WMk- :¦ T. and T. Clark's Publications. Works by Professor I. A. DORNER. Just published, in demy 8vo, price 14*., SYSTEM OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS. By Dr. I. A. DORNER, PROFESSOR OP THEOLOGY, BERLIN. Edited bt Dr. A. DORNER. TRANSLATED BY Professor C. M. MEAD, D.D., and Rev. R. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A. 'This noble book is the crown of the Systematic Theology of the author. ... It is a masterpiece. It is the fruit of a lifetime of profound investigation in the philo sophical, biblical, and historical sources of theology. The system of Dorner is comprehensive, profound, evangelical, and catholic. It rises into the clear heaven of Christian thought above the strifes of Scholasticism, Rationalism, and Mysticism. It is, indeed, comprehensive of all that is valuable in these three types of human thought.' — Professor C. A. Briggs, D.D. 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PUNJER'S CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Just published, in demy 8vo, price 16s., HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION, FROM THE REFORMATION TO KANT. By BERNHARD PUNJER. Translated from the German by W. HASTIE, B.D. With a Preface by Professor FLINT, D.D., LL.D. 'Piinjer's "History of the Philosophy of Religion" is fuller of information on its subject than any other book of the kind that I have either seen or heard of. The writing in it is, on the whole, clear, simple, and uninvolved. The Translation appears to me true to the German, and, at the same time, a piece of very satisfactory English. I should think the work would prove useful, or even indispensable, as well for clergymen as for professors and students.' — Dr. Hutchison Stirling. Just published, Vol. I., in demy 8vo, price 10s. Gd. [Completing Volume in preparation), HANDBOOK OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. By CARL ERIEDRICH KEIL, doctor and professor of theology. Third improved and Corrected Edition. Edited by FREDERICK CROMBIE, D.D., PROFESSOR OF DIVINITY AND BIBLICAL CRITICISM, ST. ANDREWS. Note. — This third edition is virtually a new book, for the learned Author has made large additions and corrections, bringing it up to present state of knowledge. NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS. MESSRS. CLARK have pleasure in forwarding to their Subscribers the Second Issue of the Foreign Theological Library for 1887, viz. :— EBRARD'S APOLOGETICS. Vol. III.— (completion). KEIL'S HANDBOOK OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. Vol. I. The First Issue for 1887 comprised ': — GODET'S COMMENTARY ON FIRST CORINTHIANS. Vol. II. (completion). EBRARD'S APOLOGETICS. Vol. II. The Volumes issued during 1 880-1 886 were : — GODET'S COMMENTARY ON THE EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL TO THE ROMANS. Two Vols. HAGENBACH'S HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. Three Vols. DORNER'S SYSTEM OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. Four Vols. MARTENSEN'S CHRISTIAN ETHICS. (Individual Ethics.) MARTENSEN'S CHRISTIAN ETHICS. (Social Ethics.) WEISS'S BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. TWO Vols. WEISS'S LIFE OF CHRIST. Three Vols. GOEBEL ON THE PARABLES OF JESUS. SARTORIUS'S DOCTRINE OF DIVINE LOVE. RARIGER'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF THEOLOGY. Two Vols. EWALD'S REVELATION ; ITS NATURE AND RECORD. ORELLI'S OLD TESTAMENT PROPHECY OF THE CONSUMMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. SCHURER'S HISTORY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE IN THE TIME OF JESUS CHRIST. Division II. Three Vols. EBRARD'S APOLOGETICS. Vol. I. FRANK'S SYSTEM OF CHRISTIAN CERTAINTY. Vol. I. GODET'S COMMENTARY ON FIRST CORINTHIANS. Vol. I. The Foreign Theological Library was commenced in 1846, and from that time to this Four Volumes yearly (or about 170 in all) have appeared with the utmost regularity. The Subscription Price is 21s. annually for Four Volumes, payable in advance. (The Subscription Price for the Volumes of New Series — 1880 to 1887 — is therefore Eight Guineas.) The Publishers beg to announce as in preparation — KEIL'S HANDBOOK OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY— (continuation). DELITZSCH'S NEW COMMENTARY ON GENESIS. CASSEL'S COMMENTARY ON ESTHER. EWALD'S OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. SCHURER'S HISTORY OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE IN THE TIME OF JESUS CHRIST. Division I. In order to bring the Foreign Theological Library more within the reach of all, it has been decided to allow a selection of EIGHT VOLUMES at the Subscription Price of TWO GUINEAS (or more at the same ratio) from the works issued previous to 1883, a complete list of which will be sent free on application. CLARK'S FOREIGN THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY. NEW SEEIES. VOL. XXXI. VOL. III. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. 1887. PRINTED BT MORRISON AND GIBB, FOR T. & T. CLARK, EDINBURGH. LONDON, HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO. DUBLIN, GEORGE HERBERT, NEW YORK, SCRIBNER AND WELFORD. a- APOLOGETICS OR, THE SCIENTIFIC VINDICATION OF CHRISTIANITY. J. H. A. EBRARD, Ph.D., D.D, 1 11 PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ERLANGEN. BEransIateo og Rev. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A. VOL. III. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. 18 87. CONTENTS. SECOND PART.— FIRST BOOK. SECOND DIVISION.— HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. Chapter II. — The Races of Asia and Polynesia. (.4) THE ugrian-finnic-tartar group of races. § PAQE 261. Ethnographical and Historical Sketch, ... 1 262. The Religion of the Finnic Tribes, .... 5 263. The Religion of the Tartars, .... 10 (B) THE MONGOLIAN RACES. 264. Characteristics and Distribution of the Mongolian Group, 14 265. Buddhism among the Mongolian Tribes, ... 33 266. The Ancient Religion of the Mongols, ... 41 267. The Ancient Religions of Tibet, Higher India, and Ceylon, 46 268. China and its Religion, ..... 52 269. Japan and its Religion, .... 66 (C) THE MALAY RACES. 270. The Unity of the Malay- Polynesian Group of Tribes, . 74 271. The Religion of the Malays, .... 82 272. Culture, Religion, and Traditions of the Polynesians, . 87 (D) THE CUSHITE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 273. The Remnants of Cushite Peoples in Asia and Polynesia, 95 274. Civilisation and Religion of the Kolhs and their Traditions, 99 275. The Religion of the Papuans, Negritos, and Alfurus, . 109 Chapter III. — The Savage Races of Africa. 276. Ethnographical Survey, . . . . . 113 277. Religions of the Cushites of South Africa and of the Hottentots, ..... 121 278. The Religion and Traditions of the Negroes, . . 131 vi CONTENTS. Chapter IV.— The Peoples and Hordes of America. PAGE 142 279. Introductory, ...¦•¦ (A) MALAYAN-POLYNESIAN IMMIGRATION, B.C. 1600-1400. 280. Evidence of this Immigration, . . • ¦ 148 281. Traces of Malay Religions in various parts of America, 158 282. The Religion of the Tsonecas, .... 165 283. The Religions of the Arnacas and Tamanacs, . . 167 (B) IMMIGRATIONS FROM AFRICA FROM B.C. 600 TILL A.D. 600. 284. Indications of African Immigrations at various times, . 176 285. Religion and Legends of the Caribs, . . 183 (C) EARLY IMMIGRATION OF JAPAN O-MONGOLIAN RACES ABOUT B.C. 100. 286. Traces of an Early Mongolian Immigration, . . 1 88 287. The Old Peruvian Empire of the Aymaras and their Religion, ...... 197 288. Religion and Traditions of the Wild Aymara Tribes, . 209 289. The Empire of the Muyscas and their Religion, . . 214 290. The Old Cultured Races of Central America, . 221 (D) CHINESE IMMIGRATION OF A.D. 650. THE TOLTECS AND THE INCAS. 291. Historical Traditions of the Aztecs, . . . 226 292. Criticism of the Aztec Tradition, .... 229 293. The Origin of the Toltecs and their Relation to the Incas, 236 294. The Empire of the Incas in Peru, . . . . 246 295. The Religion of the Incas, ..... 250 296. The Legends of the Toltecs and Mayas, ... 257 (E) IMMIGRATIONS OF THE TSHUKTCHIS, ABOUT A.D. 1220, AND MONGOLS, ABOUT A.D. 1281. 297. The Chicimecs and Nahuatlacs, . . . 264 298. The Religion of the Aztecs, . . . 285 299. The Buddhism of the Aztecs, ... 293 300. Traces of Pre-Aztec Deities in Central America, . . 295 (F) THE UGRO-FINNIC IMMIGRATION INTO THE NORTH DURING THE THIRTEENTH CHRISTIAN CENTURY. 301. The Redskins and their Religion, . . 301 302. The Traditions of the Redskins, ... 3U SECOND BOOK. THE REVELATION OF GOD. 303. Summary of Results already gained, ... 317 CONTENTS. Vll FIRST SECTION. THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. § PAQE 304. The Flood, ....... 325 305. The Confusion of Languages and Separation of Peoples, . 327 306. The Cardinal Question : Is the One God a Product of Israel 1 Or is Israel the Product of the One God ? . 339 307. The Semitic Race and the Choice of the Covenant People, 343 308. God's Educative Procedure in the Patriarchal Age, . 348 309. The Law and the Ordinance of Sacrifice, . . . 354 310. The Period of the Judges, ..... 359 311. The Period of the Kings and the Prophet?, . . 364 312. The Divine Act of Redemption, .... 372 SECOND SECTION. THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 313. The Several Effects of Redemption, . . . 381 314. The Influence of Christianity on the Life of the People and the State, ...... 384 315. The Influence of Sin on the Christian Life of the Com munity, ....... 391 SECOND PART. FIRST BOOK. SECOND DIVISION. HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. Chapter II.— The Races of Asia and Polynesia. A. — The Ugkian-Finnic-Taetar Gkotjp of Races. § 261. Ethnographical and Historical Sketch. THE Iranians in their remote and legendary antiquity (§ 224), in addition to the Semitic tribes inhabiting the banks of the Euphrates, had as neighbours other two nations, the Salm or Sairimians, and the Turanians. The former are the Sarmatians and Sauromati, both of which designations are connected together as Salm and Sairim, and so may be identified with the Slavs. The Turanians are found first of all to the east and south of the Sea of Aral and around Lake Balkash, where under the names Turan, Turkes tan, Turkomania, the old designation is still retained. A. Although the present inhabitants of East Turkestan are correctly represented as of Aryan extraction,1 belonging to the Iranian stock, yet of the Turanian origin of the Tartar races there can be no doubt. After the Tshu-king dynasty of the Chinese, there was the Turanian family of Yuchi, which, about B.c 150, descended from the nortjh upon Bactria and Yarkand, and made subject to them the Iranians dwelling 1 Robert B. Shaw, Journey to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar, 1871, chap. ii. EBRARD III. A 2 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 261. there. From the mixture of the two there arose the Uzbeks, who, as a settled and agricultural people, were called Sarti. The pure Tartars, who have maintained the nomadic habits of life, were called Kirghis, embracing the tribes Kazak, Kiptchak, Kari-Kalpak, and that of the Kirghis in the narrower sense. But tribes of a like form and descent inhabit those vast steppes in the north and east of Turkes tan, which are usually designated by the generic name of the Kirghis-steppes. To these tribes belong the Kalmucks from Mustagh, the Dulans from the Akmetshet Lake, and a portion of the inhabitants of Dzoungaria, south-east from the Balkash Lake, east of the Thian-Shan mountains. B. But it is now discovered that far in the north and north-west, and even in Europe, there are peoples tribally and linguistically related to these Tartars. When the Hungarians, about a.d. 950, appeared on the borders of Europe, they were designated Turks by the Byzantine writers, because they came from Turkestan. The present Hungarian language is, in fact, most intimately related to that of the Turks, who about A.D. 1400 rushed down from Turkestan, founded in Further Asia the Turkish Empire, and in 1453 took Constantinople (see Obs. 1). In this way the Tartar origin of the Hungarians is proved. C. If, now, we go back to the appearance of the Hungarians in history, Constantinus Porphyrogenitus (a.d. 950), a con temporary, relates that the Hazara tribe of the Kabars was joined with the Hungarians. But the Hazara, according to Hunsalvy's * happy suggestion, are identical with the Akhaziri, of whom Jordanes, writing in a.d. 570, gives an account, and in the Kabars we recognise the name of the Avars, who were spoken of by Theophylactus Simakotta, in a.d. 580, as an Ugrian race, consisting of three tribes, Uars, Vars, and Huns, ' a portion of which in Justinian's time founded the kingdom of the Avars on the banks of the Theiss and the Danube. Roman and Byzantine writers, however, designate these Avars 1 Hunsalvy, Reise in die Ostseeprovinzen, 1873. § 261.1 THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 3 as Huns. The chiefs of the Avars were called Chagans, and Eginhard speaks of Chagani et Jugurri as missi Hunnorum. It is thus made apparent that from one and the same mother - tribe, the Ugrians (Ogori, Jugurri) or Hazara, which had its home on the Volga and Kama, first of all the Huns, about a.d. 375, then the Avars about a.d. 740, rushed down upon Europe, and from Turkestan about a.d. 950 there came the Hungarians. All the three were Turanians, that is, they belonged to the Tartar races.1 D. As there is a linguistic relationship between the Hungarians and the Turks, so is there also between the whole circle of those races now extant in Asia and Europe and these two races, especially the Hungarians. These are the Tsherimis and Mordvins on the Volga, the immediate neighbours of those Hazara, the Zirianians, the Permians, the Votiaks on the Dwina and northern Kama and the western slopes of the Ural mountains ; also the Suranians, Voguls, Ostiaks, Tshudes, hunting tribes on the north of the Urals, round the Sosva, Konda, about the Obi down to Tobolsk and even to Irtis; likewise, the Finns, Esthonians, Livonians, and Lapps (see Obs. 2) ; finally, the Russian Tartars, those of the Crimea, Kazan, and the Obi, along with the Bashkers, the Yakuts, Teleuts, etc. E. But also the Samoyed family, of which the greater part occupies the north of Siberia, and a smaller part, including the Koibals, Soiots, Motors, Kamassintzi, the south of Siberia, speaks a common language, which is so closely related to that of the Tartars, that even these tribes must be regarded as belonging to the Ugrian-Tartar group. Among the . northern Samoyeds are included, the Samoyeds proper, the Ostiaks of the Narum and of the Yenesei, the Assans, Karagassans, Gorales, and other Yenesei tribes, the Kottovs, Arnizians, and Tubnizians, and the Tshuktshians on the north-eastern corner of Asia. 1 Constantinns Porphyrog. relates that the Hungarians and Hazara were able to understand one another's languages. HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 261. F On the other hand, the Tungus, in the south-east of Siberia, among whom are included the Mandshus, in the north-east of the Chinese empire, seem to be a race partly Mongolian, partly Tartar. Obs. 1. — Words which in Hungarian and Turkish are pro nounced exactly alike, such as kulta, gold, rauta, iron, miekla, sword, etc., are less decisive, because they might have been introduced among the Hungarians from a foreign language after the date of their subjugation under the Turks. This is less probable in the case of words like atra, plough, leipa, bread, kakra, oats, ruis, rye, multa, dust, etc., which designate things which the Hungarians could not have learnt to know first from the Turks. Those words, again, are quite decisive as evidence of the original linguistic relationship of these races, in which transmutation according to a fixed law takes place ; for example, in Turkish a z takes the place of what was originally r in the Hungarian. Thus, e.g., we have the Hungarian borju, Turkish buzagu, a calf ; terol, diz, the knee ; ir, jaz, to write ; bor, boza, drink ; kard, kazik, stake ; okor, okuz, an ox ; iker, ikiz, twin ; gyuril, juzuk, a ring, etc. Obs. 2. — In order to render perfectly clear the relationship of the Finnic-Esthonian and the Hungarian language, we may here append a few examples : — Moon, Finn . kua Esthon. kuu Hung . ho Fish, >> kala 13 kala ( hal To die, jj kuole 33 kool ,3 hal To hear }i kuule 33 kuul hall Wood, » puu 33 pun )3 fa Morsel, )> pala !3 pala 33 fal Cloud, » pilve 33 pilve 33 felho Wife, » puole 33 poole 33 felese'g Old, D vanha 33 vana ven Blood, >> vere 33 vere ver World, >j valkea 33 valge 33 vilag Water, 33 vete 33 ved viz Eye, 33 silma 33 silm szem Heart, 3) sybm 33 suame 3, sziv One, 33 yhte 33 iihd 33 egy Vogul, akve Two 33 kahte 33 kahd kett „ kitt Three, J3 kolme 33 kolme 3, harom „ horom Four, 33 nelja 33 neli 33 negy „ nila Five, )3 viite 33 viid 3) ot „ at The members of the Finnic group generally may be arranged as follows: — Finnic, Esthonian, Livonian, Vespian (that is, North Tschud), and Votian ; and to the Ugrian group belong, the Hungarian, Lapp, Vogul, and Tsheremisic. For the languages of the Samoyeds, Tshuktshians, Mandshurians, etc., we may § 262.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 5 compare the following words : Eye, Samoyed saima, saiwa, Ostiak sai, Kurile sik ; sea, Finnic jaka (flood), Tshuktschian ajam, Koriak uuem; wood, tree, Ostiak pob, Samoyed and Tshuktschian pfa, ua ; stone, Hungarian ko, Finnic kiwi, Koriak guwwen, Ostiak kei, Turkish qitaja; son, Hung. fiu, Ostiak piiwo, Kurile poo; brother, sister, Hung, nenem, Samoy. nenja, Koriak ninichsch. On the relation of the Mongolian languages to the Ugro-Finnic, see below at § 264. Obs. 3. — The Ugrians or Ogori are still met with in Genghis Khan's time under the name of Uigrians to the east of the Balkash Lake. D'Hossom, hist, des Mongoles, vol. i. p. 107 f. § 262. The Religion of the Finnic Tribes. While we have no information regarding the earlier form of religion prevailing among the Asiatic races of the Ugrian group, and while, in that which is now preserved among them in the way of religious conceptions and customs, so far as they have not come under the influence of Islam, we see before us only a picture of religious decay, we are, on the other hand, fortunate enough to be in possession of informa tion regarding the Finns and Esthonians from the date of their conversion to Christianity, which affords us an accurate picture of their religion. And this picture is anything but an attractive one. In general, their enumeration and conception of the gods (as already J. Grimm had remarked) corresponded to those of the Germans and Celts ; only among them these notions are found in a more primitive stage. While among the Celts and Germans the godhead had been already formally dismembered into a multitude of distinct individual deities, there still continued among the Finns and Esthonians, first of all, a mode of thought corresponding to that of the oldest Vedic religion, according to which the gods of heaven were only forms of revelation of the one God ; and secondly, from these, gods of heaven the inferior deities, in a way somewhat similar to that in which the Iranians spoke of the Yazatas and Ahuramazda, were sharply distinguished. The appellative term for God, which has also been carried over into Christianity, is jumala, Esthonian jumal, from the 6 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 262. verb jum, Hungr. vim, etymologically identical with the Old High German wihi, wihjan (see Obs.). The verb jum means to pray: jumala is he who is prayed to, one who can be worshipped. But the supreme god was Taara, Esthonian Tor, Lapp Toraturos, with the predicate vana-isa, old-Father. In name he corresponds to the Celtic thunder-god Tarani, the Norse Thor, but not in nature. For Taara was quite essentially regarded and worshipped as creator of the world, and indeed as the invisible ; and a multitude of very beautiful Finnic and Esthonian legends, which are to some extent current among the people to this day, refer to this position of his. There are Taara mountains, Taara groves, Taara oaks. Dorpat, too (Tar-to), has its name from him. Three yearly festivals were celebrated in his honour ; where, by opening the vein in the fourth finger, blood was offered him, and in doing so the words were uttered : " With my blood I name and mark thee; with it I mark my house, that it may be blessed." In a quite similar way this sacrificial custom existed among the ancient heathen Hungarians. In this there was present not merely the thought of a gift to the deity from whom men had received their blood and life, but also there was bound up in it that of a sin-offering and expiation; for the pagan Esthonians characterized their Taara-faith, in opposition to the :munga-usk, monkish faith, that is, Christianity, as lepingu-usk, expiating faith. Besides Taara, they had also a second god, Ukko, the Ancient (Esth. Kou), who was the god of thunder and lightning, of rain and fruitfulness. When it thunders, the Finns of the present time still say: Ukko pauhaa, the ancient rolls. Every village had a Uku kivi (Hung. Ukko kove), Ukko stone, whereon in spring offerings of seed, and in harvest offerings of grain, were laid. But Ukko also had this same cognomen of vana isa, old-Father, as well as Taara, and the name Taara itself signifies the thunderer.1 It 1 This circumstance decides against any sort of notion that the name Taara was derived from an ancestral hero of the Turanians. The § 262.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 7 was therefore one and the same old-Father who thundered as Ukko the ancient, and as Taara, the thunderer, created the world. Only when this is recognised is the sameness of name for him with the German Donar and Thor, and the Celtic Tarani, rightly explained. The thunder-god of the Ugro-Finnic race was not regarded as distinguished poly- theistically from the creator of the world as a separate individual deity, but as the creator of the world himself under another form of manifestation. From him, however, three inferior deities were very decidedly distinguished. They occupied an intermediate position between heaven and earth, and were endowed with the qualities of mythical champions or heroes rather than those of the gods properly so called. 1. Vana-muine (Esth.) or Waine-moinen (Finn.) is the contriver, and so the god of art, especially of music, but also of wisdom and magic. Once on a time men and animals were gathered together in the Taara grove to learn a heavenly festal speech. Vana- muine descended in a rushing of the wind, touched the strings, and sang. Then the streams ceased to flow: all things listened. But now men learnt the art of song ; the trees caught only the gentle murmuring sound, the streams only the rustling of his garment, the woodpeckers only the creaking of the strings beating upon the lyre, the fishes, whose ears were under the water, only the dumb movement of the mouth. 2. Ilmarine is the discoverer and god of the art of forging. 3. Then alongside of these two there appears Lammekune, without any other predicate than that embraced in the name. These are, as we have said, mythical figures rather than derivation of the old onomatopoetic primitive root tar, tonar, is much nearer the mark, all the more as we find among the Celts and Germans, among whom there is no trace of a descent from a patriarch Tux, that the name of the thunder-god of heaven is derived from the same primitive root. From this, by necessary consequence, it follows that the ancestor- gods among the Finns are distinguished sharply and consciously from the one god as inferior deities. 8 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 262. gods; for they are wrapt up in legend. The present race of men, it is said, was preceded by a race of giants, begotten by the sons of the gods, who came down to earth and • associated with the daughters of men. One of these giants was Kaleva (Finn.) or Kalev (Esth.). An ancient epic among the Finns and Esthonians, Kalevala (Kalevapoeg), relates how Kaleva sailed in a ship over the Baltic Sea, seeking his mother, who had been robbed and hidden away by a power ful giant; also how he, from among three virgins, Salme, an orphan, and Linda, who had sprung respectively from a hen, a crow, and an egg, chose Linda as his wife, had by her three sons, and died before the birth of the third.1 Have we not here a reminiscence of Noah and his three sons ? Kalev in the ship seeks mother earth, which is robbed and hidden, and is no more to be seen. Those giants then, who signifi cantly enough remind us of Gen. vi. 1 ff., are designated appellatively as vainemoinen : the first part, vana, is the well- known adjective meaning old (§ 261, Obs. 2); but muine seems to be an old word for man, identical with the Sanscrit manu. Those who lived before the flood were thus desig nated as the old men. That legendary hero, Vanamuine, is therefore nothing else than one of the antediluvians, and we need not for a moment doubt that in the three legendary figures, Vanamuine, Ilmarine, and Lammekune, we have pre sented to us in a quite uncontorted form a reminiscence of the three brothers, Jubal, the discoverer of music ; Tubal-cain, the discoverer of working in metal and the art of forging ; and Jabal, who, as a nomad, is not specially designated. The popular tales of the Finns and Esthonians point to the name of the divine or half-divine being, to whom the ancient Father has entrusted the care of morning dawn and evening twilight, the sunrise, etc., and in fact these peoples have 1 Thus speaks the Esthonian legend. The Finnic legend gives him twelve sons, and enumerates among them Vana-muine. This evidently arose from a secondary and confused combination of different myths. Kaweh (not Kalev) also is once mentioned as Vana-muine's father, and Vana-muine is designated as father (not son) of Kalev. § 262.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 9 worshipped deities or genii of the sun, of the dawn, etc., like the Iranian Yazatas. Their Wipune appears to have corre sponded to the German Vola. A Rune speaks of a goddess Suometar as the guardian-goddess of Finnland. The Salme of the legend points to a goddess of , the sea, bearing the same name (Salme signifies gulf of the sea). In legendary songs it is related how the sun as a man, and the moon, and a star made love to Salme, and she chose this latter one.1 Koit was goddess of the dawn. Tapio was a forest god; his wife was Metan-emanta, mother of the wood, with the surname Sinifirkku, blue-bird. Pakkainen was the god of the winter- cold ; Turrisa, the god of war.2 Particular animals, especially birds, were sacred to the several deities, and as such were inviolable. The god to whom they were sacred was supposed to be present in them, hence the stories of the old chroniclers s that the Esthonians and Finns had worshipped birds. Thus, in spite of that remnant of a primitive monotheism, a poly theistic deification of nature was spread in ever-widening circles. At the three chief festivals, sacrifices were offered to Taara, and to the rest of the genii of nature. Magical arts and conjurations, especially serpent charms,4 entered into the service of the genii. Obs. 1. — As the old primitive religion of the Ugro-Tartar group of nations is related to that of the Slavs, Germans, and Celts, so also is the Ugro-Tartar group of languages related to the rest of the Japhetic group, that is, the so-called Aryan family of languages. Notwithstanding varieties of construc tion, as in the case of the Basque dialect (see § 256, Obs. 2), they are essentially cognate. I need only briefly, by way of example, cite the following words : Finnic kutd, Hungr. hid, xXvav, to hear ; Finnic paljo, Hungr. falo, iroKfa, much ; Finnic pit, Hungr. fu, Sansc. vd, to blow ; Finnic valkea and vilag, Old High German wereld, world (from primitive root var, val ; comp. Sansc. Varuna) ; Finnic vete, viup, udor, water ; 1 H. Neus, esthn. Volkslieder, i. p. 10 ff. 2 This war-god may be a reminiscence of the tribal ancestor of the Turanians. Turr-isa means father-Turr. 3 For example, Adam von Bremen, in Pertz, Monum. Germ. iv. 17. 4 Esthnische Beschworungslieder, see in Neus, pp. 65-86. 10 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 263. nime, name ; teke, tev, Sansc. dhd, to do ; soo, suo, sea ; Murta, murda, Lat. mordere; vana, ven, Lat. vetus, old; Hungr. fog, Germ. /aAew, /crn^m, to catch ; pata, head, French pot, Finnic jtioftfei, Old High Germ, pihal, beil, axe; pilve, cloud, Old High Germ, pilipi, nourishment, the clouds regarded as dispensers of nourishment ; edes, sweet, jjSus ; Aa/, haar, hair; hajlek, harke, rake; fer-tb, swamp, Lat. ^aZ-'its; &ft, Goth, handus; Vogul wi, to waken, Sansc. gar; Finnic ora, Hungr. ara, Old High Germ, ala, ahle, awl; ar, prize, Germ, ehre, etc. Obs. 2. — The Finnic - Esthonian myths of the creation, in the Kalev epic of Vanamuine having transformed an eagle's egg into a world, since heaven is produced from the upper half, the earth from the lower, the moon from the yolk, is an ingenious fable, rather than of significance for the history of religion, and belonging to the earlier mythology. It has its origin during a period when the remembrance of Taara was already thrown into the background by the worship of Vana muine, and its similarity to the later Indian (Brahmanical) egg-myths of the creation is purely accidental. § 263. The Religion of the Tartars. When we turn from the European tribes of the Ugro- Finnic group to those of Northern Asia, we meet with the tribes of the Finnic, Ugrian, and Samoyed group in Siberia, among whom not only heathenish superstition, but even, in many cases, open and avowed heathenism has prevailed, generally, however, along with a significant trace of an old religion like that of the Finns, that has been subjected to a decided religious deterioration. Most markedly have those traces been retained in the East among the Tungus and Mandshus. These believe in a creator of the world invisible to man, who dwells in heaven or in the sun. Some of their tribes attribute to him a human form;1 others identify him with the sun itself.2 The Ugrian tribes on the west of the Urals, like the Finns, worship the invisible creator of the world under the 1 This human figure has in the course of time assumed once and again very different forms. The Teleutians think of God as an old bearded man, in the form of a Russian officer of dragoons. 3 Compare Stuhr, Eeligionssysteme der heidn. Vblker des Orients, p. 244. § 263.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 1 1 name of Jumala.1 The Voguls have still kept the name Torom, the Ostiaks the name Turum, Tbrm, Tshudo the name Tora, for their supreme god. By the Votiaks, on the other hand, Tirgani is worshipped as the sun-god.2 Thus, in part at least, has the knowledge of the invisible creator of the world been retained, while in other cases it has degenerated into a worship of the sun-god. The Tungus worship along side of the creator of the world a number of guardian spirits, who watch over female virtue, over children, over the chase, over herds, over health, over the rearing of reindeers.3 But this forms the transition to the belief in spirits, the so-called Shamanism, which became most prevalent midway between the extreme east and the extreme west, between the Lena and the Yenesei, and which has completely overgrown the forms of the old religion, while even on the Ural and among the Tungus it also plays a part alongside of it. If in the Vedic religion the one God was regarded with a pantheistic one sided prominence to his immanence as present in existence, and in the principal powers of nature, and gradually then his irpoaaira were elevated into deities alongside of him, he was, on the other hand, thought of in those Ugro-Tartar religions as present in all separate particular things, split up and divided into a countless number of spirits, amid which his unity would either be utterly forgotten, or at least practically thrust into the background. In every power of nature, in every natural existence, there dwells a ruling spirit. This stage of the beginning of a belief in spirits and in natural magic we found, § 262, existing among the Finns and Esthonians ; it appears at a further advanced stage in the Shamanism of the Ugro-Tartars. Because there is much of evil in the world, those spirits were regarded by the Tartars for the most part as hurtful to men, threatening evil, or more properly, unclean spirits, although they did not, 1 Stuhr, supra, p. 260. 2 J. G. Miiller, amerihanische Urreligionen, p. 57. 8 Georgi, Beschreibung alter russ. Nationen, part 2, p. 380. 12 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 263. like the Iranians, regard the contraposition of a kingdom of good and a kingdom of evil as fundamental. To those spirits belonged pre-eminently the souls of the departed: they were thought of and feared as ghosts and hobgoblins, and Shamanism consisted essentially in the art of conjuring those spirits, and rendering them serviceable, so that instead of being hurtful, they would become useful. The Shamans did not form a priestly order. Each person of both sexes, who was thought to understand the art of conjuring the spirits, is a Shaman, or among the Tartars, Kame, as in the time of Genghis Khan among the Ugrians,1 the rest were even then in part Buddhists. As such they wear a special dress,2 and live mainly on gifts, which are brought them as rewards for exorcising of spirits. At night sitting by a fire, smoking tobacco and beating a drum, the Shaman falls into convul sions, distorts his limbs, roars, dances round the fire, summons the spirit to battle, puts questions to him, listens trembling and shuddering to his answer, audible only to himself, and falls at last in a state of utter prostration ; the belief, more over, prevails, that during this prostration the soul quits the body, and in the shape of animals of various kinds makes a journey to the abodes of the spirits, where they make their appearance also in the animal form (see Obs.). To these spirits belong, as we have said, the souls of the departed, who ramble wandering in deserts and among wastes of snow, and dwell in clefts of the rocks. The souls of departed Shamans are feared as specially powerful and malignant. But it is not only by the incantations of living Shamans that the Ugro-Tartars seek to drive away all kinds of evil, sickness, and death, but also by magical rites which they themselves practise. In every jurte or tent-dwelling is found a sort of idol image, a small figure in human form wearing a Shaman's 1 D'Hossom, hist, des Mongoles, vol. i. p. 107 ff. 2 Long leathern robes, stocking boots, everything with wonderful magical emblems represented,— tin-plates, bells, eagles' claws, strips of skin, stuffed serpents, etc. § 263.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 1 3 dress, which, however, is not at all to be described as a deity, but is simply an amulet, in which a virtue is supposed to reside for protecting against the influence of evil spirits. Especially on the east of every jurte there are two birches bound by an oak twig, and ermine skins are hung on them : this, too, is a protective amulet. And finally, in the third place, every one possesses amulets of other sorts, on which in the most senseless and arbitrary fashion he suspends trifles of various kinds, rags of red linen, bunches of horse hair, bones of animals, etc., even bells from the dress of a Shaman. The whole tribe too, as well as the individual, has its pro tective amulets. These are stones or stakes which are erected on heights,1 to which every passer-by must bring the offering of a stake or stone. Evidently it is thought that good protecting spirits are associated with these stones or dwell within. A terrible fear of one's own death prevails, just as in regard to the apparition of the souls of the departed and their corpses. At funerals various ceremonies are observed in order to prevent the soul of the departed from haunting the survivors. Care is taken not to mention the name of the dead. Par ticular nomadic tribes like the Iranians, and probably in con sequence of Iranian influences,2 allow the corpses to remain exposed to the air. In the east among the Tshuktshians, and especially among the closely-related Kamtshadales, a more hopeful view of death still continues along with other remnants of the old religion. The Kamtshadales fear death in no form ; rather they often bring it on themselves by voluntary suicide, because they expect afterwards a joyous and glorious life. 1 These should not be confounded with the Obos of the Buddhist Mongols, that is, earth hillocks which are erected on heights. There is evidently a certain connection between the two, and this is easily ex plained by the manifold connections which the Tartar and Mongolian tribes had with one another. 2 The Tadshiks in the Government of Orenburg are descendants of the ancient Persians. Berghaus, allg. Lander- v/nd Volkerkunde, v. 518. 14 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. Obs. — The notion that during this mantic powerlessness the soul had been able to leave the body and to assume the form of an animal, gave occasion to the development of this further belief, that the earlier generations of their ancestors had been in possession of this power in a yet higher degree. Thus by the Turks the form of the wolf is ascribed to the father of their race, and this legend of the Turks is to be under stood as indicating that they were descended from a wolf, which is called Tsena (Ritter, Asien, 438 ; Schmidt, Forschungen im Gebiete Mittelasiens, Petersb. 1824, p. 70). In conse quence of the close connection which subsisted in the time of Genghis Khan between the Turks and the Mongols, this legend was introduced among a portion of the latter, who designated their tribal ancestor as Biirtetschino, the blue wolf. That the legend was not of Mongol origin is shown, partly from its close connection with Shamanism, partly from the fact that the Mongols have quite another legend in regard to their descent (§ 266). B. — The Mongolian Races. § 264. Characteristics and Distribution of the Mongolian Group. The determining of the limits between the Mongolian and the Ugro-Finnic races is one of the most difficult and intricate points in ethnographical science. In Tibet, China, Corea, the Loo-Choo islands, and Japan, we find a race of inhabitants who show no sort of connection either in speech or in bodily appearance with the Tartars, Turks, Hungarians, and Finns. In bodily appearance those cultured races of Eastern Asia resemble one another in the yellow colour of their skin, the dark hair, the little dark obliquely set eyes and prominent cheek-bones ; while, on the other hand, the races which form the Ugro-Finnic family have white skins, fair hair, inclining sometimes to red, regularly curved blue eyes, inclining to grey, and cheek-bones not prominent. Those characteristics of the Chinese and other Eastern Asiatics are found also in a leading race of Northern India, the Barmans, as well as in Further India, among the' Nepaulese, and are among them, on account of a mixing § 261] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. lo with Aryan-Indian blood that is historically demonstrable, only in a slight degree modified. In the form of their coun tenance the Barmans are much more like the Chinese than the Hindus.1 Since it has been customary to reckon these tribes among the Mongolian races, we shall group them together for convenience' sake and without prejudice pro visionally under the name of East-Mongolian tribes. In their languages these tribes are indeed far removed from one another. In respect of language this alone is common to all, the negative characteristic, that while there is a pretty close affinity among the languages of the Ugro-Finnic tribes, a great linguistic diversity is the prevailing characteristic of this group of East-Mongolian tribes, which have led some to go so far as to suggest that the languages are altogether of an isolated character (see Obs. 1). If now, however, we turn to the eastern part of the moun tainous district of Asia, we meet with the Western-Mongolian group of tribes, that is, those of the Mongols in the narrower and more exact sense, and in them we have the most difficult part of our investigation. Under them the following tribes are grouped: — (a) The Mongols in the strictest use of the word, living between the desert of Gobi and Mandshuria ; (6) the Buriats and the Kalka around Lake Baikal, north of the Gobi ; (c) the 016 ts or Kalmucks, of whom one branch still occupies its ancient home in Dzoungaria, while the other, which during Genghis Khan's lordship was resident in the North- West, now dwells between the Ural and the Volga ; (d) the Tshatshers, far up on the north-western borders of China, and in the deep vale of Kokonoor ; (e) alongside of the Buriats we find also in the south-east the Mandshus, a people of Mongolian origin, with a mixture of Tartar blood ; while, on the other hand, the Tungus on the north-west of 1 Basler Missions Mag. 1837, p. 213. J. W. Heifer's Reisen in Vord- erasien und in Indien, Leipz. 1873, part 2, p. 83 : "A broad face with strong cheek-bones, a flat snub nose, more or less protruding lips, small grey eyes, oblique, and with a sharp upward angle, and pale yellow skin of a hue like an unripe citron." On the Carenes, see § 267, Obs. 16 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264, the Buriats seem to be a people of Tartar origin, with a mixture of Mongol blood. The West-Mongolian group has thus its original residence around the Baikal lake, while the original home of the Turko-Tartaric group is round about Lake Balkash. At this point we are met by the difficult question : To what group do these West - Mongolian races belong ? Whether must we assign their origin to the Ugro- Tartaric stem, or to that which we have designated the East-Mon golian ? It is only during the present century that any real distinction has been made between the Tartars and the Mon gols. De Guignes,1 and even more recently D'Hossom,2 employ these names as synonymous terms. Scientific research regarding these has now led to the marking of a distinction between the Ugro - Tartaric races, comprising the Huns, Avars, and Hungarians, which, one after another, between a.d. 375 and a.d. 950, broke in upon Europe, following the Slavs in their movement westward, and the Mongols who under Genghis Khan Temujin3 in the 13th century struck horror into Eastern Europe. But even after this has been settled, the question still remains unsolved as to whether these West - Mongolians should have their descent traced back to the stem of the Ugro-Tartars, or whether they should be regarded as essentially one with the East-Mongolian group of nations (Tibet, China, etc.). The Mongolian language, which seems to have an intimate con nection with Ugro - Finnic - Tartaric, favours a decision in accordance with the former alternative ; 4 but the bodily 1 De Guignes, allg. Geschichte der Hunnen und Tiirken, deutsch von Dahnert, Greifswald 1769 ff. 2 D'Hossom, hist, des Mongoles, Amsterdam 1852. s Compare upon this, besides the two works named, PStis de la Croix, hist, du grand Genghizcan, Paris 1710. Hammer-Purgstall, Gesoh. der goldenen Horde, Pesth 1840. von Erdmann, Temutsehin der Unerschutter- liche, Leipzig 1862. 4 This is the view of Schott, " Ueber das altaische Sprachgeschlecht," in the Abhandlungen der Berl. Akad. der Wissensch. of the year 1847 r> 281 ff. J >f § 261.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 17 appearance of the Mongols is in favour of the latter. The West-Mongolians are similar to our East-Mongolians in the shape of their skull, the prominent cheek-bones, the dark and oblique eyes, as well as in the yellow colour of their skin. In Dzoungaria the Tartars who are resident there (§ 261) are easily distinguishable from the Kalmucks and Tunganis1 in bodily appearance, dress, and manners. Nobody will main tain that there is any greater similarity in bodily appearance between the Finns and Kalmucks, or between the Magyars and Mongols, than there is between the Mongols and the Chinese. But if the West-Mongolians are to be regarded in respect of bodily appearance as of the same stem with our East-Mongolian group, and consequently to be joined together with them as a Mongolian people, how then is the relation ship of the West-Mongolian language with that of the Ugro- Tartars to be explained ? For the case is not merely that of borrowed words,2 but one of an actual primary relationship of the roots, at least of many roots. This phenomenon, how ever, is at once easily explained so soon as we take history into account. (a) We know, in the first place, that Celts and Germans are two nations belonging to different groups, and yet they have many roots in their languages in common. Similarly, too, the Greeks have roots in common with the Germans, and both with the Latins ; and not only so, but the Indo- Germanic languages have entire series of roots in common with the Semitic. We have a precisely similar phenomenon in the fact that a number of roots are common to the Mon golian and Ugro - Tartaric languages, and the development of comparative philology has led to the abandonment of the x Shaw, Journey to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar, p. 28 f. The derivation of the name of the Tunganis from the Chinese tun-jfoi, mihtary colonists, that is, Chinese, seems to me most improbable. The Taranhis among the Dzoungarians are colonists of a late period (Shaw,, p. 29 f.). We must not confound with the Tunganis the Tibetan tribe of the Tanguts (called in Chinese Si-fan) which occupies Kokonoor. 2 Schott, Ueber das altaische Sprachgeschlecht, p. 323. EBRARD III. B 18 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. narrower conception of the Indo-Germanic group, and to substitute for it that of the Japhetic group. The possibility of such an original relationship between the Mongolian language and the Ugrian becomes peculiarly feasible when we find roots in which both are related, not only with one another, but also with the Aryan, and even with the Semitic. For " mother " we have in nearly all the languages of the world the primitive root ma, Aryan mdtr, '/jtrjTqp, mater, mutter, mother, Irish mna, Basque emea (wife), in the language of South Sonora mama (grandmother), Malayan mu, amu, ma, mak, Finnic ema, Mandshurian erne, Semitic em. Earth, turf, Arabic tarbu, Swedish torfoa (turf), Finnic turpaha, Mongolian towarak, Turkish toprak, Tungusic tuor, turu. Hand, Sanscrit ka.ra, Mongolian ghar, Tungusic gala, Turkish kol, while in ^et/j and in the Old Latin Mr we have partially related roots. To take, Turkish cap, tschap, Mon golian chab, Latin capio. Cloth, clothing,1 Semitic buz (Syr. buso, hence Arabic buza, to be white), Greek /Jvo-o-o?, Turkish bus, Mongolian bus, Mandshurian boso, Chinese pu. Silk is in Mandshurian and Tungusic sirge (raw silk, se), Chinese ssS and se, Corean sil, sir, Russian scholk, North - Germany silk, Greek o-ijp (silk cord). For other examples, see under § 305. (b) This, however, does not carry us far. We have still to account for the fact, that the West-Mongolian language is closely connected with the Ugrian languages, even in regard to words that do not occur in other tongues, and that its intimate relation to the Ugrian languages is more obvious than its separation from the East-Mongolian languages. In order to make this plain, we must keep in mind the fact that according to the original documents of Chinese history there was in the early times a dynasty of Hiang-nu, which held sway from b.c. 200 till a.d. 93, and then at a later period "¦ We do not forget that the Basques of the Stone Age had brought with them from Asia the art of weaving. This, therefore, was a common endowment of primitive times before the separation of the races. § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 19 over Northern China till a.d. 330. That this kingdom of the Hiang-nu was a Ugrian or Turanian one, can be proved from the fragments of the language l which are preserved in these early historical documents. Its chief, for example, had the title tanglikutu, which, according to the appended note of the Chinese historian, means in Chinese , tien tsse, Son of Heaven. Now heaven is in the Ugrian language tengri, and son is kuto, kbtti, guto. The princes bore the title of luli, and in Turkish they are called ulu, great. The Hiang-nu were, therefore, a Ugrian or Turanian people. If, now, during those centuries the Ugro-Tartars extended their dominion eastward even to China, so that the wall of China was built to withstand their advances, it follows that while the West- Mongolian tribes in the north and west of China were gradu ally subdued by them, and lived for at least half a century under their dominion, there was a blending together of the two races and an intermixture by marriage, just as we find actually taking place between the Tungus and the Mandshus. That the conquered should during that half-century adopt the language of their conquerors 2 was indeed very natural.3 After the overthrow of that Turko-Tartar Empire, the foreign speech adopted by the West-Mongolians was formed into a separate dialect, but still a Ugro-Tartar one, just as the Latin language adopted by the Visigoths was modified into Spanish ; and as between a.d. 552-703 the Turks of Turkestan still continued their inroads into China,-the Mongolian tribes were subject to the influence of the Ugrian tongue for nearly two centuries. We must not therefore hastily conclude for the Ugrian language of the Mongol race, strictly so called, that 1 Schott, Sprachgeschlecht, p. 289 ff. 2 Franz von Erdmann, too, assumes (Temutschin, p. 131 f.) that in con sequence of historical circumstances the original language of the Mongols had been changed into the Turkish, but he does not enter more minutely into the subject. 3 Schott has shown that before the appearance of Buddhism in Higher Asia, the Mongols possessed the art of writing and the beginnings of a literature. The art of writing, however, was introduced among them by the Uighurs. P^tis, p. 120 f. 20 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. they are of the same stock, for this their bodily appearance will not allow. (c) When at a later period, during the 12 th and 13 th centuries, the West-Mongolians got the upper hand of the Tartars, when Genghis Khan subdued the nation of the Nighurs and of Turkestan, and of all Higher Asia, and led his mixed horde of Mongolian and Ugro-Tartar tribes against Europe, many words were transferred from the Mongolian dialect. It was then also developed into a distinct language, into the language of those Ugro-Tartar races with which the Mongols were now brought into connection, and those words referred to were borrowed words (see Obs. 2). The correctness of the view which we have taken finds confirmation, first of all, in this, that even in religion there is a thoroughly characteristic distinction between the primitive religion of the Mongols and that of the Tartar tribes (see § 266 ff.), and that a similar distinction is observable in the languages themselves. One may already conjecture that there would be very frequently two quite different words for the same idea in the languages of the Ugro-Tartar tribes dwelling most closely to the Mongols, that the one of these words would be originally derived from the Mongolian, the other would be originally derived from the Ugrian. It is indeed quite evident that the Hiangnus may have derived their words from the Mongols, just as well as the Mongols from them. But of yet greater importance is the grammatical structure of the language. In the Mongolian, as well as in the closely related Mandshurian language, the characteristics of the Mongolian family of languages are predominant in its purer forms (see Obs. 1). The verb has the form of an indeclinable verbal substantive, the infinitive, while the verb in the Ugro-Finnic languages is conjugated. In Mandshurian, I stand, thou standest, etc., are rendered, bi ilimbi, si ilimbi, etc.; while in the language of the Tungus we have ilitschem, ilitschende, ilitscheren, ilitschercb, ilitschesch, ilitschere. The Hungarians and Finns have a very finely constructed conjuga- § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 2 1 tion, with a modification in the word to indicate the object, like the Semitic suffix of the object. While the Ugro-Tartar- Finnic have likewise a declension, the Mongols and Mandshus, inasmuch as the former were powerfully influenced in linguistic matters by the Turks of Turkestan, express their cases by separate case terms, such as man -possession for man's. In neither of the languages do we find any relative pronoun. In both the Mongolian and Ugrian languages the infinitive is freely used as a verbal noun, for example, I know thee to be conquered, instead of, I know that thou art con quered. In the Ugrian language, however, the pronominal suffix has undergone a metamorphosis in sound, so that it is conjoined with the verbal stem, while in Mongolian it continues separate. Thus, notwithstanding that the West- Mongolians of ancient times adopted the Ugrian language of the Hiangnus, yet the impress of the Mongolian tongue has been left upon the very form in which this foreign speech was adopted by them.1 We have now, finally, to consider the languages of the tribes that have been designated by us East-Mongolians. We have already indicated the fundamental characteristic of these as that of the multiplication of dialectic differences. This common character is shown in these three fundamental features : (a) a number of common roots ; (b) a tendency to continual change of sound in defiance of all rules; and (c) a tendency to secure construction by the use of separate particles. These three points deserve careful consideration. The existence of words common to all the languages is specially noticeable in the case of words indicating numbers. I select from Liiken's tables,2 drawn up from Lassen's Indian Antiquities and Klaproth's Archives, the following list, to 1 Quite analogous to this was the adoption of the Latin language by the Goths, Franks, Langobards, and from it, modified by the Teutonic taste and genius, the Romance languages were constructed. They did not say amabo, \m.tje aimer ai, amar ai, etc. ; not amavi, but je amdi, and then ,;e ai aim/, ho amato, etc. 2 Einheit des Menschengeschlechts, p. 174. 22 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. which I add numerical terms from the Vogul and Tangut dialects, in order to show the distinction between them and the Ugro-Tartar languages. For an exact acquaintance with the Tibetan numerical terms I am indebted to an oblig ing communication from J. Th. Reichelt, missionary at Herrnhut : — Barmese. Nepaulese. Tibet.1 Tangut. China. Loochoo. Japan. Corea. Vogul. 1 thit sehi fejtschig(g)nji(s) chzik 1* tids, idshi \z, fito ho- tli Lin aku 2 niht nus-ki m 611 ni, tads ni, fi-tak thu-pu kit 3 ssum suum (g)sum sum san schan, nids san, miz ssai korom 4 leh Pi fb)schi bsche sse stheu, juds si, ioz na% nila 5 ngah nga (l)nga ma u u, idsilzi go, izuz taschU dt ti khiok kbu d(r)ug tschok lu rugu, nits rok, muz ii-schli kat 7 khu-nit nhei (b)dun(br)gjad dim Zl schi, nanadzii siz, wanaz ii-kii sat 8 seit kea ' dsjat pa ftCdshi, jads faz, jads ii-ta nala y koh gu fljga rgu kieu ka, Tcogulads fcow, hokonoz ja-hao (Mfente.Hung.) 10 ta-zak sanah kb)tschu ztt-tamba 9ch6 sua, tu siou, towo je lau The second of the words given in the columns for Loochoo and Japan represents the language of the earlier inhabitants, who were probably of Tartar blood. One pair of synonyms under the Vogul and Hungarian group represent a variety in cursive manuscripts. In the numerals for 1, 3, 9, 10, the resemblance among the East-Mongolian languages is quite apparent ; in regard to 2, China and Corea go their own way ; in regard to 7, the Tartar root, with the hissing sound, in Loochoo and Japan dislodged, even among the Mongolian inhabitants, the Mongol root; in regard to 8, we find no sort of agreement appearing. The perfect agreement, how ever, in regard to 1, 3, 9, 10, and the well-nigh perfect agreement in regard to 2, 4, 5, 6, is sufficiently striking. In regard to the Barmanic and Chinese, W. von Humboldt 2 has proved the relationship of the more important gram matical roots ; the nota pluralis is in the Barman language kra (pronounced kja), in Chinese kidi ; the Barman particle thong (pronounced thi) corresponds to the Chinese tschi, ti; the verb to be is in Barman hri (pronounced shi), and in 1 The letters placed within parentheses are written but not pronounced. 2 Gesammelte Werke, vi. "Ueber die Verschiedenheit des Sprach- baus." § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 23 Chinese shi ; the term in numeration, "piece, particular, head," is in Barman khu, and in Chinese ko. Although in respect to other words no relationship, or only a very slight one, is discernible, an explanation of this is afforded under our second point : the free change of sounds which prevails in those languages. From the time of Khongtse, B.C. 600, or at least from' the time of Shi-Hoangti, B.C. 213, the Chinese had adopted a fixed form of expression ; but that the written symbol was pronounced in ancient times in a way different from that which now prevails is placed beyond dispute ; just as in the provincial dialects of to-day the pronunciations vary considerably from one another. In the Barman language, which has a written alphabet, the variation in the pronunciation is regularly marked, and in their writings it is shown what an older, and that not a very ancient form, had been. W. von Humboldt has let us see how incredibly great the change from it to the pro nunciation of the present day has been ; for example, what is written kak sounds ket, what is written tup is pronounced tok, re is pronounced je, hri is pronounced shi, etc. Now, if we could sometimes pass over into sh, sometimes into j, ang into i, ak into et, up into ok, and if such changes were continued for four thousand years, and if this were done, as was natural, by every race in a different way, it is quite conceivable that the corresponding roots of the different languages should by this time be no longer in the least like one another. The third point is the tendency in the East-Mongolian languages to indicate its structural modifications by separate particles. This is not universally, nor in the same way, 6haracteristic of these languages. In Japan, where, as we shall see in § 269, the East-Mongolian or North-Chinese immigrants found before them a primitive Ugro-Tartar race, and mixed themselves up more or less with them, there is no appearance of this tendency to isolation. In Tibet, where the original Mongolian language has undergone perhaps the 24 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. least change, the use of modifying suffixes has not been altogether abandoned, but in the languages of Northern India this process has been well-nigh, and in those of China altogether carried out with the most rigid consistency. There have indeed been important and talented men who regarded this mode of grammatical construction by separate particles as the most primitive of all. In accordance with W. von Humboldt's example,1 we feel ourselves unable to accept this view (see Obs. 1). Finally, however, there is one characteristic common to all those nations of the Mongolian group, that is, their extreme national feeling, by reason of which each one of them, living on friendly terms with one another, and each in unconditional servile subjection to its own chief, is absolutely separated from all other peoples, or exercises against them in war the severest cruelties even to utter extermination. Obs. 1. — There are two elements which the language will give expression to : ideas, and the combination of these in a Ju^g- ment. For ideas it creates for itself simple words, roots, and so soon as these have once been created, they are objectively given to him who speaks as a vocabulary. The relations, on the other hand, in which certain of these ideas stand to one another in the judgment are not objectively given, but are every moment subjectively determined by the speaker. One, for example, has to relate, and for this he must first think and then speak, " his enemy has slain him ; " another, " he has slain his enemy ; " the one, " he will rest ; " the other, " he will journey." A. Human speech for the most part supplies words of one syllable to express ideas, though even here such have initial and final double consonants ; the Semitic races have had the instinct to enlarge these roots into words of two syllables, even to split up one into more (e.g. zHr,jazar, zarar, comp. also § 260, Obs. 1), and in this way to secure a multiplicity of vocables for the expression of modifications of the idea. The Japhetic languages have made only a sparing use of the two-syllabled roots of the kind described, and show a preference for the com pounding of two roots, as we have seen exemplified in the Aryan language in the pronoun ; for example, au-ro?, Sanscrit i-dam, Zend a-dem, etc. (comp. Bopp, krit. Gramm. der Sanskr. 1 Humboldt's Werke, vi. p. 118 and p. 196. § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 25 Spr. § 247). Iii order to give definiteness to a purely abstract uncertain term, as when, for example, there are roots alongside of it of the same meaning, a synonym is set down beside it, or a word indicating the next higher kind or species. This style of quasi-compounding is practised in Chinese, in the Barman language, and is employed with special freedom by the Tagals, among the Malays, and by the Aztecs and Delaware tribes 1 among the Americans. Thus, for example, in Barman pan means to endeavour, and krd means to obtain an answer, and pan-kwd means to endeavour to obtain an answer, that is, to question,- to ask; lak means hand, tat, to be skilful, and lak-tat, an artificer. The most primitive stage of all in this root construction by means of the compounding of words is seen very conspicuously in various negro languages. In the Ga and Akra languages the theory of these compoundings forms a not unimportant part of the grammar. (Comp. J. Zimmer- mann, Grammar of the Gd Language, Stuttg. 1856, together with its Vocabulary^) For example, dshe, to come, about, to happen ; mddshe, to transmit (from md, to place); ladshe, to be lost (from la, to hang loosely) ; kddshe, to lie on the back (from kd, to lie) ; dshadshe (from dsha, to be stretched). Also ga, to go ; fe, to do; gafe, to go in order to do. While, then, the primitive roots of the Hamitic languages were monoliteral, con sisting of one consonant with an accompanying vowel, biliteral roots were formed by means of this process of compounding. Certainly in quite a similar way have triliteral stems been formed in the Aryan and Semitic languages from biliteral roots. B. The monosyllabic or isolating languages separate the objective ideas from the relation in which the speaker places these ideas in such a way that they give only to the former a vocal garb, while the relation is expressed only by the posi tion of the words. The Chinese language, for example, makes the governing word precede the governed, the subject precede the verb or verbal noun, this again precede the object, and this again the more remote object, while the word that has to be qualitatively determined must follow that which determines the quality. The Barman language, on the other hand, has the following order of succession : subject, object, verb, but requires the adverb of quality to precede that of which it determines the quality. For " I eat with butter boiled rice," the Chinese says, " I to eat butter to boil rice " (infinitives as verbal nouns), the Barman says, " I butter to boil rice to eat." For " I praise 1 The Delaware language in the agglutination of suffixes divides again its compounds, and makes use of. only one of the roots. For example, wul-it, beautiful ; mtseh-gat, foot ; k' uligat-schis means thy dainty little foot. 26 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. him who all things has created and from sin is free," the Bar man says, " All things to create then he, thau, sin free to be he, thau, I praise ; " the particle thau serves only to bind to gether like a vocal comma what precedes as referring to one thing. This importance belonging to the position of words meets us also in inflectional languages, and indeed plays scarcely anywhere a more conspicuous part than in the Middle Age and modern German, where by means of the three different arrange ments of the words — the direct, as " I do my duty ; " the ante cedent and relative arrangement, as " if I my duty do," " who his duty does;" and the consequential and interrogative arrange ment, as " so loves me my father," " loves me my father ? " " how loves me my father ? " " inexpressibly loves me my father " — the entire proposition and the structure of the period are determined. The German language, however, and also the agglutinate languages, in which, as for example in the Massa chusetts dialect, the arrangement of the words is of decisive importance, have always in addition inflectional suffixes, corre sponding to the agglutinative suffixes, by means of which the relation, in which the speaker wishes the idea to be understood by the hearer, is audibly expressed and embodied. This evi dently is the process that is more strictly in accordance with nature. W. von Humboldt also (see p. 118) thinks it probable " that the use of naked roots is something secondary. Originally the roots never appear as such, but clothed with the accompany ing sounds which fit them to express some living relation." And at p. 196 he says : " The more primitive the languages are, the richer they are in the abundance of forms and constructions." The abstraction which separates the relations of the ideas from the ideas themselves, and. analyses the latter like anatomical preparations, is quite an artificial thing, and presupposes, according to W. von Humboldt, an unimaginative and one- sidedly rational process of thinking. It is primitive and in accordance with nature, that the entire vocable should corre spond to the entire mental conception, and should portray it. " Der Mann spaltet der Stamm " (the man splits the tree). As the man actually represents the agent, a primitive language will apply the term that represents the subject to one who works and acts, and will express this by a suffix to the verb and a suffix to the object, thus : " Mann-er Spaltung-thun Baum-hin (baum- warts)." These suffixes are still evidently found in the inflectional languages. The s of the Indo-Germanic possessive singular is an abbreviated pronoun sa (ta) ; many languages form their verbal forms from nouns by dhd, ta, tu, and the accusative has still in Sanscrit preserved its original characteristic by taking a locative termination. But even this form of language is not the most primitve of all, for even it belongs properly to the inflectional §264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 27 languages. The most primitive is that in which the entire con ception of the action is set forth under one single complex word, in which the idea is not yet exactly determined, but has only its principal element brought out, to which the more exact determination is subsequently joined, and this is the essence of that agglutination (comp. § 256, Obs. 1), which we, therefore, regard as the primary form of grammatical structure. " Er spalten es, Mann er, Baum-hin." There is first of all the general notion of a splitting, then the statement, who is the he, and what is the it. That this was actually the primitive form of language we have ample proof in the fact emphasized by W. von Humboldt, that by means of the comparison of languages the pronominal roots are always found to be the very oldest and most primitive elements of the various languages and of human speech, and indeed above all the roots of the personal pronouns. In this, then, we have also a new confirmation of* what we have said in § 49 about the origin of language, and against the naturalistic and materialistic explanation thereof. The origin of language is dependent upon personal conscious ness, self-consciousness in the sense of § 57. From the agglutinative stage there were two possible ways along which the course of development might be continued. (1.) The ever-recurring pronominal suffixes of nouns of action, of verbal nouns, and the likewise recurring suffixes of direction, of names of things, might be abbreviated into unaccented ter minations,1 and thus the pronoun of the object for a noun of action would be altogether disused as superfluous. Instead of ta-bhandsh-tam, manu-sa, druma-im, we now say bhandsha-ta (later bhandshati) manus drumam, which in Sanscrit means, " The man breaks the tree." The noun of action is formed into a conjugated verb, the noun that designates a thing into a de clined substantive, and thus every word of such a kind has its relation to the other words expressed in its own grammatical construction, the drawback of a slavish grammatical order of words was overcome, and that freedom of rhetorical and poetic arrangement of words secured which has been most thoroughly developed in the Latin language, and contributes so largely to the beauty and the pre-eminence of the languages of the old cultured Indo-Germanic races. The Teutonic languages, and still more the Romance languages, in their recurrence to a grammatically determined order of words, represent a certain retrogression, and in such a sentence as c'est ce que je vous ai dit, the French is scarcely to be distinguished from an agglutinative language. (2.) The pronominal suffix and the suffix of direction might, instead of being abbreviated and combined with the word, be 1 In the language of the Aztecs and in that of the Delaware Indians this process is seen in a merely initial stage. 28 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. wholly removed, and might wholly give over to the arrangement of the words the expression of the relation of the ideas with one another. Language now no longer portrays the action to him to whom it is told, but puts before the hearer only the material of the conception rationally arranged, in order that he by the exercise of reason may form a conception of the action for him self. In the language of the Barmans this process is not yet • absolutely completed. It forms out of synonymous monosyllabic roots actual compounds, inasmuch as it changes the initial mute of the second word into a sounded syllable. It has also such a wealth of particles, that by means of them and of pro nouns it can sufficiently and clearly express the persons, tenses, numbers, and words of the verb. The Chinese language, again,has carried out the principle of isolating, or monosyllabism, with that strict intellectual consistency characteristic of the Chinese 'people. Obs. 2. — A. Primitive roots which occur in various families of languages : — To take, grasp : Turkish kap, tschap, Mongolian ap, Latin capere, etc. — Breath, life, soul, spirit : Finnic henka, angga (to breathe), Tsherimis language jang (soul), Mongolian angki-l (to smell, inhale), changgu-la (to sniff), amin (life) ; Mongolian and Tungusic onggo-d (spirits), ong-char (to recog nise), ong-si (to rehearse) ; Turkish ang (to remember), originally connected with Sanscrit anas, breath, anilas, wind, &vepos, animus, Old High German unst. — To turn,to revolve: Mandshurian chorgi (gur, land), Mongolian chorijan, court, kiirdu, wheel, Susmi her, kier, to move around ; Hungarian Mr, circle, kor, course of time, koros, old ; Turkish kura, court, kari, old ; Finnic Mom, to turn, karmet, serpent ; comp. Mongolian and Turkish ordu, tent-circle, camp, Turkish orta, middle. Originally connected with ipxog, i'ipyu, Lat. circus, Old High German cherjan. — Mother, wife : Mongolian erne, wife, Mandshu. ama, mother, amu, aunt, sister-in- law, erne, mother, mama, grandmother, Finnic emi, emo, mother, em, im, to suck ; Turkish meme, breasts, Tshuvash anja, and Mandshu. enie, mother. Originally connected with md in mdtr, tmrno, mater, mamma, Old High German muader, muoter ; also with the Basque emea, wife.— Flame of fire, Mongolian chahsa hardened by fire, Mandshu. dschak-sannga, red, Chinese tsse, red, Lapp kwohso, down, comp. m/M.- Water, Finnic wesi, viz'vete, Hungarian uss, Mongolian usun, UuP, Latin udor, Slavic 'voda, Old High German wazar, etc. B. Of such primitive roots, however, there are many which are not found in one of the two groups of languages. Thus the root that lies in in, Ipoc,, is only met with in the Ugro-Finnic group : Finnic wuori, Tungusic uro, urjo. So, too, the root pre sent in the Latin jacere, Lapp jdwat, to spread out, jdwatak, cushion, bolster, Turkish jatak, bolster, jat, to lie Finnic wuot ¦ § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 29 bed, wat, to throw, Turkish at, to throw. On the other hand, the roots that underlie hOlen, Latin edere, to eat, appear only in Mongolian in ide, to eat, which first passed over into Turkish and Hungarian in the Middle Ages, when it appears in Hun garian as et, to eat, and in Turkish as et-mek, bread, whereas the Ugro-Finnic languages have another root SE, perhaps partially connected with the former, Mandshu. Ashe, Finnic syo, Yakut se, Tshuvash si. The root underlying the word to see, Goth. saivjan, exists only in Finnic and Esthonian szem, silm (see under E) ; in Mongolian it" is wanting. On the other hand, chair, Mongol, for stone, Turkish kyr (v.t'o(i\, Sansc. tschr) — kira, Mongol, for mountain ridge, Mandshu. gira, bones, Hungarian gerentz, ridge of the back (Middle High German grdt, Grat, Grate) — bejna, Mongol, for sound, Latin bonus — se Mongol, for thou, Greek au, — are wanting in the Ugro-Finnic languages. In the Mongolian again are wanting : kuul, Finnic to hear, chorwa, ear, Ostiak chol, Vogul jul, Turkish hulak, and chulga, ear, Tun gusic korot, ear (Sanscrit gru, -/.Xuiii, Celtic cual, cluinn, Old High German hdrjan). C. The verbal stems, which the Mongols in a remote antiquity appropriated to themselves from the Ugro-Finnic languages, are very numerous ; for example, to ask : Mongol. asak, Lapp jasko ; to flow : Finnic wirta, Turkish eri, to melt, ir-mak, stream, Mongol, ur-us, flowing 'water; an oath, to swear: Esthonian wand, Mongol, andaghar, Turkish and; fine : Finnic arka, tender, Turkish aryk, slender, Lapp njuor, tender, Mongol, nar-in, fine, wise, Mandshu. narchun, thin ; sympathy: Lapp njuor, Mongol, ttre; small: the diminutive affix kenne, ken, kun, gun, gen, is common to the Ugro-Finnic and Mongolian languages, as also to the Dutch ; firm, strong : Finnic jirka (also steep), Turkish iri, firm, Mongol, erki, steep ; red : Finnic weri, blood, Ostiak wyry, red, Mongol, jurte, to redden, Mandshu. kira, red. D. Still more significant is the fact _ that we have a consider able number of roots and word stems which are found either only in the Ugro-Finnic languages, including the mixed dialects of the Tungus and Mandshurians, or only in the Mongolian language, and the Turkish as affected by it in the Middle Ages. (a) The following roots are strictly confined to the Ugro-Finnic languages : — to sing : Finnic wiru, Turkish ir ; girdle, haunch : Finnic wyo, Turkish ui-luk ; thief, to steal : Finnic warka, woru, Yakut or, Turkish oghur; reindeer: Finnic poro, Lapp ron, Tungusic irum, Mandshu. iren, oron (comp. Scand. ren) ; early : Mandshu. nergin, Turkish erken ; to rain : Lapp okte, Mandshu. aga, Turkish jagh ; to build, to adorn : Finnic koria, Turkish kor, kurghan, etc. (b) The following belong exclusively to the Mongolian languages : — Man : Mongol, ere, Mandshu. eru, 30 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. Turkish er (comp. Latin vir, Celtic fir, Old High German wer) ; sister: Mongol, eke-tschi, Tungusic akin, Yakut akas; nose: Mongol, chabar, Kalmuck chamar, Mandshu. oforo, orro, Tun gusic ongokto, okto, Turkish murun, burun; bones: Mongol. omok, Turkish sumuk, kemiik, Tshuvash schunu, Yakut ungoch (comp. Old High German knoche); horde : Mongol, and Tungusic aimak; to bury: Mandshu. somi, Turkish kum ; flesh: Tungusic nila, vita, Mandshu. jali, Tshuvash jut (ixomjult), etc. E. This becomes specially remarkable when it is seen that peoples who have been untouched by the Mongols actually employ another root to express the same idea. For example :— Father: (a) Ugro-Finnic root ise, Lapp attsche, Mongol, etsi; (b) Mongolian root aba, abu, Tsherimis and Tshuvash aba, mother, Turkish baba, father, Mandshu. mafa, grandmother; red: Finnic puna; on the other hand, Mongol, ula-gahn, Tungusic kula-rin, Mandshu. fulgian. Mouth: Finnic suu; on the other hand, Mongol, ama, Tungusic amga, Yakut hamun, Tirianian worn, Turkish anggir, jangir, and tschangir, to cry ; to see: Finnic and Esthonian szem, eye, silm; on the other hand, Mongol, chara, connected with opav, kara, to foresee, Yakut charak (karak, eye), Turkish Mra, Mr; to eat (see above under B) ; to drink : Finnic juo, hence jauma, a drink, md is the borrowed syllable, Lapp jukka and tschuoke, to soak, Turkish jut, adopted into Mongolian ughu ; on the other hand, the Chinese dialects: jam, modern Chinese jen, in, Mongol. um-tan, a drink, Tungusic omi, to drink, with the radical m ; to rejoice: Finnic ilo, Mandshu. ilga; on the other hand, even if originally related, Mongol, dshir, ir, Mandshu. urgun, Hungarian orom, orul, Turkish ir-mek ; heaven : Finnic minia, Hungarian meng; on the other hand, Mongol, koke, Mandshu. kuku, Kamtskadal kagal, Turkish gok, Hungarian kek. Specially deserving of notice are the personal pronouns : — Mongol. .Mandshu. Turkish. The Ugro-Finnic. I bi bi be-n en (Samoede, man) Thou tzin ozi se-n te, de He e i (ol) s, a We bi-da be biz mi,mek (Samoede, mende) You ta sue siz dek tek (Samoede, tende) They ede dshe (on-lar) -k, sek, vok (Sa moede, tin) § 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 31 F. On the other hand, there exist certain words similarly pronounced (homonyms) which have, nevertheless, in the two groups of languages fundamentally different significations, and are thus of different origin. For example, el in Finnic means to live, and in Hungarian 41 has the same meaning; on the other hand, in Mongolian el means peace, in Hungarian el-eg, satisfying, sufficient, in Mandshu. elche, nelche, means peace. In Finnic and Hungarian fej means head, Turkish basch is head ; in Mandshu. feje is wound, and in Turkish basch is wound. G. In the words for heaven, as well as in the homonymous words el, we see that in the Ugrian languages two different synonymous or homonymous words lie alongside of one another, but the latter are distinguished in pronunciation (41 and el). The case is similar in regard to the Turkish. Originally Ugro-Finnic roots, which as such are also present in Turkish, which, however, already in primitive times had been borrowed from the Mongols, came, in the Middle Ages, in consequence of that linguistic change which they had suffered from the Mongols, to be regarded by the Turks as foreign words. For example, Finnic jauko, Turkish jygh, to accumulate, was in use among the Mongols as tschuk, much, Mandshu. tschoocha, crowd, and this passed over again into Turkish in the form of tschok, much. Similarly, the Turkish jak, to kindle, jahty, bright, Lapp tsake, to burn, Hungarian ek, to burn (eg, heaven), Mandshu. jacha, glowing coal. Among the Mongols the root took the form tschok,1 tschakil, to lighten, tschaki, to strike fire, and then tschok, to strike fire, was borrowed again by the Turks as a foreign word. Unless this note is to be allowed to swell up into a volume, I must select just a few from the hundreds of examples that might be given ; but what have been adduced may suffice to illustrate the correctness of the view set forth in the section to which these observations are appended. The Mongolian and Ugro-Finnic groups of languages are like two streams which two thousand years ago overflowed one another's banks and got their waters mixed. That, notwithstanding, they should still show evident traces of their original linguistic diversity, is more than could be expected. Under division D, I might, had space been allowed me, besides the thirteen examples given, have adduced eighty-eight other similar instances ; and under 1 Similarly, among the Lapps we find that an initial.;' is quite readily transformed into ts or tsch; for example, tschdke, to accumulate, from jauk; tschuok, light, iromjak; but it is remarkable that it is not from the Lapps, but from the Mongols, that the Turks have received those modified constructions. 32 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264. division A, I might easily have given a dozen more. In many cases under division E, the changes in pronunciation show that the one root was originally Ugrian and the other originally Mongolian. Thus, for the word " to go," we have the Mongolian voot jabu (Mandshu. jabu,jo, Hungarian jo, to come, Turkish jol, a way) ; but alongside of it an Ugrian root, Turkish jurih, Mongol, dshurtschi, Mandshu. dshura, where the transformation of the j into the squeezing sound indicates the course along which it has travelled (comp. Schott, p. 380). In a similar way the Lapp jurte, to think, Turkish jiirek, spirit, Mongol. dshurik, spirit, will, dshuri, are determined. Also, Turkish joba, to be in travail, Mongol, dshoba, pain. Also, Lapp kawa, to bend, Finnic kawala, crooked, koje, bending, Mongol, chadsha, crooked, etc. In like manner the investigation of the changes in pronunciation in division A teaches us to recognise a primitive relationship. In the Ugro-Finnic languages, w some times passes over into k (Schott, p. 382). Thus in Finnic we have for turn (German wenden), wadnd, and also the form kadnt ; and in Mongol, we have chantu, which is allied to the Gothic vandjan, Old High German wendjan. There is also an evident connection between wulu, bulu, hair, in the Malayan languages, and the Gothic vulla, the Old High German wolla (wool), Lapp kwol-ga, Mongol, and Turkish Ml, hair of animals. In regard to division C, it should be observed that many stems originally Ugrian have become modified in signification among the Mongols, by means of which they clearly enough give evidence of their non-Mongolian derivation. In the Finnic and Magyar languages, koyda, kot, is to bind, koyte is a cord, perhaps originally connected with Latin catena. The Mongols evidently adopt the noun as it stands, and make therefrom the verb kiite, to lead an animal with a cord. Amon^ the mixed race of the Mandshurians both words are brought together again; chuaita, to bind, and kutele. The Finns say neitid, moist (German nass, Old High German nazi), Magyar nete, moist, Lapp njuos-ka, moist, fresh, Turkish jasch, fresh, hence tascha, to live ; in this derivative sense the word passed over to the Mongols as nasu, age, or stage of life. On the other hand, the word nara, the sun, is wanting in the Ugro-Finnic languages, and so is originally Mongolian, and it has passed over into Turkish and Hungarian in the derivative sense of summer, Magyar nyar, Turkish jar. In reply to those who do not concern themselves with details about the so-called Altaic languages, I observe, in conclusion, that in the above investiga tion I have not taken into account any etymological connections between words of the Altaic languages which have not been already proved as such by Schott in the work to which refer ence has been made. § 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 33 § 265. Buddhism among the Mongolian Tribes. Before entering upon our investigation into the primitive religions of the Mongolian races, it is indispensably necessary that we should endeavour to acquaint ourselves with the form in which Buddhism was first received among these people. In § 206 we followed its fortunes in the land of its birth. The panacea for mankind had been found, and was practically applied to the life, pantheism was carried out to its ultimate consequence, the wish of D. Fr. Strauss was already realized twenty-three centuries before his day : miracle was divorced from religion, and priesthood from the religious community ; without any priestly interference, any one might surrender himself to the confession that he is a moment in the self- developing process of the unconscious absolute, and will infallibly lose himself in the universal negation. This doctrine spread with gigantic strides ; with truly fanatical zeal it was preached to the peoples of Asia by hundreds, yes, by thousands of missionaries. Upper India received it with open arms ; and in the last century before Christ it had won possession of the countries west of Tibet, Cashgar, Khotan, and Yarkand. About A.D. 500 the whole of Higher Asia lying south of Gobi was already under the sway of Buddhism, and a hundred years later, the Emperor Srongdsan Gambo of Tibet, when he had given political unity to the kingdom, completed his work by the introduction of Buddhism. When, in the beginning of the 1 0th century, owing to a reaction on the part of the adherents of the old national religion, the Tibetan dynasty was over thrown, and a dreadful persecution of Buddhists set in, this only gave occasion for its further spread. Those who were driven forth began to proclaim their doctrines in the north, as far as Japan, where at least a great portion of the in habitants adopted the new faith. Buddhism had been intro duced into China in B.C. 65 ; and in a.d. 648,Hiouen-Thsang made the distribution of Buddhist literature throughout the empire his special life-task. In a.d. 1200, the Lama Oshu EBRARD III. C 34 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 265. Adhisha again restored Buddhism in Tibet, and in the 13 th century this religion was carried thence among the Mongols, in the strict sense of the word ; and after Genghis Khan had adopted it in a.d. 1247, it soon became (about a.d. 1260) the national religion. It may now be asked : How far has pantheism preserved its much lauded excellences in this religion ? History makes answer thus : It has appeared in the form of absolute im potence in religious, intellectual, and moral relations. A David Fr. Strauss .of the 5th century was immediately followed by a crowd of Vischers, who were convinced that halting half way was not at all such a bad thing, but that rather it was absolutely necessary for the people,1 and that we must leave to the masses their faith in the gods. Connivance with polytheism was the universal characteristic of Buddhism. A more thoroughgoing contrast is nowhere to be found in history than that which exists between this Buddhism and the gospel, as in the first centuries after Christ, and now again in modern missionary enterprise.2 Like a pungent salt, the gospel purged out all the filth of polytheistic superstition, and in the power of the living God overcame heathenism and overthrew it ; whereas the pantheism of Buddhism was never able to conquer heathenism, but, like a wet wrapper, clung round every form of polytheism, and thus became itself often thoroughly polytheistic, adapting itself even to the crudest forms of pagan belief. Thus in India, its own proper home, it accommodated itself in order to win the people, so as to admit into its system the worship 1 Vischer, kritische Gange, Heft 6, " Alter und neuer Glaube." 2 On the other hand, the degraded, paganized Christianity of the Eomish Church has, besides other striking resemblances to Buddhism, shown this tendency to connive with heathen superstition and poly theism. The whole system of saint- worship in the Church of Eome has its origin essentially in such a connivance (compare the letter of Gregory the Great to the British Missionary Augustine in Bede, i. 30, and my own Kirchen^ und Dogmengeschichte, i. p. 438). One is also reminded of the Jesuit missions to China and Malabar (see the same work, iii. p. 678 f.) where the Jesuit Nobili expressed himself in favour of 'the idea of a bodily return of the god Brahma. § 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 35 of Indra along with a multitude of Indian gods and demi-gods and legendary heroes. This strange amalgam was then introduced by Buddhism into Higher India and Tibet. In China, Ceylon, and among the Mongols, a similar connivance with local beliefs was exercised ; and thus Buddhism has as many forms as there are countries into which it has been introduced. In China it was reduced to a dry rationalistic philosophical system, that it might be conformed as far as possible to the system of Confucius. In the empire of Mongolia nothing was left that was characteristic of Buddhism, but an external ceremonial, wherein in a masked form the old Mongolian religion was reproduced.1 We are now in a position to advance to a study of its inner and essential development. Just as with David Fr. Strauss the craving for some sort of worship, after the divine object of worship had been removed, sought out earthly objects, and had recourse to a worship of genius, so also it happened in the case of the Buddhists. Sakya-Muni was himself the genius who pre-eminently received their adoration ; in him the impersonal absolute had reached the highest stage of his self-developing process. So far back, then, as the period between 400 and 100 B.C., the name of Sakya-Muni had become the subject and centre of a cycle of myths, wherein he was straightway elevated to the rank of a divine being. He is to descend upon India from Damba-Togar, the abode of the gods, in the form of an elephant, and to enter into the womb of Queen Maha Madsha ; so soon as born, he is to pass through the whole world in seven steps, he is to enter into marriage, but during his thirty years' life he is to pass his time in penitential exercises ; the King of the Apes (very suitably) declares his reverence for him, a raging elephant is pacified by him, fair maidens, who are brought to him inflamed with the passion of 1 " The influence of the Chinese on the Mongols is everywhere the same. It may be described as in the first instance a demoralizing, and then a civilising influence." Thus writes, though with immediate reference to the present, Prejevalsky in his Travels in Mongolia, p. 202, who otherwise ranks Buddhism and Confucianism high above Christianity. 36 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 265. love, are persuaded by him to enter on the life of nuns. While the Brahmans of India during those last centuries before Christ contrived their philosophical notion of the Trimurti, according to which Brahma as the absolute manifests himself in Vishnu, the creator of matter or the water-god, and in Siva, the destroyer of matter or the fire-god, Buddhism brought forth its doctrine of a Trimurti in quite another form ; the deified Sakya-Muni, under the name of Buddha or Gautama, called in China and among the Mongols Fo, his doctrine designated Dharma or the law, and the Buddhist priesthood, Sangha, form all that now remains as an object of worship. This, however, was the esoteric doctrine ; alongside of this- there was still allowed, as we have said, to the masses the entire accumulation of their polytheistic belief. As might be expected, there is no lack of theoretical attempts to bring these two into harmony. It is this that brings to view the impotence of Buddhism from an intellectual point of view. The question as to how the world had its origin was solved in a way which strikingly reminds us of the atomistic material ism of our own times. The world had its origin from the aggregation of elements. First a great wind blew ; by this means the atmospheric particles were gathered together; in the midst of these a cloud arose, and out of its rain the sea was produced, and upon the surface of the sea the dry land appeared like cream on milk. The several atoms are here evidently assumed to be the primitive existences, for they do not need first to be originated, but only to be gathered together. In the beginning all was light, but then arose a thought, and this produced the false light, darkness. The subjectively self-conscious is thus regarded as evil and destructive. According to other schools, for Buddhism was split up into many sects and parties, over matter there existed a world of spirits, who by degrading themselves by contact with matter fell, and thus were made to assume the form of personal existence. Personality or self-consciousness is thus evidently regarded as a function of matter ! Upon earth, § 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 37 besides men and animals there are good spirits and Asurs, half-evil spirits, and under the earth there are wholly evil spirits. Indra is enthroned on Mount Sumeru in his own special heaven, called by the Mongols Churmusta.1 Four heavens lying below this mountain, and four wrapped in the clouds above the heaven of Indra, in each of which resides a spirit-prince, form with it the nine heavens of delights. The spirits inhabiting these marry and are given in marriage. Above these are three heavens, in which there is the ordeal of fire ; in the three succeeding these there are still storms and perturbations of mind ; in the next three there are still separate sensations and thoughts. Finally, there come six heavens, in which all feeling and sensation is utterly dead, and the essential nature of all as they are in themselves is shown. Above these eighteen " coloured " heavens there are thus, finally, those six " colourless " heavens, in which all knowledge and consciousness cease, and utter annihilation or Nirvana (§ 205) is reached. At last the whole world together with all the heavens will be destroyed and pass into nothingness. Every man has to make his way through these heavens to this goal ; to be is pain, not to be is the one true happiness, — the Schopenhauer-Hartmann practical conclusion of Hegelianism, for there is nothing new under the sun. It was a true practical instinct that led the Buddhists to assign this process of gradual self-extinction, not to the earthly life, but to that which is beyond. In this way there was preserved for the earthly life a bright page of existence free from care. Buddhism has given forth some moral precepts, since during the present life such cannot altogether be dis pensed with. These indeed are few in number. The pro hibition against killing man is extended into a prohibition against killing any living thing. The Buddhist finds vermin on his body ; he wraps it up carefully in cotton, or pushes it 1 The nine legendary tales of Siddi-Khur have been issued in Mongolian with a German translation by Bernhard Jiilg, published at Innsbruck 1868. See p. 181. 38 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 265. off unnoticed upon his companion. In Higher and Further India there are to be found as Buddhist institutions great hospitals for the treatment of sick animals ; but miserable sick men are left untended. The institution of caste continues in all its severity. There is no command of mercy ; the pro hibition against killing any living creature is regarded as sufficient. Further, stealing, lying, and drunkenness are forbidden ; also men are warned against becoming the slaves of lust. This last injunction, just precisely as in the Romish Church, is intended in the sense of giving a special honour to the life of celibacy. Marriage and property are denied to the priesthood, also sharing in dances and music, and dyeing of the hair and skin ; set hours for eating, too, are prescribed for them. It is meritorious for a layman to give a present to the priests. But where do the priests come from ? Had not Sakya-Muni divorced priesthood from religion ? Even at this point pantheism has shown its impotency. Buddhism here appears inconsistent with its own principles. Deliverance from all priestly interference had been promised, and instead of this a guardian-like position is assigned to the priesthood, which has the closest resemblance to that of the Romish Church, and is even brought to a point in a way similar to that of the Papacy. At the outset there was the hope of speedily reaching Nirvana, which induced hundreds and thousands to abandon marriage and property and to live as beggars. These holy penitents soon came to be regarded as priests of Buddha, called in other regions Jainas, and in Tibet and among the Mongols, Lamas. They gathered together in cloisters under abbots called Gurus ; they preached with zeal the Buddhist doctrine. The burying of the dead, the educa tion of the youth, were by and by assigned to them. Rapidly these communities developed into an elaborately arranged hierarchy, consisting mostly of three orders, but among the Mongols of four. This soon led to the opinion that the priest has to perform the duties of religion for the laymen, and thus religion was reduced to a mere mechanical thing. This shows § 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 39 itself most conspicuously in the way in which the meritorious duty of prayer is discharged. The form of prayer is written on a slip of paper, this is fixed on a round, stick and is turned about for a long while. And since even this takes up too much time and is inconvenient, the little stick is often set as the axle of a small water-wheel and then put in a brook, and thus the water performs the devotional duties of the worshipper. Among Chinese Buddhists, offerings consist of strips of gold-paper, which are burnt. In Tibet for the last four hundred years, as is well known, the priesthood has had its head in the Dalai-Lama at H'lassa, who is looked upon as the representative of Buddha on the earth, and as the incarnation of a spiritual prince, Bodhisattwa. This Buddhist papacy is of Mongolian origin. In A.D. 1260, the Khan Batu, uncle of Genghis Khan, set up, after the pattern of the strict monarchical system that prevailed in the political constitution of the empire, a supreme Lama (Khubil- ghan) over the Lamas of his domiriion. And just as in India, with its polytheism, the images of the gods were put under Buddhist protection, and were introduced into Buddhist worship, so in the Mongolian empire, made up of a mixture of Mongolian and Tartar tribes, the whole system of magic and necromancy was readily incorporated. And if Buddhism boasts that it has rendered nations gentler, and has vanquished in them the thirst for blood, there is in the history of the Mongols nothing to warrant such a claim. They were, after the year 1247, the same savage and bloodthirsty robbers and murderers as before (see § 266). In this kingdom, during the 15th century, the Lama priesthood split up into two parties, — the red-caps, who allowed the lower orders of their priests to marry, and the yellow-caps, and between these there was a bitter and bloody strife. The yellows renounced the authority of the Mongolian Khubilghan, and put themselves under the Dalai-Lama of Tibet. These two are set over against one another to the present time as opposing sects. The Chinese Buddhists belong to the yellow faction. The Buddhism of 40 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 265. to-day has assumed in every respect the quality of a worship of the idols of the land.1 Among the Barmans polygamy and polyandry is allowed by law, and they have reduced lying to a system as thoroughly as the Brahmans of Further India.2 In Japan, not merely with the connivance of the Buddhist priests, but organized and zealously and actively conducted by them as a lucrative business, prostitution is pursued under State regulation ; 3 and, indeed, under the influence of Buddhism it has been developed into a regular phallic worship in the temples.4 This is the noble result of pan theism as a world-purifying power in Buddhism. 1 On Buddhism in Higher India, compare Basler Miss. Mag. 1837, H. 2. On Ceylon, 1839, H. 4. Of the Cingalese, Ed. Hildebrandt (Reise urn die Erde, 4th ed. Berlin 1873, i. 58) writes : "I have often given attention in order to see if I could discover in the countenance of suppliants any trace of inner spiritual feeling. In vain ; there was to be observed in them just as little discontent or dissatisfaction with the Sansaras, this present world, as hope of the eternal peace of Nirvana. It was only my worldly rupees that always kept the pious Cingalese in the best spirits." 2 Heifer's Reisen in Vorderasien und Indien, ii. 86 and 95. 3 Ed. Hildebrandt, Reise urn die Erde, ii. 85 ff. In Yeddo there were, in 1869, no less than 3289 public prostitutes (von Kudriaffsky, Japan, p. 108). That the Japanese for the most part marry their wives from among the prostitutes is doubted, in so far as men of good position are concerned, by Al. von Hiibner (Spazierg. um die Welt, i. 342), but is affirmed by E. von Hildebrandt with regard to those of the lower orders, who also are devotees of Buddhism. Wernich doubts even this, but admits that in youths of eighteen years a quite unreasonable lust is awakened which is satisfied in brothels, so that young men of from eighteen to twenty-five years appear half -grizzled elderly men ; further, that it is a duty to protect sailors of ships trading with Japan because of the State-sanctioned vice through the establishment of brothels, and that, according to official reports, on twenty-five ships with 2740 men, thirty-five were daily incapacitated from work on account of syphilitic diseases ; further, that in the higher ranks marriages are concluded only for five years, in the lower ranks for even a shorter time. On the other hand, what will it signify though adultery by the woman is threatened by law with death, and though an old law, that has long passed into desuetude, that youths should marry in their sixteenth year? Compare also Kreitner, zurfernen Osten, pp. 235-276. 4 Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, ii. 101. § 266.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 41 § 266. The Ancient Religion of the Mongols. .Those who use the name Mongols as interchangeable with that of Tartar are wont to appeal to the fact that Genghis Khan doomed to death those found guilty of witchcraft and soothsaying, and enacted by law that all his subjects should believe in the creator of heaven and earth,1 as a proof that the same Shamanism must have prevailed among the Mongols as did among the Ugro-Tartar tribes. It is, however, quite evident that Genghis Khan, who never advanced any preten sion to be regarded as a founder of a religion, did not intend by that law to take away from his Mongolian subjects their earlier religion and substitute another in its place, but rather simply to introduce the religion of his own superior race into the conquered domains of the Kirghiz, Nigurs, Merkites of the Altaian group, Turks, etc., and thus to extirpate the Shamanism that was offensive to the Mongols. It might therefore be assumed beforehand that the Mongols had believed in the creator of heaven and earth, and that they were not addicted to Shamanism. Both of these positions can be sup ported by direct evidence. The Franciscan Johannes Plankar- pinus, who was sent in a.d. 1246 by Innocent IV. to the Grand Khan of the Mongols, relates,2 that they believed in a creator of all things, whom they called Nagatai, naga corre sponding to ngangnjd in Tungusic and inikch in Aleutian, meaning heaven, and tai corresponding to the Chinese lab, god (comp. diva, Gothic tius). To this god, however, they did not render any special worship. Alongside of him they had guardian deities of their tents and herds;3 a wooden image of such deities stood in every tent covered with silk cloth, placed also on a special decorated car. If an ox was slain, its heart was placed before the image as an offering, and was left lying there till the following day. Of the mare's milk, which 1 Ssanang Sseten, p. 393. Timoffsky's Reise, iii. 182. 2 See de Guignes, allg. Geschichte der Hunnen und Twken, iii. p. 7. 3 Oeggo-d, spirits, from the root ang, ong ; see § 264, Obs. 2. 42 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 266. they drink, and the flesh, which they eat, they first take a portion and besmear therewith the mouth of the idol. They worship these images kneeling.1 In front of the Khan's tent stands a costly decorated image. Plankarpinus tells also of a god Fo, who was from a southern land. This is Buddha, whose religion (§265) had even then begun to spread among the Mongols. Traces of Buddhism appear in the prohibition against killing young birds ; the Buddhist missionaries, how ever, were not able to extend the prohibition to the slaying of all animals in dealing with a nomadic race which lived by the rearing of cattle. Other customs and laws, which Plankar pinus speaks about, appear, on the other hand, to be purely Mongolian ; for example, the prohibition against leaning on a whip, spitting out chewed flesh, spilling milk, easing nature within a dwelling, putting an iron vessel upon the fire, beating a horse with the bridle, or sending it without a halter into a meadow. All these were forbidden on pain of death ; if any of these faults had been unintentionally committed, it might be atoned for by a fine and a ceremony of purification by fire, All these precepts bear the character rather of a reasonably severe police arrangement than that of a religious system. Those guardian deities, however, seem to us of special interest, inasmuch as they were evidently family gods, being placed not in common public sanctuary, but in every tent ; and this will be confirmed by reports obtained from other quarters. After the death of Genghis Khan a monument was placed over his tomb, and round about it eight sanctuaries were built, where his followers should be obliged to render him worship ; 2 this reverence being claimed by him, not as prince of the nation, 1 D'Hossom gives Tangri as the name of the creator of the world, and ongon as that of the images of the guardian deities. As he mentions no authorities, and manifestly confounds what is Tartarian and what is Mongolian, his assertions are of no great weight. The name tangri may either be the Tartarian appellative for heaven, tengri (see § 264 under 6), or may be the result of a confusion with the tegris or ancestral spirits of the Mongols. 2 Ssanang Sseten, pp. 109 and 389. § 266.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 43 but as the ancestor of their race. Now this could not have been done unless the worship of ancestry prevailed among the Mongols ; and that such a custom was actually prevalent, and that ancestors of both sexes were appealed to for protection and assistance, the document referred to explicitly declares.1 When the Mongolian empire came to an end in A.D. 1368, and Buddhism was with it overthrown, the old national religion was revived, until Dajan again restored Buddhism in a.d. 1578. During this period, as in former times, an offering (choilga) was brought to the spirit of the departed (tegri), consisting of horses and camels, which were slain and buried with the deceased ; but sometimes also men, and especially children, were sacrificed. It seems now quite evident that those images in the several tents were nothing else than images of the tegris, the ancestors of the race, whose spirits were appealed to and worshipped as guardian spirits of the family. In this respect the Mongolian people stand contrasted with the Ugro-Tartar races generally ; for while the Ugro- Tartar feared the spirits of the departed as vengeful ghosts, so that he would not venture even once to mention their names (§ 263), the Mongol regarded them as friendly guardian deities, set up their images in his tent, worshipped them, and invoked their help. We shall find this prevalence of a pious feeling in regard to their ancestors to be thoroughly characteristic also of other nations- belonging to the Mongolian family. Belief in a creator of the world does not as such form any distinction between the Mongolian and the Ugro-Tartar groups, for we have already shown in § 263 that even among the Ugro-Tartars there are evident traces of a primitive acquaint ance with the idea of a creator. And yet even in respect of this point there is a thoroughgoing difference in the form in which this belief was adopted. We find among the Ugro- Tartars, and even among the Finns, a perceptible tendency to think of that creator after a purely anthropomorphic fashion ; — among the Finns he is called " the old father ; " among the 1 Ssanang Sseten, pp. 109, 235, 249, 416. 44 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 266. Votiaks and their neighbours he is spoken of as dwelling under human conditions in the sun ; by the Teleutians he is described as in the uniform of the dragoons. The Mongols, on the other hand, have persistently conceived of their Nagatai as a pure spirit, an incorporeal being, without material form, raised beyond the reach of the senses, and dwelling far away in an abstract distance. The same is also true in regard to the Chinese. A second point, in regard to which the Mongols would seem at first sight to be at one with the Ugro-Tartars, but occupy in fact quite a different position, has been referred to in § 262 f. There the sun and the moon were raised as near as possible to the creator, and the creator brought down as near as possible to the sun, either as dwelling in it or as wholly identical with it. Among the Mongolian races, one might say, the creator stands rather in the wide expanse of heaven, dwelling in an abstract distance above all that is visible ; whereas the sun and moon are thought of as approach ing near to man, like the ancestors of the ruling family, in whom the nation itself is represented as an ideal unity, and toward whom it regards itself as standing in a pious relation of children to their parents. It is not only in China that the Emperor bears the title Son of Heaven, Thiantse, but also the Mongols, according to Plankarpinus, worshipped the moon, and, indeed, the full moon, as the great queen j1 and the sun, as the direct ancestor of the royal house. They possessed in regard to this a very definite tradition.2 One of the ancient Khans, Yulduz, had two sons, who died before him ; the one left a son, Dedshunbajan, the other a daughter, Alankava. Those two were married to one another ; the husband soon died, after Alankava had borne him two sons, Baktut and Balaktut, named by Marco Polo, who draws upon other sources, 1 De Guignes, Geschichte der Hunnen und Turken„iii. 8. 2 Abuabdallah Marrakeschi (im abmamalik), Mehemed bin Cavendshah (called Miraconda), and Marco Polo, see in Petis, p. 11 ; D'Hossom, p. 21 ; De Guignes, p. 11 f. § 266.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 45 Balgadai and Begdsadai. There appeared to the widow in her chamber, while she lay once upon her bed, a clear shining ray of light which three times encircled her breast ; according to another account, it took the form of a beautiful orange-coloured man : she became pregnant, was led before the judges, related the phenomenon, and told that she had conceived three sons ; if she should not bring forth three sons, she should then be treated as an adulteress. She actually did bring forth three boys, who were called nuranium, sons of light : Bokum katagun, Boskin saldgi, and Buzend shir. The last of these was the ancestor of Genghis Khan. This tracing of their descent from the sun affords a very striking contrast to the tracing of their descent by the Ugro- Tartars from the wolf. It is nevertheless clear that the sun legends of the Mongols, which we shall find recurring in the traditions of the most varied nations of the Mongolian family, has a purely polytheistic origin, just as the Phcenicio-Greek legends related in § 250, Obs. 2, have their root in Phoenician polytheism. If it had been the despotic patriarchal constitu tion of the Mongolian people, together with their worship of ancestry, that had led to the apotheosizing and tracing back to the sun-god the descent of the ruling class in each of those nationalities, then of necessity myths to this effect must have been constructed. That the sun was regarded as a god, though subordinate to the supreme god, is the one presup position required for the production of such legends. Finally, there are still some customs of the Mongols reported by Marco Polo that may be mentioned. Ambassadors from foreign nations were made to pass between two fires, to be purified, before there could be any intercourse with them ; also whoever was found in a tent that had been struck by lightning, or in which a dead body had lain. Whoever had been present at the death of a man, was unclean until the next new moon. The dead was buried with his tent ; before him was placed a table with flesh and mare's milk, and along with him a horse saddled and bridled and a mare with her foal were buried : for 46 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 267. the life to come was regarded as a continuation of the life that now is. Polygamy was allowed ; adultery and impure relations of unmarried persons were punished on discovery without more ado with death. Among themselves the Mongols had never any strife ; they never lied to and stole from one another ; they practised free hospitality and benevolence. In regard to strangers, they were allowed to indulge in all manner of decep tion, and were bound by no contracts. The Khan exercised unlimited jurisdiction; there was no private property apart from him ; the people willingly and heartily submitted to his authority. § 2C7. The Ancient Religions of Tibet, Higher India, and Ceylon. In Tibet, remnants of the primitive religions continued down to A.D. 900 ; although very little more is known about them, but that the priests were called bonbos, and formed a regularly graded community, at the head of which were two chief priests, a bonbo of heaven and a bonbo of earth.1 This leads to the supposition that here also there was that separation between the purely spiritual and invisible creator of the world, enthroned in heaven, and a multitude of guardian spirits which had rule over the earth. Then in Tibet, as in China, a worship of spirits was prevalent in early times. The spirits in China, how ever, will be shown in § 268 to be no Shamanistic hobgoblins and ghosts, but friendly guardian spirits of their ancestors, as among the Mongols. The same thing is illustrated by a further circumstance. The population of the island of Ceylon 2 seems to be wholly or partially of Mongol blood. In the inland parts of the island there are independent tribes which have remained uninfluenced by Buddhism. The references in the songs of these tribes to Maha-Bambo as the name of a great 1 See Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 262. 2 Compare on what follows, Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 274 ff. § 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 47 guardian spirit,1 prove unmistakeably their connection, in respect of race and of religion, with nations of the Mongolian family ; and the existence of a regular intercourse between Ceylon and Higher India in early times is also in other ways quite demonstrable. In the religion professed by those tribes in the present day, though doubtless now found in a very corrupt form, of which we have detailed accounts given us by Knox2 and by Davy,3 we have an extremely satisfactory source of information regarding the early religion of those nations. Those peoples believe in one supreme god, the invisible creator of heaven and earth, whom they call Ossa polla maupt Dio. Further, they worship the sun Irrihaumi, and the moon Handahaumi,4 as a divine pair ; also four great guardian spirits of the earth, enthroned on the mountain peaks, pattinie ; a multitude of spirits of the woods and the hills ; but, above all, the spirits of the departed, dajautas. Each family erects a temple (kowilla, meaning perhaps place of invocation ; comp. Mandshu. chula, Tungusic goli, to call, to invoke, Mongol, choola, voice, throat) to its own dajauta, where- the father of the family officiates as priest. These temples are adorned with swords, battle-axes, arrows, and shields, and the walls are painted with human figures in war like attitudes. Here, too, we have the specific religious patriotism of the Mongols, which seeks the aid of their ancestors in their struggle against foreign tribes and nations. In connection with every act of worship of the spirits there was a magical performance carried out by those Cingalese, which, however, had not the least resemblance to Shamanism. The priestly head of the family laid on his shoulder one of the 1 In Tibet the word which designated god was applied to the priests, who were called god's servants, god's men, the godly. 2 Knox, Historical Account of the Island of Ceylon. 3 Davy, Account of the Interior of Ceylon. 4 Great and small Son ! Iri is in Turkish great, compact, firm ; kenne in all Mongolian and Ugrian languages is small ; Mongol, chomsa, Mandshu. komso, small. Haumi may be Mongol, koioe, Tungus. kunga, Chinese hdi, — son. 48 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 267. sacred weapons hung up in the temple, and is thereby carried away into an ecstasy in which he utters prophecies. The origin of sicknesses is attributed to an angry guardian spirit ; in order to discover who among them it is, recourse is had to an oracle, — iron shears are hung to the strings of a bow, the names of all the guardian spirits are called out in succession, and that one at whose name the shears fall with a vibrating motion is understood to be the angry spirit, and atonement is made to him with offerings and wild dances and masquerades. The dancers are called dshaddese or jakka dura. It is evident that at the basis of this religious practice there lies an idea completely different from that of Shamanism. A hobgoblin to whose nature it belongs to do mischief, and a good guardian spirit, who, because he has been wronged, temporarily chas tises his charge, are two very different things. Neither should we identify a magician by profession and a family chieftain as hereditary priest. In Cingalese legends and songs the word bambo often means a dragon or snake, and so it seems that the guardian spirits were conceived of as having the shape of a dragon or serpent, and in earlier times were probably represented as such in figures. The legends of the Aryan Indians tell of the spread of a worship of Nat and Naga,1 spirits and serpents, which in the earliest times had made its way through all the southern parts of Further India;2 and this would lead to the supposition that the Aryan population had been preceded by a Mongolian. These Cingalese have also a system of star observation, which, however, is of Chaldsean origin, and has clearly come to them from the Aryan Indians, and at a later period from the Arabians.3 Among those dwelling on the *It should be noticed here that naga is a Sanscrit appellative for serpent, and not at all a Mongolian proper name of the sun-god. The name Nagatai has nothing to do with it. 2 The serpent king of the Indian legends, Karak6taka, springs un doubtedly from a Mongolian origin, though not in name, yet certainly in regard to character. 3 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 282 f. § 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 49 coasts of Ceylon the modern Aryan - Indian religion and mythology have plainly been mixed up with their own primi tive religion. From a corrupt form of Brahmanism they have adopted the goddess Kali as Omawan ganama, the health- god Kumaras, and a multitude of evil spirits, and all this jumble they have mixed up with their idolatrous Buddhist worship.1 When, again, we turn our attention to Tibet, we are told by the inhabitants of this land that they have a traditioii2 to the effect that their nation sprang, partly from the marriage of an ape with a female hobgoblin, partly directly from the apes who were instructed in agriculture by a great sage, whether he was called Darwin is not said, in consequence of which their tails became gradually shortened, their hair fell off, and they began to speak. This tradition represents a stage of scientific knowledge far too advanced to be regarded as a genuine relic of antiquity. Jesting aside, it bears quite the character of a Buddhist fable ; and that it is not of early Mongolian origin appears from this, that among the Mon golian nations there never appears any trace (§ 263, Obs.) of a belief in a descent from animals ; but that Tartars should be confined to the Brahmaputra is not in the least degree possible. Of the old national religion of the peoples of Upper India only a few vestiges remain. Long before Buddhism made its appearance3 in its polytheistic modifications, these peoples were under the spiritual influence of the Aryans of Further India. It is all the more remarkable that those slight traces exhibit the same characteristics as the old Mongolian religion. The Barmans of the present time, although Buddhists, still celebrate the full moon and the new moon,4 an evident remnant of a primitive moon-worship. In Siam there has 1 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 278 ff. 2 Ibid. p. 261. 3 The image of the god Jamataga, which has been found in Nepaul, with eight heads, thirty-six arms, and eighteen legs, proves the blending there of the worship of Siva and Buddha. See Stuhr, p. 279. 4 Basler Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 219. EBRARD III. D 50 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. I§ 267. been maintained a special adoration of the departed, and belief in their sheltering influence : the dead are burned with peculiarly honourable rites ; but the body of a pregnant woman is buried, and to the fetus in the mother's womb is ascribed a special power for protecting against evil spirits. Whoever succeeds in stealing such an undeveloped child from the grave, cuts off its head, hands, and feet, fits them on to a stump of clay, and sets up this image as a guardian deity in his temple.1 Throughout the whole of Anam and Cochin-China, where in general Buddhism has made its way and prevails in the form of the rudest idolatry, with a predominant fear of the evil spirits of the Buddhist system (§ 265), ordinarily the spirits of the departed are regarded as guardian spirits, and are profoundly and earnestly honoured. Four times in the year are offerings brought them.2 In all this we find an illustration of the old truth, that when we go back to a remote antiquity we find, as the original common possession of all peoples of the various groups of nations, belief in the one invisible creator of heaven and earth, that then there grew up in various forms a polytheistic deifica tion of nature, — among the Mongols connected essentially with ancestor-worship, among the Ugro-Tartars, on the other hand, with animal-worship, — and in consequence thereof soothsaying and witchcraft of various kinds were practised. Among the Mongolian nations that have been hitherto spoken of, there has, finally, to be added to all this deterioration that pestilential and corrupting product of the foreign, Aryan-Indian cultured race, Buddhism. The lowest depth of degradation is occupied by the Khyeng, who inhabit the mountain region between Aracan and Ava in Further India. With them religion has been almost completely reduced to a system of soothsaying. They have a priesthood under a spiritual chief, the passine, 1 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 297. Finlayson, Mission to Siam and Hue, p. 238. 2 Hamilton, East India Gazetteer, p. 296 and p. 835 ; Barrow, Voyage to Cochin-China, p. 232. The same four sorts of offerings are made in China ; see § 268. § 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 51 a clear proof that in earlier times they had a religion. This, however, has now shrunk up into the adoration of a big tree called Subri, to which once a year they offer oxen and swine and the thunder columns, that is, stones which they dig out of the earth on places that have been struck by lightning. At such places a pig and an ox are offered, and the stone that has been dug up, which they regard as having fallen from heaven, is given up to the passine as a charm against sickness. This points to an earlier worship of a thunder-god ; and, in fact, they tell of a god who dwells on a high, inaccessible mountain.1 The passine is consulted in regard to marriages in order to secure good luck for him, and he is the arbiter in disputes. Death is regarded as a joyful circumstance, and is celebrated by festival, at which there is drinking, debauchery, and dancing; the bodies of distinguished persons are burnt, others are buried, , and watchers against evil spirits are placed at the grave. Whoever has lost children and cattle, and gets befittingly drunk over it, has the happy prospect for his soul of its being turned, after death, into an ox or a pig.2 Of the Old Mongolian religion there is here no trace to be seen. The adoration of a sacred tree, the worship of the thunder-god (Indra), with his dwelling on a high mountain, Sumeru (comp. § 265), the use of Brahmanical customs in burning the bodies of the dis tinguished, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and, finally, the joy that is shown over death as marking a step in the journey back to the universal primary being, — all this shows clearly the presence, if not of Aryan-Indian influences, pure or mixed, at least the operation of influences from the Brahmanical Buddhism of Further India. Obs. — The Karens dwelling in the mountains of the Burmese empire are, according to their own traditions, immigrants from the north, from a land where they possessed books ; and in spite of their servile position under the Burmese, which has lasted for centuries, they show traces of having had a higher civilisa tion in their dress and customs (Heifer's Reisen, ii. 104), when 1 Basler Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 215. 2 Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi. p. 261 ff. 52 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268. the Burmese were savages going' almost naked and tattooed. The Mongolian type is much more faintly discernible in them(Helfer). This fact, as well as their religion, leads us to conjecture that in them there is primarily an Iranian, and only secondarily a Mongolian extraction. Their doctrine of the gods is limited to a belief in good and evil spirits (nat), to whom they lay down, in hidden spots in the woods, offerings of rice, fruits, and flowers ; they have no priesthood or any regular form of worship; but their burial ceremonies are evidently the result of a compromise between Iranian and Mongolian customs. The bringing together and laying out the whole possessions of the deceased, and their burying of the dead, was thoroughly Mongolian ; their raising the body after the expiry of a year, and their letting it remain exposed to the air, was thoroughly Iranian (comp. § 216). Also the custom (Heifer, p. 107 f.) of surrendering the body, care fully wrapped up, to the earth for a year, appears to rest origin ally upon an Iranian notion that the body should .not come into any immediate connection with the sacred earth. The sacred books which this people possessed in their primitive state, of which they have a remembrance, and over the loss of which they bitterly lament, undoubtedly must have been those of the Avesta. § 268. China and its Religion. The Chinese are in the highest degree a cultured people. Although I have not treated of them in the first section, but ranked them in this place, this has been done simply on account of their geographical, ethnographical, and historical position. In respect of bodily form they belong to the great Mongolian group of nations, and must be regarded as a branch of the same, though even as such they became isolated from the other members of the group in a very remote antiquity. This isolation, moreover, was not so much an external one, for during a thousand years they were obliged to wage a defensive war against the hostile inroads and predatory attacks, first of the Ugro-Tartars and then of the savage West-Mongolians. Their isolation was rather in respect of spiritual development and in respect of language (see Obs.). It is not necessary that we should here enlarge upon the primitive culture of the Chinese, who are acknowledged to have anticipated the West in the use of the magnetic needle, in the discovery of the art § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 53 of printing, of gunpowder, etc. ; nor is it required of us that we should give in detail a history of the Chinese people and their empire. The ancient historical document of the Chinese, Schu-Klng, which reaches from b.c. 2356 down to B.c. 947, exists no longer in its original form, but only in an abridg ment, which the well-known Khiing-tse, Confucius, made about b.c. 500.1 We shall have to consider farther on what the Chinese tell about the early history of mankind and about the flood ; for the present it need only be said that the Chinese, or as they put it, the hundred families, pS k%a (where a hundred evidently is a round number in the sense of many, for there are 438 such families expressly enumerated), when they reached the land, found already before them certain wild tribes of a Malay race, the Miao-tse, in the mountains of Sze Chuen, Kuei Choo, Che Kiang, Kuang Se, and Kuang Tung, whom they, since they were not able to subdue them, shut out by means of strong fortifications at the outlets of the mountain ravines.2 They continue to exist down to the present day, living in fenced villages of, at the most, 2000 inhabitants, tending their cattle and following agricultural pursuits. They formed the pith of the Tai- ping rebellion of 1850, and the great rival Emperor Tien-te was of this race.3 This people of the hundred families at the beginning possessed only the country between the great desert and Mandshuria on the north, and the Kiang-uria on the south, beyond which there were only the two provinces of King and Yang. From B.c 2205 China has been a hereditary kingdom, with a feudal constitution; from B.C. 1122 till B.C. 256 the Tchow dynasty reigned ; it was overthrown by Tsin, a vassal king, who gained the superiority; his adopted son, Chl-Hoang-Ti, B.C. 246-209, who built the Chinese Wall about B.C. 220, to resist the inroads of the wild Hiong-nu (see § 264), sought to change 1 V. von Strauss, Lao-tse's Tao-te-king, Leipzig 1870, Introd. § 11, p. xxxvii. By the same author, Schi-king, Heidelberg, 1880, Intro duction. 5 De Mailla, xi. p. 588. 3 Callery and Ivan, L 'insurrection en Chine, p. 50. 54 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. L§ 268. the national constitution into an imperial government, and ordered, in B.C. 212, the burning of all the old books, with the exception of medical and economical treatises, and those containing prophecies. Original documents were thus irre coverably lost in the flames. When this dynasty broke up under the hands of his incapable successors, and in B.C. 201 the Han dynasty assumed the reins of government, the Schu- Klng was reproduced from memory, and soon also a hidden and secretly preserved ancient copy was discovered.1 But far more corrupting and injurious than the burning of those books was the course of action entered on by the so-called philosopher and reformer, or rather deformer, Confucius, about B.C. 500, who, almost contemporaneously with Sakya-Muni, endeavoured, only too successfully, to introduce into China a system of purely worldly wisdom. His teaching consists in a barren morality founded upon eudsenionist rules of prudence. The charge against him is not so much that he argued against the ancient god of the Chinese, as that he ignored him, and taught the people to ignore him. In his edition of the Schu- Klng, as well as in that of the Schi-King, a collection of ancient songs, he has carefully struck out every reference to the early Chinese worship of god or of the gods; of 3000 songs, he has only given 315.2 These expurgated editions of the two ancient documents constituted all that was preserved when, three hundred years later, the other literary products were committed to the flames. There is thus no very brilliant expectations excited in regard to the sources of information concerning the history of the early Chinese religion. Never theless even from these we shall be able to sketch its charac teristic features. In turning our attention to this subject, we shall set aside Buddhism, the first traces of which are found in the south of China about a.d. 65, but which was first exten sively spread, between a.d. 202 and 220, by the Buddhist missionary Ho -Chang, and only about a.d. 500, when the 1 V. von Strauss, Lao-tse's Tao-te-king, p. Ixx. ff. 2 Ibid. p. xxxviii. § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 55 first Buddhist patriarch or Lama was appointed for China, began to play an important part ; and we shall also decline to follow the story of the barren morality of Confucius.1 A. The Chinese religion acknowledges only one God, the invisible lord (Ti), or the supreme lord (Schang Ti) and ruler of the world, whom it also designates Thian, heaven, a designation which reminds us of the Mongolian name of God, Naga-tai, heaven's-tai. He is conscious, all-seeing, all-hearing, omnipresent, and incorporeal : he gives life, endues with wisdom, rewards the good, and punishes the evil. He provides for the course of the world, and determines it. Thus, as the unapproachable and supersensible, he exists in absolute separation from his creatures. The gulf, between him and the visible world is filled by the souls of their deceased forefathers, who act as mediators, as with the West Mongols, and by a multitude of nature-spirits. The souls of the departed are with God in heaven. The invisible God is worshipped by offerings which the Emperor presents at the solstices on an altar of earth under the open canopy of heaven. The spirits of ancestors have their temples and halls, where offerings are brought them four times a year by the heads of families. There is no order of priests, and the fact that there is none, and that monarch, princes, and heads of families are required to perform the worship of God and of the ancestors*, is an indication of a primitive condition having prevailed in China similar to that which we meet with in India during the Vedic period. B. The want of a word for God is very striking. Such a word, however, had originally existed. In the oldest portions of the Schu-Klng, B.c. 2255-2206, the supreme being is once called Tao, and the philosopher or theosophist La6-tse, in the 6 th century Bid, speaks of the Ta6 of antiquity. In the consciousness of the Chinese this name Tao was perhaps only an appellative, identical with the appellative tab, in Japanese 1 An account of this system may be found in Stuhr, Religionen des heidn. Orients, p. 10 ff. 56 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268. too, which has the root signification of way, and the derived significations of procedure, order, government of the world. The name of God, Ta6, is also indicated by the same written sign. It nevertheless seems to me a fair question whether we have not rather in Ta6 a primitive proper name, identical with the Naga-tai of the West Mongols, preserved to us from a time when as yet the art of writing was unknown. When the art of writing was discovered by the Chinese, the sign for the apellative tab would be seized upon, and it would be thought that the name of God must be explained from the signification of that appellative term. The written sign for Tao, however, may much more plausibly be regarded as compounded of two signs, one of which, tschM, stands for come or go, and the other, scheu, for head* or origin, which when combined present the idea — " that from which all springs." This notion we find in the remarkable writing of La6-tse, a philosopher almost exactly contemporary with Khiing-tse, Confucius. In his Tab-tg-king, which all the more easily escaped the book burning since Chi-Hoang-Ti, while hostile to Confucianism, was favourable to the Ta6-ss£e, the worshippers of Tao,1 Lao- tse developed in a theosophical manner the doctrine of the Tao antiquity.2 Ta6 existed as an incomparably perfect being before the origin of the heavens and the earth (cap. 2 5), and before Tf (cap. 4). Incorporeal and immense, invisible and inaudible, mysterious and unsearchable, without form or figure (cap. 14), he is the eternal ultimate ground of all things (cap. 1), and the original creator of all being (cap. 4) ; as such he is unnameable, nameable only as revealed by the creation, and in this duplicate form the outlet of everything spiritual and intellectual (cap. 1). Everything springs from him and returns to him again (caps. 16 and 21), and it is his work to reproduce these things again (cap. 40); for though eternal and without any neediness, he is yet never inactive 1 V. von Strauss, Tad-te-kmg, p. lxxiii. 2 Tad-te-king, cap. 28 : "who, born in the present age, goes back to the tab of antiquity." § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 57 (caps. 34 and 37). Never growing old, omnipresent, immut able, and self-determining (cap. 25), he creates, upholds, and perfects all existences, which, therefore, honour him and praise his goodness, because he loves them and allows them free self-determination (caps. 51 and 34). In him is spirit, and his spirit is the most genuine ; yet only those who are purified from lust can see him (caps. 21 and 1). He who determines his conduct according to Ta6 is one with him (cap. 23); Tao is the ground of his moral life (cap. 38). He is the great giver, and perfecter, and peace-bringer (caps. 41 and 46), the refuge of all beings, the protection of the good, the saviour of sinners, and he who forgives their guilt (cap. 6 2).1 It is quite evident now that La6-tse did not meet with the belief in Tao in such a form and at such a stage of development in the common religious conceptions of the people. It is, indeed, in the highest degree probable that he came into contact with fugitives and exiled Israelites of the ten tribes, recognised in their Jehovah the Tao of his own nation,2 and was led by them to the attainment of such a profound knowledge of God. But he could not have re cognised in the ancient Tao of his nation the God of revelation, and he could never have identified the two, unless the Tao of the Chinese ' had clearly been conceived of as the invisible creator of the world. In the Schu-King, too, Confucius has allowed words in two passages to remain (i. 3, § 6 and § 15) which refer to the ancient Tao worship : " Oppose not Tao, so as to secure the praises of the hundred families." " Man's heart is fraught with danger ; Tao's heart is fine, is pure, is one ; wishes you to hold by him." In the time of Lao-tse the Tao worship among the people had no doubt become greatly corrupted. A portion of the people preserved alongside of the belief in Thian-ti the belief 1 V. von Strauss, Tad-U-king, p. xxxv. 2 Cap. 14 : " His name is II Hi Wei." How this suggests an acquaint ance with the religion of Israel is shown in thoroughly convincing way by V. von Strauss (p. 61 ff.) in answer to Stanislas Julien. 58 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268. in the old god Ta6. They were called Ta6-sst5e. But they were distinguished from the rest of the people, so far as practice was concerned, only in their being addicted to sooth saying, magic, astrology, and alchemy.1 La6-tse exercised no influence upon them; he was and continues a lonely, private thinker. His book was in later times commented on by Con- fucianists, but in doing so they read into it their own ideas. He has exercised no influence upon the Chinese people ; hence all the greater became that of Khung-tse (Confucius), for the insipid Ta6 religion could offer no sufficient opposition to his superior enlightenment. The question now arises, how did the god Ta6 stand in relation to the thidn, heaven, and to Schang-ti, the supreme lord, not in Lao-tse's time, but in these primitive ages which La6-tse himself designates antiquity ? The passage in Tab-te- klng seems to me of the utmost importance where Lao-tse says : I know not whose son Ta6 is, that is, he is no one's son ; he reveals himself as the ancestor of the Schang-ti3 In the early Chinese religion, therefore, Schang-ti, or what was the same, Thian-ti, was a son of Ta6. It is told, too, of an Emperor Schun, b.c. 2254-2204, that he offered sacrifices to Thian; in the L\-ki (cap. 23) is found also the old sacrificial formula : " At the presentation of the solstice offering there is great praise rendered to heaven, and- first of all to the sun, and also to the moon: the offering to the sun is made on an altar of earth, and to the moon in a pit." It thus appears that the lord of heaven of Chinese antiquity was no sun- god in the strict sense, that is, not to be identified as a deity with the sun, like the Japanese Ten-sio dai-sin, but still a 1 V. von Strauss, Tab-ti-klng, Introd, p. lxxiiL 2 Ibid. p. lxxvii. 3 By this La6-tse cannot intend merely to say that the name of Ta6 is more ancient than that of Schang-tf. For had this been his intention, he would have been obliged in some sort of way to indicate the identity of Schang-tf with Ta6 ; but he rather affirms that Ta6 is Schang-tf s ancestor, in the same sense in which he denies that Ta6 has any ancestor or has been begotten. § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 59 oeure/jos Oeos, a lord and ruler of the visible heaven and its stars, subordinate to the eternal supreme god and creator of the world, Ta6. The title of the Chinese emperor, Thian-tse\ heaven's son, is literally identical with the Japanese ten-si; but while the latter is given to the Emperor of Japan as a descendant of the sun, there is no trace among the Chinese of their emperor having ever been regarded as descended from the sun ; on the contrary, the offerings which the Emperor of China presents to his ancestors in his ancestral temple, and the offerings at the solstice, are quite distinct things. The title Thian-tse" is therefore to be regarded as an abstract title of honour, or, at furthest, it may be con jectured that in primitive times the emperors of the oldest dynasty had regarded themselves as descendants, not of the sun, but of that son of Ta6, Thian-ti, and that the title, in the most general sense, had been assumed by emperors of succeeding dynasties, in regard to whom there could be no pretension of descent even from those who had preceded them. The Tchow dynasty, however, actually traced their descent back through Heu-tsI to Schang-ti.1 If, then, in early times there was placed alongside of Ta6 a son of Ta6 and Thian-ti in an emanationistic rather than a polytheistic sense, it is quite conceivable that there was here, as well as among the Iranians, a reformatory reaction against this emanationistic development of religion, which showed 1 The Heii-tsi legend (in Schl-Emg, iii. 2. 1) corresponds in its character istic features to the Mongolian Buzend legend (§ 266). A woman, Kiang- Juan, brings an offering to the lord of heaven, praying for the blessing of children ; in perfect solitude she walks in the god's footsteps, and becomes pregnant. That she was impregnated by the god in the mythological fashion is not expressly stated, the redactor evidently putting this idea aside, or at least evading it, and favouring rather the supposition that the god simply granted her the blessing of fruitfulness, so that she became pregnant by her own husband. The old mythological form of the tradition, however, appears clearly enough from out of its artistic drapery. In the first place, it is quite manifest that according to the invariable custom of the Schi-King the name of no earthly husband is given. Thus we observe that the child, the boy Heii-tsi, was born without pain. Then the child was exposed, which is inconceivable if 60 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268. itself in an attempt to identify Thian-ti with Tad, to transfer the attributes of Ta6 to Thian-ti, and to set aside altogether the name of Ta6 as superfluous and calculated to foster false doctrine. When this reaction set in, the product of which was called the religion of Syft, of the learned, in contrast to that of the Tad-ssde, it is not easy exactly to say. It was, at least, so long before the time of La6-tse that the pre-reformation time seemed to him a remote antiquity ; yet it must have been subsequent to the writing of the section of the Schu-King, i. 3. The old emanationistic religion of two gods only maintained its hold of a portion of the people, and that the very lowest of them, and continued to be developed in a superstitious manner in the form of soothsaying and magic. The lonely thinker, La6-tse, first became dissatisfied with the reduction of the Thian-ti religion by his contemporaries to a system of abstract deism, and sought to lead them back to the Ta6 of antiquity, endeavour ing in his name to construct his own profoundly speculative philosophy of religion. Thus would La6-tse have, become the founder of a second reformation, if he only had gained disciples, and had been able to found a school. From chapter 5 of La6-tse's work it appears that in his time the Chinese had a richer sacrificial ceremonial than they have had since the time of Khung-tse (Confucius).1 There he speaks of the hay-dog, a dog made of hay, covered with his birth had been eagerly longed for by the parents, but quite conceiv able if the child, like Buzend, seemed an illegitimate. The exposed child is then wonderfully preserved and brought up by the wild beasts. "We find underlying that version of the myth which, in the Schi-King, cor responds to the abstract deistical Syu-religion, an older and purely mythological version, and this affords evidence of a mythological stage of the Chinese religion. We shall yet meet with (§ 298) among the Aztecs who are descended from a Chinese-Mongolian stock, the Mongolian tradition of Buzend without any concealment of its mythological features • but it is most noticeable that the Aztec proper name of the child Hwitzi is more closely related to the Chinese Heii-tsi than to the Old Mongolian Buzend. 1 In the temple of agriculture in Pekin oxen were even then offered and indeed burned alive. Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde ii. 161. § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 61 rich clothing, which was placed as an offering before the altar to avert bad luck, the influences of evil spirits ; l but, after the offering had been made, its dress was taken off and it was torn up and scattered on the streets. C. This leads to speak of the belief in spirits that prevailed among the ancient Chinese. This belief, in spite of Con fucianism and Buddhism, has lingered among the people down to the present day. We do not here speak of the Shamanism that had its origin among the Ugro-Tartars (§ 263), which already at an earlier period, but especially from a.d. 1644, when the Mandshurian dynasty of Thsing came to the throne, may have been introduced from the north among some of the border tribes, but of the specifically Mongolian belief in spirits, which, as already the magical superstition of the Tao-ssde shows, was an integral constituent of the Old Chinese national religion, and even now is generally current throughout China. This belief in spirits stands in the closest connection with the specifically Mongolian practice of ancestor-worship. How deeply rooted this was in the national life in early times is shown by the fact that in every city a sort of temple, Khung- tse-kia, is dedicated to the spirit of Khung-tse, in which he is invoked as a guardian spirit, and is entreated to look down on them with favour.2 In the capital, too, there is a temple which is called " the hall of the ancestors," where the spirits of the departed members of the royal family are worshipped. The regular festival of this worship is called tsin jun men, gate of the pure clouds ; the emperor betakes himself to a table laden with flowers and frankincense ; the wall behind the table bears a tablet with the names of the ancestors, and a son or grandson of the emperor appears as Schi, the dead boy, dressed in the cloak of the most distinguished of the ancestors, 1 This reminds of the dog Nasu, driven away by the Iranians, § 216. 2 Barrow, Travels in China, chap. 4. The reverence for parents, grand parents, and old persons, everywhere prominent in the national life of the Chinese, carried so far that in order to flatter a young man it is customary to say, Thou art already very old, stands in close connection with this worship of ancestors. 62 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268. takes his place on the seat of honour, and in his stead receives food, and drink, and homage, and dispenses good fortune and blessing. While sixteen dancers perform in a solemn circle, the emperor bows before the Schi and the tablet of names, and two series of musicians sing with musical accompaniment a hymn in three strophes, the oldest hymn extant, which, according to Chinese accounts, dates as far back as B.C. 1122. During the performance of the first strophe it is thought that the gods approach, during the singing of the second they linger about, and during the rendering of the third they again withdraw. Libations and prostrations fill up the pauses between the strophes.1 Similar ceremonies are observed by the people. At the burial of a Chinaman the relatives offer rice-wine to the spirit of the deceased, pouring it out at the grave, and also gold paper, which they burn.2 Besides the spirits of ancestors, guardian spirits of^ the soil and agriculture, of mountains and streams, are also honoured with offerings ; but this is confined to the princes and noblemen.3 D. From the earliest times the dragon, Lung, is the national emblem, appearing as such as early as B.c. 2100. In the Schu-King, expurgated by Khung-tse, traditions about it are not found ; but it may be supposed that the dragon or serpent had figured in the national myths in some sort of way as a guardian deity or as a god of the empire ; and this supposition gains weight when we think of the bambo and the serpent of the southern races connected with the Mongolians (§ 267), and of the legends of the Japanese (§ 269), the founder of whose kingdom, Dsin mu ten, had a dragon for his grandmother. In fact, there is a great dragon festival 1 Billert in Mendel's musik. Convers. Lexikon, ii. p. 410, where the text and music of the hymn are given. 2 Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, iii. 4. 3 Stuhr (p. 22 ff.) could only come to the opinion that La6-tse had first introduced this belief in spirits because La6-tse's book had been in accessible to and unknown by him. There is not a word there about spirits and belief in spirits. The custom of setting up images to the spirits was introduced (according to Stuhr, p. 28) under the Song dynasty, which was peculiarly favourable to the Ta6-ssee, between a.d. 1000 and 1300. § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 6 3 celebrated yearly at Canton on the 18th of June, where the dragon is called upon to give fruitfulness to the fields and an abundant fishing, and has his image borne about in procession through the streets.1 E. This brings us to the Chinese traditions. These begin as far back as B.C. 2900 with Pao-hi or Fii-hi, who is said to have invented the figures (kua) of the Ii-king and the art of fishing. Then followed Schin-nung, who introduced agriculture, trades, and markets, B.C. 2837. Then came Hoang-ti, B.C. 2697, who conquered China by the overthrow of the Emperor Tsche-jeu, during whose reign the laws were put in shape, and music was introduced by Ling-liin. But although the third of these heroes of tradition had been transplanted to China, they were all antediluvian heroes. It was during the reign of Iao, who is said to have begun to reign in B.C. 2657, that the flood, which submerged the whole kingdom, occurred in B.C. 2597. It was Iao who averted the flood by showing the streams their courses. It is very remarkable how this chronological statement agrees with that of the Bible. According to the Masoretic text of Genesis, the flood came in the year B.C. 2544 ; according to the Septuagint text, somewhat earlier (§ 248, Obs.). To return now to Pao-hi, Schin-nung, and Hoang-ti, we see in these three as emperors successively reigning a reminiscence of the three brothers Tubal-Cain, Jabal, and Jubal, who introduced working in metals, the keeping of cattle, and the art of music, the remembrance of whom, we are persuaded, has been preserved among the most diverse nations of the earth.2 The Chinese name of Noah, Iao, agrees literally with the Yima of the Iranians, the Ymir of the Germans. The Chinese tradition calls the first man Puan-ku. Finally, we have still to mention the tradition of the Coreans, that the daughter of a river in the county of Fii-jii, 1 Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, ii. 5S f. 2 A more modern form of the tradition confounds Pao-hi and Iao. See Klaproth, Asia polyglot, p. 28. 64 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 208. north of Corea, being impregnated by the sun, laid an egg, from which the first king of the Coreans was brought forth.1 This is just that specifically Mongolian tradition which we have already come to know (§ 267), and have found in a more refined form among the Japanese. Obs. — We have already spoken of the spirit and construction of the Chinese language, § 264, Obs. 1 ; and now we need only refer to the vocabulary. If the words of the Chinese language of the present day show little resemblance and literal relation ship to synonymous words in the other Mongolian languages, this is to be explained on the following grounds. A. The monosyllabic words of the Chinese language should not without more ado be assumed to be the literally well-con served original roots. If we take tschhi, to run, tschhlng, horse, sse, to operate, sse", result, sse writer, ssjtf,, a scribe, thslfai, to exist, thsiin, to preserve, etc., no one can for a moment suppose that the second word is a root word ; its derivation is unquestion able. B. If one considers the multitude and diversity of meanings which one and the same Chinese word has, — as when, for example, ji means slight, immediate, rightly, great, peaceable, contented, like, equally, to arrange, to root out, to destroy, to damage, to overturn, — there is here presented to us a .process of derivation and change of ideas which is so great, that one must admit that, apart from current use, the oldest meaning and the most original can no longer with any certainty be discovered, as when, for example, kung means bodies, but also art. C. But also the pronunciation of the words has changed in no less a degree. In regard to a number of words, it is known with certainty that in early times they were pronounced other wise than now ; of no word can it be said with certainty that in early times it was pronounced as it is now. For the Chinese writing is not phonetic but notional ; it does not indicate the separate . letters of which the word consists, but has for the whole monosyllabic word one sign, and evidently an ancient picture writing lay at the basis of these signs. D. If one considers the indefinite multitude of diverse, often quite unconnected dialects, so great that, for example, the inhabitants of Tientsin would scarcely understand the dialect of a native of Pekin, only a few days' journey distant (Hildebrandt, ii. 159), and as the so-called written language, more correctly the Mandarin dialect, is only one of these dialects, the pro- 1 Gatterer, Handb. der Universalhistorie, part 2, p. 357. Liicken Einheit des Menscliengeschlechtes, p. 181. § 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 65 nunciation of this Mandarin dialect is no-more decisive in the way of determining the original sound of these roots. E. The extent of the verbal changes that the Chinese language has made upon the old Mongolian roots in the course of a thousand years may be calculated, on the one hand, from the way in which it formed the proper names of foreign nations, as when it rendered Shakia by Schi, Kharisma by Ki-li-sse-mo, Kashgar by Kie-scha, etc. ; on the other hand, from its having an indefinite number of homonyms, which are only distin guished by the accent ; for example, tschX, to fix, to hold firm ; tschl, to acknowledge ; tschi, this ; tshi, to heal ; tschhlng, horse ; tscliMmg, to complete ; sching, holy ; sehmg, sound ; sching, sail ; ti, to wash ; ti, earth and ruler, etc. It is thus evident that roots originally different have been by mutilation made like one another, and only by means of the tone can be artificially dis tinguished. And often it cannot be done even in this way. For example, mil, finger, Mongolian miisum, and mil, mother, Mongolian amu, have the same accent. F. Since, then, it cannot be determined with any certainty, either from the present meaning or from the present pronuncia tion, what the original pronunciation and meaning of any particular word may have been, any comparison between it and other languages of the Mongolian group is well-nigh impossible. But where are those other languages ? The Burmese, as well as the Japanese, has itself passed through an equally radical pro cess of change, and this is beyond question true of the Tibetan language. The Mongols in the strict sense, however, had (§ 264, Obs. 2) already at a very early period, while under the Ugro- Tartar dominion, practically adopted the Ugro-Tartar language. G. It is not, then, to be wondered at that in regard to a multitude of Chinese words it should be demonstrable or highly probable that there should be a similarity of sound with Burmese (W. von Humboldt above in § 264), with Nepaulese, Tibetan, Japanese (see the table of numerals in § 264), and also with such Mongolian words as the Mongols had not received from the Ugro-Tartars (§ 264, Obs. 2, D), or with such as (comp. under A) were derived from primitive roots common to the Japhetic languages. I may refer, for example, to khiti, old (ukko) ; khi, heath (angga, henki) ; kieu, guilt, sin (qual, ghol, to excite horror) ; tschin, dust (choso, chasy) ; te, to reach (tap) ; tab, way (Japanese too, way ; Mongol, and Ugrian tul, to come) ; thing, to hear (tun, don, to hear, feel, perceive) ; siab, small ; syeu, pliant (suikia, suieha, thin) ; yue, to tell ; yu, conversation (ydtte, to tell) ; faai, to embrace (sis'd, sisi, inward, to bound); fee, teacher ; feing, spirit (sed, sod, to think, to know; it seems that a reduplicated dental is modified into ts) ; tseng, to quarrel (tschigg, dsanggo, sbg) ; san, to strew (sata, dsata, to rain) ; sydi, point ; EBRARD III. E ,66 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269. suogge, tsoghol, to pierce, bore ; ludn, unquiet (lugga, likka, Idiky, to rule oneself) ; mung, blind (menek, weak, lame) ; mido, spirit (mede, midle, to know) ; syX, pronounced shi, sun (Tungusic schiwun, schun); tsh (Old Chinese ts\), son (Mongol, -tschi, eke-tschi, sister) ; Mi, child (kunga, kowe) ; Mo, great ; and ku4i, greatness (guai), etc. § 269. Japan and its Religion. The insular empire of Wa or Jamato, as it was called in earlier times, or Nipon,"as it has been called more recently, or Japan, more properly Shapan, as we are accustomed to call it, from the Chinese word sgi-pun, the sun-rising, or eastern land, has two different races among its inhabitants.1 The Japanese tradition relates that Zen-mou-ten-wo arrived with his people from the West in b.c. 660, but found already a population resident upon the island of Nipon. These aborigines were driven eastward, and were designated Atsum- adshebis or Eastern barbarians. Both races actually continued to exist down to a.d. 1100, and even after they had become thoroughly amalgamated they are distinguishable by the use of a different idiom in their written language which is not monosyllabic but agglutinate. At the present time a Ugro- Tartar tribe of Ainos lives on the coasts of the islands of Yezo and Turakai, and on the Kurile isles, reaching even to Kamtskatka and Mandshuria, which probably is identical with the Atsumadshebis, and forms the older element in the mixed population of Japan. Wernich2 has satisfactorily proved that the Ainos, notwithstanding the peculiarly hairy aspect of body, stand closely related to the Japanese, while both are strongly distinguished from the Malays. That these Ainos are to be identified with the Atsumadshebis, and not 1 Compare especially the following works : Klaproth, histoire mythol. des Japons. Phil, von Siebold, Nippon. Mitford, Tales of Old Japan. Eufemia von Kudriaffsky, Japan, vier Vortrage. Al. von Hiibner, Spaziergang um die Welt, part 1, pp. 267-396. A. Wernich, geogr. medic. Studien nach den Erlebnissen einer Reise um die Erde, Berlin 1878 pp. 56-286. 2 Wernich, Studien, p. 112 ff. § 269 J THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 67 with the hordes of Zen-mou-ten-wo, is hardly to be questioned. The latter were undoubtedly a Mongolian race. They were followed, in B.C. 209, by a second immigration from China under Ziko-suku, in Chinese Seu-fuh, who introduced the arts. Thus the Old Japanese language, furu-koto, which was used down to a.d. 1600, was one closely connected with the Mongolian, with some Chinese words interspersed (Kudriaffsky, p. 18.3). That Malays also occasionally landed in Japan, and got mixed up with the native races, has been abundantly proved.1 A sort of picture writing, which is found on some very old monuments,2 may have belonged to these Malays. The use of paper was introduced about B.c. 600. At first the Chinese ideogramme was employed. This, however, did not suit for the agglutinate speech of Japan, and so, soon after a.d. 700, the Japanese syllable-systems kata-kana and fira-hana, of forty-eight signs, were invented by Kobo, and from that time until now have continued in use. The art of reading and writing is universally acquired, and a rich literature has been produced, especially since a.d. 1206, when the book trade with China was opened up. The Japanese were great sailors in early times : they possessed mighty fleets, and their merchant vessels sailed as far as to Bengal. In consequence of a revolution in a.d. 1585, seafaring and the fleet were destroyed, and an edict of a.d. 1638 shut out Japan from intercourse with foreign lands, and forbade any attempt thereat. As early as a.d. 543, Buddhism had been introduced from Corea and was made the State religion. The Japanese name of Buddha is Shaka. It is well known that until lately there 1 Bound half-precious stones, maga-tamas, are regarded in Japan as presents of the sun-goddess, but had already, according to Japanese tradition, been in use by the original inhabitants, and that in the twofold character of instruments of exchange and barter and of things sacred. We may compare therewith the (§ 272) bracks of the inhabitants of the Malay-Melanesian island Palau. 2 Braunschweig, amerik. Denkmaler. Bauch, Einh. des Menschengesch- lechtes, p. 317. 68 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269. existed not only a spiritual head, the Mikado, who had also the title Dairi, great house, but also a secular head, the Shiogun or Tycoon, who had an almost equal jurisdiction. The Dairis are properly the descendants of the old national royal family, and as such have been greeted from the earliest times with divine honours ; the Shioguns, as a sort of major-domo and marshal of the empire, had, from the end of the 12 th century, assumed the greater part of the civil power, and were the patrons and representatives of Buddhism, but were attacked by the present Mikado and completely overthrown, the Sintu temples were stripped of Buddhist emblems, and the fiefs (han) of the vassal princes (daimios) were confiscated. Long before Buddhism, buttoo, even in a.d. 288, the doctrine of Confucius (sintu) had found entrance from China into Japan. But the two imported religions were not able to drive out the old national religion, which even in the present day numbers many among its followers, although it has become corrupted by the introduction of many Buddhist elements. The details of its earlier, unadulterated form are given in the religious legends preserved in the Japanese literature. This old national religion, since the introduction of Buddh ism, and in order to mark its distinction from it, has been designated by the Chinese word Sintu, the way or doctrine of spirits, and in Japanese words kami-no-mits, kami signifying a good spirit or a guardian spirit. The ruling family is descended from Zen-mou-ten-wo, and through him from the sun, just as in the Mongolian tradition and in that of China. The Mikado bears the predicate ten-si, son of heaven, and is in his nature so sacred and divine, that he dare not be designated by his name, but only described as the dairi of the royal palace. His race can never die out; for, if a Mikado be childless, there is found always quite unexpectedly under a tree of the palace a little boy chosen out of a Kuge or old noble family and laid there by its contriving, who is considered a present from heaven, and is adopted as successor § 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 69 to the throne. All this is an order of things quite similar to that which primitively prevailed in Mongolia, which Buddhism has not been able to efface ; Japan, however, required no superior-lama, for it already possessed in its own Mikado a direct offshoot of deity. Sintuism distinguishes, as all Mongolian religions do, the invisible and far distant deity, and the present and guardian deities which are around men ; but it has this peculiarity, that it endeavours to secure a transition from the one to the other, and for this cause divides the god of heaven into seven heavenly gods, to which are added five earthly gods. The former are the world- ruling powers. But even this doctrine, as it is reported in Japanese literature, shows unmistakeable traces of Buddhist influences, so that in this form it cannot possibly be regarded as the old genuine national religion. First of all chaos existed, while as yet heaven and earth, male and female, were not distinguished. Then the bright, pure part gathered itself together above as heaven; the heavy, dark part gathered itself together below as sea ; and floating upon the latter, the dry land gathered itself together (comp. § 265). Between heaven and earth there grew in the form of a flower a kami, by name Kuni toka tatsi no mikkoto, "worthy of the reverence of the ever-enduring empire," and has ruled for a hundred thousand millions of years. He produced for himself a water-spirit, that one, again, a fire-spirit, and that one, next, a wood- spirit, who had a wife, and ruled along with her two hundred thousand millions of years. These huge numbers plainly reveal the Buddhist origin of the fables ! These were succeeded by a metal-spirit with his wife, and sixthly by an earth-spirit and his wife, each ruling during an equally long period. Then these spirits have offspring, but not through intercourse with their wives ; and this is thoroughly in keeping with Buddhist influences. It is the seventh, Isa-na-gi,1 1 According to the modern form of the language : wanderers of man. More correctly, the Old Turanian isa, " father," is taken as the fundamental meaning. 70 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269. who first begets in this way, and he produces one after another the islands of the Japanese empire, and afterwards all the rest of the world. Thereafter — and here we come upon genuine remnants of the myth — he begot as mistress of the world a noble and lovely daughter, whom he set as the sun in the heaven, Ten-sio-dai-sin, sun-heat, great spirit, and then her sister the moon. The god begat also two brothers, the younger of which, on account of his violent passion, challenged the sister of the sun to a fight, which interrupted the husbandry fostered by her, and so frightened her that she wounded herself with her weaver's spool, and enraged thereat betook herself to a cave. Then the whole world was darkened. The eight hundred thousand gods (the numbers .again suggest derivation from Buddhism) brought her back again by persuasion and force, and cast her brother down to the earth, where he delivered men from a dragon which was slaying them. Ten-sio-da'i-sin is the first of the five earthly deities, and among the Japanese the most highly honoured. Her son, the first king of Japan, is the second of the earthly deities, and here begin the spirits of ancestors or ancestral gods. What has to be added later on of the part they play in the struggle between good and evil spirits is again. purely Buddhistic and worthless. All the more genuine and important is that which is narrated about the third of the earthly deities, Amatsu-fiko, grandson of the sun. His bride became pregnant before marriage : she offered during her pains to set fire to her soul ; if she remained unconsumed, it would be a sign that the child was her bridegroom's. In the flames, remaining unburnt, she bore three sons. We met with this very identical legend among the Mongols, § 266 ; only by the Buddhists it is rent from its proper position : the sun-god was a male,1 and she who bore was made pregnant by him. This was evidently 1 Is Ten-sio-da'i-sin actually a female deity ? Or has the Old Japanese language had originally only one word to designate both son and daughter 'I § 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 71 the original of the legend ; but Buddhism cannot be satisfied without an elaboration of the simple story. A similar story is retold in that of the fourth earthly deity, Amatsu-fiko's son, who marries Dshebidsu, a daughter of the sea-god ; he watches his wife during her confinement ; she changes herself for shame into a dragon, and destroys herself in the sea. The fifth, finally, begets Zen-mou-ten-wo, the founder of the Japanese empire. When we have distinguished the genuine original germ from its Buddhistic admixture, we have left — (a) the distinc tion between the spirits of ancestors and the heavenly, world- creating deity ; (b) the classifying of the sun-god among the earthly or ancestral gods ; and (c) in close connection there with, the tradition of the origin of the father of the ruling family from the sun. These three particulars are genuinely Mongolian. . On the other hand, the conception of the Japanese, that after death souls lose themselves in universal being, is distinctly Buddhistic ; while in contrast to this, as representing the Old Mongolian element, we have the belief that the souls of the Mikados are immortal, as much as the prevailing belief among decided adherents of Sintuism is in the immortality of all men and in an existence after death. Apart from such a belief in immortality, the worship of spirits of ancestors could have no meaning. This result of a critical investigation of the Buddhist legends is confirmed by an examination of the Sintuism of the present day as distinguished from the present form of Buddhism in Japan. It is a characteristic feature in the contrast of these two, that the adherents of Sintuism use for deities the word kami, lord or ruler, also ssin, spirits ; and the Buddhists use the word hotoke ; that the former have not zinc-roofed, but straw or wood-roofed temples (dsMsiro), in which a mirror is found as the image of the sun, while among the Buddhists the mirror is the emblem of the value of good works ; that besides they have miyas, private chapels, where the ancestral god, gohei, is represented by a tuft of five different coloured strips of paper. 72 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269. The gods presently worshipped by the adherents of Sintuism are these : the sun-goddess Ten-sio-dai-ssin, the god of travel and roads Saveno-kami or Dsiso, the thunder-god Eai-dshin (thunder they call kami-nari, the noise of god), the water- god Sui-idshiu, etc. Alongside of these they have guardian deities for everything conceivable : Fukuno-kami for prosperity, Tschi-no-okura for marriage, Gun-dshui for defence in war, Funa-dama for seamen, Jnari for cultivation of rice, Kodshin- do-kodshin for cooking, that the rice may not burn, Yabukidsho- kami against pestilence, etc. The dragon is a great guardian spirit of the nation : to him serpents, as a sort of incarnation, are sacred, and hence are regarded as inviolable.1 The worship of ancestors is a most elaborate ceremonial. If the parents of the bridegroom are dead, their images take their place at the marriage. In the event of a death, the deceased has an accompanying name given him, oku-rina, which is written on a tablet, hung up in the temple, and worshipped with frank incense. For seven weeks after the death there is a weekly festival of the dead celebrated ; the name-tablet and the image of the dead, with those of his ancestors, are collected, and vessels with fruits, flowers, and food are placed before them ; ' after the seventh celebration, the deceased is supposed to have been received among the blessed. Great and wise men are apotheosed into kamis and canonized ; thus, for example, from the Emperor Adshin, a.d. 270-313, we have the warrior deity Hatsiman. The priests are called kami-nusi, hosts or keepers of the gods. It is not very easy to determine whether the pantomimic struggle,2 which the priests carry on during cer tain festive seasons with invisible enemies or evil spirits, is an element which genuinely belongs to Sintuism or to Buddhism. The following legends current among the adherents of Sintuism are specially worthy of attention. Yamato, whose name at once reminds us of that of Yima in the Iranian legends, § 224, slew an eight-headed dragon, who had required 1 HUbner, Spaziergang um die Erde, i. 350. 2 Ibid. 303 ff. § 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 73 that a yearly sacrifice of the daughter of a king should be made to him. According to one version of the story, this Yamato lived nineteen hundred years ago. According to an other version, he lived before Zin-mou-ten-wo. At the age of forty-five years, Zin-mou-ten-wo undertook, along with his brothers and his sons, a voyage by sea to the East ; a pilot led the way in a tortoise-shell. When a severe storm broke out, they offered up the two brothers of Zin-mou-ten-wo to the water-god. When he landed on the island of Yamato in Japan, he encountered a bear, but succeeded in driving him off without being injured. Then appeared a man, and handed him the sword Tsurugi, which Yamato had found on the tail of the slain dragon (hence Yamato was older than Zin-mou- ten-wo), and a goddess promised to send him a raven as a guide. This raven, just like that of the German ancestral god (Wodin, § 260), is a reminiscence of Noah's raven. In the Japanese tradition, the reminiscence of the leader of their special immigration into Japan is confounded with the remini scence of the continuance of the flood. Alongside of Yamato, by means of a reduplication similar to those of the Iranians and Greeks, they have a second dragon-slayer, Dsharimarisa, who destroyed a dragon, Nuge, which threatened the Dairi. There are also sacred animals : the fox, sacred to the sun ; the tortoise, the heron, the cock, and (as the -emblem of luck) the crab. In the spring the Sintuists celebrate a feast, when they beseech the hame of the earth for favour in agricultural matters. In autumn they have a second feast, when they thank him for the harvest. They have also the custom of prayer at the family table, and prayer at the rising and setting of the sun. Instead of the belief that men may assume the shape of animals, the converse notion prevails in Japan, that animals may assume the shape of men, in order to bewitch men and cause them terror. 74 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270. C. — The Malay Races. § 270. The Unity of the Malay-Polynesian Group of Tribes. While the idea of an immigration of the various nationalities of the Asiatic and European continent from the banks of the Euphrates presents no difficulty, so that there is no physical impediment preventing our adoption of the idea of their original unity of stock ; when, on the other hand, the matter is viewed from the standpoint of natural science, — a peopling of the scattered islands of Polynesia from the continent of Asia is highly improbable and even inconceivable, and indeed all the more inconceivable, if we are to regard the original popula tion of the earth as existing in a condition of rude barbarism. That in each of those islands or groups of islands a distinct native population had been developed from a purely animal condition, may appear to many a one1 more feasible than the bold geological hypothesis,2 that the Polynesian groups of islands had, during the period of man's existence, been con nected with the Asiatic mainland, and that, after they had been peopled, they were separated and made into islands, either by a volcanic catastrophe, or by a gradual process of submersion. The Javanese have, indeed, a tradition that Java was once a peninsula and afterwards became an island :s and also in regard to the Sunda islands, which are separated from the continent only by a shallow sea ; and in regard to the volcanic group of Sumatra, Java, Lambock, Sambana, Flores, Timor, Banda, Ternata, Mindanor, and Luzon, such a hypothesis might be urged with a high degree of probability. Such an idea, however, could by no possibility be urged in regard to the islands of Polynesia, for the simple reason that a volcanic convulsion which had riven into small fragments and, as it were, pulverised a continent extending from 23° S. to 1 Waitz, Anthropologic der Naturvolker. 2 Forster, Carli, de Mas, Vogt. 3 Bauch, Einheit des Menschengeschlechtes, p. 340. § 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 75 30° N. latitude, and from 140° to 230° East longitude, and so embracing an extent of something like 85,000 square miles, would have utterly destroyed every vestige of life on the portions of land which were allowed still to exist. The submersion hypothesis is rather more plausible. Polynesia is really one of those regions where a long-continued process of submersion has been observed;1 but in order to reach the notion of Polynesia forming part of the continent, this sub mersion must be conceived as having commenced at least a hundred thousand years before the present day,2 and must thus be relegated to an age prior to the origin of the human race.3 Thus, then, purely from the standpoint of natural science the hypothesis of separate native races would have most to recommend it, if only the conclusion was well founded, that the original inhabitants were too rude to be able to sail over a great tract of sea. At the present day, indeed, such tribes as those of the Pelew islands, so thoroughly degraded and fallen into barbarism, or, according to that hypothesis, remaining barbarous, venture upon voyages to the far outlying island-groups ;4 why should the same thing not have been possible in earlier times ? Cook found on these islands entire fleets, one consisting of seventeen hundred ships, each one manned by forty men.5 The inhabitants of the Tonga islands kept up a lively intercourse with the Fiji islands and the New Hebrides. Forster and Cook obtained from a native of the Society islands a sort of map, on which the Marquesas, Tahiti, 1 Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, i. 9 ff. 2 Peschel in Ausland, 1864, p. 363. 3 As we have seen from purely scientific grounds (§ 168), the Ice Age can at farthest be dated back to a period of 10,000 years ago. Compare Kirchoff, die Sudseeinseln, p. 245 (in Frommel and Pfaff, Samml. von Vortragen, iii. 9) : " The flora make it quite plain, to us that here we have before us the last remnants of a portion of the primitive antediluvian world before the development of the mammalians and long before the Tertiary period. For on the Fiji islands fifty per cent., and on the Hawaiian group sixty per cent, of the plants are indigenous." * Semper, die Palau-Inseln, Leipz. 1873. 5 Kennedy, Essais, p. 137. 76 HALF-CIVILISED and SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270. Samoa, and the Fiji islands were marked.1 In these same islands Forster found a native who was able to name more than eighty islands spread over a surface of thirteen or fourteen hundred miles, which he had himself, for the most part, visited. In 1824 the inhabitants of Anaa undertook a voyage to Tahiti, a distance of three hundred miles.2 A promontory in Hawaii3 is designated by the natives " toward Tahiti," though the one is between twenty-seven and twenty-eight hundred miles distant from the other. The Tongan language has no other words for north and west than toward Samoa, toward Fiji.4 These fleets do not any longer exist ; the shipping industry has fallen into decay. Here, as everywhere, we meet with the degradation, not the elevation, of races. But it may here be asked, what means had these people at command in order that without compass and instruments for taking observations they, might find their way upon the high seas ? The Hawaiians still pre serve a tradition that their forefathers had made long voyages with their whole fleets, and had kept their course by means of the stars.5 A second means of determining their whereabouts were the sea-birds, following the flight of which the ships were sure to reach land somewhere. The boats of the Poly nesians, though small in comparison with our ships, are yet skilfully constructed for battling with rough water, for they are protected against the surging waves by an outrigger, a suspended boom, or by being formed as a double canoe. Thus the funda mental presupposition of the hypothesis of distinct native races is utterly shattered by the history of recent voyages of discovery. If we turn now to the legends of the Polynesian races, we find among the Sandwich islanders the tradition that they are originally from Tahiti, and there they place their paradise.6 1 See in Bauch, Einheit der Menschengeschlechtes, p. 342 f . 2 Beechy in Ausland, 1860, p. 446. 3 Pickering, Races of Man, p. 298. 1 W. von Humboldt, " Kawi-Sprache," Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. des Wissensch. 1832, iii. p. 241 ff. n Pickering, Races of Man. 6 Ellis, Reise nach Owaii, Hamb. 1827, pp. 220, 243. § 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 77 New Zealand is thickly peopled in the north, thinly in the south, showing that there was an immigration there from the seafaring islands. The Pelew islanders placed their paradise and the land of their origin in the West.1 We do not, how ever, need to rely upon these traditions. The language alone will decide, and completely put to confusion the hypothesis of distinct native races. Whoever, from the higher ground of general culture, refuses to allow himself to be followed in a one-sided manner by the reading of researches in natural science and by hypothesis, and takes into account the notices given by travellers of their linguistic discoveries, will only treat the hypothesis of distinct native races as a subject of ridicule. It was proved as early as 1832, by W. von Hum boldt,2 that the inhabitants 3 of Madagascar, Java, Celebes, Sumatra, Malacca, New Zealand, and the whole insular region of Polynesia between 30° N. and 30° S. latitude, and within a curve extending from New Zealand to Easter island, from thence to the Sandwich islands, and from thence to the Philippines, speak languages that belong to one and the same stem. If any one wishes to be more thoroughly convinced, he may examine the comparative tables of roots given by Bnschmann on pp. 241—256, and 264, which occupy seven teen folio sheets. (See Obs. 1.) It is a fact that one and the same Malay race inhabit Madagascar, the Sunda islands, and Polynesia. This Malay race has spread out from 60° to 250° E. longitude, if we draw a line from Madagascar over Celebes to Hawaii, a linear distance of 170 degrees, or over 10,000 miles. Evidently, before the Mongols, the Malays had overrun India, as the Mongols did before the Aryans. Driven out before these two, the Malays wandered toward the coast, westward to Mada gascar, and the greater part eastward to the Sunda islands ; another portion migrated to China (comp. § 2 6 8, the Miao-tse), 1 Semper, die Palau-Inseln. 2 Abhandlungen der Berl. Akad. d. W. 1832, vols, ii.-iv. 3 With the exception of the Melanesian tribes, of which we shall treat in § 273. 78 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270. and then, pressed by the Chinese, moved toward the Philip pines and the various groups of the other Polynesian islands.1 From these facts it follows that even in a very remote antiquity the Malays must have been very expert as a seafaring people. This character of bold and fearless seamen is in fact retained down to the present day by the natives of the Sunda islands, and by the Polynesians down to the times of Captain Cook. Historical records prove that in the 12 th and 13th cen turies there existed a mighty shipping and trading Malay State, having its capital at Singapore, the southern point of Malacca.2 When the Portuguese first came into the Indian Archipelago, they found Menangkabu the centre of a great trade with the East and the West, and with a command of the sea beyond anything then known in Europe. One of the fleets numbered ninety ships, among which were twenty-five large galleons ; a second had three hundred ships, of which eighty were of 400 tons burthen each ; a third had five hundred ships, having in their crews six thousand men.3 The historical records of the Chinese carry us back to a yet more remote period;4 and so early as a.d. 417-423, Chinese ships found a civilised people at Java. In these regions, too, we now find, in comparison with those early times, a thorough degradation of race, especially in Polynesia, the inner causes of which will be treated of in a later section. The causes of corruption are of a religious and moral nature, and it did not require first the visits of European ships in order to inflict upon the people the doom of decay and diminution of popula tion. Europeans already found them a race abandoned to corruption, and the process of decrease in population and degradation of character had already set in long before the 1 And then (§ 269) from the Philippines, and even directly from China to Japan. 2 This peninsula, according to the native records of the Malays, had been taken and was overrun by the Malays from Sumatra. 8 Marsden, Sumatra, p. 424. Bradford, American Antiquities, p. 232. In Bauch, Einheit Menschengeschlechtes, p. 341 f. 4 W. von Humboldt, Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. ii. p. 16 f. § 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 79 arrival of the first Europeans. When Europeans discovered the Tortoise islands or Galapagos group, lying close to South America, as well as the islands of Bourbon and Juan Fernandez, and also the Falkland islands at the southern point of South America, they were found to be already destitute of inhabitants, but they found on them evident traces of their having been inhabited at an earlier period.1 While thus the researches that have been made in the comparative science of language demonstrate the unity of the Malay races, we find this also confirmed by an examination of their bodily construction. That varieties appear among them will be matter of surprise to no thinking person. In the Ugro-Tartar family the Finns and Esthonians are dis tinguished from the Tsherimis, Votiaks, and Balkash-Tartars ; among the Mongolians the Kalmucks are different from the Chinese and Japanese ; and these last again are as different from the Tibetans as the Javanese are from the Tahitians and the Malagassy. A diversity that has grown up during hundreds or thousands of years amid various conditions of life and civilisation, is accounted for by variations of climate and the relative isolation of their insular dwellings, shows itself naturally in the colour of the skin and in the physiog nomy ; the Polynesians, who go naked during an eternal spring, must have a darker colour than the Sunda islanders and Mala gassy, who have retained certain customs of civilisation. The light colour of the skin is common to all the Malay-Polynesian tribes, ranging from brownish yellow and light brown to a reddish hue, in marked contrast to the Melanesians, § 273 ; and the shape of the skull and general configuration of the body reminds us of the Mongolian family. We are thus led to define the Malays as a Mongol- Aryan or Mongol-Caucasian mixed race. The view of Oscar Peschel in the Races of Man, p. 359, and Otto Mohnicke (Banka und Palembang, Munster 1 8 74, p. 1 8 0 f.), is extremely probable, that the Malays are a race that was early broken off from the primitive Mongoloid 1 Ellis in Eauch, Einheit Menschengeschlechtes, p. 341 f. 80 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270. stem, and that they bear to the Mongols a relation similar to that borne by the Basques to the Celts.1 The statistical relations, too, are analogous. The Mongolian races, if we reckon only one-half of the mixed races of Tungus and Mand- shurians, number somewhere about four hundred and twenty millions ; the Malays, great as the space is over which they are spread, number at furthest no more than two and a half millions. Obs. 1. — The principal Malay languages are these : The Mala- gassic, the Malayan in the narrower sense, as confined to Malacca, the Javanese, the Bugish in Celebes, the Tagalic in the Philip pines, the Tongan in the Tonga islands, the Maoric in New Zealand, the Tahitian in the Society islands, and the Hawaiian in the Sandwich islands. Here we give only a few illustrations of the relation subsisting between these languages. Eye is in Malag. Javan. Bug. Tag. Maori, Tah. mata, in Tong. matta, in Haw. maka, Malagass. masse. Tree is in Malay, Jav. kaju, in Tag, cahui, in Tong. acow, in Maori racau, in Tah. raau, in Haw. laau, in Malag. Mzo. To plant is in Mai. tanam, in Jav. tanem, in Tong. tano, in Maori and Tah. tanu, in Haw. kanu. Blood is in Mai. darah, (a) in Jav. rah, in Malag. rd, (b) in Bug. dara, in Tag. dugo, in Tong. tawto, in Maori and Tah. toto, in Haw. hoko. Earth is (1) in Mai. Jav. Bug. tana, in Malag. tane ; (2) in Mai. benua, in Bug. wanua, in Tag. banjan, in Maori wenua, in Tah. fenua, in Haw. honua and aina. Fire is in Mai. and Bug. api, in Sav. hapi, in Tag. Mpon, in Tong. afi, in Maori ahi, in Tah. auahi, in Haw. ahi, in Malag. affe or fe. Fruit is in Mai. buah, in Jav. woh, in Bug. buwa, in Tag. bonga, in Tong. foa, in Haw. hua, in Tah. hodu, in Malag. voM, etc. The Javanese, Tagals, and Bugis possess the art of writing ; but their alphabets were of Indian origin. (W. von Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache, part 2, p. xi.) Obs. 2. — In the Malay languages, much more distinctly than in those of the nations belonging to the Mongolian group, we can trace a relationship with the Aryan languages ; a new proof that the process in the direction of monosyllabism and of immoderate change of pronunciation in the Mongolian languages belongs to a secondary stage. Gerang, herah, hahik, Old Sanscr. garan, garas, yipawg, ynpac,. Lava, loa, loma, htmu (old), lagui, great, long, Lat. 1 That in Java, besides Aryan-Indian or Brahmanical influences, there may have been an intermixture of Aryan- Indian blood, is not at all incredible. § 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 81 longus. Malta, mata, eye, Saiiscr. mukka. Mauna, maua, moonga, mountain, Lat. mons. Bukit, heap, Old High Germ, piokan, to curve, bend, puhil, hillock. Tana, earth, %6tZt (which is not connected, as Curtius thinks, with ^«/»a/, humus). lema in Javanese means earth (as matter), Old High Germ. Um, lema, leim, lehm, loam. Benua, bajan, fenua, land, /3a/W, Lat. venire. Kai, hi, cain, to eat, Old High Germ, chiuwan, kauen, to chew. Run-toh, to fall, Lat. ruere. Padang, a plain, wsdiov, Sanscr. pad. Vaoo, wenua, wilderness, waste, Old High Germ, wasda, Lat. vastus. Gni, genni, ahi, auahi, ahi, fire, Sanscr. agni, Lat. ignis. Ika, isda, ika, hiwah, fish, /'%^uc, Lat. piscis, Celt. iasc. Buah, buwa, foa, hua, fruit, Sanscr. bhu, pdr/fia. (c) Out of the great multitude of such local guardian deities, however, there are some occupying a pre-eminent position which are found under the same name and with the same emblems in various places, and are already in this way characterized as old national deities. As such they are characterized by the circumstance that definite worship is appointed them, and priests (ganga) are assigned them. These gods are characterized by the appellation kisso, kissie, and, what is most important, are clearly distinguished by their images. In their temples there are empty couches, beside which em blems of the god are set ; for example, in the temple of kisso- i-Nimina we find a wooden spear and an iron gong. From time to time the hisso is raised from the earth, takes unseen its place upon the couch, and then the priests beat upon the gong. The chief of all these hisso are the following : Bunsi, with the predicate Mama Mamkissie, mother of all gods,1 who is worshipped in all parts of the land, and has, in Tshimsinda in Moanga, an oracle, where she invisibly rises from the earth in order to instruct a newly-crowned king in regard to his kingly duties by the mouth of her ganga. The Kissie insie, 1 Bastian, Expedition a. d. LoangoMste, i. 223 f, translates loosely : Mother of all fetiches. §277.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 125 god of the earth, also called Mo-kisso insie Makonih, is repre sented by two wooden figures, the one bearing the other ; also by a pot bound round with bands ; less frequently also (as the god of harvest, Umkissie Boma) by a mere heap of animal skulls. The first-fruits of harvest are brought to him as an offering. His ganga gives his services likewise to Kissie 'mshiti, the god of the woods. A Kisso Mangaka protects from thieves and robbers, and whoever has a personal enemy, in order to rouse against him the anger of the god, drives a nail into the god's wooden image. The lower half of this image is covered with matting, and the bearded countenance is depicted with a flat retreating forehead. Mangaka's wife is called Matanga. For a similar reason nails are driven into Mabiali (Abiala, Mandembo) ; his image is of a white colour, the eyes of glass, with threatening outstretched arm ; in his mouth a red cloth, on his head a mirror. Additional forms or additional names of this god are Mabiali-panso, Mabiari-pano, Mani- panso. Nimina and his wife Njambi are the god of the fish ing and the goddess of wealth and commerce. Lunsunsi, in Cabinda, is the god of the coasts, is regarded as the son of Bunsi, and has a brother, Um-wemwe, who slays the sorcerers. The itaphylle Kondu-mambo (Kombi-mambo), with his wife Umgulambenzi, seem to be gods of animal productiveness. In earlier time a Tshekoke (Tshikoko) had been worshipped as Mo-kisso kola, the mighty god, along with his wife Gumbiri. This perhaps was the old national war-god. On the war-god Bumba, see § 276, Obs. 2. Besides these gods there are various others, some dispensers of rain, some protectors of their infants. We find that in Congo and Loango a developed polytheism has prevailed, which very generally grows over into witchcraft and super stition, but is in no way overgrown by the so-called fetichism, and is quite distinct from the actual fetisso belief. (d) There are still, indeed, most evident traces remaining of an ancient monotheism. High above the kissos, imported perhaps in part or wholly at a later period from India (see 126 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277. § 276, Obs. 2), stands Zambi. This word zambi seems to be a primitive appellative of deity;, for over against the good god Zambi am-Pungo we have the wicked god Zambi an-hi ; and among the pirate tribe of the Solonghos, south of the Zaire, we have- Zambi 'm-pi Tshimbi.1 The proper name of the good god is Pungo (Pungu), which, singularly enough, is connected with the Bonga of the Kolhs (§ 274), whose name recurs generally among the most varied Melanesian and African tribes. The Loangans say of Zambi Pungo that he created the whole world, including kissos and also men; the latter sinned against him, and have been punished by being made black. The Solonghos or Mossorunghos south of the Zaire have a tradition that Zambi Pungo died, that is, his worship ceased to be practised; after his death another evil zambi, Zambi 'm-pi, arose, created the evil spirit Shimbi, and keeps up their numbers from the souls of the deceased. To the Shimbi belong the fish-god Kudshanga Nemadia, who is invoked on behalf of animal productivity; a god of the sea-storms, Memo diatudili mankumbi; an Umpoeta, who teaches men the arts, etc. The inhabitants of Cabinda, or Angoy, have a tradition that Zambi Pungo carries thunder and lightning in his hand ; he created ma-Gog, the first king of the land of Angoy, and put under his protection the mother of the gods, Bunsi, who then, on her part, brought forth and created the various kissos. Thus in Zambi Pungo we have a distinct reminiscence of the one original God, the creator of the world. (e) In Cabinda there is also associated with Zambi Pungo a tradition of the flood. Zambi had created all men white ; when, however, a woman, out of curiosity, opened the door of a room in which wonderfully beautiful things were stored,2 there fell over her head and that of her tempter a barrel full 1 Similarly the Lobals place their good god Kashanda over against the evil god Mikitschi. The Moluwas, too, have a supreme god or creator, Kalumbo. 2 Comp. the Papalangi stuff of the Tonga islanders, § 272. § 277.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 127 of black colouring powder, whereby both were made black. She fled screaming from Em-puto1 to the river Zaire. The following tradition of the flood in Cabinda is very fully developed. When the whites stayed away from the coast, the sacred palm-tree closed up its crown, and thick clouds gathered over heaven and earth. Njambi, the goddess of wealth, retired to Em-puto. Always heavier the clouds hungr overhead, till at last birds, bende-bende, were let loose from the confinement of the palm-tree, and flew hither and thither. Now Njambi turns back ; the clouds fled, the sun shone forth in his full strength, and ships came again with white people. A modern element, the keeping away and the coming again of ships with white people, is here confusedly mixed up with the older part of the tradition. If in the old legend mention was made of a ship which after a long voyage found landing at last, it is evident how such a story, when it was no longer understood, was confusedly interpreted and combined with elements of quite a recent origin. The Portuguese whites appeared at first to the blacks as almost superhuman beings, and Njambi was the goddess of commerce. What wonder, then, that they should understand the going out and coming again, of the withdrawal and return, of the Portuguese ships ? A quite similar commingling of an old legend with a modern element was observed (§ 278) among the Odshis. (/) The most remarkable point is that the belief in Zambi has practically counteracted, by means of its awaking effect on the conscience and its moral influence generally, the worst consequences of polytheism and witchcraft. In consequence of polygamy, vindicated by Bastian on medical grounds, immorality and adultery, especially on the part of women, are frequent, and married women often seek to seduce youths into sin by measures analogous to those spoken of in Gen. xxxix. 1 2 ff. If, now, Zambi is called upon, settling invisibly 1 Is there here concealed a reminiscence of Phut ? Em-puto may be the land or the inheritance where the first progenitor of the tribe lived. 128 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277. on a wooden plate, married women are obliged to confess unreservedly all their failings, and to obtain forgiveness. There have thus sprung up a certain kind of marriages, Lemba marriages, which are concluded with special cere monies, with invocation of a kissie Lemba, holding a particular relation to Bunsi and Zambi, and its members are under strict obligation to faithfulness and eventual confession in the presence of Zambi. Oaths, too, are sworn by Zambi. In short, what little good is to be found among these peoples is connected with the belief in Zambi Pungo. For the rest, the moral and social conditions which are the immediate consequence of the kisso-polytheism and fetisso-witchcraft are sad enough. As the Malays have their taboo, so the tribes of Congo and Loango have their quidsilles and schinas, that is, to every individual from childhood something or other in itself quite harmless is forbidden : one must never give any one a hand, another may eat no manioch, a third must not cross the Zaire, etc. In the observance of this super stition they are evidently quite equal to the Pharisees ; but impurity is not forbidden. When one is sick the gangas come, set themselves down smoking hemp, and amid noisy music work themselves into a frantic condition, and declare whether the sickness of the sick person has been caused by the breaking of a schina, or by some fetissero who has bewitched him. In the latter case, he who is charged as guilty is either subjected to ordeals, such as the drinking of poisoned cassa, which, if causing vomiting, shows him guiltless, if otherwise, shows him guilty, or is driven to confession by the most revolting and cruel tortures, and the convicted or confessor is burnt alive or else put to death on the rack. There are also human offerings during war, and on the death of every king or prince or eminent individual. (g) The dead are roasted to mummies over fire, and are then buried ; into the graves of chiefs their images are cast. The continuance of the soul after death in a ghostly condition is put in connection with the appearance of the new moon. § 277:] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. - 129 In Congo the appearance of the crescent moon is greeted with the words Eatua fua, eatua dshinga, man dies, man lives again. C. On the religion of the mixed race of the Hottentots, it is reported to us from a period in which it continued uninfluenced by Europeans, or at least less under such influence than now,1 that in practice their chief object of worship was the moon, although they said expressly that this was not the highest, but only a subordinate and visible god, — a sign that even they still possessed the idea of one invisible supreme God. To the moon they ascribed the control of the weather. At every full moon and new moon they gathered together, danced, shouted, and clapped their hands till sun down, and cried — " We greet thee, we welcome thee ; give us fodder for our cattle, and milk in abundance ! " Besides this, they had a peculiar worship of animals. An insect of their country with green back, white and red speckled belly, and two wings,2 was regarded by them as an incarnation of a benevolent deity. When one of these appeared in a village, they gathered around, danced about in wrapt devotion, offered him two fat sheep, sprinkled before him powdered Spircea (meadow sweet), feeling assured that by his appearance all guilt is forgiven, and blessing and good fortune are secured. If that insect lights upon a man, he is regarded as a saint well-pleasing to the deity, and to the honour of both the fattest ox is immediately slaughtered as a thank-offering. After the death of such a saint, a mountain or a river is called after his name. Whoever passes through such a place ought to conceal his head in his cloak and dance round the place, imploring the saint for his protection. As, then, this chafer worship reminds us of the scarabaeus of the Egyptians, and affords a new witness in favour of the derivation of the Hottentots from the neighbourhood of Egypt, the land of the 1 H. Adam, View of Religions. 2 The mantis religiosa, a locust-like creature, with a head turning to every side. See Weber, Vier Jahr in Afrika, part 2, p. 210. EBRARD III. I 130 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277. Gallas, see § 276, the worship of an evil spirit, whom they seek to pacify by offerings of oxen and sheep, tells of their mixing with the negro tribes. D. Even in the north-east of Africa there is to be found in the Wagandas on Lake Nyanza a tribe of Ethiopic descent.1 They had, according to their own traditions thirty-five genera tions ago, according to Stanley's well-grounded opinion at a much earlier period, made their way hither from the north. They have the tradition that a pious man, Kintu, a priest, had migrated, together with his wife and some domestic animals, and seeds of various kinds, to Uganda, which was then wholly uninhabited, rapidly peopled the land with his children, of whom his wife bare four to him every year, and who came into the world bearded and already arrived at man's estate, introduced the banana and potato plant, and held in abhorrence all shedding of blood. A paradisiacal state prevailed. But when his children discovered the art of brewing banana wine (comp. Gen. ix. 20 ff), and in consequence excess, godless- ness, and violence began, Kintu went forth with his wife during the night, and has been sought for in vain by his successors on the throne, his son and grandsons, Tshwa, Kamiera, Kimera. There is here something that reminds us of paradise, the fall, and Noah. It is noticeable that in Mowa at the Livingstone Falls the name Kintu occurs as the title of their chiefs.2 There is also found round about the Victoria Nyanza the root Mani, Mana, Moeni, Muini, in Uregga Wana, in Bateke Land, Nwana, which are identical with Manu, meaning lord.3 The tribal relationship between the Wagandas and the Bassutos and the Congo negroes is shown by the relationship of their languages. Among all these peoples, mo and m' is the prefix of the singular, ba, be, wa that of the plural. See, for particulars of the linguistic relationship, the compara tive tables of Stanley, vol. ii. pp. 536-551. 1 Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, vol. i. chap. xiv. 2 Ibid. vol. ii. p. 425. s jurf voj ; p 545_ § 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 131 § 278. The Religion and Traditions of the Negroes. If one reads the usual descriptions given by missionaries and other travellers of the social and religious condition of the negroes, one would suppose that these tribes had as good as no religion, or that at least their religion consisted in a mere senseless fetich-worship, since any sort of potsherd, a broken bottle, thrown-out offal, is regarded, venerated, and feared as an awfully mighty thing, and as at the same time an amulet. It is quite true that among many negro tribes religion has been degraded and shrivelled up into such fetich -worship, especially since about the year 1517, when Europeans, calling themselves Christian, introduced the slave trade and brandy, which have exercised a dreadfully deteriorating influence, socially, morally, and also religiously, upon the negro race.1 The remnants, however, of a quite complicated civil constitu tion2 show significantly enough that these tribes have sunk from a higher stage of civilisation.3 Then, again, if only one carefully considers that among the most of these tribes, besides these absurd private fetiches of individual negroes and their sorcerers, there also exist idol temples with idol images, that, e.g., the Joruba city Abbeokuta before its conversion to Christianity swarmed with idol images, and that in it the gods, the highest of which is called Shango, were honoured with 1 Compare, in regard to this, Bastian, Expedition a. d. Loangokiiste, i. p. 352. 2 E.g. among the Akwamboo negroes, a king ruling over 400 square miles, under him four chamberlains : he and they limited by the village councils. Each village, again, has its president, along with a set of village councillors. The chamberlains are also war chiefs. All higher ranks are hereditary (Basler Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 537 ff.). Among the Bulloms and other tribes of Western Africa we find a monarchy limited by a regular nobility with an electoral kingship. At the head of every village there is an elected chief (Basler Miss. Mag. 1839, H. 2, p. 187 f.). The Jorubas distinguish ogbonis, that is, civil authorities, and baloguns, that is, war chiefs (ibid. 1858, Feb.). 3 So also have the cannibal Wavinza negroes on the Victoria Nyanza a developed art of iron-smelting and copper-founding as an industry understood by tradition. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent. 132 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278. festivals with solemn processions,1 that among the Akwapim human offerings are brought to particular idols,2 that generally among the most of the negro tribes human victims are slain in fearful numbers, not only during war, but also at the graves of distinguished persons, which probably indicates an idea of a god of death, we shall no longer be able to doubt, that even where now there remains over only that fetich-worship, there had originally lain at the foundation of it some sort of polytheistic worship of a higher sort. But we are fortunately able to prove this in the most decided manner in regard to one negro tribe, and not this only, but there have also been found there very evident traces of an original monotheism which passed over into polytheism, and it is highly probable that by continued minute investigation in Africa those traces will be found in other districts. The Odshi negroes 3 on the Gold Coast, in the Akwapim mountains, not only knew, but still continued to worship one god, the supreme creator of the world, whom they call Onjang-ko-pong, or shortly, Onjame,4 from njam, to beam forth, and a root that is not otherwise found in their language, hopong, but which we have assumed to be quite synonymous with kubong (§ 272 f.) among the Alfurus of Australia ; its second syllable, pong, bong, we have found also among the Kolhs, § 274, as bonga, spirit, god: so that we may here with certainty conclude that there was a primitive Hamitic root bong, which was originally an appellative for God, and seems to have designated God as an invisible Spirit. Onjang-ko-pong, the god Pong, is synonymous with the Sing- bonga of the Kolhs, with the diva, deus, tius of the Aryan 1 Basler Miss. Mag. 1885, Feb. p. 74 f. 8 Ibid. 1837, p. 555. 3 The report of the missionary Mader in the Basler Miss. Mag. 1862, September. The same in all essential respects, only less thorough and complete, had been reported previously by other missionaries. Compare issue of 1837, H. 3. 4 The various Akra or Ga tribes worship Njongmo or Onjame as the highest being, the creator of heaven and earth. J. Zimmermann, Vocabulary of the Akra or Ga Language, p. 337. §278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 133 races. We find this Pungu again in the interior of Africa under the slightly changed form of Mungu. " The Makonde at Eowana believe in an invisible god, Mungu." 1 " At Lake Bangweolo they call God Mungu or Mulungu." 2 This widely- spread name is also found in Bambarra-land in Moero, where Mulungu has also the additional name of Eeza, and a good Eeza in heaven is distinguished from a wicked Eeza in the lower world.3 Besides the name Mungu, we also here and there meet with the name Chesimpu,4 which plainly points to the Zambi of the Loango Coast. Also the Uandalas south of Bornu have a good god Da-damia, whose name in part sounds like Zambi; besides him they have an evil god Oeksee, and a good spirit Abi.5 The name of the chief idol of Alkum, Boka,6 reminds us of Pungu. In every invocation of an inferior deity, and in every sacrificial act, the Odshis utter first the name of Onjame, then the earth, and only after wards that of the inferior god. They have these proverbs : " The hawk says, Everything that Onjang-ko-pong has made is good. No one shows the smithy to the smith's son ; if he understands smith-work, it is Onjame that has taught him. The earth is vast, but Onjame is the highest. So long as Onjame slays thee not, thou shalt not die, even though a man wished to kill thee. When the cock drinks water, Onjame points him to it. Wilt thou speak with Onjame, tell it to the wind." The clouds of heaven are the border and outer part of God. He maintains the supervision of all things, and considers the conduct of men. The earth is called wjase, literally, what is under the sun. The sun is awjia, moon and stars ; nsoromma, heaven's children ; and they are the servants of God. Indeed, awjia is a friendly servant, who with his beams, anuenjam, shines willingly upon the earth, and thus, too, rises daily. The moon, again, is a murderer, aundifo, who carries the death drum, which is visible in the spots on the 1 Livingstone's Last Journals, London 1874. 2 Ibid. 3 p0id. * Ibid. 5 Bohlfs, Quer durch Afrika, ii. 62. 6 Ibid. ii. 223. 134 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278. moon, and by beating it slays many men, calls forth sick nesses on its becoming full ; hence God allows it to become full only once a month, but to be out of sight for two whole days. The stars are appealed to for the blessing of children. Besides these star-gods, there are a multitude of inferior deities, regarded by missionaries as principal fetiches, which receive divine worship. The Odshi negroes call them children of God, and describe them as created beings, and indeed as spirits (ahonhom, from home, to breathe ; sunsum, from sum, dark, invisible; in Ga, sisa), which are in themselves invisible, but can become visible to the initiated as fleeting forms in a white sheet, and to other men make themselves and their will known mediately through animals, trees, etc. The appellative for these inferior deities, bbosom} from bbo, stone, and som, to serve, indicates that at an earlier time these were considered to be present in sacred stones, and must have been worshipped, as indeed several traditions testify.2 They are also called Atumfo, the mighty ones, because they have from Onjame absolute power over the life and death of men, only, according to the present belief of the Odshis, they have not this power over a witch or against the use of an amulet. God is their father, a reminiscence of the b'ne elohim, whom we meet with again in the Adityas of the Indians and the Amesha- spentas of the Iranians. They are absolutely dependent on his will, and they carry it out. If a man has done evil, they bring the case first of all before God ; if he approves the same, they execute the sentence, for they bring sickness or death upon the guilty. , They move hither and thither between heaven and earth. Whoever wishes to pray must address himself to them ; then they bring his prayer before God. They are gracious to all who serve them. But such a false mediatorship must necessarily lead to a polytheistic development. Among the Odshis generally there is recog- 1 By d I indicate the open sound, that is, between o and a in the middle of a word, like the English aw. 2 See later on under the tradition C. § 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 135 nised a superior bbosom called Bosompra or Obosomdade, the iron Obosom, who is at the same time the house-obosom of the king of Akwapim, the kwaw dade, the iron man, and receives yearly a sheep in sacrifice. Under him stand next in order Kjengku, Akonedi, and Ohjiar; then comes a river god, Ajesu, good-water ; Akjefo, one. who partakes of sacrificial flesh ; Burukumadaw, as guardian spirit of the fields ; Awan- samme, to whom the tiger, dog, and antelope are sacred; Kjeritinanse, poison spider ; Dasik-ji, as the guardian spirit of the river Volta, etc. The worship of this bbosom, however, is now in practice completely overshadowed by the worship of akomfoabosom, the spirits of the fetich prophets, that is, the fetiches proper or the idols (amagd, wodshi). The latter have, according to the statements of the Odshis themselves, had their origin and have come into favour in a recent period, and daily new ones are being added from the sorcerer priests. In earlier times, say they, the bbosoms lived with men ; but then they separated from them, and went apart into a certain grove where there was a lake with a serpent. They now bring to them also human sacrifices : the bodies of the victims are laid in that grove, and remain lying there unburied. The akomfoabosom, whose number is legion, are not well-disposed, but mischievous, evil spirits, who know nothing of goodness and mercy, and slay every one without favour who does not secure their goodwill by bringing* gold and palm wine to the priest. Thus we can clearly perceive how the fetich -worship originated. The insertion of the bbosom between Onjame and men brought men into depend ence upon the priests, and the instinctive cunning and greed of the priests, together with the fear of the powers of dark ness and death, to whom men of an unexpiated conscience felt themselves delivered over, occasioned the spiritual bondage and superstition of the fetich-worship. Among the Odshis alongside of and behind this fetich-worship the worship of the bbosom and the knowledge of the one God still endure. Among many other negro tribes, but certainly not among all, 136 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278. nothing now remains save the bare product of the fetich- worship. The souls of the deceased (sissa) are feared as ghosts by the Odshis. When an Odshi rises up from a chair, he turns it over so that no sissa may sit upon it.1 The legends of the Odshis are extremely worthy of atten tion. They are wont in the evenings to gather their children together, and tell them the old legends and stories of their race. That now, when they give out anew their stories, they should mix up many marvels with their legendary tales, does not astonish us so much as the amount of truth that they have retained from the primitive traditions of mankind. A. In regard to the creation they say : God began the creation on a kwasida, the first of their week of seven days, and completed it on fida, the sixth day of the week. On the seventh day He created nothing, but gave man a command. In those six days He created first the woman, then the man, then animals, then plants, then the rocks, — -just reversing the order. Men were after their creation sent forth into this sub-solar world (wjase), a reminiscence of the expulsion from Eden. B. The fall : — formerly God was very near to men ; when they needed anything, they just pointed with a staff upward, then it rained fish and other things. But a woman who pounded afusu, a banana fruit, in a mortar, went with the pestle inadvertently into God's presence. Then was God angry and withdrew into the high heavens,2 and listened no more to men. After six rainless years came a famine which compelled them to slay men. At the advice of a wise man they sent a messenger to God, acknowledging they 1 The report of the missionary Biis in Akropong, Basler Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 560 ff. 2 And with him the obosom, as results necessarily from what is afterwards told that God sends again in answer to the prayers of men Obosomtua. But this return of the obosom into high heaven is to be distinguished from the withdrawal of the obosom into the grove, which is a later occurrence. The Odshis themselves seem to have confounded the two, for the serpent which exists in that grove identifies the grove with the garden of Eden. § 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 137 had done wrong, and entreated Him to send one of His counsellors, bsafohene, who should care for them. Then God sent His highest minister Obosomtua and his wife Ntuabea, with the message that He would now no longer scorch them, but would give rain in its proper season : when the rainbow would appear, they should fire their muskets, and remember God the giver of rain and sunshine. (We observe here a striking intermixture with a certain reminiscence of the flood, of the story of a specifically African disaster, the want of rain, which overshadows the other.) Obosomtua dwelt now as bbosom or inferior deity in the west, his wife in the east, of the country, and placed around also six other bbosom, Obosomdade, Ajesu, Akiefo, Kjeretinanse, Awansamme, and Burukumadaw. C. The legend of the flood, of Noah, and the tower building is very much disfigured, but still quite recognisable. It turns again on man being driven forth upon the earth. There were two Gods in heaven (onjangkSpong), and two men, a white and a black. (This feature in the legend of a distinction between white and black men is referred back to heaven, — a tradition probably derived from a primitive period, see § 272 f.) The two Gods — God and Satan — fought long with, one another for the possession of the two men. Finally, the people of heaven (brsoromang) agreed to cast the two men out of heaven. Borebore, to whom, as the servant of God, another legend, given under D, ascribes the creation of the world, let the two men down to earth by a chain, which he hung round his neck, and stayed with them a hundred years. Then he dug an enormous pit, and brought down a fearful rain from all sides, which rushed like a river over the earth, but in the pit dug by the wise Borebore it found a place where it would empty itself. The rain filled this pit : then rose up the sea between the black and the white people. Borebore swept with a broom his wisdom into a box, but lost this, and must die. The white man found the wisdom-box, and discovered by means of it a medicine to 138 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278. save from death. Because men, however, were too old, too hostile to one another, and too numerous, he renounced the use of this means (a truly heathen way of minimizing the necessity of death !) ; but the black man concluded to worship the stone on which he sat. There was then only one language among men. The whites joined things together and placed what they had made on the waters. (A con fusion between the ark and the first European ships.) They went into the land of the blacks, and before they parted from these they made an attempt to mount up to heaven. They heaped all their fusu-mortars on one another to make a tower. Only one mortar was then wanting, and they took out the lowermost to place it on the top, but now the whole tower, wanting a foundation, fell and had slain them all had they not instantly fled. They were scattered over the earth, and thus sprang up the multitude of different languages. D. Borebore, as already remarked, plays a part in yet another legend of the Odshis. God sent out Adomankama and Borebore with the instruction to create the earth, wjase. Sleepless and with never halting motion they drove through all regions until they came to Efoo, the black monkey, who took them with him to eat and to spend the night with him. Waking from sleep, they separated : Borebore went to Africa and created the products that are found there ; Adomankama parted the sea with a cow's tail, went to Europe, and created all things that are found there. Then the legend itself runs out into a cow's tail, for it goes on to relate that Adomankama at a later time came to Africa in a ship and brought the negroes brandy, which in this form is naturally a recent addition, but possibly only a modernized version of a remini scence of Gen. ix. 20 ff., similar to the Kintu tradition current among the Wagandas. In the original tradition evidently Adomankama and Borebore stand in relation to the separation of the races of mankind, and so are parallel to the sons of Noah or Manu, and in Adomankama we may perhaps find a trace of the name Manu. But the post- § 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 139 diluvian condition of the earth is here, as among so many other nations, confused with the first creation of the world ; hence those two as servants of God appear in the original creation. According to Mader, Borebore is derived from the- Odshi word bo, to create, which seems related to the Sanscrit word bhu ; but from the appearance of the consonant r it reminds us much more strikingly of Buri and Borr of the Scandinavian legend (§ 250), who corresponds to the Noah of the biblical primitive tradition, whose name is derived from the primitive Sanscr. root bhr, cf>ipeiv, Lat. ferre, Goth. bairan, Old High Germ, beran, Celt, ber, biur, Heb. tm and "O, son, Mong. bari, to bring, to give. Borebore, however, seems in the original legend current among the negroes to have corre sponded not so much to Noah as to Adam, or the persons of Adam and Noah have been confounded together in it. The disobedience into which he allowed himself to be seduced by the black monkey, reminds us distinctly of the fall. E. I add here a tradition that prevails among another race on the Gold Coast, the Ashantees.1 In the beginning God created three white and three black pairs, and gave them the choice between good and evil, for He laid on the earth a calabash and a sealed leaf. The blacks chose the calabash, but found therein only a piece of gold, and a piece of iron, and other metals, the use of which they did not know. The whites took the sealed papers, and it told them everything. When now God was angry with the blacks, they wandered away from Him, and worshipped subordinate spirits, who presided over the rivers, mountains, and woods. This tradition in its present form is evidently modern. It cannot have taken this shape before the arrival of Europeans, and was made apparently under the influence of astonishment at their skill in writing and reading. The kernel of it, however, is found in a primitive tradition which makes its appearance in Tonga and in America, as well as among the 1 Bowdik, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, London 1819, p. 344. 140 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. T§ 278. Odshis, of the white and black brothers, and especially we find in it the consciousness that the fetich-worship marks a secondary religious stage, which had been preceded by the worship of one God. The Ashantee language, too, has a word to indicate the idea of God. The supreme god of the Jorubas, Shango, was the god of thunder and lightning. The Egbas worship a good god Obbatalla, over against whom is the evil god Shugudu. The Nupis worship one supreme god Soko, who is again evidently identical with the Shango of the Jorubas. The names Zambi, Shango, Soko, form an etymological series. The heathen tribes existing in and around Bajirmi in the Soudan have all a belief in one supreme, invisible being. They regard the thunder as his voice, and assign his dwelling to the clouds.1 The negroes of the Bonny country call their temples Uru- houses, uru-wara, or in the Ebo dialect, houses of Ara, olo ab-ara. They thus have uru, ara as an appellative of God. There are now, however, negro tribes widely spread through Central Africa, among whom there is still preserved the know ledge, yea the worship, of the one invisible god Mungu, Mulungu. There is such a knowledge among the Makra negroes, who " have a clear conception of a supreme being, but do not pray to him;"2 among the Matambwes, who " tremble before Mulungu, do not willingly speak of him, and fear misfortune when he is spoken of."3 There is such a worship in the countries between the Lakes of Nyassa, Bang- weolo, Tanganyika, and Muero, where they know nothing of idols and fetiches.4 The Maganjas of Lake Nyassa in a case of death say of the deceased: Mungu took him. The inhabitants of these regions in respect of their bodily forma tion, a fine facial angle, good cast of countenance, and lips not protruding, occupy a position nearer the original type of the negro, and show less evidence of deterioration ; 5 and traces 1 Comp. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, 1881, part 2, p. 685. 2 Livingstone's Last Journals. 3 Ibid. * Ibid. « Ibid. § 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 141 are found among them of previous higher culture, of the exercise of the art of agriculture, smith's and potter's craft.1 The maintenance of a higher religious position among them goes hand in hand with the preservation of a nobler form of a physical type. That the knowledge and worship of the one invisible God is the original, and the heathenism is the element afterward introduced, is demonstrated incontestably from this, that the root of the divine name, Punga, Bonga, Mungu, is common to the most diverse negro tribes, and even to the most diverse Hamite tribes, therefore in use before their separation, whereas each tribe has its own designation for the inferior deities, idols, fetiches, and spirits. Thus, for example, in Central Africa, as designations of the souls of deceased men, we meet with the words ngolu and mezimo; then in the Ga language, sise, sunsum ; in the speech of the Loango Coast, fetisso and shinbi; the gods are called by the Odshi obosom, in Loango kissie, among the Betchuanas rimo, in Manjuema nkongolo ; idol images among the Odshis are called amagd and wodshi, etc. In Majuemeland, between Lake Tanganyika and the river Lualaba, there exists still the transition stage between the old monotheism and the fetich and spirit worship. A god of heaven is still worshipped under the name of Gulu, which means above or heaven ; but there is placed alongside of him a god of earth, Mamou, which means below. Souls after death go to Gulu, and are worshipped as ancestor-deities by the erection of wooden and tin images of the ancestors, and by the offering of goat's flesh.2 The names of particular sub ordinate deities are entirely different among the various tribes. For example, among the Kanuris of Bornu there are a forest- god Koliram, a water-god Ngamaram ; among the Afoos there are the animal-shaped idol Dodo with two faces, one bearded the other beardless, and Harna-ja-mussa, sitting without arms ; among the Batumas, on the islands in Lake Tchad, there is a god of storms Nadshikenem, and two good spirits Betziromaino 1 Livingstone's Last Journals. 2 Ibid. 142 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 279. and Bakoma-main.i The Wagandas acknowledge one god, a creator of the world, whom they call Kabonda. Especially to the god of thunder do they present offerings and prayers.2 Chapter IV. — The Peoples and Hordes of America. § 279. Introductory. We possess a useful work upon the history of the religions of the primitive inhabitants of America, which has been wrought up with great diligence, but it is only in the form of a collection of materials. J. G. Miiller of Basel, in his Amerikanischen Urreligionen, Basel 1855, has indeed assured us in his preface that he has no intention whatever of doing anything more than to present a statement of facts. In the execution of his work, however, he has done the very opposite, and has put a violent pressure upon his facts in the form of a scheme of a priori conceptions which he carries with him. His fundamental error consists in his refusing to hear any question about a historical connection between those races and religions and the races and religions of the Old World, and his tracing the origin of the American religions purely to physical causes. In cold climates the mind must turn to belief in ghosts and shamanism, and in warm climates to the worship of the sun. This would require us to regard Senegambia as possessed of a very cold climate ! (See § 278.) How far one may be carried by such d priori constructions is shown in the case of Fr. von Erdmann (see § 260, Obs. 3), which should afford a warning against such methods. The Great Spirit of the redskins is, according to J. G. Miiller, only the chief of the hobgoblins, and indeed scarcely makes a figure at all after Miiller has laboriously proved that that Great Spirit is not the God of the Christians ! Surely the petrifaction of a palm is not the 1 Bohlfs, Quer durch Afrika, ii. pp. 10, 199, part 1, p. 333 ff. 2 Basler Miss. Mag. 1880, p. 252. § 279.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 143 living palm, but yet it gives evidence that a living palm had once existed there. The legends of the Peruvians, Toltecs, and other tribes of foreign origin, who introduced culture and the worship of the sun into the country, may be ever so clear and definite, yet J. G Miiller reduces them all to an & priori con structed sun-myth, in which the sun-god is represented as the god and patron of agriculture ; in this way, by and by, he might make a sun-god out of the Scandinavian god Odin. However distinctly traces of a knowledge of the flood are found among the most diverse American tribes, — a flood which came upon the earth after the human race had existed there, from which only one pair was saved, — those traditions, accord ing to J. G. Miiller, are only cosmogonic philosophemes explaining the origin of the world from the water; as if these Indian tribes had troubled their heads about such problems, and had simply adopted the philosophical principle- of Thales ! The animal attributes of the gods he regards as original forms under which conceptions of the gods had been formed ; the idea of gods in human form is generally of later growth. The Mexican priesthood is extremely like that of the Buddhist, down even to minute details of their dress, and their monkish orders, and their seminaries ; in the empire of the Incas, Chinese customs, and institutions, and religious ceremonies are still scrupulously preserved, down to the smallest particulars ; but these immigrations from Asia must upon no account be thought of. These are fancies, but no history. The constant, ant-like diligence, however, with which J. G. Miiller has gathered together from a literature very rich but very fragmentary, and often hard to disentangle, the material for a scientific investigation, though it may be only in an unmethodized heap of chaff and chips, is deserving of our sincere gratitude. When, now, I set myself to work up this material (in regard to which generally it may here suffice to refer to the pages of Miiller, where the sources and guarantees are found carefully 144 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 279. recorded), it is quite evident that I shall not separate the ethnographical question about descent and extraction from the religious and historical, and that in regard to both of these questions the linguistic researches, to which Buschmann1 before all others has made important contributions, will be employed by me as a lever, yea, often as a foundation. In ethnographical matters Eauch 2 has broken ground in a very capable manner. He has properly acknowledged that one should not allow himself to be determined by any isolated characteristic to assume this or that derivation for any one American tribe.3 Besides what we learn from the anatomical physical constitution, we must have relationship in manners and customs ; besides proof of the physical possibility of a migration or sea voyage from the conjectured fatherland to the American abode, we must have some historical record of the fact, even though it be only in the form of a tradition. If then, moreover, the facts thus arrived at are confirmed by the manifest affinity of the religion ; if, for example, the worship of the moon in connection with impure practices is found among such tribes of the East Coast opposite Africa as have a construction of skull and a dark colour which point to a North African extraction ; if, on the other hand, a faithful reproduction of the Chinese customs and constitution, and the Chinese worship of the sun, is found among the Western tribes of a light colour and oblique eyes, — the facts arrived at obtain a very important confirmation. That the population found by the discoverers of America in possession of the 1 J. E. O. Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache im Norden Mexi- ko's," in the Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. der Wissensch. 1854, Suppl. vol. ii. " Ueber die aztek. Oetsnamen," ibid. 1852. " Ueber die athapaskischen Sprachen," ibid. 1859. " Die Volker und Sprachen Neumexiko's," ibid. 1857, p. 209 ff. 2 P. M. Bauch, die Einheit des Menschengeschlechtes, Augsb. 1837, pp. 266-366. 3 Even the single fact that Europeans who live long in Brazil find their hair becoming crisp and splitting at the ends, and their skin assum ing a greyish yellow colour (Oscar Canstatt, Brasilien, Berl. 1877, p. 17), shows how alongside of descent, yet in spite of and in contradiction to it, the climate has an influence upon the bodily constitution. § 279.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 145 country, was made up of tribes of very diverse extraction, is proved by the differences of colour. We have (§ 125, Obs. 1) convinced ourselves from facts in our possession that sameness of colour does not justify us in concluding to sameness of origin ; but all the more surely does diversity of colour in the same country and climate lead to the assumption of diversity of origin. When, then, in California, alongside of the majority of the tribes remaining there, who are dark-coloured, and, according to Eollin and Prichard, have negro skulls and short depressed noses, we find the bright-coloured tribe of the Monas ; 1 when on the northern coasts of South America, alongside of the dark-coloured Caribs worshipping a moon- goddess, we find the light-coloured, small-nosed Guaranis ; on the banks of the Amazon, alongside of the black Amaquas, the light-coloured, oblique-eyed Botocudos, who call themselves Aymaras,2 and in this unwittingly give evidence of their tribal affinity with the Peruvian Aymaras of Lake Titicaca, — it is shown by this and similar circumstances to be a fact, that races of very diverse origin had migrated to America, and having thrust themselves among one another, they here and there, quite naturally, got blended together. In conclusion, there only remains the question, what weight in this investigation should be allowed to the language and the affinity of the languages of the several groups of tribes ? Tribes which, notwithstanding local separation from each other, still speak the same or a very similar language, or at least have important roots common to one another, certainly prove thereby their tribal affinity.3 On the other hand, diversity of language affords no incontestable proof against sameness of origin. There is found in the languages of un civilised, or even half-civilised people, quite demonstrably a remarkable process of rapid and most irregular transmutation 1 Bauch, die Einheit des Menschengeschlechtes, p. 278. - Miiller, amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 241. 3 Thus Buschmann has proved the linguistic and tribal affinity of the Sonora group, and the same again in regard to the Athabascans. EBRARD III. K 146 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 279. of sounds, and a change of language going the length of becoming unintelligible to those who have its earlier form. The comparison of the Greek dialects with one another shows an interchange of gutturals and labials (77-0409, Ionic koios, etc.) ; among Celtic languages, the Welsh has constantly changed gutturals into labials ; but what is that in com parison to the changes of sound introduced into the Burmese languages, although in these, as monosyllabic languages, there is no opportunity of changing the root-stems by inflection or agglutination. There the present language as spoken differs completely from that of former times fixed in writing ; l kak has become tet, hri is shi, hra is hya, tMng is thi, etc. What, then, must it have been in the case of the agglutinate lan guages of America, where, in addition to this agglutinate con struction, it was customary to mutilate the several roots in the rarest and most capricious manner ? 2 With what rapidity such languages come to be unintelligible, that is, to be completely changed, Moffat 3 and Tschudi 4 show by most notable examples. Single troops of Indians, as Tschudi tells, are separated from the main body of the tribe, pass into distant regions, and there form for themselves an essentially new language, at least an idiom, which contains an altogether new vocabulary, and is not intelligible to the mother tribe. To all this we must still add the mingling of languages, when one tribe is brought into relation with a foreign tribe of different extraction, be it in the way of friendly commercial inter course, or as dwellers in the land in the form of a subject 1 W. von Humboldt, Gesammelte Werke, vi. 343. Compare above, §264. 2 The Delaware language, e.g., connects together hi, thou, wulit, pretty, wichgat, paw, schis, little, into one word — kuligatschis, thy pretty little paw ; naten, to fetch, amochol, boat, into nadhol - ineen — fetch us in boats ; nayundam, to bear a burden, awesis, an animal — into nana- yung-es, a beast of burden. Humboldt, Werke, vi. 323. 3 Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa, London 1842. 4 Tschudi, die Kechuassprache, i. 8. Comp. Bauch, die Einheit des Menschengeschlechtes, p. 303. § 279.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 147 race. Hence only positive proofs of tribal affinity, or at least historical evidence of close connection, and not merely absence of proof to the contrary, should be sought for from the languages.1 When now, by the application of the above-mentioned criteria, we investigate scientifically the primitive populations of America, we find that America was peopled by means of six successive immigrations. 1. The original stock of the population seems to have consisted of Malay tribes, together with Melanesians, who either were subject to them or had fled before them. These made their appearance in America about B.C. 1600 or 1400. From them are sprung the Araucanians, Patagonians, primitive Californians, the Kolushes of the Orinoco, and the primitive inhabitants of Peru, repre senting the Stone Period there, whose blood flows in the veins of many of the mixed tribes. 2. It may, perhaps, be considered doubtful whether Phoenician ships touched the coasts of America so early as B.C. 600 ; but it can be proved with certainty that about a.d. 600, North African pirates, the Berbers, were driven to Brazil, and that from them are sprung the Amaquas, Caribs, Charruas, etc. 3. From the Mongolian group of races, and especially from Japan, there came, at a somewhat earlier date, about a.d. 100, civilised tribes which took possession of Chiapa, or, indeed, generally of Central America, and founded in Bogota the two empires of the Muysca, and in Peru the ancient Peruvian empire. The Botocudos are some of those which broke off from the rest and 1 Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache," says at p. 39 : "I would only undertake to explain the general type of this group of languages spread over a vast tract of the earth's surface, and broken up into a thousand forms. I have already by repeated endeavours sought to indi cate the contents of such a problem ; they embrace the infinite sub divisions, separations, alienations, and violent expulsions of the American races and the smallest groups of men, occasioned by natural circumstances, by prevalent customs, and modes of life, by the hatreds rankling in savage natures ; and also, on the other hand, the most multifarious commingling through friendly relations, intentional and violent linguistic changes, and disfigurement, and finally, capricious linguistic contrivances." 148 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 280. took to the nomadic hunting life, and uncivilised customs of a degraded tribe. 4. Somewhat later, probably about a.d. 500, from China or its immediate neighbourhood, a troop rushed down through California upon Mexico, founded there the empire of the Toltecs, was driven southward about A.D. 1290 by new hordes of invaders, and founded the empire of the Incas in Peru. 5. The Tshukkhi tribes, driven away by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, fled about A.D. 1200 over Aleutia to North America, where they appeared as Tshits- himecs, and from these are descended also the Mandans, the Menomennecs, east of the Eocky Mountains, and the Calif omian Monas. Soon afterwards, about a.d. 1282, a Mongolian horde followed, made up of various constituents, outwardly tinged with Buddhism and Chinese civilisation, from China, which were then subject to the Mongols, a horde which, under the name of the Nahuatlan tribe, entered Mexico, then under the Aztecs. 6. Finno-Tartaric tribes came in the 13 th century over Kamtschatka into the north, peopled Greenland, drove the Malayan Alligewi, and later also the Aztecs, southwards, and got mixed up with the original population belonging to the two principal races of the Eedskins, the Delawares and the Mengwes. Each of those six immigrations will now be carefully proved, and there will be added in respect of each of them a historical statement of the nature of their religious condition. A. — Malayan-Polynesian Immigration, b.c. 1600-1400. § 280. Evidence of this Immigration. A. It has been already shown in § 270 that the Malays were expert seamen, and undertook relatively long voyages, and that Polynesia was peopled by them. This makes it quite possible that the Malays should have reached America. A race which had spread itself over a space 2550 geographical miles long, from Madagascar to Hawaii, might also surely § 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 149 travel thence to California, a distance of 600 miles, and, if not willingly, then all the more certainly if under constraint to do so. The North Pacific Ocean current runs from the Polynesian islands direct to North California, and in the Gulf of California there are continually seen the wreck of boats, stems of trees, and sea-weed, which have been driven from Polynesia to those coasts. On the other side, the South polar current in the South Pacific Ocean passes over toward Easter island and thence to Chili. Ships or boats which get into one of these two currents would inevitably be driven either to California or to Chili. B. Now, as a matter of fact, Indian tribes are found in both of these countries which exhibit in a striking manner the Malayan-Polynesian type. Pickering1 found in California, alongside of the group speaking the Sonora languages, which, as we have seen, are Mongolian tribes of a later immigration, tribes of darker complexion, whose build and cast of counte nance were quite Polynesian. The same also is reported by Jaquinot.2 From California these tribes spread themselves southwards along the coast. In Acapulco, on the south-west coast of Mexico, Chamberlain, a missionary in Hawaii, found aborigines whose Polynesian customs arrested his attention. Such, too,. were the experiences of Captain Hall, Bory de St. Vincent, Ellis, and W. von Humboldt, all along the west coast.3 The Indians of New Spain have the brown skin, the small hands, and slender build of the Polynesians. Malay servants, brought by Smith to New Jersey, were astonished at the appearance of the Indians there, and the Indians at theirs, because of their likeness to one another.4 These extend down to Terra del Fuego.6 , 1 Pickering, The Races of Man, pp. 100-108. 2 Jaquinot, Annuaire des voyages, 1846, p. 179. 3 Hall in Pickering, p. 113. Bory, der Mensch, Weimar 1827, p. 170. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 121. A. von Humboldt, Reisen in die Aequa- torialgegenden, part 2. Comp. Bauch, Einlieit des Menschg. p. 349 f. 4 Smith, Essay, p. 217. Assal, Nachrichten iiber die frilheren Einwan- derung Nordamerika's, p. 85. 5 Lin. Martin, Naturgeschichte des Mensohen, p. 343. 150 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 280. C. To the similarity of physical build must be added similarity of customs, and this proves that Malayan-Polynesian tribes gave, their populations not only to the west coast, but also, pressed and driven by later incomers, or led by the love of wandering, they have made their way in North, as well as in South, America to the east coast. Decidedly Polynesian customs are found not merely on the west coasts of California down to the Araucanians and Patagonians, but also among the Natchez and Creeks, among the Iroquois and Dahcotahs or Sioux, and even the Kolushes of Norfolk Sound, as well as among several tribes on the Orinoco. The custom of shaving away their hair, with the exception of a single lock, is not decisive ; it prevails in Polynesia, but, according to Herodotus, was met with among several of his Scythian tribes, which perhaps were identical with the Ugro-Tartars or Tungusic-Mongols, and is met with at the present time among Tartars and Kalmucks. More decisive are the painting of the body in gay colours, the piercing of the ear-flaps and hanging in them heavy ornaments. The Araucanians, along with many neighbouring tribes, wear wrapt about their head the Pontsho, which is exactly similar to the Tiputa of the Tahitians.1 Both peoples have the same sort of armour ; both, as well as the most of the Indian tribes of North America designated the Eedskins, preserve the scalps of slaughtered foes as a sign of victory. As on many of the South Sea islands, it is customary among the Old Californian savages to cut off the little finger of a child in order to save one from a deadly sickness.2 In the one race as well as in the other, and also among the Brazilian Tupis, corpses are buried in a sitting posture. In Durango in the north-east of Mexico, in 1818, a pit was uncovered, in the bottom of which over a thousand well-preserved Indian corpses were seated, with their hands placed upon their knees.3 Sometimes they 1 Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 182. 2 Waitz, Anthropologie, iv. 250. 3 Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache," etc., p. 183. Canstatt, Brasilien, p. 80. §280.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 151 were put in a boat, and this then hung between two trees. At San Sacramento in New California, the women wear the maro, just as in Polynesia.1 The Indians of Old California, when the country was first visited by Europeans, went naked, the men completely, the women with a girdle, just as in many Polynesian islands. Tattooing is not only generally a Polynesian custom, but also in Bodega Bay Vancouver found the women tattooed exactly in the same way as on the Sand wich islands. Among the Assiniboins, as also upon the Marquesas islands, there is found in front of every village a paved court for holding assemblies of the people.2 In Upper California the women wear a needle in their hair as in the Fiji islands, and the feather head-dress like that of Hawaii. The Aztecs in Mexico were distinguished in the art of feather ornamentation, garments and carpets being made up of feathers, wrought in patterns and representing complete scenes. They seem, however, to have learnt this art from some tribe which they met with among the older inhabitants. Mummies have also been found in North America with such feather dresses, which could hardly have been of Aztec origin, but must rather have belonged to some Polynesian tribe, since that art of feather embroidery is native to Polynesia.3 The artistic carvings of the Kolushes are also produced by the Polynesians. On the Orinoco the Indians shoot their poisoned darts through a long tube, just as the Malays of the Indian Archipelago do ; by the Malays the tube is called sarbacane, by the Orinoco Indians it is called sgaravatana ;4 the c is turned into t, otherwise it is the same word. The Polynesians prepare from the piper amethysticum the intoxicating drink called hava, in preparing which old women chew the root of this plant, then spit it out, and cause an affusion to run over the matter expectorated while in a state of fermentation. In 1 Smith, Essay, p. 238. Ellis, Researches, i. 178. 2 Jaquinot, Annuaire des voyages, p. 182. 3 Assal, Nachrichten, etc., pp. 65, 95. 4 Bradford, American Antiquities, p. 416. 152" HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§280. precisely the same way the Tupis prepare their haveng, or kavan, or kabnin from soaked maize, which is chewed by old women. The Ges in Brazil prepare an intoxicating drink from the fruit of the Assai palm, and other South American Indians from soaked Cassada, chewed by old women.1 Among the Dahcotahs, Iroquois, and Hurons, every family chooses an animal or a plant as an escutcheon or protection, and then he dare not kill or eat any of that species. This custom is also found in Australia, where the word kobong is used to indicate such an animal or plant.2 The taboo of the Polynesians is also of a similar nature. The Melanesians, too, seem to have reached America either before the Polynesians or along with them as a subject race. The custom, prevalent among the Papuans, of knocking out an upper incisor tooth on reaching man's estate, was observed by Skyring among the Patagonian tribes, and the bodily build of the Pesherahs reminds one very strongly of that of the Papuans. D. The tradition of the Malays of Tonga, that two daughters of the demi-god Langi, while their father attended an assembly of the gods, went, contrary to his orders, to the earth, and for this were condemned to death, is found, as has been already noticed by W. von Humboldt,3 among the Tamanacs on the Orinoco. It there takes the form of a legend of Amalivaka, who breaks the feet of his travel- loving daughters in order to keep them at home. E. It must now be quite evident that we assume not a single immigration, but several repeated immigrations of the 1 Waitz, Anthropologie, iii. 423. Kotzebue, Reisen, ii. 42. Globus, vii. 204. Gerland, das Austerben der Naturvolker, p. 42 ff. Canstatt, Brasilien, p. 81. Also at Chittagong, on the Burmese territories in Further India, E. Hildebrandt (Reise um die Erde, i. 115) found this custom, which also there was evidently of Malay origin. The drink is there called tshitsha, from the Jav. root tshotshot, mouth, to eat, to drink. The same word is found in Peru. See § 294. Kava, kavan, corresponds to the Polynesian root kai, kain, ky (kanen), to chew. This root, too, may possibly lie at the basis of the Jav. tshotshot. 2 Prichard, The Physical History of Mankind, iv. 282. 3 Werke, iv. 454. § 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 153 Malayan-Polynesians,