outlook upon the world, as, indeed, could
hardly be expected.
" The belief in witches and witchcraft is a survival
from the earliest beliefs of mankind, as may be seen
in the case of modern savages, who have never
emerged from it. The life of the West African
native, or of the natives of Australia, to take only
two examples, is hemmed round and encompassed
with an all-embracing atmosphere of witchcraft, as
Miss Mary Kingsley and Messrs. Spencer and
Gillen have shown. All their religion and magic is
based upon it ; and this is the case universally : it is
part and parcel of savage life.
" This belief died out gradually as civilisation
advanced. We hear little of it in Europe from the
eighth to the thirteenth centuries. There was then
a tremendous recrudescence of the belief, and a
revival of it down to the seventeenth century, during
which period unheard-of atrocities were perpetrated
against its victims, chiefly harmless old women,
until at length advancing culture gave it the coup
de grace. (See Professor Tylor's Primitive Culture,
vol. i. pp. 137-141.)
" In some out-of-the-way corners, and even in
our own county, it still lingers on as an interesting
survival from prehistoric times. As an illustration
of this, I may mention that not so long ago a girl
was seriously believed to have been bewitched in
my own parish; and in 1902 one of my parishioners,
an educated man, expressed no surprise at the King's

298 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
illness and the postponement of the Coronation,
because an ' old witch ' in a neighbouring parish
was supposed to have predicted it ! And why are
horse-shoes hung by the stable door, but to keep
the witches and elves at bay ?
" Meanwhile I read the command in the Hebrew
Code as an instance of the universal survival of the
belief in that age, but one which I am not any
longer required to pay attention to, except so far
as it bears upon anthropological studies."

IV.
Reasons for signing the " Declaration
on Biblical Criticism."
The following letter was sent by me to the
Standard in May 1905, and was written to explain
my reasons for signing the " Declaration on Biblical
Criticism " then recently put forth by one hundred
Anglican clergymen. Of it M. Houtin says {La
Question Biblique au 20ln" Siecle), "The letter is
perfectly orthodox," and it is included here because
its standpoint is that of this book.
" I signed it because, practically, it merely claims
for the Higher Criticism of the New Testament
the same ' fair field and no favour ' which the
Higher Criticism of the Old Testament has at
length won for itself — in the opinion of all who
are really competent to judge. In other words,

APPENDICES 299
it claims that it is now time for Christian people
to recognise that nothing which is really a fact in
the sphere of Nature can be opposed to what is
really a fact in the sphere of revelation, and to all
who believe that the God of Nature and the God
of Revelation are one, this is a self-evident
proposition. "Archdeacon Sinclair says that the Declaration
is unnecessary. I think, on the contrary, that the
Church of to-day needs to be reminded of the fate
of Galileo's judges, who condemned him, on the
authority of their inherited misconceptions of revela
tion, for teaching that the earth and the planets
revolve round the sun, and who are now only
remembered as monuments of folly, while every
school child is instructed in the truths which they
condemned. This is what the Declaration does.
" As regards the Old Testament, who now needs
to be told that the first chapter of Genesis contains
no revelation of the facts of Creation beyond the
sublime truth that God is the Creator ; while the
words, the method, the time occupied, are simply
the picture of the Creation as it presented itself
to the priestly philosopher learned in Babylonian
lore? Hence the time has come when the clergy
should no longer be required to repeat the misleading
priestly comment on the Fourth Commandment in
the office of the Holy Communion. It should either
be dropped altogether, or the Deuteronomic com
ment substituted for it (Deut. v. 15). Who now
needs to be told that the stories of the creation of
woman, of the speaking serpent, of Balaam's ass,

300 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
of the sun and moon standing still, and such like,
are bits of primitive folklore and poetry, embedded
in the traditions and legends of the Hebrew people ?
They all contain highly useful moral teaching, and,
as such, have been preserved ; but they are none
of them facts, though the Church in former ages
may have taken them in that sense. Christian
people have had to modify their beliefs in the light
of the fact that life on the earth is millions of years
old, of which they have been reminded only recently
by the presentation of the Diplodocus Carnegii to
the British Museum, and that the existence of man
on the earth goes back for hundreds of centuries,
of which the proof is found not only in the fact
that the history of Egypt begins before the year
4000 B.C., behind which stretches a long prehistoric
period, which is now well known, but also in the
undoubted presence of man in Europe in the far
away times when Britain was still a part of the
Continent, and in the inter-glacial periods at the
commencement of the Quaternary Epoch.
"As regards the New Testament, the same
thing holds good, to a modified degree. For
example, we can still say, ' I believe in the resur
rection of the body,' or even ' of the flesh,' but we
no longer believe in the resuscitation of the material
particles, as our forefathers did.
" The question, then, is this : Are we to say
that the same patient and reverent study which
has thrown fresh light on the Old Testament, and
made it a new and living Book, is not to be devoted
to the New Testament, or are we to shirk this study

APPENDICES 301
because we are afraid of the results ? Is the Church
not the living Body of Christ, or has the Holy Spirit
ceased to inspire her ?
"The results may confirm or they may modify
preconceived and inherited beliefs and interpreta
tions ; but, so far as they' are results and not
theories, they must be accepted. Only let us be
certain of our facts, and, till then, let us possess
our souls in patience.
" For these reasons I have signed the Declaration,
which claims the right of free, full, and reverent
inquiry, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit,
into the credentials and teaching of the documents
in which the faith of the Church is enshrined, but
not defined, and the right to modify belief in
accordance with new knowledge."
See in the Hibbert fournal, January 1907, the
article by the Rev. Hastings Rashdall, D.Litt,
entitled " A Grave Peril to the Liberty of Church
men : The Ecclesiastical Discipline Report," par
ticularly pp. 254-56, where the writer discusses the
position of those Churchmen who, like himself and
the author of these Lectures, may be classed among
the "more thoroughgoing 'higher critics,' and less
compromising thinkers, if their opinions came to
be adjudicated upon by a body of men (the
Bishops), among whom the Bishop of Birmingham
represents at least the left centre." With regard
to the Report, the writer concludes, and in this I
agree with him, that "it would be far better that
the incense-burning, and the reservation and the

302 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
other Romanising (?) practices should go on a little
longer in a few dozen or a few hundred churches
than that a weapon should be placed in the hands
of persecuting and obscurantist prelates for driving
out of the ministry of the Church the clergy who
take the trouble to study, who have the clearness
of mind to accept, and the courage to proclaim
to-day results of science, of criticism, and of thought
which may be universally accepted to-morrow."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LECTURE I.
DEWAR. Presidential Address, British Association, Belfast, 1902.
Driver. Genesis (The Westminster Commentaries, 1904).
Harnack. What is Christianity ? 1901.
ILLINGWORTH. Divine Immanence, 1906.
,, Personality, Human and Divine, 1905.
Lodge. Life and Matter, 1906.
„ Articles in the Hibbert Journal, 1906.
Orr. God's Image in Man, 1906.
Reynolds. The Supernatural in Nature, 1880.
Weinel. St. Paul, the Man and his Work, 1906.

LECTURE II.
BALDWIN. Development and Evolution, 1902.
Bastian. Nature and Origin of Living Matter, 1906.
„ The Evolution of Life, 1907.
Bateson. Mendel's Principles of Heredity, 1902.
Chatterton-Hill. Heredity and Selection in Sociology, 1907.
Cope. Primary Factors in Evolution.
Darwin. Origin of Species, 1859.
„ Descent of Man, 1871.
,, Animals and Plants under Domestication, 1868, etc.
ElMER. Organic Evolution.
Geikie. Geology.
Haeckel. The Riddle of the Universe, 1906.
„ The Evolution of Man, 1907.
Last Words on Evolution, 1906.

304 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Headley. Problems of Evolution, 1900.
„ Life and Evolution, 1906.
Huxley. Collected Essays, 1898.
Lankester. The Kingdom of Man, 1907.
LODGE. Life and Matter, 1906.
,, The Substance of Faith, 1907.
Nageli. Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstemmungs-
lehre, 1884.
Saleeby. Evolution the Master Key, 1906.
Sollas. The Age of the Earth, 1905.
Waggett. The Scientific Temper in Religion, 1905.
Weismann. The Evolution Theory, 1903.
Wilson. Problems of Science and Religion, 1903.
,, Sermon before the British Association, 1907.
LECTURE III.
Abercromby. Pre- and Proto- Historic Finns, 1898.
Astley. Ornaments of Jet and Cannel Coal and Slate Implements
in Neolithic Times.
,, Portuguese Parallels to the Clydeside Discoveries [Journal
of the British Archaeological Association, 1900, 1904).
Avebury. Prehistoric Times.
Boyd-Dawkins. Cave-Hunting.
,, Early Man in Britain.
CAPART. Primitive Art in Egypt, 1905.
Clodd. The Story of Primitive Man, 1895.
Evans. Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 1897.
,, Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain, 1881.
Hoernes. Der Diluviale Mensch in Europa, 1903.
,, Die Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa, 1898.
,, Primitive Man (Temple Cyclopaedic Primers, is.).
Joly. Man before Metals.
Laing. Modern Science and Modern Thought, 1890.
,, Human Origins, 1892.
Lampleigh. Presidential Address to the Geological Section of the
British Association, York, 1906, on Glacial Periods
in England.
Munro. Prehistoric Problems.
„ The Lake-Dwellings of Europe, 1890.
Reinach. The Story of Art throughout the Ages, 1904.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 305
SCHLIEMANN. Mycenae-,
" Troja I Containing the accounts of his ex-
" Tiryns j plorations on these sites, 1878-1886-
,, Ilios /
Wakeman. Handbook of Irish Antiquities, 1903.
Windle. Life in Early Britain, 1897.
Wood-Martin. Pagan Ireland, 1895.

LECTURE IV.
Astley, as in previous Lecture, and, in addition :
,, Neolithic Man: his Ideas and their Evidences {Antiquary,
1900).
,, Religious and Magical Ideas of Modern Savage Peoples
(Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 1901).
,, Tree and Pillar Worship. (Transactions of the Royal
Society of Literature, 1903).
Carter. The Religion of Numa, 1906.
Crawley. The Mystic Rose, 1902.
,, The Tree of Life, 1905.
Crooke. The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India,
1896.
Dennett. At the Back of the Black Man's Mind, 1906.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (10th edition). Articles on Anthropology,
Magic, Religion, etc.
Evans. Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult, 1901.
Farnell. The Evolution of Religion, 1905.
Frazer. The Golden Bough, 1897.
,, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, being the Golden Bough, 3rd ed.
part iv., 1907.
,, Totemism, 1907.
Haddon. Presidential Address to Anthropological Section of the
British Association, Belfast, 1902, on Totemism.
Hartland. Presidential Address to Anthropological Section of the
British Association, York, 1906, on Religion and Magic of
Primitive Man.
HOWITT. The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, 1904.
Jevons. Religion in Evolution, 1906.
Johnson and Wright. Neolithic Man in North-East Surrey, 1904.
KlNGSLEY. Travels in West Africa, 1897.
,, West African Studies, 1901.

306 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Lang. Magic and Religion, 1901.
,, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1899.
„ Religion and Custom, 1897.
„ The Secret of the Totem, 1905.
Langloh-Parker. The Euahlayi Tribe, 1905.
L' Anthropologic Journal of the French Anthropological Society,
passim.
Lennard. The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906.
MacDonald. Religion and Myth, 1893.
MacLennan. Studies in Ancient History, vol. i. 1886, vol. ii. 1896.
Reinach. The Story of Art throughout the Ages, 1904.
Spencer and Gillen. The Native Tribes of Central Australia, 1899.
,, The Northern Tribes of Central Australia,
1904.
TYLOR. Primitive Culture, 1891.
Wood-Martin. Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland, 1902.
Publications of the Royal Anthropological Institute, passim.
Series of " Ancient Religions." (Constable, is. each.)
Series of "Native Races of the British Empire." (Constable, 6s. each.)
LECTURE V.
Addis. The Documents of the Hexateuch, vol. i. 1892, vol. ii. 1898.
Astley. The Date of the Samaritan Pentateuch (Thinker, 1892).
Cheyne. The Hallowing of Criticism, 1888.
,, The Origin of the Psalter, 1 891.
,, Commentary on Isaiah, 1880.
,, Jeremiah (Men of the Bible Series), 1887.
„ Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel, 1907.
,, Reform in the Teaching of the Old Testament (Essays
for the Times).
,, Articles in Encyclopcedia Biblica.
Cornill. Rise of the People of Israel.
„ Prophets of Israel.
,, Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old Testa
ment, 1907.
Dillmann. Commentary on Genesis.
Driver. Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 1892.
,, Genesis (Westminster Commentaries, 1904).
„ Deuteronomy (Int. Nat. Crit. Com., 1895).
,, Isaiah (Men of the Bible Series).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 307
Driver and Kirkpatrick. The Higher Criticism, 1905.
Ewald. History of Israel, 1883.
Foakes-Jackson. The Biblical History of the Hebrews, 1904
Frazer. Folk-lore in the Old Testament, in Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor on his Seventy-fifth Birthday, 1907. '
Gibson. Messages of the Old Testament, 1906.
Hobhouse. Sermon, Guardian, 25, ix. 1907.
Hogarth. Authority and Archaeology, 1899.
Houtin. La Question Biblique au 20«me Siecle, 1906.
Jacobs. Biblical Archaeology, 1894.
Kirkpatrick. The Divine Library of the Old Testament, 1891.
,, The Doctrine of the Prophets, 1892.
Kittel. A History of the Hebrews, 1895.
Kuenen. The Religion of Israel, 1874.
,, National Religions and Universal Religions. (Hibbert
Lectures, 1882).
Lagrange. Historical Criticism and the Old Testament, 1906.
Ottley. The Religion of Israel, 1905.
Petrie. Researches in Sinai, 1906.
Pfleiderer. Primitive Christianity, 1906.
Ryle. Early Narratives of Genesis, 1899.
„ The Canon of the Old Testament, 1892.
Robertson Smith. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church,
1892.
>> The Religion of the Semites, 1907.
Smythe-Palmer. Babylonian Influence on the Bible, 1897.
„ Jacob at Bethel, 1899.
Tyrrell. Through Scylla and Charybdis, 1907.
Wellhausen. History of Israel, 1885.
Wernle. The Beginnings of Christianity, 1903.

LECTURE VI.
As in preceding Lecture, with the following additions :—
Astley. The Holy Eucharist ( The Anglo-Catholic, 1899).
Chatterton-Hill. Heredity and Selection in Sociology, 1907.
Contentio Veritatis, by Six Oxford Tutors, 1902. Inge : The Sacra
ments.
Encyclopaedia Biblica, articles on Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Divina
tion, Historical Literature, Idolatry, Magic, Nature-Worship, etc.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (10th edition), articles ad rem.

308 PREHISTORIC ARCHaEOLOGY
Gardner. The Growth of Christianity, 1907.
Harnack. The History of Dogma, 1894-1899.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, articles, Cosmology, etc.
Hibbert Journal, Jan. 1908. Father Tyrrell on The Prospects of
Modernism.
HOBHOUSE. Morals in Evolution, 1906.
Loisy. L'Evangile et l'Eglise, 1904.
Lux Mundi, edited by Bishop Gore (10th edition), 1890. Illingworth :
The Incarnation and Development. Gore : The Holy Spirit
and Inspiration.
Swete. "Modernism" and the Church (Guardian, 29, i. 1908).
Tennant. The Origin and Propagation of Sin, 1906.
Consult also the articles in the Hibbert Journal referred to in this
work.

The works mentioned in the foregoing Bibliography have all been
consulted, together with many others bearing on the subjects of the
Lectures, by the author. Their inclusion does not imply agreement
on the part of the author with all, or any, of the views of the writers,
except so far as may be gathered from his own statements in the body
of the book. These works are selected because they are likely to
be specially useful to the student who wishes to carry further
the investigation of the subjects dealt with herein. The works
mentioned in the Bibliographies appended to many of them may
also be usefully consulted. H. J. D. A.

INDEX

Aaron, 212, 218.
Abraham, 160, 196, 197.
Adam, Bishop South on, 27.
as first man, 93, 94, 222.
Aaonis, Attis, Osiris, 170,
269.
Africa, natives of, 150.
West, 148, 150, 151, 157.
Agriculture in Neolithic Age,
in, 112.
"Alcheringa," the, 30, 144,
146, 151.
Allen, Grant, 140, 152.
Amos, 185, 189.
Ancestor worship, 1 53.
Animism, at root of St. Paul's
theology, 255-257.
defined, 141, 142.
in primitive Christianity, 257,
258.
in Old Testament, 289-291.
survivals of, in Israel, 158-
164, 194, 226.
Anthropology, 16, 30, 231,
236.
literature of, 138.
Archaeology, prehistoric, 16, 30,
231, 236.
Architecture, evolution of, 46,
47, i°9-
Arnold, Matt., 182, 281, 289.
Asherah, 161, 204.
Astronomy, 17-20, 43, 91.

Astruc, Jean, 179.
Australian natives, social con
dition of, 143-148.
Avebury, Lord, 95, 98.
Babel, Tower of, 195.
Babylonia, 99, 107, 116, 119,
120, 194.
influence of, on Israel, 30, 39,
123, 159, 191, 221, 228,
229, 282, 284, 295, 299.
Balaam, 29, 162, 290, 291.
Balfour, Mr. , on Bible, 287.
Ball, Sir Robert, 74.
Baptism, holy, 251, 252.
Bastian, Dr., 53, 54, 60, 62, 64,
65-
Beginnings of Christianity, 257,
258.
Bernard, Prof., 259.
Bible, inspiration of, 175.
Higher Criticism of, 176, sqq. ,
274, sqq.
Biology, 44, 68, 92.
Bond, F. , Gothic Architecture in
England, 47.
Bronze Age, 115-120.
Buckland, Bridgewater Treatise,
24.
Butler, Bishop, 287.
Campbell, Rev. R. J., 129, 240,
259-262.

310

INDEX

Capart, M., 113.
Carlyle, Past and Present, 254,
255-
Chalmers, Dr., 25.
Chatterton-Hill, 62, 265.
Chemosh, 201, 208.
Cheyne, Prof., 183.
Christ, an ideal, 7-9.
Christ, incarnation of, 292.
miracles of, 293.
resurrection of, 293, 294.
the goal of prophecy, 125,
215, 227, 241, 247, 250-
255, 291-294.
Christianity independent of
theology, 28, 31, 32.
Church of England, position of,
175, 178, 285, 286.
Church Quarterly Review, 260-
262.
Churinga, 145.
Colenso, Bishop, 180, 182.
Collins, Bishop, 276, 277.
Confirmation, 252.
Contentio Veritatis, 268.
Cope, 44, 59.
Copernicus, 17.
Crawley, E., 138, 167, 238, 239.
Criticism, Higher and Lower,
defined, 176, 177,273-274.
Criticism, Higher, or historical,
no new thing, 177-178.
bridge between Science and
Theology, 175.
of Old Testament, history of,
179-184.
of Homer, Browning on,
209-211.
results of, 276-278.
Dante, 94.
Darwin, Charles, 17, 44, 54,
57, 62, 78.
Darwin, Prof. G. H., 62, 63.
Dawson, Sir J. W., 24.
Death, primitive ideas of, 153,
154-
"Declaration on Biblical Criti
cism, The," 298.

Deuteronomy, 186, 220.
Dewar, Prof., 40.
De Wette, 180.
Die Anfdnge unserer Religion,
225.
Diluviale Mensch in Europa,
Der, 126-128.
"Directivity," 39, 87.
Dolmens, no, 198.
Dorian invasion, the, 115, 1 1 7.
Driver, Dr., 38, 183, 259, 278.
Genesis, 21-23, 34~3^> 259>
274.
E, characteristics of, 191, 196.
Egypt, 99, 105, 107, 109, 113,
115, 116, 119, 183, 185,
189, 190, 194, 199.
Neolithic burial in, no.
Eichhorn, 180.
Eimer, 44.
Eli, 202.
Elijah, 203, 204.
Elohim, 160, 229.
Emerson, 133.
Encyclopcedia Biblica, 198.
Britannica, 276.
Ertnatulunga, 145.
Euahlayi Tribe, The, 143, 157.
Eucharist, the Holy, 155.
Evolution, Lamarck's theory of,
44, 45-
Evolution the Master-key, 50,
140.
Evolution Theory, 62, 71.
Ewald, 180.
Fetishism, 142, 205, 252, 253,
264.
Flints, worked, found in West
ern Europe, 95, 96.
found in River - drift and
Caves, 97.
significance of, 95-99.
specimen found in Gray's
Inn, 94, 96.
Folklore, survival of primitive
ideas in, 150, 152.
in Israel, 158, 163, 194, 290;

INDEX

311

Folklore, in Europe, 158, 163,
194.
Frazer, Dr. J. G., 138, 170,
269.
Future life, belief in, in Neolithic
Age, no, in.
Galileo, 17, 20, 286.
Galton, Sir Francis, 59, 60.
Gardner, 34, 262, 263.
Genesis, early narratives of, 28-
30, 124.
Genesis i., origin and meaning
of, 38-40, 160, 228-230,
296.
Genesis ii. and iii., 108, 120,
134, 159. 191. i94> 195.
290.
Geology, 20-23, 43, 91.
Glacial Periods in Europe, 101-
107, 126-128.
God, idea of, progressively
developed, 9-1 1, 121-124.
immanent yet transcendent,
11,65, 77, 83> 87, 129-130,
247.
God's Image in Man, 27.
Gore, Bishop, 239, 241.
Graf, 180.
Growth of Christianity , The,
33. 34, 262, 263.
Guardian, the, 38-40.
Haddon, Mr. A. C, 233, 264.
Haeckel, 44, 48, 49, 66, 69, 77,
99, 249-
Hammurabi, Code of, 230, 295.
Harnack, History of Dogma, 5.
What is Christianity? 32.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible,
259.
Headley, Life and Evolution,
83-85-
Problems of Evolution, 266.
Henslow, Prof., 39, 58, 87.
Heredity belongs to the germ-
plasm, 60.
Heredity and Selection in
Sociology, 62, 265, 266.

Heredity, Weismann on, 45, 60,
62, 237, 245.
Herschel, 17.
Hexateuch, documents of, 185-
187.
Hexateuch, final redaction of,
221.
Hezekiah, Reformation of, 185,
219.
Hibbert Journal, 6, 36, 87, 130,
184, 211, 301, 308.
Historical Criticism of the Old
Testament, 184.
History of Dogma, 5.
Hoernes, Dr., 126, 128.
Hosea, 185, 189.
Houtin, M., 184, 285, 298.
Howitt, 138, 147.
Human race, cradle of, 99.
Huxley, 44, 289.
Inge, Dr. W. R., 268.
Initiation ceremonies, 236.
Irving, Rev. Dr., 38.
Isaac, 160, 196, 197.
Israel, animistic ideas in, 158-
164, 226.
earliest writers of, 185.
early religious ideas of, 193-208.
exilic and post-exilic religion
of, 221-227.
folklore in, 158, 163, 194, 290.
origin of, 120.
prophets in, 216 sqq.
J, characteristics of, 190, 196.
animism in, 194.
Jacob, 160, 196, 197, 198.
Jacobs, Biblical Archceology, 163.
JE, 186, 190, 191, 193-201, 218.
original sources in, 191, 192.
Jephthah, 201.
Jerahmeel, 183, 211.
Jesus of Nazareth, 7.
Jezebel, 203, 207.
Joly, 64.
Joshua, 161.
Josiah, Reformation of, 185, 220.
Judges, 201, 202.

312

INDEX

Kelvin, Lord, 51, 52, 64.
Kepler, 17.
Kingdom of Man, The, 73, 93.
Kingsley, Miss Mary, 138, 150,
297.
Kirkpatrick, Dr., 288.
Kuenen, 180, 192.
Kurtz, 25.
Lagrange, M., 184.
Lake-dwellings, 112, 139.
Lamarck, 44, 45.
Lang, A., 138, 143.
Langloh-Parker, Mrs., 143, 146.
Lankester, Dr. Ray, 52, 53, 73,
93-
Laplace, 17.
Last Words on Evolution, 66.
' ' Laying on of Hands, " 251.
Leonard, Major, 138, 233, 264.
Life, origin of, 48, 51, 53, 54.
sprang from many centres,
64, 72.
Life and Matter, 49, 52.
Lodge, Sir Oliver, 44, 49, 51,
65, 130.
Loisy, M., 35, 184, 285.
Lower Niger and its Tribes, The,
233-235, 264-265.
Lux Mundi, 268.
Magic, 142, 149, 205.
sympathetic, 149, 1 50, 154,
156.
Making of Religion, The, 138.
Man, Eolithic, 98, 99, 100; re
ligion of, 135.
Fall of, 33, 107, 108, 121-124,
222, 227, 228, 236, 239, 283.
origin of, 92, 231, 232.
Quaternary, 96, 101-109, 135-
138.
an artist, 103-107.
religion of, 135-138, 164-
166.
Manley, Rev. J. T., 38.
Matzebah, 161, 204, 219.
Max Miiller, 138.
Menhirs, no, 198.

Miller, Hugh, 25.
"Modernists," 184.
Monism, 5, 48, 50, 249.
Moses, 161, 198, 199, 211, 212,
218.
Mycenean civilisation, 112, 1 13,
H5, "7-
Mystic Rose, The, 138.
Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 138.
Mythologists, school of, 138.
Nageli, 44, 59.
Native Tribes of South-East
Australia, The, 147.
Nature and Origin of Living
Matter, 54, 62.
Neolithic Age, 98, 109-115.
art in, 112-115.
religion in, 138-158.
Neolithic monuments in Europe,
no, in, 151, 152.
"New Theology, The," 129,
130, 239, 241, 253, 259-
262.
Newton, Sir Isaac, 17.
Nicoll, Dr. Robertson, 241.
Norfolk Review, The, 288-294.
Old Testament, how to under
stand historically, 280-284,
289-291.
Old Testament, literature of,
184-189.
"Ontogeny and Phylogeny," 68,
82, 134, 135-
Origin of Species, 58.
Orr, Prof. , God's Image in Man,
27, 134-
Palaeolithic Age, 98, IOI-I09,
118.
art in, 103-107, 164-166.
religion in, 135-138, 164-
166.
Pangenesis, 58.
Paradise Lost, 94.
Perthes, M. Boucher de, 95, 102.
Petrie, Prof., 183, 192.
Pfleiderer, Prof., 255.

INDEX

313

Piette, M., 113.
Pinches, Dr., 278.
Pithecanthropus erectus, 93,
128.
Primitive Art in Egypt, 113.
Primitive Christianity, 255-
257-
Primitive Culture, 138, 297.
Prophetic history, the, 185.
Prophets in Israel, 216 sqq.
universal in primitive religion,
170, 216, 217.
Radium, 72-76.
Rashdall, Rev. Hastings, 301.
Reconciliations, attempted, be
tween Genesis and Science,
23-26, 33-40, 134.
Reinach, M. Salomon, 104, 166.
Re-incarnation, Arunta belief
. in, 145.
Religion, environment, influence
on, 234-235.
evolution of, 225.
origin of, 108 sqq., 232-236.
Researches in Sinai, 199.
Reuss, 180.
Reynolds, Prebendary, 134.
Riddle of the Universe, The,
249.
Rutherford, Prof., 75, 76.
on The Evolution of Matter,
75-
Sacrament and sacrifice, 154.
essence of, is communion, 155,
168, 169.
Sacraments, true meaning of,
251-255, 267-268.
Sacrifice, human, 197, 201.
meaning of, 221, 225, 226.
St. Paul: the Man and his
Work, 19, 20, 258.
Saleeby, Dr., 50, 140.
on the Origin of Religion,
140.
Samson, 29.
Satan, 222, 223, 226.
Schliemann, Dr., 112.

Schmidt, Prof., on the "Jerah
meel " theory, 211, 212.
Scientific Temper in Religion,
The, 79.
Sea-water and blood, 56, 57.
Selby Abbey, 47.
Sin, original, 27, 31, 194, 222,
227, 228, 236, 237, 238-
245, 283.
essence of, 237-245.
growing sense of, during and
after Exile, 221-224.
" natural," 243.
sense of, in more advanced
races, 246.
Sisera, 162.
Smith, Prof. G. A., 288.
Sollas, Prof., 64.
Song of the Well, 192.
Song of Deborah, 191, 201.
Souls, belief as to, 148, 157, 158.
Spencer and GiUen, Messrs.,
138, 297.
Spencer, Herbert, 17, 44, 49,
50, 51, 60, 140, 141.
Standard, the, 298.
Story of Art throughout the Ages,
The, 104-107, 164-166.
Substance of Faith, The, 130.
Synopsis of Lectures, 13-15.
Tanganyika Natives, The, 166,
167.
"Ten Words, The," 199, 200,
230, 295, 296.
Tennant, Rev. F. R., 244, 245.
Teraphim, 198.
Testimony of the Rocks, 25.
Totemism, 142, 143, 155.
in Israel, 162, 163.
Tree of Life, The, 138, 167, 238,
239-
Tree-worship, 153, 156, 157.
Tylor, Prof., 138, 297.
Tyndall, Prof., 40.
Tyrrell, Rev. G., 184.
Universe, pre-scientific view of,
17-20.

314

INDEX

Universe, modern view of, 36-
38- . ,
" Urim and Thummim, 162.
Variation of Animals and Plants
under Domestication, 58.
Waggett, Father, 79-83.
Wallace, 44.
Weinel, St. Paul: the Man
and his Work, 19, 258.
Weismann, 44, 45, 59, 60, 66,
69, 237, 245.
Wellhausen, 180, 181, 276.
Wernle, Dr., 225, 257.

Why not face the Facts'! 6-8,
36, 37-
Wirreenun, 145.
prophets of Israel as, 162.
Witchcraft, 205-208, 296-298.
Wood - Martin, Traces of the
Elder Faiths of Ireland,
156, 157.

Yahweh, 194, 195, 197, 198,
199, 200, 201, 202, 203,
218, 219, 223, 235, 244.
Yahweh, cult of, in old Israel,
203-208.

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in hermeneutics.'
St. Luke's Gospel. By Eev. Alfred Pltjmmer, D.D. Fourth
Edition. 678 pp., price 12s.
The Guardian says : ' We feel heartily that the book will bring oredit to English
scholarship, and that in its carefulness, its sobriety of tone, its thoughtfulness, its
reverence, it will contribute to a stronger faith in the essential trustworthiness of the
gospel record.'
Romans. By Professor William Sanday, D.D., LL.D., Oxford,
and Principal A. C. Headlam, D.D., London. Fifth Edition.
562 pp., price 12s.
The Bishop of Ely says : ' We welcome it as an epoch-making contribution to the
study of St. Paul.'
Ephesians and Colossians. By Professor T. K. Abbott,
D.Lit., Dublin. 368 pp., price 10s. 6d.
The Expository Times says: ' There is no work in all the "International" series
that is more faithful or more felicitous. . . . Dr. Abbott understands these Epistles
 we had almost said as if he had written them.'
Philippians and Philemon. By Professor Marvin R. Vincent,
D.D., New York. 240 pp., price 8s. 6d.
The Scotsman says : ' In every way worthy of the series which was so well com
menced [in the New Testament] with the admirable commentary on the Eomans by
Dr. Sanday and Dr. Headlam.'
St. Peter and St. Jude. By Professor Charles Bigg, D.D.,
Oxford. Second Edition. 370 pp., price 10s. 6d.
The Guardian says : ' A first-rate critical edition of these Epistles has been for a
long time a felt want in English theological literature . . this has been at last
supplied by the labours of Canon Bigg. ... His notes are full of interest and
suggestiveness.' V A Prospectus, giving full details of the Series, with list of Contributors, post free
on application.

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